Glass, Book. I. Napoleon crossing the Alps. Ruins of Hongomont — Battle Ground of Waterloo. Birth Place of Sir Isaac Newton Richard III. A Soldi* r of Henry VIII. Lady and Gentleman I Lady and Gentleman in dress in time of Henry VI. | of Queen Mary's reign. Sea Captain in time I Lady during the I A Cavalier. of Charles I. Commonwealth. | Charles II. and his Queen. Gentleman in time I Pikeman and Musketeer of Officer and Sergeant in reign of of William III. | 17th century. George I. Lady Hansdon. | Queen Anne, of Denmark. | Gentleman and Lady in time of Charles J. Arabia — View of Mount Ararat. Arabia — View of Palmyra, or Tadmor in the Desert. CM Cy POPULAR f CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, FORMING A COPIOUS HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF CELEBRATED INSTITUTIONS, PERSONS, PLACES AND THINGS; WITH NOTICES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES, COUNTRIES AND KINGDOMS OF THE KNOWN WORLD: TO WHICH IS ADDED A CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW OF MEMORABLE EVENTS, EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, STORMS, CONFLAGRATIONS, DISEASES FAMINES, INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, EATTLES, TREATIES, SET- TLEMENTS, ORIGINS OF RELIGIOUS SECTS, ETC. by f: a. durivage# ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, by F. A. Durivaof, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY EDWARD R. BROADERS, NEW YORK, FREEMAN HUNT & CO. — PHILADELPHIA, CONRAD & PARSONS — BALTIMORE, J. ANDERSON. 1835. * *• ^- « -■*«■•- k w t * tf»,\ , * Quo *> JKx . „V\ ' "> fi.2 />• tO 6 * PREFACE. Every general reader, has frequent occasion to consult some authority, for historical, and , biographical dates and facts. The only works, suitable for such a purpose, are the Encyclopedia of Lieber, Rees, Brewster, and others, of a similar kind. These are costly and extensive works, and are therefore in the hands of comparatively few persons ; beside, they are too cumbrous for easy and frequent reference. The importance then, of a volume like the present, that may lie familiarly upon the table, or the shelf ; ready at call to answer the thousand questions that arise on historical points, is too plain to require discussion. Its utility, at all events its convenience, even to those who possess ample libra- ries, and whose minds are stored with historical data, appears to the writer to be great. But it is more especially designed for family use, and for the young. The author considers the matter in this point of view. Every reader of a book, a magazine, or newspaper, meets with frequent references to historical subjects, which he knows nothing about, or obscurely remembers, or but partially understands. If he has at hand, a volume which will readily answer any inquiries which arise in his mind, he will turn to it, and thus remove his igno- rance, or clear away the doubt and obscurity which rest upon his PREFACE. 2 understanding. If he has no such work at easy command, he will in most cases let the matter pass. The present volume, is particularly designed to supply to every general reader, such a book of reference as is here alluded to. It is believed, that if tolerably well executed, it cannot fail of being acceptable. It is particularly commended to the attention of parents, that in the absence of any other suitable work, this may be placed within the reach of their children, and that the habit of consulting it as a dictionary of history, and historical biography, whenever curiosity, doubt, or question may suggest, be inculcated upon them. The store of precise practical know- ledge that will thus be laid up, will be of incalculable value. It is not however, as a mere book of reference, that this volume is offered to the public. The materials, are, it is true, extracted to a great extent, from books familiar to the public. The author, however, has gathered many traits, anecdotes and adventures, from less common sources, and interspersing throughout its pages, these and other illustrative sketches, he has sought to enliven the work, and thus render it more amusing, attractive, and readable, than mere books of reference usually are. Many of the articles are more extensive than in the voluminous Encyclopedias, before mentioned. Many interesting topics, not found in them, are also introduced. The history of our own country, will be found fully treated of, under different heads. The lives of eminent political characters in all ages, as well as the lives of those, whose great- ness in science or literature inscribed their names upon the ages in which they flourished, are given ; some of them at considerable PREFACE. length. Many characteristic anecdotes of these persons are intro- duced. Several topics, as Druids, El Dorado, Knighthood, Chiv- alry, Faries, &c. &c, which are frequently alluded to in books, are treated of with particularity. The Chronological View at the end of the volume, will be found to contain a great amount of interesting and valuable knowledge. In some instances, from the nature of the case, facts are repeated here, which have appeared in other parts of the volume. They are, however, given, with the view of rendering this portion of the work as complete in itself, as possible. The reader by running his eye over the pages of the Chrono- logical View, will easily see the plan upon which it is arranged. He will find it to contain, beside many other things, the chro- nology of the following topics. Abdications,. Ambassadors, Agriculture, Alliances, Architecture, Astronomy from the earliest times, Balloons, Battles, Sieges, &c, Bible, Cholera, C ircumnavigators , Commerce, Congress, Conspiracies, Councils, Discoveries, geographical, in modern times, Founding of Cities, Towns, King- doms, and States, Earthquakes, Eminent Persons, in all ages ; ancient and modern, Engraving, Eras, Famines in all parts of the world, Fires in different places, Frosts in various places, Fruits — introduction of, Gardening, Hieroglyphicks, 4 PREFACE. Hurricanes in different countries, Poet Laureats, Labor, price of at various times, Popes, Laws, Courts of Justices, Oaths, Rain, violent, Taxes, &c. Rebellions, Libraries, Religious Orders, Sects, &c Living Characters of eminence, Revolutions, Longevity, instances of ancient and Sculpture, modern, Sea Fights, Manufactures, Ships and Ship Building, Massacres in all ages, Silk, manufacture of, Meteors and Meteoric Stones, Slave trade, Military and Religious Knights and Sovereigns of different countries, Titles of Honor, Storms in different countries, Mount Auburn, Taxation, Painting, Treaties in modern times, Pedestrians, Wars. Beside the above topics, there are many others, exhibiting the dates of important inventions, discoveries, and improvements in arts and sciences, and remarkable and interesting events, generally. The work is arranged with a view to compress a great amount of matter into the smallest compass, that the bulk of the volume may not render it inconvenient, and that its expense may not hinder its general circulation. In preparing so extensive a publication for the press, the author cannot hope that he has wholly escaped error, or that some omis- sions may not be noticed. But he trusts that the volume may be found sufficiently accurate and complete, to fulfil the proper design of such a work, and that it may prove a valuable accession to the means of diffusing useful knowledge. A POPULAR CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY. AAR AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, son of Amram and Jochebed, was the brother of Moses, and three years his elder, being born about 1574 B. C. When God had determined to free the Israelites from the cruel bondage of the Egyptians, he sent Aaron and Moses to the court of Pharaoh to announce his will. The awful annunciation served only to confirm the obduracy of the Egyptian tyrant, and he would not yield his faith, until miracles were shown him. Then, at the command of God, Aaron changed his rod into a serpent, but the magi- cians of the court did likewise, each of their rods becoming a serpent. Aaron's rod swal- lowed up those of the sorcerers, but still the heart of the king was hardened. On the refu- sal of the monarch to permit the departure of the Israelites, and at the command of the Lord, the waters of Egypt were changed into blood; the plague of frogs, the murrain of beasts, the plague of hail, locusts, and other calamities, bore witness to the power and just indignation of God. The angel of the Lord smote the first- born of the Egyptians, but those of the Israelites were spared. Aaron was gifted with great eloquence which was displayed upon various occasions, when he manifested his zeal in his mission. The departure of the Israelites, and their miraculous preservation, are too well known to require particular notice here. Moses, when he went to receive the laws from God on mount Sinai, was accompanied by Aaron, Na- dab, Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, to whom God showed himself; but Moses alone remained forty days. Giving way to the cla- mors of the people, Aaron made them an idol out of the ornaments and trinkets furnished by the women and children, the image being in the form of a calf, like the ox' Apis worshipped by the Egyptians. When Moses returned from the mount, he reproached Aaron, whose fault appears to have been want of firmness, for he was terrified at AAR the threats of the idolaters. The punishment Oi" those who rebelled was exemplary, 23,000 being slain in one day. Aaron and his four sons became priests of the Lord, and the cere- mony of their assumption of the holy office was as august as the occasion demanded. Aaron never entered the land of promise, a punish- ment for his disbelief in the power of God to produce water from the rock. When the Is- raelites arrived at Mount Hor, Moses, Aaron, and Eleazar, his son, ascended it in obedience to the commands of the Lord. There, in the sight of the people, Moses unrobed the high- priest, and clad Eleazar in his garments. Aaron then sank into the arms of his brother, and died, aged one hundred and twenty-three years, forty of which he passed as priest, the office being made hereditary in his family. AARON, or Haroun a! Raschid, was one of the most celebrated of the Saracenic caliphs, and the territories which he governed extended from Egypt to Khorassan. He was no less distinguished for his taste, and the encourage- ment he afforded to literature and the arts, than for his power. He was the second son of the caliph Mahadi,and succeeded his elder brother, Hadi, A. D. 786. He differed, in so many re- spects, from the despots of the east, that he obtained the name of al Raschid, the Just, al- though many of his deeds would seem to destroy his claims to the title. The caliph was fond of personally ascertaining the condition of his people, when, divested of the dazzling attributes of rank, he feared no concealment on their part. Many instances of the wisdom and jus- tice of his decisions have comedown to us, and, among others, the following. A merchant, having lost a purse containing a large sum of money, caused the loss to be proclaimed, with an accurate description of the purse and the value of its contents, offering a large reward to the person who should find and restore it to the owner. After some days had elapsed, a poor AAR ABB laborer presented himself before a magistrate with the purse, and claimed of the merchant (who was summoned) the reward which belong- ed to him. The merchant, rejoiced at finding his money, thought to avoid payment of the reward, by declaring that the purse contained, in addition to the money, an emerald of great value, which the finder must be compelled to restore. The poor laborer was overwhelmed by this assertion, and the magistrate appeared at a loss, but the caliph, who was present in disguise, advanced and decided the case. " Since," said he,, " the merchant declares that the purse which he lost, contained a sum of money and an emerald, and since the finder of this purse swears, and the seal upon the purse proves, that he has taken no precious gem, this cannot be the purse which the mer- chant has lost. Let then its present holder endeavor to discover the real owner, and, failing to do so, appropriate the prrae ; and let the mer- chant make diligent search for the money and the emerald which he has lost ; the present pro- perty being, as he has proved, none of his." Haroun was an ardent lover of learning, and caused it to be disseminated throughout his realms. He was a warm admirer of the an- cient classics, and translations of the Iliad and Odyssey, with other works of antiquity, made his people acquainted with the beauties of Greek and Roman literature. He invaded the Greek empire no fewer than eight times, con- quering in 802, the emperor Nicephorus, who had refused to pay him the customary tribute. The Greek monarch was compelled to pay a heavier tribute to the caliph, and promise not to rebuild the frontier towns which had been ruin- ed and plundered. The caliph's destruction of the family of the Barmecides displays the stern resolution of a despot. He had experienced the cares of Yahia, the head of the Barmecide family, who had superintended his education, and the eldest of Yahia's sons was a general who had served his country well ; the second was Giaffer, the caliph's prime vizier, and the two other sons were in responsible and digni- fied stations. The Barmecides were in favor with all classes, and Giaffer stood high in the graces of the caliph. Indeed, so warmly at- tached was the latter to his vizier, that, for the sake of enjoying his company with that of his beloved sister Abassa, he united them in mar- riage, but placed capricious restrictions upon their intimacy. On the disobedience of the pair, all the violent passions of the caliph were aroused. He publicly sacrificed Giaffer to his resentment, and impoverished the whole family. Haroun, at the height of splendor and fam«>, sent an embas- sy to the emperor Charlemagne, bearing, among other presents, a water-clock, an elephant, and the keys of the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. The caliph was seized with a mortal illness while preparing to depart upon a military ex- pedition, and died at Tous, in Khorassan, in the 47th year of his age, and the 23d of his reign. None of the caliphs of the Saracens ever attained the height of power and popularity which Haroun al Rasohid gained, and, although some of his acts are inexcusable, yet, consid- ering the examples furnished by his age, and the preceding, we cannot withhold from him a Targe share of praise. Haroun is one of those characters, which are equally the delight of his- tory and romance, and while the graver acts of his reign employ the pen of the rigid annalist, his varied adventures are themes for the gay eloquence of such works as the Arabian Nights Entertainments. ABAUZIT, Firmin, a Protestant author of celebrity and learning, was born in Languedoc, 1679, and died in 1707, having for a long time filled the office of public librarian at Geneva. His writings are principally upon theological subjects, and he was distinguished for accuracy and penetration. His knowledge was great and embraced the whole circle of the sciences. Wise and modest, he was pronounced a " great man" by Voltaire, himself as learned as Abauzit, although destitute of that unaffected piety which formed so bright an ornament to the character of the latter. ABBAS, Shah, the Great, ascended the throne of Persia in 1589, and distinguished him- self in arms, wresting Ormus from the Portu- guese in 1622, aided, however, by the British. During his reign, Ispahan became the capital of Persia. His death took place in 1629. ABBASSIDES. The caliphs, who, during the 8th and 9th centuries, made Bagdad their capital, are distinguished in history as the Jlbas- sides. Their sway extended over Persia, Arabia, and Syria. The caliph Al-Mansur, in 702, built Bagdad, and raised the Saracenic empire to its highest point of splendor and fame. Al-Modi, to whom the empire was transmitted, did not permit its reputation to wane, and, under Ha- roun al Raschid, the dignity of the Caliphate was preserved and adorned. After Haroun, reigned Al-Amin, and Al-Mamun. Under Al- Motasser the governors of several provinces as- serted their independence, and Bagdad alone was governed by the caliph. ABB 7 ABBEY, or monastery, is a house erected for the dwelling of males or females who have taken the monastic vow, which binds them to relinquish all worldlv interests, and devote themselves to the performance of religious duties, living in a state of celibacy. St. Anthony, in the 4th cen- tury instituted the monastic life, and, in the same century, St. Pachomius founded regular communities of religious professors. A monas- tery receives its title from that of the ecclesi- astic governing it. An abbey is governed by an abbot, or abbess, a priory, by a prior, or prior- ess, &c. The term nunnery, is applied to a re- ligious house inhabited by females. The buildings inhabited by different religious communities, were originally of the plainest kind, but increased in extent and splendor with their revenues, until, from the humble dwellings of unpretending ecclesiastics, they became the abodes of luxury, brilliant with costly architec- tural decorations, and hiding, within their lofty walls, the revels of men whose piety was but a cloak for unlimited indulgence. The buildings constituting an Abbey or monastery, consisted principally of churches, cloisters, refectories, chapters, parlors, dormitories, courts, gardens, &c. The choir and interior buildings of con- vents were, and are still, fenced in by grates, and inaccessible to visiters. The churches consisted of the choir, an altar, a nave, isles, chapels, and a tower. The cloister comprehends the galleries or covered porticoes of a monastery in which the monks take their exercise, and surrounds an open space, which is generally devoted to the cultivation of flowers, neatly distributed in parterres, interspersed with grass- plots, and refreshed by careful irrigation. The cloisters were sometimes adorned with valua- ble paintings, and were generally finished spe- cimens of art. The refectory of an abbey, is the hall in which the fathers eat. The refectory furnished at first frugal fare, and the holy fa- thers did not tarry long in it, but with the declension of ecclesiastical simplicity, the cha- racter of their meals was changed, and they made the walls of their eating-room ring with the merriment created by high living and rich wines. The refectory of the Abbey of Saint Dennis at Paris, has been celebiated for its architectural beauty. The chapter is a place of greater or less ex- tent, built for the reception of assemblies to discuss the private affairs of the house, and provided with seats, and a great table. The chapters are ordinarily ornamented with splen- did pictures. The parlor is a kind of cabinet, ABB where visitors converse with the monks or nuns throuo-h a kind of grated window. Formerly convents contained parlors, in which novices were allowed the privilege of conversing to- gether, at hours of recreation, but even then they were overheard by their superiors, who were provided with places for eaves-dropping. The dormitories are wings in the building, which contain the cells of its inhabitants. They are generally commodious, and have broad and well -lighted staircases, from regard to the weak- ness of the aged, and are situated in the second story, in order to render them airy and healthy. Here the monks enjoy their brief repose, from which they are awakened to acts of devotion, or to bend in solitude before the crucifix, with its accompanying mementoes of mortality, ap- pearing lost in the reveries of religious enthusi- asm. "The gardens of monasteries, generally exhibit neatness, and are not the least favorite appendage to the dwellings of the monks. The monks, in the ages of general darkness, that is from 600 to 1500, preserved in their monasteries many valuable volumes, and kept alive the spark of learning, which, but for their exertions, would have been extinguished. Re- ligious houses were, for ages, the sole deposi- tories of literature and science, and their inhab- itants were actively employed in the duties of education. In England, one person or more in each convent, was appointed to instruct pupils, and these were the children of those neighbors who chose to send them. They were instructed in grammar and church music, free of expense. In the nunneries, females were taught to read and work, and the daughters of noblemen and gentlemen, as well as of the poorer people, were indebted to the nuns for a large part of whatever knowledge they possess- ed." Many poor descendants of noble families looked to monasteries for refuge, and having taken the vow, made use of the influence of friends, to gain high ecclesiastical offices. Ma- ny of the monks were men driven to enter reli- gious houses by the pangs of remorse, and who hoped to expiate a career of crimes, by seclu- sion from the world, and the observance of the most austere rites of the church. These as well as some who were unaffectedly pious, lived a blameless life, but there were others whose profligacy was unrepressed, because hidden by that veil of hypocrisy which they closely drew around them. Many monks were skilful paint- ers, as the richly illuminated manuscripts of other days prove, and numerous were the le- gends of saints, gorgeously blazoned upon pages ABB 8 ABB of vellum, that filled the shelves of the holy fathers. Living a life of undisturbed seclusion, those who possessed a literary turn, had ample time to indulge their propensity, though very few literary works of any merit have issued from the monasteries. The year 306 is that in which the eailiest monasteries were established in Egypt, under the conduct of St. Anthony, and hence sprang shortly afterwards, many others in various pla- ces. In 360, the earliest, monastery in France, that of Saint Martin, was established. In the beginning monasteries were inhabited by lay- men. For more than six centuries all the eastern monasteries were independent of each other, and governed by abbots who were an- swerable to their bishops only. In the ninth century under Louis the Mild, many monasteries were united under the government of St. Ben- edict, but on the death of this abbot, the houses again separated, and remained independent of each other. In the tenth century St. Odo, bishop of Cluny, united to this abbey many monasteries, placing them under the conduct of the abbot of Cluny. The first monasteries, in times of trouble and darkness, preserved the spirit of religion, and were sanctuaries in which piety and learning sought refuge from the ig- norance, irreligion and persecutions of the world. A mild light, denied to the rest of mankind, was shed upon those who took upon themselves the fulfilment of monastic vows. The con- duct of the monks was regulated by the plain commands of the Scriptures, and antiquity was followed in the celebration of religious ceremo- nies, and the practice of Christian virtues. The monks, as remarked above, were, for many cen- turies, the preservers of literature, many valua- ble works of the present day having been rescued from destruction by monastic libraries. Since the revival of letters, and the triumph of the Reformation, monasteries have ceased to be aught but burdensome to the Catholic countries in which they still exist. A comparative glance at a Catholic and a Protestant country, will at once expose the evil effects of these establish- ments at present. The enormous abuses of the monastic system in England, called loudly for reform, when Henry VIII applied himself to the work with an unsparing hand, and in 1534 destroyed all the monasteries in England. At this time the hospitality of the monks was un- limited, and a multitude of idle gentry subsisted wholly upon it, passing their lives in going from one religious house to another. The change made by Henry, proved of incalculable advantage to the state and the country in gen- eral. The suppression of the greater houses produced the king a yearly income of 100,000^., in addition to an immense treasure in plate and jewels. Before their dissolution, the monks had a greater revenue than that seized by the king, part of which, accruing from pensions, he did not immediately secure. The number of monks at this time in England, in the monasteries, and in chapels and hospitals belonging to them, was computed at 50,000. The council of Castile, in the project for re- form, which was presented to Philip III in 1619, supplicated the king to obtain from the pope a diminution of the number of religious orders aud monasteries which were daily in- creasing, and producing the most mischievous results. They encouraged idleness, said the council, because the majority sought the monas- teries less as a pious retreat, than as affording opportunity for idleness, and a shelter from want. The strength and preservation of the kingdom depended on the number of useful and industrious men, which was diminished by the monastic institutions. Meanwhile the expenses of state fell wholly upon secular shoulders, while the monks were exempt from taxes, and retain- ed with a firm grasp the immense wealth which they accumulated. The destruction of monas- teries, was felt at the time as a serious evil, but every nation which has converted them to the use of the public, has been a gainer, and at the expense of temporary evil, has enjoyed a lasting good. " It is an undeniable fact," says Vol- taire, " that there is no catholic kingdom in which a proposal has not been often made to restore to the state a portion of those citizens of which monasteries have deprived it, but statesmen are rarely struck with a distant uti- lity, sensible though it may be, particularly when the future advantage is balanced by pre- sent difficulty." At thisenlightened period there is but one opinion with regard to the destruc- tion of monasteries, and that is, that they were unworthy of approbation in the beginning, and that their continuance would have been a very serious obstacle to the improvement and pros- perity of those countries, which have risen to opulence and happiness since their downfall. The age for the admission into the monastic state, was fixed at sixteen years, by the Council of Trent, the decrees of which were issued, in successive sessions, from 1545 to 1563. The diminution of the papal power, and the enlight- ened spirit of the age, in the 18th century , exert- ed a strong influence upon the public mind with ABB ABD regard to monasteries in Catholic countries, and they lost many of their privileges and much of the protection previously given them by law. Joseph II. of Austria, in 1781, abolished some orders of monasteries, and limited the number of inmates in others. In France they were all abolished in 17D0. During the reign of Napoleon, all the states incorporated with France, as well as other Catholic countries of Europe, abolished them, with the exception of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Austria, Poland, and Russia. Recent events have contributed to improve their condition in Italy, and Pius VII. procured means for the maintenance of old, and the foundation of new ones in France, Bavaria, and Naples, while in Austria they have become extinct. ABBOT. The word abbot is derived from the Hebrew ab, father, and signifies the Supe- rior of a monastery erected into an abbey. The abbots were one degree above the laymen. They were originally subject to the bishops, but attempting to obtain independence, were punished by the enactment of some severe laws by the council of Chalcedon. They were not, however, wholly unsuccessful, many of them obtaining the title of lord, the privilege of wear- ing the mitre, and other badges of distinction. The different classes are thus named, — Abbots, mitred and not mitred ; croziered and not croziered ; oecumenical, cardinal, &c. The mi- tred abbots were ordered by Pope Clement IV. to wear only a mitre adorned with gold, leaving jewels to the bishops. The croziered abbots bear the crozier, or pastoral staff*. The oecum- enical, or universal abbots are known only to the Greeks. At present, abbots are distinguish- ed into regular and commendatory, the former of whom are actual monks, while the-latter are seculars who have previously undergone the ton- sure, or shaving of the crown of the head, and bind themselves to take orders when they come of age. The monks under his jurisdiction pay unconditional obedience to the abbot, whose office requires him to manage the affairs of the abbey, regulate the conduct of the brotherhood, and see that the rules of the order are not in- fringed. From the 6th century the bishops were priests, and from the year 787, had the power of conferring the lower orders of priesthood. ABBOT,George,bornin 1562, and made arch- bishop of Canterbury in 1610. He strenuously opposed some measures of King James, thereby disproving the assertion that he owed his rise to acts more worthy of a courtier than an ecclesiastic. Having the misfortune to kill a game-keeper of lord Zouch, he ever afterwards fasted upon Tuesday, the day on which the unhappy event took place. Though deprived of his office by Charles I. in consequence of his opposition to a project of the king, he was re- stored to it by parliament, and died at the age of seventy-one in 1033. ABBOT, Charles, viscount Colchester, a man of considerable talent as an author and orator, was speaker of the British House of Commons, from 1802 to 1817. He was born in 1775, and died in 1829. ABBESS. An abbess is the superior of a convent of nuns, and has the authority of an abbot. The abbesses are incapacitated from performing the spiritual functions of the priest- hood, although some abbesses, in former times, confessed their nuns, a privilege which they are said to have forfeited by the unwarrantable curiosity which they displayed. The institution of abbots was prior to that of abbesses, since the first virgins who devoted themselves to the service of God, remained in their paternal dwellings. In the 4th century they assembled in monasteries, but it was not until the time of Pope Gregory that they had buildings appro- priated exclusively to them. The abbess was anciently chosen by the community from among the oldest and most talented nuns : she received the blessing of the bishop, and her authority was perpetual. Some abbesses enjoyed the privilege of selecting a priest to perform the spiritual duties, the exercise of which was denied to themselves. These were the power of ordain- ing, the administration of the sacraments, bap- tism, confirmation, the eucharist or Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, and matri- mony. Extreme unction In cases of mortal disease, is performed by anointing the head, hands, and feet with consecrated oil, at the same time offering up prayers for the soul of the dying. ABBT, Thomas, a German philosophical writer, of great merit, born at Ulrn in Suabia, 1738, and died in 1766. ABDALLEE, Shah, emperor of Eastern Persia, was the determined opponent of the Great Mogul, and victorious at Panniput in 1761. ABDALONIMUS, a descendant of the Sido- nian kings, but so poor as to be compelled to cul- tivate the soil for subsistence. The excellence of his character and conduct, induced Alexan- der, on taking Sidon, to place him upon the throne, from which Strato was banished, and extend his dominions. ABE 10 ABE ABEL, the twin brother of Cain and the se- cond son of Adam. The character and occu- pations of the brothers were different. Abel was keeper of a flock of sheep, while Cain was a husbandman, and tilled the earth for a support. In process of time Abel brought to the Lord an offering of the firstlings of his flock, which proved acceptable in his eyes. Cain's offering of the fruit of the ground was displeas- ing to his Maker, and his anger at being re- jected, was unrepressed. It was not without cause that the Lord slighted the offering of Cain, for, observing his displeasure, he said; " Why art thou wroth, and why is thy counte- nance fallen ? If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted? and if thou doest not well, sin lieth at the door." From the moment of his rejection, a dark project occupied the mind of Cain, and he regarded his brother with eyes of hatred and menace. When they were in the field together, the fierce Cain sprang upon his gentler brother, and slew him. This was the first murder committed on the earth. A mo- ment after the commission of the evil deed, fear fell upon the murderer, and the voice of God, asking for his brother Abel, smote upon his heart, like a tone of thunder. He endeavored to evade the inquiry, but drew down upon his head the just denunciation of the offended Deity. For the sake of Cain, the earth was cursed, and forbidden to yield him its fiuits without intense labor, and the criminal was made a fugitive and vagabond on the face of the earth. Yet, that his life might be spared, a mark was fixed upon him, and the Lord said, " Whosoever slayeth Cain vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold.' The belief of some of the fathers of the Christian church that Abel died unmarried, gave rise to the sect of Abelites, Abelians, or Abelonians, who remained single, but adopted children and educated them after their own manner and in their own principles. Near Hippo, in Africa, this society flourished in the latter part of the 4th century, and their follow- ers at the present day, are found in the persons of the Shakers. ABEL, son of Valdimir II. king of Den- mark, gained the sceptre by assassinating his brother Eric in 1250. A revolt of the Frisons caused the loss of his life. His appellation was certainly a misnomer. ABELARD, Peter, properly Abailard, a monk who was famous for his learning and his unfortunate love for the beautiful Heloise. He was born in 1079, in the village of Palais, near Nantes. He early relinquished his claims to his father's estates, in favor of his brothers, and devoted himself to the study of literature and the sciences. At Paris his fame was great, and here he established a school, lecturing on rhet- oric and other subjects to large and admiring audiences. When his fame was greatest, he forgot his duty and his character in the society of Heloise, the niece of Fulbert, a canon of the city. He atoned for his misconduct by marry ing the object of his affections; but her removal to the convent of Argenteuil, exasperated Ful- bert and drew down upon Abelard, his fierce vengeance. Heloise finally took the veil at Argenteuil, a ceremony by which a nun renoun- ces the world, and pledges herself to the obser- vance of religious vows. She afterwards be- came abbess of the Paraclete, a religious house founded by Abelard. Abelard was accused by his enemies of promulgating heretical doctrines, but succeeded in vindicating himself. After his refutation of the charges of his adversaries, he lived in strict seclusion, when the pangs of grief, acting upon a constitution broken by injury and the severity of monastic discipline, put an end to his existence. He died at the ab- bey of San Marcel at Chalons-Sur-Saone, at the age of G3, in 1142. His body, at the request of Heloise, was buried in the Paraclete, where she contemplated being laid by his side in death. She survived him many years, and a popular tradition asserts that when she was removed into the funeral vault the dead monk unclosed his arms, and received her in their gaunt em- brace. The ashes of the unhappy pair repose, at present, in a chapel at Paris, where they were deposited in 1817. ABENSBERG,a district and town in Bava- ria, situated on the Abens, 83 miles from Ratis- bon ; population, 1 ,080. Here Napoleon gained a brilliant victory over the Austrians, in 1809, which led to the affairs of Landshut and Eck muhl, and the taking of Ratisbon. ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, a British offi- cer of distinction, born in 1738, at Tillibodie in Clackmannanshire. His military talents raised him from a cornetcy, to the rank of General. In the battle of Cateau he led the advanced guard. His masterly retreat from Holland has been highly commended by military men. In I7!). r ) he was appointed to the chief command of the forces in the West Indies, and took Demerara, Essequibo, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. He met his death at Alexan- dria in 1801, while engaged in repelling the French. In that action, fatal for him, he dis- ABO 11 ABO played the chivalric valor of a knight of the olden time. Dismounted and suffering from two mortal wounds, Sir Ralph disarmed his adversary, and gave the sword into the hands of Sir Sydney Smith. He survived about a week. His memory was honored by his coun- trymen, and a costly monument erected in St. Paul's, a public token of the respect of England for as brave and true a soldier as ever fought beneath her banner. ABERDEEN, the most important of the northern cities of Scotland. Its latitude is about 57° north. Population is estimated at about 40,000. It contains two universities ; the cotton manufacture and salmon fisheries afford sub- sistence and wealth to numbers of its inhabitants. ABIPONIANS, a warlike nation of South American Indians on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, frequently engaged in war with the Spaniards. They appear to despise the arts of agriculture, and subsist by hunting and fish- in o\° Their arms are iron-headed lances and arrows. They feed on tiger's flesh, imagining that it gives them indomitable courage and fe- rocity. Their women are described as pretty, and having complexions but a shade darker than those of the Spanish ladies. They are governed by Caciques, whose authority is mere- ly nominal, since the tribes renounce it, when- ever the opinions of their rulers are at variance with their own. ABO, until 1817, the capital of Finland, the chief place of export from Finland to Swe- den, and containing a population of 12,500 in- habitants. Its sugar-works, and manufactures of leather, linen, sail-cloth, cordage, &c. are successful. As a ship-building place, it pos- sesses considerable importance. The univer- sity was liberally endowed by the Emperor Alexander, but it has since been transferred to Helsingfors. In 1827 the whole city was burnt down, but the Russian government la- bored to repair the loss. In history Abo is not- ed for several treaties concluded within its walls. ABOUKIR, formerly called Canopus, is an Arabian village containing but about 100 in- habitants. Its bay is spacious, and has, upon the western side, a castle of considerable strength. It is 10 miles from Alexandria, upon the coast of Egypt. In modern history, Abou- kir is rendered famous by the important naval battle fought here between the French and English fleets, the latter commanded by Admi- ral Nelson , on the first of August, 1708. Buona- parte's army was conveyed to Egypt by the French fleet which sailed from the harbor of Toulon, on the 19th of May, 1798. As soon as intelligence of this reached the Eng- lish fleet before Cadiz, admiral St. Vincent despatched rear-admiral Nelson, with 14 ships of the line, to the Mediterranean, with or- ders to find and attack the French fleet. Nelson, burning for fame, and eager to meet the enemy, at length found the fleet in the road of Aboukir, August 1. The signal for battle was immediately given. The French captains, who had been assembled on board the admiral's ship, hastened to their posts, and an English ship instantly commenced the attack. The French fleet was disposed in the form of a crescent, following the curve of the bay, and anchored as close as possible to an island on which was erected a powerful battery of can- non and mortars. Nelson ordered a part of his fleet to break through between the island and the French line of battle, and to coast along until they gained the enemy's rear, while the remainder of the English fleet approached the enemy's front, and anchored within pistol-shot. These orders were executed with skill and dar- ing, and, at half past six in the evening, the battle began, just as the setting sun threw a fiery hue upon the fearful scene. The fire of the English was well directed, and deadly. At the end of one hour, five French ships were disabled and captured. Admiral Brueys was shot as he was directing the fight from his ship L'Orient. After the admiral was shot, Capt. Casabianca and crew, determined to maintain the honor of the flag-ship, fought her with great spirit. The captain was mortally wound- ed and carried below, while his son, a youth of 12 years old, remained at his post, notwith- standing the vessel took fire. Although the hot flames rolled over head, and the powder-maga- zine was momentarily expected to take fire, the gallant boy would not leave his post, but shared the fate of the splendid vessel, which was blown to atoms. The fate of Casabianca has been made the subject of a beautiful poem by one of the most talented poetesses of the present day ; Mrs. Hemans. The concluding lines of ' Casabianca ' are very forcible. There came a burst of thundering sound — The boy — oh! where was he"? Ask of the winds that far around With fragments strewed the sea. — With mast, and helm, and pennon fair, That well had borne their part — But the noblest thing that perished there, Was that young and faithful heart. ABR 12 ABR L'Orient blew up after having been fought for four hours. She was a superb vessel — a 120 gun ship, with a crew of 1000 men, out of whom but 80 or 90 were saved from destruc- tion. The scene of the combat must have been awfully sublime, for the cannonading continued all night, and day dawned upon a scene of de- struction and dismay. The French suffered severely, and their naval power was annihilat- ed. Only two ships of the line, and two frig- ates got off clear. Nine ships of the line were taken, one blown up, and one frigate sunk. The French themselves set fire to and burned a ship of the line and a frigate. The success of the British was a severe blow to Buonaparte, as it cut off his communication with France, and inspired his enemies with fresh hope and resolution, giving spirit to the coalition formed against the power which had so suddenly at- tained a giant strength. ABRADATES, a king of Susa. His wife, Panthea, having been taken prisoner by Cyrus, was well treated, in consequence of which her husband joined the troops of the conqueror, but was killed in the very first battle which he fought for him. His wife, in despair at his death, killed herself upon his corpse. They were both honored and lamented by Cyrus. ABRAHAM, the Patriarch of the Jews, was born at Ur, in Chaldasa, 2000 years before the birth of Christ. He was descended from Shem, the eldest son of Noah, but was kept from idolatry, and passed the early part of his life in the house of his father Terali. Abraham found favor in the eyes of the Lord who revealed to him the good fortunes for which he was destin- ed, and commanded him, with his wife Sarah, his father, and his nephew, to leave his early abode, and settle in Haran, in Mesopotamia. Following in all things the direct commands of God, Abraham, after the death of his father, led a wandering life, visiting a variety of places. While he remained at Mamre, Lot, between whom and Abraham there was a rupture, settled at Gomorrah. In spite of this separation, the heart of Abraham was not estranged from his nephew, for when he learned that Gomorrah had been entered by the Arabs, who carried off Lot, his family, and property, he pursued the robbers and succeeded in rescuing his nephew and all that was his. The Lord displayed to Abraham the blessings which he designed for him, and assured him of the birth of a son. This event, however ardently desired, appeared unlikely to take place, on account of the years of Abraham and Sarah. The enormous crimes of Sodom and Gomor- rah, having excited the indignation of God, he sent three angels to destroy the rebellious cities. They visited Abraham and his wife, and assured them that the promise made by the Lord would be fulfilled, and that, upon their return, they would be parents. At the time decreed by the Lord, Sarah, then ninety years old, became the mother of a son whom she called Isaac After the birth of Isaac, Abraham drove out to the wilderness Hagar, a bond-woman, who was the mother of one of his sons. Their miracu- lous preservation is one of the most affecting incidents recorded in scripture. When Isaac had reached the age of twenty-five years, and was dearly beloved by his father, God, wishing to make a trial of his faith, commanded Abra- ham to sacrifice his son, saying ; " Take now thy son, thine only son Isaac, whom thou lovest, and get thee into the land ofMoriah; and offer him there for a burnt-offering upon one of the mountains which I will tell thee of." The command of the Lord was listened to with meek obedience ; Abraham made immediate preparations for departure, and arrived at the appointed place with his dearly beloved son. Without faltering, the man of God built the altar of the wood which he had provided, and bound Isaac, and laid him upon the pile. It was a fiery ordeal, but the faith of Abraham was unshaken. " And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son. And the angel of the Lord called to him out of heaven, and said, Abraham, Abraham. And he said, Here am I. And he said, Lay not thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou any- thing unto him, for now I know that thou fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thy only son, from me." At the age of one hundred and twenty-seven years, Sarah died at Hebron, in the land of Canaan. Abraham again married, and became, by Keturah, father of six children; viz. Zimran, Jokshan, and Medan ; Midian, Ishbah, and Shuah. The age and death of the patriarch are thus recorded in the Bible. " And these are the days of the years of Abraham's life which he lived, a hundred three score and fifteen years. Then Abraham gave up the ghost, and died in a good old age, an old man, and full of years ; and was gathered to his peo- ple." His body was interred near that of his wife Sarah, in a sepulchre wrought in a cave purchased of the sons of Seth. The Arabians as well as the Jews, derive their origin from Abraham, and the name of the patriarch is in- ABR 13 ABY terwoven with the legends of the Romish and Greek churches. In the tales of the Arabians, many fabulous adventures are attributed to Abraham, and the truth is obscured by the narrators of his history. The Koran makes mention of the patriarch's name, and, according to many Mahometan writers, he went to Mecca and there commenced the building of the tem- ple. The tomb of Abraham is still an object of veneration to many sects. ABRAHAM, heights of. See Quebec. ABRANTES, a city of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Estremadura, and situated on the right bank of the Tagus, has a population of 3,500. The abruptness of its hills, the strength of its castle, and the state of its river, render it a place of great importance in a military point of view. In 1762 the Portuguese defended it against the Spaniards, and in 1808 it was garrisoned by Junot, one of Napoleon's generals, who from the perseverance with which he marched to this place, in spite of many obstacles, and the gallantry with which he made himself master of Lisbon with 1,500 grenadiers, was named duke of Abrantes. When the place was surrender- ed to the English they strengthened it to such a degree, that it was believed to be almost im- pregnable. ABRUZZO, a country in the northern part of Italy, is divided into Ulterior, and Citerior, which are the northwestern and southeastern portions. It is the northern extremity of the Neapolitan kingdom, and bounded on the north and west by the territories of the church, on the south by Puglia, and Terra di Lavoro, and on the east by the Adriatic. Its population is estimated at 628,500. The country is crossed by the lofty Apennines, and its climate is severe. The spring rains and thaws often swell the streams to such an extent, that bridges are swept away, and all communication broken up. The inhabitants of the valleys, which are fer- tile, are generally shepherds, and fine herds feed upon the eminences and pasturage spots of the valleys. It has been regarded, from the nature of the ground, and the circumstance of but one military road leading into the king- dom, a place of immense importance in war, and a sure defence to Naples. In the hands of a patriotic and resolute population, it might be all this, but the past has shown how much a resolute enemy can accomplish against indo- lent or dispirited defenders. The Austrians, French and Spaniards, have found it but a frail barrier against the march of conquest. The ravines, the mountain fastnesses, the tan- gled woods, localities which might have made it the theatre of a famous struggle, are only infamous and terrible, as the retreat of the lurking bandit, and the midnight murderer. The Neapolitan territories, and those of the church surfer severely from the predatory spirit of the lawless peasants, who are agriculturists and brigands, and support their families by an union of both characters. They frequently exchange shots with the guards of travellers, when these worthies are steady enough to stand to their arms, although not infrequently policy and cowardice induce these gentlemen to make off with all possible speed, leaving the unfortunate strangers to the tender mercies of a rapacious and case-hardened banditti. ABSALOM, in Scripture, the rebellious son of King David, noted for the beauty of hisluxu- riant tresses, which caused his death by getting entangled in the boughs of a tree from which he hung suspended until slain, contrary to the orders of his fond father. The grief of King David for his loss is touchingly expressed in the sacred writings, where ills history may be perused at length. ABSALOM, bishop of Rothschild, archbish- op of Denmark, and counsellor of Waldemar I, a distinguished divine, statesman, general, navigator, and author of celebrity, died A. D. 1201. ABU-BEKR, founder of the empire of the Almoravides, Morocco, in 1050. His conquests in Spain, in 1091, gained him great renown. ABUDA, an Italian town, famous for the defeat of Odoacer in 490, by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths. ABU-OBEDIAH, who died of pestilence A. D. 639, was a companion of Mohammed, and conquered Syria, together with a large portion of Palestine. ABULFEDA, or Ishmael, prince of Hamah in Syria, an Arabian, famous for his historical and geographical writings, and surnamed the pillar of religion, and the prince of victory. He was a native of Damascus, and born A. D. 1273. Although inheriting the throne of Hamah from his uncle, he was debarred for a long time from the enjoyment of his rights, but when gained, the kingdom remained undisturbed under his sway, until the time of his death, which took place, A. D. 1333. ABYDOS, a city on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, of Milesian origin, famed for the bridge of boats constructed by order of Xerxes, and familiar to all readers as the residence of Hero, the mistress of Leander, who swam the ABY 14 ABY Hellespont to meet her, until " that night of stormy water, When Love — who sent — forgot to save The lone, the beautiful, the brave, The only hope of Sestos' daughter." Lord Byron, whose lines we have just quot- ed, performed Leander's feat in company with Mr. Ekenhead, an Englishman. The turbu- lence of the currents renders the passage a crit- ical undertaking. The inhabitants of Abydos gallantly defended their city against Philip of Macedon. Another Jibydos in Upper Egypt, was famed for the magnificence of the palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. Some splendid ruins, manifesting its former grandeur, are to be found in the village of El-Berbi. ABYLA, a mountain of Africa, directly- opposite to Calpe, Gibraltar. These two mountains were formerly called the Pillars of Hercules, from a tradition that this gifted mor- tal, the Samson of the Greeks, forced them asunder to form a junction between the waters of the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In this tale we perceive the reminiscence of a great convulsion of nature separating Europe and Africa. ABYSSINIA is a country of great extent, of which the ancients possessed very little knowledge. It is sometimes called Abassia, Habesh, and Upper Ethiopia. The name is thought by most authors to be derived from the Arabic Habesh, which signifies the accident- al meeting of a number of persons in one spot. The Portuguese gave this country the name of Prester or Presbyter John's empire, but it ap- pears that there is no foundation for the suppo- sition that any such person ever dwelt or was heard of in Abyssinia. The ancients, who were very little acquainted with the kingdom, represented its extent as far greater than the reality proved. It is at present bounded, on the northeast, by the Red Sea ; on the east, and southeast, by the kingdom of Adel ; on the south, by the Gingire ; on the west by the Nile, and on the northwest by Sennaar. Its three grand divisions are Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa and Efat. The most ancient book of Abyssinian history is the Chronicle of Axum, from which it is understood that Abyssinia was the kingdom of Sheba or Seba, the visit of whose queen to King Solomon is spoken of in the Sa- cred Writings. The government of Abyssinia is an absolute monarchy, and the want of writ- ten laws has placed the persons, property, and lives of the subjects, in the hands of the sove- reign. The queen of Sheba had a son, of whom Solomon was the father. From this prince, whose name was Menileh, the sovereigns of Abyssinia claim to be descended. It is affirm- ed that Abyssinia was the kingdom of that queen Candace, whose minister worshipped at Jerusalem. On his return, he was baptized by Philip the deacon, from whom the Abyssinians, by their own confession, received Christianity. The last act of the queen of Sheba's reign enact- ed, 1. That the crown should thenceforth be hereditary in the descendants of Solomon : 2. That no females should ascend the throne : 3. That the heirs-male of the royal family should be sent prisoners to a high mountain, where they were well treated, and allowed a large revenue for their support, but where they were compelled to remain until they died, or the succession was opened to them. This fact forms the groundwork of Dr. Johnson's inte- resting tale, entitled ' Rasselas, or the Happy Valley.' The Jewish religion was prevalent in Abys- sinia until nearly the middle of the 4th centu- ry. Others imagine, as above stated, that the Abyssinians embraced Christianity with their queen who was converted by her prime minis- ter or eunuch. About 1450, in the reign of Zara Jacob, an attempt was made to introduce the Romish religion. About J 560 the Portu- guese priests were banished by Menas, and the Catholic religion was suppressed. In 1600 it revived. In 1632, in consequence of the un- satisfactory conduct of the Catholic clergy, their hierarchy was abolished. Since 1714, when the clergy were executed, Catholics have almost disappeared from the country. The Christian religion has since been prevalent, with a mixture of Judaical observances in pub- lic worship. Yet we can hardly term that a Christian church which permits polygamy. The saints of the Abyssinians surpass in mira- cles those of the Latin calendar. There is an immense number of churches in Abyssinia. The paternal and sole bishop of the country is styled M%ina, which means, our Father. He is said to have been called upon to ordain, at one time 10,000 priests, and 6000 deacons. The attenlion of Missionary and Bible societies have been turned to this country, and the dif- fusion of the sacred writings among the people, is regarded as the greatest benefit which could be conferred upon them. The punishments in Abyssinia are severe, and frequently, as well as unfeelingly inflicted. Death on the cross, hanging, stoning to death, ACH 15 ACH flaying alive, and plucking out the eyes, stand foremost in the dark catalogue. The bodies of those who suffer death for treason, murder, and the commission of some other crimes, rarely receive the rites of sepulture. Pieces of dead carcasses are frequent in the streets of Gondar, and nightly attract numbers of wild beasts. The hyenas, whose craving for human flesh is well known, rush to their banquet as soon as night settles on the city, howling over the bones for which they have contended fiercely. The manners and customs of the Abyssinians prove the shocking cruelty and brutality of this people. Their festivities are disgraced by the most revolting practices. When the guests are assembled, the cooks cut steaks from the cattle at the door while they are yet alive, and roaring with agony. The guests wipe their fingers upon the cakes which they afterwards eat. The people are illiterate and depraved, and their whole country exhibits the appear- ance of hopeless wretchedness and poverty. Abyssinia is bounded on the north by Sen- naar, on the west and south by Sennaar, K'or- dofan, and some barbarous tracts of country which are almost unknown, and on the east by the Red Sea. The King lives at Gondar, but is possessed of little more than the name of sovereign. The ranges of mountains which fill up the extent of the country are lofty and re- markable. The products of the country are rich and various, but its commerce is exclu- sively in the hands of Turks, Jews and Arme- nians. vACAPULCO, on the south west side of Mexico, is the best harbor in possession of the Mexicans. The city has fine artificial and nat- ural defences, and contains 4,000 inhabitants, mostly colored. It is hot and unhealthy, yellow fever and cholera morbus being prevalent dis- orders. Silver, cochineal, Spanish cloth, and peltry, are the principal articles of export. ACARNANIA, now II Carnia, a II Despo- tato, Albania, was formerly called Curetis, a country of Epirus, separated from yEtolia by the Achelous, and long an independent state. After having been conquered, it was permitted to retain its own laws until the destruction of Corinth by Mummius, when it was united to the province of Achaia. ACCUM, Frederic, a German chemist, who delivered lectures in London in 1803, and did much towards the introduction of gas-lights ACHAIA was a portion of the Peloponnesus, of very limited breadth, and stretching along the bay of Corinth. The name is sometimes em- ployed by the early poets to distinguish all Greece. After Greece became a Roman pro- vince, Achaia included all the Grecian states but Macedonia and Thessaly. 80 years after the Trojan war, the descendants of Achseus, who first dwelt in the country near Argos, being driven out by the Heraclidae, seized upon the 12 Ionian cities, and kept them. These were Pellene, iEgira, ^Eges, Bura, Tritcea, ^Egion, Rhypae, Olenos, Helice, Patrce, Dyme, and Phara?. The inhabitants of the three last cities, 284 years B. C, formed the famous confederacy which, under the name of the Jlcluean League, subsisted in full force upwards of 140 years. Aratus and PhilopaBmen, by their splendid tal- ents and virtues, gave honor to this confedera- cy. For three years, assisted by Philip of Macedon, they warred with the jEtolians, and being strengthened by fresh accessions, achiev- ed the liberation of their country from foreign enemies. The Romans, however, proved too powerful for the League, and destroyed it, after a year's hostility, 147 years B. C. ACHEEN, Atcheen, Achem, or Achen; a part of Sumatra, of considerable extent, and, in parts fertile. It is inhabited by a race of men of fine appearance, and comparatively liberal and well-informed. They are Mahometans, — bold and enterprising as merchants and ma- riners. Acheen, the capital, contains 36,000 inhabitants. The government is vested in the hands of a despot, whose authority is heredita- ry. The chief trade is with Hindostan. ACHILLAS, a general of Ptolemy, and the murderer of Pompey the Great. ACHILLES, as the poets tell us, was the son of Peleus, aThessalian king, and Thetis, daughter of Nereus, grandson of ^Eacus. The- tis, in order to preserve her beautiful boy from the dangers of war, dipped him in the Styx, (a river of hell) which rendered him invulnerable with the exception of the heel by which she held him. Having been warned that if Achil- les went to the Trojan war, he would meet death after a glorious career, while, in remain- ing at home, he would attain a good old age, Thetis disguised her boy in a female dress, and sent him, under the name of Pyrrha to be edu- cated at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scy- ros, who brought him up with his daughters. The Greeks were informed by the prophet Chalcas, that Troy could not be taken without the aid of Achilles, and accordingly, Ulysses, the most wily of the Greeks, went, as a mer- chant, to the court of Lycomedes. Here he was surrounded by the princesses, before whose ACH 16 ACH eager eyes he spread out his sparkling store, taking care to mingle implements of war with feminine articles. While the daughters of the King seized upon the trinkets, Achilles posses- sed himself of the arms. The gleaming breast- plate, and the burnished spear ill matched the garb he wore, and the fiery hero was soon in- duced to cast it off, and take part with the Greeks in their expedition. Phosnix and the Centaur Chiron had instructed him in mental and bodily accomplishments, and the former accompanied him to Troy. Achilles is one of the bravest and most beautiful of the Homeric heroes, being the subject of some of the finest verses in the Iliad. The following glowing description is from the 19th book of the immor- tal poem. The silver cuishes first his thighs infold: Then o'er his breast was braced the hollow gold: The brazen sword a various baldric tied, That, starred with gems, hung glittering at his side ; And, like the moon, the broad refulgent shield Blazed with long rays, and gleamed athwart the field. ****** Next, his high head the helmet graced; behind The sweeping crest hung floating in the wind: Like the red star, that from his flaming hair Shakes down diseases, pestilence and war, So streamed the golden honors from his head, Trembled the sparkling plumes, and die loose glories shed. The chief beholds himself with wondering eyes; His aims he poises, and his motions tries; Buoyed by some inward force, he seems to swim, And feels a pinion lifting every limb. And now he shakes his great paternal spear, Ponderous and huge! which not a Greek could rear. From Pelion's cloudy top an ash entire Old Chiron felled, and shaped it for his sire: A spear which stern Achilles only wields, The death of heroes, and the dread of fields. Achilles proved himself no wavering or weak partisan. His presence was a host, but he also sailed with 50 ships well manned, and destroyed twelve island cities, and 11 on the main-land. Minerva and Juno aided him. Agamemnon, whom the Greeks had chosen their leader, ha- ving taken prisoner Chryseis, daughter of Chry- ses, priest of Apollo, was forced to restore the maid to avert from the Greeks the plague which Apollo, moved by the prayers of his aged wor- shipper, sent upon them. Agamemnon offended Achilles by taking from him his beautiful cap- tive, Briseis, daughter of Brises, and wife of Mines, king of Lyrnessus. Enraged at his loss, the formidable warrior retired from the field, permitting the Trojan Hector to carry terror and slaughter through the ranks of the Greeks. He, however, suffered his friend Patroclus to assume his arms, and take the field at the head of his own warriors ; but this distinguished hero soon fell beneath the arm of Hector. Burning to revenge the death of his friend, Achilles de- termined again to confront the Trojans. His mother brought him the splendid arms which Vulcan had forged for him, and which Ho- mer has- so finely described. Again he burned with a warrior's ardor, was reconciled to Agamemnon, and, refreshed by nectar and am- brosia sent by Minerva, plunged into the heat of battle. Achilles speedily rolled back the tide of war. He pursued the retreating Trojans into the river Xanthus, which became choaked with bodies, and crimson with carnage. The river-god, re- senting this sanguinary pursuit as an insult, commanded Achilles to desist, and on the refusal of the impetuous warrior, overflowed his banks, and opposed him, assisted by the waters of Simois. The west and south winds, and the aid of Vulcan, sent by Juno, chastised the pre- sumption of the river-god and reduced him to his original limits. Achilles was only prevent- ed from taking the city by the interference of Apollo, the protector of the Trojans. Hector confronted and fought Achilles, by whom he was slain. His body, after being attached to the chariot of the victor, and dragged round the city, was ransomed by Priam, the venera- ble father of the slain warrior. Achilles, falling in love with Polyxena, daughter of Priam, pur- chased her hand by a promise to defend Troy ; but while standing at the altar with her, an arrow from the bow of Paris pierced his heel and slew him. His body was a prize for which a fierce contest arose. The Greeks sacrificed his bride upon his tomb, according to his dying request, that he might enjoy her society in the Elysian fields, the paradise of the heathen. Alexander the Great, who venerated and imitated the Homeric heroes, visited the tomb of Achilles, and crowned it, saying " that Achilles was happy in having Patroclus for a friend, and Homer for a poet." ACHMET I, emperor of the Turks, began to reign in 1603, and died in 1617. The tran- quillity of this sovereign was disturbed by in- surrections, and the intrigues of a pretender to his throne. ACHMET II, was emperor of the Turks from 1G9I to 1695. ACHMET III, son of Mahomet IV, was ACH 17 raised to the throne of the Ottoman empire, in i 1705, by the revolt of the janisaries, who de- posed his brother, Mustapha II. Achmet, al- though he apprehended and punished the leaders of the revolt, yet availed himself of the fruits of their crime. His reign, however, was by no means passed in tranquillity, and repeated changes of the viziers marked the insecurity felt by the monarch. Achmet placed his prin- cipal reliance on the power of gold, which he sometimes used for good ends. When Charles XII had been defeated at Pultowa, he was hos- pitably received at the Turkish court, where his iutngues soon kindled the flame of war between Russia and Turkey ; but Achmet III was unable to compete with Peter the Great, and the mili- tary views of his vizier, were by no means clear. When the fortunes of the czar were in the hands of the Turks on the borders of the Pruth, the Muscovite purchased of the vizier permission to retreat, but surrendered Azof to the Otto- mans. Against the Venetians, Achmet was more successful, wresting the Morea from their grasp in a single campaign. But the imperi- alists, under the able conduct of Prince Eugene of Savoy, trampled on the laurels of the Turks, and humbled the pride of their sultan. Achmet, by the loss of Peterwaradin, and the taking of Belgrade and Temeswar, was forced to sign the treaty of Passarowitz. In 1718, the sultan lost Temeswar, Orsoa, Belgrade, Servia, and part of Walachia — a loss which was compensated, in the ensuing year, by his Persian successes. A revolt of the janisaries had made Achmet sultan, and a similar rebellion hurled him from the throne in 1730. The celebrated Caliph Patrona headed this revolt. Aohmet went in person to seek his nephew, Mahmoud I, and, saluting him as emperor, said ; " Profit by my exam- ple : Had I always adhered to my old policy i>f permitting my vizier but a short stay in of- fice, I should have ended my reign as triumph- antly as I commenced it. Farewell ! may your career be happier than mine ! I commend to your especial care my son." He then went into the obscurity of that prison from which he had Irawn his nephew. He died of apoplexy, on the 23d of June, 173G, 5 years and 8 months liter his deposition. Achmet possessed a bril- lant wit, and much shrewdness, with a ready turn for public business. He loved money, and was the first to levy imposts on the Turks, but le was no less attached to science, which he patronized. He established the first printing- press at Constantinople, 1727. He was fond of pleasure, and the Turks yet cherish the recol- ACR lection of those splendid festivals at Constanti- nople, which sprang from the luxury, and were graced by the presence of the sultan. Achmet gave concerts of nightingales, numbers of those birds being enclosed in cages, delighting the court with their rare and plaintive melody. ACHMET, headed a band of Turks and con- quered Eg-ypt in 868. AQUITAINE, a province of France, more recently called Guienne, and now forming the departments of Gironde, and of Lot and Ga- ronne. Here the Visigoths established a king- dom in the early part of the 5th century. ACRE, called also, Mka, St. Jean 0,000. ALBANY, or Albani, countess of, princess Louisa Maria Caroline, or Alo3'sia, born in 1753, in 1772, married Charles Stuart, the English pretender, whose barbarity and habitual intoxi- cation, drove her to a cloister in 1780, and received an annuity from the French court, after the death of her husband, in 1788. She died at Florence, in 1824, in her 72d year. She was burjed beside Alfieri, in the church of Santa Croce, at Florence. Alfieri was tenderly attached to her, and attributed to her his inspi- ration. (See Ai fieri.) ALBANY, the seat of government of the State of New-York, situated on the west bank of the Hudson or North River, 144 miles north of New-York city. Population 24,238. The river is navigable to Albany, for sloops of 80 tons, and trade with New-York is carried on by means of these. The Erie and Champlain ca- nals unite above the city, and are connected with a basin at Albany. The facility of com- munication which it possesses, renders it a great thoroughfare. Its exports are wheat, and other articles of produce. The Dutch settled Albany in 1614. It was built up with the disregard to elegance so common among the Dutch, but its modern buildings, both private and public, are beautiful and tasteful. ALBEMARLE SOUND, an arm of the sea, extending sixty miles into the eastern coast of North Carolina, connected with the Atlantic and Pamlico Sound by small inlets, and with Chesapeake Bay by a canal which passes through the Dismal Swamp. ALBERT I, emperor and duke of Austria, crowned in 1298, after defeating and slaying Adolphus of Nassau, his competitor. The rival leaders engaged in single combat, and Adol- phus exclaimed, " Your crown and life are lost !" " Heaven will decide," was the answer of Albert, as he forced his lance into the face of his adversary and unhorsed him. Albert was assassinated in 1308, by his nephew John, son of the duke of Suabia, whose paternal estates he had seized. John had often asserted his claims, and urged them upon Albert when he was departing for Switzerland, on account of the revolt of the Swiss. The emperor con- temptuously offered his nephew a garland of flowers. "Take this," said he, " amuse your- self with botanical investigations, but leave the cares of government to those who are old and wise enough to understand them." Albert breathed his last in the arms of a poor woman, who was sitting by the road-side at the time of his assassination. ALBIGENSES, the Protestants of Savoy and Piedmont ; in the Middle Ages, the objects of cruel persecution and of several crusades. ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, ascended the throne in 561 . When an ally of the Ro- mans, he slew Cunimund, king of the Gepidas, whose daughter Rosamond he afterwards mar- ried. He undertook the conquest of Italy, and had made great progress, when he was killed by an assassin, at the instigation of his wife Rosamond. The cause of her anger was his sending her, during one of his fits of intoxica- tion, a drinking-cup made of her father's skull, filled with wine, and compelling her, to use his words, to drink with her father. ALBRET, Jane d', daughter of Margaret, queen of Navarre, was married at the age of eleven to the duke of Cleves, but the marriage was annulled in 1548, when she espoused An- thony de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, by whom she became mother of Henry IV. In 1555, her father dying, she became queen of Navarre, and in 1562, the death of her husband left her independent. She then set herself to establish the Reformation in her kingdom, although opposed by France and Spain. She expired suddenly, at Versailles, in 1572, and her death was attributed to poison. ALBUHERA, a village in Estremadura, si- tuated on the Albuhera, 12 miles S. S. E. of Badajoz. Here the English marshal, Beres- ALC 38 ALE ford, gained a victory over the French, under Soult, May 16th, 1811. ALBUQUERQUE, the name of two Portu- guese brothers, distinguished for bravery, who took Cochin, in India, in 1505. Francis was lost on his passage home. When Alphonso captured Ormus, an island at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, the king of Persia demanded the tribute which he had been accustomed to receive from the princes of the island. Upon this, Albuquerque laid before the ambassadors a sword and a bullet, saying haughtily, "this is the coin in which Portugal pays her tribute." After a rash and unsuccessful attempt upon Calicut, he took Goa and Malacca. The envy of courtiers, and the suspicions of king Emman- uel, did not spare even the distinguished merit of Albuquerque, who died at Goa, in 1515, after his ungrateful master had deprived him of his place, and appointed his personal enemy, Lopez Soarez, to fill it. ALC/EUS, a Greek lyric poet, born at Mity- lene in Lesbos, and contemporary with Sappho. He engaged in war with ardor, and his lays breathe the divine enthusiasm of liberty. ALC ALA DE HENAREZ, a city of Spain, in New Castile, situated on the river Henarez, 15 miles E. N. E. of Madrid. It was called by the ancients Complutum. Here was printed the first Polyglot Bible, called the Complutensian Polyglot, which cost Cardinal Ximenes 250,000 ducats. A copy of it sold at Paris, in 1817, for £676 sterling. ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general, famous for his enterprise, gallantry, versatility, and natural foibles. He was the son of Clinias and Dinomache, and was born at Athens, about 450 B. C. He was educated in the house of Peri- cles, who was too much occupied with state affairs to pay much attention to the youth. The impetuosity of Alcibiades displayed itself early, as the following anecdote shows. While he was playing dice in the street with some juvenile companions, a waggon came up. Alci- biades requested the driver to stop, but be refu- sed. The daring youth then threw himself before the wheel, and exclaimed ; " Drive on, if thou darest!" The instructions of the phi- losopher Socrates, for a time restrained his evil propensities. Socrates fought by his side in his first battle, and, when he was wounded, de- fended him, and bore him off safe. The dissipation and extravagance of Alcibiades were unbounded. One night, being at a banquet, he laid a wager that he would box the ears of the rich Hipponicus, and did so. This excited general indignation, but Alcibiades went to the injured party, threw off" his garment, and, pla- cing a rod in his hand, bade him strike and revenge himself. Hipponicus not only par- doned him freely, but gave him his daughter in marriage, with a portion equivalent to about 10,500 dollars of our money. At the Olympic games, Alcibiades would enter seven chariots, and at one time won three prizes. In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the Athenians to engage in an expedition against Syracuse. He was chosen general in that war, and in his absence, his enemies, having found all the statues of Mercury broken, charged him with being concerned in the deed and confiscated all his property. He then fled to Sparta, where he attempted to gain popularity by adopting the temperate habits of the Spartans, whom he wish- ed to rouse against the Athenians. Finding this of no avail, he went to Tissaphernes,the Persian general. He was afterwards recalled by the Athenians, and having compelled the Spartans to sue for peace, and been successful in Asia, was welcomed to Athens with high honors. The failure of an expedition, with the command of which he was entrusted, again roused the resent- ment of the people, and Alcibiades fled to Phar- nabazes. Lysander, the Spartan general, indu- ced Pharnabazes to assassinate him. The atten- dants sent for that purpose, found him in a castle in Phrygia, in company with his favourite Ti- mandra. They set the building on fire, and the warrior rushed out to escape the conflagration. Dreading his valour, the cowardly assassins retreated to a safe distance, and shot him with their arrows. Thus perished Alcibiades, in the 45th year of his age, about 404, B. C. Thucy- dides, Timseus, and Theopompus, with Plu- tarch and Cornelius Nepos, among the ancients, have written of this hero, who, if he wanted firm moral principles, was generous, brave, per- severing, and gifted with distinguished quali- ties. His eloquence was of that kind which wins the hearts of men imperceptibly and unos- tentatiously; although it is said that he stut- tered, and was unable to pronounce the letter R. ALCIPHRON, a distinguished epistolary writer among the Greeks. ALCMAN, the son of aslave,born at Sardis, in Lydia, 670 years B. C. He was a fine poet, and honored bv his countrymen. ALDENIiOVEN, a town between Juliers and Aix-la-Chapelle, where the French were defeated, March 1, 1793. ALEMANNI, that is, all men, the ancient ALE 39 ALE inhabitants of Suabia and Switzerland, united in a league, from whence Germany derives its French name of Allemagne. They were the determined opponents of the Romans. ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d', a distin- guished mathematician, and literary character, born at Paris, in 1717, died in 1783. He was the son of Madame de Tencin, and the poet Destouches, who exposed him while an infant. At ten years of age, the principal of the school in which he received his early education, de- clared that his pupil had learned all that he could teach him. He undertook to write the mathe- matical part of the French Encyclopedia, and contributed many admirable articles to it, which however, involved him in the attacks made upon the work. He refused the brilliant offers of Frederic II. of Prussia, and Catherine of Rus- sia, to settle in their respective capitals, and lived in his country till his death, which took place in the 6Cth year of his age. ALEPPO is the capital, not only of a pacha- lic, but of all Syria, and has justly been ranked as the third city of the Ottoman empire. Its Arabic name is Haleb. In former times it pos- sessed great commercial advantages which it has lost in later times. It is supposed by many to be the Zobah of scripture, which is spoken of, 2 Sam. viii. 12. At present little doubt is entertained of its being the Beraea of the Greeks. The river Kowich, on reaching Alep- po, diminishes in size, although at times it increases to a formidable stream. When Aleppo was besieged by a Christian army, in 1123, this stream, swelling with augmented waters, unex- pectedly overflowed its banks, and swept away the tents and baggage of the besiegers. Many men perished in the rushing inundation, and the siege was raised in consequence of this disaster. Seen from a distance, this city presents a picturesque appearance ; its gay terraces, grace- ful mosques, airy arches, and shadowing trees, afford a combination which is grateful to the senses ; but a nearer approach, like daylight on a phantasmagoria, dispels the illusion. Walk- ing through the streets, the eye wanders over high stone walls which flank the way, or turns baffled, from the lattices with which the infre- quent windows of the houses are churlishly guarded. The inhabitants of Aleppo differ but little from those of other Mohammedan cities and countries. They have the same love for indo- lent pleasures, the same fondness for the luxu- ries of the bath, but less intolerance than the other Turks. Thus the Armenians and Greeks have churches and a bishop in the city, and the Syrians and Maronites have likewise places of public worship. The Jews of Aleppo, have in their Synagogue a MS. of the Old Testament which they consider to be of great antiquity The disease which is called the JYeal d'Jlleppo, to which both natives and foreigners are sub- ject, is an eruption which leaves an indelible scar, and is thought to originate in the quality of the water. As a commercial place, Aleppo has degenerated in modern times, but still re- mains the emporium of Armenia and Diarbekir. The English, in the reign of Elizabeth, estab- lished a factory here, and consuls of various nations reside in the place at present. The city, including the suburbs, is 7 or 8 miles in circumference, containing 200,000 inhabitants, about one fourth of whom are Christians, the remainder being Mohammedans and Jews. Eight thousand inhabitants, together with two thirds of the city, were destroyed by earth- quakes in 1822, and 1823. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS; a group, belong- ing to Russia, about 100 in number, forming a connecting link between Asia and America, and separating the sea of Kamschatka from the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Some of them are volcanic ; they are destitute of vegetation, but afford abundance of fur and fish. The harmless inhabitants are cruelly trea- ted by the Russians. The English names for the islands, are the Fox, Bchrings, or Copper Islands. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, son of Philip of Macedon, was born in Pella, B. C. 356. The kingdom of Macedon was raised to celebrity by the exploits of Philip, and was destined to attain a yet higher rank among nations from the fame of his son. Olympias, daughter of Neoptole- imis of Epirus, was his mother. At an early age, he showed a veneration for great deeds and a determination to achieve them. Hear- ing of the victories of Philip, he exclaimed, "my father will leave nothing for me to do." Aristotle, the celebrated philosopher, consented to take charge of Alexander's education. His preceptor instructed him in the most elegant as well as the most profound branches of know- ledge, and never for a moment forgot that it was his duty to fit him for governing a great king- dom. That he might become acquainted with military virtues and ambition, Aristotle put the Iliad into the hands of his noble pupil. Alexan- der was so fond of this, that he never lay down without having read some pages in it. His exclusive ambition is well illustrated by the ALE 40 ALE letter, which he wrote his preceptor on the pub- lication of his Metaphysics. " You did wrong in publishing those branches of science hitherto not to be acquired but from oral instruction. In what shall I excel others, if the more pro- found knowledge I gained from you be com- municated to all ? For my part, I had rather surpass the majority of mankind in the sublimer branches of learning, than in the extent of power and dominion." It was no part of the ancient Grecian plan of education, to permit the culture of the mind to supersede that of the body, but, on the con- trary, the instructors of the young, knowing that they are indivisible, trained the intellect- ual and corporeal powers at the same time. Alexander was early accustomed to gymnastic exercises, and, at a tender age, displayed his strength and skill in an extraordinary manner. His father had been presented with a superb charger (Bucephalus), which no one dared to mount. Alexander sprang upon his back and succeeded in completely taming him, after which the steed would permit none but the noble youth to mount him. He bore him through some of the most perilous scenes of his career, and, when he died, was honored by a splendid memorial — the erection of a city called Bucephalia. At the age of sixteen years, Alex- ander was appointed by his father, Regent of Macedon, when the latter departed on his expe- dition to Byzantium. In 338, at the battle of CliEEronea, he conquered the sacred band of Thebans, and so distinguished himself, that Phi- lip, embracing him, exclaimed ; "My son, seek another empire, for that you will inherit is un- worthy of you." When Philip married Cleopatra, and divorced, or, at least, disgraced Olympias, Alexander, having taken the part of his mother, incurred the displeasure of his father, and was forced to fly to Epirus, whence, however, he was soon recalled. Soon after this he saved his father's life in an expedition against the Tiibaili. Phi- lip was assassinated, B. C. 336, when preparing to make war upon Persia, at the head of all the Grecian forces. Alexander, then twenty years of age, ascended the throne, and soon gave proof of talents to govern and to conquer. From the Greeks he received the chief com- mand in the war against Persia. Finding, upon his return, that the Illyrii and Triballi were in arms, he conquered them and forced a triumphant passage through Thrace. Urged by the eloquence of Demosthenes, the Atheni- ans were about to join the Thebans, who had already taken up arms. Alexander promptly repaired to Thebes, and on the refusal of the citizens to surrender, took it and destroyed it, with the exception of the poet Pindar's house. Six thousand individuals were put to the sword, and 30,000 reduced to captivity. The Athenians, although punished, were not so severely hand- led, and the fate of Thebes had the intended effect of striking terror into all Greece. The general assembly of the Greeks confirmed Alex- ander in the chief command of the forces, and he determined to leave Antipater, who had been a minister of his father, at the head of the government. The confidence, which was re- posed in this man, was great, as appears from the following anecdote. Philip was fond of wine, and occasionally indulged himself to ex- cess. One night, observing one of his compan- ions unwilling to drink deeply, " Drink, drink," said he, "all's safe, for Antipater is awake." In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed into Asia with 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse. In the plains of Ilium, he offered sacrifices to Minerva, and crowned the tomb of Achilles. Approach- ing the Granicus,he learned that some Persian satraps, with 20,000 foot and as many horse, were prepared to oppose his progress to the other side. The passage of the river was ef- fected in the teeth of this force, and Alexander was completely triumphant. During the heat of battle, the Macedonian monarch was a mark for the weapons of the enemy, by the splendor of his equipments, and the conspicuous beauty of his superb charger. The cities of Asia Minor, with few exceptions, now opened their gates to the youthful conqueror. In passing through Gordium, Alexander cut the Gordian knot. Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappa- docia, were successively conquered. The con- queror was seized with a severe illness in consequence of imprudently bathing in the Cydnus, which proved a check to his career. While in a dangerous state, he received a let- ter from Parmenio, his general, warning him against his physician Philip, whom Parmenio accused of the design of poisoning his master. Philip was at that time preparing a potion for the king ; and Alexander, handing him the letter, looked steadily in his face while he drank off the draught. He recovered. Darius, instead of waiting for Alexander on the plains of Assyria, had advanced with an im- mense army to the defiles of Cilicia, whither the Macedonian followed, defeating the Persi- ans in the battle of Issus, which placed the ALE 41 ALE treasures and family of Darius in the hands of the conqueror. His generous treatment of the latter conferred as much honor upon Alexan- der, as the victory which preceded it. He turned towards Coelosyria and Phoenicia for the purpose of cutting- oft* Darius who had fled to- wards the Euphrates. The Persian monarch sent a letter to Alexander suing for peace, and the latter answered him, lhat if he would come to him. lie should receive his mother, his wii'e, his children, and his empire ; hut no notice was taken of this liberal proposal. Damascus, and all the towns along the Mediterranean, were entered and taken possession of by Alexander. The resistance of Tyre was severely punished ; after a siege of seven months, it was taken .with great difticulty. In Palestine, Gaza, which re- sisted the conqueror like Tyre, shared the fate of that city. Gaza was the emporium for the productions of Arabia, and a place of considerable wealth and importance. Among the plunder, the conqueror gained great quantities of frank- incense, myrrh, and other aromatics, the sight of which recalled a long-forgotten anecdote of his juvenile days. His governor, Leonnatus, observing him one day at a sacrifice, throw in- cense into the flame by handfuls, remonstrated, and said, " Alexander, when you have con- quered the spice countries, you may be thus lavish of your incense ; in the meantime use what you have more sparingly." Alexander now sent his governor several large bales of spices, accompanied with the following note : " Leon- natus, I have sent you frankincense and myrrh in abundance; so be no longer a churl to the gods." The Egyptians, to whom the Persian yoke had been a galling burden, were well pleased with the arrival of Alexander, whom they grate- fully regarded as a deliverer. His next expe- dition was a visit to the temple of Jupiter Am- nion, in the deserts of Libya, where, having consulted the oracle, the god is said to have acknowledged him as his son. In the ensuing spring, learning that Darius had gathered an immense force in Assyria, and was determined to fight to the last, rejecting all proposals for peace, Alexander marched in that direction. In 331 , a furious battle was fought at Gauga- mela, not far from Arbela, in which the army of Darius was not less than 500,000 strong. Not- withstanding this overwhelming force, victory from the opening of the combat, smiled upon the banners of the Macedonian. The thunder- ing charge of his cavalry, led by himself, was irresistible, and scattered the thronged Persians like leaves before the tempest. Having routed them by the charge of his horse, Alexander hastened to the support of his left wing, finding that they had been hard pressed and stood in need of his assistance. Alexander's principal object was to capture the Persian monarch or prevent his flight by death. In the midst of the crowd and crush of battle, Darius was no inconsiderable figure, for he was mounted on a chariot of great height, and surrounded by guards who were splendidly armed and equip- ped. The Persian life-guards, however, no sooner perceived the extraordinary success of Alexander, than, forgetful of their duty, they took to flight. Darius was saved by the speed of a horse upon which he hastily threw him- self after the flight of his guards. The immense wealth of the East was depo- sited in Babylon and Susa, both of which opened their gates without hesitation to the mighty victor, who continued his march to- wards Persepolis, then the capital of Persia. Ariobarzanes, with 40,000 men, had thrown himself into the only passage which opened on Persepolis. determined to defend it as long as he was able. He did not, however, hold out long, for the troops of Alexander, flushed with success, and impatient of opposition, swept away all obstacles. ' Attacking the Persians in the rear, they were completely successful, and Persepolis, with all its wealth and luxury, was won. In Persepolis, Alexander forgot his duty and his interest, in scenes of unexampled riot and dissipation. He was intoxicated with success, and inclined to believe himself the god which his flatterers would have made him. It is said that on entering the royal palace, he beheld the colossal statue of Xerxes which his soldiers had thrown down, and deliberating whether to elevate it or suffer it to lie neglected, he thus apostrophized it ; " Shall we leave you in this condition on account of the war you made upon Greece, or raise you again for the sake of your magnanimity and other virtues?" In a mo- ment of intoxication and unbridled pleasure, Alexander, yielding to the persuasions of an abandoned woman, Thais, the Athenian, fired the capital of Persia, which was soon reduced to ruins. On the right bank of the Medus and Araxes, near Istakar, the ruins of the royal palace of Persepolis are still visible ; tall col- umns yet attesting its former magnificence, before the vengeance of the Greek was wreaked upon the pride of art. The burning of Persepolis filled Alexan- der with remorse, and, in order to retrieve ALE 42 ALE his character, he set fortli in pursuit of Darius with his fine cavalry. He soon learned that Bessus, the perfidious satrap of Bactria, kept his master in custody, but, before he could save Darius, Bessus had the unfortunate mon- arch assassinated, B. C. 330. He was found lying in his chariot covered with wounds. The per- fidy of Bessus was subsequently punished with death. Darius was interred with great solem- nity, and Alexander caused himself to be pro- claimed king of Asia. While occupied in the formation of plans of vast importance, a con- spiracy broke out in the camp of Alexander, in which Philotas, the son of Parmenion, was found to be concerned. Philotas, though brave and hardy, was addicted to pleasure, to expen- sive amusements, and given to boasting. He frequently spoke slightingly of Alexander to the companions of his pleasures — calling him the boy, and saying that his victories were rather the result of his own exertions and those of his father, than of the bravery and skill of Alexan- der. Parmenion endeavoured to check his son, saying, " Make yourself less conspicuous," but his counsel was of no avail. Alexander heard of the boastings of Philotas with indignation ; and when the conspiracy broke forth his anger knew no bounds. Philotas was executed, and, by the orders of Alexander, the veteran Parme- nion was secretly put to death — a criminal act which excited the displeasure of the whole army. Meanwhile Agis, king of Sparta, threatened the destruction of the power of Alexander in Greece, and raised a powerful army to obtain independence, but he was defeated by Antipa- ter, and the dissolution of the Grecian league ensued. Neither the severity of the winter, nor the want of local knowledge prevented Alexander from marching into the north of Asia and reaching the Caspian Sea. He at- tacked the Scythians, urged on by an insatiable thirst for distinction. On his return to Bac- tria, he assumed the dress of the Persians, which disgusted the Macedonians, who thought the flowing robes of the Orientals too effemi- nate. The Persians were displeased at be- holding the Macedonian officers entering the royal presence without those tokens of respect, which the kings of their nation invariably ex- acted from their subjects. The low inclina- tions of reverence could only be claimed from the Greeks on the plea that Alexander, as a god, was entitled to them. A blunt Spartan once satisfied the master of ceremonies and his own scruples, by first dropping a ring and then stooping to pick it up in the presence of the king. Offended with the independence and freedom of Clitus, Alexander slew him with his own hand at a banquet. As Soon as he saw the lifeless body of his most faithful friend and bravest general stretched before him, he was seized with all the agonies of remorse. The next year Alexander subdued Sogdiana, and married the Bactrian Roxana, the loveliest of Asiatic women. The Asiatic women, but particularly the ladies of Persia, were famous for the richness of their attire, and the art with which they heightened their native beauty. " The Persian ladies," says an elegant writer, " wore the tiara or turban, richly adorned with jewels. They wore their hair long, and both plaited and curled it ; nor, if the natural failed, did they scruple to use false locks. They pencilled the eye-brows, and tinged the eye-lid, with a dye that was supposed to add a peculiar brilliancy to the eyes. They were fond of per- fumes, and their delightful ottar was the prin- cipal favorite. Their tunic and drawers were of fine linen, the robe or gown of silk — the train of this was long, and on state occasions required a supporter. Round the waist they wore a broad zone or cincture, flounced on both edges, and embroidered and jewelled in the centre. They also wore stockings and gloves, but history does not record their materials. They used no sandals ; a light and ornamental shoe was worn in the house ; and for walking they had a kind of coarse half boot. They used shawls and wrappers for the person, and veils for the head ; the veil was large and square, and when thrown over the head, descended low on all sides. They were fond of glowing col- , ors, especially of purple, scarlet, and light-blue dresses. Their favorite ornaments were pearls ; they wreathed these in their hair, wore them as necklaces, ear-drops, armlets, bracelets, ank- lets, and worked them into conspicuous parts of their dresses. Of the precious stones they preferred emeralds, rubies, and turquoises, which were set in gold and worn like the pearls." No fewer than 10,000 Greeks, captivated with their charms, married Asiatic brides, and each couple received a present from Alexander. Soon after the marriage of Alexander with Roxana, a conspiracy was discovered among his troops, headed by Hermolaus. All were condemned to death but Callisthenes, who was mutilated and carried about with the army in an iron cage, until his tortures became insuffera- ble, and he killed himself by poison. Alexander penetrated into India and was highly success- ALE 43 ALE ful. His most determined enemy was Poms, an Indian king, whom he effectually subdued. When this warlike monarch was asked how he should be treated, he answered Alexander, " Like a king," and was consequently restored to his kingdom. Alexander established Greek colonies in In- dia, and is said to have built no fewer than seventy towns, one of which was erected in honor of his horse Bucephalus, killed on the banks of the Hydaspes. He would have pene- trated as far as the Ganges but for the murmurs of his army. He returned to the Hydaspes, and built a fleet upon its banks, despatching part of his army by water, while the remainder marched down its banks. His march through the country was not unopposed, and he him- self received a severe wound, from which, how- ever, he recovered, and sailing down the Indus, reached the sea. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, sailed to the Persian gulf, while the conqueror reached Babylon by land after en- countering incredible fatigues, which cost him the loss of many men. At Susa, he was mar- ried to two Persian princesses. At Opis, on the Tigris, he sent home the invalids with presents, and quelled a mutiny of his troops. Not long after this, his friend and favorite, Hephaestion, died. It is asserted that the fever of Hephaestion was brought on by hard drink- ing. Alexander's grief at the loss of his fa- vorite was excessive, and even endangered his reason ; for three days he tasted no food, and lay, stretched upon the ground, either in silent sorrow or loud lamentation. The money expended on the funeral pile might have erec- ted a palace ; and all the barbarian subjects of Alexander, were ordered to go into mourning. When Alexander went from Ecbatana to Babylon, he is said to have been warned by the astrologers, that the latter place would prove fatal to him. Despising these warnings, he went to Babylon and gave audience to the seve- ral foreign ambassadors, who awaited his arri- val. His mind was engaged in forming vast plans for the future, when he was seized with sickness, after a banquet, and died, 323 B. C. Alexander had reigned twelve years and eight months, and was thirty-two years old at the time of his death. The vast possessions which he had acquired by force, were deluged by con- tinual bloodshed when he was no more. When asked to whom he left his kingdom — he an- swered, " to the worthiest." The body of Al- exander was interred with all the pomp and circumstance of regal burial at Alexandria, where Ptolemy enclosed his remains in a gold- en coffin. The Egyptians and other nations paid divine honors to him after his death. After summing up the good qualities of Alexander, Adrian adds, " If then he erred from quickness of temper and the influence of anger, and if he loved the display of barbarian pride and splen- dor, I regard not these as serious offences ; for, in candor, we ought to take into consideration his youth, his perpetual success, and the influ- ence of those men who court the society of kings, not for virtuous purposes, but to minis- ter to their pleasures and to corrupt their prin- ciples. On the other hand, Alexander is the only ancient king, who, from the native good- ness of his heart, showed a deep repentance for his misdeeds." ALEXANDER JANNiEUS, ascended the throne of Judea in 1(16, B. C. He made war on the Arabians, quelled the tumults of his own subjects, and after conquering Syria, Idumaea, and Phoenicia, delivered himself up to the most revolting excesses, and died at Jerusalem, B. C. 79. ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Phoenician by birth, was related to the emperor Heliogabalus, who, however, attempted his life, in conse- quence of which the Praetorian guards slew the monster, and made Alexander emperor in his 17th year. He proved himself worthy of the sceptre, and having gained a great victory over the Persians, on his return to Rome, was honoured by a triumph. When he marched into Gaul, where an irruption of the Germans required his presence, he fell, by a mutiny of his troops, in the year 235, after a reign of twelve years. He was pious, temperate, fru- gal, humane, and so favorably disposed to Christianity, that he placed the statue of Jesus in his private chapel. ALEXANDER., the name of seven Popes, the first of whom introduced the use of holy water. The sixth was remarkable for his cru- elty and the infamy of his son, Caesar Borgia. He died in 1503, having greatly extended the Papal dominions in Italy. ALEXANDER NEWSKOI, grand duke of Russia, a hero and saint of the Russian Church, was born in 1218. Having become viceroy of Novogorod, he successfully opposed Vlademir II. king of Denmark, and the Teutonic knights. In 1240, he gained his splendid victory over the Swedes, on the Neva, and two years after- wards, overcame the Knights of the Sword, on the frozen surface of lake Peipus. His death took place in 1263. ALE 44 ALE ALEXANDER I, PAULOWITSCH (the son of Paul), Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, and king of Poland, was born in 1/77, and crowned the 27th of September, 1801. His mother, Maria, was the daughter of duke Eu- gene of Wirtemberg, and, throughout his life, exerted a great influence over Alexander, by whom she was tenderly beloved. The educa- tion of Alexander was committed to the em- press Catharine II. and Colonel Laharpe, his father renouncing all care of it. In 17!)!}, he married Elizabeth, daughter of the hereditary prince of Baden. He took part in the conspi- racy against his father Paul, although it is impossible to believe that he entertained any design against his life, but saw safety to him- self and others only in the removal of the emperor, from a throne which he disgraced by the reckless spirit of persecution. Alexander sought to promote the welfare of Russia — he removed the shackles from her commerce and internal industry ; he regulated the interior administration of his kingdom; he established schools and universities ; he bettered the con- dition of the peasantry; he raised the military character of his subjects ; he modified laws with a liberal spirit ; he provided for the construction of roads and canals ; he encouraged merit wher- ever he found it, and finally sought to inspire all classes with a spirit of union, patriotism, enter- prise, and courage. The extent of his success va- rious events contributed to prove. When Na- poleon threatened the government with subver- sion, and the Russians looked to their monarch as their guide, they saw no timidity — no irresolu- tion in Alexander. " I will not negociate with Napoleon," was his resolve, " while one armed enemy remains within my kingdom." Yet he was an admirer of the brilliant qualities of Na- poleon, and this sincere admiration of the French emperor, led to their celebrated meet- ing at Erfurt, in September, 1808. Alexander then thought that, in connexion with Napoleon, he might fix the destinies of Europe. But Na- poleon could brook no equal, and Alexander no superior. When the former displayed a desire to legislate for a country of which he knew lit- tle, and that too in defiance of the wishes and welfare of its emperor, the friendship between them was at an end. In 1814, the conduct of Alexander to the Parisians, when the allies en- tered their capital — the deference he paid to their wishes and opinions — and his favourable tendency towards liberal principles — gained him their enthusiastic admiration. In all the important transactions of Europe from this pe- riod, to the time of his death, Alexander par- took, and exerted an immense influence in the different European courts. He was the prin- cipal contriver of the " Holy Alliance," but probably from principle as much as from inter- est. He was the main stay of this unhal- lowed confederacy, and Europe rejoiced ac- cordingly at his death, which took place at Taganrock, of a bilious fever, 1st of Decem- ber, 1825. In his last illness, the emperor re- fused medicine, calling continually for "iced water," the only thing which he would drink. His illness lasted eleven days. Three days after his death, the body was exposed to permit the people to kiss the hands of their dead monarch. It was then placed in a coffin, and borne in procession to the church where it remained forty days, and was thence carried to St. Pe- tersburg. A favourite servant of the emperor drove the funeral car which carried his remains to the capital. The emperor's aids-de-camp, followed the cortege, three of them being seated in the funeral car. A squadron of Cossacks of the guard, attendants, and officers, attached to the imperial suite, completed the train. It took its departure from Taganrock, in the most severe weather of December, 1825. The empress, who was tenderly attached to her husband, soothed his last moments, and received his last sigh. ALEXANDER, William, Lord Stirling, was a Major-general in the army of the United States during the revolution, and distinguished himself throughout the whole of the eventful struggle, but particularly in the battles of Long Island, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died at Albany, 1783, with the reputation of a learn- ed, brave, honest, and patriotic man. The title of Lord Stirling, was given him by courtesy, as he claimed to be the rightful heir to an earldom in Scotland, although his claims were not sus- tained by legal tribunals. ALEXANDRIA (called Scandcria by the Turks), was the capital of Lower Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, whose favourite residence i,*. was, was celebrated for its wealth, splen- dor, and arts. It was founded in 332, B. C. by Alexander, who employed the celebrated archi- tect, Dinociates, in beautifying and embellish- ing it. There was something singularly strik- ing in the birth of this great city. Under the patronage of Alexander, it sprang up at once into beauty and importance, without encoun- tering any of those evils and obstacles, which generally obstruct the rise of a newly-founded place. The situation of Alexandria, and the ALE 45 ALE excellence of its fine harbours, appeared to adapt it to the rank which its founder hoped that it would hold among the cities of the world. Ptolemy Soter, or the Savior, and Ptolemy Philadelphus, conferred great benefits upon the city, which became the seat of litera- ture and the resort of the learned of all coun- tries. Its earliest inhabitants were Greeks and Egyptians. The population was augmented by colonies of Jews transported thither for that purpose. These people made themselves fa- miliar with Grecian lore, and translated into the Greek language the whole of the Old Tes- tament, a version called the Septuagint. Pour hundred thousand volumes of the royal library were contained in a magnificent edifice belong- ing to the Academy and Museum ; 300,000 more were deposited in the temple of Jupiter Serapis. As all these works were in manu- script, their value was consequently immense. The Ptolemies spared no pains to enrich their library, which became the finest in the world. When Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, the library was injured by fire, but the loss was re- paired by the library of Pergamus which Anto- ny presented to Queen Cleopatra. It is now ascertained that the library of the Serapion, or temple of Serapis, remained entire until the time of Theodosius the Great, when the Chris- tians, inspired by fanaticism, stormed and de- stroyed the Temple, effecting the destruction of that library which was the wonder of the world, and the loss of which must ever be a subject of painful regret. Towards the close of the fourth century, the only memorials of the existence of the library, were the empty shelves which once contained those invaluable manu- scripts, which the elegance and care of kings had brought together. When the division of the Roman empire was effected, Alexandria, together with the country of which it was the capital, was included in the Eastern empire. Alexandria came into the hands of the Arabs, in C40. It received the attention of the Caliph Motawakel, who, mindful of its former state, restored both the library and academy, in 845. In 808, it was taken by the Turks, and under their sway, very rapidly declined. Still its commerce was in a flourishing state, and con- tinued so until the close of the 15th century, when the Portuguese, by the discovery of the passage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, altered the commercial channel, and enriched themselves at the expense of the Egyptians. The modern city of Alexandria, does not stand upon the spot occupied by the ancient city. The remains of ancient Alexan- dria are unimportant, Cleopatra's needle, and Pompey's pillar, being the most conspicuous. The latter was erected by Pompey, a governor of Egypt, in honor of the emperor Diocletian ; but the equestrian statue which formeily sur- mounted it, is gone. Some years past, a party of English sailors resolved to amuse themselves, and astonish the natives, by mounting to the top, and refreshing themselves at an elevation which should put them above the cares and turmoils of humanity. How to accomplish their purpose was the next question. This was soon settled. They raised a line by means of a kite, and dropped it over the pillar, and by this means drew up a rope, by which they gained the top, whence, looking down upon the spec- tators from a giddy elevation of 88 feet, they congratulated themselves on their success. The island of Pnaros yet bears the ruins of the light-house erected by Ptolemy. This cele- brated building was of white marble. Ptolemy directed his name to be inscribed upon the tow- er, but the cunning architect carved the name of his employer upon a tablet of plaster, which, decaying in time, displayed the name of the builder, with a dedication to the gods, claim- ing for himself all the honors due to his sove- reign. The Turks have but little sympathy with the lovers of antiquity. They deface the most venerated remains, placing little value upon any, probably espousing the oriental max- im ; " a living dog is better than a dead lion." A few years ago, the Pacha of Egypt employed a renegado to collect all the moveable antiques of every kind, that they might be exposed for sale to the Europeans, in a bazaar built for the purpose. Cleopatra's needle was presented to the king of England by the Pacha, but its weight, 400,000 pounds, is a serious bar to its transportation. The ancient Alexandria, had a population of 600,000 ; the modern contains but 25,000. It is the seat of a patriarch. The canal from Cairo to Alexandria, has improv- ed the commerce of the place. It has two harbors, of which the Western, or Old Har- bor has the deepest water, and the best an- chorage ; the New Port is more shallow and exposed. ALEXANDRIA, (U. S. A.) a city in the District of Columbia, county of Alexandria, situated on the right bank of the Potomac, six miles south of Washington. Population in 1800, 4,190 ; in 1830, 8,203 ; blacks, 2,581. It contains several public buildings. Its situa- tion is rather elevated, and some of its streets ALF 46 ALF are well paved. Its trade, which is principally in flour, is facilitated, by its favorable situation on the Potomac. ALEXIS, or ALEXIUS PETROVITSCH, son of Peter the Great of Russia, was born in 1690. His father, suspecting him of treason, disinherited him in 1718. Not content with this he had Alexis condemned to death, and his sentence read to him, which created such terror in his mind, that he died inconsequence, although pardoned, in four days. The account of his assassination in prison is wholly a fabri- cation. He had a son who was afterwards Peter II. ALEXIS I (Comnenus) Greek emperor, defeated by Robert Guiscard at Dyrrachium,and by the Turks in Asia Minor. In conjunction with the crusaders, he regained Nicaea, in 1097, but afterwards quarrelled with them. He flourished from 1081, to 1118. ALEXIS II (Comnenus) in consequence of the misconduct of his mother, was compelled to admit Andronicus Comnenus as his col- league in 1183. This miscreant strangled him in the year after. ALEXIS HI (Angelus) having deposed his brother Isaac, emperor of the enst, and put out his eyes, thought his usurped sovereignty secure. But he was besieged in Constantino- ple by the French and Venetians, who reinsta- ted Isaac. In Thrace, whither he had fled for safety, Alexis fell into the hands of Theodore Lascaris, who put his eyes out, and imprisoned him in a monastery, where he died. ALFIERI, Victor, Count, was born at Asti in Piedmont, in 1749. His family was rich and distinguished, but his education was ne- glected, like that of most of the young Italian nobles of his age and rank. Thus he quitted the academy of Turin, with an undisciplined and unformed mind, and joined a regiment in the hope of finding something exciting in mili- tary pursuits. But here he was disappointed, the regiment was mustered only on a few days in the year, and he was compelled to seek some other mode of killing time. He travelled over Italy, France, England, and Holland, but want- ed the information to render his wanderings profitable. On his return, he commenced the study of history, but, disgusted with its details, again set forth on his travels, from which he did not return for three years. He brought back the same restless and dissatisfied spirit. He threw up his commission in the army, and wrote a tragedy. The success of this first at- tempt, induced him to persevere; but, aware of his deficiencies, he resolved, in the first place, to become acquainted with Latin and Tuscan. On his journey to Tuscany, where he proposed studying, he became acquainted witli the Countess of Albany, to whom lie owed much of his inspiration. Settling his fortune on his sister, he resided alternately at Florence and Rome, until the death of Charles Stuart, put an end to the woes of the Countess of Al- bany, and enabled her to marry him. They lived together in Alsace and at Paris, until the revolution in France drove Alfieri from a coun- try he loved, to his native land, where he resi- ded at Florence till his death, in 1803. He was an ardent lover of freedom, but he mourned over the crimes perpetrated in her name. Alfie- ri's talents were great, but misapplied, and his tragedies are rather valuable as indicating his powers, than as establishing his fame. ALFRED THE GREAT, king of England, was born 849, and died 900. He was the young- est son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He went to Rome at the age of five years, and was anointed by the Pope, although he then had an elder brother. However, in 872, he ascended the throne. This was an unpropitious time, for the power of the Danes was then great and employed in harassing the Saxons, whose coun- try they ravaged in various directions. Alfred concluded some treaties witli them, but they were not kept, and, unable to make head against the invaders, he was compelled to fly, and in concealment to await a moment when his re-appearance would be advantageous for his country. In the disguise of a harper, he penetrated the Danisli camp to gain informa- tion of the strength and hopes of his foes, and having satisfied himself of both, directed his nobles and their vassals to assemble at Selwood. Here he headed the troops, and, attacking the Danes at Eddington, gained a signal victory. He permitted those Danes, who were willing to embrace the Christian religion, to remain in the kingdom of East Anglia, which he surrendered to them. He built forts to secure his subjects, augmented and strengthened his navy, and established the prosperity of London on a firm basis. He defeated the Danes who still per- sisted in attempting to obtain footing in Eng- land, and made his name a terror to the pirates. He had fought fifty-six battles by sea and land, in every one of which he was personally enga- ged. His zeal for the reformation of laws and manners is as honorable to him as his military prowess. He composed a code of laws,institu- ALG 47 ALG ted the trial by jury, and divided England into shires and tithings. So successful were his regulations that it is said the crime of robbery was unknown, and the most valuable goods might be exposed upon the highway, without any dread of thieves. Alfred lormed a parlia- ment which met at London semi-annually. He was an ardent lover of learning, and was himself a distinguished scholar. To promote it, he invited learned men from all parts, and established schools throughout his kingdom. He is said to have been the founder of the Uni- versity of Oxford, or, at least, to have exalted it to a height which it had never before attained. University-college sprang from his liberality. He composed several works, and translated others for the benefit of his subjects. Among his translations may be mentioned Boetius's Consolations of Philosophy. He was industri- ous and fond of order, dividing the twenty-four hours into three equal portions; one devoted to religious duties, another to public affairs, and the third to rest. Alfred laid the foun- dation of the navy of England, by build- ing galleys of a size superior to that of any of the age. In private life, he was distinguished by piety, affability, and cheerfulness. His person was commanding and stately. ALGIERS, Regency of, was founded about 1518, by two brothers, Horuc and Hagradin, or Khair Eddin, both of whom were surna- med Barbarvssa or Red-Beard. The Christian knights, having warred against the states of northern Africa, and almost annihilated the Moorish commerce, Selim and Soliman exhort- ed their subjects to make reprisals, and to annoy their Christian foes by committing extensive piracies. The call was obeyed without reluc- tance, and the Mohammedans, crowded beneath the crescent, prepared to extend the terror of their name upon the seas. The piratical republic founded by the fierce chieftains above- named, was the strong hold of religious fanati- cism and authorised piracy. The barks of the Corsairs swept the seas in triumph, and the Algerines distinguished themselves above the inhabitants of the other Barbary states, by the fierce perseverance with which they pursued their career of crime. A foreign soldiery elected their chief in Algiers, and the Dey, chosen as a general, was the first among his equals and the ruler of the native races. The soldiers were not permitted to marry, and had no participa- tion in the government. The city of Algiers (Al Jezira) was built by Zeiri, an Arab of distinc- tion, in 944, and the family of this able man was endowed with hereditary power by one of the Fatimite Caliphs. The Zciritcs, as they were called, luled until 1148, when Roger, king of Sicily, and the Moravites, possessed them- selves, at different times, of the whole of the territory of Hassan Ben Ali. Algiers was an independent sovereignty after 1'270. Ferdi- nand, who fitted out an expedition against the Barbary powers, in 1509, subdued Algiers, and erected a strong castle on an island which com- manded the entrance of the city. Horuc and Hagradin, after the death of Ferdinand, were summoned by the Algerines, and, appearing with a strong squadron, were received with every demonstration of joy. But Horuc caused the emir Selim Entani to be strangled, and himself to be proclaimed king, in 1518, by the Turks, whose intolerance and cruelty drove the natives to seek for assistance from the Span- iards, but the fleet of the latter was destroyed by storm. Horuc Barbarossa was killed before Oran, where the Spanish governor defeated his troops, and killed 1500 Turks. Hagradin, his successor, being satisfied of his inability to defend himself against the Chris- tians, in 1519 sought the protection of the Sultan Soliman, who accepted his proposals, made him Pacha, and gave him 10,000 Janisaries. The Spaniards found their position on an island untenable, and, in 1519, it was connected with the main land by a mole. Charles V under- took the siege of Algiers, in the latter part of 1541. It was defended by Hassan, who had been honored with the office of Pacha, after the death of Hagradin, and who heard with some alarm that Charles meditated an attack with 200 sail, and 30,000 men. The ships and camp of the Christians were destroyed by storms of uncommon violence, the destructive effects of which were followed by the ravages of earth- quakes. Charles lost his cannon, military stores, and baggage, and was compelled to abandon some of his scattered troops, while 15 ships of war, 140 transports, and 8000 men perished in the storm. This success inspired the Moors with the liveliest joy, but they attributed it en- tirely to the pious exertions of Sid-Atica, a Maraboot, who employed himself diligently in beating the sea with his stick, until the waves lost all patience, and rising in a body, destroyed the Christian fleet. The worthy old gentleman was buried with great solemnity, and his bones rest beneath a monument erected by his coun- trymen. They are said to be gifted with the magic power of his stick, and, employed upon the waves with proper emphasis, capable of ALG 48 ALH raising the wind to an incredible extent. Anti- quity furnishes a belief in the efficacy of chas- tising the waters, for Xerxes, enraged at the turbulence of the Grecian waves, caused them to be whipped with rods. In 1703, the Spaniards unsuccessfully renew- ed the war with Algiers. The Algerines easily repelled the English, French, and Dutch, the first of whom made a treaty with Algiers, whose pride they humbled in 1816. The year before, two United States' frigates had captured a piratical frigate and brig of war, belonging to the Algerines, and compelled them not only to renounce their claim to all tribute, but to make indemnification for the losses which we had experienced from their piracies. In 1817, the Algerines penetrated the North Sea, and there, with surprising audacity, captured ships which did not belong to tributary powers, or to those who were exempted from their depredations by treaty. Prisoners taken by these Corsairs were treated with the greatest severity, and only permitted to be ransomed at enormous prices. Towards the latter part of their career, the pirates professed to consider captives not in the light of slaves, but as prisoners of war. Their treatment, however, instead of being ameliora- ted was more harsh than ever, and the corsairs, although they respected the flags of America and other strong powers, in violation of their treaties, warred with the ships of weaker states, and enforced the superiority of might over right. The jealousy of the European States for a long time favored the encroachments of the Algerines, until the French prepared for conflict with stern decision. One of the last events in the reign of Charles X, was the entire prostration of the power of Algiers. TheDey, with his personal treasures, and women, was permitted to retire, and selected Italy as a retreat. The French secured their conquest and estab- lished a government upon their own principles. During the prosperity of Algiers, a struggle was kept up with the Sublime Porte about the appointment of the deys, and the Sultan finally relinquished the claim of choosing them, and retained but a nominal authority over Algiers. The deys, whenever they displeased the fero- cious soldiery they affected to rule, were deposed and put to death. The lives of these men were proverbially short, but we admit an exception in the person of Mohammed III who died in 1701, after a reign of 23 years, at the age of 93. Omar Pacha, the opponent of Lord Exmouth, was murdered in 1817. Accordingly, Ali Ho- dya, his successor, shut himself up in the castle of Casaba, where, by means of hi3 fifty -six can- non, and a garrison on which he could rely, he maintained the ascendancy over the city and the cruel Turkish troops, who had mur- dered Omar. Hussein, successor of Hodya, rendered cautious by experience, likewise occu- pied this strong castle. The government of Algiers was despotic, the dey possessing un- limited power, but being assisted by a Divan composed of his chief officers of state, and first ministers. The common soldiers elected the Dey, but no election was permitted without unanimity in the electors. Therefore, when there was a difference, the majority compelled the weaker party to concur with them. The new Dey espoused the principle of proscription, and frequently put to death incumbents, for the sake of making State offices open to his parti- zans. He held a court of justice on four days in the week, where proceedings were summary, and condemnation was followed by punishment at no long interval. The State of Algiers lies between Tunis and Fez. The city, which is strongly fortified, is on the sea-coast. Algiers contains 89,300 square miles. ALH AM A, anciently Jlrtigis Julia, a town of Granada, in Spain, situated on the Motril, 15 miles from Granada. Population, 6,000. The medicinal baths and romantic scenery of this place have rendered it noted, but its fame rests upon its historical remembrances. This " Key of Granada," was taken by the Span- iards, in 1481, after a most spirited resistance on the part of the valiant Moors. ALHAMBRA. The Alhambra was the for- tified palace of the Moorish kings of Gra- nada — a possession to which they clung with their latest grasp, and which was the best beloved spot in their terrestrial paradise. The meaning of the Moorish name is the red city, and it was so called in consequence of the color of the materials employed in building. The Spanish term it the Sierra del Sol, because, from its situation on an eminence, it catches and re- flects the first beams of the rising sun. The palace composes but a small portion of the for- tress, whose walls encompass the crest of a lofty hill rising from the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountain. The fortress was at one time capa- ble of containing forty thousand men. Above the palace is the house of the Generalif, a Moorish building, while a church dedicated to St. Helena, crowns the ascent. There are two palaces, the old Moorish palace, and that com- menced by Charles V. The former exhibits ALH 49 AI.I remains of the splendor of the arts among the infidels. A striking portion of the palace is the Court of Lions which is an hundred feet in length, and fifteen in breadth, surrounded by a beautiful colonnade seven feet broad at the sides, and ten at the ends. Two splendid por- ticoes, fifteen feet square, project into this court. The square is paved with tiles — the colonnade with white marble. The walls are covered with tiles placed checker-wise, which gives them a highly fanciful appearance. The columns, upon which the roof and gallery rest, are grotesquely ornamented and irregularly distributed. The capitals abound with curious devices, among which, however, there is no representation of animal life. The fountain, consists of twelve ill-shaped lions, bearing on their backs a large basin, out of which rises a smaller one. Here, when the pipes were in order, water gushed from the inner basin, and, passing through the lions, communicated by channels with other apartments. The fountain is of white marble and inscribed with Arabian distiches, like the following, "Sees'tthou how the water flows copiously like the Nile?" — " The fair princess that walks by this garden, covered with pearls, ornaments its beauty so much, that thou mayest doubt whether it be a fountain that flows or tears of her admirers. - ' The hall beyond the colonnade on the south side was the place chosen by Abouabdoulah for the execution of the Abencerrages, and their bleeding heads fell, as fast as they were decapi- tated, into the limpid waters of the fountain. The hall of the Two Sisters, {Torre de las dos Hermanns), was named from two beautiful slabs of white marble, inserted in the pavement. El Tocador, or the Tiring Tower, was appropria- ted to the toilette of the Sultana, who, in one part, had a marble slab in the floor perforated with holes, to admit vapor and perfumes, for the purification of her person. The king's bed- chamber was furnished with fountains to cool the atmosphere, and the royal baths were com- modious and superb. Beneath were vaults used as a cemetery by the Moorish monarch. The regret of the Moors at leaving this place, which wealth, art, and taste, had brought to a degree of splendor which satisfied the imagina- tion, can easily be conceived. They never ceased to offer up prayers in their mosques for their restoration to Granada. After it fell into the hands of the believers, Alhambra continued to be a royal demesne. Charles V abandoned it as a residence in consequence of earthquakes ; and Philip V, with his beautiful queen Eliza- beth of Parma, was the last royal tenant of this prince]}' abode. Subsequently it became, infested by a lawless population which was ex- pelled, but, owing to the culpable negligence of officers, the palace was permitted to fall into decay from which the Moorish portion was partially lescued by the exertions of the French troops garrisoned in it. The French, on their departure, blew up part of the walls and de- stroyed its importance as a military post. To the historian, the poet, the antiquary, and the artist, this relic of Moorish splendor possesses an indisputable interest. ALI, the cousin, and son-in-law of Moham- med. When Mohammed assembling his kins- men, and making known to them his pretended mission, asked, who would be his vizier; Ali, then only 14 years of age, started up and ex- claimed : " I will ! Let but a man advance against thee, I will pluck out his eyes, dash in his jaws, break his legs, and tear up his belly. O prophet, I am thy vizier." So well did he keep his word, that he was called the Lion of the Lord, the ever-victorious. He should have succeeded Mohammed, but being opposed suc- cessfully by Omar and Othman, he formed a sect of his own, and gained many followers. On the death of Othman, he was declared Ca- liph, but was assassinated in a mosque, at Cufa, in the G3d year of his age, 669. ALI, pacha of Yanina, commonly called Ali Pacha, was born of a noble family inTepeleni, in 1744, and at the age of sixteen, when distin- guished for beauty and daring, headed the troops whom the death of his father left with no other leader. Being defeated, he commen- ced robber, but was so unsuccessful, that he was forced to pawn his sabre to keep himself from starving. As he was sitting, ruminating upon the hardness of his destiny, and carelessly turning up the ground with his staff, he struck upon something hard. Curiosity induced him to search further, and he dug up a chest of gold ! He now equipped a band of followers whose cruelty and rapacity made them formidable. Having rendered some service to the Porte, he was made governor of some provinces in Greece, but maintained himself in almost inde- pendent sovereignty. Indeed he boasted that he never had a master, and " Laughed to scorn the death firman, Which others tremble but to scan." He became a formidable military potentate between 1790 and J82I. In 1822, his capital, Yanina, being taken, he was put to death by ALL 50 ALP order of the Sultan. He was brave and able, but cruel, rapacious, false, ambitious and suspicious. Pouqueville says that he had a Greek lady, Euphrosyne, and fifteen othpr wo- men thrown into the sea, because he suspected that they exerted an undue influence over his son. If he wished to possess himself of a beau- tiful Greek girl, he sent his executioner to her parents, with this message : " Your daughter has found favor in the eyes of Ali." They were then forced to surrender her, or fly. A LIC A NT, (anciently Lucentum) a city and port of Spain, on the Mediterranean sea, Ion. 2{) w.. lat. 38° 21 S. Population 25,300. Its harbor is good, and it is the centre of commerce between Spain and Italy. ALLEN, Ethan, brigadier-general in our revolutionary army, born at Salisbury, Con- necticut. His parents removed to Vermont, when he was quite young, and here he received the greater part of his education. Prior to the commencement of hostilities he had given proofs of daring and enterprise. Soon after the battle of Lexington, (1775), incompliance with the request of the legislature of Connecticut, he headed two hundred and thirty Green Moun- tain boys, and marched against the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. At Castle- ton he was to have been joined by a reinforce- ment under Arnold, but the latter, unable to raise the proposed force, set forward with the Spartan band of Allen. On the night of the 9th of May, Allen landed eighty-three men near the fort, having with difficulty procured boats for the purpose. Day surprised him be- fore his rear guard was brought over, and he found himself compelled to attack the place. He concluded an animated speech by saying, " I am going to lead you forward— but the at- tempt is desperate — and I wish to urge no man onward against his will. Those who will fol- low me, poise firelocks !" Every firelock was immediately poised. On then, my boys !" said Allen, and led the central file to the wicket gate. He was opposed by a sentry , but brought his men through the covered way, and formed them on the parade. The commanding officer, Captain de la Place, was undressed. Allen, holding his sword over him, demanding the surrender of the fortress. "In whose name?" asked the commander. "In the name of the Great Jehovah, and the continental Congress." On the same day by the capture of Crown Point, and the only armed vessel on Lake Champlain, that important lake was placed in his power. In conjunction with Brown, he attempted the reduction of Montreal, but being attacked by the British before Colo- nel Brown's troops came up, he was defeated and made prisoner. He was treated with great barbarity in his captivity — carried to England, and then to Halifax — thence to New York, where he remained a year and a half, before he was exchanged for Col. Campbell. His health having been greatly impaired, he returned to Vermont where he was appointed to command the militia. His patriotism was firm, and he indignantly rejected the bribes offered by the British. He died suddenly, at his estate at Colchester, February 13th, 1789. He published some pamphlets, one of which contained an open declaration of infidelity. He adopted the most absurd ideas of the ancients, with regard to the transmigration of souls ; but if we may be permitted to believe the following anecdote, his avowal of atheism was insincere. When his daughter was dying, she sent for him, and said ; " Father, I am about to die : shall I be- lieve in what you have taught me, or in the Christian principles my mother teaches?" Af- ter a moment of convulsive agitation, he replied : " Believe in what your mother has taught you." ALMAZEZ, a town of Spain, carried by assault by the British, under General Sir Row- land Hill, 1812. ALMEIDA, a strong fortress in Portugal, in the province of Beira, on the Coa, near the Spanish borders, containing 2,750 inhabitants. It is famous for the defeat of the French, under Massena, by the British under Lord Welling- ton, 1811. ALOADDIN, the old man of the mountains, was prince of the Arsacides, or Assassins. He resided in a castle between Antioch and Da- mascus, and his followers professed a blind devotion to his will. ALP AIISLAN, the lion's whelp, second Sultan of the Seljukian dynasty, succeeded to the throne in 10(J8. He defeated the Greeks under Romanus Diogenes, their emperor. He was stabbed in 1072, by a desperate prisoner whom he had sentenced to death. ALPHONSO. Ten kings of Castile bore this name. The tenth was an astronomer of great repute. ALPHONSO II I, the Great, king of Leon and Asturias, succeeded his father in 8GG, at the age of eighteen. He was successful against the Moors, but the decline of his life was ren- dered unhappy by civil disturbances. His sons, instigated by the queen, waged war against him, and were only quelled with a vast loss on ALP 51 ALT both sides. Alphonso abdicated in favor of his son Don Garcia, but did not resign his paternal care of the kingdom, for when the Moors threatened it, he headed the Spanish troops, gained a decisive victory and died at Zamora, 912, sixty-four years old. ALPS, the loftiest ridge of mountains in Eu- rope, whose branches connect with nearly all the European mountains. Mount Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe, is 15,304 feet (English) high ; the great St. Bernard, 10,780. Separating Italy from Spain, France and Germany, it would seem as if they opposed an insurmountable bar- rier to the march of conquest ; but they have been several times crossed by large armies, the expeditions of Hannibal and Bonaparte being the most celebrated. Bonaparte, when first consul of the French republic, passed the great St. Bernard, in the year 1800. Before the allies even knew of his departure, he was in Valais, at the house of convalescence belonging to the monks of St. Bernard ; there he remained three days, acquiring a knowledge of the local obstacles which he had to surmount. From mount St. Bernard, the army began to meet with obstacles which only genuine enthu- siasm enabled them to contend against. They had to draw their artillery along narrow paths, in many places almost perpendicular ; and over mountains of snow. A very small force would have arrested their progress, but they met no opposition. They reached St. Peter, near the great mountain St. Bernard, on the 15th of May, General Bcrthier acting as Bonaparte's lieutenant. Here the whole park of artillery was collected. The mountain they had to pass over was all wild and barren, with a vast extent of snow and ice, mingled with terrific silence. Over this frightful mountain the mind of Bona- parte conceived the possibility of passing his army with all its artillery, baggage, &c. The cannon, caissons, forges, &c. were immedi- ately dismounted piece by piece ; a number of trees were hollowed like troughs, in which the pieces of cannon might safely slide, and five or six hundred men drew them up these tremen- dous heights ; the wheels were carried on poles; sledges conveyed the axle-trees; and empty caissons and mules were loaded with the ammunition-boxes made of fir. The consul took no more baggage than was absolutely necessary. Five hours were con- sumed in climbing as high as the monastery of the Bernadines, where the good fathers gave each individual a glass of wine; this, though frozen, was to them delicious, and not one would have exchanged it for all the gold of Peru. There were still six leagues to go, and the rapidity of the descent made that distance truly terrible ; men and horses constantly fall- ing, and often recovering with the greatest dif- ficulty. The march commenced at midnight, and did not finish till about nine o'clock the next evening. For nearly fourteen leagues the army had scarcely had a meal, or any repose. yet, at the end of the journey, sleep hung so heavily even upon the most robust of them, that they resigned themselves to it without a strug- gle, or a thought of their evening repast. Bona- parte traversed a portion of the way attended only by a peasant. He was dressed in the little grey surtout and cocked hat, in which artists delight to represent him. He conversed with his companion, and learning that his wishes centered in the possession of a little farm, in- ternally resolved to gratify them. The farm was presented to the peasant, whose delight and surprise may be readily imagined. ALSACE, previously to the revolution, was a province of' France. On the east, it was bounded by the Rhine, separating it from Swa- bia, on the south by Switzerland and part of Franche Comte ; on the west, by Lorraine, and on the north by the Palatinate of the Rhine. The fertility of this province is surprising, it being the land of corn, oil, wine, flax, tobacco, fruits of various descriptions, a country of woodland and pasturage. Among its mineral productions are silver, copper, iron, and lead. The " arrowy Rhine," is the principal river of Alsace, but it has several lakes. The common language of the country people is German, though French is understood and occasionally spoken. The ancient inhabitants of this pro- vince were thellauraci Sequani,and Medioma- trici. The Celts lost it to the Romans, from whom it passed to the Germans, and was won by Clovis, in 496. In 8C9, it became a pro- vince of Germany, and was governed by Ger- man dukes, and under them, by Counts, who, a century before the extinction of dukes, as- sumed the name of landgraves. By the peace of Paris, Nov. 20th, 1815, Landau, a part of Alsace, was separated from France, to which it had been annexed by the treaty of Ryswick, and now again forms part of Germany. The chief city is Strasburg, and the principal pro- ductions wine, copper, iron, tobacco, flax, mad- der, &c. &c. ALTON A, after Copenhagen, the largest city of Denmark. It is situated on the Elbe, in the dutchy of Holstein, two miles from Hamburg. A MB 52 AME ALVA, Ferdinand Alvarez, duke of, descen- ded from a noble family, born in 1508, distin- guished himself in the career of arms at the age of seventeen, and was at the siege of Pavia. Charles V made him a general, and he was commander at the siege of Mentz, where he fought with desperate but unavailing valor, for the siege was raised. He was noted for exces- sive cruelty and superstition. In the campaign against the pope, Alva compelled the pontiff to sue for peace, and then went to Rome to sup- plicate pardon for the offence. In 15(J7, he was sent to the Low Countries by Philip II to reduce them to the Spanish yoke. The cru- elty of The Bloody Tribunal, a council which he established, deluged the United Provinces in their best blood. At first the arms of Alva were successful, but the malcontents afterwards gaining head, he relinquished the government where he was afterwards employed. In Por- tugal, he acquired renown by his success in driving Don Antonio from the throne. He died in 1582. AMADEUS, the name of several of the counts of Savoy, of whom Amadeus VI was the most famous. He lent his powerful aid to John, king of France, against Edward of England ; and was the ally of John Paleologus, (emperor of Greece) , in 1365. His reign of forty years was glorious, and his death in 13815, deeply lamented. AMAZONS. Ancient writers give this name to tribes of armed and warlike women of which they enumerate three nations, the African, Asiatic, and Scythian. Their arms were bows and arrows, and they admitted no men into their community. The accounts of them are entirely fabulous. Amazonia, in South Ameri- ca, derived its name from the supposition of early travellers that it was peopled by armed women. AMBOYNA, the largest and most productive of the Molucca or Spice Islands, the centre of the nutmeg and clove trade, in the Indian ocean. It is 30 or 40 miles in length. The in- habitants are wild and rude, much given to drinking. The population of Amboyna, when taken by the English, in 1796, was about 45,- 252; 17,813 being Protestants. In 1024, the merchants of the English factory were tortured and put to death by the Dutch. The United Provinces refused satisfaction to James I and Charles I, but paid to Cromwell 30J,0(J0 pounds as a small imdemnity. A M BROSE, St. a noted father of the church, born in Gaul, 340. His future greatness was au- gured from the circumstance of bees swarming about the lips of the infant in his cradle, as they did about the mouth of Plato. AMERICA, including a vast extent of terri- tory, embracing every variety of climate, and bearing within it, besides its precious ore and gems, the germs of immense wealth, remained undiscovered until the 1 lth of October, 1492, when Christopher Columbus, a native of Ge- noa, who had sailed from Spain with three small vessels under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Castilian monarch, first beheld a light on the shore of the new Continent, two hours before midnight. On the ensuing day he set foot in the New World. Columbus felt the importance of the discovery, as, erecting the cross, and surrounded by his crew and the wild and wonder-stricken natives, he took possession of the new country in the name of the sove- reigns of Spain. The Christian adventurers did not fail to kneel upon the sand, and offer up their thanks for having been preserved through the perils of a long voyage, and favored with the most brilliant success to compensate for all their perils. This island was called Guanahcmi, by the natives, a name which Co- lumbus altered to St. Salvador, and was one of the Bahama islands. It is worthy of remark, that the vast conti- nent which Columbus discovered was not call- ed by his name, but derived its appellation from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, who made some subsequent discoveries, in company with Alonzo do Ojeda, in 1499. Co lumbus did not rest satisfied with his first suc- cessful voyage or the fame which he acquired by it, but he undertook others. He was, how- ever, in the end, the victim of jealousy and in- gratitude. The Spanish colonists at Hispaniola, became discontented and preferred complaints against him, sending home accusations and remonstrances by every ship that sailed to Spain. In consequence of this, Don Francisco de Bobadilla, was sent out by the court, and invested temporarily with the chief power, be- ing permitted to use his own judgment in quel- ling the disturbances of the colonies. This person scrupled not to arrest Columbus and put him in irons, from which he would not suffer himself to be freed, when he was carried on board the vessel, which was to bear him to Spain. " No," said he, when the attendants offered to remove them ; " the truth must be apparent, and my patrons tire too noble, too gen- erous to overlook me. Then, if fortune again smiles upon me, these will serve as affecting AME 53 AME memorials of sorrow past : I will not part with them, and I oven wisli that, when 1 am no more, they may be suspended over my sepulchre." When he again set foot in Spain, he might have exclaimed, in the language of the pott; ** Arc these 1 lie wreaths of triumph you bestow On those who bring you conquest home and honor 1" Columbus was liberated immediately by royal order, and received at court with great respect. But though Bobadilla was recalled, Columbus in vain supplicated to be restored to his go- vernment ; he was put oft" by vague promises, and the post finally given to Don Nicholas Ovando, a practical as well as accomplished man. Thus, after three momentous voyages, and the acquisition of much fame, he found himself displaced and thwarted in a point in which he conceived his honor concerned, and h's hard-earned authority torn from his posses- sion. But it was not the nature of Columbus to sink under his misfortunes ; on the contrary with four small caravels, the largest being but of seventy tons burthen, he set out on his fourth voyage of discovery with the intention of com- pleting the circumnavigation of the globe, vis- iting the Indies, of which Vasco da (iaina bad given so inspiriting an account. Leaving Ca- diz on the 9th of May, 1502, be reached Mar- tinique, one of the windward islands, June 15th. Having touched at Cuba, he pursued a south- westerly course, until he reached (iuanaja, an island on the coast of Honduras, whose inhabi- tants had attained a pretty high degree of civi- lization. Their persons were covered with cotton garments dyed with a variety of bright and pleasing colors. He mentions a curious occur- rence as taking place here. He had been pre- sented, among other animals, with a peccary, or American pig, and one of those monkeys with prehensile tails, indigenous to America. The peccary being thrown in the way of the monkey, the latter, by a dexterous use of its tail, confined the jaws of the pig in such a man- ner as to expose it helplessly to the action of the monkey's claws. " This appeared to me so strange," Columbus writes to his patrons, " that I thought fit to write it down for the informa- tion of your majesties." The admiral, in his endeavors to discover a strait leading to the Pacific Ocean, encountered great hardships and fatigues, which had a bane- ful influence upon his health, and was finally shipwrecked. Ovando was himself averse to succoring Columbus, after a messenger had acquainted him with the peril of his situation ; but. the people of Hispaniola were so well-dis- posed towards the admiral, that, for the sake of maintaining his own reputation, he was forced to send him relief. Columbus, arrived at St. Domingo, met with a reception such as to banish for a brief space, the remembrance of his sufferings, but his bodily weakness could not be disguised. When sufficiently recovered, he set sail for Spain, arriving there on the 7th day of November, 1504. The services of this distinguished man were indeed important. In his third voyage he had discovered the continent of America; in his last, had received intelligence of the immense wealth of Mexico, which was destined to in- crease to an enormous extent, the revenue of Spain. Columbus vainly looked for the reward of his services; ho had stipulated that certain dignities and an income should be his, but he found himself in hopeless indigence. His kind patroness, the queen, was no more, and her husband, stern and selfish, disregarded the claims of the enterprising navigator. He evaded the request of Columbus to be restored to the vice royally of which he had been deprived, and repeated disappointments, in connexion with his bodily infirmities, hastened the death of the latter, which took place at Valladolid, on the 20th of May, 1506. The claims to the first discovery of the New World, advanced by Amerigo Vespucci, appear to be without foun- dation, lie made, however, four voyages, and was the first to publish an account of the new countries. The work which he issued became very popular and was soon translated into sev- eral different languages. Hence, for convey- ing a vast sum of information to mankind, Amerigo Vespucci, attained a greater degree of celebrity than he merited, ana, by the concur- rence of all classes, gave his name to that ex- tensive and important country which another had discovered. Various navigators, fired by the accounts of the new world, and by the fame which Colum- bus had acquired, entered the lists of honor, determined to make themselves celebrated. Vincent Yanez Pinzon, one of the companions of Columbus, discovered Brazil, although Pe- dro Alvarez Cabral is generally thought to have been its discoverer. Etodrigo de Bastidas, and the pilot Juan de la Cosa, sailed from Cadiz in 1500, made a profitable voyage in spite of Si ' adverse occurrences, and added to the stock of information upon the appearance and affairs of the New World. An English expe- dition was fitted out in 1497, under Sebastian AME 54 AME Cabot, who examined Newfoundland and the continent in the vicinity of the river St. Law- rence. Nunez de Balboa discovered the South- ern Ocean, in 1513. He was transported with delight as he beheld its waves sparkling in the light of the sun, and appealing to glitter with that gold which the natives told him abounded in the country which extended to the south. He then imagined that he had reached the In- dies, a country which it was then the greatest ambition of European adventurers to reach. He acquainted the Spanish court with his dis- covery, and solicited an appointment propor- tionate to the extent of his services He was, however, grievously disappointed; the govern- ment of Darien was obtained by Davila, and this rival, finding a pretext for wreaking his vengeance upon Balboa, had him executed pub- licly in 1517. There were many other voyages undertaken by the Spaniards, which, did our limits allow, we would gladly dwell upon. The enterprise and success of Magellan, among oth- ers, will not permit his name to be forgotten. The Spaniards entertained the most exag- gerated ideas of the wonders of the New World. To most of them, it appeared a realm of magic, a fairy -land, in which supernatural occurrences were by no means infrequent. Thus Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, fitted out three ships from Porto Rico, of which he was governor, and set forth in search of an Indian fountain which was fabled to restore all who bathed in it, even if they were tormented by the infirmi- ties of extreme old age, to the freshness, vigor, and beauty of youth. Although he failed to find the fountain, he made the discovery of Florida. We have alluded to the immense extent of America, which, including its islands, extends over about one hundred and forty degrees of latitude. The external appearance of the New World, has much which presents a very marked contrast to the superficial features of the old. A stupendous chain of elevated mountains traverses the whole continent, running from north to south, and even under the equator, where, upon the low lands the most intense heat is felt, these tall mountains elevate their heads into the region of intense cold. Every thing in the New World appears to be of greater magni- tude than the corresponding objects in the old. The lakes are vast inland oceans, exhibiting in storms, all the striking and sublime aspects of the great deep, rolling as mighty waves, and shaken by an equal convulsion. The rivers are of prodigious size, and the plains of extra- ordinary extent, Over those of South and North America, countless herds of wild cattle roam at will. The New World was inhabited by a race of men differing, in many respects, from the na- tives of the Eastern Hemisphere. The Indi- ans of North America varied, in many particu- lars, from those of the southern portion of this vast continent, and the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico, at the time when they were first visited by the Spaniards, had attained a greater degree of refinement than was found by the Europeans in any other quarter of the New World. It is notour intention to enter into the long agitated and unsettled question of the ori- gin of the aborigines of America; whether the ancestors of the American Indians emigrated from the Asiatic continent, or the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere swarmed from this, it is at present impossible for us to decide. Malte Brun has described their general per- sonal appearance with his usual ability and force in the following words: — "The natives of this part of the globe are in general large, of a robust frame, well proportioned, and without defects of conformation. They have a bronzed or coppery red complexion, as it were ferru- ginous, and very like cinnamon or tannin ; the hair black, long, coarse, shining and scanty; the beard thin, growing in tufts; the forehead short, the eyes elongated, and having the corn- ers pointing upwards to the temples ; the eye- brows high, the cheek bones projecting, the nose a little flattened, but marked ; the lips wide, the teeth serrated and sharp ; in the mouth an expression of mildness, which is con- trasted with a sombre, and severe, and even hard expression ; the head rather square, the face large without being flat, but diminishing towards the chin ; the features taken in profile, projecting and strongly marked ; the belly high, the thighs large, the legs bowed, the foot large, and the whole body squat.'' The North American Indians are distinguished for a quick understandings retentive memory, and a stoicism which would have excited the envy of the ancient Grecian philosophers. War, hunting, and fishing, are the employments of the men, who devote but little care to the cultiva- tion of the soil, which from its fertility, exacts but little. The desire of revenge is one of the most powerful excitements of the Indian. He knows not of the principle by which a Chris- tian returns good for evil. An Indian rarely, if ever, forgets an injury, and the exceptions are so few that they have been noted with some A ME 55 AME care. One anecdote, in particular, appears wor- thy to be related. An Indian, having wandered far from his friends, found himself foot- worn and thirsty, in the vicinity of a white man's dwelling. The owner of the house was standing at the door. The Indian approached and begged him for a morsel of food and a cup of water to sustain his sinking frame. "Begone! dog of an Indian !" was the surly reply of the European. Some years after this, the Englishman, being on a hunting excursion, lost himself in the forests. At the moment when he had relinquished al- most all hope, he perceived an Indian wigwam, and having applied for shelter, was welcomed with ready hospitality. The Indian hunter to whom the cabin belonged, busied himself in making every arrangement for the comfort of his guest. His horse was fed and cared for, a supper was provided him, and, when the hour of rest arrived, a bed of soft skins invited him to repose his weary limbs. In the morning, when the white man signified his desire to de- part, the Indian offered to be his guide. Hav- ing conducted him to the outskirts of the for- est, the Indian pointed out his path. The European thanked him, and prepared to take his leave. " Stay yet a moment," said the In- dian : " I clearly perceive that you do not know me, but I know you well. Do you not recollect that some ten years since, a poor In- dian presented himself at your door and entreat- ed you to give him a morsel of bread and a cup of water ? You refused him. I am that red man. I swore to be revenged. Am I not ? Now go thy ways, and forget not to tell thy white brethren, that there is at least one Indian who can practice what they preach?" We are unable to give a minute description of the Indians ; — the horrors of their wars, the fortitude of the captives, tortured at the stake, the adoration they pay to the Great Spirit, their superstitions and their sufferings, must be pour- trayed by other pens. From the time of the first European settlements in this part of Amer- ica, the number of the Indians has dimi- nished rapidly, and they are now reduced to a mere handful, whom the wave of emigration is fast rolling to the shores of the Western Ocean. They have seen their hunting-grounds dimi- nished, their forests swept away by their white foes, and the smoke of the Christian village ri- sing where once their council-fires blazed. But in Mexico and many parts of South America, where the natives had made some progress in civilization at the time of the discovery of the continent, the Indians have become fellow-cit- izens with the whites, and the native or mixed breeds compose the mass of the population. The discovery of America awakened the en- terprise of various nations of the Old World, and they fitted out numerous expeditions to conquer and colonize. North America, which is of vast extent, its surface containing about eight mil- lions of square miles, fell into the hands of the English, French, and Spanish. Mexico, so valuable for its mines of gold and silver, inhabi- ted at the period of its discovery by intelligent and peaceable nations, was conquered by Fer- nando Cortez, a Spanish general, who scrupled not to make use of the basest treachery, and to shed the blood of the natives like water, to ac- complish his purposes. Mexico was for a long time attached to Spain, to which it furnished immense wealth, but at present has a republi- can government which it can hardly be said to enjoy, the country is in such an unsettled state. The eastern shores of North America, were settled principally by the English. In spite of the hostility of the Indians, the ravages of dis- ease and hardship, the colonies increased rap- idly. The population of the middle portion of North America, now called the United States, was estimated, in 1775, at about 3,000,000. The number of the colonies was thirteen. Pov- erty and oppression had first driven them from their native land. New-England was peopled by Puritans, as they were called — men, who, being refused the liberty of worshipping God in the form which their consciences dictated, in their own land, resolutely severed the ties which bound them to a beloved, though oppressed country, and, traversing a vast ocean, entered a land inhabi- ted by savages, and encountering every peril laid the foundation of a mighty empire in the west. The mother country afforded them no assistance, but, when, by their unaided efforts, they had established their prosperity, she sent forth magistrates to govern, or rather to oppress them, and, by heavy taxes, endeavored to wring from them the means of propping up the rotten institutions of the parent island. In 1775, the colonies took up arms in defence of their rights, declaring their independence. The colonial forces, inspired by the bravery, and directed by the wisdom of George Washington, after a con- test of eight years, vanquished the chosen troops of Great Britain, and became independent. The present form of government was determin- ed upon in the year 1789. The United States are twenty-four in number, each State having AME 56 AME a legislature, executive and judiciary, of its own. All the States, however, are united un- der a General Government; the legislative power being in the hands of a Congress which consists of a Senate and House of Representa- tives, the members of which are chosen by the different States which they represent. The executive power is vested in the hands of the President, assisted by subordinate officers. The President and Vice-President, are chosen by the State electors, and hold their offices for a term of four years. The United States Judiciary consists of seven Judges. The British possess an immense territory in North America, containing a white population of about a million, and a great number of In- dian tribes. The Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and New Britain, are the principal divisions of this territory. The king of Great Britain appoints a Gover- nor-General who rules over the provinces, and in each province there is a Lieutenant-Gover- nor, and a provincial legislature. The French were the chief settlers in these countries, and l-etained possession of them until 175'J, when they were taken by the British. The contest for the possession of the Canadas is memorable for many gallant exploits, which are blazoned on the page of English history. The early history of the West Indies abounds with details of the horrible cruelties of the Span- iards, who scrupled not to adopt the most in- human measures to complete the ruin of the unhappy natives. They forced them to labor in their mines, they wore out their frames by the infliction of the most dreadful fatigues, and changed the luxurious, peaceful, and happy life of the islanders, into an existence of painful toil, uncheered by a single ray of hope, or a sin- gle scene of pleasure. They caused a large number of the poor wretches to be torn to pieces by blood hounds, whose sole occupation was hunting the natives. The West Indies, with the exception of Hayti, which is inhabited by independent blacks, belong to European go- vernments. The riches of South America awakened all the cupidity of the Spaniards, when they first began to penetrate into that portion of the con- tinent, and they treated its natives with the greatest barbarity. At the time of its conquest by Pizarro, an ambitious but unlettered Span- ish adventurer, Peru contained a numerous and civilized population. Cuzco was the seat of empire, the residence of the Peruvian Ineas, or Kings. They worshipped the sun and had a magnificent temple, gorgeous with gold from floor to roof. With some exceptions, these people were inoffensive and intelligent. With a force of one hundred and seventy foot sol- diers, Almagro and Pizarro entered Peru about 1513. By artifice Pizarro gained the confidence of the Peruvians, by treachery repaid it. When the poor natives were finally roused to resis- tance, the superior arms of the Europeans, ena- bled them to obtain an easy victory. The kings of Spain were envied by other European monarchs, for the possession of the richest por- tions of America ; but, as if in punishment for the crimes of conquest, Spain has been forced to behold tliose territories, obtained by guilt and cruelty, glide, one by one, from her grasp, till, poor and degraded, she retains but the bitter recollections of the rank she once maintained among the nations of the earth. But while Pe- ru, Bolivia, New Grenada, Chili, and other portions of South America, enjoy a republican government, Brazil is still an empire. The governments of South America are by no means firmly established, and the fluctuations of national policy, together with the prevalence of bigotry, superstition and licentiousness, and the want of education, prevent the South Ame- rican from attaining that height of prosperity and happiness to which a liberal and enlight- ened government, a wise toleration in religion, a firm tone of morality, and an excellent system of public instruction, have raised the more fa- vored inhabitants of the United States. America is upwards of 9,000 miles in length, and its average breadth is 1500 to 1800 miles. It lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, extending from 5G° S. latitude, to an unknown northern latitude. The lowest estimate of the number of square miles it contains, places them at 14,323,000. North America contains Green- land, belonging to Denmark ; British America, (including New Britain, Upper Canada, Low- er Canada, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Prince Edward's Island, and Nova Scotia) ; the Russian possessions in the northwest; the United States ; Mexico, and Guatimala. South- America contains New Grenada, Venezuela, the Equator, Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces of La Plata, Paraguay. Uruguay, and Patago- nia. Between North and South America, lie the West India Islands. Some of the principal rivers are the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Mis- souri, Columbia. Mackenzie, Amazon, La Plata, and Orinoco. Long chains of mountains run through North and South America. In the AMI 57 AMS former ate some of the largest fresh- water lakes in the world — Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario. Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward's, the Bermudas, Rhode Island, and Long Island are some of the most impor- tant islands belonging to North America. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS, {Amerigo Ves- pucci), a Florentine navigator of an ancient family, born 1451. His first voyage to Ameri- ca was made under Ojeda, a year after its dis- covery by Columbus, and yet the vast continent bears his name, while that of the actual discov- erer is applied to it only by poetical courtesy. Vespucci died at Seville in 1512. AMES, Fisher, an eloquent American states- man and writer, born in Dedham, Mass. April 9th, 1758. His parents were respectable. He was educated at Harvard College, w,hich he left with a high character for industry, regular- ity and talent. After instructing a school for some years, in 1781 he commenced the practice of law, and becoming distinguished for his orato- rical powers, and his success as a political essay writer, was chosen member of the House of Representatives in the state legislature. He was next chosen Representative of Suffolk county in the Congress of the United States, in which he remained during Washington's ad- ministration. On the retirement of Washing- ton, Mr. Ames, whose health had been impair- ed, occupied himself in farming at Dedham, and practising law. But although his voice was unheard in public, his pen was not inactive, and the publication of various essays proved the interest which he continued to take in politics until the time of his death, July 4, 1808. Fisher Ames had fine features, and a commanding per- son, and his manner in speaking was expres- sive, although not characterized by studied grace. His conversational abilities are said to have been of the highest order. AMHERST, a flourishing post town of Mas- sachusetts, in Hampshire county, 00 miles W. of Boston. Its literary institutions are Am- herst college, an academy, and a female semi- nary. AMHERST, Jeffery, lord, a British general officer, born in 1717. He commenced his mili- tary career in 1731, and regularly rose to the rank of field marshal. He was at Dettingen, Fountenoy, Rocoux, and commanded at the siege of Louisburg, and reduced the Canadas. He was successively Governor of Virginia, and of the isle of Jersey, and Commander in Chief of the British army. He died in 1798. AMIENS, a celebrated city in Picardy, with 45,000 inhabitants. Here peace was concluded between France and England in 1801. AMPHITRYON, a fabulous prince of Thebes, said to have been the grandfather of Hercules. AMSTERDAM, the capital of Holland, at the commencement of the 13th century, was nothing more than an insignificant fishing vil- lage, composed exclusively of the huts of fish- ermen. Its growth was not very rapid, although in time it became a place of great importance. It was formerly called Amstelerdam, the dam or dyke of the Ainstel. It derives its name from the river Amstel, and is situated at its in- flux into the arm of the sea, called the Y or Wye, forming a capacious port, two leagues from the Zuyder Zea. The city stands upon a marshy soil, in consequence of which the buil- dings are raised on oaken piles ; whence the jest of Erasmus, who said, " that in his country the people lived on the tops of trees." In 1490 Mary of Burgundy encompassed the city with a brick wall, to protect it from the incursions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, who were frequent- ly involved in quarrels with the Hollanders. Soon after the erection of this wall, the city was burnt to the ground. In 1512 it was besieged by the people of Guelderland, who, rinding then- selves baffled in their attempt to take the city, fired the vessels in the harbor. The scene pre- sented by the burning ships was awfully grand ; — the waters appeared like a sea of molten gold, over which a thousand volcanoes poured their volumes of fire, while the roaring of the confla- gration was like the voice of a tempest. The Anabaptists, in 1512 and 1525, filled the city with commotion and bloodshed. An insurgent chief, Van Geelen, headed a conspiracy which had for its object the subversion of the magistracy of Amsterdam, and the assumption of power by the rebels. Van Geelen fixed his head quarters in the town house, where his fanatical troops dis- played their banners, and gave every evidence that they considered their victory certain. But the burghers attacked them with great spirit and "resolution, and the fanatics being surroun- ded, were put to death to a man. In 1573, Amsterdam, after a siege of ten months, capitulated to the Hollanders, stipula- ting that the Roman Catholics should be allow- ed the free observance of their religious rites. The Protestants, however, did not maintain the agreement, but drove the Catholics" from the city, destroying the altars and the images. From that time, persons of all sects and nations came to the city, and the united exertions of ail AMS 58 ANA succeeded in raising it to a high rank, and ren- dering it famous for its opulence and industry. Amsterdam is intersected by numerous canals, which divide the city into islands, between which are built numerous bridges, of stone, and wood. Of vast commercial importance, these canals give the streets through which they pass a highly picturesque and pleasant appearance, fdling the air with freshness, and reflecting the long rows of trees and houses which line their banks. Complaints, however, are made of the effluvia arising from them in calm and warm weather. The Ammarach, a canal formed by the waters of the Ainstel, is the- principal, and flows beneath a number of bridges of which the Pont Neuf is the most elegant. This bridge is 600 feet long and has 36 arches. A singular feature in the scenery of Amster- dam is the enclosure of the city on the side of the haven or Wye, by means of piles, which are driven into the ground, and connected with immense horizontal beams, affording openings sufficiently ample for the ingress and egress of ships. These are closed every evening. The port is a mile and a half long, and crowded with vessels whose towering masts attract the eye, and give a lively appearance to the scene. The streets of Amsterdam, although narrow, are well-paved, and exhibit that charming neat- ness, which is peculiar to the Dutch, and which is equally conspicuous in their walks and in their smart brick or stone buildings. The pop- ulation of Amsterdam is estimated at more than 200,000 person s. The government is exclusive- ly in the hands of Protestants, although there is no want of toleration to those who differ from the established tenets. The New Church, dedi- cated to St. Catharine, is said to have been be- gun in 1408, or 1414, and to have occupied a century in its erection. The interior is adorn- ed with sculpture, and the paintings on the glass windows are of the richest description. The superb organ has been celebrated through- out the world. The church contains a marble monument, erected to the memory of Admiral Ruyter. The stadthouse is a beautiful building, erect- ed on 13,650 piles. It was founded in 1648. Its breadth is 282 feet, its depth 235, height 116. The whole of this fine building exhibits proofs of the characteristic neatness and industry of the Dutch. Beneath the stadthouse are the vaults of the Bank of Amsterdam, the prisons for debtors, criminals, &c. At the top of the building are six large cisterns of water, to be used in case of fire, against which, however, the greatest precaution is taken. The exchange which is built of freestone, stands upon 2000 wooden piles, is 250 feet in length, and 140 in breadth. The interior galleries rest upon 26 marble columns. The arsenal is a place of im- portance, and there are also schools, academies, hospitals and other public buildings. The prin- cipal houses of correction are the rasp-house, and the spin-house. In the former offenders are employed sawing and rasping Brazil-wood. Those who obstinately refuse to work are car- ried into the cellar into which water is flowing, and, unless they work briskly at the pump, they are in danger of drowning. In the spin-house women are compelled to spin wool, flax, and hemp. The senate or council of Amsterdam was composed of 36 persons representing the whole body of the people. It was called the Voeds- chap. Their office was for life, and in case of the death of one, the survivors elected a succes- sor. The burgomasters or echevins whose of- fice resembled that of aldermen, were appoint- ed by the senate, and were 12 in number. Out of these, four were chosen annually, to execute the office, and were styled burgomaster's re- gent. Three were discharged annually and their place supplied. In criminal cases, there was no appeal from the college of new burgomasters, who were judges; but in civil actions, the council of the province constitutes a court of appeal. In early times Amsterdam was strongly forti- fied, but, in consequence of various alterations, it can now be defended only by inundating the surrounding country. The new canal from Amsterdam to Niewe Diep is an immense work. The canal is 50 miles and a half long, and so broad as to admit of one frigate passing another. This canal will greatly improve the commerce of the city, as it removes the necessity of un- loading large vessels, which must be done be- fore they can pass through the harbor. AMURATH II, in 1422, succeeded his father Mohammed I. Numerous pretenders contested his claim to the crown, which, after he had quelled opposition, he relinquished to his son, Mahomet, but emerged from his retirement when the latter was found inadequate to the imperial station. Whenever he encountered the Hungarians and Janizaries, he defeated them. He died in 1451 aged 47. ANABAPTISTS, a religious sect, whose name was given them from their disbelief in the efficacy of infant baptism. They claim his- torical notice on account of their insurrec- AND 59 AND tion against the civil authority of Munster. and other German provinces. Their fanatical leader, John of Leyden, a tailor, defended himself in Munster for a whole year. After this, the pun- ishment of the leaders quelled the insurrection. Munster was taken, June 24, 1535. AN ACREON, a Greek lyric poet of Teos, in Ionia, who flourished 500 years B.C. Polycrates, king of Samos, was his patron until his death. At Athens he was encouraged by Hipparchus, but the fall of the latter drove him from Athens, and he passed an old age of gaiety at Abdera, where he was choked by a grape-stone in his 85th year. He was the poet of love and wine, and much honored by the Greeks. ANAXAGORAS, one of the Ionic philoso- phers, born at Clazomene, in Ionia, 500 B. C. died at Lampsacus at the age of 72. ANAXIMANDER, a disciple of Thales, whose chief study was mathematics, born at Miletus, 610 B. C., died 546 B. C. He made some scientific discoveries. ANCUS MARTIUS, succeeded Tullus Hos- tilius, the 3d king of Rome, 640 B. C. and died 618 B. C. He was a conqueror, improved the navigation of the Tiber, and established good laws. ANDALUSIA, the richest province of Spain, bounded north by Estremadura and La Mancha ; east, by Murcia ; south by the straits of Gibral- tar, and west by Portugal. It is divided into Up- per and Lower, the former of which compre- hends Granada, and the latter Jaen, Cordova, and Seville. ANDOVER, a township of Massachusetts, in Essex county, 20 miles N. of Boston, on the right bank of the Merrimack River, and water- ed by the Shawsheen. It is a pleasant and flourishing town, and contains 4,540 inhabit- ants. Its theological seminary is noted. ANDRE, Major. Among the various events which contributed to give a distinctive char- acter to the war of our Revolution, the fate cf Major Andre, a young English officer, can never be forgotten, nor the sad story of the close of his life ever read without a deep and painful interest. This young man was hand- some, talented, brave, enthusiastic, generous, and accomplished, beloved by all his acquaint- ance, without distinction of country. He en- tered the royal army with high hopes, and was well fitted to adorn an elevated station. His history is connected with that of the worst traitor who ever disgraced the name of Amer- ica. This man was General Arnold. His unrepressed extravagance had led him to incur heavy debts which he saw no means of dis- charging, but by accepting the gold of the British, as the price of treason to his country. In September, 1780, Arnold was in command of West Point, a military post on the North, or Hudson river, New York, which was of vast importance to the Americans. To give noto- riety to his apostacy, Arnold had selected this fortress, which was almost impregnable from natural defences, and from fortifications, on which no care or expense had been spared. Arnold had opened a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, under fictitious names, and the pretence of mercantile business, through Major Andre, then holding the rank of Adjutant-Gen- eral. The young officer was conveyed up the river in the Vulture sloop of war, and, under a pass for John Anderson, came on shore in the night, and had an interview witli Arnold. Morning surprised them before their business was transacted, and, as it was impossible for Andre to get on board the Vulture by daylight, he consented to remain hidden till the next night. In the course of the day, the Vulture altered her position, in consequence of a gun being brought to bear upon her, and, for this reason, the boatmen, at night, refused to take Andre on board. The young officer now found himself com- pelled to attempt to get to New York by land. Arnold gave him a pass, granting permission to John Anderson, " to go to the lines of White Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being on public business." Changing his uniform, which he had previously worn under a surtout, for a plain coat, he mounted a horse, passed the American guards in safety, and was congratu- lating himself on his escape, when three militia men, suddenly appearing, seized his bridle- rein, and demanded his business. Surprised, and off his guard, he did not produce his pass, but hastily asked the men where they belong- ed. " Down below," was the answer, meaning New York. "So do I;" replied Andre, re- joiced to find them friends. But he wa^s mis- taken, and being pressed, he finally declared that he was a British officer. He begged them to suffer him to pursue his way, offer- ing them gold, and a watch of great value. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wert, were poor men — their dress bespoke it — but they loved their country, and despised a bribe. They might have answered Andre, in the words of another American, on another occasion : " your king has not gold enough to buy us." They carried Andro before Lieut. AND 60 AND Col. Jameson, who commanded the troops on the lines. The captors of Andre were rewarded by Congress with an annual pension of two hundred dollars each, and a silver medal bear- ing on one side a shield inscribed " Fidelity ;" and on the other the motto "Amor Patriaa ;" love of country. Andre still passed as John Anderson. He generously wished to save Arnold, and asked permission to write to him. This the com- manding oflicer incautiously permitted, al- though in Andre's boots there had been found, in the hand writing of Arnold, returns of the state of the forces, and the condition of West Point, with other important papers. Immedi- ately on the receipt of the letter, Arnold escaped. He was at dinner when the letter arrived. Ab- ruptly leaving the table, he ran down a steep bank, threw himself into a boat, and was rowed to the Vulture, which immediately got under sail, and carried the traitor to New York. Gen. Washington was soon apprized of the circum- stances, and the same express which conveyed the intelligence, carried a letter from the pris- oner, frankly avowing his name and the cir- cumstances under which he had been foiced to appear as an impostor. All the American offi- cers who saw Andre, were struck with his candor and manliness, and there was not one who did not feel for his situation. The consideration of his case was referred by General Washington to a board of fourteen general officers, of which General Green was President, and Generals Steuben and La Fay- ette were members. It was decided that he ought to be regarded as a spy, and the stern rules of war, and the necessity of an example, required that he should die upon the gibbet. He begged of Washington to be allowed to die as a soldier, but the patriotism of the General refused, what his feelings would have granted. Led to the place of execution, Andre, survey- ing the instrument of his fate, asked with concern, " Must I die by this ? I am reconciled to my death, but oh! not to the mode." Re- covering his composure, he added : " It will be but a momentary pang." His countenance was unruffled, and calm, to the very last mo- ment of his life ; — the instant before he was launched into eternity, it exhibited a sunny serenity and high magnanimity which touched the hearts of all ! At the last moment he was asked if he wished to say any thing. " But this," he replied: "You will witness to the world, that I die like a brave man." The kindest attentions were bestowed on Andre by the American officers, particularly by General Hamilton, who did all in his power to soothe him, and has described his character with his usual happy felicity. Far different was the treatment of the pious and patriotic Captain Hale, a young American officer, who was taken as a spy, and ordered to be executed the next morning. He begged the use of a bible ; which was refused ; to be allowed to write a letter to his mother ; which poor privilege was also denied him. " The Americans," said the British commander, " shall not know that they have a rebel in their army who can die with so much firmness." On the occasion of the capture of some young American officers upon Long Isl- and, they were brought before Sir Henry Clin- ton, who thus addressed them. Gentlemen, do you know that I can hang every man of you as rebels, taken in arms against the king." " Hang and be hanged ! " bluntly exclaimed Lieut. Dunscomb, with the energy of a rough soldier ; " I have lived for my country, and I am not afraid to die for her." Andre's ashes were secured by the British, and conveyed to England, where a monument is erected to him in St. Paul's, London. He possessed some literary abilities, and wrote a poem called the Cow Chase. ANDREWS, St., a city of Scotland, on the Firth of Tay, 39 miles from Edinburgh. Pop- ulation 5621. It has two universities, and for- merly had a greater extent than it has at present. In 1559, the reformers, with mistaken zeal, de- stroyed its splendid cathedral. AN DROCLUS, or Androdus, a Dacian slave, who was exposed in the arena of a Roman cir- cus, to fight a lion ; but the animal forbore to injure him, because he had formerly extracted a thorn from his foot while in the Dacian wilds. Androclus was released, and used to lead the friendly lion about the city. ANDROMACHE, the faithful and affection- ate wife of Hector, prince of Troy, of whom she was so fond, as to feed his horses with her own hands. After his death, she was married to Neoptolemus, to whose share the lovely captive fell, and afterwards to Helenus, son of Priam. ANDROMEDA, daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, by Cassiopeia. She is fabled to have been exposed by Neptune to a sea mon- ster, from which she was delivered by Perseus. An explanation of the fable is offered in the supposition that she was courted by the captain of a ship, who attempted to carry her away, but was baffled by the enterprize and activity of a ' more faithful lover. ANG 61 AN1 ANGELO, Buonarotti, Michael, was of a noble and ancient family, and born at Caprese, or Chiusi, 1474, Any one of his high quali- ties would have made the fortune of an ordi- nary man. He was a distinguished painter, sculptor, architect, and poet, and " cunning of fence." The beauty of the Sistine Chapel consists principally in the perfection of his paintings. At 50 years old, he commenced painting the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, in which the grand and gigantic char- acter of his mind is shadowed forth. Embrac- ing a multitude of figures in various attitudes, and with difFerent expressions, it is an unwea- rying object of contemplation for the artist and lover of the fine arts. Between Michael An- gelo and Raphael, there was a warm rivalry, the former never forgetting that Raphael had perfected his style, only after having diligently studied the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. The Farnesian family had built a house upon the bank of the Tiber, in the street delta Lon- gera. Cardinal Farnese, wished to have the halls adorned by the pencil of Raphael, to give additional beauty to this charming place. The artist accepted the proposals of his eminence, but stipulated that no one should inspect his work until it was finished. But the friends of Raphael spread abroad highly-colored reports of the triumphs which the painter had achieved, praising in especial, the Banquet of the Gods, the Nuptials of Cupid and Psyche, and The Triumph of Galatea. These reports inflamed the curiosity of Buonarotti, and he swore by the Inferno of Dante, that he would gain admis- sion into the Farnesian villa, examine the works of Raphael, and prevent their completion. Michael Angelo, having discovered that Ra- phael went late to his work, disguised himself as an acquavitaro, vender of brandy, and taking with him a huge basket filled with biscuits and brandy, directed his steps at an early hour to the gate of the Farnesian palace. His cries of "brandy! brandy!" roused the masons — the gate was opened, and the acquavitaro admitted in a twinkling. Behold, Michael Angelo in the interior of the Farnesina ! The workmen were soon busily employed upon the biscuits and the brandy, and he passed through the cor- ridors, and was soon before the frescoes of Raphael. The fine picture of Galatea attracted his attention, and, noticing a scaffold and a wall in readiness fur the painter, he ascended and drew with a piece of charcoal, a gigantic head of Jupiter, after which he left the villa precipi- tately, without stopping for his basket. When Raphael arrived at noon, on beholding the splendid head, he exclaimed, " Michael An- gelo ! " From that day he painted no more in the Farnesina, and his works remained unfin- ished. The head which Michael Angelo de- signed, remains still upon the wall, and covered with a glass, attracts the admiration of artists and connoisseurs. ANGLES, a tribe which occupied the coun- try between the Weser and the Elbe, now a part of Prussia. Their piraces made them notorious at an early period, and in the fifth century, uniting with the Saxons, their power- ful neighbors of the north, under the name of Anglo-Saxons, they effected the conquest of England. A small tract of land near the Da- nish peninsula, where some of them remained, is called at the present day, Angeln. ANGLESEA, or Anglesey, the Monaof the ancients, an island and county of North "Wales, situated in the Irish Sea. It has a population of 48,325. Its length is 24 miles, and its breadth 17. The fertility of the soil adapts it for graz- ing, and grain and cattle are its principal pro- ducts. Over the strait of Menai which separates it from Wales, a fine suspension bridge has been erected. ANGOLA, a country of Western Africa, including the range of coast from 1 to 12 deg. S., from which 40,000 slaves are obtained an- nually. The Portuguese settled there in the middle ages. ANGORA, Ancyra, or Angoura; a city of Natolia, or Asia Minor, 212. miles from Con- stantinople, and containing, perhaps, 50,000 souls. Its hilly environs are thickly studded with delicious gardens, but the once strong fortifications of this delightful city, are decayed. The Angora shawls rival those of Cashmere ; the hair of the native goat furnishing the mate- rials. A considerable manufacture of these is carried on, although the trade of the place is no longer what it was. It is built on the site of the ancient Ancyra. Here Bajazet, the famed sultan of the Ottomans, was taken pris- oner by Tamerlane, in 1402. ANICH, Peter, a poor peasant of the Tyrol, whose aptness for the study of astronomy and geography was not developed until he was 28 years old. He was born in 1723, at Oberpor- fess, near Inspruck, and died in 1766. He was encouraged by the Jesuits, and made a celestial and terrestial globe, with several math* ematical instruments, remarkable for neatness. Under the patronage of the empress Maria Theresa, he drew a map of the Tyrol. ANN 62 ANS ANJOU, anciently a fertile, well-watered, and productive province of France, now form- ing the department of Maine and Loire. Be- fore the revolution, it was estimated to con- tain upwards of 90,000 families. Angers is the chief town. The province has alternately be- longed to the crown, and been bestowed upon princes of the blood. Louis XV conferred it on his grandson, Stanislaus, count of Provence, afterward Louis XVIII. ANKERSTRCEM, John Jacob, the murderer of Gustavus III. Originally a page at the Swedish court, he was at length raised to the rank of ensign of the royal guards. He joined a conspiracy the members of which thirsted for the blood of their monarch. Ankerstrcem wish- ed to make the deed of blood his own, but the Counts Horn and Ribbing contended for it; lots were drawn, and Ankerstrcem obtained the post of murderer. At a masquerade at Stock- holm, he accomplished his purpose by dischar- ging a pistol at the king. Having been disco- vered and condemned, he was scourged in prison for several successive days, dragged on a cart to the scaffold, and executed April 29, 1792, glo- rying in the deed, and bearing all his sufferings with singular fortitude. He died at the age of 31 years. ANNA, a heathen goddess, in whose honor the Romans instituted festivals. Several fabu- lous explanations of the origin of these celebra- tions have been given, but the most probable is the least remarkable ; viz. that Anna was an industrious old lady of Bovillas, and her apoth- eosis the reward of her kindness in daily supplying the Romans at Mount Sacer with cakes. ANNA, Ivanowna, empress of Russia, daugh- ter of Ivan, and niece of Peter the Great. She succeeded Peter II, son of the unfortunate Alexis, in 1730. Anna displayed great boldness in the very commencement of her reign, refused to renounce a single privilege enjoyed by the czars, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She waged war against the Persians, Poles, and Turks. She was born in 1693, and died 1740. ANNAPOLIS, a city and port of entry in Ann Arundel county, Maryland. It is situa- ted on the S. W. side of the Severn, two miles from its mouth, forty miles E. N. E. of Wash- ington. Population 2623. It is the seat of the state government and contains several fine public buildings. Annapolis Royal, is a city of Nova Scotia with a good harbor. ANNE, queen of England, second daughter of James II, previously duke of York, born 1664. In 1683, she married prince George, brother of Christian V of Denmark. In 1688, she joined the party which invited the prince of Orange to aid in dethroning his father-in-law. She as- cended the throne, on the death of her sister Mary, and of William III, in 1699. During her reign Gibraltar was taken by the English. Her brother James (the pretender), vainly attempted to set foot in Scotland, and Anne, with great reluctance, set a price upon his head. She seems privately to have entertained for a long time the hope of securing the succession to her brother, and was much grieved when convinced of the futility of such expectations. Anne died July 20th, 1714, her dying words being, " O, my dear brother, how I pity thee !" She pos- sessed moderate abilities, but was amiable as a wife, mother, and sovereign, and distinguished by the grateful title of good Queen Anne. Her reign was made brilliant by the successes of the English arms, and the writings of the authors of the day, among whom, were Pope and Addison. ANNE of Austria, queen of France, was daughter of Philip III, of Spain. She became the wife of Louis XIII, in 1615, but lived upon bad terms with him. On the death of Louis, she became sole regent during the minority of her son, Louis XIV, but made herself unpopu- lar among her subjects by reposing unbounded confidence in Cardinal Mazarin. Affairs as- sumed so threatening an aspect, that she was compelled to leave Paris. Tranquility was re- stored at length, and when her son assumed the reins of power, in 1661, she went into retire- ment in which she lived till her death, in 1666. ANNE, daughter of John III, duke of Cleves, was married to Henry VIII of England, who fell in love with her picture. He was soon, however, disgusted with the Flanders mare, as he contemptuously termed her, and she quietly returned to her native land, where she died in 1557, happy in escaping the death which the sanguinary tyrant inflicted upon Anne Boleyn. ANSELM, a distinguished archbishop of Canterbury, (England,) who, in the early part of the 12th century, maintained the powers of the church, in opposition to those of the crown. ANSGAR, or Anshgar, a saint of the Ro- mish church, born in Picardy, in 800, died in 865. He was called the Apostle of the North, from his zeal and success in introducing Chris- tianity into Denmark and Sweden. ANSON, George, lord, was born in 1697, at Shugborough manor, in Staffordshire, England, and entered the navy at an early age. In his ANS 63 ANT 27th year he obtained the rank of post-captain, and when, in 1739, a war with Spain appeared ' inevitable, he was made commander of a fleet in ' the South Sea. He sailed Sept. 18th, 1740, but encountering a violent storm, was prevented, for three months, from doubling Cape Horn, and • was rejoined at Juan Fernandez, by only three of his vessels in a wretched condition. The ori- ginal number was eight, five men of war, and three smaller vessels. He sailed for the coast of Peru, made some prizes, and burned the town of Paita, but, failing to intercept the annual Ma- , nilla galleon, found himself compelled to burn I his booty, and destroy all of his vessels but one. Having equipped this one (the Centurion), he retreated to Tinian, one of the Ladrone islands. After having met with some disasters, he finally sailed for Macao, which he reached in safety, and there formed the plan of taking Acapulco. To accomplish this bold purpose, j he gave out that he had returned to England, ■ and this deceptive report circulated with great rapidity. Meanwhile, he directed his course to the Philippines, cruising in the vicinity of Cape Espiritu Santo. After about a month, the long expected galleon appeared, and, con- fident in her superior strength, eagerly com- menced the fight. The British fought with that cool, dauntless valor, for which they are ; distinguished, and succeeded in making aprize of the galleon, which was worth £400,000. i The whole amount of the booty previously ta- ken was £600,000. Anson then returned to I Macao, where he disposed of his prize. The i Chinese were inclined to insult his flag, but he 1 maintained his rights with his characteristic ! pertinacity. From Macao, he sailed for Eng- ! land, which he reached June 15th, 1744, hav- j ing escaped the French fleet which lay in the I channel. Anson's perilous voyage threw new ; light upon geography and navigation, and con- ferred lasting benefits upon the cause of science. He was liberally rewarded for his bravery and perseverance, being made, soon after his return, fear-admiral of the blue, and at no great distance from that period, rear-admiral of the white. In 1747, he gained a brilliant victory over the French admiral, Jonquiere, off Cape Finisterre, and was consequently raised to the peerage with the title of Lord Anson, baron of Soberton. L' Invinci- ble and La Gloire, two French vessels, were ta- ken by Anson on this occasion, and the captain of the former, on surrendering his sword, said, " Monsieur, vous avez vaincu V Invincible, et la Gloire vous suit." "Sir, you have conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows you." Lord Anson was made first lord of the admi- ralty, four years after his elevation to the peer- age. In 1758, he commanded the fleet before Brest, protecting the landing of the English, and receiving them after their repulse. He died in 1762. ANSTEY, Christopher, a poet of the 18th century, born in 1724, died in 1805. His New Bath Guide, published in 1766, became imme- diately popular from its humor, wit, and origi- nality. ANTAEUS, the fabulous son of Neptune and Terra (the Earth), of gigantic stature. He re- sided in Libya, where he challenged every stranger to single combat. What made him peculiarly formidable, was the circumstance of the renewal of his strength by his mother, eve- ry time he was thrown to the earth. Hercules, having found out the secret of his prowess, overcame him by lifting him in the air, and crushing him in his iron grasp. The dwelling of this monster was adorned with the skulls of his vanquished adversaries. ANTENOR, a noble Trojan, who makes a conspicuous figure in the Iliad of Homer. He escaped, like iEneas, and is said to have found- ed Patavium, the modern Padua. ANTHONY, St., the Great, first institutor of the monastic life. His native place was Coma, a town of Upper Egypt, where he was born, A. D. 251. In 285, he retired into soli- tude from a devotional spirit, and in 305, estab- lished the first community of monks. Being disappointed in his attempts to gain the honor of martyrdom at Alexandria, he left the cotta- ges of his monks to the care of his pupil Pacho- mius, and, in company with two of the brethren, retired to a very remote desert, where he died, A. D. 356. The disease, called from him St. Anthony's fire, is a malady of peculiar violence with frightful accompaniments, in which every limb attacked, becomes withered, shrunk, and blackened, as if under the influence of flame. The life of St. Anthony in the wilderness, is said to have been fearfully eventful, being passed in combats with devils. The exploits of the saint are frequently made the subject of paintings, by Catholic artists. The order of Anthony was established, which, even in the 18th century, numbered thirty convents^ not one of which is extant at present. ANTIBES, an old town of Provence, on the Mediterranean, with a safe and commodious harbor. Population, 5570. It was founded 340 B. C by the Massilians, who gave it the name of Anti-polis. In 1747, it successfully resisted ANT 64 ANT the Austrians and English. In modern history it is noted as being the only place where the French troops refused to join Napoleon on his landing in 1815, after his escape from Elba. ANTIGONE, a daughter of CEdipus, king of Thebes, by his incestuous connexion with Jocasta. Antigone was the faithful guide of CEdipus, after his loss of sight ; having buried the corpse of her brother Polynices, against the express commands of Creon, the tyrant ordered her to be buried alive, but she killed herself before the execution of the sentence. (See CEdipus.) ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, a prince of a peaceable disposition, but compelled to enter into war, first with the Gauls, then with Pyrrhus of Epirus. When his son brought him the head of the latter, he expressed great indignation, and interred the body with all the respect due to a great warrior. He died at the age of eighty, B. C. 213. ANTIGONUS, general of Alexander the Great, after whose death he attempted to gain the sovereignty of Asia, but was defeated and fell at Ipsus, 301 B. C. ANTINOUS, a Bithynian youth, of whom the emperor Adrian was excessively fond. When the latter was on his travels, Antinous threw himself into the Nile and was drowned, but whether the act was committed with the intention of saving the life of the emperor, or from weariness of existence, has not yet been decided. The grief of Adrian was intense, and the honors of divinity were, by his command, paid to his young and unfortunate favorite. He named a newly-discovered star Antinous, and gave this name to cities, while various images of the lost youth emanated from the hands of different artists. Those which have come down to us bearing the name of Antinous, are distin- guished for a languid loveliness, and a round- ness of contour, which resembles the traits of female rather than manly beauty. ANTIOCH, or Antakia. This city anciently bore a variety of names — viz. Antiochia, * a jitigo- nia, Thcopolis, Selcucis, Epiphane, and Reblata. It is in Syria, fifty miles west of Aleppo, on the Orontes, twenty-one miles from the sea. The population is less than 20.000, the houses low, and the land neglected. The appearance of the city is melancholy, and no remains recall the splendors of the day when it was the third city in the world, for beauty, greatness, and popu- lation. It was built by Antiochus and Selencus Nicanor, partly on a hill, and partly in a plain. It was for a great length of time the residence of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and the Ro- man governors, when Syria became a province of the empire. In the crusades it was famous for the defeat of the Turks, in 1098, by Godfrey and the crusaders. ANTIOCHUS. Several distinguished kings of Syria bore this name. The first was the ge- neral of king Philip, a Macedonian by birth, whose fame was eclipsed by that of his son Se- leucus. — Antiochus Soter, the son of Seleucus, was unsuccessful in war, but is chiefly distin- guished by his passion for his step-mother, the beautiful Stratonice. His struggles to quell his misplaced affection, threw him into a lingering disorder, the cause of which he was unwilling to divulge. Erasistratus, the king's physician, penetrated his secret in the following manner. As he was holding the hand of his patient, he perceived by the accelerated motion of his pulse on the entrance of Stratonice, that love for her was the cause of his disorder. The king, to save the life of his son, relinquished to him his young and lovely bride. — Antiochus the Great succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, 244 years B. C. Molo, governor of Media, felt the power of his arms, and Ptolemy Philopater was by him compelled to give up the whole ot Syria. Over the Parthians, also, he was completely triumphant, and, favoring the cause of Hannibal, he made war upon the Romans. He was, how- ever, dispirited by ill-success in the commence- ment of this contest, and not fully comprehen- ding or seconding the views of the Carthaginian general, was several times defeated, but signally at Magnesia, the consequence of which was the conclusion of a peace disgraceful to the Syrian monarch. He was killed in an attempt to plun- der a temple of Jupiter. ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES, second son of the preceding, oppressed the Jews cruelly and laid siege to Alexandria. He was compelled to desist by the interference of the Romans in be- half of their ally Ptolemy. Nothing can show in a more striking light the terror of the Roman name, than the following anecdote. When Antiochus was on the point of marching against Ptolemy, Popilius Ltenas arrived at his court as ambassador from the Roman J-'cnate. He was instructed to command Antiochus to relinquish his hostile project. Any other but a Roman citi- zen would have been awed at the presence of the courtiers and army of the king, sitting as he was, surrounded by all the imposing splen- dors of a regal camp. But Popilius sternly de- livered the message of the senate, and with such an air of haughty "authority, that Antiochus was embarrassed. He endeavoured, however, to sa- ANT 65 ANT tisfy the ambassador with an evasive answer ; but Popilius, with his staff, drew a circle around the king's seat ; and said sternly : " Pass not that boundary, I command you, O King, until you have given a plain answer to the senate's demand." The king, overawed by this boldness, promised to sacrifice his project to the wishes of the Romans. The last Syrian king of this name was Antiochus Asiaticus. On his expul- sion by Pompey, Syria became a Roman pro- vince, ruled by governors. ANTI PATER, a Macedonian, the faithful minister of Philip and Alexander, and pupil of Aristotle. He obtained the European provinces on the death of Alexander. His war with the states of Greece terminated successfully. He died, B. C. 317. ANTISTHENES, founder of the sect of the Cynics, was bom at Athens, between 424 and 421, B. C. From Socrates he imbibed an en- thusiastic love of virtue. He thought that vir- tue consisted in independence of circumstances, and to maintain this, he thought it requisite that our wants should be reduced to the smallest number. He affected a contempt for wealth, honor, the delights of the senses, and know- ledge, and sturdily walked the streets, in the ragged garb of a beggar. Plato was one of the first to penetrate his whims, and guess at their design, and his brilliant remark to the Cynic, has not escaped oblivion : " 1 see your vanity," said the sage, " through the holes of your coat." Antisthenes, however, was a virtuous man, whose conversation was agreeable, and is worthy of high praise, if it be true that he at- tacked the accusers of Socrates, and by his per- severance obtained the banishment of one, and the death of another. ANTIUM, a city of the Volsci on the Tuscan Sea, traces of which are still visible in Capo d' Anzo, or Antio. Camillus took it, and carrying the beaks of their vessels to Rome employed them in ornamenting a tribunal in the forum, thence called the Rostra (beaks). The city was dedicated to the goddess of Fortune, whose statue nodded answers, when consulted as an or- acle, being probably formed upon some simple mechanical principle. ANTOINETTE (Marie Antoinette Josephe Jeanne), of Lorraine, arch-duchess of Austria, the accomplished, beautiful, and unfortunate queen of Louis XVI, whom she married while he was dauphin. She was the daughter of Francis I and Maria Theresa, and was born at Vienna, in 1755. Her accomplishments, talents, grace, virtue, and uncommon loveli- ness, fitted her for the queen of a gallant nation, and as such she would have been honored in France, had she lived before oppression had roused the people to madness. Her mother, in a letter to her future husband, after alluding to the care with which she had formed her mind, says, "Above all things, I have recommended to her humility before God, because I am convinc- ed that it is impossible for us to secure the hap- piness of the subjects confided to us, without love to Him, who destroys the sceptres and the thrones of kings according to his will." The marriage took place at Versailles, May 1G, 1770, and was celebrated with uncommon splendor, but immediately after the ceremony, a thunder- storm of unparalleled violence broke over the palace of Versailles, darkened the surrounding scenery, and struck terror into the hearts of the people for miles around. On May 30th, the festivities at Paris were saddened by a most terrible accident ; a number of citizens being crushed to death in the Rue Royale, by some mismanagement on the part of the proper au- thorities. 53 persons were found dead, and 300 more were dangerously injured. The magnanimity of Marie Antoinette dis- played itself soon after her elevation to the throne, on the death of Louis XV. An officer of the gardes du corps (body-guard), who had given offence on some former occasion, expressed his intention of resigning his commission, but the queen forbade him. " Remain," said she, " for- get the past. Far be it from the queen of France to avenge the injuries of the dauphi- ness." She devoted herself to the interests of her people with an assiduity unparalleled in a sove- reign of her age, yet, becoming obnoxious to the court party, her character was assailed in every shape and quarter. She was accused of setting on foot conspiracies which never existed, and of entertaining views which never entered her mind. She was termed the Austrian, and it was openly asserted as well as privately insinu- ated, that her heart was estranged from the country of her husband, and her mind solely occupied with the interests of her native land. In her conduct there was matter for gentle re- proof, but none for malevolent accusation. A gayety, which sometimes degenerated into le- vity, a passion for fashionable novelties, and an unwary contempt for court formalities, instead of being regarded as the foibles and impru- dences of a young and innocent mind, were construed into evidences of the existence of loose principles, unbridled extravagance, and hatred for the nation. She was likewise charged ANT 66 ANT with pettishness under reproof, and we can readily conceive how a female of so high a rank, conscious of the purity of her intentions, and perpetually assailed by reckless cavillers, as- sumed in reply to the unworthy insinuations of her enemies, the tone which her virtue and her birth appeared to warrant. The affair of the diamond necklace created an extraordinary sensation. A jeweller at Paris demanded pay- ment for a necklace so costly that the finances of a queen would hardly warrant its purchase. The result of an examination was the proof of the queen's integrity. A lady of the stature and complexion of the queen had succeeded in dis- guising herself, and passing herself off as Antoinette, upon a cardinal in a midnight meet- ing in the park of Versailles. On the 6th of October (1789) the mob broke into the palace of Versailles, murdered some of the body-guards, and threatened the queen in the most frightful language. At midnight she received a letter from a friendly clergyman, advising her to seek safety in flight, as her life would be sacrificed early the next morning. She resolved to remain and destroyed the warning letter. She heard the footsteps of the ruffian rabble — she thought her time had come — but her life was saved. The progress of the ruffians was arrested at the very door of her bed-chamber, where her faithful guardsmen laid down their lives to secure for their queen a retreat to the chamber of the king. The king and queen showed them- selves with their children in the balcony. The mass of heads beneath for a moment ceased to be agitated — but it was only for a moment. Si- lence was broken by a thousand tongues : " No children — no children ! The queen ! the queen alone !" This was a trying moment ; but Antoi- nette had firmness for the crisis. Putting her son and daughter into her husband's arms, she advanced alone into the balcony. A spectacle like this filled the fierce people with admiration, and thundering shouts of Vive la reine ! {Long live the queen !) succeeded to the imprecations of the preceding moment. Such is the fickle- ness of a mob ! The march to Paris was a suc- cession of terrors. The heads of two faithful guardsmen, elevated on pikes, met the eyes of the poor queen as she looked from her carriage windows. The fate of Antoinette darkened rapidly. With the king she fled to Varennes, — with him was brought back to Paris. Her courage did not fail in the scene of the Legislative Assembly, before which body she was present with her husband, heard his deposition pronounced, and then went into the Temple, where he was imprisoned. Here, where the light of heaven faintly fell through grated windows, surrounded by her fa- mily, she appeared to feel entire resignation to the will of Him, on whom the happiness of the hum- blest individual depends. When she heard the condemnation of the king from the lips of the royal victim, she had the firmness to congratu- late him on the speedy delivery from trouble which awaited him. The eternal separation from her son did not shake her firmness, and, with a heart apparently unbroken, she was con- signed to the loathsome depths of a dungeon, August 5th, 1793. The accusations brought against the unhappy queen on her trial, were all unfounded, and merely advanced because her enemies had still respect enough for justice, to mimic its forms in their guilty court. She was charged with having squandered the public money, and with leaguing in secret with the foreign enemies of France. The clearness of her innocence, the falsehood and frivolity of witnesses, the eloquence of defenders were of no avail — Marie Antoinette was doomed to die upon the scaffold. The expression of her countenance as she passed to the place of execution awed the bloodthirsty populace — but the once matchless beauty of that noble countenance was gone- forever. One unacquainted with the ravages of grief, could rot believe that the haggard and forsaken being whom they led to sacrifice, was the same young queen who a short time before, held in thrall the chivalry of France, by her exquisite loveliness, her winning grace and sportive gayety. Antoinette cast back a long last look at the Tuilleries. A look which told of sorrowful remembrance, and of agonizing emotion — then with an air of dignified resigna- tion, she ascended the scaffold. " My God !" cried she, as she kneeled on that fatal plat- form, "enlighten and affect my executioner! Adieu, my children — my beloved ones — for- ever ! I am going to your father !" This noble woman perished in her 38th year, October 16, 1793. ANTONINUS (Annius Verus), best known by the name of Marcus Aurelius, born A. D. 121, assumed the imperial dignity, A. D. 161, on the death of Antoninus Pius. He chose for his colleague, Lucius Verus, but the latter, dying a few years after, left the government solely in the hands of Antoninus. In the prosecution of the war against the Quadi, his army was on the point of perishing of thirst, when there fell an abundant shower of rain, which was attributed ANT 67 APE to the prayers of the 10th, (a Christian) legion, and they were thenceforth termed the thunder- ing legion. Though justly celebrated for be- neficence and equity, Antoninus was not free from religious fanaticism, and authorized a per- secution of the Christians in Gaul. His want of foresight in introducing the profligate Com- modus, his son, into the government, was pro- ' ductive of most unhappy consequences. After l his death, which took place in the 59th year of f his age, and 19th of his reign, he was deified by I the Romans, who appreciated his merit. ANTONINUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvi- • us, originally of a Gaulish family, was born near I Rome, A. D. 86. He succeeded to the consu- j late in A. D. 120, and was adopted by, and suc- I ceeded Adrian in 138. He was tolerant to the - Christians, humane, dignified, and just, and his ■ reign was one of undisturbed tranquillity. He was wont to say, with Scipio, " I had rather ] save the life of a single citizen, than destroy a thousand of my enemies." He died at the age of 74, A. D. 161. ANTONY, Mark, (Marcus Antonius), the triumvir, was born 86 years B. C. He attract- • ed notice at an early age by his bravery and | dissipation. His first exploit was the establish- ; ment of Ptolemy Auletes on the throne. He j attached himself to the party of Cassar, whose \ favor he gained by the employment of all the "i arts of which he was master, and was appoint- I ed by Caesar his colleague in the consulship, B. C. 44. After the fall of Caesar, Antony obtain- I ed from the senate a confirmation of the acts of j his colleague, and a public funeral, at which I he delivered an harangue so eloquent and spirit- [ stirring that he roused the indignation of the people, and forced Brutus and Cassius to fly. I Octavius, the heir of Ccesar, was supported by I the enemies of Antony, who wished to curtail the authority of this ambitious man, but in the course of the civil war, Antony, uniting with Lepidus and Octavius, formed the triumvirate which, in Rome, speedily manifested the most sanguinary designs. Each of the triumvirs agreed to sacrifice his friends, and their alli- ance was cemented by the blood of Rome's bravest and best citizens. Antony affixed the head and hand of Cicero to the rostrum, which he had dignified by his eloquence. Brutus and Cassius being defeated, Antony went to the East, and surrounded by Asiatic luxuries, forgot what- ever of manliness he had once possessed. Cap- tivated by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, his am- bition was lost in the indulgence of his pas- sions. Fulvia, his wife, having taken up arms against Octavius, the latter quarrelled with An- tony, but a reconciliation was effected, and An- tony, on the death of his wife, married Octavia, the sister of his colleague, to strengthen the bonds which united them. His renewal of the infamous connexion with Cleopatra, however, drew down upon him the vengeance of Octavius, and war was declared against Egypt by the Ro- mans. How Antony fought and fled at Actium has been described. (See Actium.) Finding him- self deserted on all sides, and hearing of the death of Cleopatra, Antony desired his slave Eros to slay him. This humble friend, affect- ing to consent, requested his master to turn away his face, and then falling on Antony's sword, died at his feet. Antony, touched at this heroism, snatched the weapon, and gave himself a mortal wound, but had strength enough left to be carried into the presence of Cleopatra in whose arms he died, B. C. 30. ANTWERP, in French, Anvers, a city of the Netherlands, strongly fortified, containing several beautiful public buildings, and 65,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures are important, and recently its commerce has been flourishing. Before the war between Spain and the Nether- lands, Antwerp was a place of more importance than Amsterdam. In the beginning of the 16th century, the Scheldt, on which it is situated, was crowded with vessels; but its harbor was closed by the peace of Westphalia. This com- pleted the ruin which the siege, under the prince of Parma, commenced. When Napoleon declar- ed the Austrian Netherlands free, he prevented the revival of its commerce by making Antwerp a military depot. In 1814, Carnot gallantly de- fended the city against the English and Saxons. In 1833, General Chasse, held out for a long time against the French under Marechal Ge- rard, but the latter was victorious. ANUBIS, an Egyptian deity, son of Osiris, worshipped at first under the form of a dog, and afterwards under that of a man with a dog's head. APELLES, a painter of antiquity, who re- ceived the right of citizenship at Ephesus. He was contemporary with Alexander the Great, and the most masterly of his performances was a picture called " Alexander holding the light- ning." Many anecdotes are related of ham, among others, the following. He had painted a horse, which was severely criticised by a per- son who examined it, and in such a manner that the pride of the artist was wounded. Re- solved to put his performance to the test, he had a horse led into his painting-room, where ARA 63 ARA the animal, on beholding the picture, neighed, and thus secured the triumph of Apelles. APIS, a bull worshipped by the. ancient Egyptians. He dwelt in chapels, and was fed with care. His birth-day was celebrated with singular ceremonies, and his funeral conducted on the most expensive scale. The color of the bull was required to be black, he had a triangu- lar wlute spot on the forehead, a white crescent on his right side, and a knot under his tongue. He was drowned in the .Nile when he attained the age of 25. APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona, twin- brother of Diana, born on the island of Delos. He was the god of music, poetry, and prophecy, and considered by physicians, shepherds, and founders of cities, as their patron. A few days after his birth, he killed the serpent Py- thon with an arrow, and is generally represent- ed with a bow and quiver. He fought bravely against the Titans, under Jupiter. When his son ^Esculapius (which see), was killed by Jove's thunder-bolt, Apollo slew the Cyclops, who forged the thunderer's weapons. Having con- quered the satyr Marsyas, in a musical dispute, Apollo flayed him alive. Pan having disputed the superiority of Apollo in music, a day was appointed for deciding their merits, and Timolus and Midas were judges. The latter, denying the merit of Apollo, was punished by having a pair of ass's ears affixed to his head. When he built the walls of Megara, he laid his lute upon a stone which ever afterwards sent forth a strain of music upon being touched. The Ro- mans celebrated games in his honor which were called Jlpollinaria, and consisted of bull- fights, contests of athletae, and theatrical shows. APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSINUS, the profligate decemvir, who attempted to destroy the virtue of Virginia. (See Virginia.) His con- duct produced a revolution, and he killed him- self in prison, according to Livy. He was at the height of his power about 400 B. C. AQUILEIA, or AGLAR, formerly a flour- ishing place situated on the Adriatic Sea, and the Timavus, in Upper Italy, now an inconsi- derable fishing town in Illyria. It was anciently called, from its splendor, the " Second Rome." The Romans built it chiefly to oppose the incur- sions of the Barbarians. It was destroyed by Attila in 452. ARABIA, is a country of great extent, and of much historical interest. Its boundaries have varied greatly at different times, but taken in its widest extent, it may be said to be one of the very largest peninsulas in the world. On the east, it is bounded by the Euphrates, the Persian Gulf, and the bay of Ormus ; on the west by Palestine, part of Syria, the Isthmus of Suez, and the Red Sea , en the south by the Straits of Babelmandel and the Indian Ocean ; and on the north, by part of Syria, Diarbekir, Irak, and Khuzestan. The greater portion of this vast territory is occupied by long, dreary deserts of sand ; while, in some parts, as on the western side of the Arabian desert, the soil is rendered fertile by the irrigation of rivulets, and various flowers, both indigenous, and trans- planted from India, spring up, bud, and blos- som, filling the air with their ravishing perfume. Some precious stones are found in Arabia, but its principle riches are flocks and herds. Of the natural history of Arabia we can say but little. Ferocious animals pursue their prey in the de- serts, which they render terrific by their pre- sence and ferocity, while the mountains produce animals yielding many and great advantages to commerce. Of these we may mention the civet- cat, the bezoar goat, the musk-rat, and others of domestic habits and importance. Concerning the old Arabians who are now destroyed, or merged and lost in other tribes, there is no distinct history or memoir extant. Kahtan or Joktan, son of fiber, and Adrian, the direct descendant of Ishmael, were the ances- tors of the present races of Arabians. The pos-' terity of Joktan are termed genuine or pure Arabs, that of Isbmael, naturalized Arabs, or Mos- tarabi. More than 3G00 years ago, Yarab, Jok- tan's eldest son, is said to have succeeded his father in the kingdom of Yemen, while Jorham, the younger, founded the kingdom of Hejaz, which his posterity possessed until the time of Ishmael. In the time of Alexander the Great, the inundation of Arem overwhelmed with mis- ery the tribes settled in Yemen, eight of which were forced to fly their dwellings and migrate to other lands. Ishmael, marrying the daughter of Modab, one of the princes of Hejaz, had 12 sons. The descendants of Ishmael, driving out the Jorhamites, took possession of their country. The government appears to have been in the hands not of one ruler, but of the leaders of the different tribes. An aristocracy prevailed at Mecca until the time of Mahomet. Sesostris, of whom the Jewish historian, Josephus, speaks under the name of Sesac, conquered Arabia. Yet this conquest was but in name, for the Arabs were too proud and independent to bow their necks beneath the tread of the conqueror, and subsequent events show, that even during his reign, they made themselves formidable to ARA 69 ARA he Egyptians, and Scsoslris himself was forced o draw a line between Heliopolis and Pelusi- im, to guard his native subjects against the at- acks of the Arabs. Furthermore we have evi- lence, that, although he had a powerful fleet ipon the Red Sea, he did no more than skirt he shores of Arabia Felix, or at most, take pos- session of some of its maritime provinces. It nay safely be asserted that the whole peninsula >f Arabia never was, or, at least, never was for ,tny length of time, subjected to the Egyptians. , The Hycsos or Shepherd Kings, who inva- ,jled Egypt, and for a long time held undisputed „ way in that country, were Arabians. Neither r he Assyrians, the Medes, nor the Persians, iwer obtained firm footing in Arabia. The Per- sian monarchs were regarded by the Arab /hiefs in the light of friends, and received an- nually a voluntary present of frankincense ,s a tribute of respect, but other ties than jbose of the heart never bound the free dwel- Jers of Arabia to the proud potentates of r 'ersia. Cambyses, when flushed with ambi- ious pride, and rushing forward to the conquest 'f Egypt, paused in his impetuous career, and ..espeotfully asked of the Arabians permission to ] tass through their country. The Spartans, war- , ; ke and daring as they were, had reason to re- jientof an incursion which they made upon the Arabs. Alexander the Great, when inflated jvith the success of his arms, was surprised to ,ind that the Arabs so little dreaded his tremen- lous power, as to neglect sending ambassadors jo him. This gave the Macedonian a high opin- I on of them as " Waniors worthy of his steel ;" jiut deatli put an end to his hostile projects. His J uccessors attempted the conquest of Arabia, but jVere completely defeated. The Romans made 'lifferent incursions into Arabia with but partial | uccesses to compensate for heavy losses, until i.Elius Gallus, in the reign of Augustus, pene- ' rated into the interior of the country, and gain- ed some victories, which the deadly heats the I trmy encountered rendered unavailing. The I ^rabs were not again disturbed by the Romans j mtil the reign of Trajan. , This emperor, confident of success, besieged | he capital of the Hangarenes, but was forced, auch to his chagrin, to raise the siege. The •mperor Severus met with a similar disap- >ointment. The Saracens joined the Persians j against Julian the Apostate. This prince refus- I >d to pay the tribute which, under the name >f subsidy, the barbarians had exacted from his predecessors. On their complaining, Julir.n sternly replied : " Iron and not gold is the metal that 1 deal in." This answer caused their revolt. Under the reign of Theodosius, the Arabs ceas- ed to be the stay, and became the terror of the empire. Disunion had heretofore weakened their forces, but now, uniting, they showed their power was indeed formidable. If they had no knowledge of those military arts by which alone the strongholds of power are prostrated, they pos- sessed that wild and desperate valor which car- ried them triumphantly through their predatory expeditions. Mohammed, and after him, the Ca- liphs, called forth the energies of the Arabs and the display of every quality which fitted them to bear arms, but that of implicit obedience. The Arabs were too proud of their hereditary in- dependence to submit blindly to the yoke of any man or combination of men, and they accord- ingly, for the most part, acknowledged only the spiritual authority of the Caliphate. When the power of the Turks gained the ascendant, the Arabs shook themselves free from fetters, re- joicing in the chainless spirit of liberty. It is not difficult to conceive the wild delight of roaming the desert mounted on a fleet horse, and beholding all around a plain which seems interminable, and presents to the Arab horse- man the idea of a solitary existence in a world of his own. A French renegado once confessed that his emotions when so situated, were almost painfully exalted. In the 16th century, during the war between the Turks and Portuguese, Solomon Pacha seized upon all the towns on the Arabian Gulf. His successors also were victorious, and al- most all Arabia became subject to the Otto- man empire. These events occurred between the years A. D. 1538 and 1568. Still all the sheiks and princes were not subdued, but many of them, remaining independent, continued to harass the Turks, until, about the middle of the 17th century, the latter were forced to relin- quish all the conquered places on the coast of Arabia. The independent spirit of the Arabs has gained them great celebrity. Arabia is celebrated as being the scene of some of those wonderful events which are commemo- rated in the Holy Scriptures. It was for a long time the dwelling-place of Moses, who married the daughter of Jethro and fed his flocks upon Mount Horeb. The children of Israel, under the guidance of the Lord, passed into Arabia, when they went from the grinding bondage of the Egyptians. In the desert of Sinai, rises that lofty mount which was clad in thunder and ARA 70 ARA lightning, when God gave his commandments to the people. Mount Sinai commands a view of .Mount Horeb, where again the Lord ap- peared in the burning bush, to Moses. There is still to be seen that rock, which, when the people thirsted for water, Moses smote ; where, from twelve mouths, the living waters gushed profusely. Again, when they were in want of water, in the wilderness of Paran, Moses smote a rock twice before the water flowed. That rock also remains at the present day, an impressive memorial of the miracle, exhibiting the various fissures whence the clear element gushed forth, cheering, by its presence, the many hearts of those who had panted for the succour. The Bedouin Arabs, although possessed of not a few good qualities, are, like other Arabian tribes, inveterate robbers. When a Bedouin descries a traveller at a distance, he puts his horse to his speed, and rides furiously up, ex- claiming loudly : " Undress thyself, thy aunt (my wife) is without a garment." There is no way to avoid death in this case but submis- sion, as the possession of the meanest article of wearing apparel is an object important enough to warrant the shedding of human blood, in the eyes of the Arabs. There are many singular contradictions in the character of these wild people. A stranger who confides his safety to their honor will be treated with the utmost kind- ness, and share the wealth or poverty of his entertainer, who bids him welcome to what is his. The patriarchal form of government has ever subsisted among the Arabs. The dignity of Grand Sheik (Prince) is hereditary in cer- tain families, but the inferior Sheiks choose a successor out of his family, on the death of a Grand Sheik. Although Arabia is a rich coun- try, the greater portion of the inhabitants are ill-fed and clad, simply because they prefer a wandering life of freedom, to one of confine- ment and restraint, even if it bring the great- est luxuries. These they profess to despise. The Arabs, after fluctuating between a variety of religions, have generally embraced Moham- medanism, of which there are several sects. One trait in their character is highly praiseworthy ; their extreme kindness to the domestic animals to which they owe so much, and which, in- deed, constitute, as before remarked, their prin- cipal support. They free these creatures from work in their old age, and permit them to die a natural death. The Arab horses are the most splendid and valuable in the world, and are reared with extreme care ; spirited, docile, fleet, handsome, and hardy, they always command the highest prices. The Arabs, proud of the antiquity of their own origin, are no less care- ful of the fame of their horses, of which they preserve authenticated pedigrees. For charg- ers, the Arab horses are positively unrivalled A war-horse of this country appears delighted with the din of battle. His spirit rises with the ardor of the conflict, and he dashes into the " current of a heady fight," reckless of the vol- leys of musketry and cannon pealing around him, even when struck with shot, " Staggering, yet stemming all, his lord, unharmed he bears." He will watch his master if he falls from his saddle in the fight, and not only shield him, but neigh for assistance. The ordinary price for an Arabian horse is 1000, 2000, or even 3000 pounds sterling. Sometimes even the poorest Arabs will not part with their faithful chargers, even though the most tempting offers be held out. " No, my jewel," was the affectionate ex- clamation addressed to his mare by that Arab whose story is so celebrated — who, after he had agreed to relinquish the beautiful creature to grace the stud of the King of France, at an enormous price, could not find it in his heart to tear himself from his faithful servant : " No' my jewel ! they shall never part us ! we have lived and we die together." Saying this with tears in his eyes, he sprang upon her back, and rushed back to the desert, happy in having es- caped the temptation and the sacrifice. Arabia is divided into five provinces : — Ye- men — containing three million inhabitants, go- verned by an imam : Oman — under the imam of Muscat : Lassa or Hassa : Nedshed and Te- mama: and Heijaz, the Holy Land of the Mo- hammedans. ARAM, Eugene, whose erudition and fate have rendered him remarkable, was born at' Ramsgill, a village in Yorkshire, England, in the year 1704. His father was, by profession, a gardener, and forced to contend with depres- sing poverty. At an early age, Eugene was removed, with his mother, to Skelton, and sub- sequently to Bondgate, near Rippon, where his father had made a small purchase. He was here sent to school and learned to read the New Testament in English; but from that period, with the exception of a month's tuition from a clergyman, Aram owed nothing to teachers, all his learning being self-acquired. His fathei was gardener to Sir Edward Blackett, at New- by ; and, when about Ihirteen or fourteen years of age, Aram joined him. In the house of tht ARA 71 ARA >aronet, Eugene first displayed his love of lite- rature and science. Apart from the bustle and .urmoil of the world, he passed his solitary hours , n incessant study. Mathematics early engaged jiis attention, and he became a proficient in the ?xact sciences ; indeed, his fondness for mathe- l-natics recommended him to Mr. Christopher !Blackett, of London, whom he served for some dme in the capacity of book-keeper, commenc- i ng his London life at sixteen years of age. A.fter residing with Mr. Blackett for a year and i half, he was taken with the small-pox, and 'suffered greatly from the terrible disorder. He afterwards complied with the wishes of f lis father, and returned to Yorkshire, where he -mrsued his studies with increasing avidity, but Vith altered views, having discovered that po- ite literature possessed greater charms for him han mathematics. He now made himself ac- quainted with the works of the most celebrated J>oets, and went through a course of historical '■eading. He went to Netherdale for the pur- pose of engaging in teaching, and here, consid- ering himself satisfactorily settled, he married. I His marriage proved unhappy, and to his mat- rimonial connection he afterwards attributed 'he evils which befel him, and the crime which 'ie committed. Finding himself deficient in classical learning, he resolved to master the earned languages and applied himself to the Itudy of the Latin and Greek grammars with Ijreat spirit. He soon acquired the elements, Lnd proceeded to their application, perusing Ivith ease and pleasure the Latin classics, poets, lnd historians. He next read the Greek Testa- jnent, and finished his course with Hesiod, Ho- iner, Theocritus, Herodotus, and Thucydides, jvith the Greek tragic poets. I At the seat of his friend, William Norton, ■iSsq. of Knaresborough,he learned the Hebrew anguage,and read the Pentateuch, in 1734. In 744, he was engaged in London, as usher in ,' he school of a Mr. Painblanc, and gave instruc- I son in Latin and writing. Here he became ac- quainted with the French language. After- vards, he was employed as usher and tutor in Various seminaries in England, and never suf- lered a single opportunity of making new ac- (uisitions to escape. He was acquainted with I he voluminous and quaint details of heraldry, nd with the gentle lore of flowers. He ac- tuired the Chaldee and Arabic languages, and avestigated the Celtic dialects. Having dis- covered an affinity between the Celtic, English, I jatin, Greek, and Hebrew tongues, he was mployed upon a comparative lexicon of these languages, when a frightful event arrested his literary progress. Aram was accused of hav- ing murdered Daniel Clark, a shoemaker. The murder had been concealed for nearly fourteen years, when the discovery of a skeleton, at first supposed to be that of Clark, set on foot inves tigations which resulted in the arrest of Aram. At the time of his being taken into custody, he was usher of a school at Lynn, in Norfolk. The murder was committed on the 8th of De- cember, 1744-5. Its object was a little paltry gain, although the murderer assigned jealousy as the motive. Remorse had preyed upon the spirits of Aram from the time of the commis- sion of the deed, and he is said to have con- versed with the boys at Lynn on the subject of murder, and related to them tales of murders, commencing with the crime of Cain. Upon his trial at York assizes, on the 3d of August, 1759, he displayed great calmness and self-possession. The principal evidence against him was his wife, from whom he had been a long time separated. Circumstantial evidence, in addition to that of Richard Houseman, helped to convict him. His defence displayed a talent and consummate address which was acknow- ledged by the judges, whose admission of its in- genuity destroyed the hopes of Aram. He was found guilty. He subsequently confessed his crime, and acknowledged the justice of his sen- tence. While in prison, he attempted to com- mit suicide by opening his arm in two places with a knife which he had concealed for the purpose. He almost succeeded, and was in a state of excessive weakness, when conducted to the scaffold. Standing beneath the fatal tree, he was asked if he had any thing to say, but he silently shook his head. He was in- stantly executed, and his body hung in chains in Knaresborough forest. ARANJUEZ, a village and palace thirty miles from Madrid (Spain), usually the court residence from Easter till the close of June. The palace and grounds are superb. ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia, rising to the height of 17,100 feet. Here it is supposed that Noah's ark settled. ARATUS, the hero who freed Sicyon from the tyrant Nicocles, in his twentieth year ; he afterwards became chief of Sicyon, and gene- ral of the Achaean league. His life was event- ful ; and he died 216 B. C. ARAUCANIANS, a South American nation of Indians, resident in Chili. Their number is about 400,000. They have maintained their independence through many contests with the ARG 72 ARG Spaniards. They subsist by cultivating the land and raising cattle. A Toqui (hereditary noble) is at the head of government, and he strictly maintained the neutrality of his people during the South American struggle for inde- pendence. ARCADIA, a mountain country in the cen- tral part of the Peloponnessus. On the north it was bounded by Achaia and Sicyon, on the east by Argolis, on the south by Messenia, and on the west by Elis. Originally called Pelasgia, from the Pelasgi, its first inhabitants, it received its name of Arcadia, from Areas, grandson of Lycaon. The shepherds inhabiting the country were for a long time rude and uncivilized, but when they cultivated the arts of agriculture, and sweetened their labors by occasional inter- vals of relaxation, in which they occupied themselves with music and dancing, they be- came famous in song, and Orcadian felicity was a phrase expressive of unalloyed enjoyment. But Arcadia was far from being a paradise, and its inhabitants were not so devoted to pastoral pursuits, that they forgot the excitements of war. On the contrary, when no quarrels of their own occupied them, they engaged in the service of other states. ARCHANGEL, a Russian City, with 20,000 inhabitants, on the White Sea, thirty miles from the mouth of the Dwina. It receives its name from the monastery of Michael the archangel, founded there in 1584. It is a place of great trade, and its harbor is good, though the en- trance is obstructed by a sand-bank. ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated geome- trician of antiquity, born at Syracuse, 287 B. C. He was famed for the mechanical contri- vances which he employed to defend his native city , when besieged by the Romans, whose fleet, Lucian says, he set on fire with burning-glas- ses. Metellus, who took the city, wished to spare the life of Archimedes, but he lost it in the following manner. When the Romans en- tered the city, Archimedes was found by-a sol- dier, poring over some figures which he had drawn in the sand. He begged the Roman to spare his circle, but the man heedless of his request, rushed forward and killed him with a blow. He was then seventy-five years old, and his death took place 212 B. C. He is said to have declared that he could move the globe, if he only had a place to stand upon. ARCHONS. (See Athens.) AREOPAGUS. (See Athens.) ARGOLIS, in the eastern part of the Pelo- ponnessus, bounded on the north by Achaia and Corinth ; on the northeast by the Saronicgulf; on the west by Arcadia, and on the south by Laconia. The Argolic gulf lies upon the south- west. Fertile plains and swelling hills vary the surface of this region. It was colonised by Egyptians in 1800, and 1500 B. C. Danaus led the earliest colony, and Inachus the next after him. Pelops, who reigned over Argos, gave his name to the peninsula. It was the kingdom of Atreus and Agamemnon, Adras- tus, Eurystheus, and Diomedes, the birth-place of Hercules, and the scene of his victory over the Lernsean Hydra. The fine arts and music in particular, were successfully cultivated by the Argives. The modern Argos is but a shadow of the ancient city. A monitorial and high school were established here in 1825. Argolis was anciently divided into small, but independent states. These were Argos, Myce- na;, Tirynthus, Trcezene (now Damala), Her- mione (now Castri), and Epidaurus. ARGONAUTS. The story of the expedi- tion of Jason and his adventurous companions, to procure the golden fleece of Colchis, is chief- ly fabulous, and has probably little connection with any known facts. Jason was not permit- ted to ascend the throne of his father by Pelias, who filled it, except on condition of bringing from Colchis the golden fleece of the ram, which, bore Phryxus and Helle away from their cruel' step-mother, Ino. Most of the heroes of Greece embarked with Jason in the Argo, a splendid I vessel built for the adventure, and superior to ; any which had previously floated on the waves. After encountering many vicissitudes, they came to the country of jEetes. This monarch, whose life depended on the preservation of the golden fleece, without refusing to surrender it, : first imposed upon Jason three labors which he hoped would destroy him. He was to yoke the bulls of Vulcan to a plough of adamant, and' turn up a field consecrated to Mars, which had' never been opened ; in the furrows thus form- ed, he was to sow the serpent's teeth of Cad- mus, which would instantly start forth as armed men, whom he was to slay ; and finally, to kill the dragon that was the watchful guardian of the golden fleece. The magical arts of Me- dea, who had fallen in love with the young hero, assisted him to achieve these enterprises with success, and finally, when the king deter- mined on the murder of the Argonauts, enabled him to possess himself of the fleece, and escape with tbe enamored lady, and all his compan ions. The king soon missing the fleece anc the fleet, pursued and came in sight of them ARI 73 ARK Medea then murdered her brother Absyrtus, whose limbs she strewed in her father's path. The afflicted old man, by staying to collect them, gave the fugitives time to escape. After many adventures, the Argo returned safely. The time of the undertaking is placed in the middle of the 13th century B. C. ARGUS, the fabled son of Arestor, whose hundred eyes caused him to be selected by Ju- no as the keeper of Io. Having been slain by Mercury, he was changed into a peacock, and his eyes were placed in his tail. ARION, a musician and poet, born at Me- thymna, in Lesbos, and flourished B. C. G25. His fabulous fate has been often celebrated. When at sea with all his treasures, the mariners sought his life ; but he leaped overboard, and it is related that a dolphin, charmed with his music, carried him safe to land. ARIOSTO, Ludovieo, the celebrated author of the Orlando Furloso, was born at Reggio, Sept. 8th, 1474, and died at Ferrara, in 1533. Having lost the favor of Cardinal Ippolito d' Este, he was received by duke Alfonso, whose rewards, however, were but trifling. He ex- perienced many vicissitudes, and at one time, lived with great splendor. His productions are various. ARIST1DES, son of Lysimachus, a noble Athenian, surnamed, from his high integrity, the Just. lie was instrumental in gaining the battle of Marathon. There were ten generals, of whom he was one, each having the command of the army for one day. Thinking this arrange- ment injurious to the troops, Aristides prevailed on the other generals to give up their days of command to Miltiades, and this measure secured the triumph of the Greeks. Becoming obnoxious to the party of Themistocles, he was banished by ostracism. Each person wrote the name of the man he wished banished, on a shell (ostrakon); these were then counted, and the person whose name occurred most frequently was banished An ignorant fellow, in the public assembly, not Knowing him, turned to Aristides, and asked him to write Aristides. " What reason have you for disliking him ? " asked Aristides. " Oh," replied the fellow, " I am tired of hearing him called the Just." When the Athenians were alarmed by the approach of Xerxes, they recalled Aristides, who, casting away the remembrance of former wrongs, assisted Themistocles in the public cause. Aristides also refused to countenance Uie banishment of Themistocles, when he incurred the displeasure of his countrymen. Nothing displays more clearly the reputation of Aristides, than his being appointed to apportion the contributions to be paid by the several states of Greece, towards the expenses of the war. This delicate duty he discharged to the satisfac- tion of all. He died poor about 4t>7 B. C. His countrymen bestowed a magnificent funeral upon him, pensioned his son, and portioned his two daughters. ARISTOGITON, and Harmodius,two of the most famous patriots of Athens ; finding their country oppressed by Hipparchus and Hippias, sons of Fisistratus, they formed a conspiracy against them. Hipparchus was slain 514 B. C, but owing to the backwardness of the peo- ple, Harmodius was killed by the guards, and Aristogiton seized. Being tortured to make him disclose the names of his accomplices, he named the friends of the tyrant, and they were put to death in rapid succession. " Now," said Aristogiton to Hippias, " there only remains yourself worthy of death." Hippias was ex- pelled three years afterwards, and the Athe- nians paid the greatest honors to the memory of the two friends. Praxiteles executed their statues, which were erected in the forum, their praise was sung in hymns, and it was forbidden to give the name of either to a slave. ARISTOMENES, a brave general of Mes- senia, who in vain endeavored to free his coun- trymen from the Lacedemonian yoke. ARISTOTLE, the most famous philoso- pher of Greece, founder of the Peripatetic sect, was born at Stagira 384 B. C. He died 322 B. C, having taken poison to avoid the perse- cution of his enemies. He was the preceptor of Alexander, and has left many important works. ARKANSAS Tenitory, having passed from the hands of the Spaniards into those of the Americans, was detached from Missouri, in 1819, and erected into a separate government. The recent settlers, a band of turbulent, and appaiently indomitable spirits, were easily sub- jected to the American laws, in which, in the opinion of a distinguished author, there appears to be a strong tendency to create docility and habits of peace, and their administration in Ar- kansas is attended with little difficulty. The inhabitants of the Post, a small village on the northern bank of the Arkansas, about fifty milea above its mouth, are generally what are called "old residenters,'' and dwelt there under the Spanish regime. The Spaniards and French made early settlements on the Arkansas ; and established themselves at the Post more than a hundred years ago. The Spanish government ARK 74 ARM consisted of the priest, a handful of soldiers, and the commandant, who regarded the Americans within the territory, as dangerous animals, with whom it was most politic not to interfere. Some years since, while the Post was under the Spanish sway, a party of the Muskogee Indians carried off the child of the commandant, a boy but little advanced beyond infancy. A Quaw- paw chief agreed to restore the boy to his parent. He descended the Arkansas, until he found the hostile party encamped. They had killed and roasted a bear, around the carcase of which they were shouting in great glee. It is the cus- tom of the savages of these regions to send a single warrior into the hostile camp, shouting a a war-song of his tribe, as a prelude to general battle. The Quawpaw chieftain, whose re- sources rose with his exigencies, sprang into the midst of the Muskogees, yelling- defiance, and brandishing his tomahawk. The astonish- ed Muskogees, thinking that the whole force of Spanish and Quawpaws were in their vi- cinity, sprang into their canoes, and paddled off with great rapidity, while the successful savage, taking possession of the spoils, viz. the bear, boy, and whiskey, returned to the com- mandant. Arkansas is bounded north by the State of Missouri, east by the Mississippi, separating it from Tennessee and Mississippi, south by Louisiana, and west by Mexico. The Ozark mountains run through the territory from E. to S. W. The soil on the rivers is fertile ; in other parts, generally barren. Cotton and In- dian corn, are the staple productions. Wild fowl and animals are abundant. There are a variety of minerals. The Arkansas, which flows through the middle of the country is navigable for boats 1980 miles. Little Rock, the seat of government, is so called by way of jest, for it abounds in immense masses of stone. The population of Arkansas, is not far from 40,000. ARK WRIGHT, Sir Richard, at first an hum- ble barber, is celebrated as the inventor of the spinning jenny. In 1767, he quitted his bar- ber's shop, and in the village of Warrington, commenced with a kind of perpetual motion, which attracted the notice of a watch-maker named Kay, who gave him encouragement, and advised him to direct his attention to machinery for spinning wool. Finding their means inade- quate, they received assistance from Mr. Ather- ton, of Liverpool. Arkwright completed a machine which was patented in 1769, but the patent was set aside in 1785. After meeting with some disappointments, he successfully estab- lished himself at Nottingham, where he was con- nected with a Scotchman by the name of Dale. Being attacked by other manufacturers of Eng- land, he used to say, " that he would put a razor into the hands of a Scotchman that should shave them all." After separating from Dale Arkwright carried on his works alone with ex- traordinary success. On his death, in 17!)2, his property was found to amount to £500,000. Thus, by his extraordinary inventive powers, did this man rise from poverty, to affluence and honor. The excellence of his invention is suf- ficiently proved by the fact, that, since his time, no material improvement has been made in the mode of spinning cotton by water ma- chinery. ARMADA, (Spanish) ; a fleet of ships of war; but particularly applied to the vast arma- ment fitted out against England in the time of Elizabeth (1588), by Philip II. It consisted of 150 large ships, with 20,000 soldiers, 8,250 sea- men, and 2,000 volunteers. The number of guns was 2650, some of them of extraordinary calibre. The English navy at that time con- sisted of but 30 ships of war. It was reinforced, however, by voluntary exertions. Providence gave the first blow to this mighty enterprise ; the fleet was dispersed by tempests, some ships sunk, and others dashed against the rocks. The size, too, of the Spanish vessels, prevented them from acting with advantage on the seas in which they were engaged. Lord Admiral How- ard, ably seconded by the officers under him, attacked and beat the fleet for several days, and very few of the Spanish vessels entered port again. Sir Francis Drake, Captain Hawkins, and others, greatly distinguished themselves at this time. The preparations on land, superin- tended by the queen herself, were fully commen- surate to those at sea. ARMENIA, a country of Asia, containing 106,000 square miles, lies south of Mount Cau- casus. It was anciently divided into Major and Minor, but is now divided into several provinces. The Euphrates and Tigris, are the principal riv- ers. The soil is better adapted for grazing than agriculture, although the fruits of the south are very fine. The inhabitants are Armenians, wan- dering Turcomans, Turks, Greeks, and Jews. The Armenians are Christians, sober and tem- perate, and occupied in commercial pursuits. The early history of Armenia is not well known. The Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedo- nians, by turns possessed it. After the death of Alexander, it was united to Syria, of which it formed a part until it revolted from Antiochus ARN 75 ARR the Great, when it was possessed by two differ- ent rulers and divided into Armenia Major and Minor. Tigranes, king of the former, in 05 B. C. , reduced ArmeniaMinor, and other provinces, and united the two countries. Under him it became tributary to Rome, in 63 B. C, and Trajan made it a Roman province in 10G. After Sapor, king of Persia, vainly attempted its con- quest from the Romans, it was governed by native princes, until the Arabians conquered it in about 650. It was conquered by the Seljukian Turks about 1046, after which it suffered many changes, till it was reduced by the prince of Kharasm in 1201, who was- driven out of it by Genghis Khan in 1218. In 1335, the Ilkanian dynasty began here, and continued till 1365, when Armenia was conquered by Tamerlane, from whom it was soon after recovered by the Ilkanian princes. On the death of Ahmed Jalayr, the last of the line, in 1405, Kara Yusef, the chief of the Turcomans, got possession of it. This dynasty had the name of the Black Sheep, and in 1488, it fell by conquest to the family of the White Sheep. In 1500, it was conquered by Ishmael Sosi, and reduced by Selim I in 1514, since which time the Turks have had possession of all, except the eastern part, which belongs to Persia, and the northern part, belonging to Russia. ARMIN1US, in German, Hermann, the de- liverer of Germany from the Roman yoke, was born 18 B. C. He was educated at Rome, and honored by Augustus with the knighthood, and the rights of citizenship. But from attachment to the land of his birth, he instigated the Ger- mans to revolt. After various fortunes, he was assassinated in the 37th year of his age. ARNOLD, Benedict, a distinguished char- acter in the American revolution, was a native of Connecticut, and early engaged in the strug- gle between the colonies and the mother coun- try, espousing the cause of the former. He distinguished himself in the early actions of the war, by a reckless bravery which gained him general applause. He was at the taking of Ticonderoga, and his expedition to Canada has been celebrated as a great military enter- prise. The troops marched to Canada by the way of Maine, encountering the severity of mid-winter, threading tangled forests, and suf- fering every hardship. In 1777, Arnold dis- played great gallantry, and bore a conspicuous part in those efforts which led to the capitula- tion of Burgoyne. When possessed of authority in Philadelphia, in 1778, a marked change mani- fested itself in his conduct. He plunged into expensive pleasures, soon became involved in debt, and saw no means of escaping from his embarrassments, but by flying into the arms of the British, and earning their gold, by treason to his country. Having been reprimanded by Washington for misbehaviour, he shook off all allegiance to his struggling country, and solici- ted and obtained the command of West Point, for the basest of purposes. {See Andre). After joining the enemy, he published two manifes- toes, in which he attributed the change in his opinions to the declaration of independence, and the alliance of America with France, al- though long after the adoption of these meas- ures, he had fought beneath the Colonial co- lors, had been wounded at Quebec, and was pledged to support the cause of his country. A large sum of money, and the rank of brigadier- general in the British arm)', were the rewards of his aposticy. After his treason, he made war upon his former friends more after the manner of a bandit chieftain, than that of a high-souled warrior. Upon the recognition of the independence of the United States, Arnold retired to England, where he died, towards the close of the 18th century, an object of universal contempt. In the country for which he had given up his own, his reception was any thing but flattering. The British monarch did all in his power to make him acceptable — but failed. On one occasion, he desired to make Arnold known to the high-minded earl of Balcarras, and personally led them together. After go- ing through the usual form of introduction, Arnold extended his hand to the earl. " What, sir!" said the latter to the king, at the same time drawing himself up to his proudest height; " is this the traitor Arnold ?" He then walked haughtily away — '' The hand of Douglas was his own." Arnold challenged the Earl — they met, and Arnold, who fired first, missed his antagonist. The proud nobleman, instead of discharging his pistol, dashed it to the ground. "Stay, my lord," exclaimed Arnold, "you have not had your shot !" " No," replied the earl indignant- ly, " I leave you to the hangman." ARRAGON, the realm of, retains to the pre- sent day the name of kingdom. It is bounded north by the Pyrenees, northwest by Navarre, west by Castile, south by Valencia, and east by Catalonia. Population (in 1800) 685,630. A part of the country is mountainous, stony, and sandy, but some portions are fertile and pro- ductive. The inhabitants are hardy, industrious, ART 76 ASI active, and patriotic. The kingdom was founded about 1035, by Rami ro. Ferdinand, the last king, united Arragon and Castile, in 1474, and thereby laid the foundation of the present Spanish mo- narchy. ARRIA, the heroic wife of Pcetus, the Ro- man consul, who, being sentenced to kill him- self, by Claudius, hesitated to commit the fatal act. Arria, perceiving his reluctance, plunged a dagger into her own heart, then, drawing it forth, and presenting it to her husband, said, " My Pcetus, it is not painful !" ARTAXERXES I, surnamed Longimanus, from the length of his arms, ascended the throne of Persia, B. C. 465. During his reign peace was restored between Persia and Athens, after a war of fifty-one years. He is generally sup- posed to have been the Ahasuerus of Scripture. He died, B. C. 425. ARTAXERXES II, surnamed Mncmon, from the retentiveness of his memory, began his reign B. C. 405. Cyrus, his brother, assembled a powerful army and marched to Babylon to op- pose him, but he was met, defeated, and slain, by Artaxerxes. The latter defeated the Spar- tans and compelled them to relinquish their possessions in Asia. He was killed by his son in 361. ARTAXERXES III (Ochus), waded to the throne through the blood of his kindred. He quelled the various revolts raised against him. In Egypt he was guilty of great cruelty and extravagance. He slew Apis, and, together with some of his soldiers, ied upon its flesh. He was poisoned by his general, Bagoas, who threw his flesh to the cats, and caused sword handles to be made from his bones. ARTEMISIA I, queen of Caria, personally assisted Xerxes against the Greeks. Her me- mory was honored by a monument erected by the Spartans. ARTEMISIA II, queen of Caria, wife of Mausolus, to whom she erected after his deaih, the celebrated Mausoleum — a funeral monu- ment. It was an oblong square, 411 feet in compass, 130 feet high, and adorned with 36 columns. Artemisia did not long survive her husband, by whose side she was interred, 351 B. C. ARTHUR, a prince of ancient Britain, whose story Hume thinks has some foundation in fact. He was born about 501, and died 542. The institution of an order of chivalry, called the knights of the round table, is attributed to him, and also the establishment of Christianity at York. ARUSPICES or Haruspices, priests among the Romans who foretold future events by ob- serving the entrails of the animals sacrificed, and the manner in which the victim behaved. They existed irom the time of Romulus to that of Constant! ne (337 A. D.), when all soothsaying was prohibited on pain of death. Their number at this time was 70. ASHANTEE, a nation of negroes, on and near the Gold Coast of Guinea. They are in the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, the British set- tlement at Sierra Leone. Warlike and unyield- ing they carried on* a bloody war with the Eng- lish in 1824, in which General McCarthy lost his life. The kingdom of the Ashantees has been in existence one hundred years. The king has a band of devoted attendants, one hun- dred in number, who are slain upon his tomb, that he may be properly accompanied on his arrival in the infernal regions. His 3333 wives are regarded with reverence, and on that mystical number the safety of the state depends. The em- pire of Ashantee, consisting of several conquered states, has a population of 3,000,000 souls. The Ashantees display some ingenuity and taste in their architecture, and manufacture cloths which are skilfully dyed in brilliant colors. Comassie, the residence of the king, has been forcibly de- scribed by an intelligent traveller. " A pros- pect of the capital, (if such it may be called,) at last opened in front of us ; it was a partial glimpse, at the distance of twenty or thirty paces, of a few mud-built hovels, surrounded in part by plantations, and some straggling walls of the same material, covering a contract- ed space gained from the surrounding waste." ASIA. To Asia we may trace the origin of all the arts, and from this country sprang the first human couple, designed for a happy immor- tality, which was forfeited by their disobedience. Thence originated the various tribes and na- tions, which have since spread over the whole face of the globe, and peopled it with inhabit- ants. The extent of this vast region has been estimated at 16,()C0,0()O square miles, and its population at 400,000,000. The principal parts into which it is divided, are Arabia, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, India, Tartary, Asiatic Russia, China, Japan, Burman Empire, Siani, Annam ; the Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Philippines, Mal- dives, &c. In Arabia the early events of Jew- ish history occurred, and in this country, in particular, the Christian reader feels a peculiar interest, and a curiosity which is not disap- pointed by the story of the wild scenes which have been, from time to time, exhibited in this AS I 77 ASI historical region. Lying between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, being about 1400 miles in length, from north to south, and somewhat less in breadth ; it contains an extensive territory of varied fertility, now sterile, and now pro- ductive, inhabited by a numerous population. The capital of Arabia is Mecca, whose wild and circumscribed valley is more celebrated than many regions of the most luxuriant fertility : it is the birth-place of Mohammed. This re- markable man, destined to exert so great an in- fluence upon the fortunes of his fellow-beings, and the condition of the world, was born in 571. It was not until he had attained the prime of life that he ventnred to reveal his divine commission, having, probably, desired to bring his plans to perfection before he attempted an imposture, on the success of which the fate of millions depended. He pretended to have re- ceived a commission directly from God. He declared that he was the prophet of God, and acted under the immediate instructions of the Almighty. His doctrines were written in a book called the Koran, a copy of which, splen- didly bound, and decorated, he declared that he had received from the angel Gabriel. The suc- cess of his attempt was at first doubtful — but Mohammed enlisted mankind in his cause by every motive which could mislead poor weak humanity, ever ready to be led astray. After having been compelled to seek safety in flight, he obtained a small army which gradually increas- ed, and enabled him to take the field, with irre- sistible force, against his enemies. To those who fell in battle he promised a voluptuous immor- tality — a sensual paradise, where cooling foun- tains tempered the warm air, and where the exertions of the faithful were rewarded by the charms of the divine Houris. He inculcated the doctrine of an irresistible destiny — declar- ing that ages before his birth, the time of each man's death was fixed ; and by impressing on his followers a belief in this absurd idea, he enabled them to perform deeds of unequalled bravery, rushing to the charge with an impetu- osity almost supernatural, and courting death as the passport to those transports which were to have no transitory existence, but a blessed immortality. Backed by followers whom his instructions inspired with unequalled bravery, the daring impostor beheld his arms completely triumphant. His death took place at the age of 62, and his sceptre passed into the hands of Abu-bekr, his father-in-law. The caliphs, who filled the throne after the death of Abu-bekr, being men of consummate skill, and great tal- ents, contributed to confirm the opinions origin- ated by Mahomet, and to ensure the endurance of his religion. The Arabians of the present day still profess Mohammedanism. In the early ages of this belief, they contributed to its extension, making converts by threats instead of argu- ments. They offered to the wavering, the Koran or the sabre — their religion or the grave. The Saracens, as they were called, thus made them- selves feared, and attained a wonderful degree of power, which was destined to decline as the star of Turkish empire arose over the nations of the east. The Mohammedans do not deny the truth of the sacred writings, but they pervert them in an abominable manner. At Mecca they pretend to show the very well, which re- stored the child of Hagar in the wilderness. Mecca is thronged with the Mohammedan pil- grims, as the Koran requires every Mohamme- dan to make a pilgrimage to this city once in his life. Mohammed was buried at Medina. Asiatic Turkey is divided at present, into several parts. Syria includes Palestine, or the Holy Land, a country which, as being the thea- tre of so many wonderful and appalling events, is still visited with intense interest, and holds a conspicuous place in the history of the world. In the southeast portion of Asiatic Turkey, lies the ancient and famous Mesopotamia. Assyria was one of the earliest and most noted monar- chies of Asia. The splendor of the Assyrians has been celebrated by all historical writers. To trace the fortunes and varied events of this kingdom alone, would require a much greater space than we can devote to the general view of Asia. The mighty kingdom of Babylon gave lustre to Asia in its early days. During the reign of the queen Semiramis its fame was at the highest. This sovereign possessed fewer feminine than masculine attributes, and yet shone no less conspicuosly in the court than the camp. She did much to beautify her city, and to extend the fame and power of he"r kingdom. The hanging gardens of Babylon, in which trees of great size were supported on terraces at an elevation far above the earth, constituted one of the wonders of the ancient world. Semi- ramis penetrated far into India, and was wound- ed in a desperate combat with one of the In- dian kings. Bagdad, the once celebrated seat of the Saracenic caliphs, to the splendor of which Haroun al Raschid greatly contribut- ed has lost most of its former magnificence. Here, when the star of the Saracenic empire was at its zenith, literature and the arts flour- ished under the protection of the caliphs. Poet- ASI 78 AS! ry and romance shed a charm over every day existence, and music, with other arts, received the most assiduous cultivation and encourage- ment. We can but briefly allude to the reigns and events which have distinguished Asiatic Tur- key — the fate of the celebrated queen Zenobia, who was compelled to grace the triumph of the emperor Aurelian, after victory had smiled upon the Roman banners as they waved over the Asiat- ic plains — the siege of Jerusalem by Titus — the destruction of the sacred temple, with all its magnificence — the wild enthusiasm of the cru- saders who made Jerusalem the rallying point for the chivalry of Europe in the holy wars — the siege and fall of that Troy, of which now not the slightest trace remains. Changed, in- deed, is the face of all that was formerly glo- rious in these ancient countries ! The footsteps of Time are deep, and his ravages lasting. A wretched village, inhabited by a handful of Turks, usurps the spot where once rose in splendor, Ephesus ; that Ephesus which was the pride of Asia Minor — that Ephesus which St. Paul has celebrated by his epistle — which contained the superb temple of Diana, fired by Erostratus, that he might immortalize his name. " Great is Diana of the Ephesians !" was the cry of the proud inhabitants. Ages have past — and the idol and the idolators have passed away. Persia has ever been a country of great in- terest, and its early history is crowded with events of importance. Chance and change were not unfelt by its inhabitants of former days. The early Persians were hardy, tempe- rate, and well educated. Education received early and strict attention among them, and their Magi, or wise men, are famous in the history of learning. A more detailed history of Persia will be found in another portion of this volume. The present condition of the Persians is hap- pier than it has been for a long time past, for until very lately, it was a battle-ground for rival chieftains and contending factions. The khans or chiefs attained their elevation to the throne by a wanton expenditure of blood and life. At a more distant period (1386), when Ispahan was the capital of Persia, and famous for its com- merce and splendor, it was taken by Tamerlane, and 70,000 persons slain by the cruel Tartars. The modern Persians exhibit a very marked difference from those of the early ages, from whom they are descended. The latter, stern, temperate, and warlike, disregarded both the luxuries and elegancies of life. Inured to toil, living upon the plainest food, and taught to face death and danger without quailing, they be- came formidable to their neighbors, and acquir- ed for themselves a military reputation, which only their subsequent degeneracy could destroy. At the time of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, the Persian monarch relied more upon the immense numbers of his army and their splendid equipments, than upon their valor. The event proved the superiority of the Greeks, sternly brave, and proudly patriotic. In later times, the Persians have shown themselves de- voted to luxury, refinement, and the more ele- gant arts of peace. Gay, polished, and affable, they unite much that is pleasing, with much that is unprepossessing in their character and manners. While distinguished for their volu- bility and wit, their habitual disregard of truth, and practice of flattery, detract much from their many amiable qualities. Persia abounds with the hallowed remains of antiquity. Among the most celebrated ruins which occur are those of the ancient Persepolis, a city formerly of im- mense extent, and conspicuous in the history of Alexander of Macedon. It was the royal palace of this city that the Grecian conqueror, inflamed with wine, and urged by the wild per- suasion of an abandoned woman, destroyed by fire, aided by his companion. She beheld the flames rolling around the most beautiful edifi- ces, consuming splendid palaces, and hurling to the ground long-venerated columns, with the mad delight which the unprincipled seem to take in the works of destruction. The ancient Medes, celebrated in sacred and general history, have left descendants and rep- resentatives in the Afghans, the present inhab- itants of Afghanistan, a country now occupying what was formerly a part of Persia and Hin- dostan. The country suffered from the ravages of Genghis Khan in 1221 . This wild and war- like prince took the splendid city of Balk, put- ting almost all its inhabitants to the sword, and committed other atrocities which the name of conquest is generally thought to sanction. India, although of vast extent and impor- tance, was very little known to the ancients. They had some vague idea of its extent and wealth, but possessed little knowledge of its in- terior. It appears, however, at various periods, to have engaged the attention of great conquer- ors, who made attempts to subject it. But the ancient inhabitants of India resisted their in- vaders with great bravery, and the want of lo- cal knowledge, sensibly felt by the Europeans and other adventurers, contributed to their de- feat. Whatever successes they obtained ap- peared not to result to their advantage. Alex- ASI 79 ASI ander the Great carried his victorious arms into the interior of the country ; — Semiramis push- ed her forces against the Indians, and other adventurers attempted their subversion. It re- mained for modern times to acquire knowledge of this vast country. India Within the Gan- ges is generally termed Hindostan, and for veg- etable and mineral wealth, is unsurpassed by any country on the face of the globe. It is, indeed, a region of romance, in which the oriental tales of enchantment appear to be real- ized. The antiquity of the Hindoos is undoubt- edly great, and their history is authentic from the time of Moses. No change has taken place in their religion, manners, or customs, for more than two thousand years. The same division of the people which was known in the time of Alexander the Great, subsists at present. The principal castes or classes into which the peo- ple are divided, is four. The first and most important is that of the Bramins, who are men of letters, and priests, besides having the care of the laws. The second caste is composed of soldiers, or descendants of the Rajahs, (princes), whence they are termed Rajah-poots. The third class, called Vaisgas, includes merchants, farm- ers, and shepherds : the fourth, Sudras, con- sists of laborers. The rules, by which the conduct of the Bra- mins is, or shall be, governed, are exceedingly strict. They impose upon these priests a total abstinence from fermented liquors and animal food, and the observance of the numerous sin- gular rites and ceremonies of the Hindoo reli- gion. Yet these men, far from being distin- guished for their temperance, piety, and learn- ing ; sometimes render themselves detestable by voluptuousness, vice, irreligion, and ignorance. The other castes, which are beneath them, are trodden to the dust, by these proud priests, and suffer severely from their extortion and avarice. A Bramin was not unfrequently to be seen with his foot upon the neck of some poor Hindoo, prostrated before him in blind adoration. The Sudras are delighted when they can get a Bra- min to dip his toe in a cup of water, valuing this ' holy water' very highly, and thinking it the ' sov'reign'st thing on earth for an inward bruise.' The Rajah-poots are noted for their lion-like courage, and their indomitable feroci- ty. Those in the British service, termed Sea- poys, are very efficient, as their wild ambition and avarice fit them to hunt down their breth- ren, without hesitation or remorse. But the most singularly instituted caste is the fourth. The condition of the beasts of the field appears preferable to that of these poor people. They are literally the slaves of the Bramins, compelled to drag out their lives in the most fatiguing ef forts for the support and aggrandizement of their tyrants. Even the wretched relief which the Hindoo religion might afford is denied to them, and the pains of eternal punishment de- nounced to any who would give them religious instruction. The castes are separated effectual- ly by a prohibition which prevents them from intermarrying. The idolatry of the Hindoos cannot be con- templated without pain. They imagine that they are delighting their strange divinities when, carried away by a torrent of fanaticism, they fling themselves or their children before the huge cars of their misshapen idols, to be crushed to death as they revolve ; or when writhing, suspended upon iron hooks, which only give them death after prolonging the most cruel tortures. They believe that there is one God, endowed with supreme power, who, iso- lated from all sublunary concerns, exists in a state of indolent enjoyment, having committed the care of the world to three divinities. A life of extraordinary piety will entitle the soul of a devotee to an amalgamation with the spirit of the supreme God, while the doctrine of the transmigration of souls is held out to those whose piety is less striking and distinguished. The conquest of a large portion of India by the British was not effected without much bloodshed, and it is painful to trace the details of the eventful struggle. The British, urged by a rapacity unworthy of professed Christians, committed atrocities, the bare recital of which inspires the listener with horror. On the other hand, the native rajahs, or sovereigns, were not backward in the infliction of revolting cruelties. When Suraja Dowla took the fort at Calcutta, in 175(3, he confined the garrison which consist- ed of 146 persons in a horrible dungeon, aptly termed the Black Hole, in which T23 perished in one night from suffocation. Within less than a century the British East India Company have obtained possession of their vast territory, of which some portions are professedly under their sway, and others, although nominally ruled by native sovereigns, are tributary to the Company, and completely influenced by them. The gov- ernment is in 'the hands of a governor, having a royal commission and appointment. The seat of government is Bombay, which contains a population estimated at 200,000. Farther India, or Chin India, is a country of vast extent and importance, it contains the Birman empire. ASI 80 ASS Annam, Siam, &c. In 1820 a treaty concluded the war between the Birman empire and the East India Company, by which the emperor ceded part of the western coast of the country to the British. The Russians possess a vast and important territory in Asia, which is called Asiatic Russia, or Siberia. In the middle of the J 5th century, the Russians gained possession of a part of this extensive country of which, before this time, they had no share. The complete subjugation of the whole took place in the reign of Peter the Great, and the Czarina Catherine II, the Semiramis of the North. The mines and furs of Siberia render it valuable to the Russians, but it is noted as the place of banishment for those who have fallen under the displeasure of the Russian government. Many an unhappy exile has here dragged out a miserable existence, to which death would have been preferable. These wretched victims of state intrigues and ruthless despotism, have contributed greatly to- wards the civilization and improvement of por- tions of this country. The number of exiles has been augmented recently by the banishment to this dreary region of hundreds of the unhappy Poles, whose greatest crime was a firm attach- ment to an oppressed country. The exile of great officers of state has frequently been at- tended with all the mystery which characteris- ed the seizures of the inquisition. Often some deserving man, unconscious of having commit- ted any crime worthy of so severe a punish- ment, finds himself suddenly in the hands of the officers of justice. If he asks the cause of his seizure, lie is commanded to be silent: if he begs to take leave of his family, his request is refused. He sinks into the stupor of despair, and awakens again to a sense of hope forever lost, as he finds himself upon the fatal sledge which pursues its rapid path to the hated place of exile. The empire of China is extensive and of great antiquity. Its history, manners, and cus- toms, are singular. At a very early period the Chinese made discoveries in the arts, which, however, have not generally attained that de- gree of improvement among them, which we might be led to expect from the antiquity of their origin. Their history is interesting and authentic, embracing a recorded period of many ages. This will be treated of separately and with some detail. On taking a general survey of Asia, we cannot fail to be struck with sur- prise and admiration at the immensity of its ex- tent, the number of its historical recollections, and the vastness of its monumental remains. It has been the theatre of some of the most im- portant events which history records, the clime of wonders and of wealth, and the chosen re- gion of romance. If we search the pages of his- tory for the fate of proud monarchies, and the tale of powerful dynasties, and splendid cities, we shall find the name of Asia constantly recur- ring, and the fame of Asia the theme of unfail- ing wonder and of praise. ASPINWALL, William, M. D., bom in Brookline, Mass., May 23d, 1743. He was educated at Harvard College, and served as a surgeon in the revolution, but fought in per- son, as a volunteer, in the battle of Lexington. After the death of Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, the first physician who inoculated for the small pox in America, he prosecuted the system, and ac- quired great celebrity by his treatment of this disorder. His practice was very extensive, and during 45 years, he frequently rode 40 miles a day on horseback, and seldom retired to rest un- til after midnight. He died, April 10th, 1823, in his 80th year. ASRAEL, the angel of death in Mohamme- dan mytholoo-y. ASSASSINS or HASSASSINS, the follow- ers of an Arab chief in the time of the Crusades, who were devoted to his service, and cheerfully laid down their lives at his bidding. When Henry, Count of Champaigne, was passing through the dominions of their Sheik, the " Old Man of the Mountains," he boasted of his power at home. " Are any of your vassals as devoted as my followers ?" asked the chieftain. On this he gave a signal to ten young men, clad in white, standing on the top of a tall tower, and they instantly threw themselves from it and were dashed to pieces ! ASSIENTO is a Spanish word for treaty, and signifies the permission granted by the Spanish government to a foreign nation to im- port negro slaves into the Spanish American colonies, upon certain conditions. By the assi- ento of 1713, a company of English merchants undertook to supply the Spanish colonies with negroes for 30 years, but quarrels ensued, and the treaty was finally relinquished before the expiration of the time. ASSYRIA, a kingdom of Asia, said to have been founded by Ashur, whose boundaries va- ried greatly at different times. It was anciently bounded as follows ; north by Mount Niphates, and Armenia Major, east by Media, south by Susiana, and west by Mesopotamia. Ninus, its celebrated sovereign, subdued the Babylo- ATH 81 ATH nians and Medes, and Semiramis, his wife and successor, increased the fame of the kingdom. About 900 years B. O, Arbaces, governor of Media, conquered Assyria. It was then divided into the Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian king- doms. But Assyria once more gained the as- cendency over Media and Babylon, and Nin- eveh became its capital. After the revolt of Media (700 B. C), Cyaxares, its king, uniting with Nabopalassar, governor of Babylon, they destroyed Nineveh, (506 B. C. Assyria becom- ing now a Median province, Babylon was form- ed into a powerful kingdom by Nebuchadnez- zar, B. C. (300. The three kingdoms were unit- ed by Cyrus, the victorious monarch of Persia, 550 B.C. ASTRACHAN or ASTRAKHAN, a Rus- sian vice-royalty, divided into three govern- ments. It contains 3,000,000 inhabitants. It is bounded north b)' the country of the Bulgarians and Bashkeers, east by a chain of mountains which part it from Tartary, south by the Cas- pian Sea, and west by the Wolga, separating it from the Nogay Tartars, and Don Cossacks. The land is fertile but uncultivated by the Tar- tars. The winter is brief but severe, the sum- mer long and hot. Astrakhan, the capital, situ- ated on an island in the Wolga, 34 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea, has 50,000 inhabitants, and is a place of considerable im- portance. 20,000 persons, engaged in the fishe- ries, reside here for a part of the year. ASTURIA or the ASTURlAS, a Spanish principality, bounded by Biscay on the east, on the west by Galicia, on the south by Castile and Old Leon, and on the north by the sea. It con- tains 365,000 inhabitants. The Moors could never master this country. It abounds with fruit and game. The crown prince of Spain bears the title of Prince of the Jlsturias, as the principality was formerly divided into two parts. ATABALIPA, or ATAHUALPA, the last of the Incas of Peru. He commenced his career in lf>29. Pizarro and his followers were hospitably entertained by him, in return for which kindness the Spaniards held him in cap- tivity. They promised to ransom him on the payment of an immense sum of money ; when the loyalty of the people had produced the treasure, Pizarro accepted it, but refused to re- lease his prisoner, who was burned at the stake, 1533. ATHENS. Tliis celebrated city, the capital of Attica, which exerted such an influence upon the character of mankind, and shot forth 6 those brilliant fires of intellect which called into warmth and light the genius of the world, was founded by Cecrops, 1550 years B. C. Origin- ally it was called, from its founder, Cecropia, but in time his name was only retained by the citadel — the Acropolis, while the Greek name of Minerva {Athena), was applied to the city. The Turks call it Jithimah and Sctincs. The position of Athens is peculiar, and the sur- rounding scenerj' luxuriant and interesting. The blue Saronic gulf, so often swept by victo- rious navies, the opposite shore of the Pelopon- nesus, the rocky steep of the Acropolis, and the beauty of the surrounding plains, are pro- minent features in a landscape which antiquity liis made interesting, and fame immortal. Nor were the natural beauties of the scene its chief recommendation. Art here successfully vied with nature, and the erection of the most noble edifices bore witness to the taste, industry, skill, and public spirit of the Athenians. Cecrops, the founder of Athens was an Egyptian, skilled in the arts of his countrymen, and possessing more than their customary enterprise ; he founded the kingdom of Athens, dividing the country into twelve districts, over which he ruled for a long time with the title of king. He instituted the senate called the Areopagus, which met upon a hill in the vicinity of the citadel, dedicated to Mars. This court aquired an active influence in the affairs of government. To it the examin- ation of the laws and state of public morals was committed, while crimes against religion and the state, required its peculiar attention. In 1497 B. O. king Amphictyon, one of the successors of Cecrops, established the court of the Am- phictyons, ar„ assembly which ultimately at- tained a high degree of celebrity. This assem- bly formed a point of union for the different states of Greece. At first they assembled at Delphi, where was the oracle of Apollo, but finally at Anthela, a village in the vicinity of the famous Thermopylae. Two members from each of the twelve Grecian states, were deput- ed to the court of Amphictyons. They were empowered to compose popular tumults, to re- concile contending cities, to take cognizance of civil and criminal offences, of violations of na- tional law, and particularly of sacrilege com- mitted in the temple of Delphi. If a state re- fused to submit to the decisions of the court, the remaining states composing the confederacy could take up arms, to enforce submission, and had the right of excluding the recusant party from participating in the deliberations of the Amphictyons. ATH 82 ATH To both of these monarchs the Athenians owed much. If Cecrops softened the manners of the inhabitants of Attica, taught them how to clothe their lands with the verdure of the olive and the vine, and instructed them in the love of order, the worship of the gods, the rites of Hymen, and those of sepulture, Amphic- tyon strengthened and secured the advantages which his subjects had begun to reap. No longer they feared the incursions of predatory neighbors, but sat in the shade of their vine- yards, enjoying the happiness which security and peace bestow. Codrus was the last king of Athens. On his death, B. C. 10G8, the govern- ment assumed a republican form, after the mo- narchical had subsisted for 487 years from the time of Cecrops. The change however was but in name, for the archon had nearly all the power of the king, whose place in the state he rilled. The archons were originally chosen for life. After a lapse of little more than three centuries, the term of office was curtailed to ten years, and less than a century afterwards, the number of archons was increased to nine, and they served for a term of one year only. Originally all the Grecian states had a regal government, which was abolished in conse- quence of the tyranny of the various princes, and supplanted by republican forms. Recover- ing their liberty at an early period, the Greeks acquired that love of freedom, which characteris- ed them throughout their long career, and it was only when luxury and wealth had banished the temperate and unostentatious life of their an- cestors, that the Greeks found themselves una- ble to contend against the encroachments of hos- tile power, and fell beneath the arms of more enterprising rivals. The rivalry of Athens and Sparta produced, together with muchgood,an in- finity of evil. The fepartans were of a sterner cast than the Athenians, and even more distinguish- ed for their love of freedom, and their invincible courage. They despised those triumphs of the arts which the Athenians made their glory, and relied for fame on the stern contempt of the ele- gances and the common comforts of life. What their Lycurgus was to them, Solon was to the Athenians. Solon was one of those great characters, whom their countrymen regard with veneration for ages, and whose memory they recall even in the midst of oppression, and the darkness of dis- grace. He was one of those rare spirits, whose virtues and self-possession are most conspicu- ous when most needed, and whose knowledge, like the lamp of the glow-worm, shines bright- est, when the darkness is most heavy. At a time (B. C. C43) when the turbulence and am- bition of the archons threatened the Athenians with a multitude of evils, all eyes were turned upon Solon, as the pilot who alone could guide the vessel of state through the rocks and surges that surrounded it. He was at once created archon extraordinary with unlimited power, for his high character and calm demeanor inspired confidence among the people he was destined to assist. Solon introduced a mild code of laws, in opposition to that of Draco, whose appalling se- verity had raised him many enemies. The gov- ernment was placed in the hands of a senate of four hundred members chosen by the people. After an acquittal of their debts, the people were divided into four classes. The members of the three first classes were eligible to office, while those of the fourth, whose poverty was thought to incapacitate them from serving, were yet al- lowed the privilege of voting in the popular as- semblies. The power of the commonwealth was vested in these assemblies, but there was a restrictive influence in the senate. Solon, al- though mild, was just, and a great lover of truth. When Thespis was exhibiting theatrical entertainments on his cart at Athens, Solon asked him if he were not ashamed of giving utterance to so many untruths? " Nay," re- plied the actor, " they were but in jest." " Tn jest !" exclaimed Solon, indignantly ; " you lit- tle know the danger and the guilt of jesting with so sacred a thing as truth !" Whatever merit we may be disposed to allow the constitution of Solon, framed as it was at a very early period, it was much too artificial to be permanently successful. Solon lived to see this. During his retirement from Athens, factions disturbed the peace of the people, and Solon, after having vainly endeavored to stem the current, retired to the isle of Cyprus, where he died, B. C. 5(50. The change of government was effected by Pisistratus, a popular but ambi- tious man, who headed the poorer class of peo- ple — a class who considered themselves pecu- liarly oppressed by the constitution of Solon — and gained possession of the supreme power. The plans of the usurper possessed a plausi- bility and brilliancy which were calculated to produce no insignificant effect upon the minds of men. His benevolence was undoubted. At his death, Pisistratus bequeathed his power to his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, who, for a long time, by a liberal patronage of the arts, and of learned men, gave a brilliancy to their administration which was unhappily not ATH ATH destined to endure. Among the most brilliant ornaments of the court was Anacreon, the ele- gant, though effeminate poet of love and wine. The cruelty of Hippias at length roused the spirit of the Athenians, who broke forth into an open revolt, in which Hipparchus was slain, and Hippias banished. Hippias finally sought refuge at the court of Darius ; the king of Per- sia endeavored to procure his recall from the Athenians, whose refusal was the commence- ment of the war between Greece and Persia. When the tyrants ceased to trouble the tran- quillity of Athens, it became necessary to guard against future abuses. Calisthenes accordingly effected some changes in the laws of Solon, in- creasing the number of the divisions of the people to 10, and of the members of the senate to 500. The smiling appearance of the Athe- nian vineyards and olive plantations gave strik- ing proof of the industry and prosperity of the people. In the midst of happiness and success, the hostility of the Persians threatened them with ruin. But the bravery of the Athenians was not wasted in words, and they joined against the invaders with heart and hand. When the heralds of Darius came with the in- solent demand of earth and water, they were seized and thrown, the one into a ditch and the other into a well, whence they were contempt- uously told to satisfy their wants. The troops of Darius entered Attica, encamping at Mara- thon, a small town upon the sea-coast. Against an army of one hundred and ten thousand horse and foot, the brave Militiades led forth a band often thousand Athenians, who were victorious in the most sacred of causes. Afterwards when Xerxes poured his forces into Greece, the Athe- nians, under Themistoclfs, were triumphant, and the victory of Salamis bore witness to the terrible energy and roused spirit of freemen. Yet it is painful to mark the fickleness and ingrati- tude of the Athenians. One would think that while Marathon was remembered; the services of Militiades could not be forgotten. Yet so it was — and the noble Athenian, in consequence of misfortune, was thrown into a prison where he perished. Aristides, whose virtue procured him the surname of "the just," was banished by ostracism, without any adequate cause. The practice of ostracism was so called , because the citizens wrote upon a tile or shell (ostrakon) the- names of those who were obnoxious to them. The shells being counted, the person whose name occurred most frequently, was banished. Themistocles was also persecuted and forced to seek refuge at the Persian court; yet, so fond was he of his ungrateful country, that rather than serve against her, he killed himself. It was men like these who reflected a lustre on the Athenian name. When the Persians no longer had the audacity to threaten Greece, but had been humbled to the dust, the glory of the Athenians brightened, day by day. The peo- ple saw with delight the extension of their pri- vileges and the respect with which their claims were received. All classes, feeling the benefit of equal institutions, labored in common for the aggrandisement of their country. Members of all classes were now made eligible to office, and the poor felt that they stood upon an equal foot- ing with the rich, and might, by exertion, rise superior to them. The period from the Persian war, B. C. 500, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 33G, includes days of uncommon splendor in the history of Athens. Cinion and Pericles intro- duced elegance into Athens, and the age of Pericles is commonly quoted as the golden era of the country. The arts under the liberal patronage of Pericles, flourished to a great de- gree, and under the fostering care of those in power, magnificent temples sprang up in every direction, the marble breathed, the pencil glow- ed, and the lips of the orator and poet were gifted with a kindling eloquence. Yet, in the midst of much apparent prosperity, the founda- tion of misfortune was laid. The abundance of wealth was not without a deteriorating influ- ence, and the Athenians became so enamored of the elegancies of life, that they began to pre- fer them to manliness and independence. Pe- ricles was at the zenith of his greatness B. C. 444. He engaged in the Peloponnesian war, the end of which was, that the Lacedaemonians, ever more hardy if not more brave than the ele- gant Athenians, made themselves masters of Athens, and granted peace to the vanquished on the most humiliating conditions. For eight months the Athenians groaned under the yoke of the thirty magistrates, or as they were called the Thirty Tyrants, whom the Lacedaemonians imposed upon them, and kept under the protec- tion of their garrison. The man who led to the overthrow of this oppression, was Thrasy- bulus. Again the star of Athens rose to the zenith, bright as if no cloud had ever covered it and hid its silvery brilliancy beneath a veil. The Athenians joined the Thebans against Sparta, and were successful. They were 3'et to feel, however, the importance of a power hitherto unacknowledged or despised. Philip of Macedon descended from the north. In vain did Demosthenes urge the Athenians to die in ATH 84 ATH defence of their liberty. In vain did this ex- traordinary man hurl his tremendous anathe- mas against Philip — he was doomed to see the subjugation of his countrymen. Demosthenes was one of the most renowned of the Grecian orators, and rendered famous by the persever- ance with which he overcame all obstacles. He early had an impediment in his speech, which he overcame by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. The weakness of his voice he conquered by de- claiming upon the sea-shore, where the dashing of the waters resembled the tumultuous noises of a popular assembly. Demosthenes was a warm patriot, proud of the independence of his country, and determined to use all his powers in support of it. Philip was neither daunted by eloquence, nor repulsed by braver}'. The battle of Cheronsea, B. C. 338, struck a death blow to Grecian liberty. From that time, Athens re- mained, with the other states of Greece, depend- ant upon the Macedonian power for existence. She did not sink without a struggle, but all her struggles were of no avail against the giant power which had prostrated her, and fettered her with bonds of adamant. When Athens was taken by Cassander, the oligarchy was restored, and Demetrius Phale- reus enjoyed the office of Governor of the state for 10 years. Being obnoxious to the Atheni- ans, they entreated the assistance of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who, having taken the city, restored the ancient constitution, and received from the Athenians all the honors and marks of affection which gratitude could devise or bestow. Yet, with their characteristic fickleness, when he had gone to war, they closed the city against his return. He took the city, but forgave its inhabitants, contenting himself by leaving a garrison in the havens of Munychia and the Pirceus. The Athenians recovered their free- dom, but were again subdued by Gonatas. They joined the Achrean league, disuniting themselves from the Macedonians. The Ro- mans gladly availed themselves of the co-opera- tion of the Athenians against Philip, and con- firmed the freedom which they were so anxious to maintain. The Romans, disposed to be friend- ly towards them, were changed into enemies by their espousal of the cause of Mithridates, king of Pontus, who waged war against the Italian power. After having drawn down upon them- selves the vengeance of Rome, the Atheni- ans trembled for the consequences of their con- duct. Sylla took their city, and the show of liberty which it afterwards retained, was but a bitter mockery. Vespasian made Athens a Roman Province, and it was included in the empire of the east, after the division of the Roman empire into eastern and western. But it was destined to feel the terror of that power, beneath which the queen of cities was pros- trated to the dust. Alaric, the Goth, A. D. 3!'6, conquered and devastated the country. From this period, the liberty of Athens existed but in the recollection of the past. In 420 A. D., paganism was abolished in Athens, and the Parthenon converted into a church of the Virgin Mary. In 1456, the Caliph Omar gained possession of it. A black eunuch held the place which Pericles once adorned, and the Parthenon, no longer a Christian church, was forced to answer as a mosque. In 1687, the Venetians besieged Athens, and some of the works of the immortal Phidias, the sculptor, were destroyed by the explosion of a magazine, fired by a bomb thrown into the Parthenon by the besiegers. On the 29th of September, Athens came into the hands of the Venetians, after its inhabitants had suffered severely from the siege, but was again relinquished to the Turks in 1688. From the erection of many barbaric structures, some of the most valuable remains of antiquity have been covered and concealed, to be brought to light by the re- searches of the curious of later days. From the Turks, the Greeks of Athens experienced a milder treatment than many of their brethren, and were permitted to retain many of their ancient observances. In 1822, the Acropolis sustained a long siege, which was terminated by its falling into the hands of the patriots. News of this was heard with delight by all the Greeks, who loved their country, and rejoiced to behold, " The flag of freedom wave once more Above the lofty Parthenon.*' The present condition of Greece is too well known to require many words upon the subject. After a hard struggle — a struggle which called for the exertion of great fortitude, and the dis- play of uncommon bravery — the interference of Christian powers, compelled the Turks to retire from their prey. The government of Greece was finally established as a limited monarchy. The modern Athenians have lost neither the intelligence, nor gayety, which dis- tinguished their ancestors, but they have less love of glory, and fewer peculiarities of char- acter. The Athenians have few memorials of the triumphs of their countrymen in the arts, since the various nations which have, at differ- ATL 85 ATL ent times, possessed themselves of Athens, have not scrupled to tear from it its most valu- able monuments. Robberies have been per- petrated with impunity, although the people have regarded the removal of almost every ornament, with great indignation. The ruins of the Parthenon yet repay the curiosity of travellers. This was a temple dedicated to Minerva, and was the pride of Athens in for- mer days. It was 217 feet long, 98 broad, and G5 feet high. When the Persians entered Athens, they marked their rude triumph by the destruction of this temple, which Pericles re- built, 444 years B. C. It contained the famous statue of the goddess Minerva, which was sculptured by Phidias ; was formed of ivory and gold, and 46 feet high. This magnificent figure cost about 570,004 dollars. Hence we may estimate the wealth of the ancient Greeks. The Athenians, like the Romans, fell, only when wealth had corrupted them, and simple and temperate manners had given way at the approach of luxury and extravagance. When, poor and proud of honest indigence, their pro- perty was merely adequate to the supply of their wants, they were independent; but when this happy simplicity was banished, they found themselves a degraded people, and sunk be- neath the weight of their fetters. ATHOS, a mountain of Macedonia, now Agion Oros, or Monte Santo, in the Turkish province of Salonica. On its sides, are many hermitages, and twenty monasteries, with 6000 monks, chiefly Russians, of the order of St. Basil. Some of the monasteries are said to contain very ancient and valuable manuscripts. Not long since, a manuscript of the eighth century, a translation of the Bible into the Georgian language by St. Euphemius, was dis- covered here. The summit of this mountain is about 6,900 feet above the level of the sea. At the foot of it, Xerxes caused a trench a mile and a half long, to be cut and filled with sea- water. This was for the passage of his fleet, and of such width that two ships could sail ATLANTIC OCEAN. There is not in the multitude of natural wonders, a more sublime spectacle, than that afforded by the world of waters, under whatever view it is contem- plated. Impressive and beautiful it is, when stretched out in the tranquil and golden repose of an unbroken calm, reflecting the still splen- dor of the heavens by day, or their diamond brilliancy by night. Far as the eye can reach, there is no ripple on the wave, and at the hori- zon, the azure of the air, and that of the ocean appear blended : — The bridal of the sea and sky. Yet more impressive is the aspect of the deep sea in a tempest ; when the elements are awakened from their slumber, and abroad in their terrible strength, and the wild winds of heaven sport with gigantic mountains of water, heaving them to and fro, with the ease of zeph yrs sporting with dew-drops. The saltness of the vast extent of waters (the surface of the whole ocean being computed to amount to 147,000,000 square miles, and the quantity of the whole being 21,372,626^ cubic miles,) pre- serves it perpetually fresh, and contributes to invigorate the health of all who dwell upon its borders, or its waves. The formation of the bed of the Atlantic, from latitude 200 south, up to the north pole, has been ascribed to the concussion of immense masses of water, produced by the deluge, when, it is conceived, the waters of the great Southern Ocean below the equator, rushed upon the northern hemisphere. Mr. Kirwan says that the inspection of a map is sufficient to convince any one, that this vast space was formed by the force and pressure of the waters. From Cape Frio to the river of the Amazons, in South America, there is a vast protuberance answer- ing to the incurvation of the African shore from the river of Congo to Cape Palmas ; while, from the Straits of Gibraltar to Cape Palmas, there is an immense protuberance, correspond- ing to the incurvation between New York and Cape St. Roque. This conjecture is thought probable, since the depression caused by such an immense body of water could not be other- wise than enormous, considering the shock and weight of the opposing body. Until the successful issue of the voyages of Columbus, it was imagined that there was one unbroken extent of water between the western shores of Europe and Africa, and the East Indies ; and the great navigator himself ima- gined that he had reached the Indian realms, by a shorter route than that pursued by the Portuguese. The name of the Atlantic Ocean is connected with a tradition, which is lost in the night of antiquity, and which, reaching the Greeks from the Egyptians, has been commemorated by Plato. It was said that there originally existed an isle called Atlantis, which rose from the bosom of the ocean, and surpassed in extent Asia, and LnVya together. The circumstance of Plato's testimony has ATL 86 AUG caused a controversy among modern authors respecting the situation and nature of Atlan- tis. Of course, it is impossible to determine the situation of an isle which existed before the ages of history, but still we cannot disre- gard the truth of the tale. What interest had the Greeks in imagining a fable, which bore no relation to their history, and which was not calculated to affect their religious belief? Why should the Greeks have adopted it ? "The islanders," says Plato, " subdued Libya, Egypt, and Europe, as far as Asia Minor ; at last, Mantis was sivalloiced by the waters, and for a long time afterwards, the sea was full of earth and sand-hanks, in the vicinity of the place which the island had occupied.' 1 '' This last pas- sage proves the existence of a tradition of a terrible outbreak of the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, which overwhelmed Atlantis. The equinoctial current, in the Atlantic, is a westwardly motion of the waters in the tropi- cal seas. Between the tropics, and particularly from the coast of Senegal to the Caribbean Sea, the general current flows from east to west. This current was known to the navigators of a very early age. The mean rapidity of the equi- noctial current is 9 or 10 miles in 24 hours. At 28° north latitude, and nearly as far south, this western equinoctial current is felt, although feebly. The current which rushes through the Cuba and Bahama, or Florida channels, and coasts the United States and Nova Scotia to about 45 degrees north latitude, is called the Gulf Stream. The whole course of this ocean river, is about 15,000 miles in extent. The rapidity of its motion is variable ; but greatest in the Bahama channel. The depth of the Atlantic is various, being, in some parts unfathomable. Its saltness and specific gravity diminish gradually from the equator to the poles. Near the British islands, the salt is said to be one thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The temperature of the Atlantic is influenced, considerably, by the masses of ice which float from the northward towards the equator, reaching frequently the 40th degree of latitude. Dangerous as are these icebergs to the mariner, they yet pre- sent a splendid appearance as they float onwards to southern latitudes, gleaming in the sunbeams, which, while they impart a dazzling brilliancy, hasten the dissolution of the floating masses. The continual melting of portions, gives a very fanciful appearance to the icebergs, which is heightened by the rivulets pouring from point to point, like the streams trickling down a cavern of stalactites. Passages between North America and Europe in the month of June and July, are sometimes rendered perilous by the frequency of icebergs from the north- ward. ATTICA, a country of ancient Greece, is a peninsula, united with Bcaotia towards the north, and partially with Megaris on the west. At Cape Sunium, now Colonna, it projects far into the iEgean Sea. The earliest inhabitants lived in a savage state, until the arrival of Ce- crops, with an Egyptian colony, B. C. 1550. Athens, the capital of Attica, and, for a long time the most refined city of the ancient world, gave the name of Athenians to residents in At- tica. (See Athens.) Attica was famous for its gold and silver mines, which constituted the best part of the public revenues, and were worked by 20,000 men. The inhabitants were numbered, in the 16th Olympiad, at 31,000 citizens, and 400,000 slaves, in 174 villages, some of which were considerable towns. ATTILA, king of the Huns, flourished be- tween 434 and 453. He rendered the Greek empire tributary, and invaded France, but was defeated on the Maine. He threatened Rome, but was induced to retire. Attila was given to excess, and died 453. His body was put in three coffins — the outer of iron, the next of silver, and the inner one of gold. His personal appearance has been described by Jornandes. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoul- ders, and a short, misshapen body. AUGEAS, in fable, a king of Elis, whose stable contained 3,000 oxen, and had not been cleansed for thirty years. Hercules was re- quired to clean it, which he did by turning the river Alpheus into it. AUGEBEAU, Pierre Francois Charles, duke of Castiglione, marshal of France, was one of those men who emerged from obscurity, and obtained a high rank among the officers that surrounded Napoleon, giving such unrivalled brilliancy to his court and camp. Augereau was the son of a fruit merchant, and was born at Paris, 1757 ; serving, as soon as he was able, as a carbineer in the French army. Having sub- sequently entered the Neapolitan service, he was banished from Naples, in 17(12. He then served as a volunteer in the army of Italy, and attracted the attention of all by his bravery, and military talent. In 1794, we find him a general of brigade, and, in 1790, general of division. He distinguished himself, at the pass of Mille- simo, and at Lodi, and took part in some of the most brilliant achievements of the French. AUG 87 AUG In the battle of Arcoli, finding the French columns wavering, Augereau seized a standard, rushed into the thickest of the battle, and gained the victory. In 1799, he was chosen member of the council of five hundred. He was en- trusted by Bonaparte with the command of the army in Holland, joined Moreau, and fought with varying fortune, until the campaign was ended by the battle of Hohenlinden. In 1803, he was appointed to head the expedition against Portugal, which enterprise failed. Returning to Paris, he was named, in 1804, marshal of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honor. In 1805, he was in Germany, contribu- ting to the successes of the French. Wounded in the battle of Eylau, he was forced to return to France. In 1811, he had a command in Spain. In 1813, he was engaged in the battle of Leipsic. After the success of the allies, Louis XVIII named him a peer ; in consequence of his speaking disrespectfully of Napoleon after his fall, the latter, on his return from Elba, declared him a traitor. Augereau took no active part in affairs until the return of the king, when he resumed his seat in the chamber of peers. He died of the dropsy, June 11th, 181G. AUGSBURG, 35 miles northwest of Munich, capital of the Bavarian circle of the Upper Danube. It is a place of some commercial im- portance, and has 34,000 inhabitants. It is famous as the place where the Lutherans, in 1530, protested against the persecutions of Charles V, and were hence called Protestants. AUGUSTA, a pleasant town in Maine, the seat of the state government. It is situated on the Kennebeck river, 56 miles N. N. E. of Port- land. Population, in 1830, 3,980. Qwgusta (Georgia), a city opposite to, and connected with Hamburg, S. C. It has a flourishing com- merce. Situated on an elevated plain, it has an air of great neatness. Population, in 1830, 6696. AUGUSTIN, or Austin, Saint, has been surnamed the "Apostle of the English." The lime at which he flourished, was the reign of Ethelbert, towards the close of the sixth cen- tury. Pope Gregory was induced to send Au- gustin into England with 40 monks, to intro- duce Christianity into the Saxon kingdoms. Ethelbert was then seated on the throne of Kent, to which he had succeeded on the death of his father Hermandie, about 560. After a short, determined struggle, he had rendered all I of the states, with the sole exception of North- umberland, dependant. Ethelbert formed a I natrimonial alliance with France, claiming in marriage the hand of Bertha, a Christian prin- cess, from her father, Caribert, king of Paris. The princess, distinguished for her piety and virtue, exacted a promise from her husband that she should not be molested in the enjoy- ment of her religion, and that, on the con- trary, she should be permitted to bring over to England with her a French bishop. Ethel- bert, who was tenderly attached to her, made no objections, and the French bishop was re- ceived with every mark of respect. The con- duct of the queen was such as to reflect honor on herself and the court of her husband, and excited the admiration of Ethelbert and his subjects. The king could not but perceive the salutary influence of Christianity, and was strongly prepossessed in its favor. Pope Greg- ory, the Great, received the intelligence of the favourable disposition of the king with un- feigned gladness, and immediately dispatched a mission of forty monks, headed by the cele- brated Augustin. Augustin found the king ready to lend a willing ear to all his arguments, and displayed, in a striking and happy light, the truth and beauty of the gospel. The king was not long in avowing his entire belief in the doctrine of Christianity. With his subjects, Augustin was no less successful ; they embraced the true religion with readiness, and crowded to baptism. It is said that Augustin baptized no fewer than ten thousand in one day. His reputation for miraculous power (for he was said to have the ability of curing the blind and deaf), had doubtless no little influence with the multitude, but still it was clear that there was a happy spirit abroad. In regarding his efforts for the extension of gospel truth, we should never overlook the circumstance that he per- mitted no force to be used. There were none of those threats held out to the wavering, which have disgraced the Romish church in many ages — the fagot and the scourge were never once alluded to by Saint Augustin. Yet with many of his disinterested motives, there mingled some ambitious views. He desired to be made archbishop of Canterbury, with su- preme authority over all the churches in Eng- land. The pope was by no means disposed to refuse any of his requests, considering that he had fairly earned any distinction which it was in his power to bestow. The archiepiscopal pall was granted him with permission to establish 12 sees in the province. The British bishop/j in Wales refused to acknowledge the authority of the church of Rome, under whose jurisdiction AUG 88 AUR they had never placed themselves. They were descendants of the British converts of the second century, and sternly resolved to maintain their independence. Augustin urged — threatened. The bishops were neither pliant nor timid, and adhered to their original determination. A dreadful tragedy was now acted ; 1200 Welsh monks being ruthlessly put to the sword. Au- gustin was suspected not only of having sanc- tioned, but of having instigated the massa- cre. He had been irritated by the refusal of the Welsh ecclesiastics to unite with the Eng- lish church, and he thought their contumacy deserving of the severest punishment. He died in 604 or 614, and his relics were deposited with care in the cathedral of Canterbury. The good effects of the introduction of Christianity into England were immediately perceived. The adoption of a pure religion, was immedi- ately followed by the spread of knowledge and civilization ; those laws which were enacted, were generally observed, and a spirit of union manifested itself throughout the kingdom. AUGUSTUS, Caius Julius Csesar Octavius, son of Caius Octavius and Accia, niece of Juli- us Ceesar. He was born during the consulate of Cicero, 65 years B. C. His education was carefully attended to, and he was adopted by Julius Cffisar. He was studying eloquence at Apollonia in Epirus, when his uncle was assas- sinated, and at nineteen years of age, placing himself at the head of the veterans, he marched to Rome, which he found distracted by the republicans and the followers of Antony and Lepidus. Here he announced publicly his adoption, and took his uncle's name, to which he added that of Octavianus . Antony treated him with a contempt, which the magistrates and leading men were far from feeling, and Octavius joined the army that was sent against Antony after his proscription. Thinking it politic, however, to conciliate him, he joined Antony, and, with Lepidus, formed the trium- virate which was .to last for five years, each enjoying an equal share of authority. Octavius sacrificed Cicero to the malice of his associates, and Rome became the theatre of the most san- guinary tragedies. Brutus and Cassius having been defeated, a new partition of spoils took place, Octavius and Antony obtaining the Ro- man empire, while Lepidus was forced to con- tent himself with the African provinces, and was finally deposed. Octavius gave his sister Octavia in marriage to Antony. The conduct and fate of Antony have been related. (See Jin- tony.) Octavius was soon firmly established in the empire. The senate gave him the title of Augustus, and, finding his power confirmed, he seems to have endeavored strenuously to ren- der his conduct worthy of his dignity. He made excellent regulations for the safe conduct of the government ; reducing the number of senators from 1000 to 600, and raising the degree of wealth, which was to qualify them for a seat. He set about the reform of the public manners and morals, and carried his arms successfully into Gaul, Germany, and the east. In the lat- ter part of his reign, however, he met with severe losses in Germany, when Arminius rous- ed his enthralled countrymen to arms. The emperor displayed great sensibility when he heard that three of his legions under Varus, had been cut to pieces by the Germans, A. D. 9, and often exclaimed, in tones of agony, " O Varus, give me back my legions !" He died at Rome, A. D. 14, in the 76th year of his age, and 14th of his reign. On the ap- proach of death, he called for a mirror, and ar ranged his hair. He then asked those about him, if he had played his part well? On their answering in the affirmative, he said, after the manner of the actors, " Then farewell — and applaud !" He greatly improved the appear- ance of the capital, and it was truly said, that " he had found Rome brick, and left it marble.' He liberally patronized men of letters, and Augustan age is a phrase applied to any era distinguished for literature and the arts. Vir- gil and Horace were among the brightest orna- ments of his reign. Two conspiracies formed against him miscarried, the leader of one. Cinna, being generously pardoned by his mas- ter. The emperor's private griefs were heavy, and he suffered great misery from the debauch- eries of his daughter Julia. AURELIAN, emperor of Rome, distinguish- ed for his military talents and severity, was the son of a peasant of Illyricum,and having served with distinction under Valerian II, and Claudi- us II, was recommended as his successor by the latter. He was raised to the throne to the sat- isfaction of all. He subdued Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and erected a new wall round Rome, but was assassinated, A. D. 275. AURENG-ZEBE (ornament of the throne), was born October 20, 1619. His father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to the throne when Anreng- zebe was in his ninth year. In youth, he was distinguished by his great sanctity of appear- ance, and he used all the arts of hypocrisy to cloak his designs. He looked forward to the pos- session of the throne of Hindostan, in the life- AUS 39 AUS time of his father. In 1658, he seized Agra, and imprisoned his father. Having murdered his rel- atives in succession, he ascended the throne in 1659, and took the name of Aalem Guyr. Not- withstanding his crimes in gaining the throne, he governed with ability and success. He greatly enlarged his dominions, and became so formidable, that all the eastern princes sent him ambassadors. He died at the age of 89, bequeath- ing his possessions to his sons. Wars broke out immediately after his decease, and many of the conquered provinces sought their former independence. AUSTERLITZ, or Slawkow, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn, is situated 12 miles E. S. E. of Brunn, and 112 E. S. E. of Prague. This town has been rendered famous by the battle fought in its neighborhood, on the 2d day of December, 1805, in which the troops of France, under the command of the emperor Napoleon, defeated the combined forces of Rus- sia and Austria, headed by their respective emperors. The combined troops amounted to 100,000 men, of whom one fourth were Austri- ans ; while Napoleon had but 80,000, twenty battalions of which, with forty pieces of artil- lery, he kept back as a reserve. At sunrise the battle began, and, shortly afterwards, a most furious cannonade wrapped the combatants in fire and smoke. The repeated discharge of two hundred pieces of cannon created an uproar which appalled all but those engaged in the work of death. At one o'clock in the afternoon, the French were victorious, and the Russians and Austrians retreated. The French found themselves in possession of forty stands of col- ors, and 120 pieces of cannon, while twenty generals, and upwards of 30,000 prisoners were taken. An artillery officer of the Russian Imperial guard, having just lost his guns, met the emperor Napoleon : " Sire," said he, " order me to be shot, for I have lost my pieces." " Young man," replied the emperor, " I appre- ciate your tears ; but you may have been de- feated by my army and yet have indisputable claims to glory." The French artillery caused a heavy loss to the enemy, and Napoleon, in noticing their exploits, said : " Your success has given me great pleasure, for I do not forget that in ypur ranks I commenced my military career." The soldiers called this battle the day of the three Emperors, while Napoleon named it the day of Austerlitz. The commence- ment of the action was striking. The emperor, surrounded by his marshals, in brilliant uni- forms, refrained from giving his orders until the first rays of the sun shot a splendor on the scene, and the horizon became illumina- ted. He then issued his orders distinctly but rapidly, and the marshals parted at full gallop, each to his corps. The emperor, passing in front of several regiments, thus addressed them : " Soldiers ! we must finish this campaign by a thunder-clap, which will astound our enemies and crush their pride !" Thousands of hats waved on bayonets, and cries of vive I'empe- reur ! (long live the emperor!) were the signals of attack. " Never," says Napoleon, " was field of battle more dreadful." On the 4th of December, Napoleon had an interview with the emperor of Germany, in which an armistice, and the principal conditions of peace were agreed upon. Meanwhile, the French troops having nearly surrounded the retreating Russians, Savary, Napoleon's aid-de camp, was dispatched to the emperor of Russia, to inform him that he could retire in safety if he adhered to the capitulation, retreating by stages regulated by the emperor, and would evacuate Germany and Poland. " On this con- dition," added Savary, " I am commanded by the emperor to repair to our advanced posts, which have already turned you, and give them his orders to protect your retreat, the emperor wishing to respect the friend of the first con- sul." — " What guarantee must I give you ?" — " Sire, your word." — " I give it." — Orders were accordingly given, and the retreat of the Rus- sians protected. AUSTRALIA is the fifth division of the world, including New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, the Admiralty islands, New Britain, Solomon isles, Queen Charlotte's isl- and, New Hebrides or Terra del Santo Espi- ritu, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Pelew, Caroline or New Philippine islands, Marian or Ladrone, Monteverdos, Mulgrave, Fisher, Friendly, Bligh's, Navigators, Society, Mar- quesas, Washington, and Sandwich islands. These are sometimes divided into Australasia and Polynesia. Magellan discovered the Lad- rone or Marian islands, March 6, 1521, and the Spanish navigators continued the discoveries which the Portuguese had commenced. The Dutch in the 17th century, took up the task, but Cook, the English navigator, contributed the largest quota of information with regard to Australia. This division of the globe is inhabit- ed by an infinity of tribes, of various disposi- tions and habits. In many islands reformation of manners has been effected through the exer- AUS 90 AUS tions of European and American missionaries, while in others the condition of the natives is deplorable. The Sandwich islanders have made the greatest progress. AUSTRIA. The Austrian dominions have not always been of their present extent, which is very great. The empire of Austria, now con- tains, in addition to the Archdutchy, Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia, Galicia, with the Bukowine ; Hungary, including Transylvania, Sclavonia, and Austrian Croatia ; Austrian Ita- ly, and Dalmatia, with Cattaro, Ragusa, and their islands. Over this extensive territory the house of Austria now holds proud and undispu- ted sway. The house of Austria was indebted for its rise to power, to the good fortune of successive marriages — the beauty of its daughters ; whence it came to be a common saying, that " Venus was more favorable to it than Mars." The fortunes of the house of Austria began first to brighten in the fifteenth century, and origina- ted with the poor and undistinguished counts of Hapsburg, who were possessed of a circum- scribed territory of little value in the canton of Berne, Switzerland. The powerful house of Zaerlingen and Kyburg, becoming extinct, Ro- dolph of Hapsburg, lord of the greater part of Switzerland, was summoned to assume the im- perial diadem and purple in 1273. In A. D. 1298, the imperial throne was filled by another member of the house of Austria, the emperor Albert. This monarch deputed harsh and ty- rannical governors to rule the Swiss, and, in consequence of continued oppression, that brave people revolted in 1307, headed by the famous Tell. Frederick, son of Albert, found himself forced to relinquish the empire into the hands of Louis of Bavaria. The crowns of Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia, were united in the per- son of Albert II, duke of Austria, who ascended the throne on the death of his father, A. D. 1438. Hungary and Bohemia were his by inheritance, and the empire by universal suffrage. The emperor Maximilian, grandfather of Charles V, married the heiress of Burgundy, in consequence of which alliance, the Nether- lands were subjected to Austiia in 1477. In 1496, the marriage of his son Philip to the heir- ess of Castile and Arragon, led to the junction of the broad domains of Spain with the already ample territories of Austria. Charles V, desir- ous of retiring from public life and passing his days in gloomy seclusion, resigned the crown in 1556, and Philip II, his son, gained posses- sion of Spain and the Netherlands. Ferdinand, the brother of Charles V, received Austria, Bo- hemia, and Hungary. He also had been cho- sen emperor of Germany. The house of Aus- tria was noted for its bigotry and cruel in- tolerance. In 1570, Maximilian granted lib- erty of conscience (a great grant in a monarch !) to the Protestants of Austria, but those in other portions of his dominions, particularly in Bohe- mia, were most cruelly persecuted. In their distress the Protestant German princes sought the assistance of the famous Gustavus Adol- phus, king of Sweden. This famous warrior, the ' Lion of the North,' as he was called, broke upon the empire like a whirlwind, and its very foundations tottered beneath the shock. France, espousing the cause of the Protestants, hoped thus to weaken the power of Austria, and the country experienced no release from the tumults and horrors of war, until the treaty of West- phalia was signed in 1648. The sword was idle for a time, but the war with France broke out afresh during the reign of Leopold I, and was continued ufider his suc- cessor. The Turks, emboldened by success, in 1688, pushed their arms into the heart of the empire, and the walls of Vienna echoed back the clangour of the oriental cymbals. The siege of Vienna by the Turks, is a memorable and impressive event. In the war of the allies with France, Joseph I, son of Leopold, joined with heart and hand, and acquired a share of their good fortune. His queen was a daughter of John Frederick, duke of Hanover. Charles VI dying without issue, on the 20th of October, 1740, the extinction of the male line of the house of Austria was the signal for the move- ment of the elector of Bavaria. He seized the kingdom of Bohemia, was elected emperor in 1742, and died in 1745. Francis of Lorraine, son of Leopold duke of Lorraine, succeeded to the Austrian dominions in right of his queen, Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. The throne is still occupied by his descendants. He was elected emperor in 1745, and the crown, though nominally elective, descended to his successors with the regularity of an hereditary sovereignty. The emperor Joseph II, made his reign con- spicuous by his designs for the good of his subjects. He aimed at the most extensive and important reformations, but was not aware of the strength of those prejudices and evils, which presented themselves in his path at the very outset, and continued toobstruct it through- out the whole of his career. The education of Joseph had been carefully attended to, and at AUS 91 AUS the age of nineteen, lie was married to Isabella, infanta of Parma. In 17G4, he was crowned king of the Romans. The death of his first wife whom he loved with a more than usual fond- ness, was a severe blow to him, but in 1765, he married the sister of the elector of Bavaria. It was in this year that he ascended the throne, without encountering the slightest opposition. Having always displayed a military ambition, he was now happy in re-modelling his armies and perfecting their discipline, not restricting his reformation to the army but making it felt in all the departments of government. After having returned from a tour through his own dominions, and through Prussia, Italy, France, and Russia, he set apart, one day in each week for hearing the complaints and peti- tions of all, even the meanest of his subjects. " It behoves me," said he, " to do justice : and it is my invariable intention to render it to all the world, without respect of persons.." It is a pity that he forgot this maxim when he accepted the invitation of the royal anatomists, and assisted in the dismemberment of Poland, in 1771. Jo- seph encouraged the liberty of the press, and even permitted strictures to be made on his own conduct and measures, provided they were not couched in the language of coarse pasquinade. " If," said he, " they be founded in justice, we shall profit by them ; if not, we shall disregard them." Many curious adventures are said to have occurred to the emperor, when, as was his cus- tom, he drove about his one horse cabriolet in the garb of a private citizen. One day, as he was riding thus alone, he was accosted famil- iarly by a soldier who mistook him for a man of the middle class, and asked the emperor to give him a ride. " Willingly," exclaimed Jo- seph, " jump in comrade, for I am in something of a hurry." The soldier sprang into the cab- riolet, and sovereign and subject sat side by side on the same seat. The soldier was loqua- cious. " Come, comrade !" said he, slapping the emperor familiarly on the back ; " Are you good at guessing?" " Perhaps I am," replied Joseph ; " try me." " Well, then, my boy, conjure up your wits, and guess what I had for breakfast this morning." " Sour krout." "Come, none of that ! try again, comrade." " Perhaps a Westphalia ham," said the empe- ror, willing to humour his companion. " Bet- ter than that !" exclaimed the soldier. " Sau- sages from Bologna, and Hockheimer from the Rhine ?" " Better than that — d'ye give it up?" "I do." "Open your eyes and ears then," said the soldier bluntly, " I had a phea- sant, by Jove ! shot in emperor Joe's park, ha ! ha!" When the exultation of the soldier had subsided. Joseph said quietly : " I want to try your skill in guessing, comrade. See if you can name the rank I hold." " You're a — no — hang it ! you're not smart enough for a cornet." " Better than that," said the emperor. " A lieutenant?" — "Better than that." — "A cap- tain?" — "Better than that." — "A major?" — " Better than that." — " General ?" — " Better than that." The soldier was now fearfully agi- tated — he had doffed his hat, and sat bare- headed — he could hardly articulate. " Pardon me, your excellency, — you are Field Marshal." "Better than that," replied Joseph. "Lord help me !" cried the soldier, " you're the em- peror !" He threw himself out of the cabriolet and kneeled for pardon in the mud. The cir- cumstances were not forgotten by either, for the emperor often laughed over it heartily, and the soldier received a mark of favor which he could not forget. On another occasion, Joseph, turning a corner shortly, ran the wheel of his vehicle against an old woman's fruit-stall, and upset it, scattering the good things in every direction. The rag- ged urchins in the immediate vicinity fell upon the tempting fruit, and hastily gathering it, eat it, mud and all. As soon as the old woman gained her feet, she gave utterance to a volley of abuse, and the emperor was glad to escape and permit the predatory youths of the suburbs to take their share of the vituperative epithets of the enraged fruit-seller. As soon as he had reached his palace, Joseph despatched some of his officers to make reparation to the old wo- man. Surrounded by a group of men in splen did uniforms, the old lady was terrified when they informed her that the driver of the cabrio- let was her emperor. Indistinct ideas of halters and executioners were flitting across her mind, when she was awakened to the reality, by the sight of a purse full of gold pieces, which the officers threw upon her table. She opened her lips to bless the emperor, but his messengers had put spurs to their horses, and were seen galloping off in the distance. " I think," said the emperor, " she has no reason to complain, for she has been amply paid, and has had the pleasure of abusing me unmercifully, while I heard her with the patience of a saint." Va- rious events occurred to disturb the tranquillity of Joseph during his reign, and he died on the 20th of February, 1790. His good qualities far exceeded his defects, and the glorious actions AUS 92 AZO he performed, have given him a high rank among the great and good rulers of mankind. Francis II was crowned emperor in 1792. In 1795, when the second division of Poland took place, Austria received an immense accession of territory. In 1797, she relinquished to France her possessions in the Netherlands as well as the dutchies of Milan and Mantua. To com- pensate for this, the greater part of the Vene- tian states were transferred to Austria. The military power of France was so formidable, that even the strongest sovereignties of Europe fear- ed they should be unable to resist its encroach- ments. The French threatened to attain the em- pire of the world by rapid strides. Involved in the wars of 1799 and 1805, Austria met with repeated defeats and continued discomfiture. After she had lost the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, Ulm and Austerlitz, her Venetian possessions, the Tyrol, and other ter- ritories were wrested from her grasp. In 1804, Francis II, assumed the name of Francis I, as hereditary emperor of Austria, and subse- quently relinquished all claims to the empire of Germany. In 1809, Austria took the field against Napoleon, but having to contend, not only against the French, but against Russia, and the confederation of the Rhine, found her- self defeated, and when Bonaparte entered the capital, was compelled to relinquish again immense territories. After a hopeless inaction of some years, the failure of Napoleon's Rus- sian expedition roused the Austrians to arms, and the .subsequent success of the allied pow- ers restored the power and splendor of the Aus- trian empire, which gained the addition of some Italian territories. Of the subject kingdoms and states of Austria, a detailed account will not be looked for. Hungary comes first in rank. The Romans conquered Dacia and ren- dered it tributary ; and, after them, the Huns, Avars, and other Sclavonic tribes, successively conquered it. Since 1563 it has continued an ap- panage of the house of Austria. Transylvania came into possession of the Austrians in 1699. Croatia, anciently a part of Illyricum, was an- nexed to Austria in 1540. Sclavonia, also an- ciently a part of Illyricum, fell into the hands of the Austrians in 1687. The crown of Bo- hemia passed to the house of Austria in 1526. The history of Venice is highly interesting, and perhaps even a sketch of it may not prove otherwise. The Veneti of the opposite shore, flying from the barbarians, founded Venice in the fifth century. The first doge was elected in 697. Each island, previous to that date, having been governed by a tribune. Towards the close of the 12th century the Venetian aris- tocracy seized the reigns of government. In 1204, the Venetians, having extended their commerce, and become masters of many Gre- cian provinces, were celebrated for their im- mense wealth, and allowed to be the first commercial people of the world. This pre- eminence was destroyed by the success of the Portuguese, to whom the commerce of the East Indies was opened, and the power of Ve- nice declined with great rapidity, and there now remains but the tradition of what it was. AVATAR, in Hindoo mythology, the in- carnation of the deity. The Hindoos believe that numerous incarnations have taken place ; ten of which, the incarnations of Vishnu, the Supreme Deity, are celebrated in sacred poems. AVERNUS, a lake in the kingdom of Naples, anciently believed to be the entrance to hell. AVIGNON, a city of the department of Vau- cluse, France, on the Rhine, containing 30,000 inhabitants, and some silk manufactories and other works. The country is fruitful and pleas- ant. The city and district once belonged to the Popes, but in 1790 was annexed to the French Republic. AYESHA, the favorite of Mohammed. Af- ter his death, opposing the succession of AH, she was taken prisoner, but dismissed. She 1 died in 677. AZOPH, or Azof, a town and fortress belong- ing to the Russians, on an island at the junc- tion of the river Don with the sea of Azof. It contains about 1000 inhabitants. The sea of Azof is a bay of the Black Sea. The sea is 210 miles long. AZORES, or Western Islands, a group of islands lying between Europe and America. The principal island is Terceira. Present pop- ulation more than 200,000. They were dis- covered by, and have ever since belonged to the Portuguese, by whom, however, they are not properly appreciated. It is difficult to de- termine the exact time of their discovery, as several dates are given, concerning which a 1 warm controversy has been waged. It is, how- ever, certain that they were discovered prior to, 1449. The name Azores, i. e. Haick Islands, was given from the abundance of falcons (azores) found here by the Portuguese. In 14C6 these islands were presented to the dutchess of Burgundy, by her brother, the prince of Portu- gal. They were colonized afterwards by Ger- mans and Flemings, who appear, however, al- ways to have acknowledged the sovereignty of BAB 93 BAC the king of Portugal. The Azores are recog- I nised at sea from a great distance, by Pico, a tall mountain, which, like the Peak of Tene- riffe, towers far above the deep, and stands a lasting landmark to mariners. The islands are subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and, in 1574, St. George's, Pico, Fayal, and Terceira, although detached and distant from i each other, were violently convulsed. The ocean overflowed from the shock, which pro- duced eighteen little islands. A similar con- vulsion of nature occurred in July, 1638, and after a commotion of six weeks, an island of .nearly six miles in circumference, arose near St. Michaels, but was subsequently absorbed. j In 1720, the most horrible and tumultuous ' scenes occurred, and, amidst an almost unequal- led combination of horrors — causing the death ; of many persons from fright — an island nearly i as large as that of 1638, emerged from its sub- | marine birth-place. The islands are supposed ' to rest on volcanic foundations, which extend to the western shores of Portugal, though the com- i munication may be in many parts obstructed. B. BAAL, Bel ; a Babylonian or Phoenician god, concerning whom there is such a variety of opinions, that there is no small difficulty in de- termining his character. Some consider him as a mortal, the founder of Babylon, and deified for his exertions in the establishment of that mon- archy. Besides the Babylonians and Assyrians, the Persians, Tyrians, and others, worshipped him BABER, or Babour, sultan ; he was a de- scendant of Tamerlane, sovereign of Cabul, and founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindostan, in 15"25. He took Behar, and died in 1530. BABYLONIA, now Irak Arabi, an Asiatic empire of antiquity, bounded north by Media, Armenia, and Mesopotamia ; east by Susiana; «outh by the Persian Gulf, and Chaldea, and west by Arabia Deserta. The Euphrates or Frat, and Tigris, two great rivers, irrigate this fertile and level region. The old capital, Bab- ylon, was of prodigious extent. The walls, 350 feet high, and 87 feet thick, were cemented with bitumen, and were more than 60 miles in circuit. They had an hundred brazen gates, and ■two hundred and fifty towers. Its ruins, which are cumbrous and tasteless, exist in the pacha- iic of Bagdad, near Hella, a village on the east- ern bank of the Euphrates, with 6 or 7000 in- habitants. The hanging gardens of Babylon were famous in ancient times. The Babylo- nians formed a distinct nation, and had attained a high degree of refinement as early as 2000 B. C. Nimrod was the founder of the empire, ace tru- ing to the Mosaic record. Belus, Ninus, and Semiramis were famous conquerors, and the latter caused the capital to be embellished and improved. The le'arning of the Babylonians was celebrated at an early age. Under Nabo- nidas, the empire lost much of its strength and "splendor, and Cyrus destroyed its capital, and annexed it to Persia, in 536. In A. D. 640 it was conquered by the followers of Mohammed, who built Bagdad on the Tigris, and made it the capital. Holagou, a prince of the Tar- tars, expelled the caliphs in 1258, and in 1534 Bagdad was taken by the Turks. Shah Abbas won it from them, but in 1639, the whole of Bab- ylon fell into the hands of the Turks, who yet possess it. BACCHUS, the heathen God of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele. His festivals in Greece and Rome were celebrated by both sexes, and disgraced by intoxication and excesses of va- rious kinds. BACHAUMONT, Francois le Coigneux de, born at Paris, 1624, died in the same city, J702. He was counsellor of Parliament, and opposed to the court party in the disturbances of 1648. He said that the members of the parliament put him in mind of the little boys that played with slings in the street, who dispersed on the ap- pearance of a police officer, but collected as soon as he was out of sight. Pleased with this comparison, the enemies of Mazarin adopted hat-bands in the form of a sling (fronde), and hence were denominated Frondeurs. Ba- chaumont was distinguished for his talent for writing epigrams and lively songs, many of which are extant. BACON, Francis, baron of Verulam, a dis- tinguished philosopher, born at London, 1561, and died in 1626. He was entered in the university of Cambridge, in his 13th year, and distinguished himself for his early proficiency in the sciences. At 16 he wrote against the Aristotelian philosophy, and at 19 his work Of the State of Europe, attracted general at- tention from the clearness of perception and maturity of judgment which it displayed. At the age of 28 his legal reputation was such that he was appointed counsel extraordinary to the queen — a post of more honor than profit. The Earl of Essex befriended Bacon, and pre- sented him with an estate in land, but the lat- ter abandoned his benefactor when he had fallen into disgrace. In parliament, towards the close of Elizabeth's reign, he forsook the independent BAC 94 BAD course which he had previously pursued, and be- came a follower of the court. He stood high in the good graces of James I, and was knighted by him in 1603. His marriage was fortunate, and he at length saw himself free from those pecuniary embarrassments by which he had been so long shackled. In 1617 he was made lord keeper of the Seals ; in 1619, lord high chancellor of England, and ba- ron Verulam, and not long afterwards, viscount of St. Albans. He had not now the plea of neces- sity for making offices and privileges venal, but he was charged with receiving money for them. Rather than submit to a trial which would stamp his name with indelible disgrace, he confessed his guilt, supplicated the lenity of his peers, and begged to be dismissed with the loss of his office. His sentence was severe but just. He was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, to be imprisoned in the Tower as long as the king should choose, declared incapable of office, for- bidden to take his seat in parliament, or to show himself within the verge of the court. He was soon released from the Tower, but did not long survive his fall. His errors sprang more from weakness, than from avarice or want of princi- ple, for he displayed through life a strong sym- pathy for virtue, if he did not have firmness enough to be faithful to her cause. He exam- ined the whole circle of the sciences, and en- deavored to free them from the academical sub- tilties which had impeded their progress. " My name and memory," he says in his will, " I be- queath to foreign nations, and to my own coun- trymen, after some time be passed over." BACON, Nathaniel, an Englishman of good understanding and education, who came to Vir- ginia in 1675, and excited a rebellion against the royal government, which cost the colony £100,000. BACON, Roger, an English monk, born at Ilchester in 1214, and gifted with great talents. He made many discoveries in the sciences, which caused him to be regarded as a sorcerer by the common people, whose prejudices were espoused by the clergy, against whom Bacon had openly spoken. He was imprisoned in con- sequence of their denunciations, and, at one time, kept in confinement for ten years. He died in 1292. He was probably the inventor of the telescope, and had an idea of gunpowder, for he distinctly says in one of his works that thunder and lightning could be imitated by means of char- coal, sulphur, and saltpetre. He was well vers- ed in the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages, the last of which he wrote with facility and elegance, and, although not free from many of the prejudices of his age, was altogether a very extraordinary man. Many of the old English ballads and romances contain accounts of the wonderful exploits cf Friar Bacon, who is gifted with magical arts of the most tremendous na- ture. The " Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon," towards the conclusion, informs us that Friar Bacon broke his magic glass, burned his books of the ' Black Art,' devoted himself to theologi- cal studies, and lived in a cell which he had excavated in a church wall. " Thus lived he two yeeres space in that cell, never coming forth : his meat and drink he received in at a window, and at that window he did discourse with those that came to him ; his grave he digged with his own nayles, and was laid there when he died." " He lived most part of his life a magician, and died a true Penitent Sinner, and an Ancho- rite." BACTRIANA, or Bactria, now Khorassan, before the time of Cyrus was a powerful king- dom, and gave to the Persians their mythology and architecture. It lay between the Oxus, Scythia, Mount Paropamisus, and Margiana; but little is now known concerning this region. After the destruction of the Persian monarchy, it was held by the Parthians and Scythians, until they were expelled*by the Huns. fiADAJOZ, or Badajox, the Pax Augusta of the Romans, is on the left bank of the Guadi- ana, and contains 14,000 inhabitants. It is the capital of Estremadura, a Spanish province, and is 82 miles N. N. W. of Seville. It is celebrat- ed for the defeat of the Spaniards in 1109, by Joseph, king of Morocco ; and for its capture by the British, after a bloody conflict, on the 6th of April, 1812. BADEN, a grand-duchy, of Germany, con- taining 1.150,000 inhabitants, on an area of 5,800 square miles. Baden was erected into a grand- duchy, with large accessions of territory, in 1806, and now forms one of the states of the Germa- nic confederation. BADIA, Domingo, a Spaniard, and political agent of Godoy and Napoleon, who from 1803 to 1808, travelled in the Mohammedan coun- tries bordering on the Mediterranean. He pro- fessed Mohammedanism, and assumed the name of Mi Bey el Massi, under which his travels were published. Burckhardt, the oriental traveller, gives the following account of him : " He called himself Mi Bey, and pretended to have been born of Tunisian parents, in Spain, and to have re- ceived his education in that country. Spanish appears to have been his native language , besides which he spoke French, a little Italian, and the Mograbeyan dialect of Arabic, but badly. He BAG 95 EAH came to Aleppo by the way of Cairo, Jaffa, and Damascus, with the strongest letters of recom- mendation from the Spanish government to all its agents, and an open credit upon them. He seemed to be a particular friend of the Prince of Peace, for whom he was collecting antiques; and from the manner in which it was known that he wa3 afterwards received by the Spanish ambassador, he must have been a man of dis- tinction. The description of his figure, and what is related of his travels, called to my recol- lection the Spaniard Badia, and his miniature in your library. He was a man of middling size, long, thin head, black eyes, large nose, long black beard, and feet that indicated his having formerly worn tight shoes. He professed to have travelled in Barbary , to have crossed the Lybian desert between Barbary and Egypt, and, from Cairo, to have gone to Mecca and back. He travelled with Eastern magnificence, but here (Aleppo) he was rather shy of showing himself out of doors : he never walked out but on Friday, to the noon prayers, in the great mosque. One of the before-mentioned dervi- shes told me that there had been a great deal of talk about this Ali Bey, at Damascus, and Hamar : they suspected him of being a Chris- tian; but his great liberality, and the pressing letters which he brought to all people of conse- quence, stopped all further inquiry. He was busily employed in arranging and putting in order his journal during the two months of his stay at Aleppo." Badia died in his native country. BAERT,John; alsoBarth; born at Dunkirk. 1651. He was the son of a poor fisherman, but his bravery and talents raised him to the rank of commodore in the reign of Louis XIV, whose navy he greatly improved. The Dutch, English, and Spanish, called him the French devil. " I have made you a commodore," was the king's annunciation of his promotion to Jean Baert, at Versailles. " Your majesty has done well," replied the sturdy seaman. The courtiers tit- tered. " It is the reply," said Louis, " of a man who knows his own worth." He received a patent of nobility for one of his naval exploits, and died in 1702. BAGDAD ; the capital of a Turkish pacha- lic of the same name, in the southern part of Mesopotamia, now Irak-Arabi — contains about 100,000 inhabitants. It lies on the east bank of the Tigris, over which a bridge is thrown. The city is surrounded by a brick wall ; the houses are of brick, and but one story high, and the unpaved streets so narrow, as to admit of two horsemen abreast with difficulty. The palace of the pacha forms a contrast to the other buildings of the city, being spacious and did. European manufactures, as well as the productions of India, Arabia, and Persia, find a sale here, and the thronged bazaars present a brilliant and animated appearance. Bagdad has a cannon foundery. From Bagdad, East Indian goods are supplied to Asia Minor, Syria, and part of Europe. The population consists of Turks, Persians, Armenians, and a small num- ber of Christians and Jews. The ancient city, founded in 672, by the Caliph Abu Giafar Alman- zor, once the residence of the Caliphs, and con- taining 2,000,000 inhabitants, is now in ruins. The prosperity of this city completed the ruin of the neighboring city of Babylon. It was twice taken by the Turks and Tartars, and near- ly destroyed. In 163d, it was taken by Amu- rath IV, after a memorable siege, and the great- er part of the inhabitants were butchered in cold blood. In the Idth century, Nadir Shah was defeated in an attempt to take it. BAHAMAS, or Lucaya Islands, 600 in num- ber, are near the coast of North America, in the Atlantic ocean, Ion. 70° to 80 c W. ; lat.'21° to 28 = N. They contain a population of 16,500, including 9,270 slaves, and 2,990 free blacks. The soil of the islands is rich, but thin, and soon ex- hausted. Cotton is the chief production. The residents are principally loyalists, who emigra- ted from Carolina and Georgia, when the royal cause was lost in America. The wreckers, a large portion of the population, are hardy mari- ners, employed in assisting shipwrecked vessels. They display admirable skill and courage in the working of their small flat-bottomed sloops, in which they frequent the most dangerous places, receiving salvage on all rescued property. They are licensed by the governor. These islands were discovered by Columbus, Oct. 12, 1492, Guanahani being the first land he saw. In 1667, Charles II of England granted the Ba- hamas to the Duke of Albermarle and others. The first settlement was made on New Provi- dence, one of the largest of the group. The settlers suffered severely from the ravages of pirates, and the inroads of the Spaniards. Black Beard, the noted leader of the Buccaneers, was killed off here in 1718. The town of Nassau on New Providence was fortified in 1740. Nas- sau was taken by the Americans during the rev- olution, but was abandoned, and afterwards by the Spaniards, but regained by the English. Ba- hama, the chief island of the group, is 63 miles loner. BAL 96 BAL BAHAR, a province of British India ; pop- ulation, 5,800,000. It is bounded north by Nepal and Morung, east by Bengal, south by Orissa, and west by Oude and Allahabad. The soil is very fertile. It was anciently a kingdom of Hindostan, but became part of the British empire in 1765. BAI^E,atown of Campania, a favorite resort of the ancient Romans, many of whom had coun- try-seats here. Its sheltered bay, breezy hills, and baths gave it a high reputation, but the dis- soluteness practised here by visiters, was so notorious and infamous, that Cicero, in his defence of M. Ccelius, thought it necessary to apologise for defending a young man who had lived at Baiae. BAJAZET I, sultan of the Turks, son of Amurath, whom he succeeded in 1389. By strangling his brother and rival, Jacob, he es- tablished a precedent, which has since been fre- quently followed by the Turkish court. The rapidity of his conquests gained him the name of Ilderim, Lightning. He carried his con- quering arms far into Europe and Asia, and on the 28th Sept., 1395, defeated the Christian army of Hungarians, Poles and French, who were headed by Sigismund, king of Hunga- ry. In 1402, he was defeated near Ancyra, in Galatia, by Tamerlane, and was himself taken prisoner, and treated with great courtesy by the conqueror. The story of his being confined and carried about in an iron cage, is unworthy of be- lief. He died in the camp of Tamerlane in 1403. BAJAZET II, son of Mohammed II, sul- tan of the Turks, succeeded his father in 1481. He extended his empire, gained some Grecian towns from the Venetians, and by ravaging Christian states, sought to avenge the expulsion of the Moors by the Spaniards. He finally re- signed his throne to his rebellious son Selim, by whose order, it is supposed, he was murdered in 1512. BALBEC, or Baalbec ; anciently Hcliopolis, or the city of the sun, is in the pachalic of Acre, Syria, 40 miles from Damascus. It is small and ill-built, with 5000 inhabitants, among whom some Jews and Christians are to be met with. The city is governed by an aga, who enjoys the title of emir. Heliopolis wa,s a Roman military station in the time of Augustus. Its splendid temple of the sun, of the 54 columns of which there are but six standing, was built either by Antoninus Pius, or Septimius Severus. The pil- lars remaining, including pedestal and capital, are 74 feet high, and 22 in circumference. Im- mense stones were employed in the construc- tion of the temple. During the reign of Constan- tine, the temple was changed into a Christian church. It fell into decay when the Arabians held the city. Balbec was taken by a general of Omar, and, in 1401, by Tamerlane. An earthquake nearly destroyed it, 1759. BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, was born in 1475. He was one of the numerous adventur- ers, who sought to retrieve their fortunes by following up in the New World, the discoveries which Columbus had commenced. He formed a colony on the isthmus of Darien. An Indian, who was the scornful witness of a dispute between two of Balboa's companions about some gold, agreed to show him a country where the precious metals might be obtained in abund- ance. He led Balboa to the shores of the Pacific, and pointed the path to Peru. Considering his force of 150 men too feeble to attempt the con- quest, Balboa took possession of the vast ocean that rolled before him in the name of the king of Spain, and after an absence of four months, led back his followers to the colony, enriched with gold and pearls. Here he was required to obey a new governor, Pedrarias, who held a royal commission. He was appointed, the en- suing year, viceroy of the South Sea, but seized by Pedrarias, on pretext of neglect of duty, tried, condemned, and beheaded in 1516, at the age of 42. BALDWIN III, king of Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was one of the bravest and most hon- orable of the crusaders. The Christians pos- sessed territories of vast extent, but the vassals of Baldwin were divided by dissensions among themselves; this was also the case with their adversaries, although the latter warred with more success. The reign of Baldwin was un- happy, and convinced the Christians of the impossibility of establishing Christian chivalry in the east. When Noureddin, his valiant and proud opponent, was counselled to fall upon the Christians during the funeral of their leader, he answered : " No ! Let us respect their grief, for they have lost a king whose like is rarely to be met with." BALIOL, John, king of Scotland, a claimant for the crown on the death of queen Margaret. Edward III, being made arbiter, awarded it to Baliol against Robert Bruce. Baliol took up arms in consequence of the interference of the English king in his government, but was de- feated at the battle of Dunbar, and consigned to the tower, whence he was liberated by the intercession of the pope. He died on his estate in France, 1314. BAN 97 BAR BALK, or Balkan, anciently Htemus, a chain of rugged mountains, extending from the Black Sea, in European Turkey, to the Adriatic. The summit of Scardus, the highest peak, is 10,000 feet above the surface of the sea. BALLSTON SPA, a village of New York, noted for its mineral springs, 7 miles S. W. of Saratoga. BALTIC SEA, a large gulf connected with the North Sea, and washing the shores of Den- mark, Germany and Prussia, Courland, Livo- nia, and other parts of Russia. The Sound, the Great and the Little Belt, are the names of the three passages leading from the Cattegat into the Baltic, at each of which a toll is paid to Denmark, which, as 6000 ships annually enter the Baltic Sea, is no inconsiderable source of revenue. BALTIMORE, a city and port of entry in Baltimore county, Maryland, is situated on the noith side of the Patapsco, 14 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake bay. The popu- lation, in 1830, was 80,625. It is the third city in the United States, and the centre of most of the trade of Maryland, and a portion of that of the Western States and Pennsylva- nia. It is built around a basin which affords a safe harbor, the narrow entrance of which, being guarded by fort M'Henry, secures the city against a naval enemy. Several of the public buildings are elegant, and imposing in appearance. The Washington monument is a chaste and conspicuous structure of stone. St. Mary's college is a Catholic institution of great repute. The medical college received, with its charter, in 1812, the title of university. Dur- ing the last war, the city of Baltimore was attacked by the British, and on the 13th of September, the battle at North Point was fought. On the next day, fort M'Henry was bombarded, the enemy beaten off, and general Ross, the English commander, slain. The bravery man- ifested in defence of Baltimore, will prevent the event from falling into oblivion, but, to comme- morate it, an elegant marble monument, 35 feet high, called the Battle Monument, has been erected. BANGOR, a city, the capital of Penobscot county, Maine, situated at the head of tide- water on the Penobscot river. Population, in 1830, 2,867. It is a flourishing and pleasant town, and contains a theological seminary, and some public buildings. BANK, of England, was established in 1691, and is of historical importance, as the machine by which the British funding system has been 7 carried on, and those immense sums raised, during the late wars, to subsidize all Europe. The Bank of Venice was established in 1171, for the purpose of rendering assistance to the crusades. BANNOCKBURN, a village in Stirling- shire, Scotland, celebrated by the Scots, for the signal defeat of the English army, in 1314, by Robert Bruce. The army of Edward II, was superior in every thing but valor, and the battle decided the independence of Scotland. James III, in 1488, lost his life in a battle fought here against his subjects. BANQ.UO, or Bancho, thane of Lochaber, from whom the royal house of Stuart was descended. In the reign of Donald VII, he gained some military reputation, but he tar- nished his fame by joining Macbeth, by whom he was murdered about 1046. BAOUR LORMIAN, Louis Pierre Marie Francois, born at Toulouse, in 1771, was a mem- ber of the French academy. His translation of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, laid the foun- dation of his poetical fame. In 1814, in con- junction with Etienne, he wrote a drama called the Orif amine, to inspire the French with enthu- siasm. In 1824, he published a translation of Dante's Div/.na Commedia. In the early part of his career, attention was excited by his quar- rels with the poet Lebrun, the warfare produc- ing the exchange of several epigrams. One of Baour's, was the following: Lebrun, 'tis said, subsists on fame — And hence the spareness of his frame. The reply was equally witty and severe. That, folly fattens one is sure, And hence thy embonpoint, Baour. BARATARIA,a bay and island of Louis- iana, on the north side of the gulf of Mexico. The bay is 18 miles in length. The island was fortified by the famous pirate Lafitte, whose resort it was in 1811. BARBADOES, one of the Caribbean isl- ands. It was discovered by the Portuguese, but belono-s to the English, who settledit in 1605. Longitude 59° 50' W. lat. 13° 10' N. It is 21 miles long, and 14 broad, containing an area of ] 06,500 acres. Population, 102,000, in- cluding 14,960 whites, 5,150 free colored per- sons and 81,900 slaves. The island contains 4 towns, viz. Bridgetown, the capital, Speight's T , Austin's T., and Jamestown. The cli- mate is hot, but the air uncommonly salubri- ous ; though hurricanes are unhappily not un- frequent. The soil is various and fertile, and BAR 98 BAR the gently undulating country is studded with planters' houses, which, amidst the picturesque productions of the soil, add to the beauty of the landscape. Annual value of the exports is £400,000; of imports £500,000. The free people of color are happy, and many of them prosperous. They entertain high-flown notions of their valor, which, however, cannot be de- nied, since no trial of it has taken place. " A man may have a deal of courage in him without knowing it," but the Barbadians appear to feel the extent of theirs, and to lament it. That the " Badians are almost too brave," is said to be no uncommon declaration among these spirited islanders. BARBAROSSA. This name was borne by two brothers, noted pirates, Horuc, and Hay- raddin. (See Algiers.) BARBARY STATES, are Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Fez, and Morocco, and lie on the northern coast of Africa, extending westerly from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. A chain of snow-capped mountains, the Atlas range, intersects them almost from east to west, be- tween which and the sea lies a fertile tract of land. The tract south of the mountains ex- tending to the great desert, is sandy and unpro- ductive of any fruit but dates. The climate is salubrious, the sea air tempering the heat, which is, however, of a degree to permit the growth of vegetation in April and May. Bar- ley, wheat, figs, grapes, olives, oranges, pom- egranates, melons, cyprus, cedar, and almond trees, spring from the luxuriant soil. The sugar-cane, palm-tree, and lotus are abundant; and, in the early part of the spring, the country is bright and fragrant with roses, from which the purest ottar is obtained. The domestic animals are of the most valuable kind, and wild ones are found in abundance. Among the minerals of the mountains, are silver, copper, iron, lead, and antimony. Salt is abundant. The commerce between these and the European states on the borders of the Mediterranean, is by no means inconsiderable. In antiquity, the countries now composing the Barbary States, were distinguished for the activity of the in- habitants in commercial pursuits. The Car- thaginians were the most wealthy and en- terprising of the possessors of these places, but the Romans, Vandals, and Arabians, did not permit commerce to be prostrated. Now, a country capable of sixty millions of inhabi- tants, contains barely ten millions and a half. The patriotism of the Carthaginians induced them to labor for the promotion of the best interests of their country, but their power could not stand against that of a nation of victorious and hardy warriors. The Romans endeavored to make the most of their conquered provinces, and the vast influx of wealth, which conquest poured in upon them, subdued that stern spirit of temperance which had carried their banners in triumph through the troubled tide of war Then came the Vandals and Arabians, who endeavored to render the possessions they wrested from the Romans as available as possi- ble. The present population of the Barbary States, is composed of Moors, Jews, who carry on the greater part of the business done here, Turks, and Bedouin Arabs. The last, the descend- ants of the Saracenic conquerors of the country, have a fine, manly appearance. Their habits are migratory, and they dwell in tents, 10 or 100 families gathering together, each family being under the government of a sheik. They are generally at war with the Berbers, the descendants of the original inhabitants of the country, who are represented as predatory, treacherous, and cruel. On these, and on the collectors of tribute, the Arabs wage war, and, when their hands are not full of personal quar- rels, enter the service of any chieftain who may require them. The Moors are Moslems, indo- lent, unsociable, luxurious, superstitious, and uncultivated. They treat the Jews, whom they despise and hate, with great harshness. In addition to the races above enumerated, there are many negroes in Barbary. BARCA, a desert, with a few fertile spots, on the northern coast of Africa, between Tri- poli and Egypt; containing 300,000 inhabi- tants. It is subject to Tripoli. BARCELONA, capital of Catalonia, and one of the largest cities in Spain, contains 120,000 inhabitants. It is built in the form of a crescent, and stands on the shores of the Mediterranean, long. 2° W E. ; and lat. 41° 27' N. Linens and laces, guns, pistols, and swords are among its manufactured articles. The harbor is commodious, but rather difficult of access. Wine and brandy are exported in large quantities. The amount of imports and exports is probably 7,000,000 dollars. Its cit- adel, built in 1714, has a secret connection with the fort of San Carlos ; and it may be considered as a strongly-fortified place. Until the twelfth century, Barcelona was under the government of its own counts, and afterwards united with the kingdom of Arragon, but with- drew and united to the French crown in 1640 BAR 99 BAR In 1652, it again submitted to the Spanish gov- ernment, but was taken by the French in 1697. Its restoration was made at the peace of Rys- wick. It is famous for the resolute, but una- vailing defence it made against the troops of Philip V, under the command of the duke of Berwick, in 1714, when the sufferings of the inhabitants were unparalleled. In 1809, it was taken by the French, and remained in their power until 1814. In 1821, the yellow fever committed great ravages in it. The candor of a Barcelona galley-slave, is always brought to remembrance on seeing the name of this city. The duke of Ossuna, as he passed by Barcelo- na, having obtained leave from the king of Spain to release some slaves, went on board the galley, and, passing through the benches of slaves at the oar, asked several of them what their offences were. Every one excused him- self; one saying he was put there out of malice ; another by the bribery of the judge ; but all of them unjustly. Among the rest was a little sturdy fellow ; and the duke asked him what he was there for? " Sir," said he, " I cannot deny that I am justly sent here ; for I wanted money, and so I took a purse from the high-way, to keep me from starving." Upon this, the duke struck him gently with a little stick he had in his hand, saying, " You rogue, what do you do among so many honest men ? Get you gone out of their company." BARDS. The Bards, among Celtic nations, in battle, raised the war-cry of their people, and in peace, sang the exploits of their warriors. They appear to have acted, as the heralds, legislators, and priests of the free Celtic tribes of Europe, until the gradual progress of south- ern despotism and civilization, drove them into the strongholds of the Welsh, Irish, and Scotch mountains, which echoed to the w.'d notes of their harps, and the patriotic songs of the inspired poets. Their music and poetry kept alive the spark of national patriotism and enthusiasm, and inspired a stern resistance to the attacks of despotism. Hence Edward I, of England, caused the Welsh bards to be slain, as the instigators of sedition. The poems of Ossian, a Highland bard, have been preserved, and translated by Macpherson, who was sus- pected of being their author, but an investiga- tion of the subject by a literary committee, has clearly proved their authenticity. Of these poems, Bonaparte was passionately fond, and the influence they exerted upon his style, may be traced in many of his declamatory harangues. BARFLEUR, a sea-port in France, 12 miles east of Cherburg, which, in 1346, was taken and pillaged by Edward III, of England, who ruined its importance as a sea-port, by destroy- ing its harbor. Here William the conqueror embarked for England. BARLOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, was born at Reading, Connecticut, about 1755. He was educated at Dartmouth and Yale colleges, where he distinguished him- self by his poetical talent. In the college vacations, he served as a volunteer, and was present at the battle of White Plains. His first publication was a collection of minor pieces called American Poems. After leaving college, he was licensed to preach as a Congregational minister, and became a chaplain in the Ameri- can army. His patriotic lays are said to have exerted a happy influence upon his country- men. His Vision of Columbus, which was afterwards expanded into the Columbiad, met with a flattering reception, both in America and England. The first edition was printed in 1787. His version of the Psalms was highly successful. To further the sale of his poem, and the psalms, he became a bookseller, at Hartford, but quitted the business as soon as he had effected his object. In Europe, whither he went to effect the sale of some land in Ohio, he made himself conspicuous by the publica- tion of some prose and poetical works of a political nature. He also found time to write a mock heroic poem, in three cantos, called Hasty Pudding, and this was doubtless the hap- piest of his efforts. The commercial specula- tions in which he engaged, proved highly suc- cessful. In 1795, he was appointed American consul at Algiers, concluded a treaty of peace with the dey,and procured the liberation of all the American citizens, who were held as slaves within that territory. By the conclusion of a similar treaty at Tripoli, he was enabled to redeem and send home all the American pris- oners found there. In 1797, he returned to Paris, where, by commercial speculations, he amassed a very considerable fortune. In Paris, he lived in sumptuous style, and lost no oppor- tunity of serving his countrymen. When the rupture between America and France took place, on account of the maritime spoliations of the latter, he endeavored to adjust the differ- ences between them. After an absence of nearly 17 years, he returned to his country early in the year 1805. In 1808, appeared his Columbiad, a splendid volume, ornamented with engravings, executed by London artists. It was so expensive a work, that but few copies BAR 100 BAR were sold. In 1811 , Barlow was appointed min- ister plenipotentiary to the French government. In 1812, while repairing to Wilna, in order to have a conference with the emperor Napoleon, he died of an inflammation of the lungs, Oct. 2, at Zarnawica, an obscure Polish village. BARNEY, Joshua, whose name stands high in the list of our naval heroes, was born at Baltimore, Maryland, July Gth, 1759. He was put into a retail shop at an early age, but man- ifesting a dislike for that employment, went to sea. At 1(3 years of age, the illness of the captain and discharge of the mate of a vessel, on board of which he was, put him in command of her, — a station which he retained for eight months. At the commencement of the revo- lutionary war, he espoused the cause of the colonies, and was made master's-mate on board the Hornet sloop-of-war, Capt. William Stone. In 1775, the Hornet was concerned with Hop- kins's fleet, in the capture of New Providence, one of the Bahama Islands. In 1776, in con- sequence of his conduct in the engagement between the American schooner Wasp and the English brig Tender, which was captured un- der the guns of two hostile vessels, he was presented with a lieutenant's commission, being then not 17 years of age. Soon afterwards, he became lieutenant of the Sachem, and assisted in the capture of an English brig, after a severe engagement. Being placed on board of a captured vessel as prize-master, Barney was taken, on his return from the West Indies, by the Perseus of 20 guns, but prisoners were ex- changed in Charleston, S. C. In 1777, Barney was on board the Andrew Doria, and assisted in the defence of the Delaware. Having been ordered to Baltimore, to join the Virginia frigate, Capt. Nicholson, his vessel was run ashore by the pilot, and taken by the British. Barney was exchanged in 1778, but while commanding a small schooner, was again taken, in Chesapeake bay. In November, 1778, he sailed with Capt. Robinson in a ship from Alexandria, with a letter of marque. They arrived at Bordeaux, after a warm action with the Rosebud, shipped 18 guns and 70 men, and took on board a cargo of brandy. On their return, they captured a valuable prize. Barney reached Philadelphia in October, 1779. In the following year, he married Miss Bedford, and, a month after- wards, was robbed of his whole fortune, on the road to Baltimore. Saying nothing of his misfortune, he returned to Philadelphia, and served on board the U. S. ship Saratoga, 1G guns, Capt. Young. He was taken prisoner and sent to England, escaped, was retaken, again escaped, and reached Philadelphia, March, 1782. Soon after, he received from the state of Pennsylvania the command of the Hyder Aly, a ship of 16 guns. With a loss of 4 killed and 11 wounded, the Hyder Aly captured the ship General Monk, 20 guns, after an action of 26 minutes. On board the captured vessel were 30 killed and 53 wounded, 15 out of 16 officers being either killed or wounded. For this ex- ploit he was presented with a sword by the legis- lature of Pennsylvania. The General Monk having been purchased by the United States, Barney was put in command of her, and sailed for France with sealed despatches for Doctor Franklin, in November, 1782. He returned to America, after having been favorably received at the French court, with a large loan from the French King, a passport from the King of Eng- land, and assurances that the preliminaries of peace were signed. Barney then served in the French navy from 1795 till 1800, when, resign- ing the command of a French squadron, he returned to America. In 1812, on the breaking out of the war between England and the United States, he commanded the flotilla designed for the defence of the Chesapeake. He set out for Bladensburg, with a small force of marines and five pieces of artillery, in July, but found the Americans in full retreat. Notwithstanding he made a most gallant opposition to the enemy, he was wounded in the thigh and taken pris- oner. He received a sword from the corpora- tion of Washington, and a vote of thanks from the legislature of Georgia for his gallant con- duct. In May he was entrusted with a mission to Europe, and returned to Baltimore in Octo- ber. Commodore Barney died at Pittsburg, in 1 Jl8, while on his way to Kentucky, whither he had resolved to emigrate. His personal ap- pearance was prepossessing, and his talents as a naval commander great. BARRY, John, another distinguished naval officer in the service of the United States, was born in the county of Wexford, Ireland, in 1745. His father was a respectable farmer, and made no opposition to his son's wish to lead a seafaring life. Previous to his coming to America, Barry acquired a good practical edu- cation, and was between 14 and 15 years of age, when he reached the country of his adoption. The experience which he had gained in the merchant service, and the naval skill which he displayed, procured for him a commission in the continental navy, on the breaking out of hos- BAR 101 BAS tilities with Great Britain. He was appointed commander of the brig Lexington, 16 guns, in February, 177G. After cruising with success he was transferred in the same year, to the frig- ate Effingham, at Philadelphia, but the ice in the Delaware preventing immediate operations, Barry served on shore as Aid-de-Camp to Gen- eral Cadwalader, and was present at the oc- currences near Trenton. When the American vessels were lying near Whitehill, he conceiv- ed the daring plan of descending the river in boats and capturing the supplies sent to the en- emy. He succeeded in taking not only a valu- able stock of provisions, but military stores, for which exploit he received the thanks of Wash- ington. After the loss of his frigate, he was ap- pointed to command the Raleigh of 32 guns, but ran her on shore on being chased by a large squadron. In February, 1761, he was in command of the Alliance, a frigate of 36 guns, and sailed from Boston for L'Orient with Col- onel Laurens and suite, on an embassy of im- portance to the court of Paris. After having taken several prizes, he was severely wounded in the action with the Atalanta ship of war, and her consort the brig Trepasa, which were taken after an engagement of several hours. Throughout the war, Commodore Barry behav- ed with gallantry, and on the termination of hostilities was appointed to superintend the building of the frigate United States, which he was to command. In the short navai war with France, Barry was of great service to this coun- try, and remained in command of the United States till she was laid up in ordinary. He died Sept. 13, 1803, with the reputation of a virtuous, brave, and talented man. BARTHOLOMEWS DAY, (St.) a feast of the church, celebrated August 24th. The horrid massacre of Bartholomew's day was perpetrat- ed on the Huguenots, or Protestants of Paris, by the Catholic faction, during the reign of Charles IX, in 1572. The massacre extended throughout the kingdom, and the victims were not fewer than 30,000. At Rome the news was received with every demonstration of joy, sa- lutes of cannon were fired, a procession went by order of the Pope to the church of St. Louis, and the Te Deum was chanted. B A.RTLETT, Josiah, M. D. Governor of New Hampshire, was born in Amesbury, Mass. in 1729. He commenced the study of medicine at the age of 16, and at the age of 21, the practice of it, in which he was highly successful. In 1754, he was 'a representative of the town of Kingston in the provincial legislature, where he took the side of the minority, firmly oppos- ing all violations of right. In 1775 he was de- prived by the Governor of his commission in the army, and of that of justice of peace. From the provincial congress, however, he received a regiment, and, as a delegate to the continental congress, was the second signer of the declara- tion of independence. In 1780 he was appoint- ed judge of the superior court of New Hamp- shire, and chief justice in 1790. In the same year he became president of New Hampshire, and its governor in 1793. He retired from office in 1794, and died in 1795. BARTON, Elizabeth, a country-girl of Ad- dington, in Kent, commonly called the Holy Maid of Kent. She was an impostor, who ap- peared in the reign of Henry VIII, with pre- tensions to miraculous powers ; she was execut- ed at Tyburn, April 30. 1534, after a full con- fession of her imposture. It was at the time that the king was about to be divorced from liis first wife, and the English Church separated from Rome, and this girl was employed by priests to warn Henry of the vengeance of heaven if he persisted. BARTRAM, William, an American natural- ist, born at the botanic garden, Kingsessing, Penn., 1739. He accompanied his father on an expedition to explore the natural productions of East Florida, and in 1773 commenced an exam- ination of the natural productions of the Flor- idas, and the western parts of Carolina and Georgia, at the request of Dr. Fothergill of London. This employment lasted nearly five years. In 1790 he published an account of his travels and discoveries in 1 vol. 8vo. In 1782 he was elected professor of botany in the uni- versity of Pennsylvania, and in 1786, member of the American Philosophical Society. He be- longed to many other learned societies in Eu- rope and America. He assisted Wilson in the commencement of his American Ornithology. On the 23d of July, 1823, being then in his 85th year, a few minutes after writing an article on the natural history of a flower, he ruptured a blood-vessel and died. BASHKIRS, or BASHKEERS, a tribe of Turkish origin, whose country is part of the ancient Bulgaria. In 1770 they consisted of 27,000 families. They are Mohammedans, but little civilized, and live by hunting, raising cattle, and keeping bees. They intoxicate themselves en a beverage made from ferment- ed mare's and camel's milk. BASIL, St., an Eastern patriarch, called the Great, and made bishop of Ccesarea, in Cappa- BAS 102 BAS docia, in 370. Here he died in 379. The rules for the regulation of the monastic life, which he prepared, are still followed by all the orders in Christendom. BASLE, BALE, or BASIL, a city of Swit- zerland, capital of a canton of the same name. The inhabitants of the greater and lesser towns have, from time immemorial, been on bad terms with each other, and their animosity is not yet extinct. The university founded here in 1459 has an excellent library. The clocks of Basle in former times were an hour in advance of those of other places. The administration of the city is in the hands of the councils, the smaller of which, consisting of (JO members, is chosen from the large council of 280 members. The principal trade of Basle is in silk ribbons. The treaty of peace concluded here August 28th, 1795, between the French and Spanish, procur- ed for Don Emanuel Godoy, the Spanish prime minister, the title of Prince of Peace. The chief object of the ecclesiastical council of Basle, which was convened by Pope Martin V, and Eugenius IV, commencing its sittings, Dec. 14, 1431, was the conversion of the papal monar- chy into a hierarchical aristocracy. BASSOMPIERRE, Francois de, Marshal of France, who enjoyed the favor of Henry IV and Louis XIII, and was one of the most amia- ble and accomplished men of their courts. He was born in 1579 and died in 1646. He served in a military and civil capacity. Having be- come enamored of the charms of the daughter of the Constable de Montmorency, he relin- quished his hopes when he discovered that he was the rival of Henry IV. BASSORA,or BASRAH, a city of Irak, sit- uated half way between the junction of the Ti- gris with the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, 210 miles S. W. of Ispahan. Its commerce is extensive. It was built by the Caliph Omar, and has been alternately occupied by Turks and Persians. BASTILE, anciently a castle in Paris, where prisoners were confined by the authority of Lettres de Cachets, that is, letters of arrest, written in the king's name, with blanks for the names of individuals, which were to be filled up by the ministers who possessed these letters. Heads of families among the nobility, who wished to confine any unworthy member of the family, claimed the privilege of confinement by a lettre de cachet, and this privilege was next claimed by the ministers of government, to be used for the punishment of icfractory servants and others. It will easily be conjectured that it was not long before unprincipled ministers abused this right by imprisoning worthy per- sons, who, in the actual discharge of their du- ties, had incurred the displeasure of men of power by thwarting their interests. In fact the use of the lettres dc cachet was the main-stay of despotism, and used not merely by the throne, but by many of its satellites. Men were im- prisoned for offences too trifling to be register- ed, and remained 30 or 40 years in the Bastile, or even till death, without any examination be- ing instituted into the charges on which they were imprisoned. (See Iron Mask). At the com- mencement of the French Revolution, the at- tention of the people was called to this enor- mity. In July, 1789, they assembled in force and attacked the Bastile, which surrendered after a few hours. The Governor was murdered. The prisoners were feasted in Paris, and the building was finally completely demolished. Its building was commenced in 1369 by Charles V, and finished in 1383 by his successor. M. Mercier has given an interesting account of a prisoner who was confined for some expressions of disrespect towards Louis XV. He was set at liberty by the ministers of Louis XVI. He had been in confinment for 47 years, and had borne up against the horrors of his prison- house with a manly spirit. His thin, white, and scattered hairs, had acquired an almost iron rigidity, and his body was firm and com- pact as the stone which environed him. The day of his liberation, his door was flung wide open, and a strange voice announced to him his freedom. Hardly comprehending the mean- ing of the words, he rose and tottered through the courts and halls of the prison, which ap- peared to him interminable. His eyes by de- grees became accustomed to the light of day, but the motion of the carriage which was to convey him to his former abode appeared unen- durable. At length, supported by a friendly arm, he reached the street in which he had once resided, but on the spot formerly occupied by his house, stood a public building, and no- thing remained in that quarter that he re- cognized. None of the living beings of the vast city knew him ; his liberty was a worthless gift, and he wept for the solitude of hi-s dungeon. Accident brought in his way an old domestic, a superannuated porter, who had barely strength sufficient to discharge the duties of his office. He did not recognize his master, but told him that his wife had died of grief thirty years be- fore, that his children had gone aferoad, and that not one of his relations remained. Overcome BAT 103 BAV by this intelligence, the captive supplicated the minister to take him back to the dungeon from which he had been liberated, and the man of of- fice was moved to tears by his misery. The old porter became liis companion, as he was the only person who could converse to him of the friends he had lost, but so wretched was the iso- lated condition of the victim of the Bastile, that he died not long after his liberation. BATAVIA, a city and seaport of the island of Java, on the north coast of which it is situ- ated, near the western end. It is the capital of all the Dutch East Indies : Ion. 106° 54' E. ; lat. 6° 12' S. Pop. in 1824, when it was con- siderably reduced, 53,861. The inhabitants are Chinese, Balinese, natives of Celebes, Javanese, Malays, Europeans, and slaves. The Dutch founded the city in 1619, and after being taken by the British in 1811, it was again restored to the Dutch in 1816. The bay would be good if it were easily accessible. The town is built on a low marshy foundation, at the junction of small rivers, and some of the canals in the streets contain stagnant water. Hence origin- ates the intermittent fever, which is so fre- quently fatal to strangers. Batavia has an im- mense trade, and its architectural beauty pro- cured it the name of Queen of the East, but recent alterations have much defaced it. The quarter of the native population is exceedingly mean, while the European houses are neat rather than elegant. The stadt-house, and places of public worship are not particularly distinguished by grandeur or beauty. BAT AVIANS, a German tribe, the aborig- inal inhabitants of Holland, particularly of the island in the Rhine called Batavia, which was conquered by the Salian Franks towards the end of the third century. The Batavian repub- lic was formed in 1798, by a change in the con- stitution of the United Provinces, effected by the French. It continued in existence till Louis Bonaparte ascended the throne of Holland, 1806. BATH. This city of England was anciently called by the Romans Aqua: Solis, Forties Calidi, Thermo;, Bodonia, and Bathonia. The Britons gave it the name of Caer Badun, or Bladon ; the Saxons, Hat Bathun, and Jlchamannum. It is in Somersetshire, 107 miles W. of London, and is situated on the river Avon, in a narrow valley. Its hilly environs are pleasant, and it opens on the north-west into beautiful and wide meadow-lands. The population, in 1831, was 50,800. Its batfis were highly esteemed by the Romans, and are so at the present day. The splendid cathedral, which is of Gothic architec- ture, is the finest specimen of the sort in Eng- land. The places for public worship are numer- ous, and few cities are more prolific in sources of amusement. BATH, a post-town and port of entry in Lincoln county, Maine. It is situated on the W. side of the Kennebeck, 12 miles from the sea, has great commercial advantages and is engaged in ship-building. The population, in 1830, was 3,773. BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an English militaiy order, the origin of which is uncertain. By the statutes prepared when it was revived by George I, in 1725, the number of knights was fixed at 38 — viz. the sovereign and 37 knights-companions. BAUTZEN, or BUDESSIN, capital of Up- per Lusatia, situated on a height washed by the Spree. It contains 11.500 inhabitants. The Catholics and Lutherans worship together in the large cathedral, the former possessing the altar and the latter the nave. On the 20th and 21st of May, 1813, Napoleon here defeated the army of Prussians and Russians, whose master- ly retreat left him little advantage. In the eve- ning of the 21st the field of battle presented a grand but terrible spectacle, more than 16,000 men being stretched in their last sleep, and the scene illuminated by the red glare of 30 burning villages. BAVARIA, a kingdom of Germany , a waste in the time of Caesar, and a Roman province (Vindelicia and Noricum) under Augustus. At the end of the fifth century, a confederacy was formed by several German tribes, under the name of Boiaorians, Ratisbon being their chief seat. Their country was called Noricum, and was never subject to the Ostrogoths. They be- came subject however to the Franks, when the latter gained possession of Rhaetia. Otho the Great, who, after the death of Charlemagne, and the occurrence of convulsions incidental to the division of the empire, gained possession of Bavaria, died in 1183. Louis I, his successor, enlarged his territories, and added the Palatin- ate of the Rhine. Bavaria was divided into Upper and Lower, in 1255 ; Maximilian I, a dis- tinguished leader of the league against the Pro- testants, gained the upper palatinate in 1623. He died in 1651. After the battle of Blenheim, the emperor treated Bavaria as a conquered country. Charles VII, elected Emperor of Ger- many in 1742, received homage as King of Ba- varia, but in 1743 the states of Bavaria were constrained to swear homage to Maria Theresa. BAV 104 BAY In the war of 1743, Charles' fortunes sank rapid- ly, and he was forced to abandon Bavaria. His son and successor, Maximilian Joseph III as- sumed, like his father, the title of archduke of Austria, but making peace with Austria, in 1745, received from Francis all the Bavarian territories which had been conquered by that power. Maximilian Joseph devoted himself to the promotion of the interests of his people, and favored their industry by every means in his power ; the foundation of the Academy of Sci- ences at Munich proves his liberality, and the extension of his views. By the treaties of the house of Wittelsbach, and the terms of the peace of Westphalia, the right of succession reverted to the palatinate, on the extinction of the Wittelsbach Bavarian line in the person of Maximilian Joseph, who died 30th of December, 1777, but the claims of Austria to Lower Bavaria were enforced by arms, and Charles Theodore, m 1778, was per- suaded formally to renounce the Bavarian suc- cession. The Duke of Deux-Ponts, however, the presumptive heir, relying on the encour- agement afforded by Frederick II, refused to ac- knowledge the surrender of the succession. This was the cause of the Bavarian war of succes- sion which was terminated by a treaty of peace, signed May 13th, 1779, in consequence of war being declared against Austria by Russia, when Bavaria was secured to the elector palatine of Bavaria. The Austrians yet coveted the coun- try, and, in 1784, Joseph II proposed to ex- change the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, with the sum of 3,000,000 florins for the Elector and the Duke of Deux-Ponts, and the title of king of Burgundy. This, however, was formal- ly refused by the duke of Deux-Ponts, who de- clared he would never barter away the inher- itance of his ancestors. Charles Theodore re- vived the order of Jesuits, and restrained the freedom of the press, and on the breaking out of the French revolution, the elector sent troops to aid the empire. In 1796 Bavaria be- came the theatre of war. Maximilian Joseph, duke of Deux-Ponts, now came into possession of Bavaria. At the beginning of the war of 1805, the elector joined \he French with 30,000 troops, and at the peace of Presburg received a vast addition of territory, and the title of king. A matrimonial alliance connected the inter- ests of Bavaria still more closely with those of France. The king of Bavaria took part against the Prussians and Austrians, in 1806 and 1809. In the war of 1812 between France and Russia, Bavaria brought 30,000 men into the field, and but a few fragments of her fine army survived the expedition to Moscow. In 1813 the king of Bavaria abandoned the confederation of the Rhine and turned his arms against Napoleoja. The kingdom of Bavaria is at present one of the principal of the secondary continental pow- ers. Bavaria, exclusively of the part west of the Rhine, is bounded north by Hesse-Darm- stadt, Hesse-Cassel, the Saxon principalities of Meiningen, Hildburghausen, and Coburg. Reuss, and the kingdom of Saxony ; east and south by Austria, and west by Wurtemberg, Ba- den, and Hesse-Darmstadt. The kingdom con- tains 4,238,000 inhabitants. The people are in- dustrious and education has made much pro- gress. Agriculture is the chief branch of indus- try. The government is administered to general satisfaction. BAYARD, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de, called he Chevalier sans peur ct sans reproche , (the knight without fear and without reproach). He was born in castle Bayard, near Grenoble, 1476, of one of the most ancient families in Dau- phiny. Educated under the eye of his uncle, the bishop of Grenoble, he early displayed those traits for which he was afterwards so much be- loved and celebrated. Modest, pious, affection- ate, tender, brave, and honorable, all who be- held him augured well of his future career. Charles VIII, who saw him at Lyons, manag- ing a stately steed with ease and grace, begged him of the duke of Savoy, whose page he then was, and committed him to the care of Paul of Luxemburg, count de Ligny. He won his ear- liest laurels in tournaments, but he was destined to shine upon redder fields of glory, and at the age of 18 accompanied Charles VIII to Italy, and took a standard in the battle of Verona. When, in the reign of Louis XII, he was taken pris- oner by following some flying adversaries into Milan, Ludovico Sforza generously returned him his horse and arms, and dismissed him without ransom. His exploit at the bridge over the Garigliano was worthy of a Roman in Rome's best days, for like Horatius Codes he gallantly defended the bridge against the victori- ous Spaniards, until the French army were safe. On account of this action, he had for his coat of arms a porcupine, with the following motto : Vires agminis unus habet. — alone he has an army's strength. When Julius 11 declared him- self against France, Bayard hastened to the as- sistance of the duke of Ferrara. Defeated in his attempt to take the Pope prisoner, he yet stern- ly refused to listen to an offer to betray him. He was wounded in the assault on Brescia, and BAY 105 8EA carried into the house of a nobleman , who had fled leaving his wife and two daughters expos- ed to the brutal insults of a licentious soldiery. Bayard protected them faithfully, refusing their offers of reward, and returning, as soon as he was cured, to the French camp, whose stay and hope, Gaston de Foix, had been killed in conse- quence of neglecting the advice of Bayard. The latter received a second wound in the retreat from Pavia, which it was thought would prove mortal. On learning this, the gallant Chevalier said, in the true spirit of a warrior, " 1 grieve not to die, but to die in my bed like a woman." The military misfortunes of the latter part of the reign of Louis XII did not cast a shadow on the glory of Bayard, but his personal bra- very was conspicuous even in reverse. He was ever the foremost in the charge, and the last in the retreat. Francis I had no sooner ascended the throne, than he gave proof of the confi- dence he reposed in Bayard, by sending him into Dauphiny to open a passage for his army over the Alps, and through Piedmont. Bay- ard captured Prosper Colonna, who lay in wait for him, hoping to surprise him. Elated with this success, in the battle of Marignano to which it was a prelude, he performed prodigies of val- or by the side of the king, who emulated the bravery of the gallant chevalier. After this day of glory Francis received knighthood from the sword of Bayard. Bayard defended the town of Meziere, when Charles V invaded Champagne, with such spirit and resolution, that at Paris he was called the Savior of his Country. He received from the hands of the king the order of St. Michael, and a company of 100 men to command in his own name, an honor never before conferred but on princes of the blood. Bayard reduced to obedience the revolted Genoa, but the fortunes of the French changed, and they were obliged to retreat. Bonnivet, the commander, his rear-guard beat- en, and himself severely wounded, committed the care of the army to the gallant Bayard. Compelled to pass Sesia in the presence of a superior force, Bayard, the last man in the re- treat, was combating the Spaniards, when a stone from a blunderbuss shattered his back- bone, and he exclaimed, " Jesus Christ, my God, I am a dead man !" He was removed at his request under the shadow of a tree ; " from this spot," said he, " I can behold the enemy." He confessed his sins to his squire, and, in default of a crucifix, kissed the hilt of his sword. Bidding a farewell to his friends, his king, and his country, he died, surrounded by admiring and weeping friends and enemies, April 30th, 1524. His enemies, who retained possession of the body, embalmed it, and re- stored it to his countrymen, by whom it was consigned to a tomb in a church of the Minor- ites, near Grenoble. A simple bust, and a Latin inscription, mark the place of his repose. BAYARD, James A., an eminent American lawyer and politician, born at Philadelphia, in 1767. He was educated at Princeton College. As a representative in Congress, he distin- guished himself by his patriotism and ability in debate. He was sent to Europe as one of the commissioners to treat for peace in 1813, but after the treaty of Ghent, the state of his health induced him to return home with all possible speed. He accordingly embarked at Havre, in May, 1815, arrived in the United States, and died in the bosom of his family. BAYLE, Pierre, a French writer, born at Carlat, in Languedoc, in 1G47. He died in 1700, at the age of 59. His Historical and Crit- ical Dictionary (Dictionnaire historiquc ct cri- tique), is his most important work. This was originally published in 2 vols, fol., and displays the logic and learning for which the author is so celebrated. He modestly called it, " an ill-digested compilation of passages tacked to- gether by the ends.'' Voltaire calls him " the first of logicians and sceptics," but adds, that his warmest apologists crmnot deny, that there is not a page in his controversial writings, which does not lead the reader to doubt, and often to scep- ticism. He himself says, " my talent consists in raising doubts ; but they are only doubts." BAYONNE, a large city about two miles from the bay of Biscay, at the confluence of the Nive and Adour. It is in the French depart- ment of the Lower Pyrenees, and was formerly the eapital of a district of Gascony. Population, 1-1, (100. Bayonne has considerable commerce with J^pain, and is much engaged in the cod and whale fishery. Its hams, wines, and chocolate, are famous. Here in 180S, Napoleon met the king of Spain, Charles IV, and the prince of the Asturias, when the two last were induced to sign an agreement, by which they and the king's children renounced their rights in the European and Indian territories of Spain, in favor of Bonaparte. BEATON, David, archbishop of St. Andrew's, and cardinal, born in 1494. On the corona- tion of the young queen Mary, he renewed his cruel persecutions of the heretics, and, among others, brought George Wishart, the famous Protestant preacher, to the stake. Seated at his BEA 106 BED window, he beheld with fiendish joy the cruel sufferings of this estimable man. He was openly Sous, and, although endowed with some food qualities, 'was disgraced by flagrant vice.. He was murdered in his chamber May 29, 154b. BEATTIE, James, a miscellaneous wri- ter, and pleasing poet, born at Lawrence- kirk, in Kincardine county, m '35 died m August 1803. The poem by which he w.ill be feSbered as a follower of the Muses is the Minstrel, the first book of winch was published in 1770. He wrote a work on the Evidences of Christianity, and some controversial works in which, however, he did not shine so much as in his poems. , . BEAUFORT, a pleasant sea-port, and post- town of South Carolina in a district of the same name, situated on Port Roya island at the mouth of the Coosawhatchie sixty miles JN. E of Savannah; population about 1UU0. it contains 3 churches, and a respectable seminary. BEAUFORT, Henry, cardinal, brother ot Henry IV king of England, bishop of Lincoln, afterwards of Winchester, and chancellor of the kingdom. In 1431, he crowned Henry VI, in the great church of Paris. He is strongly sus- pected of having directed the assassination ot Humphrey duke of Gloucester. He died m 1447 • n BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Caron de ; artist, politician, projector, Pinter mer- chant, and dramatist. He was son of a watch- maker, and born at Pans, in 1732. He was teacher of the harp to the daughters o Louis XV, and by a wealthy marriage, laid the foun- dation of his immense fortune. His Eugene, Mhre Coupable, Mariage de Figaro and Ear- lier de Seville, keep possession of the s age m several languages. His Memoirs exh.bitBeau- marchais in hit true character. He increased his fortune by his contract to supply the United States with miliary stores, during the revolu- tionary war. He died in 1799. FTrHFR BEAUMONT, Francis, and FLLICHi.K, John, two English dramatic writers of great power, who united their interests and wrote conjointly. Beaumont, born in 1585 died in 1616 ; Fletcher, born in 1576, died in 1625, of the plague, in London. They used to frequent ale-houses, as Shakspeare is said to have done, for the sake of studying human nature, and were once arrested in a very dramatic manner. Thev were disputing in an ale-house about the fate of a king in one of their plays, one insist- ing upon his assassination, the other on his preservation. Some of their uninitiated audi- tors procured their arrest, imagining that a conspiracy against the reigning sovereign was ° n B°ECKET, Thomas, a celebrated Roman Catholic prelate, was born in London, in 1119. He was the son'of a merchant by the name of Gilbert, who, while a prisoner in theEast, is sad to have engaged the affections of a Sara- cen lady ; she followed the merchant to Lon- don, where he married her. Beckefs advance- ment was rapid-he was a favorite with Henry I who made him tutor to his son in 1158, and heaped spiritual and temporal honors upon. h m. He rivalled royalty in the splendor of his hv- £° On his election to the see of Canterbury nilG2, he resigned the office of chancellor, and assuming all the arrogance of sovereign pontiff, tent himfelf to oppose the reformation intended bv the king among the clergy. Their enormi- ties had disgusted °the whole kingdom ; and the archbishop fcreened the most abandoned under the pretext that they were not amenable to the evil power. After a series of hostilities between the king and himself, many references to the pope, efcommunications and anathemas, recon- ctliat ons and fresh quarrels, on the archbish- op's refusal to withdraw his excommunication o? some bishops, which was felt to he very hard upon them, fhe king, in a fit of passior, j re- proached his courtiers for permitting him to be so loner and so ignobly tormented. On this four knights went down to Canterbury, and killed Becket before the altar as he was at the vesper-service, December 29th, 1170. The per- praters of this deed were finally admitted to penance, but the king was compel ed to expiate his guilt' at the tomb of the archbishop, who was canonized two years after his death. He became a popular saint, and miracles were abundant at his tomb, which was much visited bv pilgrims till the reformation. y BEDE, or Beda, commonly called the >V ener- able Bede, an English ecclesiastic of the 8th century, was born in the neighborhood of Wear- moVln «- year 672, «r 673 and pursued his studies in the monastery of St. Peter, Wear mouth. He died in May, A. D. 735. His En- glish Ecclesiastical History, his greatest and most popular work, was translated by Alfred the Great of England. He was modest and S&nite.and.altooughainoiA.w^dto^ave the number of monasteries lessened. Bede led a life of pious and studious retirement, and on the day of his death, he was dictating a transla- tion of the gospel of St. John, to his amanuensis^ "Master," said the young man, as he raised his BEL 107 BEL eyes, " there is but one more sentence want- ing." Bede bade him write rapidly, and when the scribe said, " it is done," replied, " It is in- deed done," and expired a few minutes after- wards in the act of prayer. BEDFORD, John, duke of, the third son of Henry IV of England. In 1422, he commanded the English army in France, and the same year was named regent of that kingdom for Henry VI, whom he caused to be crowned at Paris. He defeated the French fleet near Southampton, entered Paris, beat the duke of Alencon, and made himself master of France. The greatest stain upon his character, is his cruelty to the Maid of Orleans, whom he caused to be burnt in the market-place of Rouen. He died at Rouen, in 1435. BEEJAPOOR, (the city of victory) a large province of Deccan, between 15 and 18 degrees of north latitude. The soil is fertile and it is well watered. Four fifths of the country be- long to the Mahrattas. Population 7,000,000. BEERING, Vitus, a captain in the Russian navy, who in the year 1728, explored the coasts of Kamtschatka, and proved that Asia was dis- joined from America. He died on a desolate island, during a voyage of discovery, December 8, 1741. The strait between Asia and Amer- ica, has received the name of Beering's straits from him. The uninhabited island on which he died, is called Beering's Island. BEGUINES, females who bound themselves to obey the rules of an ecclesiastical order, forming societies for purposes of devotion and charity, living together in beguinages, without taking the monastic vows. They originated in Germany and the Netherlands, towards the end of the 11th century. They flourished most in the 12th century, and some of their societies still exist in the Netherlands. BEIRA, a well- watered and fertile province of Portugal, bounded on the north chiefly by the river Douro, on the east by Spain, on the south by the Tagus, and the Portuguese Estre- madura, and by the Atlantic on the west. Pop- ulation 900,000. BELEM (properly Bethlehem), a quarter of Lisbon, formerly a market-town, commanding a fine view of the harbor and sea. It was long the residence of the royal family. The torre de Belem, a tall tower, rises out of the river Tago ; and no ships are permitted to pass by it unvisi- ted. BELGIANS, were a collection of German and Celtic tribes. They inhabited the country extending from the Atlantic ocean to the Rhine, and from the Marne and Seine, to the southern mouth of the Rhine, which is united with the Meuse. Caesar has borne witness to the bravery of the Belgians, particularly of those who resided on the northern frontiers of Germany, declaring that they were the most valiant of the Gauls. BELGIUM ; the name of that part of the Netherlands which formerly belonged to Aus- tria, and recently made a part of the kingdom of the Netherlands. It is now an independent kingdom, the revolution of the Parisians in 1830, having inspired the Belgians with a similar spirit. The present monarch is Leopold I. BELGRADE, an important commercial city of Servia, with 30,000 inhabitants, situated at the confluence of the Save with the Danube. It is well fortified, commanding the Danube, and is at present occupied by a Turkish garri- son. It has been an object, for the attain- ment of which the hostile nations have strug- gled during the various wars between Austria and Turkey. At different times, it has been possessed by Greeks, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Servians, and Austrians. The siege of Belgrade by the Turks, in 1442 and 1456, are noted events in military annals. In 1809, it was taken by the revolutionary Servians, and it is the largest and most important city of the Servian state. BELGRANO, Manuel, a native of Buenos Ayres, who took an active part in the events which secured the independence of South America. He died, deeply deplored, in 1820. BELISARIUS, general of the armies of the emperor Justinian. He defeated a superior force of Persians, in the year 530, and in the the year after he took Carthage, and made prisoner Gelimer, king of the Vandals. Beli- sarius entered Constantinople in triumph. He was next sent against the Goths in Italy, and arriving on the coasts of Sicily, took Cata- nia, Syracuse, Palermo, and other places. He then proceeded to Naples, which he took, and marched to Rome. After this he conquered Vitiges, king of the Goths, sent him to Con- stantinople, and refused the crown which was offered him. For his exploits he was regarded as the saviour of the empire, and medals are extant with this inscription, Belisarius Gloria Romanorum, (Belisarius, the glory of the Ro- mans). Having fallen under suspicion of Jus- tinian, he was deprived of his property and honors, but there is reason to believe that he was subsequently restored to them. Marmon- tel, in his romance (Belisarius), adopts a story which is related by no cotemporary historian : BEL 108 BEM that he was deprived of his eyes by his cruel master, and forced to beg his bread in the streets of Constantinople. Others say that he was im- prisoned in a tower, whence he used to let down a bag by a rope, addressing the passen- gers in the following words : — Date Bclisario obolum, quern virtus cvexit, invidia depressit. (Give an obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue ex- alted, but envy crushed.) He died in 565. BELKNAP, Jeremy, an American clergy- man, born in June 1744, educated at Harvard college, ami ordained pastor of the church in Dover, New Hampshire, 1767. For some years previous to his death, which took place in 171)8, he officiated in a church in Boston. He was an easy and correct writer, and his reputation rests on his History of New Hampshire, and two vol- umes of his unfinished American Biography. He was one of the founders of the Massachu- setts Historical Society. BELLE-ISLE, or Belle-Tsle-en-Mer, ancient- ly Vindilis, an island in the bay of Biscay, about nine miles long, 115 miles from the western coast of France. The soil is various. It con- tains three towns, and several small villages. Palais is the capital. It is famous for a sea- fight fought in 1751), between the English un- der Havvke, and the French under Conflans, in which the former gained a decisive victory. The island was afterwards taken, but restored at the peace of 1 763. BELLE-ISLE, an island N. E. of the gulf of St. Lawrence, with two small harbors. It is 21 miles in circuit. BELLE-ISLE, marshal, a celebrated general in the war to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction, who rendered himself famous by a fine retreat from Prague. BELLONA, the goddess of war. She was also called Duellonia, and was the sister of Mars, whose chariot she drove through bat- tles with a bloody scourge, her hair hanging in wild disorder. AtComana she had 300 priests. The priests used their own blood in their sacri- fices to this fierce deity. BELL-ROCK, or Inch Cape, a dangerous rock of Scotland, nearly opposite the river Tay, the light-house upon which, finished in 1811, is of admirable construction. In former ages, the monks of Aberbrothock, suspended a bell upon this rock, which, being rung by the waves, warned mariners of the danger. BELUJISTAN, Beluchistan, or Beloochis- tan ; a country of Asia, formerly belonging to Persia, on the northwest of the peninsula of Hindostan; now forming an independent state. It contains five divisions: 1. Jhalawan and Sarawan, witli the district of Kelat; 2. Macran and Lus ; 3. Kohistan ; 4. the Desert; and 5. Cutch Gundava, and the district of Herrend Dajel. It is a rough region, and some of the mountains are of great height. The heat of summer is intense, and water scarce. The desert is 300 miles long, and 200 broad. Among the minerals of this country, are gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, tin, alum, saltpetre, sulphur, rock salt, &c. Cotton, indigo, grain, assafoe- tida, and madder, are productions of the soil. The natives are divided into three tribes — the Beluches, the Dehwars, and Brahuis. They are Mohammedans, warlike, half-civilized, and pastoral in their habits. BELZONI, Giambattista, or John Baptist, was born at Padua, and educated at Rome, be- ing destined for a monastic life. Having a taste, however, for an active life, he served in the French armies, and went to England in 1803. Here his finances were probably at a low ebb, for he was engaged to exhibit pos- tures at Astley's amphitheatre, London, at a salary of £2 per week. From London he afterwards went, with his wife, to Egypt, passing through Portugal, Spain, and Malta. Here, from 1815 to 1811), he lived as a dancer until he had attracted the notice of the pacha, who employed him. He succeeded in opening the pyramid of Cheops, which had defied the in- genuity and efforts of the French, that of Ce- phrenes, and several catacombs near Thebes, one of which is believed to have been the bu- rial place of Psainmis, who died 400, B. C. He exhibited great accuracy and skill in the draw- ings which he took. In 1816, he accomplished an undertaking of great difficulty — the removal of the bust of Jupiter Memnon, and a sarcopha- gus of alabaster, from Thebes to Alexandria, whence they were shipped for England. On the 1st of August, 1817, he opened the temple of Ipsambul, near the second cataract of the Nile, discovering a subterranean chapel in its ruins. He discovered the ruins of the ancient Berenice, four days journey from the spot where Cailliaud asserted that he had found it. Belzoni died on his way to Benin, whence he in- tended to pass to Timbuctoo, December 3, 1823. In person he was tall and well-proportioned, and his gigantic stature protected him from at- tack, even when alone amidst ferocious barba- rians. His wife, who accompanied him to Egypt, displayed great intrepidity amidst the dangers which they encountered. BEMBO, Pietro ; one of the most famous Italian scholars of the 16th century. BEN 109 BEN BENARES, a town and district of Allaha- bad, in Bengal, with a population exceeding 3,000,000. In 1813, the gross revenue was £570,338. Mr. Hastings expelled the rajah Chet Singh, in 1781. The town of Be?iares rises, like an amphitheatre on the high bank of the Ganges, on its northern side. It contains more than 600,000 inhabitants, and the dense population at the great Hindoo festivals, pre- sents an extraordinary scene. The natives call Benares Casi, or Cashi, the splendid, and, as it contains 8000 Bramins, it is regarded with pe- culiar reverence. A college for the instruction of Hindoos, in their own literature was estab- lished here by the British government, in 1801. Benares is the grand mart for diamonds and other gems, which are brought principally from the Bundelcund. With the exception of the government officers, there are few English resi- dents here. In 1775, Casi was ceded to the East India Company, by the nabob of Oude. The Sanscrit name for Benares, is Vara Nashi, from two streams, Vara and Nashi. A Hindoo imagines that if he dies in Benares, his eternal felicity is certain. BENAVIDES, an outlaw and pirate, whose singular perseverance and ferocity rendered him for many years the terror of the southern parts of Chili. Under pretext of establishing a navy, he seized upon English and American vessels, that stopped for refieshment near the town of Arauco, the centre of his operations. In 1821, the Chilians fitted out an expedition, and suc- ceeded in breaking up his strong hold, and cap- turing him. He was condemned and executed, February 23, 1822. In the early part of his career, he espoused the cause of the Chilians, but soon deserted them, and having been taken prisoner in the bat- tle of Maypu, 1818, he was sentenced to be shot, and actually sustained the fire of a file of soldiery. He was covered with wounds and believed to be dead, but had his senses left when he was drag- ged to the field where the bodies of criminals were exposed. Here a man who had owed him a grudge, smote the supposed corpse with a sword, and such were the powers of endurance possessed by Benavides, that he did not flinch in the least, or give the slightest sign of vitality, or of the agony he suffered. As soon as it was dark, he crawled away to the house of a friend, and had his wounds dressed. His bravery and fortitude would have honored a better cause. BENBOW, John, an English admiral, born in 1650. His gallantry in repelling the attack af a corsair, when in the merchant service, pro- cured him the command of a ship of war, from James II. Being sent by king William, to the West Indies, he relieved the colonies, and in a subsequent engagement with the enemy's fleet, a chain-shot carried off one of his legs. He was carried below, but, as soon as his wound was dressed, brought on deck again, and persisted in continuing the action. He was abandoned at this moment, through the cowardice of seve- ral captains under his command, who signed a paper expressing their opinion that nothing more could be done, and the whole fleet of the enemy was suffered to escape. The officers were tried, and two of them sentenced to be shot. Benbow died of his wounds and chagrin, Nov. 4, 1702. BENDER, in the Moldau language, Tigino, chief city of a district in the Russian province of Bessarabia, situated on the Dniester. It contains 10,000 inhabitants, who are engaged in com- merce. The city is well fortified, but the streets are narrow and dark. Here Charles XII resided after the battle of Pultowa. In 1771 , the Russians took the place by storm, and butchered the inhabi- tants and troops, to the number of 30,000. It was subsequently restored to Turkey, but again ta- ken by the Russians, and again restored. Since the peace of Bucharest, in 1812, it has remained in the hands of the Russians. BENEDICT, the name of several Popes. Of these, Benedict XIV (Prosper Lambertini), was the most noted. When, on the death of Clement XII, in 1740, the conclave was di- vided, and the cardinals could not agree, Lam- bertini said, in his good-natured way, " If you want a saint, take Gotti; if a politician, Aldobran- di ; if a good old man, take me." The humo- rous manner in which this quaint speech was delivered, operated like magic, and Lambertini became sovereign pontiff. He reformed abuses, introduced good regulations, cultivated letters, encouraged men of learning, and was a patron of the fine arts. He died May 3, 1758. BENEDICT, St., founded the first religious order of the west. He was born at Norcia, 480. The monastery on Monte Cassino was founded by him. Besides performing religious duties, the monks of his order gave instruction to youth, in reading, writing, cyphering, religion, and manual labors, including all the mechanic arts. Bene- dict caused the aged monks to copy manuscripts, and thus many literary works of great import- ance were preserved from ruin. From the 6th to the 10th century, almost all the monks in the west were Benedictines. The rules of the or- der were severe. At an early period the dress BEN 110 BEN of the brethren of the different monasteries va- ried, but after the 6th century, when union was enjoined, the monks of this order all wore black. The Cluniacs were a branch of the Benedic- tines, proceeding from the convent of Clugny in Burgundy, founded in 910. Their regula- tions were at first strict, but in the 12th century, when the order had 2000 monasteries, they de- clined from the excess of their luxury. In Italy and Sicily they still exist, and in Spain, are among the wealthiest orders. In Sicily, their discipline is lax, the monks being generally the younger sons of distinguished families. BENEVENTO, a dukedom in the Neapoli- tan province of Principato Oltra, including a city and eight villages, belonging to the papal see. Napoleon presented it, in 1806, to his minister Talleyrand, who thence received the title of prince of Benevento. It was restored to the pope in 1815. In 1820, the inhabitants rebelled. The city of Benevento, situated on a hill be- tween the Sabato and Calore, has 13,000 inhab- itants. In remote antiquity this region belonged to the Samnites, and came, of course, into the hands of their conquerors, the Romans. In 114, Trajan built in the city a magnificent triumphal arch, which now forms the golden gate of the city. Benevento was made a dukedom by the Lombards, in 571. It afterwards fell into the hands of the Saracens and Normans, the latter of whom spared the city, because it had been presented to pope Leo IV by Henry III. BENEZET, Anthony, a philanthropist, was born at St. Quentin, in France, January, 1713. His parents were opulent, and his descent noble. The confiscation of his father's estates, in con- sequence of his having joined the Protestants, in 1715, drove the family to England, where Anthony was educated. Of his early life little is known, but he was 14 years of age when he joined the Society of Friends. In 1731 he came to Philadelphia in company with his parents. His first employment was that of instructor in a school at Germantown, in which capacity he was induced to prepare and publish some ele- mentary school books. About 1750, being struck with the enormities of the slave-trade, he de- termined to employ all his energies in bettering the condition of the blacks. He established an evening school for them in Philadelphia, and taught them gratuitously. On the subject of Negro slavery he published numerous short essays in almanacs and newspapers, which he circulated with unwearied assiduity. He print- ed and distributed at his own expense, many valuable tracts, among which we may name his " Historical Account of Guinea, its Situation, Produce, and the general Disposition of its In- habitants ; with an Inquiry into the Rise and Progress of the Slave-trade, its Nature and Ca- lamitous Effects." The circulation of these was not confined to America, but in Europe procur- ed Benezet the notice and correspondence of many eminent men. He undoubtedly gave the first impulse to the measures which resulted in the abolition of the slave-trade in the United States. His philanthropy was unbounded, the whole human race being regarded as his breth- ren. The wrongs inflicted on the aborigines of North America, excited his strong sympathy about the year 1763, and his efforts in their be- half excited the warmest admiration in all high- minded observers of his course. In 1780 he wrote and published a short account of the Re- ligious Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers ; and in 1782, " A Dissertation on the Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the Christian Religion." He also published and circulated several tracts against the use of ardent spirits. In the spring of 1784, he was taken ill, and after his case was pronounced hopeless, conversed intelligently with hundreds who came to see him. He died on the fifth day of May, at Philadelphia, extensively known and beloved. His personal appearance was prepos- sessing, although he was not handsome. His naturally strong understanding was improved by extensive reading. His private habits en- deared him to his friends, and his small estate was devoted to the furtherance of his benevo- lent purposes. BENGAL, an extensive and rich province of Hindostan, situated between the 21st and 27th degrees of north latitude, and the 86th and 92d degrees of east longitude. Its length is 400 miles, its breadth 300. Its northern and east- ern extremities, are guarded by lofty and rough mountains, and the sole harbor on its dangerous and inhospitable southern coast, is beset by a vast number of shoals. So fertile is this coun- try that the crops of one year are amply suffi- cient to supply the wants of the inhabitants for two. Justly has it been termed the richest jew- el in the British crown, since the revenue ac- cruing to the government from the rent of lands, and the monopolies of salt and opium, amounted, in a single year, to £2.790,000. Rice, cotton, silk, indigo, sugar, saltpetre, ivory, and tobac- co, are among its exports. The elephants of Bengal are in high repute, a good one command- ing £1000. The largest portion of the inhabitants are Hindoos, many of whom are extremely in- ' I BEN 111 BEN digent. The climate of Bengal is injurious to Europeans. The seasons are three, the hot, rainy, and cool. The early history of Bengal is ex- tremely uncertain. In A. D. 1203, it was con- quered by the Afghan Mohammedans, and remained in the power of the emperor of Delhi, until Faker Addeen, confidential servant of the emperor, murdered his master, and took the title of Sultan Sekunder, in 1340. In 1538 it was reconquered by Shere Shah, and afterwards was attached to the Mogul empire till 1757, when, by conquest and treaty, it was occupied by the English, and now constitutes the nu- cleus of their Indian empire. The cities of Gour, Tonda, Rajemahil, Dacca, and Moorshe- dabad, have by turns been the capital, but Cal- cutta has now become the seat of government BENIN, the name of a kingdom of Africa, extending from the eastern limit of the Slave Coast, to the Formosa, a distance of 180 miles. The interior of the country is but little known. The government is despotic. The inhabitants are mild and friendly. The women perform almost all kinds of labor. Benin, the cap- ital, is situated on the Formosa, and is a place of considerable extent, carrying on a brisk trade. The houses, which are large, have a picturesque appearance from the reeds and leaves with which , they are covered. , BENJOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, count i of, was born in 1741, at Werbowa, in Hungary. I His father was a general, and he himself enter- j ed the Austrian service, and served as a lieu- | tenant in the seven years' war till 1758. Having ] joined the Polish confederation against Russia, land served with the rank of colonel, commander I of cavalry, and quarter-master general, he was : taken by the Russians in 1769, and sent to I Kamtschatka. On his voyage thither, he saved ' the vessel during a storm, and thus, on his arri- i val, secured a favorable reception from the gov- , ernor, NilofF, whose family he instructed in the French and German languages. In May, 1771, he left Kamtschatka, accompanied by Aphanasia, j '.he governor's daughter, and ninety-six other ! persons, sailing for Formosa, whence he departed for Macao. Here he lost many of his compan- I ions, and the faithful and unfortunate Aphana- ! jia. Arrived in France, he was commissioned j to found a colony in Madagascar, where he ar- ! <-ived in June, 1774. He was not long in gain- ing the good will of the natives, who appointed him their ampansacabe, or king ; while the I women acknowledged the sovereignty of his wife. He went to Europe to seek a powerful I illy, but was forced by the persecution of the French ministry, to enter the Austrian service. In the battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778, he com- manded against the Prussians. In 1784, receiv- ing assistance from private persons in London and America, and leaving his wife in the latter country, he set out for Madagascar, and arrived in 1785. Here he commenced hostilities against the French, and the authorities of the Isle of France sent a force against him ; in contending against which he was wounded mortally, May 23, 1786. The fate of Benjowsky's only son was singular — he is said to have been devoured by the rats of Madagascar. BENNINGTON, a post-town in a county of the same name, Vermont, is 37 miles N. E. of Albany. It is a place of considerable trade, and of some manufacturing importance. Popula- tion (1830), 3,419. Here two celebrated battles were fought, Aug. 16, 1777, in which 1600 Ame- rican militia-men, under general Stark, defeated the British troops. BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English lawyer, whose political and philosophical writings have acquired a great deal of celebrity, particularly in France ; born in 1749, died in 1832. BENTLE Y, Richard, a celebrated English di- vine and classical scholar, was born in 1662. His father was a blacksmith, and he received his ear- liest instruction from his mother, a woman of much talent. He entered St. John's college, Cambridge, at the age of 14. Having preached with success, he was appointed keeper of the royal library, at St. James's, in 1693. He was victorious in a controversy with the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterwards the earl of Orrery, relating to the genuineness of the Epistles of Phalaris. Bentley was opposed by the whole host of wits, Pope, Swift, Garth, Atterbury, Conyers Middleton, &c, but he satisfactorily proved that the Epistles were not the production of the tyrant of Agrigentum, who lived more than five centuries B. C. ; but of some late so- phist, who borrowed the name of Phalaris. The tyrant Phalaris had a hollow brazen bull, in which, when hot, he used to place those who were un- fortunate enough to displease him, and whose cries were thus made to resemble the roarings of the animal. Conyers Middleton, whose enmi- ty to Bentley arose from the epithet of fiddling Conj'ers, applied to him while an university stu- dent, was suspected of being the author of a pun- ning caricature representing Bentley on the point of being thrust into the brazen bull of Pha- laris, and exclaiming, " I had rather be roasted than Boyled." Bentley was presented by the crown to the mastership of Trinity college, Cam BER 112 EER bridge, worth nearly £1000 a year ; and, in 1701, he was called to the arch-deaconry of Ely. Among the accusations brought against him, as head of the college, he was accused of embez- zling money, a charge which occasioned a law- suit that was terminated in the doctor's favor near twenty years afterwards. He was appointed Regius professor of divinity, in 1716. In 1726, he published his edition of Terence and Phoe- drus, his notes to which brought on a dispute with bishop Hare, on the metres of Terence, when feir Isaac Newton observed that, " two dignified clergymen, instead of minding their duty, had fallen out about a play -book." Bent- ley's edition of Paradise Lost, with conjectural emendations, his last work, was considered a failure. He died, July 14, 1742, with the repu- tation of a distinguished scholar and critic. BERANGER, Pierre Jean de, a lyric poet, of the class which the French call chanson- nier — song- writer. He was born Aug. 19, 1780. His grandfather, a poor tailor, intended that he should learn the printing business, but he was patronized by Lucien Bonaparte, and proved highly successful as a follower of the muses. A temporary imprisonment served but to in- crease his reputation. In his least ambitious compositions there are startling flashes of the highest kind of poetry, which appear more bril- liant, from the suddenness of their appearance. " Beranger," said Benjamin Constant, " writes sublime odes when he imagines he is only com- posing simple songs." December 11, 1828, he was sentenced by the court of correctional po- lice, to pay a sum equivalent to about 1800 dol- lars, and to suffer nine months' imprisonment, for satirising the king and the church in his poems. BERCHTOLD, Leopold, count, born in 1758. He was a distinguished philanthropist, and spent thirteen years in travelling through Europe, and four in Asia and Africa, to relieve the distresses of humanity. The result of his benevolent in- quiries has been given to the public in different works. He died July 26, 1809, on his estate at Buchlan,in Moravia, where he had fitted up an hospital for sick and wounded Austrian soldiers. BERESFORD, William, baron, duke of El- vas, and Marquis of Campo Mayor, a distinguish- ed British general. In 1810 he defeated Soult at Albufera. In 1812, having a command under Wellington, he shared in the dangers and glory of the battles of Vittoria, Bayonne, and Tou- louse. May 13, 1814, he entered Bordeaux with the duke of Angouleme. Having returned from Brazil, whither he was sent in 1815, he was en- trusted with an important mission to Rio Ja- neiro. Being in Portugal, in 1817, he incurred the hatred of the Portuguese military, on ac- count of his rigor in punishing a conspiracy against the British army and the regency. In 1820 he was dismissed by the Cortes. He went to Brazil, and to England, and afterwards again appeared in Lisbon, in 1826, where he was em- ployed to quell a rebellion. BEREZINA, a riverin the Russian province of Minsk, famous for the passage of the French army under Napoleon, Nov. 26 and 27, 181 2. The ice with which the morasses on both sides of the river were covered, was not strong enough to bear. The Russian army were threatening the fugitives, whose discipline was lost, and who, despairing of escaping by means of the two crowded bridges, trusted themselves to floating masses of ice, and were lost. 7500 men and five generals, according to the Russian account, were taken. BERG, a duchy of Germany, containing 983,000 inhabitants, formerly belonging to the elector of Bavaria, but given to the king of Prussia, by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. BERGHEM, Nicholas, a famous painter born at Harlem, in 1624, died in 1683. His land- scapes and representations of animals, are much valued. His name originated in the following manner. Once, when pursued by his father, he fled for safety to the workshop of Van Goyen. who shouted to his pupils, " Berg- hem" (hide him) ; and this expression was adopted as his name. BERKELEY, doctor George, bishop of Clo}jne in Ireland, famous for his ideal theory. He maintains that there is nothing material, and that objects which are called sensible mate- rial objects, are not external but only impres- sions made upon the mind by an act of God, according to certain laics of nature, which are invariable. Lord Byron says : "When Bishop Berkeley said there was no matter. And proved it, 'twas no matter what he said." He was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, 1684, and died in 1753. In furtherance of his project for con- verting the American savages to Christianity, by the establishment of a college in the Bermu- da Islands, he considerably impaired his large fortune, and spent seven years in his efforts to that end. He remained some time in Rhode Island. Berkeley was acquainted with almost every branch of knowledge. His character was much respected, and Pope who was much attach- ed to him, says that he had " every virtue under Heaven." His Treatise on the Principles of BER 113 BER Human Knowledge is the most celebrated of his philosophical works. BERLICHINGEN, Gotz, or Godfrey von, with the iron hand, a brave and honorable Ger- man knight of the middle ages, who headed the rebellious peasants (in the Peasant War), against their oppressors. Before this time, having lost his right hand, he had substituted one made of iron. He died July 23, 1562. His autobiogra- phy has been published at Nuremberg. BERLIN, this fine city and royal residence, the capital of the Prussian dominions, is situa- ted in the province of Brandenburg, on the Spree, 127 feet above the level of the sea. It is 12 miles in circuit, including 5 towns, and 5 suburbs. In 1832, it contained 258,000 inhab- itants, among whom were 5,000 Jews, 4,000 Catholics, and more than 15,000 Calvinists. Berlin Proper, was built in 1163, by the mar- grave Albert the Bear. Koln or Cologne, on the Spree, was so called from the Kollnen (piles), on which the Vandals had built their huts. Fried- richswerder was founded by the elector Fred- eric William the Great. Ncu or Dorothcenstadt was built by the same elector and named in honor of his wife. Friedricksstadt, founded, in 1688, by the elector Frederic III, is the most extensive division of this vast city. The num- ber of its public establishments of various kinds, makes Berlin very interesting. The Univer- sity of Berlin, founded in 1809, when Prussia was groaning beneath the yoke of the French, is at present one of the first literary institutions of the European continent. Berlin has 22 squares and market-places, 15 gates (that of Brandenburg, modelled on the Propylaeum at Athens, but larger, being the most beautiful), 27 parish churches, 37 bridges, &c. In 1817, the /mblic buildings were 174 in number ; the manu- factories 61. In the great hospital of La Chariti, there were, in 1816, 5114 patients. The royal hospital admits upwards of 1000 inmates. On the top of the Mountain of the Cross, before the Halle gate, a monument of iron was erected in 1820, in commemoration of the wars against France. Berlin has 100 public, and 50 private elementary schools. In 1831 , there were 1937 students in the university of Berlin. BERMUDAS or Somers' Islands, a clus- ter of about 400 small islands in the Atlantic Ocean, for the most part barren and insignifi- cant. They were discovered by Juan Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522. In 1609, Sir George Somers, an Englishman, who was wrecked here, founded the first settlement. Many are so unimportant as to have no name, but the 8 principal islands are St. George, containing Georgetown, St. David, Cooper, Ireland, Som- erset, Long Island, Bird Island, and None- such. The air is healthy and invigorating to invalids, the winter being hardly apparent. The islands, however, are subject to frequent storms. The soil is generally rich and fertile, yielding two harvests of corn annually. Ship- building is the principal occupation of the isl- anders. The whole shore is surrounded by rocks, dry at low water, but covered at high tide. The Bermudas extend about 45 miles from north to south. They are 230 leagues S. E. of Cape Fear, in North Carolina. Popula- tion, 3,900 whites, and 4,600 slaves. BERN, the largest canton of Switzerland, contains 350,000 inhabitants, with a capital of the same name. The town was founded in the 12th century , by Cuno von Bubenberg. A great increase of population was manifest in the 13th century. It was, in 1218, declared a free city of the empire by Frederic II, and the charter, confirming its privileges, is still preserved. In 1291, the cilizens of Bern, under Ulrich von Bubenberg, made war against their own nobil- ity. The nobles of Austria, finding that the city formed an asylum for those who were suf- fering from their oppression, entered into a league to destroy it, but their splendid and powerful army was defeated by the citizens, under the conduct of the gallant Rodolph von Erlach, June 21, 1339. In 1353, Bern entered into the Helvetic league. In 1405, part of the town was destroyed by fire, but afterwards re- built. In 1523, the inhabitants espoused the cause of the reformation, and, in the war with Savoy, conquered the Pays de Vaud. The pros- perity of Bern was proverbial, but, on March 5, 1798, 30,000 French troops defeated the army of the Bernese and their confederates, and the gates of Bern, for the first time, opened to an enemy. It was then shorn of half its possessions. At present, the sovereign power is vested in the hands of a bail ifF, and the greater and lesser coun- cils of the city and republic of Bern, which con- sist of 200 members, chosen from the city, and 99 from the towns and country. The northern part of this canton is hilly ; the plains and valleys are beautiful, and the whole is in a high stale of cultivation. The canton furnishes 5,824 men to the army of the Swiss confederacy. The city has 17,620 inhabitants, and the eleva- tion on which it stands, is washed by the Aar. Some of its public buildings are very elegant. Its university, economical, and historical soci- eties are important, and the public library con- BER 114 BER tains a valuable collection of books, both prin- ted and in manuscript. Trade and commerce are nourishing. Among the manufactures, are woollen cloths, printed linen, silk-stuffs, &c. BERNARD, of Clairvaux; an influential ecclesiastic, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 1091. He was of noble family, and became a monk in 1113, and in 1115, the first abbot of Clairvaux. He was austere, eloquent, and bold, and had the reputation of being a prophet. He was called a honeyed teacher. Bernard was the principal promoter of the crusade of 1146. Lu- ther says of him, " if there ever has been a pious monk who feared God, it was St. Bernard ; whom I hold in much higher esteem, than I do all other monks and priests throughout the globe." Bernard died in 1153, and was canon- ized in 1174. BERNARD, Great St.; a mountain, 11,006 feet high, between the Valais and the valley of Aosta. The two hospitia on the Great and Little St. Bernard, were built by Bernard de Menthon, a Savoyard nobleman, in 962. They are under the care of the canons of the Augus- tine order, who are indefatigable in the discharge of their duties. Upwards of 9000 persons annu- ally pass over the mountain, all of whom re- ceive refreshments in the hospitia. The monks are assisted in their search for travellers, by their great dogs, whose lives are shortened by their painful labors. Owing to the severity of the weather, the dead bodies in the vault decay so slowly, that their features are frequently re- cognized by friends, after the lapse of years. In the church of the Great St. Bernard, is the monument of General Desaix, who fell at Marengo. He was embalmed by order of the first consul. The sculptor has represented this warrior wounded, and sinking from his horse into the arms of his aid. On the stairs of the convent stands the statue of Desaix in marble. BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, born at Na- ples, in 1598. He has been called the Michael Angelo of modern times, on account of his suc- cess as a painter, statuary, and architect. He was patronized by several popes, and, although he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis XIV, he returned to Rome, and died, exhausted by his labors, November 28, 1680, at the age of 82. He left a fortune of about 3,300,000 francs to his children. So early did his talents shine forth, that at the age of 8 years, he executed the head of a child in marble, which was thought a fine production. He was not 18 years old when he completed his Apollo and Daphne, a work which he examined at the close of life, and declared that he had made little progress since that time. So true it is that genuine enthu- siasm often supplies the place of experience. Among his numerous works, are the palace Barberini ; the belfry of St. Peter, and the mon- ument of Urban VIII. The tomb of Alexander VII, one of his most masterly works, he execu- ted in his 70th year. BERRI, or Berry, Charles Ferdinand, duke of, second son of the count d'Artois, late Charles X, of France, born at Versailles, Jan. 24th, 1778. He fled from the revolutionary tempest, but was actively engaged in the scenes at Paris, in 1814, on the return of the Bourbons, and vainly endeavored to secure the fidelity of the troops in and about Paris, when Napoleon returned from Elba. He was assassinated in 1820, by Louvel, who had long sought to extir- pate the house of Bourbon, and met his death with great firmness. The opera house, near which the crime was committed, was pulled down, and a column erected on the spot. BERSERKER, in Scandinavian mythology, a descendant of the eight-handed Starkader, and the beautiful Alfhilde. Disdaining the protection of mail in battle, he obtained his name, which signifies, the armorless. In battle, his rage was ungovernable. He married the daughter of king Swafurlam, whom he had slain, and had 12 sons who equalled him in BERTH1ER, Alexander, prince of Neuf- chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-constable of France, &c, born at Paris, 1753. At an early age, he served under La Fayette, in America. He was a great favorite of Napo- leon, under whom he acted as chief of his staff, assisting in those great victories which made France master of Italy, Germany, and Prussia. On the return of the Bourbons, he retired to Germany, where he put an end to his existence, by throwing himself from a window. BERTRAND, Henri Gratien, count, gene- ral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon, grand marshal of the palace, &c. He early distin- guished himself in the engineer corps, and in 1804, gave Napoleon evidence of his ability. From that time he served near the person of Napoleon, particularly at Austerlitz, where he was the emperor's aid-de-camp. He and his family shared the last residence of Napoleon, after his fall. BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, was born in 1C70. He distinguished himself . BEZ 115 BIR is a general in the Bourbon cause in Spain, (where lie won the battle of Almansa, and cap- tured Barcelona, after a resistance, by the citi- zens, of fifteen months. I BESSARABIA, a Russian province, situated jon the Black Sea, between the northern arm jqf the Danube, the Pruth, and the Dniester, "fertile and extensive. It contains 800,000 in- habitants. BETHANIA, or Bethany, a village at the foot of Mount Olivet, about 2 miles east of Je- rusalem, where Lazarus was raised from the ]dead, and where the ascension of Jesus Christ 'ook place. The house and grave of Lazarus, is well as the dwelling of Mary Magdalene, lire pointed out to travellers. " BETHESDA, a pool in Judea, in the vicinity af which the sick lay, waiting to be cured on the moving of the waters. The Jews had an j.dea that an angel descended at times into it, Jind stirred up the waves, after which the first who entered was cured. The name signifies kouse of mercy. There were porticoes or halls an its borders. The pool appears to have been composed of red-colored mineral water, which received its healing properties from the red 3arth at the bottom. BETHLEHEM, a village of Palestine, a part Jof Syria, in the pachalic of Damascus, five .miles from Jerusalem, where our Savior was Iborn. Here also David first saw light. It is lit the foot of a hill covered with olive trees and vines. The church of the empress Helena, a ! splendid edifice, is built over the spot where 'Jhrist is said to have been born. The manger lis shown under the choir of a convent church. j BEZA, or de Beze, Theodore, after Calvin, khe most distinguished among the Calvinistic (preachers of the 10th century, born 1519. At j the age of 20, he published his Latin poems, j collected under the title of Juvenilia, a work jf which he was afterwards ashamed. At an 'jarlyage he was dissipated, but reformed by carriage, and a dangerous illness. He distin- guished himself in the service of the reformed church, and, in 1564, became Calvin's succes- sor. Vain were the efforts of his adversaries .o gain an advantage over him. His truth and wit were a splendid defence, and at the age of 78 years, his intellectual faculties appeared as :lear as ever. The pope made him brilliant affers, but he nobly rejected them. He died Oct. 1 3, 1605, of old age. He was the author of many vorks, among which his History of Calvinism n France, from 1521 to 1563, is still read with satisfaction. BID ASSOA, a boundary river between Spain and France, containing the isle of Pheasants, where the peace of the Pyrenees was concluded in 1659. BIEVRE, Marquis de, marshal, born in 1747, died in 1789. He served in the life-guard of the king of France, and was much celebrated for his wit, which he displayed in ready re- partees and puns. When presented to Louis XV, the following dialogue took place. Louis. Give me a specimen of your wit. B. Give me a subject, sire. Louis. Take me. B. Sire, the king is no subject. BILLINGTON, Elizabeth, Mrs. a celebrated English singer, born in 1770, died in 181 7. She appeared in public at the age of 14, and was received with great applause. BINGEN ; a town on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Rudesheim ; population 3,300. In its vicinity is the famous Mouse Tower, connected with which is the following tale. In a time of great famine, bishop Hatto played the usurer, to the distress and ruin of many poor people. For this he is said to have met a most dreadful punishment. Thousands on thousands of mice pouring into his' dwelling, compelled him to seek refuge in his tower on the Rhine. But here he enjoyed but a brief interval of rest. The army of mice swam the river, scaled the rocky precipice, and leaped into the tower, at every cranny, grate, and loop-hole. The bishop attempted to pray, but his utterance failed — he listened to the noise of the mice as they swiftly approached his turret- chamber. At length they gained an entrance, and devoured the prelate, tearing the flesh from his bones, and leaving him a mere skeleton. BIRCH, Thomas, a historian and biographer of the 18th century, born in London, in 1705. His father, a quaker, designed his son for his own profession, that of a coffee-mill maker. Young Birch, however, preferring a literary life, adopted it, took orders in 1730, and ob- tained a living in Essex, in 1732. He was assisted by some coadjutors in preparing the General Historical and Critical Dictionary, completed in 10 vols, folio, in 1741. His life was laborious, and in the course of it, he pub- lished many historical and biographical works. He was killed by a fall from his horse, in 1765. BIREN, Ernst John von, duke of Courland, born 1637, died 1772. He is said to have been the son of Buhren, a peasant of Courland. He gained the favor of Anna, duchess of Courland, afterwards empress of Russia, by his beauty and accomplishments, and when his mistress BIR 116 BLA was raised to the throne, was not forgotten by her. While in power, he was fierce, resentful, and ambitious, and caused the death of 11,000 persons. After the death of Anna, a conspi- racy was formed against him, and he was ban- ished to Siberia. But he was recalled on the accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, to the throne. After another exile, of 22 years, he was again recalled by Peter III, and, during the reign of Catherine II, continued to enjoy the royal favor until his death. BIRMAN EMPIRE. The Birman Empire is a powerful state of Further India, having an area of 200,000 square miles, with a popu- lation of about 4,000,000. It contains many conquered provinces, and includes the king- doms of Ava, Pegu, part of Laos, and some other adjacent states in the north. On the north it is bounded by Thibet, Assam, and China ; on the west a chain of lofty moun- tains separates it from the British possessions. The Birmans of Ava, made themselves inde- pendent of Pegu, in the 16th century, but were reconquered in the 18th. The spirit of inde- pendence, however, was abroad, and Alompra, one of the leaders of the Birmans, kindled anew the flame of revolt in 1753, and conquered the city of Ava. Various fortunes followed, till Alompra finally made himself master of the city of Pegu. This monarch, whose abili- ties were all devoted to the good of his subjects, died in 1760, at the age of 50 years, leaving his throne to his son Namdogee, who inherited his father's spirit and talent, and died in 1764. Shambuan, the regent, usurped the throne in 1771, and was victorious in a war with China, during which Siam, which he had previously conquered, regained its independence. In 1776, this prince left his empire, greatly extended, to his son Chengenza, who, in consequence of excessive debauchery, was dethroned and put to death in 1782. Shembuan Menderagan, the 4th son of Alompra, was placed by the revolution on the throne. In 1783, he subdued Arracan. A war with Siam, in which he next engaged, re- sulted, in 1793, in the submission of that king- dom upon certain terms. The refusal on the East India Company to deliver up some Bir- man refugees, who were robbers, brought on a war with Shembuan, which was soon amicably concluded. Shembuan's grandson ascended the throne in 1816. In 1826, a war which had broken out between the Birmese and English, ended in a treaty, by which the king of the white elephant and the golden feet (titles of the monarch of Birmah), ceded to the British East India Company large tracts on the west- ern coast of his empire, including Arracan, Merguy, Tavay, and Yea. Assam became independent, and Rangoon was declared a free port. The latter has a population of 30,000. The Birmans are gay, irritable, active, and fond of show. No man is permitted to have more than one wife, and capital punishment is extended to confirmed opium eaters, and drunk- ards in general. The bodies of the dead are burned. The commerce of the Birmese is ex- tensive, and the merchants make use of bars of silver and lead in the place of coin. The people are fond of amusements, particularly dramatic spectacles. Education is not wholly neglected among them, every one learning arithmetic, reading, and writing. The clergy are literary men, famous for temperance, and the renunciation of all indulgences. The civil and criminal code is very judicious. The standing army is small. The empire is divided into 7 provinces. BIRMINGHAM, a great manufacturing town of Warwickshire. England, on the river Rea, 109 miles N. N. W. of London. Popula- tion in 1831, 146,986. The upper part of the town is well built, and pleasant, while the lower is crowded with workshops, warehouses, and old buildings. BIRON, Charles de Contaut, duke of; an intriguing nobleman in the reign of Henry IV, of France, tried on a charge of treason, and beheaded July 31st, 1602. BITHYNIA, an ancient country of Asia Mi- nor, also called Bebrycia. It lay on the Pontus Euxinus, the Thracian Bosphorus, and the Pro- pontis, and was bounded on the south by Phry- gia. A fie the death of Prusias I, it was in- vaded by Creosus, subjugated by the Persians, and conquered by Alexander the Creat, 334 years B. C. It afforded for some time an asylum to Hannibal, wlro was at last delivered up. Ni- comedes, the last king, bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans, B. C. 75. In 1298, the Otto- man Turks founded an empire here ; previous to which, the Seljuks had conquered it in the 11th century. BLACK LOCK, Thomas, a poet and clergy- man, born at Annan, in Dumfries county, in 1721. Although deprived of sight, he became famous for his acquirements, and took a high station among the literati of Scotland. He died July 1791, at the age of 70. BLACKSTONE, Sir William, knight, and L. L. D., an English lawyer of great celebrity. and a writer on the British constitution, was- BLA 117 BLA born in London, in 1723. He was the son of Mr. Charles Blackstone, a silk-mercer, but being left an orphan, was brought up and educated by Mr. Thomas Bigg, his uncle, a surgeon. He left Pembroke college, Oxford, with a high reputation, and, in 1746, after faith- ful preparatory study, was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice. His progress was slow, owing to his deficiency in elocution ; and he accordingly determined to forsake the prac- tice of the law, and retire to his fellowship at Oxford. His lectures, in which he called attention to the want of provision for instruc- tion in the laws and constitution of the coun- try, were delivered with effect, and continued for a series of years. In 1759, when several of his legal works had attracted the attention of the public, he resumed the practice of the law, and found that honors and emoluments poured in upon him. In 1761, he was chosen member of parliament from Hindon, made king's coun- sel, and solicitor-general to the queen ; about this time, also, he married. In 1765, the first volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England appeared, and was pronounced supe- rior to any work upon the same subject which had before been published. In 1770 he was made one of the justices of common pleas, and he died in his 57th year, 1780. In private life this dis- tinguished lawyer was affable and benevolent, greatly devoted to business, in which he dis- played activity and intelligence. BLAIR, Hugh, an eloquent divine and suc- cessful author, was born at Edinburgh in 1718, and made preacher of the high church in that city in 1758. Having acquired a high reputa- tion by his lectures on composition, he was made professor of rhetoric and belles-letters in 1762. In private life, he was a kind father, friend, and husband, and, living temperately, enjoyed happiness till his death which took place in 1800. BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch clergyman, author of " The Grave." Born at Edinburgh in 1699; he died in 1746. BLAKE, Robert, an English admiral in the time of the Commonwealth, born at Bridgewa- ter in 1599, died in 1657. He defended Taun- ton against Goring, blocked up Prince Rupert in Kinsale harbor, pursued him to Lisbon, en- gaged him at Malaga, and destroyed nearly his whole fleet. He afterwards reduced the Scilly isles and Guernsey, defeated Van Troinp in two engagements, demolished the castle of Tu- nis, and burned the Spanish fleet in tlie harbor of Santa Cruz. The terror of his name was so great, that it was used by the Dutch and Span- iards to quell their children. BLAKELEY, Johnston, born in Ireland in 1781, was a distinguished naval officer in the service of the United States. His father came to America, and settled in Wilmington, North Carolina. Blakeley entered the university of North Carolina, but, the death of his father hav- ing deprived him of support, was forced to leave it before he had completed his course. In 1800 he received a midshipman's warrant, and in 1813 was appointed to the command of the Wasp. In an action with His Britannic Ma- jesty's ship Reindeer, he took her in 19 minutes, but was forced to abandon her, as she was so completely cut up. The loss of the Americans in killed and wounded was 21; that of the enemy, 67. After an engagement with the brig Avon, which was forced to strike, although three other English vessels were in sight, the Wasp was spoken by a vessel off the Western Isles, since which time she has not been heard of. Blake- ley left an only daughter, who was educated by the state of North Carolina. BLANCH ARD, Francois, one of the earliest aeronauts, born at Andelys, France, in 1738. He showed an early fondness for mechanics, and in his 16th year, invented a self-moving carriage, which carried him 18 miles. In his 19th year he invented a hydraulic machine, and soon afterwards, a sort of flying-ship. When the Montgolfiers made their discoveries, Blan- chard eagerly made use of them. In 1785 he crossed the channel from Dover to Calais, with doctor Jeffries, a gentleman of Boston in the United States. At one time the balloon sank so rapidly, that although the Aeronauts had lightened the car by throwing'over all superflu- ous articles, even their clothes, they were in danger of losing their lives. However, the voyage was finally accomplished in safety, and Blanchard was presented by the king of France with 12,000 francs, and a pension of 1200. In the same year he made use of a parachute in Lon- don. His 46th ascent was made in the city of New York, 1796. In 1798, he went up from Rouen in a large balloon with J 6 persons. He died in 1809, after having made more than 66 aeronautic voyages. Madame Blanchard, after his death, continued to make voyages in the air. In June, 1819, she ascended from Paris, and was thought to be in safety, when her balloon took fire from some fireworks which she carried with her ; she fell from an immense height, and was dashed to pieces in the Rue de Provence. BLO 118 BOE BLENHEIM or Blindheim, a village in the circle of Upper Danube, in Bavaria, on the Danube. It is celebrated for the important victory obtained there by the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, over the French, commanded by marshals Tallard and Marsin, and the elector of Bavaria. In the war of the Spanish succession, Louis XIV, with the elector of Bavaria for his only ally, was forced to contend against the strength of Holland, England, Austria, Savoy, Portugal, and the German empire. At the battle of Blen- heim, which was fought August 13, 1704, the allied forces amounted to about 52,000, and the French to 56,000, with great advantage of situation ; the latter, however, were completely beaten, and 11,000 corpses left upon the field of battle. Among other ensigns of victory were 100 pieces of cannon, 24 mortars, 129 colors, 171 standards, 17 pair of kettle-drums, 3600 tents, 34 coaches, 300 mules laden with the rich equi- page and plate, the military chest, the dispensa- tory, &c. ; 25 brass pontoons, and a number of carriages laden with provisions and ammuni- tion. BLONDEL, the servant, friend, and musical instructor of the lion-hearted Richard I, of England. Richard having been confined in the castle of Lowenstein, by the duke of Austria, Blondel wandered through Palestine and Ger- many in search of his royal master. He finally discovered the place of his confinement, by placing himself beneath the grated window of his tower, and singing one of the lays which he had formerly taught the king. He had complet- ed the first stanza, when, to his great delight, be heard the voice of Richard, replying in the same strain. He delivered the king from bondage, and received the title of the faithful Blondel. BLOOD, Thomas, commonly called colonel Blood, a disbanded officer of Oliver Cromwell ; notorious for his attempt to steal the crown and regalia from the tower. He was almost success- ful. Charles II pardoned him. and even bestow- ed an estate of £500 per annum on him, while poor Edwards, keeper of the regalia, who was severely wounded in defending them, was pass- ed by unnoticed. BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an English poet, born at Honington, in 1766. He was the son of a tailor, and, in 1781, he was sent to London, v/ith his brother, to learn the shoe-making trade ; he visited various places of public worship, the theatre, and a debating society, and found his faculties developed in a striking manner. His brother, hearing him one day repeat a song which he had composed, induced him to offer it to the editor of the London Magazine, by whom it was accepted and published. His poem of the " Farmer's Boy," composed during a brief residence in the country, was published by Ca- pel Lofft. to whom it was first shown. The ver- sification in this, as well as in the other poems of Bloomfield, is easy and correct. He was made, by the duke of Grafton, under-sealer for the Seal Office, but ill-health compelled him to relinquish this situation. He afterwards work- ed at his trade, and engaged in the book-trade, but became bankrupt. He died in Aug. 1823. BLUCHER, Marshal, a celebrated Prussian general, who distinguished himself in the wars with France, particularly in 1813, 1814, and 1815, and who by his timely arrival on the field of Waterloo, with a large body of cavalry, decided the victory. The Russians, in allu- sion to his promptitude in attack, called him gen- eral Foncard, a name which is always applied to him by his admirers. He died Sept. 12, 1819. BOADICEA, or Bonduca, a British heroine, queen of the Iceni. Her husband, for the secu- rity of his family , had made the Roman emperor co-heir with his daughters. But the Roman of- ficers took possession of her palace, exposed the princesses to the brutality of the soldiers, and scourged the queen in public. Boadicea, urged to revenge by this usage, assembled her country- men, and, in a masculine harangue, roused them to madness, by describing her own, her daugh- ters' and her country's injuries, stormed London, and put to the sword 70,000 strangers. Sueto- nius Paulinus defeated the Britons, and Boa- dicea poisoned herself in despair, A. D. 60. BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, a famous Italian author, born at Paris, 1313. His Decameron fixed his reputation, and the name of Boccaccio, according to Mazzuchelli, is equivalent to a thousand encomiums. The death of his friend and instructor, Petrarch, was a severe shock to him, and he died not more than a year after, at Certaldo, Dec. 21,1375. BOCHICA, founder of the Indian empire of Cundinamarca, the Manco Capac of the Muisca Indians. He introduced the worship of the sun, and persuaded the inhabitants of the Valley of Bogota to cultivate the soil. BODLEY, Sir Thomas ; founder of the Bod- leian library at Oxford, born at Exeter in 1544, died in 1612, at London. BOERHAVE, Hermann, one of the most famous physicians of the 18th century, born at Woorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 1668, died in 1738. People came to him from all parts of BOH 119 BOH Europe lor advice, and a Chinese mandarin wrote to him with the address, " to Boerhave, the celebrated physician of Europe." His pro- perty amounted, at his death, to 2,000,000 florins. BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Se- verinus, a man whose services, rewards, vir- tues, and unhappy end have made him famous, was born at Rome or Milan, about 470, A. D. Having received an admirable education and im- proved himself by travel, he was taken into favor by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and ra- pidly raised to the highest offices of the empire. His strict justice and uncompromising integrity having acquired for him the hatred of the rapa- cious and unprincipled Goths, the king became prejudiced against him, and had him arrested, im- prisoned, and executed, A. D. 526 or 527. His most celebrated work on the Consolations of Phi- losophy, consisting of prose and verse, was com- posed by him in prison. Alfred the Great, of England, translated it for the benefit of his peo- ple. BOGOTA, at the time the Spaniards con- quered South America, was one of the most civilized states of the country, and inhabited by the Muisca Indians. The valley of Bogota, famous for its fertility, was filled with Indians, who rivalled in civilization the inhabitants of Cuzco. They traced their prosperity to the instructions of Bochica. Gonzalo Ximenes di Quesada effected their conquest. BOGOTA, or Santa Fe de Bogota ; a city of South America, formerly capital of the vice- royalty of New Grenada, but now capital of the republic of that name. Long. 74° 15' W. ; lat. 4° 3G' N. The population has been variously estimated from 30 to 60,000. It lies on an ele- vated plain to the east of the Andes, and con- tains, besides a superb cathedral, many fine buildings. The lands in the environs of Bo- gota yield two harvests annually. BOHEMIA, Bceheim, Bojenheim, a kingdom of Europe, bounded on the north by Lusatia and Misnia, on the east by Moravia and Silesia, on the south by Austria and Bavaria, and on the west by Bavaria. It contains above 3,880,000 inhabitants, of whom a large portion are Jews. Bohemia is surrounded by mountains and co- vered with forests. All kinds of grain and fruits are exported. The mines yield silver, copper, tin, garnets, and other precious stones, iron, arsenic, alum, antimony, sulphur, &c. Manu- factories are established in various parts of the country. Bohemia contains 16 circles, besides the city of Prague, governed by officers who are appointed yearly. In 1826 a rail-road was laid between the Danube and the Moldau. The Bo- hemians are highly patriotic and public spirited. In 1822 they had 2996 public establishments for instruction. The kingdom derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic nation, who settled there about 600 B. C. About the middle of the 4th century it was inhabited by Germans, who were governed by their own dukes. Charlemagne made Bohemia tributary, but it did not long re- main so. The first king received his title from the emperor Henry IV, and in 1310 the house of Luxemburg succeeded to the throne. In 1526, Bohemia reverted to the house of Austria, by whom it ho.s been ever since held. Bohemia produced the first reformers, among whom were John Huss, and Jerome of Prague. BOHEMIA, dynasties of. DUKES. A.D. Czechus or Zecko (a Selavonian conqueror), .550 Cracua 1 565 Cracus II 618 Libussa (princess), j £__ Premislaus (her husband, a peasant), \ "** Nezamistus 676 Wnislaus 689 Cizezomislaus 715 Necklan 757 Hostwit or Milchost 809 Borziwoi 1 890 Stugmir 901 Spitigneus 1 902 Wratislaus 1 920 Wenceslaus 1 926 Boleslaus 1 938 Boleslaus II 967 Boleslaus III 999 Jaromir 1002 Udalric 1012 Bretislaus 1 1037 Spitigneus II 1055 Wratislaus II 1061 Conrad 1 1092 Bretislaus II 1093 Wladislaus 1 1 100 Borziwoi II 1101 Suatopluc 1107 Borziwoi II (restored), 1109 Wladislaus II 1 124 Sobieslaus 1 1125 Wladislaus III 1 140 Sobieslaus II 1174 Frederick 1178 Conrad II 1190 Wenceslaus II 1191 Henry Bretislaus 1193 Wladislaus IV 1196 KINGS. Premislaus Ottocar 1 1197 Wenceslaus III 1230 Premislaus Ottocar II , ,-. 1253 Interregnum 1278 Wenceslaus IV 1284 Wenceslaus V 1305 Henry of Carinthia 1306 John of Luxemburg 1310 BOL 120 BOL Charles IV, Emperor of Germany a. d. 1346 Wenceslaus VI 1378 Sigisrnund 1419 Allien of Austria 1437 Wladislaua V 1446 George Podiebrad 1458 Wladislaus VI 1471 Louis 1516 Ferdinand I of Austria, emperor 1526 BOILEAU, Despreaux Nicholas, born at Crosne, near Paris, in 1636. After having studi- ed at the colleges of Harcourt and Beauvais,he entered upon the career of law which he soon relinquished for the more congenial pursuit of belles-lettres. His satire, Les Micux a Paris, first displayed his talents. He published many works, his Art Po6tique, being the most popular. He was opposed by many writers, to confound whom he wrote his unrivalled mock-heroic poem, the Lutrin. He died of the dropsy in 1711. BOIS-LE-DUC, the French name for the Dutch Hertogcnbosh, a fortified city of the Ne- therlands, with 17,300 inhabitants, at the con- fluence of the Dommel and the Aa. It has many manufactories, a lyceum, and 15 churches. It was founded in 1184. In the religious wars of the 16th century it suffered much. The Dutch gained possession of it in 1629. Near Bois-le-Duc, in 1794, the British army was de- feated by the French. In the same year it sur- rendered to Pichegru,and was taken by Bulow, the Prussian General, in January, 1814. BOJACA, BATTLE OF, was fought near the bridge of Bojaca, a South American town not far from the city of Tunja. The Spaniards under Barreyro were defeated by the united forces of Venezuela and New Granada, com- manded by Bolivar. It took place Aug. 7th, 1819, and decided the independence of New Granada. BOLEYN, or BOLEN, Anne, second wife of Henry VIII of England. She was probably born about 1500. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn. Her early years were spent in attendance on the wife of Louis XII of France, on whose death she became maid of honor to queen Catherine. Henry, having procured a divorce from his wife, married her privately, and when she became a mother publicly ac- knowledged her as queen. Her child was the famous Elizabeth. The tyrant conceiving a passion for Jane Seymour, caused Anne to be tried for high treason and infidelity. She suf- fered on the scaffold, May 19th, 1536, Henry considering it an act of great clemency to save her from the stake. She was beautiful, gay, and witty, and in her last moments, self-possessed. " She sent her last message to the king," says Hume, " and acknowledged the obligations which she owed him in uniformly continuing her advancement. From a private gentle- woman, you have made me, first, a marchion- ess, then a queen ; and, as you can raise me no higher in this world, you are now sending me to be a saint in heaven." BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, viscount, born at Battersea, in 1672, of an ancient and distinguished family. His brilliant talents, ele- gant manners, and personal attractions, secured him a warm welcome in society ; but, unhap- pily, until his 23d year his career was stained with those vices which spring from the impetu- ous temper of youth. His marriage with a beautiful heiress did not produce the happiness which his parents had looked for, and the young couple separated forever after a short connexion. The moment he obtained a seat in the house of commons he distinguished himself by industry, activity, eloquence, and strong judgment. In 1704 he was made secretary at war, but when the whigs came into place, he sent in his resig- nation. The whig party being prostrated, Bo- lingbroke received the department of foreign affairs, and concluded the peace of Utrecht. During the height of party contention between the whigs and tories, immediately after the con- clusion of peace, a quarrel occurred between Bolingbroke and the Earl of Oxford, then lord high treasurer, and Queen Anne, provoked with the latter, dismissed him, four days before her death, and made Bolingbroke prime minis- ter. The scene was speedily reversed by the death of Anne. — George I ascended the throne, the whigs triumphed, and Bolingbroke, learn- ing that his enemies intended to bring him to the scaffold, fled to France. Bolingbroke went to Lorraine, and was made Secretary of State by the Pretender (James III), who, however, becoming displeased with him, deprived him of his dignity and conferred it on the duke of Or- mond. He returned to England in 1723, opposed the ministry for eight years, and again went to France. In France, in 1735, he published his Letters upon History, which, however admira- ble, were blamed for attacking revealed reli- gion. In 1738, he returned to his country, where he died of a lingering and painful dis- ease in 1 751 , in his 80th year. BOLIVAR, Simon, the most prominent actor in the events which produced the independence of a large portion of South America. He was BOL 121 BOL born in the city of Caraccas, July 24th, 1783, of a distinguished and noble Venezuelan family. After acquiring the elements of a liberal educa- tion in South America, he visited Spain, and spent some time in travelling in Europe, chief- ly in the south of France. Returning for a while to Madrid, he married, and carried his wife to his native land, where he thought to enjoy in peace the comforts of domestic life. The death of his wife put an end to his blissful visions, and he again went to Europe, partly to dissipate his grief. On his return, he travelled through the United States, where his love of liberty settled into an indelible passion, and we find him actively engaged in promoting the early movement in Caraccas (April, 1810) and receiving a colonel's commission from the su- preme junta then established. He sided with the patriots of Venezuela, and, after the declar- ation of independence, July 5, 1811, served under General Miranda, against a party in Va- lencia, who declared against the principles and measures of the revolutionists. After some ill success in Venezuela, which is attributable to treachery rather than want of talent on his part, Bolivar obtained a passport -and escaped to Curagoa. He could not, however, content himself with being a calm, cold, and in- vulnerable spectator of events in which the lives and fortunes of his countrymen were risk- ed, and accordingly he came to Carthagena in 1812, and entered into the service of the pat- riots of New Grenada. His expedition against Teneriffe, on the river Magdalena, was suc- cessful, he drove the Spaniards before him in his triumphant advance, and entered the city of Ocana in triumph, thus inspiring general confidence in the patriot cause, and attracting the attention of all to it and to himself. He next expelled the Spanish forces from Cucu- ta, and conceived the plan of freeing Vene- zuela from the Spaniards, a task which he ac- complished by the 4th of August, 1813. At the assembly of Caraccas, Jan. 2, 1814, the power, which was vested in the hands of Bolivar as commander of the liberating army, was confirm- ed. If we carefully trace the military career of Bolivar, we shall find him alternately meeting with success, and struggling with reverse ; dis- playing, both in triumph and defeat, the noble daring of a gallant warrior, the rare talents of a military chieftain, and the unyielding perse- verance of a true patriot. At length he had the satisfaction of beholding the arms of the patri- ots triumphant in every quarter, their banners moving onward in pride and splendor, and the phalanx of opposition becoming daily more and more feeble. In May, 182G, Bolivar presented to the con- gress of Upper Peru, which had formed the independent state of Bolivia, the constitution which, at their request, he had prepared. Mean- while a rebellion had broken out in Venezuela, headed by Paez, who considered himself aggriev- ed, and the fair fruits of liberty, won with many a day of bloody toil, appeared in danger of being lost. It was Bolivar alone who could and did quell this insurrection. The Bolivian code, which, among its prominent features, provided that the executive authority should be vested in the hands of the president for life, was adopted as the constitution of Bolivia, Dec. 9, 182G, and Bolivar, then absent, was declared its presi- dent. If the provisions of the Bolivian code had alarmed the friends of liberty, what was their terror when they beheld Bolivar, whom they suspected of ambitious designs, placed for life at the head of the government. The Colombian auxiliary army, then in Peru, rapid- ly revolutionized the government, and induced the Peruvians to renounce the Bolivian code. Strenuous opposition to Bolivar was made in Colombia by the republicans who imagined that he was ready to emulate the career of Napoleon, although he had repeatedly expressed a wish to retire from the presidency. However, in 1828, a decree, dated Bogota, Aug. 27, gave him the supreme power in Colombia. The authority reposed in him gave the republicans no little alarm, but Bolivar did not live long to exercise it. Looking back upon his career, we can now dispassionately estimate his character, and, if there appear occasionally a desire to exalt him- self above his fellows, we must grant him that rare union of civil and military abilities, that courage in adversity and moderation in pros- perity, which was alone capable of achieving the regeneration of his country. BOLIVIA, a country of South America, bounded northwest by Peru, east by Brazil, south by Buenos Ayres or the United Prov- inces of South America, and west by the Pa- cific ocean and Peru. It is mountainous, and contains rich silver mines. Chuquisaca, or La Plata, is the capital. The population is about 1,200,000. The battle of Ayacucho, fought Dec. 9th, 1824, in which the Viceroy La Serna was defeated by General Antonio Jose de Sucre, achieved the independence of Bolivia. The powers of government are distributed into four sections— the electoral, legislative, executive, and judicial. BON 122 BON BOLOGNA is one of the largest, oldest, and richest cities in Italy. It was anciently called Bononia Felsinia, and is surnamed la Grassa (the fat). It is situated at the foot of the Apennines between the Reno and Savena, containing about 71,300 inhabitants and many manufactories. It is the capital of a delegation of the same name, and the secular concerns are administered by a cardinal legate, while the spiritual are in the care of an archbishop. A gonfaloniere chosen every two months, with a council of fifty sen- ators and eight citizens, forming a republican government, manages the city affairs. The in- habitants of Bologna submitted to the Pope in 1538, being worn and harassed by the incessant contentions of the nobility. A Bolognese am- bassador resides at Rome, for the purpose of preventing the sovereign pontiff from pass- ing beyond the limits which the constitution permits. The Pope can impose no tax on the inhabitants of Bologna, and is only entitled to the excise on wine. At the same time the Bo- lognese elect a judge to the high court of ap- peals at Rome. On the whole, the city can boast with truth of the proud word Libertas, which encircles her armorial bearings. The renowned university of Bologna, which once contained 10,000 students, has at present but 300. Among the buildings which ornament the chief place of the city is tbe senate hall, which contains a number of works of art, and 200 folio volumes in manuscript written by Ulysses Aldovrandus, as materials for future works. Its market is famous for the sculpture of its fountain, and the flavor of its sausages, presenting equal attractions to the artist and the epicure. Besides the cathedral of St. Pe- tronio, there are 73 other churches. BOMBAY, a presidency, island, and city in British India on the western coast of Hindos- tan. The population of the city is 161,550. The city is surrounded with fortifications, and stands upon a narrow neck of land, a mile in length. The trade of this place is very considerable. The American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions, had, in 1828, four missionaries and a printing press here, with \G schools for boys, and 10 for girls, containing in all 2620 pupils. Bombay was obtained by the Portu- guese in 1530, and ceded to the English in 1661, under whom it has become a strong and flourishing place. BONAPARTE. (See Napoleon.) BONIFACE, the name of several popes. Boniface I succeeded Zozimus in 418, and was maintained in the pontifical chair by the emperor Honorius against his rival Eulalius. He died in 422. Boniface II succeeded Felix IV in 530. He was born at Rome, but his father was a Goth. He compelled the bishops in a council to allow him to nominate his successor, and ac- cordingly he selected Vigil ; but a second council disavowed the proceedings of the first. Boni- face VI came to the chair 896, and died of the gout a fortnight after. Boniface VII assumed the chair after having murdered Benedict VI and John XIV. He was acknowledged sove- reign pontiff in 984, and died a few months after. Boniface VIII, after the resignation of Celestine, was elected 1294. He commenced his pontificate by imprisoning his predecessor, and laying Denmark under an interdict. He also excommunicated the Colonnas as heretics, and preached a Crusade against them. He ex- cited the princes of Germany to revolt ^against Albert, and laid France under an interdict. Philip appealed to a general council, and sent his army into Italy, and took the Pope prisoner. He died at Rome a few months afterwards. BONIFACE, St., first spread Christianity and civilization among the Germans. His ori- ginal name was Winifred, and he was born in England in 680. In 732 he was made arch- bishop and primate of all Germany. He was killed by barbarians at Dockum.in West Fries- land, in 755, in his 75th year. BONN, the capital of the Prussian govern- ment of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine. The university, in 1829, contained 1000 students. BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate, who received several clerical preferments from Car- dinal Wolsey. Henry VIII made him one of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to obtain from the Pope a divorce from queen Catharine. There he was so insolent that the pontiff threatened to throw him into a cauldron of boil- ing lead, and thus compelled him to quit Rome. He persecuted the Protestants with great cru- elty, and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Mar- shalsea, where he died in 1569. BONNEVAL, Claude Alexander, count de, known also by the name of Achmct Pasha, was born in 1672. He was descended from an illus- trious family in France, and married the daugh- ter of the Marshal de Biron. He was disgraced, however, by his incessant pursuit of sensual pleasure. He quitted the French army to serve under Prince Eugene ; but, having quarrelled with that general, he entered the service of the Turks, among whom he obtained a military command, with a high salary, and the rank of pacha with three tails. He won a great victory BOO 123 BOR over the imperial army on the banks of the Danube. He died in 1747. BONPLAND, Aime, a French naturalist, who accompanied Humboldt to America in 1799, and discovered 6000 new species of plants. He re- turned to France, and tbence went again to South America in 1818. In 1820, he founded a colony of Indians, at Santa Anna, on the east bank of" the Parana, and succeeded in planting the Paraguay tea, which drew upon him the notice of doctor Francia, dictator of Paraguay, 200 of whose soldiers surprised and seized the naturalist. He was held captive, and made to serve as physician to the garrison of a fort ; but was released in 1831. BOONE, Daniel, a native of Virginia, was one of the first to penetrate the savage wilds of Kentucky, on an expedition to explore which, he departed with five companions, May 1, 17G9. Boone, with John Stewart, was captured by the Indians, not long after their arrival in Kentucky, but soon managed to escape. Their compan- ions had returned home, whither they would have followed them, but for the timely arrival of Squire Boone, Daniel's brother, with refresh- ments. Stewart being soon after slain, the two Boones remained, the only white men in the wilderness. In 1773, Boone with his own, and five other families, and a body of 40 men, took up the march of emigration from Virginia to Kentucky ; but in consequence of the hostility of the Indians, they returned to the settlements on Clinch River. In 1775 Boone built a fort at Salt Spring, on the southern bank of the Ken- tucky, on the site of Boonesborough. After sustaining several sieges, he was taken by the savages, Feb. 7, 1778, while hunting with some of his men. The Indians soon learned to re- spect and value Boone, who was adopted by one of the chiefs of Chillicothe, but the thoughts of his wife and children induced our adven- turer to attempt an escape. After travelling for four days, taking but one meal, he arrived at Boonesborough, which was 160 miles distant from the place of his captivity. On the 8th of August an attack on the fort was commenced by a body of Indians and Canadian French, which continued till the 20th, when the siege was abandoned. This was the last attempt made upon Boonesborough. From 1782 till 1798, Boone lived alternately in Kentucky and Virginia. In 1798, having obtained from the Spanish government a grant of land in Upper Louisiana, he removed thither with his children and friends, who were also presented with land. He settled on the Mis- souri, beyond the limits of other settlements, and employed himself in the wild life of the forest, hunting and trapping, until Sept. 1822, when he expired, in his 85th year. He had for a long time been sensible of the approach of death, and had a coffin made out of a favorite cherry-tree, which he brought to a high de- gree of polish by continual rubbing. BORA, Catherine von, a nun, who married Luther about 1524, when he had laid aside the cowl, and she the veil. BORDENTOWN, a pleasant town of New Jersey, on the east side of the Delaware, 26 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, the residence of Joseph Bonaparte, Count de Survilliers. BORGHESE, princess, originally Marie Pau- line Bonaparte, the favorite sister of Napoleon, born at Ajacio, Oct. 20, 1782. After becom- ing the widow of General Leclerc, she married prince Camillo Borghese, with whom she did not live on good terms. She died 1825. Her whole property amounted to 2,000,000 francs. She was uncommonly beautiful, and Canova re- presented her as the goddess of beauty, a Venus which almost rivalled the antique. BORGIA, Caesar, son of pope Alexander VI, an infamous character. On his father's acces- sion to the papacy in 1492, he was invested with the purple. Being jealous of his brother Fran- cis, he contrived to have him drowned. Hav- ing renounced the cardinalship, he was made duke of Romagna in 1501, and leagued with Louis XII of France. On the death of his father, he was sent prisoner to Spain, but made his escape, and died fighting under the walls of Biano. in 1507. BORNEO, next to New Holland, the largest island in the world, is about 800 miles long, and 700 broad. The population has been estimated at from 3 to 5 millions. Lon. 109° to 119° E. ; Iat. 7° N. to 4° 20' S. The insalubrity of the cli- mate has restrained Europeans from exploring it, and consequently not much information has been collected with regard to it. The chain of mountains contains numerous crystals, and is thence called Crystal Mountain. Earthquakes and volcanoes are frequent in the island. The mountain breezes and the rains moderate the heat, which is by no means excessive. Gold, di- amonds, pearl, iron, copper, tin, and other min- erals ar,e found here. The fruits are fine and abundant. The inhabitants are Malays, Javan- ese, Bujis or natives of Celebes, and descend- ants of Arabs, governed by despotic chiefs called Sultans. They are said to be intelligent, but treacherous. The Dutch have succeeded BOS 124 BOS in forming permanent establishments on the island, and derive their chief profit from pep- per and diamonds. The town of Borneo, on the northwest part of the island, 10 miles from the sea, contains 3000 houses, and is the resi- dence of a Sultan, formerly the sovereign of the entire island. BORNOU, a kingdom of Central Africa, bounded N. by Kanem and the desert, east by lake Tchad, south by Mandara, and west by Soudan. The seasons are divided into dry and rainy. The heat is occasionally excessive. The country contains 13 large and well-built towns. The Shouaas are Arabians, arrogant, and de- ceitful ; the Bornou people have negro features, and are timorous and addicted to pilfering. The government is in the hands of the powerful sheikh of the Koran. The domestic and wild animals are numerous. The minerals are un- important. Strips of cotton pass current in the country instead of coin. BORROMEI ISLANDS (hole del Conigli or Rabbit Isles) are four small islands in Lake Maggiore in Upper Italy. The lake is 30 miles long, and 7 or 8 broad. The islands are loaded with artificial ornaments, and luxurious groves. In 1671 Viteliano Borromeo caused garden-soil to be spread over the naked rocks, and terraces to be walled up. Isola Bella is near the shore, and contains a splendid palace, the occasional dwelling-place of Count Borromei. BOSCAWEN, Edward, a British admiral. He particularly distinguished himself, at the taking of Porto Bello, and the siege of Car- thagena. He also signalized himself under Anson, off Cape Finisterre ; and at the taking of Madras, Cape Breton, and Louisburg. He died in 1761, having received in succession all the honors of his profession. BOSNIA, a Turkish province, with the title of kingdom, which is bounded north by Sclavo- nia, east by Servia, south by Dalmatia and the Adriatic Sea, and west by Croatia. It contains 85,000 inhabitants, two thirds Christians, and one third Turks, besides Jews and Gipsies. The soil is fertile, the cattle fine, and the iron of the mountains extensively used in the man- ufacture of guns and sword-blades. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Bosnia belonged to Hungary. In 1339, Stephen, king of Servia, took it. It gained its independence, but in 1401, became tributary to the Turks, and in 1463, was con- quered by Mohammed V, who caused its last king, Stephen I, to be flayed alive. It has since remained part of the Turkish dominions. BOSPHORUS, an ancient kingdom, called from the straits on both sides of which it was situated. BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, bishop of Meaux, born at Dijon, 1627, became one of the most celebrated ecclesiastics of the 18th cen- tury. He was pious, severe in doctrine and practice, eloquent, and learned. He died in 1704. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, and largest city of the New-England States. It is situated at the bottom of Massachusetts bay, at the mouth of Charles river ; Ion. 71? 4' W. ; lat. 42° 22' N. Population (in 1830) 61,392. Its extent, inclusive of the peninsula of South Boston, is nearly three square miles. The harbor is capacious and gemmed with many islands, some of which are fortified. The bridg- es, with a single exception, are of wood ; the dam leading from the western part of the city to Roxbury, being of stone and earth. Two of the bridges are free, and the rest are sup- ported by tolls. The streets are quite narrow and irregular, although improvements are rapid- ly making in their condition wherever prac- ticable. Many of the houses are built of brick, some wholly of hammered granite, and some of both these materials. Few recent buildings are of wood. The state-house, on a hill which com- mands a view of the city and its environs, is a large building of brick, and contains a fine mar- ble statue of Washington, executed by Chantry. Other public buildings are the county Court- House built of stone, Faneuil Hall, called "the Cradle of Liberty," from the public meetings held there previous to the revolution ; the Mas- sachusetts General Hospital, the Faneuil Hall Market, various churches and school-houses, a house of industry, a house of correction, a county jail, and three theatres. Tremont Ho- tel is one of the finest specimens of architec- ture in the city. The city is divided into twelve wards ; the municipal government is vested in a mayor, eight aldermen, and a common council of for- ty-eight members. Measures of a legislative character are adopted by a concurrent act of the board of aldermen and common council, while the executive functions are exercised by the mayor and aldermen. These officers are chosen annually by the citizens voting in their wards. The city charter is of recent origin, bearing the date of 1821. There is a po- lice court of three justices, before whom minor offences are tried, while a single judge holds the municipal court, which has jurisdiction over all criminal cases, tried by jury, which are not BOS 125 BOS capital. The annual expenses amount to about 300,000 dollars. The public schools are under the care of a school committee, consisting of the mayor and aldermen and twelve members, annually chosen by the citizens. The library of the Boston AthenEeum contains about 30,000 volumes. Boston contains numerous literary, scientific, and charitable societies. It is the second commercial city of the United States. The goods imported annually amount to about $ 13,000,000, and the exports to about $9,000,- 000. The common is the principal public square. It is surrounded by the mall, a hand- some gravelled walk, fenced in, and shaded with fine elm trees, and contains about fifty acres. The periodicals of Boston have attained a high reputation, and are worthy of the literary char- acter of the city. The North American Re- view, a quarterly publication, is distinguished for the candor and talent of its criticisms, and the ability with which it defends our institu- tions and country, against the assaults which are occasionally made by prejudiced foreigners. Boston was founded in 1 G30. Wil Iiam Black- stone was the first settler. It was called by the Indians Shawmut, and by the early colonists Tri-mountain, from its three prominent hills. The first church was built in 1632. The Mid- dlesex canal, leading from Charles river to the Merrimack, and thus forming a navigable chan- nel to Concord in New Hampshire, was} until recently, the only means of transportation to and from the interior, with the exception of the common roads. There have now been com- menced and partly finished, a rail-road from Boston to Lowell, one to Worcester, and one to Providence, in the state of Rhode Island. From the year 1783, the population has doubled once in about 23 years. In the reign of Charles II, the charter of Massachusetts was declared for- feited by a decree of the Court of Chancery, and Sir Edmund Andros was appointed the first royal governor. In April, 168!), the Boslonians seized upon the governor and imprisoned him, having first taken possession of the fort, and castle in the harbour. In a little more than a month afterwards, the news of the revolution in England, was welcomed in Boston with general exultation. In 1765, when the obnoxious stamp act passed, the person appointed to distribute the stamps, was compelled to decline the office, and the house of the lieutenant-governor was de- stroyed by the mob. On the breaking out of these tumults, which appeared to threaten the down- fal of authority, Boston was forced to receive a large military and naval force, which it was thought would quell the spirit of insubordina- tion. The citizens regarded the soldiers with little favor, and they only wanted a pretext to show their hostility openly. March 5th, 1770, a ser- geant's guard in King (now State) street, being pressed upon and pelted by the mob, fired and killed five men. After the tax had been im- posed on tea, the Americans resolved, if pos- sible, to prevent the landing and sale of it. When three of the tea ships arrived, December 16, 1773, a party of men disguised as Indians, went on board and threw all the tea overboard. In the following spring, the port of Boston was closed by act of Parliament, and the impor- tation and exportation of goods prohibited. The general court held its sittings in Salem, and more troops together with a military governor, were sent to Boston. In 1775, after the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill, British troops, to the number of 10,000 men, were besieged in Boston, until the March following. During this siege the inhabitants suffered greatly, for many who wished to leave the town were not permitted to do so, but forced to stay against their will, and treated as lories by the Ameri- can army on their entrance. The British offi- cers amused themselves by acting plays in Faneuil Hall, the "cradle of liberty," being fitted up tastefully on the occasion. General Burgoyne wrote a farce called the Boston Block- ade, in which the yanhees were severely satiri- zed, and a happy triumph of the royal arms predicted. The sarcasms on the weakness of the Americans with which this piece was inter- spersed, received a curious commentary in the frequent explosions of the shells which were thrown into the town by the besiegers. A can- non ball entered the tower of Brattle street church, where it is still preserved. Boston was distinguished for its early adherence to the cause of liberty, and was the birth-place of sev- eral of the most talented and uncompromising enemies of despotism. BOSWELL, James, the friend and biogra- pher of Johnson, was a native of Scotland, and studied at the universities of Glasgow and Utrecht. He was born at Edinburgh, in 1740, and died in 1795. He was acquainted with many eminent literary men, and his introduc- tion to Johnson he calls the most important event of his life. His life of Johnson is accu- rate and minute, abounding with literary anec- dote and personal detail. It was first published in 1790, and has since been repeatedly re-print- ed. The late edition, edited by Croker, is the most valuable. BOU 126 BOU BOSWORTH, a small town of Leicester county, England, in the vicinity of which is Boswoith field, memorable for the battle fought here in 1458, between Richard III and the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII, in which the latter was victorious, and Richard, after hav- ing performed prodigies of valour, and cloven from helm to heel two of Richmond's standard- bearers, thus disproving the tale of his withered arm. was finally slain. The brows of Rich- mond were encircled on the field of battle with the diadem which was stricken from the casque of Richard. This battle ended the bloody con- tentions of the rival roses, the red and white bado-es of York and Lancaster. BOTHNIA, East and West, provinces be- longing, the former to Russia, and the latter to Sweden. East Bothnia contains 70,000 in- habitants, and previous to 1800, belonged to Sweden. West Bothnia contains 56,000 in- habitants, is tolerably fertile, but subject to sud- den frosts. BOTH WELL, James Hepburn, earl of, re- markable in the history of Scotland, for his connexion with queen Mary, and his supposed share, at least, in the murder of Henry Darn- ley, her husband. When that unfortunate prince was blown up in the house where he slept, suspicion fell strongly on Bothwell and the queen. Bothwell was tried, but nothing could be fixed on him, and he was acquitted. After this he seized Mary near Edinburgh, and carried her prisoner to Dunbar castle, where they were married. During these iniquitous proceedings, Bothwell procured a divorce from his wife. Mary soon after created him earl of Orkney. But a confederacy among the lords being formed against him, he retired to the Ork- neys, and from thence to Denmark, where he died in 1577, confessing it is said his own guilt, and the queen's innocence of Darnley's murder. BOUDINOT, Elias, was born at Philadel- phia, May 2d, 1740. He became eminent at the bar, was chosen member of Congress in 1777, and its president in 1782. For six years he was in the house of representatives, and for a few years director of the U. S. mint. He made munificent donations to the American Bible Society, of which he became president. He died at the age of eighty-two, in 1821. BOUFFLERS, Marshal de, was born in 1G44, and died in 1711. His defence of Namur, in 1G'J5, cost the allies 20,000 men. Louis XIV sent him an order commanding him to surren- der, but he concealed it till he had no longer the means of defence. BOUILLE, Francois Claude Amour, Mar- quis de, a French loyalist general, who, among other services, suppressed a dangerous insur- rection at Metz, and assisted Louis XVI in his attempt to escape from France. For his avowal of this transaction, a price was set upon his head, whereupon he took a commission in the Swedish service. He died in 1800. BOURBON, the royal house of the kings of France, who obtained the throne in the person of Henry IV, in 1590. Tfce kings of this house were Henry IV, Louis XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, and Charles X. The Bourbon family obtained the kingdom of Spain, in the person of Philip V (of Anjou), and maintained themselves in possession after a long and bloody war, called the war for the Spanish succession. BOURBON, Charles, duke of, or Constable of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, count of Montpen- sier, and Clara of Gonzaga, born in 1480. At the age of twenty-six, he received the sword of Constable from Francis I, and distinguished himself at Marignano, but soon after tell into disgrace. On this, he associated with Charles V, and the king of England, against his sovereign. The plot being discovered, he fled into Italy, and was beyond the territories of France, when Francis sent to demand the sword which he wore as constable, and the badge of his order. In the words of his reply, we may trace the deep anguish of his heart — " The king deprived me of my sword at Valenciennes when he gave the command of the vanguard to d'Alen^on : the badge of my order I left under my pillow at Chantelles." He became commander-in-chief of the imperial troops in Italy, but was killed in the successful assault on Rome, May 2d, 1527. He fell, it is said, by a shot fired by Benvenuto Cellini. He died excommunicated, in the 38th year of his age. BOURBON, isle of, an island in the Indian ocean, about 400 miles east of Madagascar. It contains 17,000 whites, 6,000 free negroes, and 60,000 slaves. It is productive, but suffers from the want of good harbours. Its origin is sup- posed to be volcanic. Le Piton de Ncigc, or the Snowy Spike, is a mountain which rises to the height of about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The isle of Bourbon, which is 48 miles long, and 36 broad, was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1545, and called after his name ; but the French, who gained possession of it in 1649. gave it its present name. After remaining for a time in the hands of the English, it was restored to the French in 1815. BOURBONNAIS, a former province of BOY 127 BOY France, lying between the Nivernais, Berry, and Burgundy, forming the present department of Allier. BOURDEAUX, the chief city in the French department of the Gironde, lying on the left bank of the Garonne, and containing 100,000 inhabitants. It is a city of great antiquity, and distinguished for its gloomy splendor. It has nineteen gates, and some magnificent cathe- drals. It annually exports 100,000 hogsheads of wine, and 20,000 of French brandy. With the exception of Nantes, it has the greatest share in the American and French trade of any other city. Its academy of sciences has a lib- rary of 55,000 volumes. The Romans called this place Burdigala. In the 5th century it was in the hands of the Goths, and pillaged and burned by the Normans. When Louis VII mar- ried Eleanora, daughter of the last duke of Gui- enne, it fell into the hands of the French. When the princess was repudiated, it came into the hands of the duke of Normandy , afterwards king of England, her second husband. It was restor- ed to France under Charles VII, in 1451. Dur- ing the revolution it was devastated by the' ter- rorists, as being the seat of the Girondists. Bo- naparte's continental system bore heavily upon the trade of the inhabitants of Bourdeaux, and accordingly they willingly declared themselves in favor of the Bourbons, March 12th, 1814. BOWDOIN, James, governor of Massachu- setts, was born at Boston, in 1727, graduated at Cambridge, 1745, elected member of the gen- eral court in 1753, and a member of the coun- cil in 1756. In 1778, he was chosen president of the convention which framed the Massachu- setts constitution. In 1785, being chosen gov- ernor of Massachusetts, he quelled an insurrec- tion without a blow. He died at Boston, in 171)0. Such was his reputation for learning, that he was honored witli the degree of L. L. D. by the university of Edinburgh, and admitted member of the royal societies of Dublin, Lon- don, and other places. BOYER, Jean Pierre, a mulatto, president of the island of Hayti, was born in Port au Prince, about 1780. After the death of Le- clerc, he joined the party of Petion, and was finally named by him his successor in the presi- dency. When the revolution broke out in 1820, in the northern part of the island, he was invi- ted to command the insurgents, and upon the union of the northern and southern parts of the island on the death of Christophe, and the rev- olution in the eastern part, he became master of the whole island. BOYLE, Robert, a celebrated natural philos- opher, born at Lismore, in Ireland, l(J27, was seventh son of Richard, the great earl of Cork. He was one of the first members of a learned society, formed in 1645, under the name of the Philosophical College, and afterwards continued under the name of the Royal Society. He made numerous chemical experiments, which led to some important results. But it is chiefly as a pious and benevolent man that he is interesting to us. Having conceived doubts of the authen- ticity of revealed religion, he devoted himself to a severe course of study, until he was fully convinced of its truth. He instituted public lectures for the defence of Christianity, sup- ported the cause of the mission in India, and, at his own expense, printed Irish and Gaelic translations of the Bible. He died in London, in 1691. BOYNE, battle of the, was fought on the 1st of July, 1690, between William III, at the head of a Protestant army, and James II at the head of a Catholic and French force. The latter were totally defeated ; marshal Schomberg was killed. After this battle James re-embarked for France, and William completed the reduc- tion of Ireland, by the capture of Limerick, after a protracted siege. The impetuous imbecility of the unfortunate bigot James II, served only to hasten the ruin, which public opinion had so deservedly prepared for himself and his family. It was the Irish, who, during the dark fortunes of this last of the Stuarts, clung to him, when all else deserted him. They manned his navy, recruited his army, replenished his coffers, and took their stand around his person on their na- tive soil ; and when they saw him the first to fly, they still erected his torn standard, and rallied in his cause, paying the penalty of their generous but misapplied devotion to a bigot and a tyrant, by utter ruin, and eternal exile. When James, after his flight from the battle of the Boyne, arrived in Dublin, he had the in- gratitude and ungraciousness to reflect upon the cowardice of the Irish. He reached the castle late at night, and was met at its gates by the lady lieutenant, the beautiful duchess of Tirconnel, " La Belle Jennings," of Gram- mont's Memoirs. In return for the sympathiz- ing respects which marked her reception, the king is said to have sarcastically complimented her upon the " alertness of her husband's coun- trymen." The high-spirited beauty replied, " In that, however, your majesty has had the advantage of them all." The king, in fact, was BRA 128 BRA among the first to arrive in the capital with the news of his own defeat. BRABANT, provinces of; North Brabant, in the kingdom of the Netherlands, contains 352, 000 inhabitants, and South Brabant, in Belgium, 500,000. Brabant formed a duchy in the 7th century. For some ages it belonged to the Frankish monarchy, and then was a German fief. In 1005, the last duke dying, the duchy de- volved on his brother-in-law, Lambert I, count of Louvain. From him it came to Philip II, duke of Burgundy, and afterwards to the emperor Charles V. In the 17th century, the republic of Holland took possession of the northern part •which was thence called Dutch Brabant. The other part, belonging to Austria, was seized upon by France in 174G. The peace of Aix-la- Chapelle restored it, but, after falling again into the hands of the French, it was ceded to France by the treaties of Campo Formio and Lune- ville, in 1791 and 1S01. BRADDOCK, Edward, major-general and commander in the British army, who, in 1755 marched against Fort du Q.uesne on the Ohio, fell into an Indian ambuscade, was defeated and slain. Washington, who had cautioned him in vain, conducted the retreat in a masterly man- ner. BRAGANZA, a town of Portugal, made a duchy in 1442. It gives its name to the royal house of Portugal, of whom the first was John IV, who conspired, as duke of Braganza, with the Portuguese people in rendering them inde- pendent of Spain, in 1G 10. BRAMA, the first person in the Trinity, or Trimurti, of the Hindoos. Brama is the cre- ator, Vishnu, the preserver, or redeemer, and Siva,the destroyer. In the figures of this divin- ity, he is represented with four heads and four arms. He is gifted with great power, but is himself created by the Eternal One. Some believe that he dies annually, and rises again. He is considered as the lawgiver and teacher of India. BRANDENBURGH, mark, or marquisate of, one of the most extensive districts of Upper Saxony. The sandy soil is best adapted to grain. It is rich in many natural productions. It includes Berlin (the capital), Potsdam, and Frankfort, containing 15,800 square miles, 1,- 535,100 inhabitants, and 150 towns. The Suevi, first, and then the Sclavonians inhabited it. The latter were barbarians, but, in the 10th century, were conquered by Henry I, and converted to Christianity. The margraves of Brandenburoh raised themselves to be dukes of Prussia. The mark passed through various hands, till in the fifteenth century it came into those of the ancestors of the present royal fam- ily of Prussia. The elector, Frederick Wil- liam, enlarged it by the annexation of several towns and districts. The old Mark, having been ceded to Napoleon, in 1807, formed a part of the kingdom of Westphalia, until 1814, when it was restored to Prussia. Potsdam, the capital of the province, contains 30,000 in- habitants. BRANDY WINE, a small river, taking its rise in Pennsylvania, which, after a course of forty-five miles, flowing through the state of Delaware, joins the Christiana, two miles be- low Wilmington. The Brandywine mills are noted. But the river is known in history, for a battle fought in its vicinity, September 11, 1777, between the British and Americans, in which the latter sustained a defeat with a loss of 900 in killed and wounded. BRATTLEBOROUGH, a flourishing post- town in Windham county, Vermont, on the Connecticut, 41 miles north of Northampton. Population, in 1830, 2,241. It contains two parishes, each having a pleasant village. There are here an academy, a large printing establish- ment, various manufactories, and a flourishing trade. Here the Americans established fort Dummer, in 1724, which was the first settle- ment made by them in Vermont. BRAZIL, an extensive and rich country of South America, bounded on the north by Ven- ezuela, Guiana, and the Atlantic Ocean ; east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and west by Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces of La Plata, Bolivia, and Peru. Its extent, from north to south, is about 2,300 miles, and from east to west, nearly 2,000 miles. With a terri- tory somewhat larger than the whole of the United States, possessing extraordinary wealth and fertility, it is inhabited by but five millions of people, exclusive of the Indians, concerning whom little information has been acquired. The different provinces are thus named : Per- nambuco, Bahia, Minas Geraes, Rio Janeiro, St. Paul, Rio Grande, Maranham, Para, Matto Grosso, and Goyas. Such was the division of Brazil in 1817 and 1818, but, in 182G, it was divided into eighteen different provinces. Brazil contains some of the largest rivers in the world ; the Amazon, To- cantin, and San Francisco being the most promi- nent. There is much variety of climate, but generally it is healthy ; and the salubrity of the vast elevated plains is unequalled by that BRA 129 BRE of any other region on the face of the globe. The richness of its wood and water, the profu- sion of its diamonds and gold, and its general healthiness, make it the El Dorado of the ima- gination. In the beds of the rivers are found to- pazes, chrysoberyls, other precious stones, and gold. The trees are of every description, adapted to cabinet-work, ship-building, and dyeing ; while coffee, oranges, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and rice, are raised in abundance. Brazil was discovered, April 24, 1500, by Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who at first named it Santa Cruz (the Holy Cross), but kinff Eman- uel, the Portuguese sovereign, called it Bra- zil, from the quantity of red wood which it produced. The Portuguese at first undervalued this country, and sent thither only criminals and the refuse of their population, but the Jews' who had been banished to Brazil in 1548, hav- ing successfully introduced the culture of the sugar-cane, Thomas de Souza was sent over by the court of Lisbon, and began to find some good points about the country, although it had not yielded the desired gold. After temporary misfortunes, the colonists prospered, but the Portuguese had to contend against nations (France, Spain, and the United Provinces) whose jealousy was aroused by the accounts they heard of the richness and fertility of the Portuguese possessions. The Dutch met with great success in Brazil, but became the friends of the Portuguese, when the latter shook off the Spanish yoke and gained their independence. They still retained the seven provinces they had conquered, and hence arose the division of the country into the Brazils; but a pecuniary compensation induced them to resign their claims to the Portuguese. The diamond mines were not discovered till 1782. The prosperity of Brazil has not been what it might be made under an enlightened government. The con- flicting interests of various bodies of its inhabi- tants ; the unequal pressure of state burthens, and other causes, have tended to weaken and distract it. In J 806, the court of Portuo-al re- moved here, but in 1821, the king returned to Lisbon. Don Pedro, son of the king of Por- tugal, then governed Brazil under the title of emperor. But having abdicated in favor of his infant son, Pedro II, he is now in Europe, and the Brazilian government is conducted, durino- the minority of the prince, by a council o? regency. The army of Brazil was composed, in 1824, of 30,000 regular troops, and 50,000 militia, in addition to a regiment of negroes. The navy, two years later, consisted of 96 ships. 9 The revenue has been recently estimated at $16,000,000. A large part of the population— 2,000,000 — are negro slaves, and many slaves are yet constantly imported into this country. The most cultivated part of the population are the merchants of the maritime ports, the Euro- peans and Creoles, forming the true aristocracy of the country. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics, with the exception of the independ- ent native tribes, in the vast regions of the interior. BREDA, a fortress in Dutch Brabant, for- merly of immense importance. It has sus- tained several memorable sieges. In 1590, it was taken by Maurice, prince of Orange, and retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, in 1625, after a siege of 10 months. The French, during the revolution, gained possession of it, but it was abandoned by them in 1813. BREMEN, a free city on the Weser, conspic- uous in the Hanseatic league. The inhabitants embraced Calvinism in 1562. It is pleasant and prosperous, with a population of 38,000. BRENNER, a high mountain of the Tyrol, over which runs the road to Italy. In 1809, the Tyrolese gallantly defended their rough precipices against the French, and severely harassed their march. BRENNUS. Several chieftains of ancient Gaul bore this name, which is said to have been a title of dignity and honor. One, having ravaged Lombardy and Tuscany, marched to Rome, which he surrendered to plunder. The garrison held out in the citadel, which would have been taken at midnight by the foe, but for the noise made by the sacred geese of Juno, that were watchful even while the dogs slept. Bren - nus was then offered a thousand pounds weight of gold to spare the capital, and quit the territo- ries of the republic. He threw into the scale which held the weights, his sword and helmet, haughtily exclaiming, " Wo to the vanquished." The treaty was ended by the timely arrival of the exiled Camillus, who refused the payment of even a pound of gold as ransom. " Rome," said he proudly, " is to liberate herself with iron and not with gold." He gave battle to the Gauls, and routed them, about 390 B. C. BRESCIA, a city of Lombardy, containing 31,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures are, and have long been extensive, and its soil is remarks able for fertility. From the hands of the Vene- tians, it fell into those of the French, and finally the Austrians. Under the sway of the Venetian republic, the inhabitants were 'unruly, although particularly favored by government. ' In 1796, BRI 130 BRI as Bonaparte was quitting Brescia the muni- cipal officers, who accompanied him to the gate of the city, said that the Bresc.ans loved liberty more than the rest of the Italians. 'Yes said the general, sarcastically, " they love to talk of it to their women." BRESLAU, capital of Silesia, is situated on the Ohlaw; population, 83,860. More than four Vhour a nd P Je P ws reside here The architec- tural beauty of the city has been celebrated. It contains 20 catholic churches, and 84 literary institutions. Its commerce is consider ab e. Here the Prussians were defeated by the Aus- trians in 1757. , „ BREST, anciently Brwates Portus, and Crc- sobrivate,* French seaport in the department of Finisterre, with a fine harbor constructed bv Cardinal Richelieu, in 1631. It is well for- tified, and its dock-yards and magazines com- mand admiration. It contains ,25 865 inhabi- tants. It was attacked in 1694 by a British fleet and army, which were repulsed with a loss of 1300 men and their commander BRIAREUS, a fabled giant, son of Uranus and Terra, with 100 arms and 50 heads. BRIENNE, a town in the department ot the Aube, at the academy of which Napoleon learned the first principles of the military art Here it was that his power was maintained the longest, and only fell with a convulsive struggle. BRIGALIER, Abbe, lived during the reign of Louis XIII. The superstitions of his time are displayed by some passages in his lite, tie was almoner to Mademoiselle de Montauban, and spent 30,000 crowns to become an adept in the mao-ic art, without accomplishing his end. Being with the court at Compiegne, a lady who had purchased a piece of red silk instead of green, begged the Abbe to change it to the color she wished. Rather than lose his repu- tation as a magician, Brigalier bought a piece of green silk and gave it to the lady, who was astonished at his success, and forthwith circu- lated the tale. By various tricks of legerde- main, he maintained his credit as a sorcerer so that the archbishop of Paris gravely commanded him to desist from his unhallowed occupations. BRISSOT DEWARVILLE, Jean Pierre, a prominent character in the history of the French revolution, whose writings tended greatly to bring monarchical power into disrepute, rle was the son of a pastry-cook, and was born in 1754 At the age of 30, he was imprisoned in the Bastile, for a work which treated of prohibited subjects. After numerous changes of action ana residence, which the nature of his works, and the fluctuating state of his popularity rendered necessary, having been engaged some time in England, some time with the duke of Orleans, and* some time in America, he was at last guil- lotined with his friends, by the faction of Rob- espierre, in 1793. . . . BRISTOL, an important commercial city ot England, on the river Avon, with (in 1831) 103 889 inhabitants. Its distance west irom London is 117 miles. It is of great antiquity, and was called by the ancient Britons Caer Brito. The cathedral is part of a monastery, founded by Stephen, in 1146. . BRISTOL, R. L, is a pleasant and flourishing sea-port town, capital of a county of the same name, 15 miles south of Providence. It is a place of considerable trade, with a population, in 1830 of 3,054. It contains an academy, public library, and 4 houses of public worship. The Indians called it Pocanocket and towam. BRITAIN (so called because the inhabitants adorned their bodies with brit paint), was little known until the invasion of Julius Cfesar, who conducted his army into this country, on the pre- text of punishing the Britons for the aid which they had given to the Gauls, in 55 B. C. 1 he inhabitants were then ferocious and warlike clad in skins, and armed with clubs, and even the iron-breasted Roman legions quailed at first before the horrid front which the infu- riated natives presented to ^ir invade^ The Romans kept possession of Britain Ml) years, during which many improvements were introduced, and the manners of the people be- came assimilated to those of their conquerors This, however, was not effected withou -much bloodshed. The Romans having, m the filth century, quitted Britain, to defend their other territories? invaded by the Goths and Vandak the Britons were attacked by the Scots and sought the assistance of the Saxons and An- gles These defeated the Scots, but made themselves masters also of the kingdom and gave it the name of Angha, or England. Eng- land was divided, by the Saxons, intc .seven dis- tinct kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, some of which were established in the fifth, and others in the sixth century ; most of them con- tinued till 800, when Egbert reigned alone. The states generally acknowledged the supe- riority of one monarch, called the king of Brit- ain. The kingdom of Kent contained only that county • it began in 455, and ended in 827. South Saxony contained Sussex and Surrey -^be- gan 491, ended about 600. West ^xony con- tained Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Wilt- BRl 131 BRI shire, Hampshire, and Berkshire : began 519 1 ended 1060. East Saxony contained Essex' Middlesex, and part of Hertfordshire • began 527, ended 747. Northumberland contained Lan- I cashire, Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland, and part of Scotland, as far as Edinburgh Frith : began 547, ended about 729 East Anglia, contained Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire : began 575, ended 973. Mercia or, the Middle kingdom, contained Gloucester- shire, Herefordshire,Worcestershire, Warwick- shire, Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, Northamp- tonshire, Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Bed- fordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Staf- fordshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Ches- hire, and part of Hertfordshire : beo-an 58? ended 827. These several kingdoms, at the' dates specified, were merged in those of their more powerful neighbors. England, from 653, suffered many invasions from the Danes, who several times made them- selves masters of it. They were finally expell- ed (1041), and the Saxon government restored in the person of Edward the Confessor Dur- ing this time flourished Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute In 1066, the Normans, under William the Conqueror, obtained possession of the kingdom, having defeated the English under Harold, in the battle of Hastings. By this cir- cumstance, the whole moral and political con- stitution of England underwent an important change. The Norman principle of lordship and vassalage was introduced and enforced, and it was not until after some generations, that the barons themselves, feeling the chain of passive submission too galling, gave the first impulse to that spirit, which burst the fetters of feudal- ism. To the time of king John, the history of England is little else than an account of the acts of the kings done with a direct view to acquire and sustain this unnatural authority. i he first William did almost nothino- else His brother perished while hunting in trie New forest, which his father had depopulated for that amusement. Henry relaxed a little as well as Stephen, to support his usurpation. Henry II employed his power advantageously •n his conquest of Ireland. King John, after many feeble attempts at continued despotism was compelled, by the exasperated barons, to sign what was afterwards called the Ma and its fi™t Christian king was 4. Ceolwic '.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.". .'."'592 ^ d w,n - 5. Ceoluph .'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'597 Tn e kingdom of Mercia contained the coun- 6. aSl! 611 ties of Huntingdon, Rutland, Lincoln, North- 7. Canowalcli 643 ampton, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Oxford, 8. Adelwach .'.".' 6 48 Chester, Salop, Gloucester, Worcester, Staf- It ended in 685, and its first Christian king was Hertfo^"™*' Buckin S ham > Bedford > and Adelwach. s , "° L J. Creda began to reign a. d. 585 2. Wibba 595 3. Cheorlas 616 *• £ euda "..'.'.'■.'.'.*.'.'..'.'625 5- Peada 656 6. Wolf here 659 7. Ethelred ..675 8. Keured 7.7. .694 9. Ceolred '709 10. Ethelbald "Vifi 11. Offa 757 12. Egfry d .". 7.7. 7.7.7794 13. Cenolf 795 14. Rerelme '.'.819 15. Ceolwolf 77. "..'819 "821 18. Whiglafe ..".".'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'.'.'.'.'."825 The kingdom of East Saxony contained the counties of Essex and Middlesex. 1. Erchenwin began to reign A D 527 2. Sledda " ' ' 5 g 7 3 - Sfbert '.V.'.".*.'.".'.'.".'.".'. '.'.'. '.'.'.'."598 ( Lexred \ 4. J Seward [ 6 , 6 ( Sigebert ) 5. Sigebert the Little 623 6. Sigebert the Good 653 7. Swithelme 7.7.7.7. 655 8. Sighere and Sebbi .11111 665 9. Sebbi KS q 10 I Sigherd and J b8d {«• n e °' W ?r' 10 - Leofrid 694 16. Burnulf. 11. Offa : ~„ JI- r± udecan 12. Ceolfred 13. Suithred .....".!"'.!"!""..7!!!!'"74fi It ended in 827, and its first Christian king was 14. Sigered ; 799 p ea da. The kingdom of East Anglia contained the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and It ended in 827, and its first Christian kin ff was Sebert. The kingdom of Northumberland contain- ed Yorkshire, Durham, Lancashire, Westmore- land. Cumberland, and Northumberland: its imgs were — the isle of Ely : its kings were — ' 1. Uffa who began to reign A . D 575 " Titillus ..578 3. Red u aid. .599 D.547 559 1. Ella, or Ida, whose reign commenced 2. Adda 3. Clappea ."' ~« 4. Theodwald ?2° 5. Fridulph \Li 6. Theodorick 7. Athelrick.. 8. Athelfrid.. 9. Edwin 0. Osric 1. Oswald...., 11. Beorna and Ethelbert .7749 12. Beorna alone 7 7 "758 13. Ethelred 7.7 l&l 14. Ethelbert .1.790 3.' Et'heiw'aii' •"••••••'• Hlllllllllllll.il lit} It ended in 792, and its first Christian king was 579 .vi; 593 617 633 634 Ethe'lward 4. Egfrid .777777 SE 5. Alkfrid £/0 6. Osred r '. °°? 7. Cewred '"Z 3. Osrick ;}° 9. Ceoluphe Ii° )• Egbert ™ I. Osswulph LiL I. Edilwald Z^° ». Alured 12? 1. Ethelred i™ ..774 .779 .789 ..790 ..796 .797 ..807 ..810 4. Erpenwald 624 5. Sigebert .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'636 R (Egrik ) 6 -r Annas j 644 7. Ethelhere 654 8. Ethwald ' fi= fi 9- Ad wulf .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'664 10. Alswald. 6.-3 Alswald I.. . >. Osred II '. Ethelred restored. !. Osbald K Ardulph I. Alfwald I[ '.'.'.' . Andred Redwald. The kingdom of West Saxony contained the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somer- set, Wilts, Hants, and Berks. 1. Cedric began to reign a. d. 519 2. Ken rick .534 3. Cheroline .7.77560 4. Ceolric '.'.'.'.'.7.7.7.592 5. Ceoluph .l.llllllllsSS 6. Kingills and Ouinthelin 7 77 ^611 7. Ceonowalch "&43 648 672 8. Adelwalch . 9. Sexburga . . 10. Censua, Esewin, and Centwin.. 11. Ceadwald 12. Ina 13. Adelard 14. Cudred .674 .686 ..726 ..740 BRI 136 BRO 15. Sigebert and Cenulph a. d. 754 16. Brithick 784 17. Egbert 800 It ended in 828, and its first Christian king was Kingills. THE HEPTARCHY UNITED. Egbert a. d. 827 Ethelwolf. 837 Ethelbald 857 Ethelbert II 860 Ethelred 866 Alfred 872 Ed ward the Elder 901 Athelstan 929 Edmund 940 Edred 947 Ed wy 955 Ed gar 972 Edward the Martyr 975 Ethelred II 979 Sweyn 1013 Canute 1014 Edmund Ironside 1016 Harold 1036 Hardicanute 1041 Edward the Confessor 1842 Harold II 1065 SINCE THE CONQUEST. William the Conqueror 1066 William Rufus 1087 Henry 1 1100 Stephen 1 1 35 Henry II 1154 Richard 1 1189 John 1199 Henry III 1216 Edward 1 1272 Edward II 1307 Edward III 1327 Richard II 1377 Henry IV 1399 Henry V 1413 Henry VI 1422 Edward IV 1461 Edward V 1483 Richard III 1483 Henry VII .1485 Henry VIII 1509 Edward VI 1547 Alary 1 1553 Elizabeth 1558 James 1 1603 Charles 1 1625 Charles II 1649 James II 1685 Mary II 1689 William III 1689 Anne 1702 George 1 1714 George II 1727 George III 1760 George IV 1820 William IV 1830 BRITAIN, New; a cluster of islands sepa- rated by Dampier's strait from New Guinea. BRITANNICUS Ccesar, Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, called after the return of his father, the emperor Claudius, from Britain, Britanni- cus. His mother was the infamous Messalina. By the intrigues of Agrippina, the second wife of Claudius, he was poisoned, after having been excluded from the succession. BROOKLYN, a city of the state of New York, in King's county, Long Island, separated from the city of New York by the East River. The population of Brooklyn is rapidly increas- ing with its manufactures and traTJe. In 1830 it contained 12,043 inhabitants. At the com- mencement of the present year Brooklyn re- ceived a city charter. The houses of recent date are spacious and elegant, and the heights which overhang the river and command a view of New York, are studded with neat and pretty dwellings, embowered in shrubbery and flowers. The healthiness of Brooklyn, and its contiguity to New York, have tended to increase its popu- lation largely within a few years. Between this place and Flatbush, the Americans sustained a disastrous defeat during the war of the revolution. BROOKS, John, a revolutionary officer and eminent physician, born in Medford, Mass. 1752. His father was a farmer. After completing his professional studies, he joined with ardor the army, and was among the first to fight for the freedom of America. On the retreat of the British from Lexington, the company which he commanded had no small share in contributing to the annoyances of that humiliating flight. Brooks enjoyed the confidence and esteem of General Washington, and had a colonel's com- mission, when the army was disbanded, and he retired to the practice of his profession. The rank of major-general of militia was conferred upon him, and he showed, in the insurrection of 1786, that he had forgotten none of his for- mer vigor and address. He was chosen to suc- ceed Governor Strong, and died, highly respect- ed and esteemed, in the 73d year of his age, March, 1825. BROWN, Charles Brockden, a distinguished novelist, born in Philadelphia, in 1771 He was originally destined for the law, but the delicacy of his constitution and his natural timidity pre- vented his pursuing a legal career. He was the author of several novels, which possess a fascinating power, although their scenes are generally painful and unnatural. Arthur Mer- vyn and Edgar Huntly are, perhaps, the best. Brown edited several periodicals, and his literary labors greatly impaired his health, and hasten- ed the progress of the consumption of which he died in 1809, at the age of 38. BROWN, William, a native of Ireland, who BRU 137 BRU :ame to the United States at the age of 14, in 793, and was for a long time engaged at sea n the merchant service. After being captured ly the English, he found himself, in 1814, at Juenos Ayres, in the command of a British nerchant ship. He immediately joined the re- mblican navy, and gained great fame by his 'arious daring exploits. BROWNE, Maximilian Ulysses, count, a oldier of the imperial army, finally field-mar- hal of Austria. Between 1745 and 1757 he an a career of glory. He died of wounds re- eived at the battle of Prague, 1757. BRUCE, James, a native of Scotland, born 730, distinguished himself by his travels in Africa. He died in 1794. He claims the hon- r of having been the first European who be- ield the sources of the Nile. His veracity has een often doubted, but his accounts have been onfirmed by more recent travellers. BRUCE, Robert, the competitor of Baliol for he crown of Scotland. He regarded Wallace, he celebrated Scottish warrior and patriot, as n ambitious man, whose acts were only che- ated by self-interest. He accordingly fought eneath the banners of England, on the field f Falkirk. After that eventful battle, Wal- ice had a meeting with him on the banks of Jarron, and convinced him of the elevation of is views. Bruce, softened even to weeping, wore to espouse the cause of his country. BRUCE, Robert, son of the preceding, was ne of the Scotch nobles in the train of Edward , when he returned to London in 1305, exult- ng in his successes over the Scotch. A con- piracy was formed to place Bruce on the lirone, and, through imminent danger, he es- aped to Scotland, and raised the standard of is country. Defeated, his wife a prisoner, his tiree brothers hanged, it was thought that he imself had yielded up his life. But he had nly retired for a season, and, reappearing, he ut himself at the head of a brave army , and ras completely victorious at Bannockburn, une 24, 1314. This victory decided the inde- endence of his country. After his claim had een again disputed by the English, Edward [I confirmed the independence of the Scottish rown, by renouncing all claims to it in 1329. 'he haughty spirit of the Scottish nobles is well lustrated in the following anecdote. When, l consequence of their encroachments on the tnds of the king and commons, they were re- uired by Bruce to show their titles to their ossessions, they drew their swords, and cried ; We purchased them, not with gold, but iron ; and these are the instruments by which we hold them." BRUNN, capital of Moravia, and of the circle of Brunn, a manufacturing place, with a population of 33,000. BRUNSWICK, Frederick William, duke of, born in 1771. He joined the war against France in 1806, and continued, throughout his life, the determined enemy of Napoleon. His black Brunswickers, so called from their dress and equipments being entirely black, held out upon the continent as long as resistance was of any avail, and finally their duke retired to Eng- land. In 1815, he again appeared in arms, and fell at Quatre-bras, on the 16th of June. His death was atoned for by the bravery of his black huzzars. BRUSSELS, the capital of the kingdom of Belgium, with a population of 106,000. It is a pleasant city, and was held by the French from 1794 to 1814. It is distinguished for its build- ings, its canals, its fountains, and its manufac- tories. The carpets made here are highly val- ued. BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, a celebrated Ro- man. He was the son of Marcus Junius by a daughter of Tarquin the Elder. When his father and brothers were beheaded by Tarquin, Bru- tus saved himself by feigning idiocy, whence his surname, signifying the Brute, was given him. He continued this appearance until Lu- cretia killed herself in consequence of the vio- lence of Sextus Tarquin. This was the time for Brutus to rouse the Roman people to action, and display the energy of his mind. By his exertions the Tarquins were expelled and the monarchy changed for a republic. The con- sulship was then instituted, and Brutus and Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first to hold that dignity. When his sons joined in the conspiracy to restore the Tar- quins, Brutus, convinced of their guilt, ordered their execution, that this example might confirm the liberty of Rome. The same year he was slain at the head of his troops, fighting against Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who also fell in the encounter. This took place, B. C. 509. Bru- tus was mourned by the whole Roman people. BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, lineally descend- ed from the above, whose republican princi- ples he seemed to inherit. In the civil wars he joined Pompey, although the latter was his father's murderer, only because he looked upon him as just and patriotic in his claims. After the battle of Pharsalia, Caesar not only spared Brutus, but made him one of his friends. He, BUC 133 BUC however, forgot the favor when Caesar dis- played his ambition and tyranny, and con- spired with many of the citizens of Rome, to stab Caesar in the senate-house. Brutus was forced to retire into Greece by the excite- ment created by Antony. Here he gained many friends, but was soon pursued by Antony, ac- companied by the young Octavius. A battle was fought at Philippi. Brutus, who command- ed the right wing of the republican army, de- feated the enemy ; but Cassius, on the left, was overpowered, and Brutus found himself sur- rounded by the soldiers of Antony. He, how- ever, made his escape, and soon after fell upon his sword, B. C. 42. It is said that, previous to this battle, a spectral figure twice the size of life, appeared to Brutus, and warned him of his fate. BUCCANEERS. The French and English freebooters of America acquired so great no- toriety, that an historical work would be in- complete without a mention of them. After the assassination of Henry IV of France, many Frenchmen settled in St. Christopher, an island of the group of Antilles. Being driven from this place in 1G30, they sought refuge on the west- ern coast of St. Domingo, and the neighboring island of Tortugas. Their wild and solitary life possessed a certain charm, which induced many Englishmen to join them, and their num- bers at length became considerable. They were hardy and enterprising, and, deprived of the softening influence of female society, nourish- ed a spirit of reckless ferocity. They did not, however, display at first those stern features which afterwards characterized them, but were comparatively peaceful and industrious. Those who were settled at St. Domingo, used to hunt the wild cattle of the island, whose hides they sold to the crews that landed on their coast. They were accustomed to boucancr, that is, to roast the flesh of these animals before large fires, and thence received the name of bouca- neers, or buccaneers. Increasing in strength and spirit, they defied the attempts of the Span- iards to subdue them, and soon made themselves formidable by their predatory excursions. The Spaniards resolved to extirpate the wild cattle, and thus induce the buccaneers to be- come farmers for support, or else to join their more lawless comrades on the island of Tortu- gas. The buccaneers nourished a deep-seated hatred of the Spaniards, and it was their ves- sels which were most frequently attacked by the pirates. Sailing from the American ports, laden with the most precious productions of the New World, the size and strength of the galleons formed no adequate protection against the num- bers and intrepidity of the buccaneers, who at- tacked them in boats, ill equipped, it is true, but manned by crews of iron nerve, and unquail- ing resolution. The spirits of the Spaniards became crushed by the repeated successes of the buccanners, and before long they did not even attempt to defend themselves. Thus when Laurent, a famous buccaneer, found himself in a small vessel, with a few guns, and two Span- ish CO gun-ships along-side, the desperation and fury of his resistance so overawed the Spanish officers, that they permitted him to escape, al- though they had him completely in their power. The leaders of the buccaneers were chosen for superior daring, but enjoyed but few privi- leges save that of being foremost in danger. In dividing their spoils, all had an equal share, or, if any exception was made, it was in favor of those who had received very severe wounds in combat. The captain had no larger share than any of his followers, unless he happened to have displayed extraordinary skill and valor. Previous to dividing the booty, each was oblig- ed to swear that he had kept back no part of the prize, and a perjury, which was of rare oc- currence, was punished by the exile of the of- fender to a desert island. The share of those who had fallen was appropriated to relieve the necessities of their relations, or as gifts to the church, in case there were no surviving friends or relatives. The buccaneers were scrupulous in observing the outward rites of religion, and offered up prayers for the success of each enter- prise before embarking in it. So formidable were the operations of the buccaneers, that they greatly diminished the trade between Spain and America. The baleful effects of the climate, and the nature of their occupation gradually di- minished their numbers, and they were at length extirpated by the French and English govern- ments. From them originated the French set- tlements on the western part of St. Domingo, although their piracies were ended in the com- mencement of the 18th century. Several of their leaders acquired a reputation for daring and enterprise, which has preserved their names from oblivion. One of the most noted of these was Monthar, the son of a gen- tleman of Languedoc, who early imbibed a hatred for the Spaniards. While at school, performing the part of a Frenchman in a drama, in his combat with a fellow student, who re- presented a Spaniard, he so far forgot the real- ity of his situation, in the illusion of the mo 1 - BUC 139 BUE ment, that ho would have slain his antagonist but for the intervention of the more cool-head- ed spectators. At an early age Montbar em- barked for America, and was highly delighted when, one day, a Spanish galleon hove in sight. Long before the vessels met, Montbar had completed his preparations for the combat, and, with an unsheathed sword beneath his arm, was pacing the deck, in all the hot hurry of untried valor. The moment the vessels closed, calling to the boarders, he sprang on the deck of the galleon, and carried all before him by the impetuosity of his attack. While his comrades were busy in estimating and dividing the booty, he was sternly gazing on the stif- fened bodies of the first victims of his hatred, like an eagle hovering over the slain. Arrived at St. Domingo, the buccaneers who came on board to trade, complained that the Spaniards, during their absence in the chase, destroyed their settlements. " Make me your leader," cried Montbar, " and I will teach these spoilers that there exists a power greater than theirs. I seek for no emoluments, the joys of battle are enough for me." Struck with his appearance and impetuosity, they chose him their leader, and had no reason to repent having done so, for he unweariedly pursued the Spaniards with invariable success, and succeeded in inducing the Indians to forsake the Spaniards and league against them with the buccaneers. BUCHAREST, the chief city of Walachia, with 80,000 inhabitants, has a considerable trade in wine, and other productions. Peace was concluded here between Russia and Turkey, May 28, 1812. BUC H ARIA, Great ; a country in the inte- rior of Asia, including Bucharia Proper, Sa- marcand, and Balkh, the Sogdiana and Bactri- ana of antiquity. It is the southeastern part of Independent Tartary. The Bucharians, original inhabitants, of Persian descent, are frugal and industrious. The natural productions of the country are various and valuable. The city of Bucharia contains a population of about 100, 000 souls. The province of Balkh now forms an independent state. The government is despotic, and the religion Mohammedan. The trade is important. BUCHARIA, Little, lying to the east of the preceding, is not well known. Its situation is elevated, and the climate accordingly very se- vere. In 1(383, this country was conquered by I the Calmucks, who were in turn subdued by the Chinese, in 175!). BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, born in 1592, was the favourite of James 1, and Charles I, of England. He abused his power in the most shameless manner, and dis- graced the high dignities which were conferred upon him, displaying in all his acts, ambition, avarice, and caprice. In the reign of Charles I, he fermented discords between the king and people, and was hated by all those who had acquired an insight into his character. He was killed at Portsmouth, August, 1628, by a subal- tern officer. BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, son of the preceding, was born January 30, 1627. After completing his course at the uni- versity, and travelling for some time on the continent, he returned, and, on the breaking out of the civil war, served in the royal army. In 1648, after an absence of some time he fought under the banners of Charles II, and fled with him to Flanders. After the restoration he was high in favor with the king, and became one of his ministers. The treason of which lie was af- terwards guilty, was pardoned, but he continued his plots, and died, despised by all, at Kirkby Moorside, in Yorkshire, April 16, 1688. His private life was profligate. His talents were brilliant, and he did much to improve the lite- rary taste of his age. BUENOS AYRES, a country of South Ame- rica, is bounded north by Bolivia, east by Bra- zil, southeast by the Atlantic ocean, south by Patagonia, and west by Chili and the Pacific ocean. In 1816, it declared its independence, previous to which, it was a Spanish vice-royalty, called the " Vice-royalty of Rio de la Plata," or simply, " la Plata." The western and north- ern parts of the country are rough, but large portions are extremely level ; in the south, for instance, the pampas (immense plains) are more than 1200 miles long, and 500 broad, filled with wild cattle, and the abode of Indians hardly less wild. The fertility of a large proportion of the soil is surprising, although agriculture is strangely neglected. Among the mineral pro- ductions are gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. Hides, tallow, beef, and the precious metals, are exported in great quantities. The capital city, called Buenos Ayres, or Nuestra Senora de Buenos Ayres, was built in 1535, and con- tains a population which has been variously stated at from 50,000, to 100,000, composed of whites, negroes, indians, and mixed races. A few of the public buildings may well be called magnificent, but, generally, architecture is in a low state 'in Buenos Ayres, chiefly from the scarcity of a good building material, — chalk BUN 140 BUR and brick, forming but a very inferior substitute. In 1826, it was made the seat of government of the United Provinces of la Plata. In 1806, it was captured by the English, who were shortly afterwards attacked by surprise, and suffered great loss. The reinforcements which came over the following year, were received into the city with apparent submission, but then at- tacked with vigor, and compelled to conclude a truce, after suffering immense loss. The trade of the city is very considerable. BUFFALO ; a town of New- York, at the east end of lake Erie, 296 miles west of Albany. Its population, in 1830, was 12,000. Its trade is very extensive and lucrative. In 1813, when it contained but one hundred houses, it was burned by the British. BUFFON, George Louis Leclerc, count de,a famous French naturalist, born at Montbard,in Burgundy, in 1707, and died at Paris, April 16, 1788, at the age of eighty-one. His natural his- tory continues to be read with pleasure, and at the time of its appearance, differed from all pre- vious works, which were merely masses of technical description, with no interesting gen- eral views and details. His History of Quadru- peds is regarded as his best work. BULGARIA, European or Little, a Turkish province, which before its conquest by the Bul- garians, was the Massia Inferior of antiquity. It fell into the hands of the Turks in 1392, and forms part of the pachalic of Romelia. It is bounded north by the Danube, east by the Black Sea, and south and west by the Balkan. It con- tains 1,800,000 inhabitants, who are industrious, and, for the most part, Christians. The Bulga- rians, or Voulgarians, were an ancient Tartar nation, whose kingdom included no small por- tion of the ancient Sarmatia. They spread their ravages far and wide, and penetrated into Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. In 1010, their sway in Macedonia, Servia, and Albania, was de- stroyed by the emperor Basil II, and they sought refuge in Turkey, where their new kingdom was finally destroyed by the Ottomans in the 14th century. BUNYAN, John, the son of a tinker, born at Elston, in 1628. At an early age he was dissi- pated, and served as a soldier in the parliamen- tary army. Reflection and reformation, how- ever, brought out the bright points of his char- acter. He became a member of a society of anabaptists, and finally their teacher. As a dis- senter he was imprisoned twelve years, and the occupation of his mind during his long confine- ment, was the composition of his unrivalled Pil- grim's Progress, a religious allegory, bearing the impress of a strong mind, and an ardent imagination. Bunyan died in 1688. BURCKHARD, John Louis, famous for his travels in Africa, born in Bale in 1784. His coun- try being oppressed by France, he went to London in 1806, and was engaged by the African Associa- tion to explore Africa from the north. To fa- cilitate his progress in Nubia and other parts of the country, he assumed the character of a Sy- rian Turk, and so thoroughly acquainted with the manners and religion of the East was he, that he underwent an examination by two learn- ed Jurists, and was pronounced by them a learned and true Mussulman. He died at Cairo, April 15, 1817, and was buried with greatsplen- dor. He was the first modern traveller who reached Shendy in Soudan, the Mcroe of the ancients. His travels were published in 1819. BURGOS, in Spain, the capital city of Old Castile, and once a royal residence, on the bank of the Arlanzon, containing 10,000 inhabitants. Its superb Gothic cathedral is of so great size, that service can be performed in its eight cha- pels, at the same time. It was captured by the British troops in the campaign of 1813. BURGOYNE, John, the natural son of lord Bingly, a general in the English army, and an agreeable dramatist. He entered the army at an early age, and, in 1762, had the command of a body of troops sent to Portugal for the defence of that kingdom against the Spaniards. He dis- tinguished himself in the American war by the taking of Ticonderoga, but after two severe engagements, was forced to surrender, with Ins whole army, to General Gates, in 1777. BURGUNDIANS, a tribe of Germans, a branch of the Vandals, who occupied a part of France, in the 5th century, which lias since been called Burgundy. It was long an inde- pendent state, but was attached to France in the latter part of the loth century, on the death of Charles the Bold. The independent dukes of Burgundy rendered their name illustrious, and many of them were distinguished for the possession of bravery and other high qualities. BURKE, Edmund, a statesman and great political writer, was born at Dublin, January 1, 1730. He was contemporary with Pitt and I' ox, whose political principles be alternately avowed. After finishing his education at Trinity college, he entered his name at the Temple as a law stu- dent, but devoted himself to literature. His political career commenced by his accompa- nying Hamilton secretary of the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to Dublin, and on his return he was BUR 141 BYL made private Becretary to the Marquis of Rockingham. On the fall of the Rockingham ministry, he wrote a pamphlet on the subject, and became an active member of the opposition, being chosen for Bristol, in 1774, without ex- pense. His speeches in the senate had now eclipsed even the reputation of his writings, and were delivered with a vehemence which it was difficult to resist. On the return of the Rock- ingham administration, Mr. Burke for a short time filled the office of paymaster-general, but he resigned the post, upon the succession of lord Shelburne to the premiership. The leading features of his subsequent political life, in which de held no office, are his impeachment of War- ren Hastings ; his opposition to the limited re- jency in 1788 ; his prediction of the effects of the French revolution ; and his separation from Mr. Fox upon those sentiments. This was his !ast great political act, all his subsequent ones >eing to establish and defend it. On this sub- ect he published several pamphlets, the merit >f which obtained him a pension, and many se- vere reflections from his opponents, to which he •eplied in " a letter to a Noble Lord," replete vith sarcastic irony. He died July 8th, 1797, laving previously vacated his seat for Malton. VIr. Burke had a most commanding oratory, to •nhance which, he spared no incidental act of gesticulation and manner. On one occasion, he s said to have drawn forth and brandished a lagger, to give a greater effect to his words. BURLINGTON, a town in Vermont, situa- ed on Burlington bay, at the entrance of Onion iver into lake Champlain. In 1830, it con- ained 3.525 inhabitants. Its commerce is very xtensive. It is a pleasant place, has several mblic buildings, and a university, the reputa- I ion of which is established. It is the capital ! >f Chittenden count}'. BURNS, Robert, one of the most popular of i Scottish bards. He was the son of a gardener, nd was born near the town of Ayr, January | S, 1759. He had some instruction and was ond of reading. His poetical talent was first .isplayed in some amatory verses, and his con- ■ersational talents caused him to be sought for | y convivial parties, which tended to fix his •abits of dissipation. The publication of his oems procured him a sum of money larger than ;e anticipated, and a high literary reputation. ■ ie was enabled to take a farm near Dumfries, nd at the same time procured the office of ex- iseman. He married the early object of his ifections, the " bonnie Jean," of whom he has ritten so tenderly in the most musical of his verses. She survived the poet who immortali- zed her name, and died within the present year. Burns might have prospered and enjoyed a long life, had he but listened to the advice and remon- strances of his friends, and forsaken those ruin- ous indulgences which produced, or at least hastened his death, which took place July 21, 1796. His fate was that which usually awaits the intemperate. Burns was emphatically the poet of truth and of nature. It was a court bard (Cowley), who declared to Charles II that poets succeed best in fiction, and however true the assertion might be with regard to his own writings, it is disproved by those of Burns. His most beautiful poems were composed in the spirit of truth, and glow with the fire of real feeling and passion. Full of affectionate and sad remembrances, he composed the verses " to Mary in Heaven," commencing; " My Mary, dear, departed shade, Where is thy blissful place of rest 1 Sees't thou thy lover lowly laid, Hear'st thou the groans that rend his breast'!" In this he celebrates their last meeting. The Mary of Burns was a peasant-girl, whose ac- quirements merely enabled her to read her Bible and psalm-book, and who walked bare-footed to their trysting- place, and yet she inspired the most enthusiastic attachment in a man whose intellect cast a glory upon the hills, and woods, and streams of his native land, and a halo round the objects of his love, which will endure as long as the human breast is warmed with the glow of social and patriotic feeling. BUSACO, a convent in Portugal, celebrated for the repulse of the French under Massena, by the English under 'Lord Wellington, in 1810. BUTLER, Samuel, an English poet, the son of a farmer, born in Strenzham, Worcestershire, in 1612. His poem of Hudibras, in which the weak points of the Puritans are happily expos- ed brought the author into notice, but did not better his circumstances, and he died poor in 1680. BYLES, doctor Mather, a clergyman of Bos- ton, born in 1706. He was for sometime pastor of Hollis street church, but was removed from his pulpit, in consequence of his Tory principles. His political opinions subjected him to a tem- porary imprisonment on board aguardship. He was however released, but a guard put over him in his own house. The guard was remo- ved, and then replaced in consequence of further complaint against him. Finally, the presence BYR 142 BYR of the sentinel was dispensed with. It was on this occasion, that the doctor happily remarked that he had been " guarded, regarded, and dis- regarded." When two selectmen stuck fast in the slough opposite his house, he said to them ; " Gentlemen, I have several times complained of this nuisance, and am therefore pleased to see you stirring in the matter." Byles corres- ponded with Pope, Lansdowne, and Watts, and possessed some poetical talents. His essays and poems were collected, and published in a volume. He died July 5, 1788. BYNG/George, an English admiral, born in 1663. He became rear-admiral in 1703. In 1706, he relieved Barcelona, besieged by the duke of Anjou ; and in 1708, frustrated the efforts of the French to assist the Pretender by an invasion. In 1718, he defeated the Spanish fleet off Sicily. For these, and other services, he received many offices and honors, and was made Viscount Torrington. He died in 1733. BYNG, John, an English admiral, son of the preceding, served under his father in many ex- peditions, and, although esteemed an able sea- man and a brave man, was ruined by popular animosity. Failing in his attempts to relieve Minorca, in 1755, he was tried by a court-mar- tial, and, although recommended to mercy, shot in 1757. After party fury had subsided, and his conduct had been dispassionately ex- amined, his intentions were allowed to have been good, his courage indisputable, and his death the consequence of rancorous misrepre- sentation from personal dislike. His conduct in his last moments confirmed no part of the evi- dence against him ; it was cool, determined, dignified, and resigned. Immediate posterity honored him as a British admiral, his connex- ions, as a man of honor, and it was obtained from among the secrets of ministerial intrigue, that he was the victim of ministerial coward- ice, undeserving of the disgrace of an execu- tion, and obedient to orders which the men in office had not the courage to avow. Byng showed, in his last moments, the fearlessness of his disposition, and the elevation of a mind that dreaded only disgrace. BYRON, George Gordon, lord, one of the most celebrated English poets of modern days, was born in London, January 22, 1788. His mother was a Scotch heiress, only daughter of George Gordon, Esq. of Gight, and his father was Captain Byron, or, as he was popularly termed, for his reckless profligacy, Mad Jack Byron of the Guards. The parents of the poet lived unhappily together, and the heartless liber- tine who transmitted so many failings to his son, squandered the property of the woman he had married for her wealth, and reduced her to com- parative poverty. Economy induced Mrs. By- ron to take up her residence at Aberdeen in 1790, where her son was placed at school. Her management of young Byron was any thing but judicious, and in her fits of passion, she even reproached him with the lameness of one of his feet, a deformity ,which, although trifling, was severely felt by the sensitive poet, and even en- gendered many of his misanthropic views. It was rarely that he alluded to it in a jesting way. In his youth, however, he was acquainted with a child who had a similar defect, and used to say to his nurse, in the Scotch dialect which he had acquired : " see the twa laddies wi' the twa club feet ganging up the high street." His rambles among the Highlands of Scotland had a strong effect upon his imagination, and proba- bly kindled the spark, which afterwards bright- ened to a flame. In one of his poems, he say6 : " Long have I roamed through lands which afe not Adored the Alps, and loved the Appenine, [mine, Revered Parnassus, and beheld the steep Jove's Ida and Olympus crown the deep; But 't was not all long ages' lore, nor all Their nature held me in their thrilling thrall ; The infant rapture still survived the hoy, And Loch-na-gar with Ida looked o'er Troy, Mixed Celtic memories with the Phrygian mount, And Highland linns with Castalie's clear fount. Forgive me, Homer's universal shade ! Forgive me, Phoebus ! that my fancy strayed ; The North and nature taught me to adore Your scenes sublime, from those beloved before." To this passage the following note is appended by the author : " When very young, about eight years of age, after an attack of the scarlet fever at Aberdeen, 1 was removed by medical advice, into the Highlands. Here I passed occasionally some summers, and from this period I date my love of mountainous countries. I can never forget the effect, a few years afterwards in Eng- land, of the only thing I had long seen, even in miniature, of a mountain, in the Malvern Hills. After I returned to Cheltenham, I used to watch them every afternoon at sunset, with a sensation which I cannot describe. This was boyish enough ; but I was then only thirteen years of age, and it was in the holidays." In the year 1798, on the death of his grand uncle, he became a chancery ward under the guardianship of the earl of Carlisle, against whom he "soon conceived a dislike. Placed at Harrow, he had to encounter all the temptations and annoyances inseparable from public educa- tion. School-boys are not famous for feeling. BYR 143 BYR and the lameness of Byron was perpetually called to mind by the rudest practical sarcasms. He would often wake, and find his lame foot plunged in a pail of water. Through Harrow, he fairly " fought his way." " I had," said he, in one of his conversations with captain Med- win, " a spirit that ill brooked the restraints of school discipline ; for I had been encouraged by- servants in all my violence of temper, and was used to command. Every thing like a task was repugnant to my nature, and I came away a very indifferent classic, and read in nothing that was useful. That subordination, which is the soul of all discipline, 1 submitted to with diffi- culty ; yet I did submit to it ; and I have al- ways retained a sense of Drury's kindness, which enabled me to bear it and fagging too. The duke of Dorset was my fag. I was not a very hard task-master. There were times at which, if I had not considered it as a school, I should have been happy at Harrow. There is one spot I should like to see again : I was particularly delighted with the view from the churchyard, and used to sit. for hours on the stile leading into the fields ; — even then I form- ed a wish to be buried there." " There were two tilings that strike me at this moment, that I did at Harrow. I fought lord Calthorpe for writing Atheist ! under my name ; and pre- vented the school-room from being burnt dur- ing a rebellion, by pointing out to the boys the names of their fathers and grand-fathers on the walls." In October, 1805, the young lord entered Cambridge university, where he was little dis- tinguished for application, and showed no great respect for academic honors. He even evinced his contempt for them by keeping a young bear '" his room, which he said he was training for a fellowship. In his 20th year he took up his abode at Newstead Abbey, a fine old building which he proceeded immediately to repair. His ' Hours of Idleness," now appeared, a collection rf poems written during his minority, which was attacked by the Edinburgh Review, with a degree of malignity and violence, that provoked .he youthful bard to vindicate his reputation in j satire entitled " English Bards and Scotch ■Reviewers." This severe and sweeping philip- pic appeared a few days after he had taken his teat in the House of Lords, and gained the fa- ^or of the public in a short time. He soon after vent abroad, travelling through Portugal, Spain, ind Greece. The scenes through which he mssed are finely described in " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage." In the east he swam from Sestcs to Abydos, and prided himself greatly on this daring feat. He returned to England in 1811, after an absence of two years. He hastened to Newstead, but arrived too late to close the eyes of his mother. About this period, the acquaintance between himself and the poet Thomas Moore commenced — an ac- quaintance which afterwards ripened into the warmest friendship. On the 2!Jth of February, 1812, appeared the two first cantos of " Childe Harold," and the success and sale of the work was instantaneous. The hero, a proud but mel- ancholy wanderer, satiated with sensual pleas- ure, was at once recognised as a delineation of the noble author, notwithstanding his decisive denial. The Giaour, the Bride of Abydos, and the Corsair, poems, in all of which the author displayed his unrivalled talents, and accurate knowledge of eastern customs and manners, followed at short intervals. Of one of these 20,000 copies were sold in one day. On the 2d of January, 1815, Byron married Miss Mil- banke, daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke. The marriage was unhappy, and after various quar- rels, and much distress, the parties separated. Ada, the daughter of unhappy parents, was taken from Byron, who, in 1816, left England forever. He gave in conversation the follow- ing melancholy account of his situation imme- diately before leaving England : " In addition to all my other mortifications, my affairs were irretrievably involved, and almost so as to make me what they wished. I was compelled to part with Newstead, which I never could have ven- tured to sell in my mother's lifetime. As it is, I shall never forgive myself for having done so; though I am told that the estate would not now bring half so much as I got for it. This does not at all reconcile me to having parted from the old Abbey. I did not make up my mind to this step but from the last necessity. I had my wife's portion to repay, and was determined to add £10,000 more of my own to it, which I did. I always hated being in debt, and do not owe a guinea. The moment I put my affairs in train, and in little more than eighteen months after my marriage, I left England, an involuntary exile, intending it should be forever." After a residence in Italy, where his dramas, and many poems were written, and where he was alternately dissolute and temperate, the re- volution in Greece engaged his attention, and he determined to embark his person and fortune in the cause of liberty. He was received in Greece with enthusiasm, and proceeded to Mis- solonghi, where his reception was most gratify- BYR 144 BYZ inor to his feelings. He immediately formed a brto-ade of 500 Suliotes. He was aware of the dissensions existing among the Greeks, but was confident of their ultimate success. He was uro-ed to go to Zante, on account of the un- healthiness of Missolonghi. « I cannot quit Greece," he wrote to a friend, " while there is a chance of my being even of (supposed) utili- ty There is a stake worth millions such as I am, and while I can stand at all, I must stand by the cause. While I say this, I am aware oi the difficulties, dissensions, and defects of the Greeks themselves; but allowance must be made for them by all reasonable people." On the 9th of April, while riding on horse- back, he was overtaken by a rainstorm, and the feverish cold he took was the precursor of a fa- tal malady. He died April 19th, 1824 ; his last thoughts, as his words indicated, were with his wife and child. His funeral was solemnized in Missolonghi, and his death publicly mourned in Greece. °His body was conveyed to England, and interred at Hucknall church, near New- stead Abbey. The exterior of the coffin bore the following inscription : George Gordon Noel Byron, Lord Byron of Rochdale ; born in London, Jan. 22, 1788. died a.t Missolonghi, in Western Greece, April 19, 1824. Most of Lord Byron's vices sprang from his freedom from all control at an age, when he most stood in need of friendly advice and friendly restraint, to guard him from those evils which beset young men, and particularly, young men of rank, in the outset of their career. Yet his reckless gallantry, and laxity of morals, did not efface fine traits of feeling, benevolence, and a respect for virtue. His attachment to his daughter Ada was sincere and lasting ; and he often spoke of his wife with affection and re- spect. Medwin says that his absent daughter oc- cupied much of his thoughts. " He opened his writino- desk, and showed me some hair, which he told me was his child's. During our ride and drive this evening, he declined our usual amusement of pistol-firing, without assigning a cause. He hardly spoke a word during the first half-hour, and it was evident tliat some- thing weighed heavily on his mind. There was a sacredness in his melancholy that I dared not interrupt. At length he said : " This 1S Ada s birth-day, and might have been the happiest day of my life ; as it is '•" He stopped, seem- ingly ashamed of having betrayed his feelings. He tried in vain to rally his spirits by turning the conversation; but he created a laugh in which he could not join, and soon relapsed into his former reverie. It lasted till we came with- in a mile of the Argive gate. There our si- lence was all at once interrupted by shrieks that seemed to proceed from a cottage by the side of the road. We pulled up our horses, to inquire of a contadino standing at the little gar- den-wicket. He told us that a widow had just lost her only child, and that the sounds pro- ceeded from the wailings of some women over the corpse. Lord Byron was much affected, and his superstition, acted upon by a sadness that seemed to be presentiment, led him to au- gur some disaster. " I shall not be happy, said he, " till I hear that my daughter is well. I have a great horror of anniversaries ; people only laugh at it, who have never kept a register of them. I always write to my sister on Ada s birth-day. I did so last year; and, what was very remarkable, my letter reached her on my wedding-day, and her answer reached me at Ravenna on my birth-day. Several extraordi- nary things have happened to me on my birth- day ; so they did to Napoleon ; and a more won- derful circumstance still occurred to Mane Antoinette." That Lord Byron should have joined to his religious scepticism some supersti- , tious weaknesses, will surprise many ; ye) .it should seem no incompatibility. There is little or no connection between reason and sentiment, and all imaginative persons are liable to this dis- ease • for superstition is the malady ol man himself, only as he is an imaginative animal. Byron once consulted a conjuror, more out ot sport than curiosity. He was told that two years would be fatal to him, his twenty seventh and his thirty-seventh. In the first he married, m the second he died. BYZANTIUM, named from Uyzas, its founder, was situated on the Thracian Bospo- rus, near the small bay of Keras, with three harbors, on the site of the present city of Constan- tinople. The Thracians,Bithynians, and Gauls, attacked this flourishing place, but, after its suf- ferings in the Peloponnesian war, its prospects brightened, and during the reign of Constan- tine the Great, it was made the capital ot the empire of Rome. The Byzantine empire is a name given to the Eastern Roman empire. Dublin— Nelson's Pillar. Burns — Birth-place of CAD 145 CMS CABOT, George, a native of Massachusetts, born at Salem in 1752, whose patriotism and perseverance have gained him a high rank in the list of Americans, who have distinguished themselves in the legislative halls of our eman- cipated states. His views of political economy were clear and enlightened. He died at Bos- ton, highly respected, April 18th, 1823. CABOT, or Gabotto, Sebastian, a celebrated navigator, son of John Cabot, was born at Bris- tol, in 1467. He was the discoverer of Florida. He visited the eastern side of the island of New- foundland. John Cabot and his son, Sebas- tian, discovered, on the 24th of June, 1497, the shores of Newfoundland. The neighboring island received the name of St. John, because it was discovered upon the festival of that saint. After having sailed in the English service, Se- bastian went to Spain in 1526, where he was furnished with vessels with which he ascended the river la Plata. He made other voyages also in Spanish vessels. He returned to Eng- land, however, and was graced with various dignities, and entrusted with the direction of the merchant's company formed for the pur- pose of making discoveries. He superintended Willoughby's expedition in 1553, and an act of Edward VI, dated 1549, grants him a pension of £166, a considerable sum if we consider the value of money at that period. He is supposed to have died in 1557. CABUL, capital of Afghanistan, a city of great antiquity, but meanly built. The inhab- itants are Usbecks, Afghans, and Hindoos. The surrounding country is rich in fruits and flow- ers. In 1739 it was taken by Nadir Shah, and plundered by his troops. In 1774 it fell into the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdally, whose son Timour Shah made it the capital of Afghanis- tan. Population 80,000. CABULISTAN. (See Afghanistan.) CACHET, Lettres de. (See Bastile.) CADE, John, a native of Ireland, who, hav- ing been compelled to fly to France, return- ed to England in 1450, assumed the popular name of John Mortimer, and raised a formida- ble force at the head of which he placed him- self. He promised to lay down his arms, if the grievances of which he complained were re- dressed ; but losing his authority over his fol- lowers they committed various outrages which were resented by the well-disposed part of the community. The rebels were defeated, a price was set on Cade's head, and he was killed by 10 one Idcn, a gentleman of Sussex. Many of his followers were brought to punishment. CADMUS. This name belongs to several characters of Mythology and history. One, a Phoenician, brought a colony of his country- men to Greece, and introduced letters there, B. C. 1550. CADWALADER, John, a distinguished mil itary officer born in Philadelphia. He command- ed the Pennsylvania troops in the winter of 1777, and enjoyed the confidence of General Wash- ington. At the battles of Princeton, Brandy- wine, Germantown, and Monmouth, he served as a volunteer or acted in his command, and died in 1786. CAEN, a French city with 39,140 inhabit- ants, important as the centre of considerable trade and manufactures, and containing several literary, scientific and charitable institutions. It is 132 miles N. W. of Paris. Caen was an- ciently the capital of Lower Normandy, and the favorite residence of William the Con- queror, who was buried in the Mbaye-aux-hom- vies, which he built. Caen was taken by Ed- ward III of England, who met with a desperate resistance. In 1448 it passed from the hands of the English into those of Charles VII of France. In 1562 Admiral de Coligni took it for the Protestants, and in 1715 it was occupied by the Prussians for a brief space. C/ESAR, Caius Julius, descended from the illustrious family of Julia, which traced its ori- gin to iEneas and Venus, was born 100 B. C. In his infancy he witnessed the civil wars of Sylla and his maternal uncle, Marius. When Caesar had arrived at man's estate, Sylla, then at the height of power, could not excuse his crime in being the nephew of Marius, and the relation of China. He was proscribed and his sentence revoked only by means of the earnest solicitations of the vestals, and the credit of his family. Sylla is said to have declared, in yielding to their urgency, that they would one day repent having saved the life of a young man, in whom he beheld the spirit of more than one Marius. Young Ccesar commenced his military career in Asia. Returning to Rome after the death of Sylla, he gained applause and popularity by his eloquence, an art in which Appollonius of Rhodes was his instruc- tor. While absent from Rome, pursuing his studies, he learned that Mithridates had attack- ed the provinces of the allies of Rome, and ac- cordingly, leaving Rhodes for the continent, he assembled troops and led them against the king of Pontus, whom he vanquished. CiES 146 CiES On his return to Rome, finding Pompey at the head of the senate and the republic, and fearing that his connexion with the partisans of Marius might prove disadvantageous to him, he joined the Pompeian party. The office of military tribune, and afterwards that of questor, were conferred upon Caesar. Upon pronouncing the funeral eulogium on his aunt Julia, while enjoying the latter dignity, he pro- duced the images of Marius, which had not seen the light since the dictatorship of Sylla. When promoted to the dignity of edile, he caused the statues and trophies of Marius to be replaced. At this period he was accused of aiming at the supreme power, but the people, whose tastes he flattered, vaunted his devotion and courage, and the zeal with which he had discharged his official duties, and the multitude did not forget the magnificent spectacles for which they were indebted to him, and the am- ple arrangements which he had made for the accommodation of the spectators at the public shows. When the conspiracy of Cataline was discovered, Caesar had the hardihood to recom- mend the conspirators to mercy, and sustained his opinion with a warmth which gave rise to a suspicion that he was not altogether a stranger to the plot. So strongly did the tide of indig- nation set against him, that the knights who composed the guard on that day, waited only for a sign from Cicero to kill him ; but the lat- ter, fearing that it would be impossible to sub- stantiate his guilt, saved him from their fury. Caesar, while engaged in ambitious schemes, mingled in the dissipation of the day, and con- cealed under the exterior of a man of pleasure the traits of a determined foe to liberty. On the death of Metellus, Caesar obtained the office of high priest, although two power- ful men were his competitors. On the day of the election, seeing his mother in tears, he em- braced her, and said ; " Today you will see me a high priest, or an exile." Shortly after this, Clodius having been accused of attempting to corrupt the fidelity of Caesar's wife, he divorc- ed her, and said, " The wife of Caesar must not even be suspected." He was then pretor, after- wards the government of Spain fell to his lot. A saying of his at this time proved that he then entertained the most ambitious ideas. At a poor village in the Alps, some of his friends asked if, in that miserable place, power and rank occasioned discussion. " I had rather," said he to them, " be the first even in this place, than the second in Rome." He was by no means idle in his government, but made many conquests while he did not neglect his private interests, for he extorted money enough to pay his enormous debts, and enable him to purchase a vast number of creatures. To obtain the consulate, he reconciled Cras- sus and Pompey, and made use of both. Al- though he had a colleague, he governed with absolute authority. Bibulus who was associated with him, and vainly opposed his wishes, wittily declared " that the Romans were not under the consulate of Csesar and Bibulus, but under the consulate of Julius and Caesar." Caesar gained popularity by procuring the distribution of the lands of Campania. Shortly after the union of Pompey with Julia, the daughter of Caesar, the latter obtained the government of the Gauls and Illyria, with the command of four legions. He triumphed over the Gauls, the Helvetians, the brave Bel- gians, and others, carried his arms beyond the Rhine, and raised the Roman eagles in the hitherto unconquered Britain. During the ten years of the Gallic war, Caesar is said to have possessed himself of 800 towns, and to have tri- umphed in arms over 3,000,000 men. In the midst of his victories, he was ever mindful of his own interests, and robbed even altars and temples to increase his wealth. He is said to have quoted with approbation this sentence of Euripides ; " violate justice only for the sake of ruling." The soldiers were gained by the most liberal presents, and it seemed as if the army was the depositary of the immense wealth which Caesar was accumula- ting. Thus the troops were the soldiers of Caesar, and not of the republic. Rome had become venal — every thing was for sale, and Caesar was the purchaser of every thing. He had come to Ravenna with a legion, when the senate sent him a decree, the purport of which was, that if, in a limited time, Caesar did not relinquish his command, he should be treated as the enemy of the commonwealth. Three tribunes of Caesar's party, among them Marc Antony, having been expelled from the senate for opposing this decree, fled to the camp of Caesar in the garb of slaves. War was now declared. The senate com- manded the consuls to look to the safety of the republic, and Caesar ordered his troops to ad- vance to the Rubicon, a small river, separating Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. The republic, which both parties invoked, was no more than a name ; Caesar and Pompey were both heads of factions, who sought to elevate themselves above the laws. Learning the decree of the CMS 147 C^SS senate, Caesar marched directly to the Rubicon. There, the risks he was about to incur, and the evils he was about to bring upon his country, held his mind in suspense for a long time ; but, after having reflected upon the hate and ani- mosity of his enemies, and upon his own strength, he dashed forward, exclaiming ; " the die is cast." His soldiers followed him. Arrived at Rimini, the terror of his arms spread to Rome, where disorder prevailed. Conflicting opin- ions distracted the city, and all energy seemed sunk in the consideration of the greatness of the danger, and the insufficiency of the means of defence. Pompey left Rome, with the consuls, princi- pal senators, &c, and, from Capua, went to Dyrrachium, to which last place he escaped, under cover of night, leaving the whole of Italy in the power of Caesar. The latter, sending his lieutenants to take possession of Sardinia and Sicily, advanced to Rome. The only act of violence which he committed, was the sei- zure of the public treasure, deposited in the temple of Saturn. Pompey's party had idly imagined that the removal of the key was a sufficient safeguard. The tribune Metellus opposed the passage of Caesar, who threatened him with death, sternly adding, " this is an act easier for me to execute, than to name." The tribune retired, and Caesar found in the money the means of subjugating a victorious people. Having subdued Pompey's lieutenants in Spain, Caesar was named dictator. He then went to Greece for the purpose of crushing Pompey. Crossing the sea in a mere fishing boat, he was exposed to great danger, and animated the pilot by the memorable exclamation ; " fear nothing ! you carry Caesar and his fortunes !" The fate of Pompey and of the republic was decided by the battle of Pharsalia, fought 48 B. C, in which Caesar was completely victorious. He pursued Pompey to Egypt, but was indignant when the head of his unfortunate rival was brought him by his assassins. While he was in Alexandria, detained by the charms of Cleopatra, and the differences existing between the members of the family of Ptolemy, he witnessed the breaking out of a sedition which shortly became an open war, and called for the exertion of all his energy. After remaining some months in Egypt, he marched against Pharnaces, king of Pontus, whom he defeated with a celerity well expressed in his own words ; "veni, vidi, vici ;" / came, 1 saw, I conquered. There still remained to be conquered some for- midable enemies ; Scipio, Labienus, Cato, and Juba, the king of Mauritania, had powerful armies in Africa. After a campaign in which Caesar displayed all his skill, Africa no longer sheltered a Roman opposed to him, except Cato, who shut himself up in Utica, and pre- ferred death to submission. (See Cato.) Csesar, who admired elevation of soul, envied Cato the glory of his death, and wept for his fate, as he had shed tears at that of Pompey. The conqueror, after having subjected Africa, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage, returned to Italy, where he was received witli the acclama- tions of the senate and Roman people. Four triumphs were decreed to him. His liberality was felt by the people for whose amusements he prepared festivals and shows. Notwithstanding the two sons of Pom- pey mustered a strong force in Spain, but were attacked in the plains of Munda, by Cae- sar, and signally defeated, so obstinate was the battle, that Caesar himself declared that he fought less for victory than life, but from the moment that both were secure, every thing was in his power. He re-entered Rome, the mas- ter of the world. The triumph which he then obtained for having vanquished Romans excited secret murmurs among the people and senators, but no one dared to utter a complaint in public. The senate decreed him extraordinary honors and unlimited authority. He was declared consul for 10 years, and perpetual dictator.; they gave him the titles of emperor, and father of his country. His person was declared sacred and inviolable. He had the privilege of being present at spectacles in a gilded chair, with a crown of gold upon his head. The decree of the senate provided that, even after his death, this chair and the crown of gold should be con- spicuously placed at all spectacles in honor of his memory. There was now but one thing wanting— the title of king. He is said to have deliberated whether he should take it. He preserved the republican forms in the midst of an absolute government, and showed himself as able to maintain power, as to gain it. " His clemency," says Montesquieu, " was insulting. It was considered that he did not pardon,l)ut disdained to punish." Having by victory obtained the highest power, he wished to enjoy it as if it had been transmitted to him, and sought too soon to banish the inquietudes which almost invariably trouble a power of recent growth. " I had rather," said he, " die at once, than live always in fear." He sent away his Spanish guard, contrary to the advice of his best friends, and trusting too readily the CvES 148 CAL assertions of his flatterers, who declared, " that after having put an end to the civil wars, the republic was more interested than he was, in his safety." His death was caused by this want of caution. He had formed a plan for conquering the Parthians, and was on the eve of departing for Asia. His partisans, to reconcile the Romans to his assumption of the title of king, circulated a report that the books of the Sibyls declared, that the Parthians could only be subjugated by the Romans, when their leader was a king. The rumor gave the enemies of Caesar a pre- text for seeking his death. A conspiracy was formed against him, at the head of which were Brutus and Cassius, whom he had made pretors. The assassination was to take place on the ides of March, the day on which Caesar, according to report, was to assume the royal title. The conspiracy was not so secret as to pre- vent the circulation of some reports with regard to it, but Caesar refused to take any precaution. Moved, however, by the tears and entreaties of his wife Calphurnia, he had made up his mind to remain at home, when Decimus Bru- tus, by representing to him the importance of presenting himself at the senate-house, changed his resolution. As he was leaving his house, a certain Artemidorus placed in his hand a paper containing an exposure of the whole plot. Being unable to read this and other let- ters from the pressure of the crowd about him, Caesar gave them to his secretaries. He had no sooner entered the senate-house, than he was surrounded by the conspirators. Cimber, under pretext of respect, siezed the skirt of his robe, a signal which Casca responded to by stabbing Caesar in the shoulder. The weapon was caught by the intrepid victim, who ex- claimed; "Wretch! what art thou doing?" Cassar, though repeatedly wounded, defended himself against his assassins, until Brutus struck him, when, fixing his eyes upon him, he mournfully exclaimed ; " and thou, too, Bru- tus ?" Then, folding his head in his mantle, he fell, pierced with thirty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue, March 15, 43 years B. C. He was then 56 years old. The body of Caesar, abandoned by all, was carried home by three slaves. When his will was read from the tribune, the people made the air ring with their cries of grief and anger. The funeral Ceremonies were distinguished by uncommon magnificence. The senate, who dared not de- fend him in his hour of need, placed him among the gods, and ordered that his laws should be immutable. The results of this assassination were deplorable, for jealousy, ambition, and personal anger armed the greater part of the murderers, and but few among them were ani- mated by a love of liberty. Caesar, with many faults and foibles, possessed many fine traits, and was fitted by nature to command. His erudition was considerable, and his commen- taries are models of good writing. CAFF A, a port of the Crimea, formerly a considerable place, but now of little importance. It was captured by the Turks in 1475. In 1775, the Russians took it by storm. In 1783, it was annexed to the Russian empire, and is now called by the Russians, Feodosia, from its an- cient name, Theodosia. CAFFRARIA, a region of Africa, little known, which includes a tract of country lying in the north-east of the territories of the Cape Colony. C AIPHAS, the high priest of the Jews when Christ was crucified. CAILLIE, Rene, a native of France, cele- brated for his travels in Africa. He won the prize offered by the Geographical Society of Paris to the man who should first reach Tim- buctoo; and, besides other rewards, was pre- sented with the cross of the legion of honor. CAIN, the first murderer, the eldest born of Adam and Eve. For the particulars of his his- tory, see Genesis. CAIRO or Kahira, the capital of Egypt. It contains a population of 350,000, including Arabs or Mohammedans, Copts, Mamelukes, Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Jews, &c. It is said to have been founded in 973. The Sara- cens having neglected Alexandria, Cairo be- came the capital of Egypt, and is the seat of an extensive commerce. CALABRIA, a mountainous but fertile country, the inhabitants of which are sunk in barbarism. It forms the southern part of Italy, and contains 890,000 inhabitants. It anciently formed a part of Magna Grcecia, and was cele- brated for the refined luxury of its inhabitants. At the city of Pizzo, Murat was seized, October 13th, 1815. CALAIS, a sea-port town of France, in the British channel, opposite to Dover. It is strongly fortified, and contains 10,450 inhabi- tants. In the 12th century it was a village belonging to the counts of Boulogne. In 1346, Edward III, of England, after his great victory of Cressy, laid siege to it, and concerted his measures so well, that his adversaries could not throw succors into the place. Nearly 2,000 of CAL 149 CAL the wretched inhabitants, who had been sent out of the place to lessen the consumption of provisions, came to the camp of the besiegers. Edward gave each of them a hearty meal, and two shillings, and provided for their future safety. Calais was obliged to surrender to the English, remained in their possession until 1558, when it was invested and attacked by the duke of Guise, and, after a siege of eight days, was obliged to capitulate. During the operations of Francis I, and the duke of Bour- bon, against the emperor Charles V, of Ger- many, a congress was held at Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIII, of England, which proved unsuccessful. CALCUTTA, the capital of the British India, situated on the west branch of the Hoogly, an arm of the Ganges, which is navigable to the city for vessels of any size. The first settle- ment of the English was made here in 1690 ; the climate was at first very unhealthy, but it has since improved. The population is very great. The Black Hole (which see), is con- verted into a warehouse. The commerce is very extensive. CALDERON (Don Pedro Calderon de la Barca Henao y Riano), a Spanish poet and dramatist, born at Madrid, 1601, and died 1687. He served in a military capacity, but afterwards embraced the clerical profession. He was the author of 300 plays. CALEDONIA, New ; a country of North America, west of the Rocky mountains, inhab- ited by the Td-cullies, or, as the whites call them, Carriers, whose number is five thousand. CALEDONIA, New, a large island in the Pacific Ocean, the access to which is difficult and dangerous; discovered by Cook in 1774. The inhabitants are represented as mercenary and treacherous, resembling in appearance the negroes of Africa. They eat, among other articles of food, the nokee spider. The longi- tude of the island is 163° to 167° east ; lat. 20° to 22° 26' S. It is from 220 to 250 miles long, and 50 broad. CALICUT, a city of Hindostan, formerly capital of a kingdom of the same name. It was taken and destroyed by Tippoo Saib, but rebuilt by the English. CALIFORNIA, Old or Lower; a territory of Mexico, comprising a peninsula which is separated from the main land by the Gulf of California. In some places, the soil is covered with a luxuriant vegetation, while in others, barren rocks, and sterile tracts of land present no object upon which the eye can rest with pleasure. The population of the territory is about 14,000, on an area of nearly 40,000 square miles. CALIFORNIA, New or Upper, likewise a territory of Mexico, lies upon the north Pacific Ocean, north of Old California. It has an area of 375,000 square miles, containing a population of 25,000. The soil is fertile, and the woods and waters never fail to yield hunters an abund- ance of game and fish. CALIGULA, Caius Ccesar Augustus Ger- manicus, a Roman emperor, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and born A. D. 12. He received its surname from the CaligcB (half boots) which he wore. His life, with a single exception, presented only a series of acts of horrible cruelty, disgusting absurdity, and dar- ing impiety. The reputation of his father at first disposed the Romans to think favorably of the son, but after a few hollow displays of clem- ency and liberality, he showed himself in his true light, and, even while a boy, committed incest. He married and repudiated several wives, the last of whom, Cresonia, retained a firm hold upon his affections. His murders were numerous, and rendered memorable by the rank of the victims and the relation which they bore to him. It was Caligula, who wished that the " people of Rome had but one head, that he might sever it at a blow." If the cruelties of the tyrant call forth our indignation, his unmanly follies excite our con- tempt. His treatment of his horse Incitatus exhibited the ridiculous part of his character. This animal had a gorgeous stable, a house to entertain visitors, and frequently dined at the emperor's table, when he was presented with wine and gilded oats. His master even med- itated elevating him to the consulship. Cali- gula appeared in public in the attributes of various divinities, male as well as female, and claimed homage as a Venus and a Mars. Among his absurdities may be reckoned the bridge of boats built from Baice to Puteoli ; his expedition against Britain, when the soldiers gathered cockle-shells for spoils, and lastly, his design of decimating the German army for a revolt. To this last act the world owed its deliverence from the monster who was mur- dered by Choerea and Cornelius Sabinus, mili- tary tribunes, A. D. 41. CALIPH. The successors of Mohammed, uniting secular and spiritual functions in their persons, assumed the title of Caliph or vice- gerent. Many of them were distinguished by brilliant qualities of mind and person, by the CAL 150 CAL patronage of the arts and literature, and by ex- tensive conquests. The most noted among them will be noticed under separate heads, as Haroun al Raschid. CALIPHS, list of— THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS. Abubeker- } (Abdallah Lbm Abu Koafas, | ^ \ or Father oj the Virgin. ) Omar 634 Othman 644 All 655 CALIPH OF THE FAMILY OF MOHAMMED. Hassan or Al-Hassan — {Son of Mi and Fatima) . 660 CALIPHS OF THE HOUSE OF OMMIJAH. Moawiyah 1 661 Jezid 1 680 Moawiyah II 684 Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, not of the house of Onimi- yah, is saluted Caliph of Meca ' 684 Mer wan 1 684 Abdal Malec 684 Al Walid 1 705 Soliman 715 Omar II 718 Jezid II 720 Hesham 724 Al Walid II 743 Jezid III 744 Ibrahim : 744 Merwan II 744 CALIPHS OF THE FAMILY OF AL ABBAS. Abul Abhas el Saffah (the bloody) 749 Abul Giafer al Mansor (the victorious) 754 Al Mahadi 775 Musaal Hadi 785 Haroun al Raschid (the just) 786 Al Amin 809 Al Mamun 813 Al Motasem 833 Al Vathek Billah (by the grace of God) 842 Al Motawakkel Alallah 847 Al Montassar Billah 861 Al Mostain Billah 862 Al Motaz 866 Al Mohadi Billah « 869 Al Motamed Alallah 870 Al Mothadad Billah 892 Al Molltaphi Billah 902 Al Moctader Billah 908 Al Kaher Billah 932 Al Rhadi Billah 934 Al Mottaki Billah 941 Al Mostakphi Billah 944 Al Moti Lillah 946 Al Tay Lillah 974 Al Rader Billah 991 Al Rayer Beamrillah 1031 Al Moktadi Beamrillah 1075 Al Mostader Billah 1094 Al Mostarshed Billah 1118 Al Raschid Billah 1135 Al Moktafi Beamrilla 1136 Al Mostanjed Billah 1160 Al Mostadi Beamrillah 1 170 Al Nafer Ledinillah 1180 Al Diher Billah l'->25 Al Mostansed Billah 1226 Al Mostasem Billah 1242 CALMUCS, a branch of the Mongol race of great antiquity. Their tribes are scattered ; in 1759, a part of them, consisting of 1800 families, settled on the Wolga, and placed themselves under the protection of the Russian govern- ment, to whom they paid voluntary allegiance. Others are settled in different parts ; many of them are Mohammedans. Their personal ap- pearance is far from pleasing, and their habits are extremely rude. CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, an emi- nent French statesman, born at Douai in 1734, succeeded to the management of an empty treasury in 1783, and skilfully met the claims upon it, without adding to the burthens of the people. He advised the abolition of the pecu- niary exemptions enjoyed by the nobility, cler- gy, and magistracy. He was, however, obliged to retire from the vengeance of those bodies. He died in 1802. CALVARY, in Hebrew, Golgotha, the place of the skull, a mountain in the vicinity of Jeru- salem, on which our Savior Jesus Christ was crucified. CALVIN, John, second leader of the Reform- ation in the lGth century, was born at Noyon, July 15, 1509, and was destined for the church at an early age, being presented with a bene- fice in the cathedral of his native place, when he was but twelve years old. His progress was rapid, but it was not long before he received the seeds of the new doctrines. In 1533, he was involved in a persecution with his friend Mi- chael Cop, who had defended the reformed doc- trines in a public discourse. Obliged to quit France, he repaired to Bale, in 1534, where he composed his famous Institution of Christianity. He was induced to write this by the persecu- tions of Protestants, which disgraced the reign of Francis I, of France. Although received in different places with marks of respect, Calvin found the warmest welcome and the safest asy- lum in Geneva. After some agitation, the new doctrine was generally received at Geneva. On the refusal of Calvin and Farel, to comply with the decrees of the council of Lausanne, the magistrates compelled them to leave the city in 1538. At Strasbourg, Calvin's reception was favorable, but he turned a longing look upon Geneva. He was finally invited to return, and he gained a great ascendancy over the Genevi- ans. The rigor of Calvin was excessive. Thus, a magistrate was deprived of his office and im- prisoned for two months, because " his habits were irregular, and he had leagued with the enemies of Calvin." James Gruet was behead- CAM 151 CAM ed, for having written, "impious letters, and libertine verses," and for having " labored to destroy ecclesiastical regulations." Geneva, in becoming the metropolis of the reformed wor- ship, became the centre of a prodigious book- trade, and the city of all Europe, in which the arts and sciences were cultivated with the greatest success. Calvin died in Geneva, May 27th, 1564, in the 55th year of his age. His constitution was weak, and throughout life, he had suffered much from disease. In 1539, he manied a widow, by whom he had one son, who died young. She died in 1549, and he never mar- ried again. He was sombre and austere in his manners, of a melancholy disposition. He nev- er knew the sweets of friendship, and his sole joy, if joy it was, was in ruling and beholding the triumph of his opinions. Calvin never had any other title, in the church of Geneva, than that of pastor. His temper, according to his own confession, was impatient and opposed to all contradiction. Thus the tone of his polemi- cal writings is almost always harsh and insult- ing. As a theologian, Calvin gained the highest rank among the men of his century, by his pro- found knowledge, by his tact, and, as he him- self boasted, by his art in pressing an argument. As a writer, he merits high praise. His mode of worship, bare and stern, appeared, in the eyes of many, to have elevated religion above all sublunary things, by stripping it of every object which had an attraction for the senses. CALYDON, a city of ^Etoba, noted in fabu- lous history as the spot where Meleager slew the wild boar, which the revengeful Diana had sent to punish the inhabitants for neglecting her worship. CALYPSO, a daughter of Atlas, who dwelt upon the island of Ogygia, where Ulysses was shipwrecked. He refused to marry the god- dess, although immortality was the promised reward, preferring to revisit Ithaca, and again behold his wife. He remained seven years on the island, and grief at his departure destroyed the enamored goddess. CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, was duke of Parma, prince and arch-chancellor of the French empire, dignities which he enjoyed during the ascendency of Napoleon, of whom he was a colleague in the consulate in 1799. His Plan of a Civil Code, drawn up in 1796, was the basis of the celebrated Code Napoleon. He left France on the downfal of the emperor, and died in Paris, March 8. 1824. CAMBODIA, or Camboge, or Camboya, a fertile and wealthy country province of the em- pire of Annam, in Asia, with a population of 100.000. Laos lies upon the north, Cochin China and Chiampa on the east, the sea on the south, and Siam on the west. CAMBRAY, or Camerich, a strongly forti- fied town of the French department of the North, containing 17,650 inhabitants, celebrated in diplomatic history for several important trea- ties negociated there. Its manufactures are ex- tensive, one of the principal articles being Cam- bric. The town was taken by Charles V, in 1544; by the Spaniards in 1596; and by Louis XIV in person, in 1677. In August, 1793, it was unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians, and in the campaign of 1815, it was taken by the British, and made the head-quarters of the allied armies. CAMBRIDGE, a town in Middlesex coun- ty, Massachusetts, on Charles river, 3 miles N. W. of Boston, with a population of 6,071. It is a neat and thriving place, distinguished as the seat of Harvard University, the oldest and best endowed institution in the United States, and having the largest library in America. The medical, divinity, and law departments, enjoy a high reputation. The course of education is completed in four years. CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques, Etienne, baron, general, commander of the legion of hon- or, and distinguished for his personal bravery, was born December 26, 1770. He commanded the small band, which Napoleon led from Elba. At Waterloo, he was severely wounded, and taken prisoner. When he heard the British proposal of capitulation, he answered nobly, " La garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas." The guard dies, but does not surrender. CAMBYSES, a king of Persia, and son of Cyrus the Great, ascended the throne, B. C. 530. He conquered Egypt ; offended at the su- perstitions of the Egyptians, he killed their god Apis, whose flesh was eaten by his soldiers, and plundered their temples. On mounting his horse at a subsequent period, his sword gave him a fatal wound in the thigh, the place where he had injured the bull, and the Egyptians looked upon this event as the retributive ven- geance of the gods. He was dissolute and des- titute of moral principles. In his fits of intoxi- cation, his brutality was feared even by those who had the greatest claims upon his forbear- ance. In a fit of drunken rage he gave his wife a kick which killed her. His throne was usurped by one of the Magi, who assumed the name of Smerdis, a brother of the king, who CAM 152 CAM had been secretly murdered on account of a dream, which prognosticated to the tyrant fu- ture troubles, and warned him to save himself by the death of his brother. CAMDEN, in South Carolina, 130 miles N. W. of Charleston, with a population of 1000. Here Gates was defeated by lord Cornwallis, in 1780, and another battle was fought between general Greene and lord Rawdon, in the ensu- ing year. CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, an illustrious Roman, who obtained four triumphs, and five times filled the office of dictator, but being pro- secuted on a charge of peculation, went into voluntary banishment. While he was absent, Brennus, at the head of an army of Gauls, took Rome, and besieged the senate in the capital. Camillus, forgetting his wrongs, hastened to the relief of his country, defeated the barbarians, and was created dictator. He died B. C. 365, of the plague. He was generally honored and respected, although party and personal prejudi- ces more than once involved him in persecution. In the siege of Falerii, the schoolmaster of the town, who had the children of the senators under his care, led them out of the city under pretext of recreation, carried them to the Ro- man camp, and surrendered them to the Roman general, telling him, that he might now propose to the besieged what terms he chose, since the treasures they valued most were in his hands. Camillus, indignant at this unparalleled treach- ery, answered that the Romans warred with men, and not with boys, and that, in the con- duct of hostilities, integrity as well as courage should be prized. He then ordered the school- master to be stripped, and with his hands bound behind his back, to be delivered to the boys to be lashed back to the town. The Falerians, be- fore obstinate in their resistance, struck with this noble act, delivered themselves up to the Romans, convinced that it would be better to have such men for friends than foes. CAMOENS, Louis, the most celebrated of Portuguese poets, was born in Lisbon, in 1517. His father was of a noble family, and his mother of the illustrious house of Sa. Camoens studied at Coimbra, where his instructors valued no literature, but that which was written in imita- tion of the ancients. But the genius of Ca- moens was animated by the history of his coun- try and the manners of his age ; and his lyric poems belong, like the works of Dante, of Pe- trarch, Ariosto and Tasso, to that literature which was renewed by Christianity, and to the spirit of chivalry, rather than to a purely classi- cal style of writing. For this reason, the nu- merous partisans of the classic school did not applaud the performances of Camoens in the early part of his career. On the completion of his studies, he returned to Lisbon, where he became warmly attached to Catharine d'Attayde, a lady of the court. Ardent passions are often united to great genius, and the life of Camoens was alternately consumed by his feelings and his genius. He was exiled to Santarem on account of the quarrels which his attachment to Catharine brought upon him. There, in his seclusion, he composed detached poems, which distinctly pourtray the state of his feelings at the time of their composition. The hopelessness of his sit- uation led him to embark, as a soldier, in the Portuguese fleet sent against the inhabitants of Morocco. In the midst of battles he composed poems, the glories and the dangers of war kin- dling his poetic spirit, and his poetic imagina- tion, in turn, urging him onward to the perform- ance of military exploits. He lost his right eye by an arrow before Ceuta. On his return to Lisbon, he hoped, at least, that his wounds would entitle him to some favor, even if his talents were despised ; but although he had a double claim upon the notice of government, he encountered unexpected obstacles. Justly in- dignant at this neglect, he embarked for the Indies in 1553, and like Scipio, bade farewell to his country, declaring that even his ashes should not repose there. He landed at Goa, the principal Portuguese establishment in India ; here his imagination was excited by the exploits of his countrymen in this part of the world, and, great as were his inducements to complain of them, he thought to consecrate their glory in an epic. But indig- nant at the abuses which were committed by the government, he composed so severe a satire upon the subject, that the enraged viceroy of Goa banished him to Macao, where he lived many years, surrounded by the most glorious scenes, which the fairy regions of the east can boast. Here he composed his Lusiad. The ex- pedition of Vasco da Gama to the Indies, is the subject of this work, which is sustained by the skill of Camoens in mingling successfully, de- tails of Portuguese history with the splendors of poetry, and christian piety with pagan fable. Camoens, on being recalled from his banish- ment, was shipwrecked at the mouth of the river Mecon, in Cochin China, and saved him- self by swimming with one hand, while in the other, he held the leaves of his immortal poem, CAM 153 CAN the only treasure that he saved, above the reach of the greedy waves. Camoons was persecuted by a new viceroy at Goa, and imprisoned for debt, but some of his friends becoming security for him, he embarked for Lisbon, in 1569, six- teen years after having quitted Europe. The young king Sebastian, took an interest in Ca- moens, accepted the dedication of his epic poem, and, on the eve of departing on his unfortunate expedition against the Moors, in Africa, felt more than any one else, the genius of the poet, who, like himself, gloried in dangers, when they led the way to fame. But Sebastian was killed in the battle of Alcazar, in 1578 ; the roy- al line became extinct, and Portugal lost her independence. The unfortunate Camoens was reduced by this event to such extremes, that, during the night, a slave whom he had brought from India, begged ; n the streets, to obtain food for his master. In this wretched state, he still composed lyric poems, and the finest of his de- tached pieces are those which contain com- plaints of his misfortunes. How brilliant was that genius which could extort inspiration from the very calamities which finally extinguished it. This hero of Portuguese literature, the only one whose glory belongs alike to his nation, and to Europe, died in an hospital, in 1579, aged 62 years. After his death, a monument was erect- ed to his memory, and thousands, who would have denied succor while he was living, crowded to do homage to his inanimate re- mains. CAMPANIA, the ancient name of a province of Italy, now called Terra di Lavoro, included in the modern kingdom of Naples. Its soil is extremely fertile. The classical associations heighten the interest and charm of its naturally fine scenery, of which Vesuvius is far from being the least prominent feature. CAMPEACHY, or Campeche, a seaport sit- uated on the western part of the peninsula of Yucatan, on a bay of the same name in Mexi- co. The Indians who occupied it at the time of the Spanish invasion, had made great pro- fress in the arts, and were extremely numerous, opulation 3,000. CAMPO-FORMIO, a castle of Udine in Fri- uli, a province of Venice, belonging to the Aus- trians, famous for the treaty signed here, Oct. 17, 1797, by which the emperor of Austria ced- ed to the French republic the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, and consented to their remaining in possession of the islands of Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, and all the islands in the Adriatic, together with the Venetian territories in Albania. He also acknowledged the Cisal- pine republic as an independent state ; ceded to it the countries in Lombardy, which had former- ly belonged to Austria, and consented that it should possess Bergamo, Brescia, and other Ve- netian territories, together with the duchies of Mantua and Modena, the principalities of Car- rara and Massa, and the cities of Romagna, Fer- rara, and Bologna, belonging to the Pope. France yielded up to Austria, Istria, Dalmatia, the city of Venice, with a large portion of the dominions of that republic, and the Venetian islands in the Adriatic, lying to the northeast of the gulf of Lodrino. These were the prin- cipal articles of the treaty. CANAAN, a country situated between the Mediterranean and the mountains of Arabia, and extending from Egypt to Phoenicia. The first inhabitants were descended from Ca- naan, who settled colonies in almost all the islands, &c. in the Mediterranean. They were subdued by the Israelites under Joshua, who destroyed many of them, and obliged the rest to flee the country. The colonies which Cad- mus conducted to Thebes in Bceotia, and his brother Cilix into Cilicia, were from Canaan ; and Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Majorca and Minorca, are said to have been peopled by Canaanites. CANADA, a country in North America, be- longing to the British, and divided into Upper and Lower Canada, since the year 1791. Lower Canada is thus bounded : — north by New Britain, east by New Britain and the guff of St. Lawrence, south and south east by New Brunswick, and Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont and New York ; west by Upper Canada. Nearly five-sixths of the inhabitants, (of whom there are 600,000), are French Canadians, the remainder being English, Scotch, Irish, and Americans. It is divided into five districts, which are subdivided in 40 counties. Seigniories, or grants of the French government, and town- ships, or grants of the English, are the minor subdivisions. A governor-general, whose resi- dence is at Quebec, is at the head of the British American government. Besides the governor, there is a council of 10, appointed by the king, who also appoints the three members of the council of the legislature, the other branch of which is an elective house of assembly. The principal towns are Montreal, Quebec, Three Rivers, and Sorelle, Chambly, St. John's, and La Chine. The houses of the Canadians are generally low, and built of stone, with little finish. Education is generally at a low ebb CAN 154 CAN among them, although Quebec and Montreal sustain some highly reputable seminaries. The commerce of the province has gradually in- creased under the fostering spirit of the British government. The fur trade, of which Mon- treal is the depot, is considerable, and timber, pot and pearl ashes, grain, &c. are exported in great quantities. Grass, wheat, barley, rye, &c. are the principal productions of the soil. The majestic St. Lawrence is the main river of the Canadas, but there are also others of great importance. The French Canadians possess all the charac- teristics which distinguish the volatile inhabit- ants of France. The same passionate vivacity, the same eagerness in the pursuit of pleasure, the same levity, and, it must be added, laxity of principle, exhibits the connection between the parent stock and the transplanted race. Their amusements in winter consist of sleigh- ing expeditions, in which the spirited little Canadian horses prove their worth, varied by dancing, and social gayeties. Where the females are distinguished for their temperance, the men are unfortunately addicted to the use of spiritu- ous liquors, and can scarcely be persuaded to abandon them in winter, alleging the severity of the weather, which frequently depresses the mercury in the thermometer to 40 degrees be- low Zero, as an excuse. The eastern and southeastern boundary of Upper Canada, is Lower Canada, while the United States lie upon the south, separated by the great lakes, and New Britain on the north and west. It contains 11 districts, 23 counties, divided into numerous townships, and has an aggregate population of more than 231 ,778. A large proportion of emigrants to Canada, now settle in this province. They have been in- duced to settle here from the very great fertility of the soil, and the value and abundance of the timber. The forests increase in extent as they spread to the regions of the north, of which few but the Indians, possess any knowledge. In these wooded districts, vast sheets of water ex- pand in solitary splendor, haunted only by the beasts of prey, or Indians hardly less wild. To- ronto, lately York, the seat of government, which is finely situated on lake Ontario, has an admirable harbor. The established religion of the Canadas, is that of the Church of Eng- land, but a large portion of the inhabitants are Catholics. The British constitution forms the basis of that of British America, and the vicin- ity of the British possessions to the United States has not been without effect in exciting discontents among the people, who have an opportunity of comparing their political condi- tion with our own, much to the disadvantage of the government under which they live. The French, at a very early period, seemed to be aware of the importance of the discovery of Canada by Cabot, and the cod-fishery began to employ their men as early as the commence- ment of the 16th century. In the early part of that century a Frenchman is said to have made a chart of the entrance of the St. Lawrence. In 1524, Francis I, of France, sent four ships, un- der Verazzani, a Florentine, to prosecute dis- coveries in this country. In 1535 James Car- tier, of St. Maloes, sailed up the river St. Lawrence, formed alliances with the natives, took possession of the territory, built a fort, and wintered in the country. Henry IV appointed the marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general of Canada, and the neighboring countries. In 1608 the city of Quebec was founded, and from that period the establishment of a permanent French colony commenced. In 1629 an English expe- dition took possession of Quebec, but it was sur- rendered again to the French by the treaty of St. Germains. This expedition was headed by Sir David Keith. In 1690, a bold attempt was made, but without success, to subject Canada to the English crown. The attempt was renewed in 1711, but equally in vain. Canada continu- ed in the occupation of the French till the breaking out of the war between France and England in 1756. In 1759 the British govern- ment formed the project of attempting its con- quest, and the English took possession of Que- bec after a gallant resistance on the part of the French ; in which the English general Wolfe, and Montcalm, the French commander, both perished. The latter, on being told that his wound was mortal, nobly exclaimed : " Then I shall not live to see the city surrendered to the British !" The whole province of Canada was soon after subdued by the English, and was con- firmed to Great Britain by the treaty of 1763. In 1775 Canada was invaded by a body of pro- vincial troops, led by Montgomery ; Montreal was taken, but the gallant general perished in the unsuccessful attempt upon Quebec. During the last war with Great Britain, Upper Canada became the theatre of a sanguinary struggle. The province has since remained subject to Great Britain. CANDI, a city and kingdom of Ceylon, which long resisted all attacks, but was finally annex- ed to the British dominions in 1816. CANDIA, anciently IdaM, and Crete, called CAN 155 CAN by the Turks, Kirid, a large island in the Medi- terranean, lying about 80 miles south of the Morea. The climate is mild and the soil pro- ductive, capable, as was proved in ancient times, of supporting 1,200,000 inhabitants, a population which Turkish tyranny and indo- lence have diminished to 300,000. It was, in mythological accounts, the kingdom of Saturn. After becoming a republic, and a pirate isle, it was conquered by the Romans, and then by the Saracens in 823. In 962 the Greeks regained possession of it. It was sold to the Venetians in 1204, and was fiercely contended for by the troops of the Porte and the republic. Hither the Christian chivalry of Europe rushed to dis- play their valor against the infidels, and the capi- tal was only surrendered after a war of 25 years, Sept. 27, 1669. The siege which immediately preceded it lasted for more than two years. Candia continued in the hands of the Turks, until its recent cession to the viceroy of Egypt. CANN JE, a city on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the Aufidus, where the Romans were defeat- ed by the Carthaginians, under Hannibal, 216 B. C. Hannibal had 10,000 horse and 40,000 foot, while the Roman troops, headed by JEmi- lius Paulus, and Terentius Varro, amounted to 87,000 men. The opponents of Hannibal had two to one against him in infantry, while Han- nibal had five to one against them in cavalry. The light-horse and slingers began to skirmish, after whom Hasdrubal charged the troops of horse that were led by iEmilius, and broke their ranks. The last blow that ended all resistance was given by the same hand that aimed the first. Hasdrubal, having cut in pieces all the Roman horse that opposed him, fell back upon the rear, and came up to the Numidians, with whom he joined, and made a charge upon Varro. The Romans, whom they charged, appeared incapa- ble of resistance, and were completely routed. Livy says that 40,000 foot, and above 2,700 horse were slain ; Polybius accounts the loss much greater. The prisoners taken amounted to 3,000 foot, and 300 horse, according to Livy, according to others, to 8000. Hannibal collect- ed the rings, the badges of the fallen Roman knights, and sent many bushels of them to Car- thage, as tokens of his triumph. He lost 4000 Gauls, 1500 Spaniards and Africans, and 200 horse. Had he pursued his victory and march- ed forthwith to Rome, instead of quartering his troops in the seductive Capua, he might proba- bly have ended the war — but he did not trust his own good fortune to such a length. Varro, the consul, whose imprudence brought on the de- feat, saved himself by flight, while his brave colleague, iEmilius, perished on the field of battle. CANOVA, Antonio, the most celebrated and successful sculptor of the 19th century. He was born in the Venetian territory, at Possagno, Nov. 1, 1757, and from his twelfth year devoted himself to the art in which he became so cele- brated. When quite young, he modelled the figure of a lion in butter, with exquisite skill. This was placed upon the table of the seigneur of the place, Falieri, whose attention it attract- ed. The ingenious artist was sought for, found, and placed with a statuary. At 17 his statue of Eurydice was sculptured, and highly praised. In 1779 he went to Rome under the patronage of the Venetian Senate. His works are nu- merous, and his subjects various ; the female figures being the most perfect and beautiful. His graces, his Venus, his dancing figures, Cu- pid and Psyche, &c. surpass all of the recent productions of Italian art. Canova had a me- thod of finishing his statues, by applying to the marble a peculiar preparation, which de- stroyed the glare and glitter of the stone, and imparted to it the soft and mellow lustre of wax. Modest, moral, and amiable, Canova was free from all professional jealousy, and liberally pa- tronized young artists of merit, removing many of the obstacles which oppose the early steps of devotees to the fine arts. He was created marquis of Ischia, with a large pension, by pope Pius VII, who was by no means backward in acknowledging his merit. The amiable artist died at Venice, Oct. 13, 1822, leaving behind him many monuments of his talents, industry, goodness, and liberality. A late writer, in speaking of the comparative merits of the Me- dicean and Canova Venus, says, " I am by no means convinced of the great superiority of the ancient over the modern work. It is certain the general altitude and aspect are copied in the latter, which deprives the artist of a great share of the merit of originality ; but if we were to regard the works alone, without any reference to their formation, I am not sure that the palm would not be given to Canova. As a friend of mine, no mean judge, said to me, *■ If they were both dug out of the earth now, and nobody knew any thing about either, the Ca- nova statue would be preferred.' " CANTON, principal city of the Chinese pro- vince of Quan-tong, on the banks of the Taho, and a place of immense commercial importance, being the only Chinese sea- port open to Amer- ican and European vessels. According to the CAP 156 CAP missionaries it has a million of inhabitants. The surrounding scenery is charming, and the east- ern hills present a most noble prospect. The houses, with the exception of those of the man- darins and wealthy merchants, are iow, the streets long, narrow and well-paved, spanned, here and there, by triumphal arches, and shad- ed at the sides by continuous ranges of piaz- zas. But the main charm of the city consists in its beautiful pleasure gardens, which are studded with fish-pools. The exports are tea, India ink, varnish, por- celain, rhubard, silk, nankeen, &c. The cli- mate of Canton is considered healthy, although the heat of summer, and the warmth of win- ter are great. CANUTE, the Great, king of Denmark and England, succeeded his father Sweyn in the former kingdom, about the year 1015. He com- menced his reign by an expedition against England, but hearing that the king of Norway had invaded Denmark, he was obliged to make a precipitate return. Having repulsed the in- vader, he resumed his enterprise, and landing on the southern coast, committed dreadful rava- ges; but Edmund Ironsides opposed him with such bravery, that Canute agreed to divide the kingdom with him On the murder of Edmund by Edric in 1017, Canute obtained the whole kingdom in an assembly of the states, and put to death Edric, and several of the English nobili- ty, who had basely deserted their sovereign. He likewise levied heavy taxes on the people, and particularly on the inhabitants of London. The king of Sweden having attacked Denmark, he went thither and slew the Swedish monarch in battle. Canute built churches, made a pil- grimage to Rome, cherished the interests of learning, and distinguished himself by his un- affected piety. Canute's reproofs of his courtiers is well known. These flatterers having assured him he had power over all things, he seated himself upon the sea-shore, and commanded the waves not to approach his feet. The element advanced with its usual rapidity, and Canute, rising, said to his courtiers in a tone of great solemnity : ° He alone can rule the waves, who has said to them, — Thus far shall ye go, and no farther." Canute died at Shaftesbury, 1036. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Some notice of the settlements in this part of Africa has been given already. (See Africa.) The Cape, near- ly at the southern extremity of Africa, long in the hands of the Dutch, was found, on the con- quest by the English, in the year 1795, to be 550 English miles in length, and 233 in breadth. The soil is various, but generally fertile ; ani- mals are numerous, and fish abound along the coast. The average annual amount of exports is about 1,000,000. This flourishing colony was originally founded by the Dutch. Van Riebeck, surgeon of one of the Dutch company's ships, having touched at the Cape, was struck with the extent of the bay, capable of containing more than one hundred vessels ; its situation, half way between Europe and India ; and the nature of the soil, which seemed proper for every kind of cultivation. On his return, he communicated his ideas to the company, who approved of his plan, and gave him full powers to carry it into execution. Van Riebeck ac- cordingly embarked with four vessels, and, after arriving at the Cape, purchased from the inhab- itants land for an establishment, for which he gave them merchandize, to be selected at their own choice, to the value of 50,000 florins. In the year 1805, the Cape was taken, for the second time, by the English, in whose hands it still remains. CAPE VERDE ISLANDS, a group of Af- rican islands, in the Atlantic, opposite to, and 300 miles from Cape Verde, belonging to Por- tugal. Their number has been variously stated from 10 to 14. The air is unwholesome, but some portions of the soil is fertile. Rain is unfrequent, and the drought has been so severe, that numbers of the inhabitants have perished from the consequent famine, an instance of which occurred recently. On that occasion, provis- ions were liberally supplied by voluntary con- tributions from the citizens of the United States. The salt manufactured at Mayo, a small island, is exchanged for flour, and this trade is chiefly carried on by means of American vessels. CAPERNAUM, a town of Palestine, on the sea of Tiberias, for some time the residence of our Savior, and in the vicinity of which he delivered his sermon on the mount. It was on the coast of Galilee. CAPET. The family name of a royal race, 36 members of which have reigned in France, and 82 in other European states. The word signifies broad-head, or perhaps, broad-hat, and was first given to Hugh, son of Hugh the Great, duke of France, and count of Paris, by his adherents, in the 10th century. CAPITOL, (Capitolium) now Campidoglio, the citadel of ancient Rome, situated on the Capitoline hill, or Tarpeian rock. It was plan- ned by Tarquinius Priscus, who commenced it B. C. 614. It was built upon four acres of CAP 157 CAR ground ; the front was adorned with three rows of pillars, and the sides with two. The ascent to it from the ground was by an hundred steps. The magnificence and richness of this temple are almost incredible. It was several times destroyed by fire, and as frequently rebuilt ; Domitian raised the last and most splendid temple of all, in which the gilding alone amount- ed to nearly 4,000/. sterling. The capitol was in the form of a square, extending nearly 200 feet on each side ; it was the highest part of the city, and strongly fortified. The gates were of brass, and the tiles gilt. The prodigious gifts and ornaments with which it was occasionally endowed, almost exceed belief. Augustus pre- sented to it at one time, 2,000 pounds weight of gold, and jewels to the value of 2,000,000/. sterling. A few vestiges of this building still remain ; the Campidoglio is a modern edifice. CAPO D'ISTRIA, John, count of, a native of Greece, was born at Corfu, in 1780. He entered the diplomatic service of Russia, and was entrusted with several important missions. Having displeased the Russian government by taking the part of the Greeks when their strug- gle for liberty commenced, he retired from public service in 1822, and was living at Geneva in 1827, when he was elected president of the Greek republic. In this responsible station, his measures appear to have been directed by pure patriotism, and his talents to have been of a high order, although the weakness of the state, and the disorders which reigned throughout Greece, rendered it impossible to form an accu- rate estimate of his abilities. His assassination i is too recent an event to require description. CAPPADOCIA, a province of Asia, once of I great importance as an independent kingdom, 1 at times, although nominally dependent upon , Persia, whose satraps governed it. The Pontus Euxinus lay upon the north, Armenia on the east, Cilicia and Syria on the south, and Lyca- ] onia on the west. It was divided into Cappadocia 1 Magna, and Cappadocia Minor, afterwards Cap- padocia Proper, and Pontus. These divisions were not, however, inflexibly adhered to. CAPRI, anciently Caprea or Caprese, a fer- tile island in the gulf of Naples, whose inhabi- tants are 3000 in number. Besides being valu- able on account of its oil and wine, it is en- riched by quails, which come hither in great numbers from Africa, and are caught with ease. The charms of this island induced Tiberius to select it for his retreat when he chose to retire from the active administration of goverment, ind give himself up to the most revolting de- bauchery, occasionally reminding his subjects of his existence by ordering the execution of Rome's best citizens. CAPUA, a fortified city on the Volturno, in the Terra di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, which contains 8,000 inhabitants. The ruins of the ancient city of Capua are at a little dis- tance from the modern one. The ancient Ca- pua was famous for its luxuries, which were more fatal to the Carthaginian troops of Hanni- bal than the arms of his adversaries, the Ro- mans. January 11th, 1790, Capua was taken by the French, and, in 1820, occupied by the Austrians. CARABOBO, a province of Venezuela, in South America. The famous battle of Cara- bobo, which decided the independence of Ve- nezuela, was fought between Bolivar and La Torre, the Spanish general, June 24, 1821. CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, the eldest son of the emperor Severus, born A. D. 188, and associated with his father in the gov- ernment at the age of 13 years. After his fa- ther's death, he assassinated his brother Geta, who shared the throne with him in 212. Cara- calla received the surname of Memannicus, for basely murdering a tribe of the Germans, whom he pretended to assist. He visited Egypt, and displayed every where the greatest cruelty. He was finally assassinated at Edessa, A. D. 217, by Macrinus, the praetorian prefect. CARA CCAS, a province of Venezuela, which, with Caraboba, forms the department of Vene- zuela. By the earthquake of 1812, and the political convulsions, the number of inhabitants of the city of Caraccas has been reduced from 50,000 to 25,000. The productions of the pro- vince are numerous, and the climate mild and agreeable. The inhabitants, male and female, are handsome, sprightly, and intelligent, but proud and uncultivated. CARACTACUS, kMg of the Silures, a British tribe of Wales, who, being taken pris- oner by the Romans, was led before the empe- ror Claudius, A. U. 52. He was unawed by the power and splendor which surrounded him, but was surprised, as he told the emperor, that the possessors of so much wealth and grandeur could envy him his humble cottage. The mag- nanimity of his bearing, and the candor and moderation of his remarks, so moved the empe- ror, that he gave orders to have the captive monarch set at liberty. This was the only good action that Claudius performed. CARBONARI, Colliers, the name of a secret political society of Italy, which has existed for CAR 158 CAR many years, but the origin of which is doubtful. The carbonari are the sworn foes of oppression — "hatred to tyrants!" — being the initiatory oath. The places where they meet are called huts ; the interior the colliery, and the exterior the wood. Tolerance in religious matters is secured by their principles. Whole cities and towns have joined the society, and, in 1820, when Italy was disturbed by plots, 650,000 new members were admitted, in the month of March. CARIBBEE ISLANDS, are the islands which form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. They are divided into Leeward and Windweird Islands. St. Christopher's, Guadaloupe, Dom- inica, Martinico, Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, are some of the principal. The Caribbees, or original inhabitants of the Caribbee Islands, were found by the Spaniards to be fierce, war- like, and confirmed cannibals. CARLISLE, anciently Luguvallium, and Lugubalum, capital of Cumberland, England, and a large manufacturing place. It was one of the most important stations at the time of the Romans. The castle was burned by the Scots in the time of Henry II, and twice accidentally in that of Edward I. It was besieged by an army of 8,000 men in the reign of Henry VIII, and in 1644, surrendered to General Leslie. In 1745, it was taken by the partisans of Charles Edward, but retaken by the duke of Cumber- land. Population 20,000. CARLISLE, capital of Cumberland county (Penn.), 114 miles west of Philadelphia, con- taining 3,700 inhabitants. Its trade is very considerable, and its appearance agreeable ; the streets being regular, and the houses neatly built. Its court house and churches are fine buildings. Dickinson college is a flourishing institution. CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II, and Mary, of Portugal, was born at Valladolid, Jan. 8, 1544. Four days after, his mother died in the midst of preparations for the celebration of the birth of the prince. Carlos was naturally infirm, and had one leg shorter than the other. The exces- sive indulgence with which he was treated, fostered his strong passions, and rendered him vindictive and obstinate. His preceptor, Bos- sulus, a learned, but dissolute Frenchman, ex- erted an unhappy influence over the mind of his pupil, and prevented him from treating his father with proper respect. It is said that Bos- sulus, being reproached by the prince with being the son of a monk, replied with warmth and insolence ; " I know I am : but my father is a better one than yours." In 1560, Philip caused the states, assembled at Toledo, solemnly to recognise Don Carlos as heir to the crown. A fall down the staircase of the palace of the Cardinal Ximenes, nearly deprived the young prince of life, and his mind was ever afterwards impaired. Contemporary historians vary greatly in the portraits which they draw of Don Carlos. According to some, he was born with all those qualities which adorn a hero ; with a love of glory joined to high courage ; a proud disdain of opposition, and a desire of extended power. According to others, he was fond of extraordinary adventures, of every thing eccentric and odd, and his actions were those of a madman, whom accident and opposition irritate, but address or submission calms. Ferreras relates some curious anecdotes of him. One night, as he was traversing the streets of Madrid, some one accidentally threw a little water on his head. Instantly stopping, Don Carlos ordered his attendant gentlemen to set fire to the house, and cut the throats of its in- mates. They parted, as if to execute his com- mands, but returning immediately, assured him that it was impossible to obey him, because the holy sacrament was on the point of being ad- ministered to a sick person in the offensive dwelling. This reply pacified the prince. One of the obnoxious courtiers of his father, the president Spinola, having banished Cisne- ros, a comedian, whose performances Don Carlos had a great desire to behold, the prince met the president in the royal palace. Carlos, seizing him by the hat, and handling his dag- ger-hilt, exclaimed ; " How dare you cross me by preventing Cisneros from contributing to my amusement.'' By the life of my father! I will kill thee !" The terrified president fell at the prince's feet, and changed his resolution by his abject supplications. A shoemaker having made a pair of boots much too tight for the prince, the latter ordered them to be cut to pieces. " Villain !" exclaimed he, to the terrified tradesman, " thou must eat these or die !" In vain the unfortunate man represented the cruelty of the sentence, and the trivial nature of his offence. He was not per- mitted to depart until he had eaten up his boots. Don Alonzo de Cordova, brother of the mar- quis of Las Nevas, having failed to repair in- stantly to the prince's chamber, at the sum- mons of his bell, the furious prince seized him by the waist, and, but for the cries of the suf* feier, which procured the assistance of servants, CAR 159 CAR would have dashed him through the window into the moat. In 1559, a marriage having been proposed, between Don Carlos and Elizabeth, daughter of Henry II, Philip judged proper to substitute himself for his son. It is said that Carlos loved Elizabeth; that their passion was mutual, and that he never forgave his father for having deprived him of his bride. He was led, in 1565, to hope for a union with archduchess Anne, his cousin, and daughter of the emperor Maximilian, but Philip shortly afterwards op- posed the match, and, on the death of Don Carlos, married the lady himself. Thus he successively deprived his son of two females, whose attractions might have bound him to domestic life, and softened all the wilder and more obdurate portions of his character. In I5(i3, Philip, who had no heir but Don Carlos, whom he doubtless judged incapable of governing, sent for his nephews, the archdukes Rodolphus and Ernest, whom he received in person, for the purpose of securing the succes- sion to them. The following year, Don Car- los, who was discontented, and at variance with his father, projected his escape from Spain under the pretext of going to the relief of Malta, then besieged by the troops of Soliinan. He col- lected 50,000 ducats, and was on the eve of departing, when a forged letter of the viceroy of Naples, urging his stay in Spain, induced him to change his resolution. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the various projects of Don Car- los for securing fame and distinction in other countries, all of which were crossed by his Btern parent, who regarded him with a jealous eye, and punished several of his confidants and friends. Philip appeared to repose implicit confidence in the duke of Alva, Ruy Gomez de Sylva, Don John of Austria, and Spinola. Don Car- los had an invincible repugnance to these men, either from jealousy of the confidence they enjoyed, or from considering them as authorised and privileged spies upon his conduct. He could not bear to dwell upon the thought that the duke of Alva had obtained the government of Flanders, which he had solicited for himself. Resolved on revenge, he attacked the duke with a poignard, when he came to take leave of him, and would have killed him outright, -but for the agility and strength of his foe. Philip appeared to believe that Don Carlos had a design upon his own life, for he always wore two curiously constructed pistols. Louis de Foix, a French engineer, the cele- brated architect, who built the Escurial. a royal palace in the form of a gridiron, is said to have been commanded by Don Carlos to make him a book heavy enough to kill a man at one blow. De Thou, the historian who relates this, says, " This prince desired the book, after having read in the annals of Spain, that an imprisoned archbishop had made a leather cover to a brick of the size of his breviary, and used it to kill his jailer, whom he struck dead." De Foix told the historian that he made the prince a book, composed often tablets of a blue stone, covered with plates of steel, concealed under plates of gilt, and this book, six inches by four, weighed more than fourteen pounds. He said also that Don Carlos, wishing to be alone in his chamber, employed him to make him a machine, with which, by means of pulleys, he could open and shut his door without rising from his bed. The prince had always under his pillow two drawn swords, a brace of loaded pistols, and, at the bedside, half a dozen harquebusses, and an arm- chest. These precautions and preparations alarmed Philip. Don Carlos was often heard complaining, in bursts of indignation, of the conduct of his father. He avowed to his con- fessor that there was one man whom he had resolved to kill. The confession being betrayed to Philip, he exclaimed ; '• I am the man whose life he seeks ! but I will take care to prevent the execution of his designs." Philip did nothing without consulting the Holy office. De Foix was ordered to arrest the action of the pulleys, which closed the door of the prince's chamber. This he did privately, and with so much skill, that the prince never perceived it. He slept soundly on the night of the 18th of January, 1568, when the count of Lerma first entered his apartment, silently removed all separate weapons, and sat down upon the chest which contained the remainder. The king then entered, preceded by Ruy Go- mez de Silva, the duke of Feria, and several other noblemen, Don Carlos being still buried in sleep. Being awaked, and seeing the king, his father, he exclaimed; " I am lost;" and prayed for death. Philip coldly replied that his life was not in danger; ordered him to rise; removed his attendants, seized a casket filled with papers, which was under the bed, charged those whom he entrusted with the care of the prince not to lose sight of him, and to prevent his writing or communicating with any one, and withdrew. The guards of Don Carlos dressed him in black. They removed the bed itself, leaving CAR 160 CAR only a small trundle-bed in its place. Don Carlos, hurried by despair to madness, caused a large fire to be built, under pretence of cold, and threw himself into it, hoping to perish in the flames. It required the utmost exertions of his guards to save him. He attempted to destroy himself by hunger, thirst, and excess in eating. He endeavored also to choke himself by swallowing a large diamond which be wore about him. Philip is said to have discovered in the casket, which was found concealed under the bed of Don Carlos, communications with the rebels of the Netherlands, and a secret cor- respondence with the queen, which left no doubt of his attachment to the princess, and of the existence of a reciprocal passion. The ex- cessive precautions which Philip took to justify his conduct, have disposed posterity to judge favorably of Don Carlos. It is certain that many of the most influential grandees of Spain vainly petitioned for his liberation. Some historians are of opinion that Carlos was condemned to death by the inquisition, that the sentence was secretly executed, that the prince partook of some poisoned broth, and died a few hours afterwards. Some believe that his veins were opened in the bath, others that he was strangled ; while Ferreras and the Spanish historians in general, pretend that he died of a malignant fever, occasioned by an improper regimen, and by violent fits of pas- sion ; that he received the last sacraments with piety, and wished to have the blessing of his father. It is difficult to determine the manner or date of the prince's death, but we incline to refer it to the 24th of July, 15(38. The same year Elizabeth died, aged 23, but her deatli was natural and had no connexion with the fate of Don Carlos. We do not know how much faith to repose in the Spanish historians, who defend the memory of Philip, as the protector of reli- gion, and represent his son as a languid mem- ber of the church, a partisan of the revolted calvinists of the Netherlands, and, above all, a determined opponent of the inquisition. CARNOT, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite; born in Burgundy, 1753. He was distinguished for his mathematical abilities, and in the revo- lution, commenced his career as captain of a corps of engineers. He voted for the death of the king. Carnot distinguished himself in a military and civil capacity, but was obliged to leave Paris, June 18th, 1799 ; being soon after recalled, he was made, in April, 1800, minister of war. He was a firm republican, opposed the ambitious views of Napoleon, and equally so the attempts of the royalists. He died at Mag- deburg, August 3, 1823. Carnot was a man of integrity and talents, brave, learned, and patri- otic, and honored by all parties. CAROLINA, North, is bounded on the north by Virginia, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by South Carolina, and on the west by Tennessee. It is of considerable ex- tent, comprising 50,000 square miles, with a population, in 1830, of 737,987 souls, of whom 245,600 are slaves, and 19,543 free blacks. The state is divided into 64 counties, and Raleigh is the seat of government. This place is pleas- antly situated. A Senate and House of Com- mons, are the legislative branches of govern- ment. Education is by no means neglected in North Carolina, there being several respectable academies at various places, and, at Chapel Hill, an institution styled the University of North Carolina, which is well endowed and in high repute. The face of the country is ex- tremely diversified, — a wide belt, skirting the sea, is perfectly level, while, in other parts, the surface is broken and rough, presenting, in some places, considerable elevations. One of these is Pilot Mountain, or Ararat, which is of a py- ramidal form, and almost a mile in height, ter- minating in a wide and level area, commanding a most imposing view of the surrounding coun- try. The coast of North Carolina is well defended by capes .and shoals, which are, however, for- midable to friend as well as foe. The names of some of these indicate the terror they excite. This state contains a portion of that swamp which is justly called the Great Dismal Swamp, a marshy tract whose low brush-wood, in many parts impenetrable, covers a space of nearly thirty miles in extent. Parts of the soil are ex- tremely productive, and the earth has been late- ly found to possess a treasure in gold mines of considerable extent and value. The commerce of this state is not extensive, but many of the planters are very wealthy. The earliest attempt to colonize North Caro- lina was made by the English in 1587, but the feeble colony which was left on the Roanoke, perished either from want, or from the incur- sions of hostile Indians, as they were never af- terwards heard of. The first permanent set- tlement was made near Albemarle Sound by some planters from Virginia, in 1650. The name of Carolina was given to the country by the French, in honor of Charles IX, in whose reign they unsuccessfully attempted the coloni- zation of the North American coast. In 1661 CAR 161 CAR a colony from Massachusetts arrived here. It was not without many struggles that the colony obtained a representative government, nor until it had undergone many fluctuations, that the constitution was firmly established. Besides the agitation produced by conflicting political schemes, the hostility of the Indians caused the colonists no little suffering and loss. Jn 1717 Carolina, by purchase, became a royal govern- ment, and continued so until 1775, when it warmly espoused the cause of liberty, but suf- fered less than other states, on account of the forbidding aspect of its guarded coast. Decem- ber 18, 1776, the present constitution was adopt- ed. The Carolinas had been separated in 1720. CAROLINA, South; bounded north by North Carolina, east by the Atlantic, southwest and west by Georgia, containing (in 1830), 581,185 inhabitants, of whem 315,400 are slaves, and 7,920 free colored people. This state is of less extent than North Carolina, having an area of 30,000 square miles. The legislative pow- er is vested in a Senate and House of Repre- sentatives. Columbia, 120 miles northwest of Charleston, is the seat of government, but the latter is the largest town in the state. The inhabitants differ but little from those of other southern states. The rich planters are fond of ease and pleasure, but generous, hos- pitable, frank and brave. The soil in many parts is rich, producing cotton and rice, which are the staple commodities, but adapted to various kinds of agriculture. A tract of great breadth, bounded on the east by the sea, is perfectly level, but proceeding inland, we observe the land to become more elevated, and gradually to present an undulating and broken appearance. The low lands are an unhealthy residence, but in the upper regions the inhabitants enjoy a sa- lubrious climate. South Carolina was granted to lord Claren- don and others, in 1663, but no permanent establishment was made until 1680. It was formed into a separate government in 1729, and the present constitution was adopted in 1790. During the revolutionary war, this state was distinguished for its exertions in the good cause, which owed much to the bravery of Marion, the celebrated partisan leader, Sumpter and Lee, all of whom were worthy of the military reputation they enjoyed. With few exceptions, the state has enjoyed tranquillity from the pe- riod of the revolution, and the course of go- vernment has been impeded by few obstacles. The legislative appropriations for the support of education are extremely liberal, and do honor to the slate. More than 30,000 dollars are ex- pended annually for the support of free schools, and South Carolina College (Columbia) is libe- rally patronised. CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of George IV of England, was born in May, 1768. She was the daughter of the duke of Bruns- wick, and in 1795 became the bride of the prince of Wales. Her daughter, the princess Charlotte, died at an early age, regretted by all. The prince abandoned Caroline, and, in order to procure her ruin, accused her of infidelity. The trial of the unhappy queen reflects disgrace upon the profligate prince. She refused the of- fers which were made to induce her to quit England with the empty name of que en, but she asserted her rights with dignity and firmness. She finally succumbed under the persecution of her enemies, and died, Aug. 1821. CARRIER, John Baptist, originally an ob- scure attorney, rose to infamous notoriety in the French revolution. Under his direction, the greatest cruelties were perpetrated, and 15,000 individuals perished in little more than a month. He was finally apprehended and condemned to death by the revolutionary tribunal, Dec. 16. 1794. CARROL, Charles, one of the signers of the declaration of Independence, who died at an advanced age, at Carrolton, Md. in 1832. He was possessed of considerable wealth, at the breaking out of the American revolution, and as he advanced to sign the immortal document, a member sportively remarked : — " There goes half a million at the dash of a pen." But his wealth vanished from his view, when he looked upon the interests of his country. CARTER, Elizabeth, an English literary lady, daughter of a clergyman of Kent, born in 1717. She was versed in languages, being ac- quainted with Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and Ara- bic. Her early poems, published in periodicals before her 17th year, gained great applause. In 1749, her translation of Epictetus was commenc- ed. She died in 1806, having enjoyed a high lite- rary reputation, and the esteem of all who knew her. The following tribute to her worth and talents will not be thought unmerited. Among the unmarried ladies of the last century, Miss Carter, by seniority and learning, is justly enti- tled to precedence ; and were we to decide on the comparative happiness of married or single authoresses, from the individual examples of this lady, and her excellent friend Catharine Talbot, we should have no hesitation in pro- CAR 162 CAR nouncing for the spinster's choice. Without rank and affluence, the translatress of Epicte- tus appears to have constantly revolved in the orbit of peace and equanimity ; alternately the pupil of her father, and the preceptress of her brothers, she enjoyed the privileges of home without its restrictions, tasted all the sweets of friendship, unimbittered by jealousy, and, what is more extraordinary, attracted the homage of the great, without submitting to humiliation or incurring reproach. Among the causes of this rare felicity, something may be ascribed to a philosophic temperament, and still more to strict moral discipline, eminently distinguished by directness and steadiness of purpose. To the latest period of her existence (she died in her 89th year), she retained her aptitude to study, and even persevered in the laudable habit of yielding a portion of every day to classical lite- rature. Nor did she ever cease to cherish that spirit of independence that taught her to value the privileges of home. In her annual visits to the metropolis, she resisted every solicitation to do- mesticate herself in the mansions of the great, choosing rather to return to her plain lodging, where she enjoyed in its full extent, the pri- vileges of her own fireside. It would not be easy to find a female character exactly corres- ponding with that of Miss Carter ; perhaps the portrait of the princess Palatine, the friend of Penn and Descartes, offers the closest resem- blance ; and, like madame Dacier, her prevail- ing quality was modesty. To her learning, An- cient Greece, would, perhaps, have raised a votive statue; in Rome her accomplishments would have been eulogized in a funeral oration ; in modern Italy her rare attainments might have secured her progress to academic honors. In England not even a funeral tribute was offered to her memory, no enthusiasm being there in- spired by a female scholar. The purity of her character, her moral worth, her benevolence and dignity, are justly valued. As the translatress of Epictetus, she is cer- tainly less popularly admired, than as the cor- respondent of Miss Talbot and Mrs. Montague ; and the charm of this epistolary collection con- sists in the living sketches which it offers of those who have gone before us, and who, in many respects, are essentially different from the pre- sent age. Curiosity is at once stimulated and gratified by the careless, yet faithful portraiture which these volumes present to us, of bishops and generals and scholars ; fine gentlemen and elegant ladies, strikingly different from those we are now accustomed to meet in parallel lines of society. CARTHAGE, a celebrated city of Africa, the rival of Rome, and long the mistress of Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia. The precise time of its foundation is unknown, yet most writers agree that it was built by Dido about 869 years before the Christian era, or, according to others, 72 or 93 years before the foundation of Rome. This city and republic flourished for several centuries, and attained the zenith of its glory under Hannibal and Hamilcar. During the first Punic war it contained no fewer than 7UO,O0U inhabitants. It maintained three famous wars against Rome, called the Punic wars, in the third of which it was totally destroyed by Scipio, the second Africanus, B. C. 140, and only 5000 inhabitants were found with- in the walls. It was 23 miles in circumference, and when it was set on fire by the Romans, it burned incessantly for 17 days. After the de- struction of Carthage, Utica became powerful, and the Romans thought themselves secure ; and as they had no rival to dispute with them in the field, they fell into indolence and inacti- vity. Caesar planted a small colony on the ruins of Carthage, and Augustus sent thither 3000 men. Adrian, after the example of his impe- rial predecessors, rebuilt a portion of it, and gave it the name of Adrianopolis. Carthage was conquered from the Romans by the arms of Genseric, A. D. 439, and it was for more than a century the seat of the Vandal em- pire in Africa, and fell into the hands of the Sa- racens, in the 7th century. Carthage was gov- erned as a republic, and had two persons chosen annually, with supreme authority. The Car- thagenians were very superstitious, and offered human victims to their gods; an unnatural cus- tom, which their allies vainly endeavored to induce them to abolish. Their riches and com- merce were immense, and their naval power, at one time, supreme. They bore the character of a faithless and treacherous people, and the proverb Punka fides (Carthagenian faith), is well known. CAR1HAGENA, a sea-port of Spain, and one of the finest ports in the Mediterranean. It is on the east of Murcia, and contains 37,000 inhabitants. It was taken by the Romans un- der Scipio, notwithstanding the defence of the Carthagenians, A. D. 554. The commerce of Carthagena suffered greatly during the domina- tion of the Moors, but it was partially restored by the exertions of Philip II of Spain. CARTHAGENA, a sea-port of New Grena- CAS 163 CAS da, South America, and capital of the province of Carlhagena. It is situated on an island, with a fine harbor, some handsome edifices, and 20,000 inhabitants. CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Connecti- cut, in 1732. He served in the expedition against Canada, and, on the conclusion of peace in 1763, set forth with the intent of exploring the territory acquired by Great Britain, beyond the Mississippi. He did not accomplish his object, but made himself acquainted with re- gions then and still comparatively unknown. He went to England, but was obliged to deliver up his maps and papers to the plantation -office. Having kept copies, however, he published them at Boston, where he died in want, 1780, aged 48 years. CAREY, Lucius, Viscount Falkland, a young English nobleman, who was born in 1610. His juvenile irregularities were terminated by an early marriage with a young lady to whom he was sincerely attached. In parliament he dis- tinguished himself by an independent course, although he ultimately espoused the royal cause, and perished at the battle of Newbury, at the age of 34. His private character endeared him to all. He was fond of study, and once observ- ed: "I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy day." His literary remains add to his general reputation. CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman empe- ror, was born at Narbonne, about the year 230. He rose to a military command by his virtues, and was elected emperor on the death of Pro- bus, in 283. He defeated the Sarmatians and Persians, and was killed the same year, by light- ning, according to some ; but according to oth- ers, he perished in the flames of his tent, which was consumed by the work of an incendiary. CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish pre- late, the apostle of the Indians, came to Ameri- ca with Columbus, but returned, and having distinguished himself in his theological studies, was rewarded with preferment. His life was passed in laboring to protect and improve the natives of the New World, and he received the grateful title of 'protector of the Indians. CASHMERE, a province of the Seik con- federacy, in Asia, containing 2,000,000 inhabit- ants. It is surrounded by the Himmalaya and Hindoo*Koh mountains, and abounds with the most striking and romantic views. The air is temperate, and, from the profusion of its flow- ers, the fertility of its soil, and the variety of its productions, it is most justly called the paradise of India. The religion is that of Brama, the inhabitants being Hindoos, although their mas- ters, the Afghans, are professed Mohammedans. Cashmere, the capital, on the Behat, contains 200,000 inhabitants. The shawls of Cashmere are the most splendid and costly. CASIMIR. The name of several kings of Poland. Casimir the Great, succeeded Ladis- laus in 1333. He took several places from John, king of Bohemia, successfully opposed the Teu- tonic knights, and made himself master of Lit- tle Russia. He united to his warlike qualities, many of the virtues of a great monarch, and, from his devotion to their interests, was called Peasants' King. He died in 1370. CASSANDRA, also, Alexandria, daughter of Hecuba and Priam, king of Troy. She re- ceived the gift of prophecy from Apollo, who loved her, but as she refused to fulfil the condi- tions upon which the knowledge was imparted, the offended deity deprived her predictions of the power of commanding belief. Thus, when she foretold the fall of Troy, her words were discre- dited. Troy was taken, Cassandra dishonored at the altar by Ajax, and afterwards dragged away as the slave and companion of Agamemnon, with whom she was slain by Clytemnestra, but not until she had become the mother of the twins Teledamus and Pelops. CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, was the friend of Brutus, and opposed to the interests of Cfesar, to whom, however, he surrendered after the battle of Pharsalia. When he perceived that Caesar aimed at supreme power, he joined the conspiracy. " The lean and hungry Cas- sius," as Shakspeare calls him, was among the first to strike the master of the world with his dagger. He married the sister of Brutus, and in the distribution of the provinces, obtained Africa as his share. He was defeated with Brutus at Philippi, and killed himself, B. C. 42. CASTILE, a province of Spain, which is subdivided into the intendancies of Madrid, Guadalaxara, Cuenca, Toledo, and La Mancha, whose capitals have the same name with the ex- ception of the last, of which Ciudad Rodrigo is the capital. The climate of this province is temperate, and the soil is naturally productive, although the scattered inhabitants pay but little attention to agriculture. Old Castile, another province of Spain, is of the same length as New Castile, 220 miles, but only 120 broad, while the latter is 160 miles in breadth. It is subdivided into the intendancies of Avila, Segovia, Soria, and Burgos. The united population of Old and New Castile is 2,177,800. CASTINE, a sea-port town of Maine, and CAT 164 CAT capital of Hancock county. In 1830 it had 1,155 inhabitants. Its trade is flourishing. CATALINE, Lucius Sergius, a celebrated Roman, descended from a noble family. When he had squandered away his fortune by his de- baucheries and extravagance, and been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin of his country, and conspired with many high- born Romans, as dissolute as himself, to murder the Senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whose eloquence at this crisis will never be forgotten. Cataline, after he had declared his intentions in the full senate, and attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, fled to Gaul, where his friends were raising a powerful army to support him. The remaining conspirators were punished. Petreius, at the head of the consular troops, defeated the rebels in Etruria, Jan. 5, B. C. 62, in a hotly contested battle which cost Cataline his life. The crimes of this man were of the blackest dye, murder and licentiousness marking every stage of his career. CATALONIA, anciently Tarraconensis, a fertile province of Spain, bounded north by France, east and southeast by the Mediterra- nean, southwest by Valencia, and west by Ar- ragon. Its form is that of a triangle. Some idea of its extent may be formed from the amount of its population, which has been esti- mated at 858,818. CATANIA, anciently Catana, a city of Sicily, 47 miles southwest of Messina, with a population of 50,000. It is situated at the foot of mount iEtna, and is subject to earthquakes, one of which, occurring in 1693 destroyed 18,000 people, and by overwhelming the old city in lava, laid the foundation for the present city, which contains several large public buildings. The principal exports are grain, oil, wine, &c. CATHARINE, the daughter of Charles VI of France, was claimed by the victorious Hen- ry V of England, whose hand she accepted. After the death of Henry, she became the wife of Owen Tudor, and had a son named Edmund, who became the father of Henry VII. She died in 1431. CATHARINE of Anagon, youngest daugh- ter of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Arragon and Castile, was born in 1483. In 1501 she was married to Arthur, son of Henry VII, and on his death, five months after, to Henry, prince of Wales, afterwards Henry VIII. By him she had several children, who died young, with the exception of Mary, afterwards queen of England. Henry repudiated her on pretence of religious scruples grounded on her former marriage. She maintained her rights with dig- nity, and died at Kimbolton castle, in 1536. CATHARINE De Medici, the only daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino, and wife of Henry, duke of Orleans, son of Francis I. She was the mother of three successive kings of France, and one Queen of Navarre. In 1559 she became a widow, and her son Francis succeeded to the throne, during whose reign, her influence was supplanted by the Guises. On the accession of her other son, Charles IX, in his eleventh year, she acquired the chief au- thority, and brought eternal infamy on her name by her horrible tre^phery to the Huguenots, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day. She died in 1589. She was very extravagant, seem- ingly incapable of setting bounds to her expen- ditures. When upbraided with her prodigality she would exclaim : " One must live !" She was stained with many and most odious vices. CATHARINE I, empress of Russia, the most noted female sovereign of modern days. Her early history is involved in great obscurity. It is said that she was a peasant-girl of Livonia, born about 1686, and that having lost her pa- rents at an early age, she was taken under the protection of a respectable clergyman who super- intended her education till his death. She then travelled to Marienburg to seek her fortune, and there married a Swedish dragoon, who was killed on the very day of their nuptials, at the siege of that place in 1702. From the hands of one of the Russian officers, she passed into those of prince Meazikoff, who found it useful to his political designs to introduce her to the Czar Peter. She first became his mistress, and after- wards his wife, and although she was suspected of infidelity, she was left, at his death, possessor of the throne, and was declared empress in 1725. She carried into execution the great designs which had been left unfinished by her husband, and died in 1727, being then but forty-two years old : intemperance, however, is supposed to have shortened her days. CATHARINE II, empress of Russia, born in 1729, was the daughter of the prince of An- halt-Zerbst, and originally named Sophia Au- gusta. Her talents were of the highest order. Soon after her marriage with the grand duke of Russia, in 1745, that prince suspecting her of infidelity, formed an attachment to the daugh- ter of Count Woronzoff, and, on his accession to the throne in 1761, discovered his intention CAT 165 CAT of divorcing Catharine, and marrying the ob- ject of his illicit passion. At this juncture a conspiracy was formed between Catharine and the army ; Peter was surprised, compelled to sign a renunciation of the throne, kept as a prisoner, and soon after strangled. History evidently clears Catharine of a direct participa- tion in this crime, though the impunity of the murderers proves that she did not regret its commission. She, however, countenanced the friends of Peter, and pardoned the countess of WoronzotF. At the commencement of her reign she con- ciliated the affections of her subjects, and cul- tivated the arts of peace; in 1764, her favorite, Poniatowski, was crowned king of Poland, and Ivan, who had been 18 years in a state of mental imbecility, died in prison. In 1768, she enter- ed into war with the Porte, which she termin- ated with reputation and advantage in ] 774 ; and having quelled a revolt under the cossack Pugatscheff, devoted herself to the improve- ment and prosperity of her kingdom. In 1780 ehe engaged in the armed neutrality to protect the trade in the Baltic. In 1783 she seized on the Crimea, and having formed a league with Ger- many, intimidated the Porte from making re- prisals. At length, however, war was declared, Oczakow was stormed, Ismael taken after a sanguinary struggle, the Turkish force in the Black Sea destroyed, and a peace concluded which guaranteed Oczakow to the empress. Her last great measure was the reducing and dismemberment of Poland, in consequence of a revolt. She was a woman the brilliancy of whose talents was obscured by the indulgence of many gross propensities. She died of apo- plexy, Nov., 1796. CATO, Marcus Portius, commonly called the Censor, was born at Tusculum, 232 B. C. He dis- tinguished himself in the army at the age of 17, and was remarkable for his temperance and abstinence. In Sicily and Africa, as military tribune and quasstor, he was noted for the fidel- ity with which he discharged his duties. Being chosen censor, he opposed Valerius Flaccus, his colleague, in his attempt to repeal the Oppian law, which was once passed for the suppres- sion of luxury. He conducted the war in fur- ther Spain with great success, and took no part of the spoils to his own share. On his ar- rival at Rome he was honored with a triumph. As consul he manifested his dislike to luxury, >n whatever shape it was presented. He also distinguished himself by his hatred to Car- Jiage, always concluding his speeches in the senate with the expression. " Preterea censeo Carthaginem esse delendam." (Besides I think it necessary to destroy Carthage.) He died B. C. 147. In his old age he gave himself up to social enjoyments. CATO, Marcus Portius, surnamed of Utica (Uticensis) from the place of his death, was the great-grandson of the preceding, and born about 93 B. C. The virtues he displayed in his early childhood seemed to prognosticate his future greatness. At the age of fourteen, he earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword to stab the tyrant Sylla. He served in the army against the insurgent gladiator Spartacus, and though his services entitled him to the office of tribune, he never applied for it, till he saw it in danger of being filled unworthily. He was very jealous of the safety and liberty of the republic, and watched carefully over the conduct of Pompey, whose power and influence were great. In the conspiracy of Cataline he supported Cicero, and was instrumental in procuring the capital pun- ishment of the conspirators. When the provinces of Gaul were decreed for five years to Caesar, Cato observed to the sen- ators, that they had introduced a tyrant into the capital. Being sent to Cyprus against Ptolemy, by the influence of his enemies, who hoped to injure his reputation, his prudence extricated hiin from every danger. That prince submitted to him, and, after a successful campaign, Cato was received at Rome with the most distin- guished honors, which he, however, modestly declined. He strenuously opposed the first tri- umvirate between Caesar, Pompey, and Cras- sus, and foretold to the Roman people all the misfortunes that soon after followed. After re- peated applications he was made pretor, but un- successfully applied for the office of consul. When Caesar had passed the Rubicon, Cato advised the Roman senate to deliver the care of the republic into the hands of Pompey, and when his advice had been complied with, fol- lowed him with his son to Dyrrachium, where, after some inconsiderable success there, he was entrusted with the care of the ammunition, and the command of 15 cohorts. After the battle of Pharsalia, Cato took command of the fleet, and when he heard of Pompey 's death on the coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of Libya, to join himself to Scipio. He, however, refused to take the command in Africa, but when he heard of Scipio's defeat, fortified him- self in Utica. Caesar approached the city, but Cato disdained to fly, and strengthening his resolution by reading Plato's treatise on the CEC 166 CEL immortality of the soul, gave himself the fatal wound, B. C. 44. Csesar, on hearing of his fate, exclaimed : " I envy thee thy death, since thou couldst begrudge me the pleasure of saving thy life." Lucan mentions this virtuous Roman in the following line : Victrix causa displacuit, sed victa Catoni: which is thus literally rendered in prose — The successful cause pleased the gods, but the un- successful Cato. A statue was erected to his memory in Utica. CAUCASUS, a vast chain of mountains in Western Asia, inhabited by a great variety of tribes. It is of immense extent, lying between the Black and Caspian seas, and covering 127,1 40 square miles, being 644 miles long, and, at the widest, 184 miles broad. CAVENDISH, William, the first duke of De- vonshire, was born in 1640. He distinguished himself in the house of commons against the court, and was a witness in favor of Lord Rus- sell, with whom he offered to exchange clothes to enable him to effect his escape. In 1684 he succeeded to the title of earl of Devonshire, and about the same time was fined £30,000 and imprisoned in the king's bench for assaulting Col. Culpepper, who had insulted him, and whom he dragged by the nose from the pres- ence chamber. He gave bond for the payment of the fine, which, however, he saved by the arrival of the prince of Orange. In 1689 he was made a privy-counsellor, and at the coro- nation of William he served as lord-high-stew- ard. He was rewarded with the title of duke of Devonshire, and during the king's absence, after the death of the queen, was appointed one of the regency. He died in 1707. CAXTON, William, an Englishman who introduced the art of printing into his native country in 1474. He died in 1492. CAYENNE, or French Guiana, a French colony in South America. It is hounded as follows ; north and northeast by the Atlantic ocean, east and south by Brazil, and west by Dutch Guiana. Population 18,400. Beside the main production, Cayenne pepper , this province yields sugar, cotton, coffee, cocoa, indigo, maize, cassia, and vanilla. The French colonized Cay- enne in 1635. After having fallen into the hands of the Eng- lish and the Dutch, it revolted to its original possessors in 1677. CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, a celebrat- ed statesman, born in 1521. He was dismissed from the office which he held under Henry VIII, upon the accession of Mary, but held several appointments under Elizabeth. After being privy-counsellor, secretary of state, and master of the court of wards, he was chosen chancellor of Cambridge, and raised to the peer- age. He died in 1598 CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, son of the preceding, on account of his deformity, and weak constitution, received the rudiments of his education at home. In 1588 he served in the fleet against the Spanish Armada, and in 1591 was knighted, and sworn of the privy- council. In 1596 he was appointed secretary of state, to the great disgust of the earl of Essex. The year following he was ambassador in France, and in 1599 succeeded his father in the court of wards. He kept up a secret cor- respondence with king James, whom he pro- claimed on the death of Elizabeth, in conse- quence of which he became the favorite of that monarch. On the death of earl Dorset, in 1608, he became lord high treasurer, discharging the duties of the office with fidelity, and dying from excessive exertion in 1612. CECILIA. One of the Romish saints of this name is considered the inventor of the organ, and is said to have suffered martyrdom A. D. 220. CECROPS,a native of Sais, in Egypt, came to Attica 1550 B. C. founded the city of Athens, instructed the uncivilized Greeks, introduced the worship of Minerva, and laid the foundation of the future prosperity of Greece. He died after a reign of 50 years. CELEBES, an island in the East Indian Ocean, 500 miles long, and 200 broad, contain- ing several separate states. The fruits and flowers of this island are abundant, and num- bers of wild animals are found here. The Dutch who possess a part of the island, obtain here gold, ivory, sandal wood, rice, cotton, camphor, ginger, iong pepper, and pearls. CELLINI, Benvenuto, united the talents and skill of a sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith. He was born in Florence in 1500, and enriched his native city with his works. Wild, fiery, and impetuous, although honest, he was frequently involved in quarrels in which he entirely dis- regarded the rank and strength of his oppo- nents. At the siege of Rome, according to his own account, he killed the constable of Bour- bon. Although he behaved with gallantry dur- ing the siege, he was accused of secreting the Roman crown jewels, and imprisoned. Francis 1, having procured his release, invited him to the French court, but Florence was not to be forgot- CER 167 CER ten by the sculptor, and thither he returned, and died in 1570. CELSUS, a Roman medical writer and prac- titioner, who flourished in the Augustan age. CELTVE, one of the ancient nations of Gal- lia, whose country extended from Brittany to the Alps and Rhine. Their government was aristocratical, and their aptitude for warlike pursuits great. CELTIBERIA, an ancient country in the N. E. part of Spain along the Iberus. The Celti- berians were completely subdued by the Ro- mans in the Sertorian war. CENTAURS, an ancient people of Thessaly on Mount Pelion. As little was known with re- gard to their actual history, they formed the favorite theme of writers of fable, and tradition- ary tales, being represented as half horse and half man, and being, according to some, the offspring of an intermixture of the human and brute races, or, according to others, the child- ren of Ixion and the Cloud. They were prob- ably young men who, having learned to break and ride horses, hunted the wild bulls that rav- aged the neighborhood of Mt. Pelion, during the reign of Ixion. Hence they were called Centaurs. In fables, Hercules, Theseus, and Pirithous, are said to have contended against them. CENTRAL AMERICA, formerly the king- dom of Guatimala, is bounded N. by Mexico and the bay of Honduras, E. by the Carribbean sea, and the province of Veragna, and S. W. by the Atlantic ocean, and has a population of 2,000,000. The country is mountainous, con- taining numerous volcanic summits, the soil fertile, and the products various. The republic is a confederacy consisting of the states of Gua- timala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and declared itself independent in 1821, after some sanguinary struggles. The original inhabitants were the Toltecas Indians from Mexico, whom it was found no easy task by the Spaniards to expel. These people, like the Mexicans, had made considerable advances in the arts, as their buildings of various des- criptions proved. CERBERUS, a three-headed dog, with snaky hair, the offspring of Echidna, and the giant Typhon, and the untamed guardian of the gate of hell. Hercules subdued him, although the furies could not. CERIGO, a small island in the Mediterra- nean, near the Morea, and belonging to the Ionian republic, it was anciently called Cythera, and was sacred to Venus. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Michael, was born of a noble family, at Alcala de Henares, in New Castile, in 1547. He early cultivated poetry, and preserved, throughout his life, a strong inclination for the muses. In 1569, Cervantes, in the flower of his age, went to seek in Italy, glory or fortune. He first enter- ed the service of Cardinal Acquaviva, in the capacity of page. The war between the grand seignior and the Venetians, offered him a field more worthy of his birth and courage. He was enrolled beneath the banners of the duke of Paliano, Mark Antony Colonna, general of the naval force sent to succor the island of Cyprus. This expedition was unfortunate ; but, in the following year, the victory of Lepanto reestab- lished the naval honor of Christendom, and Cervantes lost his left hand in this engagement whose glory he shared. In 1575 he was taken by a corsair and carried to Algiers, where he suffered the evils of slavery for six years. The tale of The Captive, inserted in his novel of Don Quixotte describes vividly the scenes through which he passed. His marriage followed close upon the publication of Galatea, in 1584. This novel celebrates his mistress Catharine Salazer y Palacios. His pen then became the only sup- port of Cervantes. The gloomy reign of Philip II, and that of his successor Philip III, were unfavorable to the efforts of genius, but while the latter of these monarchs filled the throne, the inimitable novel of Don Quixotte made its appearance. The first part appeared at Madrid, in 1605, and the second in 1615. The other works of Cervantes are forgotten in the contem- plation of this. The history of the knight of La Mancha still excites the interest of people of all countries, of all ranks, and of all ages. Who delights not to recall his principal adventures — the at- tack on the windmills — the affair of the puppets — the affray with the wine-skins — the vigil of arms — the scene of his studies ? This celebrat- ed work was written in prison, Cervantes hav- ing become obnoxious to the authorities of La Mancha, who procured his imprisonment by the employment of one of the thousand arts known to the civil functionaries of Spain. He revenged himself by making his hero a towns- man of his judges, and in choosing their coun- try for the theatre of his exploits. Cervantes died at Madrid, on the 23d of April, 1616, in his 69th year. He was interred pursuant to his own directions, in the church of the fraternity of the trinity in that city. His intimate friends mourned for the virtuous citizen, and the man CHA 168 CHA of worth. The wits of his day, who had decri- ed his talents, did not consider his loss an irre- parable one, and were far enough from believ- ing that Spain would one day have only the romance of Don Quixotte to oppose to the mas- ter-works of other nations. CEUTA, anciently Septa, a town of Fez, on the African coast of the Mediterranean, with 8,000 inhabitants. It is opposite to Gibraltar, and belongs to Spain, although gained by the Portuguese in 1415. CE VENNES, or Sevennes, a chain of moun- tains in the south of France, forming a branch of the Alps ; the highest summits are somewhat more than 6,200 feet high. CEYLON, or Seilan, an island on the Coro- mandel coast. The climate is generally healthy, the soil fertile, and the variety of its productions surprising. In the bosom of the earth are found precious metals, the rocks are enriched with valuable gems, and the tropical fruits grow wild here. About 340,000 pounds of cinnamon are annually exported to England. In the re- cesses of the forests are found elephants, leop- ards, jackalls, monkeys, &c. The number of inhabitants exceeds 31,000,000. The Cinga- lese, who form a portion, are divided into castes like the Hindoos, and profess the religion of Buddha. " Ceylon," says bishop Heber " might be one of the happiest, as it is one of the loveli- est, spots in the universe, if some of the old Dutch laws were done away, among which, in my judgment, the most obnoxious are the mo- nopoly of Cinnamon, and the compulsory labor of the peasants on the high roads, and other species of corvdes." The Portuguese, who early settled here, so exasperated the natives, that the Cingalese took part with the Dutch, who succeeded in expelling them in 1656. The Dutch, being regarded in the light of benefactors, were re- warded with lavish grants of territory, but repaid kindness by ingratitude, and bloody wars arose, in which the Europeans were invariably victorious. In 1795, the English took posses- sion of this island, which was formerly ceded to them in 1802, and completely subjected in 1815. CHALDiEA, an ancient country of Asia, near the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates ; it was the southerly part of Babylonia, and was extremely fertile. The Chaldeans were an Asiatic tribe originally, and possessed great astronomical knowledge. It was they w r ho founded the mighty empires of Babylon and Asyria. The knowledge, of which they boasted, was eventually confined to the priests, who added to their sciences the arts of prophecy, magic, &c. CHALONS. The name of two considerable cities in France, Chalons-sur-Saone, and Cha- lons-sur-Marne, situated on the Saone and Marne. The last mentioned and most import- ant, contains 12,413 inhabitants, and was an- ciently called Catalaunum. CHAMPAGNE, formerly a province of France, now forming several departments. It is highly fertile and produces fine wines ; it contains 1,200,000 inhabitants, and is 195 miles long, and 135 broad. CHAMPE, John, a native of Loudon county (Va.). At the age of 24, in the year 1776, he entered the revolutionary army with the rank of sergeant-major, in Lee's cavalry. His repu- tation for resolution and address was such, that he was selected to attempt the seizure of Ar- nold, that the execution of the traitor might save the life of Andre. His orders were given him, he left the American camp as a deserter, arrived at New York after a perilous journey, and, after being closely examined by Sir Henry Clinton, was admitted to serve under him. He failed in the attempt to accomplish his object, and went to Virginia with the royal troops. Escaping, he rejoined his friends, after many hardships. When Washington took command of the army, during the administration of Pre- sident Adams, it was his intention to bring Champe into the field at the head of a company, but he learned to his grief, that the gallant fel- low had died in Kentucky. CHAMPLAIN, Samuel de ; a French naval officer, who founded Quebec and Montreal in Canada, of which he was governor-general. He died in 1634. CHAMPLAIN, a lake of the United States, lying between New York and Vermont, 130 miles long, and from 1 to 15 miles broad. The Richelieu or Sorelle forms the outlet by which its waters are discharged into the St. Lawrence. Here, on the 11th of September, 1814, Com. Macdonough, the commander of an American fleet, gained a complete victory over the British. CHAMPOLLION (the younger), a French- man, who has done more than any other man of science towards explaining hieroglyphics of Egypt. His death, in 1832, in the midst of his triumphant researches, was regretted as an almost irreparable loss. CHANTREY, Francis, a distinguished Eng- lish sculptor, whose peculiar talent was devel- oped at an early age. His works are numerous ; j CHA 169 CHA one of them, a statue of Washington, is placed in the State-house at Boston. CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina, the seat of the university of North Carolina, a well-endowed and respecta- ble institution. CHARLEROI, or Charles sur Sambre, a town in the Belgian province of Hainau, for- merly Charnoy ; contains 3,744 inhabitants. It was founded by Charles, king of Spain, in 1666. After passing successively from Spain to France, and Austria, it remained in the hands of France, after the battle of Fleurus, until 1814. In 1815, Bonaparte chose this place as the first point of attack on the Prussians, who were driven from it, June 15, and compelled to retreat to Fleu- rus. CHARLES I, called Charlemagne, a com- pound word, signifying Charles the Great, king of France, emperor of the East, was born in 742, at the chateau of Saltzburg, in Upper Ba- varia. He was the son of queen Bertrade and Pepin the Short, on the death of whom, in 768, he was crowned king, sharing France with Carloman, his younger brother; but the condi- tions of the partition were frequently changed without ever giving mutual satisfaction, and the nobles, who had long sought to weaken the royal authority, would, without doubt, have profited by the animosity which existed between these two princes, if the death of Carloman, which took place in 771, had not given Charle- magne an opportunity of becoming sole king of France, by preventing the succession of his nephews. Their mother fled with them to Italy, and found a protector in Desiderius, king of the Lombards. They fell into the hands of Charlemagne, on the taking of Verona, and of their future fate, history says nothing. If Pepin had need of courage, activity and extreme prudence to found a new dominion, Charlemagne found it necessary to enchain the minds of men by fear and admiration, for the means employed to effect usurpation, had en- feebled the sovereign power. The people of Aquitania were the first who tried to aim at independence. Charlemagne marched against them with a small force, but he relied upon Carloman, his brother, to whom a part of Aquitania belonged, and who, in con- sequence, was compelled to unite with him. Carloman found him at the appointed spot, at the head of his troops, but fearing to fall before the power of his brother, Carloman hastily retraced his steps. Abandoned thus, unexpect- edly, in a manner which could not fail to en- courage the rebels, Charlemagne did not hesi- tate for a moment : without considering the number of his followers, nor that of his enemies, he pursued his way, gained a brilliant victory (770), arranged the affairs of Aquitania with a promptitude and foresight which displayed the energy of a great man, and the skill of a politi- cian, and disconcerted the tributary princes of France, who thought to profit by the youth of the monarch. When Charlemagne found him- self sole master of France, he formed the pro- ject of subjugating the Saxons. These people, who were still pagans, occupied a large portion of Germany ; like all barbarous nations, they preferred plunder to fixed establishments, and they were divided into many tribes, whom it was difficult to unite in the same interest. Charlemagne began to wage war upon them in 772, and did not complete their subjugation until 804 ; so obstinately did they resist, for 32 years, the conqueror who, sometimes indulgent to imprudence, and often severe to cruelty, as eager to convert as to conquer them, was in re- ality master of their country only, when he had reduced it to a desert. The two most cele- brated chiefs of the Saxons were Witikind and Alboin, who finally embraced Christianity in 783. The cruelties of Charlemagne to the Saxons, resembles despair ; and his indulgence to them proves that, pressed by other affairs, he was willing to make any concession which could bring him off with honor. While he was fighting on the banks of the Weser, pope Adrian implored his succors against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who sought to possess himself of Ravenna, and urged the pope to crown the sons of Carloman, in order to display Charlemagne in the light of an usurper of the throne of his nephews, and thus stir up a large portion of France against him. Flying to the scene of action with the rapidity which the danger rendered necessary, Charle- magne seized the person of Desiderius, sent him to end his days in a monastery, and caused himself to be crowned king of Lombardy, in 774. Thus ended that kingdom which shortly afterwards took its ancient name of Italy, but which preserved the laws it had received from the Lombards. Charlemagne passed into Spain in 778, be- sieged and took Pampeluna, and made himself master of the country of Barcelona ; but his troops, on their return, were defeated in the pass of Roncesvalles, by a part of the Saracens, and the mountain Gascons, the unruly tributa- ries of Charlemagne, who were so intractable, CHA 170 CHA that more than thirty years afterwards, strong forces were required to oppose them. At this battle, fell the famous Roland, whose fate has been celebrated by romance writers and poets. The disaffection of the inhabitants of Aquitania having induced Charlemagne to give them a separate monarch, he chose the youngest of his sons, Louis, well known as Louis the Mild, 778. At the same time the continual efforts of the Lombards and Greeks to recon- quer Italy, and the want of fidelity in his nobles, made him feel the necessity of rallying them about the throne, and he gave them for a king, Pepin, the second of his sons; the eldest, who bore the name of Charles, remained with him to assist him in his expeditions. He had another son, Pepin, whose mother he had repu- diated. This son, having been convicted of taking part in a conspiracy against him, was devoted to the monastic life. On his return from Spain, Charlemagne found himself obliged to march against the Saxons, and each year renewed the necessity of a warlike expedition. He caused 4,500 of them to be put to death ; a ferocious revenge which only served to prolong and invigorate their resistance. Thence he went to Rome to have his two sons, Pepin and Louis, crowned by the pope, thus confirming the people in the belief that the head of religion could alone ren- der the royal power legitimate and sacred. The year 790, the 27th of his reign, was the first which he passed without taking up arms, and this peace lasted only until the spring of the following year. Charlemagne had formed the project of re-establishing the empire of the west. The empress Irene, who reigned at Constantinople, in order to prevent the dis- memberment of the empire, proposed to Charle- magne to unite their children, which would have placed Europe under one government. Her proposal was accepted, but ambition im- pelled Irene to dethrone her own son in order to seize the power herself, and she offered her hand to Charlemagne. This singular union, which ambition alone could suggest and carry into effect, would have presented a new spec- tacle to the world, had not the empress been herself hurled from her throne. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the west, by pope Leo III, in the year 800 ; and, although his journey to Rome had no other object, he af- fected to be much surprised at the honors which were heaped upon him. He was declared Cat- sar and Augustus; the ornaments of the ancient Roman emperors were decreed to him ; all the consecrated forms were followed ; nothing was forgotten but the fact that it was impossible that an empire should subsist, the power of which was shared by the children of the deceased monarch. Charlemagne, after having made one of his sons a monk, had the misfortune to lose, in 810, Pepin, whom he had created king of Italy ; the year following, Charles, the eld- est followed his brother to the grave ; there only remained, of his legitimate children, Louis, king of Aquitania, whom he associated with him in the empire in 813, his great age and his infirmities making him feel that he was approaching the termination of his career. He died the 28th of January, 814, in the 71st year of his age, and the 47th of his reign. By his will, made in 806, confirmed by the French lords, assembled at Thionville, and signed by Pope Leo, Charlemagne divided his estates among his three sons. He left his subjects the power of choosing a successor, after the death of the princes, provided he was of the blood royal. He provided that they should not have recourse to the trial by battle, in the case of dispute, but to that of the cross. This judg- ment consisted, in doubtful circumstances, in conducting to church two men, who stood upright with their elevated arms crossed, during the celebration of divine service, and the vic- tory was gained by the party whose champion remained motionless in this attitude the long- est. This is still called the judgment of God. Charlemagne was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle. His body is said to have been disposed in the following manner. He was seated upon a throne of gold, clad in bis imperial habits. He had a * crown upon his head, and was girt with his sword. He held achalice in his hand, the book of the Evangelists upon his knees, his sceptre and gold buckler at his feet. The sepulchre was filled with pieces of gold, perfumed and sealed, and above a superb triumphal arch was raised, with this epitaph : " Here rests the body of Charles, the great and orthodox emperor, who gloriously enlarged the kingdom of the French, and governed it happily for forty-seven years." Charlemagne was a friend of letters, and of learned men. CHARLES I, king of England, an unfor- tunate monarch, whose disasters were prepared for him by his predecessors, and by the increas- ing spirit of liberty, precipitated and increased by the alternate obstinacy and fickleness of his disposition. He ascended the throne in 1625, and found that his reign was likely to be troub- led by a strong opposition ; but he could not CHA 171 CHA find courage to make those concessions which the people were disposed to demand of royalty. The friends of liberty, and the puritans, were disposed to view with a stern eye, the stand which the king took. They had already im- peached his favorite minister, and his unsuc- cessful attempt to relieve Rochelle in 1C27, increased their enmity. Charles, blinded by the monarchial doctrines of his father James, although he saw that his popularity was daily declining, took no steps to gain the affections and confidence of his people. The parliament refused to sanction the wishes of the monarch, and passed the famous bill of rights, which he was obliged to confirm. Having made peace with France and Spain, Charles determined to rely on his own resour- ces, but resorted to the desperate expedient of levying ship money. This, and the king's attempt to force the liturgy on the Scotch, brought upon him the opposition of Hampden and the covenanters, to both of whom lie was forced to submit. After several parliaments had been called and dissolved, Charles called the long parliament of 1640. The earl of Strafford and archbishop Laud were impeached, and the fury of the puritans was excited against the church and the bishops. The signal for insurrection was given by the king going him- self to the house and demanding the persons of five members whom he accused of treason. Civil war broke out; many engagements took place, with various success, but on the king's defeat at Naseby, he retired to Oxford, and on the approach of Fairfax, the parliamentary gen- eral, threw himself on the protection of the Scots, who sold him to the parliament. The army, now divided from the parliament, con- veyed him to Hampton court, whence he es- caped with the intention of quitting the king- dom, but was retaken and brought back. Charles now professed himself readv to grant all the terms demanded for his release, except the abolition of episcopacy. He was in conse- quence arraigned for high treason, tried, and condemned. His conduct during his trial was a noble pattern of Christian meekness and firm- ness, and this he retained to his death. He was beheaded at Whitehall, on the 30th of January, 1648. CHARLES II, king of England, son of Charles I, and Henrietta Maria of France, was born in 1630, and was at the Hague when his father was executed. The Scots, who had betrayed the father, sent an invitation to the eon, which he accepted, and was crowned at Scone, in 1651, when he was obliged to take the covenant. But he had no mean opponent in Cromwell, who defeated the Scotch at Dun- bar, and Charles at Worcester. The appear- ance of the two armies was strikingly con- trasted. The parliamentarians were remarkable for the plainness of their dress and equipments, their hair being cropped close (whence their appellation of round heads), and nothing merely ornamental appearing on their persons. The cavaliers, on the contrary, despising the aus- terity of their antagonists, were distinguished by their long curling locks, the finish of their equipments, and the reckless gayely of their bearing. From the battle of Worcester, Charles made his escape, and lay hidden in the thick branches of an oak in JBoscobel wood, while his pursuers actually seated themselves under the tree. After many journeyings, in various dis- guises, he escaped to France. In 1660, by the management of general Monk, he was restored ; and with him licentiousness and infidelity returned in a full tide. In 1662, he married the princess of Portugal, by whom he had no children, although his illegitimate offspring were numerous. With the exception of the sale of Dunkirk to supply his extrava- gances, the acts of Charles's reign can scarcely be considered as his own, and belong rather to the history of his country. He lived in the unbridled indulgence of his appetites, interfer- ing little in matters of state policy. The few he meddled with were of an odious nature. Charles died of an apoplectic fit, February 6, 1685, and by receiving, in his last moments, the sacrament from a popish priest, proved that he lived a hypocrite as well as a libertine. By affability and wit, by going abroad without ostentation, and mixing with the lowest of his subjects, Charles obtained a certain degree of popularity, and the name of the Merry Monarch distinguished him during his life. His wit was ready and pleasant, as Rochester, whose dispo- sition much resembled the monarch's, happily expressed in the epigram, in which he speaks of Charles as one " Who never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise one." Charles and his courtiers being one day present at the exhibition of a man who daringly climbed to the point of Salisbury cathedral, and planted a flag there, the king said to his favorite, " Faith ! Rochester, this man shall have a patent, that no one may do this but himself!" CHA 172 CHA CHARLES, Edward, of the Stuart family, commonly called The Pretender, was the grand- son of James II, and was born at Rome in 1720. In 1745, he landed in Scotland, and published a manifesto, exhibiting the claims of his father to the English throne. He was joined by seve- ral Highland chiefs, and entering Edinburgh, caused his father to be proclaimed. Charles Edward was passing the night in the village of Stateford, and had thrown himself upon his couch in a state of agitation, which prevented his sleeping for more than two hours. As soon as he learned that Edinburgh was occupied by the Highlanders of Lochiel, Keppoch, Arlshied, and O'Sullivan, he mounted his horse, and on the given signal, the army was in readiness to enter the city. The Castle still held out for the house of Hanover. To avoid the balls of the enemy who commanded the most direct road, the prince and his followers, diverging from the main route, came by the way of Duddingston to the royal park which they entered through a breach in the wall. The royal park, the favorite pro- menade of James VII, when he was at Edin- burgh, being then duke of York, comprises Arthur's Seat, which seems to shelter Holy- rood-House at its feet, the basaltic rocks of Salisbury crags, the hermitage of St. Anthony, and the valley of St. Leonard, spots to which poetry and romance have given an interest that history has failed to confer. From an eminence near the hermitage, Charles could contemplate, for the first time, the palace of his ancestors, with its quadrangu- lar court, and the round towers of the principal facade. No alteration had taken place since the time of James VII. The entire building was standing, and the standard of the Stuarts waved proudly in the wind that swept over the majestic pile. The Gothic Chapel only was in ruins, as if to remind the prince that, in the revolution of 1688, the war was particularly directed against the faith of his grandfather, who decorated this place with such pomp. Charles dismounted. Already the park and the surrounding gardens were filled with a dense crowd of all ranks, ages, and parties. They were many merely curious spectators, but more mere Jacobites, and the latter hastened to con- gratulate the prince, who received them with ease, and that smiling look of pleasure, which is so seductive to all. The historian Hume confessed, that the presence of Charles moved more than one whig. His youth, hia fine form, his light locks, his delicate complexion, so different from the bil- ious hue that characterized the countenances of his ancestry, the perfect oval of his face, his intelligent blue eyes, the correct arch of his eyebrows, his regular nose and mouth of aris- tocratic diminutiveness, were all curiously an- alyzed by the spectators. Some troubled whigs declared that there was in the countenance of the prince an air of melancholy, which was a presage of disaster in the midst of his triumph; but the Jacobites, and particularly the ladies of Edinburgh and Perth, were in raptures at the graces of their Charlie, as he was familiarly and popularly termed. They delighted to dwell upon his picturesque costume. Upon his vest of tartan plaid, glittered the national star of the order of St. Andrew ; a scarf of gold and azure served him as a baldrick, and to his neat blue velvet cap was attached the white cockade, which called to mind the rose of Lancaster. When he mounted the splendid bay charger which had been presented to him by the duke of Perth, the acclamations of the spectators redoubled, for the prince was, in fact, a most accomplished cavalier. " Our hero looks like Robert Bruce," cried the Jacobites, and they were not deceiving themselves, for the portrait of Bruce at Holyrood served to verify the resemblance. In the midst of an enthusiasm, which might almost be called general, Charles could well forget, in this concourse of his father's subjects, the hostile terms of ichig and tory, and saw around him only Scotchmen, interested, like himself, in severing the bonds imposed upon Scotland, under the specious name of the Union. In all the manifestoes of the Stuart family, since 1715, they appealed as frequently to the memory of national independence, as to the claims of their house. Thus, when Charles Edward was approaching the gate of the palace, he was suddenly met by a hoary-headed gentle- man, James Hepburn of Keith, who was known to be opposed from principle to the " right divine of kings," and who had more than once haugh- tily blamed the government of James VII. This gentleman, who was esteemed by all par- ties, was the first to show himself the partisan of Charles Edward, whom he regarded as the champion of the deliverance of Scotland. Hep- burn wished to be, in a manner, his herald into the palace of his fathers, and drawing his sword, he marshaled the prince with dignity to the apartment destined for his reception. Still, at intervals, the hostile cannon of the castle, growled upon the city, as if to still the exulting shouts of the people. A ball, directed CHA 173 CHA at the palace shattered a tower, to the indigna- tion of the populace who knew that the Eng- lish soldiery would dishonor, without remorse, the most precious monument of their ancient city. With what emotions must Charles Edward have explored the royal halls of Holyrood, con- demned for 60 years, to a kind of solitary wid- owhood, by the exile of his family. In the first gallery he beheld that loner range of royal portraits, which the pride of Edinburgh holds so dear. In adjacent apartments he found the first traces of that beautiful queen, whose tragic fate alone occupies the mind, even among the multitude of historical and fabulous images. Here were her bed and curtains, the chairs where she was seated, those which she herself embroidered — and alas ! was there not the im- perishable stain of Rizzio's blood ? The shouts of the people, eager to behold their prince, more than once banished the re- flections in which Charles Edward was indulg- ing, and forced him to appear at the windows and show himself to the citizens of Edinburgh. A part of the crowd was called off to assist at the ceremony at the Cross of the High-street, now destroyed — a place where the proclama- tion of public acts had taken place from time immemorial. The gallery in which the heralds and pursuivant at arms, clad in their official costume, appeared, was decorated with tapes- try. A troop of Highlanders were formed in lines two deep on each side of the street, the trumpets sounded a flourish, the bagpipes played their pibrochs, and when the crowd was silenced, James VIII was proclaimed, the commission appointing Charles Edward regent read, as well as the manifesto of the prince, dated Paris, May 16, 1745. The innumerable windows of the houses in the High-street, some of which were more than ten stories high, were filled with la- dies, who waved their white handkerchiefs, to excite the shouts of the people ; the attach- ment to the legitimate monarch appeared univer- sal, as if the faults of the dynasty had been ex- piated by its misfortunes. While the heralds were proclaiming James and his son, at the foot of the gallery, the lady Broughton of Murray, a woman of uncommon beauty, appeared upon a splendid horse, with a drawn sword in her hand, like a heroine of Ariosto or Tasso, while other ladies distributed white ribbons to their brothers and admirers. Charles Edward was at first successful — de- feating general Cope at Preston Pans, but he returned to Edinburgh and wasted his time in idle parades. Being, however, joined by seve- ral discontented chiefs, he marched as far as Manchester, but hearing that the king was about to take the field, he returned to Scotland, and defeated the English forces under Hawley, at Falkirk. In the meantime the duke of Cum- berland advanced to Edinburgh, and thence to Aberdeen, the pretender retreating before him. At length the two armies met atCulloden, when, after an obstinate conflict, in which the High- landers displayed signal courage, the royal army was successful, and the rebels fled, leaving 3,000 of their number dead upon the field. A well-authenticated anecdote of this battle strikingly displays the simplicity and ferocity of the Highlanders. An English officer, hav- ing fallen into the hands of a muscular adver- sary, who had thrown away his musket, and was brandishing a broadsword, supplicated for quarter. " Quarter ! quarter !" cried the irri- tated Highlander, " I hae nae the time to quar- ter ye, sae ye must een be contentit to be cuttit in twa", — suiting the action to the word. Charles Edward wandered for a long time in disguise, chiefly among the Hebrides, and final- ly effected his escape to France. Nothing throws a clearer light on the fidelity and honor of the Scotch, than the fact, that, although Charles was frequently at the mercy of some of the poorest mountaineers, the high price which was set upon his head, could not tempt them to betray him. One time, after having been with- out food for days, his dress torn to tatters, by his briery hiding-places, Charles, finding him- self near the house of a whig gentleman, sought shelter in it. " I am your political opponent," said the high-minded whig ; " but I am also your fellow man. I scorn to take advantage of your distress, and will protect j t ou as long as you choose to remain beneath my roof." He kept his word, and even furnished the unhappy prince with a disguise which facilitated his es- cape. This feeling of forbearance to Charles, after his defeat, was manifested in a higher quarter. King George being at a ball, a lady, who did not know him, asked him to drink to the health of the pretender. " Willingly," re- plied the king ; " I cannot refuse to drink to the health of every unfortunate prince." With the defeat of the pretender ended all the hopes of the unfortunate Stuart family. Charles Edward died at Florence, in 1788. CHARLES X, Gustavus, king of Sweden, ascended the throne on the abdication of Chris- tiana, in 1654. He obtained over the Poles the famous victory of Warsaw, besides taking a CHA 174 CHA number of important places. The Poles, call- ing to their assistance Muscovy, England, and Denmark, obliged the king of Sweden to con- clude a peace ; but the war breaking out again, Charles took Cronenburgh, and laid siege to Copenhagen ; his navy having been defeated, he was obliged to return home, and died in 1C60. CHARLES XI, of Sweden, was born in 1665. On his accession a peace was concluded with Denmark, but in 1674, in the war with that power, he lost several places, which were restored at the peace of Nimeguen. He mar- ried the sister of the king of Denmark, and died in 1697. CHARLES XII, of Sweden, son and suc- cessor of the preceding, was born in 1682. He came to the throne at the age of 15, and, at his coronation, snatched the crown from the hands of the archbishop of Upsal, and placed it on his own head. He was well educated, and very fond of bodily exercises. The commencement of his reign, however, gave no splendid proof of genius or talent. But, on the formation of a confederacy against him by Russia, Denmark, and Holland, he seemed to arouse from his slumber. He himself gave the casting voice in the council for the most vigorous measures, and immediately prepared to carry them into effect. He renounced at once even limited enjoyments, and bent all his energies to support the charac- ter he had marked out for himself. Of the con- federated powers, he attacked each in turn, beginning with Denmark, which produced a peace with that power. In 1700 he obtained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Narva ; although his force con- sisted of only 8,000 men, he attacked them in their intrenchments, slew 30,000 and took 20,000 prisoners. His next enterprise was against Poland, and after several battles, he dethroned Augustus, and placed Stanislaus upon the throne. He obtained some signal advantages over Peter the Great, but at length experienced a terrible defeat at Pultowa, in 1709. Almost all his troops were either slain or taken prison- ers ; he himself was wounded in the leg, and carried off in a litter. Charles sought an asylum in Turkey, where he was hospitably received by the grand seign- ior, who provided for him a residence at Ben- der. He availed himself of his asylum to per- suade the grand seignior to enter into a war with Russia, and employed much money, much time, and many menaces to induce it. His con- duct was, at length, so violent, that he was or- dered to leave the Turkish territories. This he refused to obey. The sultan then directed that he should be forced away ; but Charles, with his retinue, resisted the attack of the Janizaries, till superiority of numbers obliged him to take shelter in his house, which he defended with great spirit, and did not yield till the premises were in flames. He then sallied out, sword in hand, but being entangled by his long spurs, he fell and was taken prisoner. After having been confined as a prisoner six months, he finally set out on his return to his own dominions. In 1716 he invaded Norway, but after pene- trating to Christiana, was obliged to return to Sweden. He resumed the attack in the winter of 1718, but was killed by a cannon-shot at the siege of Frederickshall, December 11, aged 36 years, having reigned 21. Charles was liberal, active and firm, but rash, obstinate, and cruel. At the battle of Narva, he had several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting upon a fresh one, he said, " These people find me exercise." When he was besieged at Stralsund, a bomb fell into the house while he was dictating to his secretary, who immediately dropped his pen, and started up in a fright. " What is the mat- ter?" said the king, calmly. " The bomb ! the bomb ! sire," said the agitated secretary. " Well, sir," resumed Charles, " what has the bomb to do with what I was dictating to you? Goon." When struck by the ball that caused his death ; he instinctively grasped his sword-hilt as if seeking for revenge. Charles was exceeding temperate, abjuring wine, and living frequently upon the coarsest bread. No woman ever ex- erted any influence over him. His dress con- sisted of an old cloak, a blue coat with brass buttons, a plain waistcoat and breeches of leath- er, high boots with spurs, and long leather gloves. CHARLES XIV, of Sweden, originally Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, served with distinction in the armies of Napoleon, and was chosen to fill the throne of Sweden. But from the mo- ment of his elevation by the Swedes, he ceased to live for any thing but the good of the nation, which had adopted him. CHARLES I, king of Sicily and Naples, born in 1220, was the son of Louis VIII, of France. Having married the daughter of the count of Provence, he thereby became his suc- cessor, and added to his dominions the coun- ties of Anjou and Maine. He was taken pris- oner, with his brother Louis, in Egypt, in 1248. On his return he defeated Manfred, the usurp- CHA 175 CHA er of the Sicilian crown, and assumed the title of king of Naples. He also defeated his rival, Conradin, duke of Suabia, and took him and the duke of Austria prisoners. Charles, on this occasion, brought infamy on his name, by caus- ing his royal captives to be put to death, at Naples, on a public scaffold. After this he laid the prince of Tunis under tribute, and quelled the Ghibellines. In 1276, he gained the title of king of Jerusalem, and meditated an expedition against Constantinople. But his arbitrary con- duct occasioned a general insurrection in Sicily, where 8,000 of the French were massacred on Easter-Monday, 1282. This massacre is known by the name of the " Sicilian vespers," the bell for evening prayers being the signal of revolt. The Sicilians then chose Peter of Arragon for their king. Charles died in 1285. CHARLES MARTEL, son of Pepin Heris- tel, and mayor of the palace under Clnlperic and Thierry IV, kings of France. He gained many victories, the principal of which was over the Saracen general, Abdalrahman, in 732. On the death of Thierry, in 737, no successor was appointed, and Charles conducted the govern- ment as duke of the Franks. He died in 741, and left his dominions between his sons Carlo- man and Pepin ; the latter of whom became the first king of France of the Carlovingian race, which name was taken from the founder, Charles Martel. CHARLES IV, emperor of Germany, was the son of John of Luxemburg, and grandson of the emperor Henry VII. He ascended the throne in 1347. In his reign the golden bull was given at the diet of Nuremburg, in 1356, which established the Germanic constitution. Charles died in 1378. He was a learned man and a great patron of letters. CHARLES V, emperor of Germany, and king of Spain (in the latter capacity, Charles I), was born at Ghent, in 1500. He succeeded to the kingdom of Spain in 1516, and to the empire on the death of Maximilian, in 1519. Francis I, of France, disputed with him the latter title, and their rivalry occasioned a vio- lent war in 1521. Charles was joined by Henry VIII of England, and after several important actions, took Francis prisoner at the battle of Pavia. A peace having been concluded in 1529, Charles turned his arms against Africa, where he defeated Barbarossa, entered Tunis, and re-established Muley -Hassan on the throne. Soon after this he renewed hostilities against France, ravaging Champagne and Picardy, till he was at length obliged to retire, and peace was restored in 1538. In 1541 he attempted the conquest of Algiers, but his fleet was dis- persed by a storm, and the emperor was obliged to return in disgrace. He again leagued with England against France, but fortune was not so favorable to him as she had formerly been, and he was glad to enter into a treaty in 1545. The protestant princes of Germany confederated ao-ainst him, and obtained liberty of conscience for those of their religion. In 1556 he resigned the crown to his son Philip, and retired into a monastery in Estremadura, where he passed the remainder of his days in religious exercises, mechanical pursuits, and gardening. He died in 1558. He encouraged artists, and once picked up a pencil which Titian had dropped, and pre- sented it to him, saying : " That Titian was worthy of being served by an emperor." Asa pious penance, he caused himself to be wrapped in a shroud, and placed in a coffin, and thus celebrated his own obsequies. This ceremony hastened his death. CHARLES THE BOLD, duke of Burgun- dy, the son of Philip the Good, was born in 1433. There were constant wars between him and Louis XI, king of France, who instigated Charles's subjects, the Liegois, to revolt against him. Charles seized on Guelderland and Zut- phen, and afterwards invaded Switzerland, but his army was put to the rout and his baggage taken by the Swiss. He collected another army, but was again defeated, and slain while besieging Nancy, in 1477. Ashe was thatday putting on his helmet, the golden lion which formed the crest, fell to the ground, and he exclaimed, " Ecce magnum signum Dei!" Behold the sign of God! CHARLES IX, of France, son of Henry II and Catharine of Medici, was born in 1550, and succeeded to the throne in 1560 ; his mother conducted the government ; but she so abused her trust that the protestants revolted, and a civil war ensued, in which the insurgents were unsuccessful. The massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's ensued. It is said that Charles repented of this horrid crime on his death-bed, in 1574. CHARLES X, Philip, king of France and Navarre, ascended the throne, which had been filled by his brothers, the unfortunate Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, in September, 1824. He bore for some time the title of count ofArtois, and afterwards that of monsieur. He was fond of expensive pleasures, and distinguished for the mildness of his manners. Charles was crowned at Rheims, being anointed with the holy oil, which it was absurdly pretended had CHA 176 CHA been brought from heaven by a dove. He swore to maintain the charter, but he had not been long seated on the throne, before he began to play those " fantastic tricks," which seems to belong peculiarly to the province of legitimacy. The press, that vast moral engine at which tyrants tremble, became obnoxious to the monarch, and a censorship was established in 1827. The king, however, showed himself rather favorably dis- posed to the Greeks, which produced him a temporary popularity. The ministry of prince Polignac, however, caused great indignation, on account of the arbitrary tone of the measures adopted ; and the unwarrantable prosecution of the liberal press, hastened the revolution of 1830, when the Parisians overcame the royal troops, and the French legislature exiled Charles X, imprisoned the ministers for life, and seated Louis Philippe on the throne. CHARLES EMANUEL I, duke of Savoy, surnamed the Great, was born in 1562. Though of a week constitution, he was of an enterpris- ing spirit, and, taking advantage of the internal commotions of France, in the reign of Henry III, he seized part of Dauphiny and Provence; on the death of that monarch, he aspired to the crown, but was disappointed. A war broke out, and the French troops took possession of part of Savoy. By the mediation of the pope, how- ever, peace was concluded. The duke made a treacherous attempt to seize Geneva, but his troops were "-repulsed, and the prisoners that were taken, were hung up by the Genevans as robbers. On the death of Francis, duke of Mantua, in 1613, this restless prince laid claim to the succession, but was obliged to relinquish it. The French persuaded him to turn his arms against Genoa, and he gained some advantages, but the interference of Spain effected a peace. He aspired to the imperial crown, and made an attempt on the duchy of Montserrat, which in- volved him in a war with France and Spain. He died in 1630, it is supposed of grief for the loss of Pignerol. CHARLESTON, a city and sea-port of South Carolina, with 30,289 inhabitants, a large pro- portion of whom are slaves. It is the largest town in South Carolina, and the emporium, not only of that state, but of a considerable part of North Carolina. It is situated on a tongue of land formed by the confluence of Cooper and Ashley rivers, at a distance of about seven miles from the ocean. Much taste is evinced in its public buildings, and an idea of elegance and comfort is conveyed by the appearance of its private houses, which are mostly of brick, and generally furnished with piazzas. It is a place of much wealth and commerce. CHA RLE STOW N, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, with 8,787 inhabitants, is separated by Charles River from Boston, from the centre of which it is one mile distant. The Navy Yard is one of the largest in the United States. On Bunker Hill, in this town, was fought a memorable battle, June 17, 1775. On the evening of June 16th, Col. Prescott re- ceived orders to fortify Bunker Hill, but Gen. Putnam, who had the command of the expedi- tion, finding Breed's Hill more suitable, the requisite fortifications were rapidly thrown up on that height. We must now give a glance at the respective forces of the contending parties. The British troops were well equipped and offi- cered, possessed all the advantages of strict dis- cipline, and were by no means distrustful of the issue of the contest. The American army, on the other hand, had been hastily called togeth- er, was composed of men, who had few ideas of military combinations, and whose weapons were generally fowling-pieces without bayonets, but who were all animated by one spirit. Their' leaders were beloved and respected by them, and were men of tried truth and nerve — Putnam, Stark, Pomeroy, Warren, and Prescott — men whose names yet call a glow into the bosom of every patriot. The British were not aware of the existence of the redoubts until the morning of the 17th, when their ships-of-war, floating batteries, and the guns of Copps Hill, opened a severe fire on the Americans. At one o'clock, the troops un- der Howe landed in Charlestown, and were soon after reinforced, which swelled their num- ber to about 5,000 men, with six field-pieces. The provincial troops amounted to perhaps 2,000 men with two field-pieces. " Don't fire," said Putnam to his men, " till you can see the whites of their eyes." The British approached unmolest- ed till they came within close gun-shot, when the tremendous fire of the provincials drove them back with great slaughter. In the second attack, Charlestown was set on fire and burned to the ground, adding its raging flames to the other horrors of the battle scene. As the ammu- nition of the Americans was nearly exhausted, the third attack carried the redoubt, although the provincials resisted the British with the butt-ends of their muskets, and slowly retreat- ed from the hill. The Americans lost 115 killed, (among them general Warren), 305 wounded, and 30 made prisoners. The British lost 1054 in killed and wounded. On the 17th of June, CHA 177 CHA 1825, the corner-stone of a monument was laid with great ceremony, and the work bids fair to be speedily completed, in a style worthy of the great event which it commemorates. CHARLOTTE, Augustus, daughter of queen Caroline and George IV, a beautiful, amiable, and accomplished lady, became, at the age of 20, the wife of prince Leopold of Coburg, May 2, 1816. They were tenderly attached to each other. November 5, 1817, the unfortunate prin- cess, in becoming the mother of a child that did not survive her, lost her life. The physician who had attended her, shot himself. The prin- cess was beloved by the English nation, and her death deeply lamented. CHARON, in mythology, the son of Erebus and Nox. He was the ferryman of hell, being supposed to carry the dead across the waves of Acheron, Cocytus, and the Styx, receiving an obolus in pay. This coin was placed in the mouth of the dead, as, without it, it was thought that the deceased would be condemned to long and restless wanderings on the dreary banks of Acheron. Charon was represented as an old man, of a forbidding aspect, dressed in rags. CHARYBDIS, the rapacious daughter of Neptune and Terra, whom Jupiter changed into a whirlpool. The whirlpool in the Sicilian Sea, whose origin was thus related in mythology, is no longer dreaded by mariners, who formerly were frequently wrecked upon the opposite rock, Scylla, in attempting to escape from Cha- rybdis ; the latter is now called Calofaro and La Rema. CHASE, Samuel, a distinguished American, who was born in Maryland, April 17, 1741, and was one of the signers of the declaration of in- dependence. In 1796, he was made by Wash- ington an associate judge of the Supreme Court ofthe United States. Having been impeached by the House of Representatives, he was ac- quitted by the Senate. He died June 9, 1811, with a high reputation. CHATHAM, William Pitt, earl of, was the son of Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconock, in Corn- wall, and born November 15, 1708. On quit- ting the university, he went into the army a3 cornet, but soon left the military life, and, in 1735, obtained a seat in parliament for Old Sa- rum. His eloquence was first displayed on the Spanish convention, in 1738, and, in a short time, Sir Robert Walpole found him the most powerful opponent he had ever encountered. The dowager duchess of Marlborough, left Mr. Pitt a legacy of 10,OOOZ. for his conduct at this period. In 1746, he was made vice-treasurer 12 of Ireland, and the same year paymaster gen- eral of the army. In 1755, he resigned his places ; but the year following, he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department. In this post, however, he did not remain long, on account of some difference with the king ; but such was his popularity, that his majesty found it necessary to recall him. In 1757, he became prime minister, in which situation he gave a new turn to affairs, and by the vigor of his measures, subverted the power of France in Europe, Asia, and America. In the midst of his glory, George II died, and Mr. Pitt resigned the helm to lord Bute ; when his lady was created a peeress, and he himself rewarded with a pension. In 1766, he was created a peer, by the title of earl of Chatham, and at the same time was made lord-privy-seal, which place he resigned two years afterwards. During the war of our revolution, he opposed the ministers, and in a speech on the subject of the independence ofthe colonies, April 7, 1778, exerted himself so energetically, as to fall ex- hausted into the arms of those around him. He died on the 11th of the following month. A public funeral and monument were voted by parliament ; an annuity of 4000/. was annexed to the earldom of Chatham, and his debts were discharged. CHATTERTON, Thomas, a youth whose early talents and fate have excited great inter- est, was born at Bristol, in 1752, of poor parents. In his twelfth year he wrote a poem of some merit, and at the age of sixteen, successfully imitated the style of antique English writers, and introduced to the world as works of great antiquity, the fruits of his own mind. The reception he met with in London, led him to form the most extravagant hopes, which were, however, never realized, for the wretchedness of his situation induced him to commit suicide by poison at the age of 18, in 1770. The poems which he wrote at 15, he published under the name of Rowley. His works form a collection in three volumes, and have gone through many editions. CHAUCER, Geoffrey a celebrated English poet, was the son of a merchant, and was born in London , in 1328. At the age of 18, his Court of Love gained him celebrity. He was high in favor with Edward III, and married the sister of lady Catharine Swynford, afterwards the wife of the duke of Lancaster. He filled several responsible offices, and was sent abroad as am- bassador. His fortunes varied with those of the party to which he was attached, but he CHA 178 CHE finally lived in the pleasant retirement of Don- nington castle, where he died in 1400. His Canterbury Tales are his most celebrated pro- duction. CHAUNCY, Charles, a minister of Boston, Massachusetts, was the son of the erudite and excellent president Chauncy, of Harvard Uni- versity, where he was educated. He was born Jan. 1, 1705, and was ordained pastor of the first church in Boston, in 1727. He died in his 83d year, Feb. 10th, 1787. His learning, inde- pendence, and patriotism were constantly and clearly displayed. The works which he has left behind, bear incontrovertible proofs of his talents. He was the particular friend of Doctor Cooper, of Boston, and an anecdote which re- gards the two gentlemen, is worthy of preserva- tion. It must be kept in mind that Doctor Chauncy was habitually absent like many liter- ary men, and that Dr. Cooper was famous for inviting brother clergymen to officiate for him ; so much so, that it was currently reported that he used to walk out upon Boston neck every Saturday afternoon, and- invite the first gentle- man with a black coat whom he saw coming into town, to preach for him. Knowing these facts, a negro servant of Dr. Chauncy determined to turn them to his own account. This fellow was in want of a coat, but as he had high ideas of his own importance, he wished, if possible, to obtain a new garment, instead of being habit- ed in the dark, discarded vestments of his wor- thy master. After having, one morning, brought the usual supply of wood into Dr. Chauncy's etudy, he remained standing, and the doctor, although rather busy, was not long noticing him. The following conversation then took place. " Well, Sambo, what do you want ?" " Want a coat, sar. De old one so patched to pieces, I 'fraid to go nowheres." " Very well, Sambo, go to Mrs. Chauncy , and tell her to give you one of mine." The doctor resumed his studies, but Sambo retained his position. His master observing him a second time, but forgetting what had just passed between them, again asked ; " What do you want, Sambo?" " O ! just a coat, sar. Old coat full of holes." " Very well ; go to Mrs. Chauncy, and she will give you one of mine." A second time the doctor resumed his book, but finding the black still stationary, he began to recall what had passed, and exclaimed, with some asperity ; " Well sir, why don 't you go?" " 'Cause I 'fraid, Massa Chauncy." " Afraid? of what?" " Why, sar, I 'fraid to wear a black coat, 'cause — no — no — it won t do — I can 't tell you, sar." " I insist upon it." " Well then, if I must — sir, 'fraid, 'cause — oh no ! massa, you '11 be so angry." " I wish I had my cane here ! " exclaimed the doctor. Sambo, finding, from his impatient glance at the tongs, that there was a possibility of his finding a substitute, cried out; "Oh! sar! nebber mind de cane, I '11 tell you why I 'fraid to wear one of your coats — / 'fraid if I had annodcr black coat — that doctor Cooper will ask me to preach for him." The doctor burst into laughter. " Go, go, Sambo, and ask Mrs. Chauncy to buy a coat of whatever color you fancy !" Sambo hastened off, grinning with delight, to get a scarlet coat, and Dr. Chauncy ran to Dr. Cooper to tell him of the whole affair. CHERBOURG, or Cherburg, a French sea- port, on the Channel, containing 18,443 inhab- itants. In 1418, it was taken by Henry V, and near it took place the famous naval battle of La Hogue, between the French and English in 1692. Cherburg is remarkable for its vast breakwater, and its extensive basin and docks, constructed by the French government. CHERSON, a Russian city, capital of the government of Chesson, on the Dnieper, 60 miles from its mouth. It was founded in 1778, and contains 12,000 inhabitants. CHESAPEAKE BAY is from 7 to 20 miles broad, and 190 miles long, extending northerly through Virginia and Maryland, two of the United States. CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- hope, earl of. a distinguished statesman, orator, and author, born in London, 1694, died in 1773. In private life he was distinguished by his grace and wit, and also notorious for his irregu- larities. In parliament and in the house of lords, as ambassador to Holland, and lord-lieu- tenant to Ireland, he was successful and popu- lar. His letters to his son have been censured for their immoral tone, although celebrated for their elegance. Johnson called Chesterfield a wit among lords, and a lord among wits. Of the conduct of the earl as lord-lieutenant, we have favorable accounts. When the advocates of intolerance preached persecution, he answered their counsels by an apothegm and a bon mot — he quoted Cicero, CHI 179 CHI when they quoted Nassau — he gave them par- ties for their politics — suppers for their sophis- try — he forced them to swallow his measures with his claret — and he stopped the mouths of many with good dinners, on whom good argu- ments would have been thrown away. When Lord Chesterfield arrived in Ireland, all the Catholic places of worship were closed. A Mr. Fitzgerald saying mass in the obscure garret of a condemned house, an immense crowd had assembled, and the floor giving way, the officiating priest, with many of his flock, were buried in the ruins, and the greater number were maimed and wounded. Lord Chesterfield, horror-struck at the event, ordered that all the chapels in the capital should be opened on St. Patrick's day, and they have never since been closed. A zealous protestant, thinking to pay his court to the lord-lieutenant, came to inform him that one of his coachmen was a Roman Catho- lic, and went privately to mass. " Does he, indeed ?" said his lordship, "then I shall take care that he never drives me there !'" The bishop of Waterford relates that the vice-treasurer, Mr. Gardiner, a man of good character, and considerable fortune, waited upon lord Chesterfield one morning, and in a great fright told him that he was assured upon good authority that the people in the province of Connaught were actually rising ; upon which the viceroy looked at his watch, and with great composure answered him, " It is nine o'clock and time for them to rise ; I believe, therefore, that your news is true." Lord Chesterfield preserved a Catholic population in the most perfect peace and obedience, during the whole of that rebellion, which in Protestant England and Presbyterian Scotland, had nearly restored the Stuarts to the throne they had forfeited by their blind and bigoted attachment to papal institutions. CHILI, a republic of South America, which is divided into eight provinces. The eastern part of Chili is mountainous, and 14 volcanic summits here elevate themselves from the lofty chain of the Andes. Innumerable small and rapid rivers irrigate the rich soil, and the serene climate is remarkable for its healthiness. The mineral and vegetable productions are valuable and abundant. Exclusive of the in- dependent Indians, the population has been estimated at 1,200,000. The Roman Catholic is the established religion. Pedro de Valdivia, who was sent thither by Pizarro, overcame the opposition of the abori- ginees, and founded several cities in the north and south, but the Araucanians defeated the Spaniards, and having taken their leader pris- oner, put him to death. It was many years before the Spaniards were permitted by the Indians and Dutch to enjoy quiet possession of Chili. In 1809, a revolutionary movement took place, and the party which espoused the cause of independence was, at first, successful ; but in 1814, nearly the whole country was subdued by a royalist army from Peru. Chili remained under the control of the royalists until 1817, when General San Martin, with a body of troops from Buenos Ayres, entered the county, and being joined by the people generally, de- feated the royalists in several engagements. The independence of the country was finally achieved at the battle of Maypu, April 5, 1817. The government has since experienced many changes, and even now remains in an unsettled CHILLINGWORTH, William, a celebrated protestant divine and controversial writer. He was born at Oxford, 1602, and died in 1644, having been appointed chancellor of Salisbury, in July, 1638. CHIMBORAZO, a mountain in the republic of the Equator, one of the highest summits of the Andes, its elevation being 21,440 feet above the level of the sea. CHIMERA, a monster said to have ravaged Lycia, and to have been killed by Bellerophon. Her form was a mixture of incongruous parts. CHINA is a vast country of Asia, bounded on the north by Chinese Tartary, from which the famous Chinese wall separates it ; on the east, by the Eastern Sea ; on the south by the Chinese Sea, and Further India ; and on the west by an extensive and sandy desert, and long ridges of mountains, which divide it from Western Tartary and Thibet. Inclusive of the tributary countries, and those states which have voluntarily placed themselves under the protection of China, the population amounts to nearly 200 million inhabitants, which are scattered over a surface of about 5,250,000 square miles. The subjected coun- tries are Mantchouria, Mongolia, and Tourfan ; the protected ones, Thibet, Bootan, Corea, and Loo-choo. China Proper is divided into 18 provinces. The Kiau-Ku, or Yang-tse, and the Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River, are the two prin- cipal rivers of China. The former is more than 2,500 miles long. The face of the country is greatly diversified ; the northern and western parts being the most broken. The climate, in CHI 180 CHI general, is healthy, although the northern part is cold, and the southern hot. The soil is fertile, and the prevalent crop, at least in the south, is rice. Besides this, tea, barley, and other grain, are abundantly raised. The commerce is very extensive ; the principal articles of export being tea, silk, nankins, porce- lain, and the valuable vegetable productions of the east. The imperial canal, and the Chinese wall, are monuments of Chinese skill and in- dustry. The religion of China is Buddhism, or the religion of Fo. The language of the Chi- nese is peculiar, the number of characters being 40,000. The Chinese are, to a certain degree, well educated, but revengeful, timid, vain, and artful. Polygamy is permitted, and the condi- tion of females wretched in the extreme. Poor parents are permitted to drown their female children, and this is done without remorse. The Chinese is, on the whole, by far the best Asiatic government of Asia. It is better, far, than any of the Mohammedan despotisms ; it is better than any government that the Hin- doos ever possessed, and it is far preferable to the Theocracies of the Birmans, Siamese, and other Chinese nations. The absence of a pow- erful and influential priesthood, and of an hered- itary and privileged aristocracy, as well as of petty principalities with delegated and heredi- tary authority, may be stated as among the leading causes of the prosperity of the Chinese empire. The government of China is patriarchal ; the emperor has the title of "Holy Son of Heaven, sole Governor of the earth, and Great Father of his people." But it is patriarchal on the largest scale of which there is any record, for the family consists of nearly two hundred million members. China may be considered as a huge school-house, the master having the birch con- stantly in his hand, frequently using it, and delegating his authority to thousands of ushers, who are equally liberal in its application. But the rod, although the chief, is not the only instrument of government. There is the canque, or wooden ruff, a kind of portable stocks or pillory, very convenient to the executors of the law, but exceedingly inconvenient to the wear- er, who can neither sleep nor lie down for it. Then there is imprisonment in cages ; further- more decapitation, not however very frequent ; and in extreme cases their crucifixion, or as it is technically called, the death by painful and slow means. The grand panacea, however, after all, is the rod. The general application of this vigorous instrument of administration, is by no means confined to China, but embraces the other coun- tries of the east, from Japan to Bengal, includ- ing about 300,000,000 of people, or nearly one half the human race. There the rod, under its various appellations of bamboo, cane, cudgel, or birch, is actively at work from morning till night, and afterwards, from night till morning. The Grand Patriarch canes his first ministers ; the prime minister canes his secretary of state ; the secretaries of state admonish the lords of the treasury, by belaboring their backs ; these enforce their orders to the first lord of the admiralty by applying what is equal to the cat o' nine tails. Generals cane field officers, and field officers the captains and subalterns. Of course the common soldiers of the celestial em- pire are caned by every body. The husbands cane their wives, and the wives cane their children. Of course the Chinese and their neighbors may be truly described as well-flogged nations. Without going back to that remote antiquity, to which the Chinese historians pretend, it will be sufficient to credit records of this empire from 2,000 years B. C. Prior to that period, five dynasties are computed, at the head of the first of which was Yu-Ta. Ching-tang was the founder of the second dynasty, named Chang, B. C. 1767, and was celebrated for his wisdom, moderation, and singular merit. This dynasty, after the reign of 28 emperors, was terminated, like the former, by the vices of him who last filled the throne. The third dynasty, named Chew, or Cheva, B. C. 1122, consisted of 35 emperors, some of whom exhibited virtues de- serving of high applause, while the faults and vices of others excited the vengeance of the people. During the reign of Ching, the second em- peror of the 4th dynasty, called Tsin, B. C. 256, the great wall was built. Elated with his own exploits, he formed the design of making posterity believe that he was the first emperor that filled the Chinese throne ; and for this purpose, ordered all the historical books, which contained the fundamental records and laws of the ancient governments, to be burned, and 400 of the learned to be put to death, for having at- tempted to save some of the proscribed vol- umes. The chieftian of banditti, Lieu-pang, des- troyed the last emperor of the fourth dynasty, and founded the fifth, called Hang, in his own person, B. C. 207. He proved himself worthy of the throne by his moderation and 1 CHI 181 CHI clemency, and was one of the few emperors who governed for themselves. Under the rest, factions were formed, one of which, known by the appellation of the yellow-caps, made itself master of the empire, which ended in its dismem- berment. The sixth dynasty was begun by a prince descended from Lieu-pang, A. D. 220, and ended with his grandson, who, ardent and courageous, sustained for sometime his father's tottering throne, which was attacked from every quarter. At length, seeing affairs tend to a most fatal crisis, the emperor, deficient in courage, still refused to fight ; and the young prince, af- flicted at his cowardice, retired to the hall of his ancestors, slew his wife, and then himself. The emperor tamely surrendered to Song-chau, his rival, who granted him a petty sovereignty. Shi-tsu-vu-ti, the son of the rebel Song-chau, was the founder of the seventh dynasty, and preserved by his arms the empire they had ac- quired for him. After a series of fifteen empe- rors, during whose reign Nankin became the capital of the empire, this dynasty terminated in Nagan-Ti, an indolent prince, unworthy of a crown. In his reign, a man named Lyen-Hu, whose employment was that of selling shoes, enlisted as a soldier, became a general, and at last usurped the throne. His race consisted of eight emperors. Kanti, the founder of the ninth dynasty, obtained the throne by the murder of two princes, A. D. 479, but did not long enjoy the fruits of his wickedness. He was more remarkable for his learning than his military exploits. His son enacted the famous law which prohibited the mandarins remaining more than three years in the same place. This dy- nasty did not produce more than five emperors. The tenth dynasty comprehends only four sovereigns beginning with Syau-gwen, the j prime minister and assassin of the last prince, ' A. D. 502. He was active, industrious, and : vigilant. The last emperor but one attached 1 himself to the religion of Fo, and while his at- ■ tention was absorbed in the mysteries taught by , the disciples, his prime minister attacked him in his capital. At length the sovereign awoke from his religious reveries, took up arms, march- ed round the ramparts, examined the position of the enemy, and exclaimed, " All is lost, it is ill over with the sciences !" He then set fire x> his library, which consisted of 140,000 vol- i imes, and surrendered to the conqueror, who put to death both him and his son. Like his predecessor, the founder of the 11th dynasty, \. D. 557, was extremely attached to the bon- ses. His race produced only five emperors, the last of whom was dethroned by the prime min- ister of the western empire. The three emperors who composed the 12th dynasty, commencing A. D. 589, performed great actions, and are renowned in history. The first, who had no pretensions to learning, was endowed with a solid and penetrating mind. He loved his people, and built public granaries, which were annually filled with rice and corn by the opulent, to be distributed to the poor in times of scarcity. Kong-ti was dethroned by Si-gwen, A. D. 617, the same year in which he was crowned. The son of this man, on arriv- ing at the emperor's palace was astonished at its magnificence, and said, " No : such a stately edifice must not be suffered to stand any longer, as it is good for nothing but to corrupt the heart of a prince, and render him effeminate." After this reflection, he ordered the whole build- ing to be set on fire and reduced to ashes. Tai-tsong, his son, was one of the greatest and wisest princes that ever graced the Chinese throne. Tai-tfu, the assassin and successor of the 20th sovereign of this race, established the 14th dynasty, A. D. 907, but did not live long to enjoy the fruit of his crime. He was slain by his eldest son, who was himself killed by his brother Moti. Anarchy raging in the em- pire, an able general, supported by a powerful party, attacked Moti, who, being vanquished, committed suicide, and his family became ex- tinct. Chwang-tsong, the victorious general, assumed the character of emperor, and founded the 15th dynasty, A. D. 923. During his reign, block-printing was invented among the Chi- nese. This dynasty produced four emperors, the last of whom, being pursued by the mur- derers of his father, burned himself, together with his family. Of the emperors of the two succeeding dynasties, commencing A. D. 936, nothing of importance is recorded by historians, who narrate little more than the accession to the throne, and death of the several sovereigns. Tai-tou was the founder of the 18th dynasty, A. D. 951, and had a profound veneration for Confucius, to whose tomb he paid a visit. His son, Chi-tsong, imitated all his virtues, and, when at the very summit of human grandeur, still retained a modest deportment. Tay-tou, the founder of the 19th dynasty, A. D. 960, was worthy of his exaltation, and possessed all the qualities to render a state happy and flourish- ing. Under Ching-tsong, the third emperor of the dynasty, the number of persons employed in cultivating the land was computed to be about 22,000,000. CHI 182 CHI Under Li-tsou, the 14th emperor, who was himself by no means warlike, his generals ex- pelled the eastern Tartars, who retreated nearly into their own territories, but returned and con- quered China, which they still possess. Shi- tsu, the founder of the 20th dynasty, A. D. 1279, though a Tartar, and the first foreign !>rince that reigned over the Chinese, effectual- y reconciled them to his government, and even endeared himself to them, by observing their ancient laws and customs, by his equity and justice. His successors, till the ninth, in whom terminated the race, established the religion of Fo in China. One of them invited the grand lama from Thibet, whom he received with the most extraordinary ceremonies : and with the lamas entered also magic, dancing girls, and de- bauchery, which in the end perverted the wise government. A servant of the bonses, named Chu, headed a revolt, and compelled the emperor Shunti to flee, with whom ended the Tartar dynasty of Y wen, which was succeded by that of Ming, founded by Chu, who, ascending the throne, took the name of Tay-tsu, A. D. 1368. The piety of the new emperor equaled his wis- dom and penetration. The catastrophe of this race, which ended with the 13th emperor, was announced and preceded by continual commo- tions during several reigns. The nobles of the empire called in against the insurgents the Man- chew or eastern Tartars, who again possessed themselves of the Chinese throne. This memo- rable revolution happened in the year 1644. The nobility had imagined that they should find the Tartars merely auxiliaries, who would assist them in placing a Chinese emperor on the throne ; but when these allies had compelled the rebels to lay down their arms, they consid- ered the empire as a fair reward for their labor. However, the Chinese princes of the blood did not tamely submit to this usurpation. Several competitors arose against Shun-chi, the first Manchew emperor ; but, though hostilities were carried on with great obstinacy by sea and land, the vigor of the Tartars completely prevailed over every adversary. Shun-chi was succeeded by his son Kang-hi, A. D. 1661. This prince was not only endow- ed with all the qualifications requisite to render him worthy of the imperial diadem, but was also very happy in the choice that his father had made of four noble guardians, who studied to preserve the empire in a flourishing and peaceable condition. Kang-hi was succeeded by his son Yong-shing, A. D. 1722, who as- cended the throne at the age of forty-five, and who reigned with absolute power, and was greatly dreaded by his subjects. The death of this emperor took place, A. D. 1735. This prince was succeeded by Kieu-hong, who, after a happy, peaceable, and long reign of sixty- three years, died on the 11th of February, 1799. On his death, Kia-king, the fifth of the Tartan dynasty, ascended the throne. He died in 1820, and was succeeded by the present emperor, his second son, Tara-Kwang. CHINA, Dynasties of. The Hia Dynasty, 2207 to 1767, B. C. The Shang Dynasty, 1767 to 1122. The Tchuen Dynasty, H22 to 256. The Tasin Dynasty, 256 to 257, B. C. The Hang Dynasty, 207, B. C. to 220, A. D. From 220 to 280, China was divided into three kingdoms, the Shohang dynasty, 220 to 263 ; that of the Goei in the north, 220 to 265, and that of the El in the south, 220 to 280. The Tsin Dynasty, 265 to 420. The U-ta Dynasties, 420 to 589. The Sui Dynasty, 589 to 617. The Tang Dynasty, 617 to 907. The Hehu-u-ta Dynasty, 907 to 960. The Song Dynasty, 960 to 1279. The Mogul Khans, 1279 to 1368. The Ming Dynasty, 1368 to 1644. The Tsing Dynasty, Shiin-tchi, 1644 to 1661. Kang-hi, 1661 to 1722. Yong-tching, 1722 to 1735. Kien-long, 1735 to 1799. Kia-king, 1799 to 1820. Tara-kwang, 1820. CHIPPEWAY ; a town in Upper Canada, on a river of the same name, two miles north- west of Niagara Falls, where the British troops were signally defeated by the Americans, Julv 5, 1814. CHIVALRY. The institution and spirit of chivalry, forming a prominent and important feature of history, has been regarded by writers and men of erudition, in various points of view, and, while some have condemned it as alto- gether injurious and absurd, others have digni- fied it with the title of sublime. There have been found men of modern days, and those the fortunate possessors of more than common abili- ties, who could sigh over the degeneracy of the times, and lament that the age of chivalry is gone. But if the material and least worthy part of it has passed away, its spirit still re- mains, still invites men to high and honorable deeds, and is indeed imperishable and immor- CHI 183 CHI tal. The vows of knighthood, the ceremonials of installations, the pomp and ceremony of knightly feats have gone, but the devotion of the patriot, the ardor of the warrior, the warmth of the lover, the fidelity of the friend, the loy- alty and truth of the man of honor, do not sleep in the graves of Charlemagne, Roland, and Bayard. In seeking for the origin of Chivalry, we are led back to the feudal ages, and the consideration of the condition of the Geomanic tribes, when its peculiar spirit first began to display itself. The tribes were composed not of superiors and infe- riors, but of masters and slaves; of men whose birthright was ease and honor, and of others, who inherited the bond of ceaseless toil. By the noble-born labor of any kind was consider- ed degrading, and the profession of arms alone worthy of being followed, so that the lords of the soil were a race of independent warriors, whose thirst for fame was a continual excite- ment. The different feudal sovereigns were nominally subject to a legitimate prince, and were bound to follow his banner into battle, at the head of their vassals, and to respond to his call by bringing, at a moment's warning, an armed force to his support. Still, when re- moved from the presence of his sovereign, the feudal lord was a petty despot, whose vassals felt that he possessed absolute power of life and death over them. Unlimited authority gave rise to various abuses, and it was well that chivalry, with its high tone of honor and morality, sprang up in ages of general darkness, fraud, and oppression. Great enterprises contributed to bind numbers j of knights together, and led to the formation 'j of various societies and orders, and when these i military adventurers were not leagued together | in any of the Holy Wars, a reciprocity of prin- i ciple, and an identity of religion, held them in ; a common chain. Animated by a love of jus- ,'jtice, a veneration for the fair-sex, a high-mind- i ed regard for truth, a thirst for military glory, J and a contempt for danger, the knights went I forth te brave peril, to rescue the unfortunate, j and to crush the oppressor. Numerous indi- viduals set forth with no fixed purpose but that | jf discovering some wrong and righting it, and 1 Jiese wandering champions were called Knights Errant, and their exploits sang in camp and I ;ourt by the minstrels whose lays immortalized 1 he sons of chivalry. Chivalry degenerated, )ut not rapidly. After the lapse of many years i rom its foundation, the number of its ceremo- lials increased, its pageantry was disgraced by frippery and folly, its vows were unobserved ; a devotion to the sex was succeeded by bound- less licentiousness, and the wandering spirit of knight-errantry was displaced by an affectation of eccentricity. In the 14th century the honors of knighthood were restricted to the nubility, and then arose the various forms and ceremonies, which at length concealed the original design of chival- ry, and brought on a premature decline. The knightly education of a youth generally com- menced with his 12th year, when he was sent to the court of some noble pattern of chivalry, to learn dancing, riding, the use of his weapon, &c, and where his chief duty was assiduous attention to the ladies in the quality of page. According to his progress in years and accom- plishments, he became squire to some knight, and when he fairly merited the distinction, he was himself knighted. This honor was not conferred upon a youth before his 21st year, unless high birth, or extraordinary valor and address seemed to warrant the setting aside of the usual regulation. Sometimes the honor was won by many a field of bloody toil, with many drops of sweat and gore, and not unfrequently, one daring achievement, artfully planned, and gallantly carried into execution, procured the wished-for spurs, and the anticipated accolade. The ceremony of conferring knighthood was often performed on the field of battle where the honor had been earned ; often it required and received the most imposing preparations and ceremonies. The young candidate guarded his arms for a night, and this was called the vigil of arms. In the morning he bathed in water, which was the emblem of the truth and purity which he swore to preserve sacred. Clad in spotless garments, he kneeled before the altar of the nearest church, and, having presented his sword to the officiating priest, received it again with the benediction of the reverend man. After taking the oaths of allegiance, he knelt before his sovereign, who gave him the accolade, or blow upon the neck, with the flat of his sword, saluted the young warrior, and said : " In the name of God and St. Michael, (or, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost), I dub thee a knight. Be loyal, brave and fortunate." It was customary for two knights of the same age and congenial tempers to form a friendship, and this brotherhood in arms lasted generally until one of the two was laid in the grave. The courtesy of chivalry softened the asperity of war, gave charms to victory, and assuaged to the vanquished, the pain of a defeat. All that I CHI 184 CHR ingenuity could plan, and wealth produce, to give splendor to knighthood was displayed in the age of chivalry. Magnificent tournaments were held, where even kings entered the lists and contended for the prize of valor before the eyes of thousands of spectators, among whom beautiful ladies appeared the most deeply inter- ested. In fact the knights often contended about the charms of their lady-loves, and wore their favors in their helmets. If the ladies of Rome attended gladiatorial shows in throngs, we can- not wonder that the beauties of the age of chiv- alry looked forward to a tournament with great impatience, and eagerly strove for the honor of filling the post of temporary queen and distribu- ter of the prizes. Chivaly exerted a powerful influence on poet- ry, and formed the subjects of the poems of the troubadours of the south of France, as well as supplied themes for the poetical controversies of the knights, which were decided at the Cours 'd Amour (courts of love), first establish- ed in Provence. Even after chivalry had died away, its influence was not unfelt by poetry, which retained the tone it had imparted for many centuries. The songs of the troubadours were divided into amatory songs, duets, pasto- rals, serenades, ballads, poetical colloquies, &c. In the romances of chivalry we behold paladins and peers, sorcerers, fairies, winged and intelli- gent horses, invisible or invulnerable men, magi- cians who are interested in the birth and educa- tion of knights, enchanted palaces ; in a word the creation of a new world which leaves our vulgar planet far beneath it. Paladins never without arms, in a country bristling with for- tresses, find their delight and honor in punish- ing injustice and defending weakness. The chivalric romances may be divided into three classes, those of the Round Table. Those of Charlemagne, and lastly those of Amadis, which belong to a later century. It will suf- fice to speak of the former. The romances of the Round Table recount tales of the cup from which Jesus Christ drank with Jo- seph of Arithmathia. This cup had performed such prodigies, that we are not astonished that those valorous knights of the Round Table, Lancelot, Perceval, and Perceforest, are united with the determination to recover it. These preux chevaliers are the perpetual heroes of these romances. Lancelot is attached to Gen- icore, the wife of king Arthur, and his marvel- lous exploits excited the admiration of contempo- raries. Three centuries after, lords and ladies were still delighted at the recital of " the very elegant, delicious, mellifluous, and very pleasant historie of the very noble and very victorious Perceforest." Amidst many pages of weari- some insipidity, we find some happy descriptions and situations, detailed, and graphic portraits of feudal men and manners. The absurdities of chivalry afforded scope for the satirical and comic powers of Cervantes, and the adventures of the unfortunate Don Quixote are read with an interest which few works of similar character inspire. Every feature of chivalry is happily burlesqued, and the Don goes through all the ceremonials with a ludicrous gravity which is perfectly irresistible. The pertinacity with which the knights maintained the pre-eminence of the ladies of their affec- tions is finely satirised in the election which Don Quixote makes of a hideous country wench, whose charms he celebrates after the most approved fashion and with unceasing de- votion. Few ladies of chivalric romance have attained a degree of reputation comparable to that of the immortal Dulcinea del Toboso. CHRIST. (See Jesus.) CHRISTIANA, queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, was born in 1626, and died April 19, 1689. She was remarkable for acts and habits foreign to her sex, viz. learning, murder, and apostasy. Her conduct was so flagrant, that she found it difficult to procure an asylum in any state, after having been exclud- ed from her own. She died at Rome. CHRISTOPHE, Henri, king of Hayti, was born October 6, 1767. In early life he was a slave and passed from the hands of one master to another, being successively a cook, and an overseer. The French were conquered by the exertions of Dessalines and Christophe, the latter of whom was general-in-chief of the ar- my duiing the short-lived imperial government of the former. In 1806, an insurrection broke out in Hayti, in which Dessalines, the emperor, was killed by the negroes whom he had provok- ed by his cruelty and oppression. His succes- sor, Christophe, assumed the humbler title of chief of the government, and in that capacity opened the commerce of his dominions to neu- tral nations, by a proclamation distinguished for its liberal spirit and enlightened views. In 1811 Christophe changed the republic into a monarchy, and proclaimed himself king of Hayti. A short time before his coronation he created a nobility consisting of princes, dukes, counts, and barons, to give greater splendor to the ceremony. He created a legion of honor, called the order of St. Henri, and altered the CIC 185 CID name of his capital from Cape Francois to Cape Henri. His troops, at this time, amounted to about 10,000 men, ail negroes, and his fleet con- sisted of one forty -four-gun frigate, nine sloops of war, and a number of schooners. On the 12th December, 1820, Christophe, hearing that his troops had abandoned him, shot himself through the head, and the opposite party immediately proclaimed a republican government. CHRISTOPHER, ST., commonly called St. Kitts, a West India island, discovered by Co- lumbus in 1493. Its length is 15 miles. It is a valuable possession of Great Britain, and con- tains 23,900 inhabitants. CHRYSOSTOM, ST., one of the fathers of the church, an eloquent and pious man, who died 407. CHURCH, States of the, the dominions of the Pope, are situated in the centre of Italy, between Naples, and Lombardy, and Tuscany, and the Tuscan and Adriatic Seas, and con- tains 17,185 square miles, occupied by 2,460,000 inhabitants. CHURCH, Benjamin, a native of Duxbury, Massachusetts, was born in 1639, and distin- guished himself by his address and daring in the Indian wars. His services during king Philip's war were great, and he commanded the party that killed the sachem of Mount Hope, in August, 1676. He died in his 78th year, Jan. 17, 1718. CHURCHILL, Charles, a famous English poet, born 1731, died in 1764. His political sa- tires were received with great applause, and his Prophecy of Famine, a Scotch pastoral, contain- ing a severe satire upon the Scots, was read with eagerness, and procured notoriety for its author. CIBBER, Colley, an English actor and dra- matist, was born in London in 1671, and died in 1757, seven years after he quitted the theatre. His comedy of the Careless Husband received even the approbation of the bitter Pope. CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated orator, born at Arpinum 106 B.C., was the son of a Roman knight. In Sicily he exercised the qucestorship with equity and moderation, and freed the Sicilians from the tyranny and avarice of Verres. He discharged the offices of edile and praetor, and stood for the consulship, at a time when Catiline was making the most vigor- ous efforts to oppose him. Catiline, with many dissolute and desperate Romans, had conspired against his country, and planned the murder of Cicero himself. The plot being discovered chiefly by the efforts of Cicero, he commanded Catiline to leave the city, and the desperate traitor march- ed forth to meet the 20,000 men that were assem- bled to support his cause. The rebels were de- feated, and the conspirators capitally punished. After this memorable deliverance, Cicero receiv- ed the thanks of the people, and the title of father of his country and second founder of Rome. The vehemence with which he attacked Clo- dius, proved injurious to him ; and when his enemy was made tribune, Cicero was banished from Rome, though 20,000 young men were ready to attest his innocence. After an absence of 16 months, during which he had been favor- ably received wherever he presented himself, he was recalled, and entered Rome to the uni- versal satisfaction. When he was sent, with the power of proconsul to Cilicia, his integrity and prudence made him successful against the enemy, and on his return he was honored with a triumph, which, however, the factions pre- vented him from enjoying. During the civil wars between Ceesar and Pompey, he joined the latter, and followed him to Greece. When victory had declared in fa- vor of Caesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, Cicero went to Brundusium, and was reconciled to the conqueror, who treated him with great humani- ty. From this time Cicero retired into the country, and seldom visited Rome. After the assassination of Csesar, Cicero recommended a general amnesty, and was strongly in favor of having the provinces decreed to Brutus and Cassius, but finding the interest of the republi- cans decrease, and Antony come into power, he retired to Athens. He soon after returned, but lived in perpetual fear of assassination. The enmity of Antony finally proved fatal to him ; and Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus, to destroy all causes of quarrel, and each to des- patch his enemies, produced their lists of pro- scription. Cicero was among the proscribed. He fled but was pursued, and put to death in his 64th year, B. C. 43. Cicero was a sincere patriot, and was unquestionably one of the brightest ornaments of the age in which he lived. Hi3 eloquence was winning, and his pen possessed the power of his tongue. His ora- tions and philosophical works are models of style. Cicero possessed a sparkling wit, and many of his bon-mots have descended to pos- terity. CID, Don Rodrigo Dias, count of Bivar, sur- named the Cid (a Moorish word, signifying lord), one of the most renowned knights of Spain, was born in 1026 and signalized himself against the Moors, winning the esteem of his CIN 186 CLA countrymen who bestowed upon him the title of Campcador (incomparable). On the acces- sion ot Sancho to the throne of Castile, the knight of Bivar accompanied him to the siege of Zamora, whence he brought back the troops and the dead body of the warrior monarch, who fell by treachery. Alfonso, the brother of Sancho, was then placed on the throne, after swearing that he had no participation in the murder of Sancho. His last exploit was the capture of Saguntum, and he died at Valencia, 1099. He was buried at Castile, and near him lies interred his beloved and faithful charger, Babieca. CILICIA, a country of antiquity, south of Mount Taurus, between Pamphylia and Syria, the coast of which was inhabited by a piratical race. The Macedonians, Syrians, and Romans successively possessed it, and it was a province of the Roman empire from the time of Vespa- sian till the fall of Rome. CIMBRI,or Cimmerians, an ancient tribe of the Germans, the first of that people with whom the Greeks became acquainted. Their origin is doubtful ; they were warlike, and made them- selves formidable to other nations. CIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades and Hegesipul, famous for his debaucheries in his youth, and the reformation of his morals when he arrived at years of discretion. He behaved with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himself popular, by his munificence and valor. He defeated the Persian fleet, took 200 ships, and totally routed their land-army, on the same day. Cimon afterward lost his popularity, and was banished by the Athenians, who declared war against the Lacedaemonians ; but having been recalled from his exile, recon- ciled Lacedaamon and his country. He was afterwards appointed to carry on the war against Persia ; gave battle to the enemy on the coast of Asia, and totally destroyed their fleet. He died as he was besieging the town of Citium, in Cyprus, B. C. 449, in the 51st year of his age. CINCINNATI, a flourishing city in the state of Ohio, on the north bank of the Ohio, con- taining, in 1830, 24,831 inhabitants. It was founded in 1789, and its growth has been aston- ishingly rapid. It contains very extensive manufacturing establishments. Its population at present exceeds 30,000. CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, a cele- brated Roman. Having been informed, as he ploughed his field, that the senate had chosen him dictator, he left his farm with regret, and repaired to the assistance of his countrymen, whom he found hard pressed by the Volsci and jEqui. He conquered the enemy and returned to Rome in triumph; and, sixteen days after his appointment, laid down his office, and re- turned to his agricultural employments. In his 80th year he was again summoned against Praeneste, as dictator, and after a successful campaign, resigned the unlimited power, which had been reposed in him. He flourished about 4G0 years B. C. CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman consul who leagued with Marius to deluge Rome with blood. He was stoned to death. CIRCASSIA, a country of Asia, lying be- tween the Black and the Caspian Sea. The Circassians are Mohammedans, and are under the protection of Russia. They are a warlike race. The females are celebrated for their beau- ty, and are esteemed the brightest ornaments of an eastern seraglio. Circassia contains about 550,000 inhabitants. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. This name was given by Bonaparte to a republic which receiv- ed its constitution in 1797, and which finally included a territory of more than 16,337 square miles, inhabited by three and a half millions of inhabitants. It included, among other districts, Austrian Lombardy, the Mantua and Vene- tian provinces, Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, Ve- rona, and Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the principality of Massa and Carrara, Bologna, Ferrara, Messola, and Romagna. CLAPPERTON, Captain Hugh, an officer in the English navy, born at Annan, in Scot- land, in 1788. Having served with distinction, he was anxious to join doctor Oudney , and Den- ham, in their expedition to Africa. After ac- ' quiring a vast fund of information in regard to the interior of Africa, he returned to England, but died in the vicinity of Soccatoo, while on a second expedition of discovery, April 13th, 1827. Richard Lander was his servant. CLARE, John, a peasant of Northampton- shire, England, was born at Helpstone, July 13th, 1793. His talents displayed themselves as early as his 13th year. A collection of his poems was published in 1819, and their recep- tion by the public was highly flattering. Rais- ed by his pen from abject poverty, Clare soon saw himself in possession of a comfortable property. CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, earl of, lord high chancellor of England, was born 1608, and educated at Oxford. He became chancellor of exchequer and member of the privy council CLA 187 CLE under Charles I, and was loaded with honors by Charles II. Having, however, lost the royal favor, he was deprived of his offices ; threatened with impeachment, and compelled to fly to France, where he died, at Rouen, in 1674. CLARKE, George Rogers, an American officer, who was engaged against the Indians, throughout the revolutionary war, on the fron- tiers of Virginia. In 1778, he was appointed to command a force for the protection of Illinois. He built fort Jefferson on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, and in 1781, received a gener- ral's commission. He died in 1817, near Louis- ville, Kentucky. The following anecdote is related of him in an authentic work. The Indians came in to the treaty of fort Washington in the most friendly manner, ex- cept the Shawahanees, the most conceited and warlike of the aborigines, the first in at a battle, the last at a treaty. Three hundred of their finest warriors set off in all their paint and feathers, and filled the council-house. Their number and demeanor, so unusual at an occa- sion of this sort, was altogether unexpected and suspicious. The United States' stockade mus- tered 70 men. In the centre of the hall, at a little table, sat the commissary-general, Clarke, the indefatigable scourge of these very wander- ers, General Richard Butler, and Mr. Parsons. There was also present a Captain Denny, who, I believe, is still alive, and can attest this story. On the part of the Indians, an old council- sachem and a war-chief took the lead. The latter, a tall, raw-boned fellow, with an impu- dent and villanous look, made a boisterous and threatening speech, which operated effectu- ally on the passions of the Indians, who set up a prodigious whoop at every pause. He concluded by presenting a black and white wampum, to signify they were prepared for either events, peace or war. Clarke exhibited the same unaltered and careless countenance he had shown during the whole scene, his head leaning on his left hand, and his elbow resting on the table. He raised his little cane, and pushed the sacred wampum off the table, with very little ceremony. Every Indian, at the same time, started from his seat with one of i those sudden, simultaneous, and peculiarly sav- ige sounds, which startle and disconcert the stoutest heart, and can neither be described nor forgotten. At this juncture, Clarke arose. The scrutinizing eye cowered at his glance. He stamped his foot on the prostrate and in- sulted symbol, and ordered them to leave the I *all. They did so apparently involuntarily. They were heard all that night, debating in the bushes near the fort. The raw-boned chief was for war, the old sachem for peace. The latter prevailed, and the next morning they came back and sued for peace. CLAUDIUS I, emperor of Rome, the son of Drusus, and the successor of the infamous Ca- ligula. He made some conquests in Britain, and built several noble structures in Rome. He was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who wish- ed to place her son, Nero, on the throne, A. D. 54. He was then 63 years of age. CLEMENT. This name has been borne by several popes. Clement XIV, suppressed the order of the Jesuits, and gave many proofs of great liberality in religious matters. He is best known by his real name, Gauganelli. He died in 1775. CLEMENT, Jacques, a. weak-headed enthu- siast, who assassinated king Henry HI, of France. CLEOMBROTUS, king of Sparta, killed in a battle fought with Epaminondas at Leuctra, B. C. 371. CLEOMENES. This name was borne by three kings of Sparta. The first delivered Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidce, but killed himself in a fit of insanity, B. C. 491. The reign of the second was distinguished for nothing but an uninterrupted tranquillity. Cleomenes III, was the son and successor of Leonidas, and began to reign, B. C. 230. En- gaging in a war with the Achaans, he was defeated, and obliged to fly into Egypt, where he destroyed himself in prison, B. C. 219. CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt, and one of the most famous and fascinating female sove- reigns of antiquity, was the daughter of Ptole- my Auletes, and the sister and wife of Ptolemy Dionysius, who deprived her of her share in the kingdom, and drove her to seek protection of the Romans. She exerted all the influence of her beauty to win the heart and gain the favor of Ca?sar, and she was successful. Ptole- my was defeated and drowned. He left the throne to his sister, who removed her younger brother by poison. Cleopatra visited Rome during the lifetime of Caesar, but was forced to quit it by the clamors of the populace. After the battle of Philippi, she was summoned by Antony to appear before him to answer to the charge brought against her of having assisted Brutus. When she made her appearance be- fore Antony, the charms of her person and mind ensnared him, and made him forget the attractions of his wife. At the battle of Acti- CLI 188 CLI um she fled, and her paramour was defeated. He afterwards committed suicide, and died in her arms. Cleopatra, to avoid gracing the tri- umph of the conqueror, applied an asp to her breast, and died of the wound, B. C 30. She was a woman of great talents, but of a most ambitious and extravagant spirit. In a convi- vial contest with Antony, to see which of them could expend the most money on an entertain- ment, she snatched one of her pearl ornaments, valued at 10,000L and dissolving it in a cup of vinegar, swallowed the contents. Few scenes of antiquity can have surpassed the splendor of her appointments, when she floated over the waves of the river Cydnus, to meet Antony. She came to judgment, but, she came in the pride of beauty, and anticipated triumph. Her galley glowed with gold ; odors filled its silken sails, and the loveliest girls of Egypt, performed the part of mariners. Beneath an awning on the deck, lay the queen, in the slight drapery with which painters and sculptors sometimes invest the goddess of beauty. Silver oars struck the water to the dulcet sound of music, and beneath and about them sported the fair representatives of marine deities. CLERFAYT, Francis Sebastian Charles Jo- seph de Croix, count of, an Austrian general. In 1792, he commanded the Austrian troops against France, and after taking Longwy and Stenay, retired into the Low Countries. Here he lost the famous battle of Jemappes ; but his retreat across the Rhine was a masterpiece of skill. Under the command of the prince of Coburg, he gained considerable advantages at Altenhaven, Quievrain, Hausen, and Far- mars, and decided the victory of Nerwinden. With General Richegru, he disputed every foot of ground, till the inferiority of his forces obliged him to abandon the country. In 1795, he took the command of the army of Mayence, forced the French camp, and took a number of prisoners. He was following the victory with ardor, when he received at Manheim, an order to desist. On this he gave in his resignation, and retired to Vienna, where he died in 1798. CLIFFORD, George, the third earl of Cum- berland, a nobleman distinguished by his naval enterprises in the reign of queen Elizabeth. He did great damage to the Spanish settle- ments and trade. He died in 1605. CLIFTON, William, a young poet of great fromise, who died early. He was born in hiladelphia, in 1772, and died in 1799. CLINTON, Sir Henry, an English general, who came to America in 1775. He was en- gaged, during the revolutionary war, both in the northern and southern states. Being super- seded, he returned to England in 1782, and died in 1795. CLINTON, James, the fourth son of Charles Clinton, was born in Ulster county, New York, Aug. 9, 1736. His education was excellent, and he served with distinction in the English and French war of 1756, and in the revolution- ary war. After the close of the war, he became a senator of the United States. He died in 1812. CLINTON, George, youngest brother of the preceding, was born July 15, 1739. In the old French war, and the war of independence he displayed great gallantry. Having studied law, he was admitted to practice in due time, and was chosen governor of New York, in 1777, and he continued in office 18 years, and could have served a much longer time, but declined re-election. He was chosen vice president of the United States, and held the office till the time of his death in 1812. CLINTON, De Witt, was born at Little Britain, Orange county, New York, in 1769. He studied law, was elected, successively , mem- ber of the state legislature, of the senate of the union, and mayor of New York, being obliged to retire from the office, after filling it many years, by the violence of party spirit. In 1817, he was chosen governor of New York, on which occasion his previous opponents gave him their votes, from a sense of his merit ; he was re- elected in 1820. Clinton was one of the prime movers of the canal scheme, and having satis- fied himself that there was no danger of that being defeated, in 1822, he declined again en- tering the elective lists. Having been deprived of his seat in the board of canal commissioners, by the animosity of his political opponents, a revolution in public feeling took place which enabled his friends to elect him governor over Colonel Young, by an overwhelming majority. In 1826, ho was again elected, but died in 1828. CLIVE, Robert, lord, was born in 1725, in Shropshire. Lord Clive became eminent for his successes in India, but was originally merely a writer in the company's service. He assisted in the Tanjore war, in 1747, and in 1751, took Arcot by a coup de main, and relieved Tritch- inopoly. He afterwards took Fort William in Bengal, defeated Surajah Dowlah, and placed Jaffier Ali Cawn upon the throne. Honors were heaped upon him in consequence of these achievements, and he was made president of COB 189 COL Bengal. After defending himself with spirit igainst the charge of abusing his power, he rave way to depression, and destroyed himself, nl774. CLOTILDE DE VALLON CHALIS, Mar- guerite Elenore, a talented poetess and amiable voman, who lived in the early part of the 15th entury. In 1421 she married Berenger de surville, a young knight in the service of Charles VII, who was killed before Orleans, 10 r ears after. The date of her death is uncer- ain. CLOUD, St. a village six miles east of Paris, nd a royal residence, the palace having been mproved and embellished by Napoleon. CLOVIS, king of the Franks, born 465, suc- eeded his father Childeric in 481. He em- raced Christianity and was publicly baptized. le defeated the Goths, subdued several provin- es, and fixed the royal residence at Paris. He ied in 511, after a reign of 30 years. CLYMER, George, a patriotic and talented American gentleman, one of the signers of the eclaration of independence, was born in Phila- elphia in 1739. Mr. Clymer was one of the rejectors of the bank established for the sole urpose of conveying rations to the army. Per- eiving the good effects of a national bank, in 780, when elected a second time to Congress, e strenuously advocated its establishment. In 784 he filled a seat in the legislature of Penn- ylvania, and as a member of the convention, e assisted in framing the present federal consti- ution. When, in 1791, the famous bill imposing duty on spirits distilled within the United Itates, was passed, Clymer was placed at the ead of the Pennsylvania excise. He was en- aged, with others, to negotiate a treaty with tie Indians in 1796. He was afterwards ap- ointed president of the academy of arts, and f the Philadelphia bank. He died in 1813. CLYTEMNESTRA, a daughter of Tynda- us, king of Sparta, by Heda, and twin-sister f Helen. In the absence of her husband, igamemnon, at the siege of Troy, iEgisthus lade his court to her, and publicly lived with er. Her infidelity reached the ears of Aga- lemnon, but he was prevented from carrying is schemes of vengeance into execution, being lurdered by the traitress and her paramour on is return home. After this crime, Clytemnes- ra publicly married jEgisthus, who ascended be throne of Argos. She was killed by her on Orestes. COBURG, a Saxon principality in central jiennany. COCHIN-CHINA, composed of the king- doms of Cambodia, Cochin-China Proper, and Tonquin, is 1000 miles long, and from 70 to 220 miles broad. It is governed by a king. The inhabitants are hardy, but treacherous, and the country is fertile. Little attention is paid to re- ligion, although that of Fo is professed by the lower orders. The commerce of the country is great and increasing. A portion of the country was conquered and colonized by the Chinese B. C. 214. After the Chinese yoke had been thrown off*, and various commotions had taken place, three brothers of low rank, (the Tay- sons), having defeated and killed the king of the country, found a powerful opponent in his son Gialong, who eventually re-conquered the country after a prolonged struggle, and left it in its present state, to Meng-meng. CODRUS, the son of Melanthus, and last king of Athens, who, learning that the Oracle had assured the Heraclidae that their good for- tune depended on sparing his life, rushed into the midst of the hostile array in disguise, and was slain. COKE, Sir Edward, a famous English law- yer who flourished in the 16th century. COLBERG, a fortress and sea-port of Prus- sian Pomerania, frequently besieged, and mem- orable for its gallant defence against the French in 1807. COLCHESTER, a town of England, in Es- sex, on the river Colne, the Colonia of the an- cients, containing 16,000 inhabitants. It is said to have been the birth-place of Helena, the mother of Constantine. In the reign of Mary, many persons were put to death here on account of their religious principles ; and, in 1648, the town was besieged by the forces of the parlia- ment, and so reduced, that 730 horses were de- livered up for provisions, and dogs and cats were sold at an enormous price. The town at length surrendered. COLIGNY, Gaspard de, admiral of France, born in 1516. He served with distinction un- der the gallant Francis I and Henry II, by both of whom he was honored and rewarded. He was chief of the Calvinists against the Guises, to whom he continued formidable even after re- peated defeats. Coligny was the first who fell in the atrocious massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's day, in 1572. His head was sent by Catharine of Medicis to the pope. COLLINGWOOD,Cuthbert, baron, an Eng- lish admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1748. In 1761, he entered the naval service, in which he passed through all the regular steps COL 190 COL of promotion, till he was made post captain, and commanded the Prince, admiral Boyer's flag- ship, on the 1st of June, 1794. After this he bore a part with Nelson, in the action off Cape St. Vincent, February 14th, 1797. In 1804 he was made vice-admiral of the blue, and served with Oornwallis in the tedious but important block- ade of Brest. At length, after many and va- rious services, Collingwood became second to Nelson, in the battle of Trafalgar. On this oc- casion, his ship, the Royal Sovereign, com- menced the fight in such a manner as to draw from the commander these expressions : " Look at that noble fellow ! observe the style in which he carries his ship into action !" After the loss of Nelson, the command de- volved upon Collingwood at a critical period, and how well he secured by his prudence what had been so gloriously won, needs not here be related. He was now advanced to be vice-ad- miral of the red. confirmed in the command of the Mediterranean fleet, and created a peer of Great Britain, by the title of baron Collingwood. He died off Minorca, on board the Ville de Paris, March 7,1810; and his body was carried to England, and interred in St. Paul's cathedral. COLLINS, William, an English poet, was the son of a hatter of Chichester, where he was born about 1720. After completing his college course, he published his Oriental Eclogues, and went to London in 1744. His fortunes having driven him to the bottle, he died in 1756. COLLOT D' HERBOIS, Jean Marie, an actor who was hissed from the stage, made him- self infamous during the French revolution by conducting the massacres at Lyons. He was banished to Guinea after the fall of Robespierre, and died in 1796. COLMAN, GEORGE, a dramatic writer, was born at Florence, where his father was an English envoy, in 1733. He was a fine scholar and writer. His death took place in 1794. COLOGNE, an ancient city, capitol of the Prussian government of Cologne, contains 64,000 inhabitants. It possesses many attrac- tions for the antiquarian, and is of great com- mercial importance. COLOMBIA, a republic of South America, comprising a surface of 1,100,000 square miles, lately comprising the countries formerly known by the names of New Grenada, and Venezuela, or Caraccas, and Quito. The republic of Co- lombia was subdivided into the departments of the Isthmus, Magdalena, Zulia, Venezuela, Ori- noco, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Boyaca, Apure, The Equator, Guayaquil, Assuay. Population is about 2,700,000. The Orinoco and Magdale- na, the latter of which is 1,000 miles long, are the principal rivers. The face of the country is greatly diversified, the elevated portions of it being healthy, while in the low parts, the climate is hot and noxious. The soil of the low valleys is rich, and produces abundantly, cotton, tobac- co, com, coffee, and tropical fruits. The precious metals and stones are found in the mountains. The Andes, in some parts, reach an elevation of 21,000 feet. After a fierce contest the royal party was subdued, and a junction of the three provinces abovementioned, effected under a federal constitution. But in 1829, the confede- ration fell to pieces, and three new states, an- swering to the old Spanish colonial divisions, have been formed of the fragments, viz. : New Grenada, comprising the five departments of The Isthmus, Magdalena, Cauca, Cundinamar- ca, and Boyaca ; The Equator, composed of the three departments of The Equator, Guayaquil, and Assuay ; and Venezuela, including the other four departments. COLOSSUS of Rhodes. There are many contradictory accounts of this gigantic bronze statue of Apollo, which was of such extraordi- nary height, that the ancients assure us that vessels, with all their sails set went between its legs. It was about 100 feet high, and is said to have been modelled by Chares of Lindus, a dis- ciple of the famous Lysippus, who was occupied 12 years upon the work. B. C. 223 it was over- thrown by an earthquake, which committed great ravages, particularly in Caria, and the isle of Rhodes. COLUMBIA, the seat of Government of South Carolina, situated on the Congaree, con- taining 3,500 inhabitants. Many of its public edifices are very handsome. COLUMBIA, District of, 10 miles square, is situated on both sides of the Potomac. Whole population, in 1830, 39,868. It contains Alex- andria, Washington, and Georgetown, and be- came the seat of government of the Union, in 1800. COLUMBUS, Christopher. Some account of this celebrated navigator will be found in another portion of this work. (See America). He was a native of Genoa, born about 1435, of poor parents, who educated him with care. At the age of 14 he went to sea, having evinc- ed an early attachment to a sailor's life. Against the Mohammedans and Venetians he fought with great bravery and skill. Having conceiv- ed the design of a western passage to India, he for a long time sought for patronage without COM 191 CON avail ; but after struggling 18 years, was at length aided by Ferdinand and Isabella, and sailed with three small vessels, the Pinta, Nina, and Pinzon, August 3, 1492. Land was discov- ered on the 11th of October, which proved to be the island of Guanahani, named by Colum- bus, St. Salvador. Cuba was discovered on the 28th of October. Columbus was the first to announce his own discovery, and was received in Spain with signal favor. He was created a frandee of the realm and loaded with other onors. September 25, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz, on his second voyage, with a fleet of 17 sail. He built a town called Isabella at Hispa- niola, but encountered many obstacles and diffi- culties in his new voyage of discovery. Mean- while that envy, which never fails to pursue true merit, stirred up clamors against Columbus, which were stifled, however, by his return to Spain in 1496, with valuable treasures. In 1498 he departed on his third voyage. Arrived in the new world, he found his enemies still exas- perated against him, and they scrupled not to represent him to his sovereigns as endeavoring to make himself independent. Their stories were believed, Francis de Bobadilla was sent to Hispaniola, and the admiral and his brothers put in irons, and sent to Spain. There the honor and fidelity of Columbus became appa- rent, and he was nominally reinstated in his dignities. But the disposition of the sovereigns towards him was altered. Nicolo de Ovando y Lares, was sent to Hispaniola as governor, and Columbus, now sought only to obtain the fulfil- ment of the royal promises with regard to the furtherance of his expedition, imagining that the continent he had discovered was Asia, and hoping to find a way to the East Indies by the isthmus of Darien. His fourth voyage, com- menced March 9, 1502, with few facilities, proved, on the whole, disastrous, and Columbus, after being wrecked, and surrounded by dangers, returned to Spain. Neglected by his former patrons, his spirits sank, and he died at Vallado- lid, May 20th, 1506, in the 70th year of his age. He was buried in the city of St. Domingo, but his remains were afterward removed to the ca- thedral of Havana, in Cuba. Columbus had a noble and pleasing countenance and form, and was eloquent, amiable, and pious. COMMODUS ANTON1US, Lucius EAms Aurelius, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Au- relius, was born A. D. 161. At 16 years of age he was associated with his father in the govern- ment, and in A. D. 180, ascended the throne. He surpassed in profligacy and cruelty all his wicked predecessors. He maimed and disem- bowelled his subjects for pleasure. From his great strength he bore a striking resemblance to the statues of Hercules, in the dress of whom he appeared. He debauched his own sisters, and mixed with the vilest and most degraded of the human race. Having exhausted the treasury by his extravagance, he replenished it by imposing enormous taxes on the people. Habited like a slave, he drove his own chariot, and fought as a gladiator, 735 times. He was strangled by his favorite gladiator, Narcissus, in 192. CONCORD, the seat of government of New Hampshire, situated on both sides of the river Merrimack, 63 miles northwest from Boston, containing 3,727 inhabitants. CONCORD, a village of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, 18 miles north of Boston. At Concord and Lexington the first armed resist- ance was made to the troops of Great Britain, April 19th, 1775. CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, prince of, was the son of Charles of Bourbon, duke of Ven- dome, and was born in 1530. He signalized himself at the battle of St. Quintin, and became leader of the discontented Huguenots. He was wounded at the battle of Dreux, in 1562, and slain in that of Iarnac, in 1569. CONDE, Louis, prince of, commonly called tne great, was born at Paris in 1621. At the age of 22 he gained the battle of Rocroi against the Spaniards, and captured Thionville and other places. He next entered Germany where he gained innumerable laurels. Being recalled thence, he was sent into Catalonia, but failed in his attempt to take Lerida. In 1648, he defeated the Imperialists in Flanders with prodigious slaughter. In the civil war Conde at first ad- hered to the court, but afterwards opposed it without success. He refused to accede to the peace, and entered into the service of the Span- iards in the Low Countries, where his military exploits were uncommonly splendid. At the peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, he obtained his pardon, and served his country with his wonted activity and success. He contended with the prince of Orange in the Netherlands, and was wounded in the memorable passage of the Rhine. The conquest of Franche Compte was also chiefly owing to him. After the death of Turenne, he carried on the war against Germany with advantage. He died in 16ti7 at Fontaine- bleau. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE. In 1806, the emperor Napoleon, having deter- CON 192 CON mined that there should not exist, on the conti- nent, any power capable of opposing his designs, contrived to dismember the German empire, and induce the emperor to abandon his title of emperor of Germany. In pursuance of these views, a new union was formed by several of the German princes, under the name of the C ^federation of the Rhine. The kings of Ba- varia and Wirtemburg, the arch-chancellor, the elector of Baden, the Duke of Berg, the land- grave of Hesse Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau- Weilbourg, of Nassau-Usingen, of Ho- henzollern, Heckingen, Siegmaringen, Salm- Salm, Salm-Kysburg, Isenburg, Birstein, and Lichtenstein, the duke of Aremberg, and the count of Leyen, published at Ratisbon, a decla- ration, purporting, that as the Germanic con- stitution then existing, could afford no guaran- tee for the public tranquillity, the contracting parties had agreed, that their states should be for ever separated from the Germanic body, and united by a particular confederation, under the title of " The Confederate States," of which the emperor of the French was constituted the head and protector. The treaty of confederation was projected and drawn up at Paris, and ratified at Munich, on the 25th of July, 1806 : it contained 40 articles relative to the territories, which each of the contracting parties was to possess, and other important particulars. Every continental war, in which either France or any of the confede- rate states should be engaged, was to be com- mon to all ; the contingent to be furnished by each of the members, was determined in the following proportion ; France, 200,000 men, Bavaria 30,000, Wirtemburg 12,000, Baden 8,000, Berg 5,000, Darmstadt 4,000, Nassau and the other states 4,000. By this confederation, the Germanic body was completely dissolved, and a very consider- able part of its members ranged themselves un- der the banners of France. The emperor, Fran- cis II, in consequence of this organization, resigned his title of Emperor of Germany, and took that of Emperor of Austria. Thus was dissolved, the German, or as it was styled in diplomatic language, the Holy Roman Empire ; 1006 years after Charlemagne received the im- perial title and crown, from the hands of the pope of Rome. CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, in Lower Guinea, which is under the sway of the Portu- guese. It is rich and fertile. It was discover- ed in 1487 by Diego Cam, a Portuguese. The native government is despotic. CONGREVE, William, a celebrated English dramatist and poet, born in 1670 and died in 1729. His plays are replete with wit and hu- mor. CONNECTICUT, one of the United States; bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode Island, south by Long Island Sound, and west by New York, and containing 297,675 inhabit- ants. Among the manufactures of Connecti- cut, may be mentioned tin ware, cotton goods, clocks, nails, glass, hats, buttons, and firearms. The seat of government is alternately at Hart- ford and New Haven. Yale College in New Haven is one of the most flourishing institu- tions in the United States. Connecticut colony and New Haven colony, originally under sepa- rate governments, were united in 1665. The present state constitution was formed in 1818. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, (Caius Flavius Valerius A urelius Claudius Constan- tine), son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, by Helena, was born about the year 274. On the death of his father, in 306, he was proclaim- ed emperor by the army. He defeated the Franks, after which he crossed the Rhine, and committed great ravages in Belgium. Constan- tine married Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, in 306. His father-in-law, taking advantage of his absence from Aries, where he held his court, seized the treasury, and assumed the imperial title, but being taken prisoner by Constautine, strangled himself. A war now broke out be- tween Constantine and Maxentius, the son of Maximian, the former reduced Italy, and de- feated Maxentius, who was drowned in the Tiber. At this period the era of Constantine's conversion to Christianity is fixed. As he was riding at the head of his troops, an immense cross of exceeding brightness is said to have appeared above the horizon, bearing this inscrip- tion : "In this conquer." Constantine was no longer an infidel. He now entered Rome in triumph, and re- ceived from the senate the title of Augustus, in conjuction with Licinius and Maximin, the for- mer of whom married his sister, Constantia. A civil war shortly after broke out between Li- cinius and Maximin, in which the latter was slain. Licinius then formed a conspiracy against Constantine, which being discovered, war en- sued between them, in which Constantine was successful, and peace was concluded. A second war broke out in 323, and terminated in the de- feat of Licinius, and his resignation of the im- perial dignity. Not long afterwards he was strangled. CON 193 CON Constantine now began to show his regard for the religion he had adopted, by building nu- merous churches, and journeying to Jerusalem to visit the Holy Land, where he erected a mag- nificent church at Bethlehem. With this zeal for religion he blended courage and justice. He conquered the Goths, founded Constantinople, and performed many actions that entitle him to the name of Great. But he sullied his charac- ter by putting to death his son Crispus. He died in 337. CONSTANTINOPLE, called, by the Turks, Istambol, and by other Oriental nations, Con- stantino, the capital of the Turkish empire, is situated on the European side of the Bosphorus. Its circuit, including the suburbs, is about 35 miles, and the number of inhabitants, by the most moderate computation, 630,000 Greeks, Arme- nians, Jews, and Turks. It was built upon the ruins of the ancient Byzantium by Constantine the Great. It became afterwards the capital of the Greek empire ; and, having escaped the de- structive rage of the barbarous nations, it was the greatest as well as the most beautiful city in Europe, and the only one, during the Gothic ages, in which there remained any image of the ancient elegance in manners and arts. It de- rived great advantages from its being the ren- dezvous of the Crusaders ; and, being then in the zenith of its glory, the European writers, in. that age, speak of it with astonishment. Dur- ing the third crusade, a revolution happened at Constantinople, which divided the eastern em- pire for 58 years. Alexius Angelus, surnamed the tyrant, having dethroned Isaac II, placed himself upon the throne of Constantinople, in 1195; and Alexius, son of Isaac, applied to the French and Venetians, who passed that way to the Holy Wars, to assist him in the recovery of his father's empire. They accordingly, in 1203, re- duced Constantinople, after a siege of eight days, and replaced Isaac on the throne. The next year, Alexius Dacus Murzoufle assassinat- ed the emperor, whom the Crusaders had re- established, and seized the crown. On hearing this, the French returned, attacked the city, re- duced it in three days, deposed Murzoufle, and chose Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor. He had four successors, the last of whom, Baldwin II, was deposed in 1262, by Michael Paleologus. In the mean time Theodore Las- caris, who had been charged by the clergy to take arms against the tyrant Murzoufle, finding Constantinople in the power of the French, re- tired with his wife and family to Nice, where, in 1204, he was crowned emperor, and formed a 13 small empire out of that of Constantinople. He had but three successors, the last of whom, John Ducas, was deprived of his sight in 1255, by order of Michael Paleologus, his preceptor, who usurped the throne in 1250, and in 1262 made himself master of Constantinople, so that the empire was re-united. He continued till 1453, when Constantinople was taken by Mohammed II, sultan of the Ottoman Turks ; since which it has remained the seat of their empire. Constantinople is at this day one of the finest cities in the world, from its situation and port. It is frequently called the Porte by way of emi- nence. The city has met with many disasters from convulsions, earthquakes, and the plague. CONSTITUTION, the English, which owes its foundation to the era of the conquest, has been made the model of most of the constitu- tions enjoyed by republican states. The Bill of Rights, which was the basis of the English con- stitution, was passed in the time of their revo- lution, and contained the following provisions : 1 . The pretended power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws by regal authority, without the consent of Parliament, is illegal : — 2. That the pretended power of dispensing with laws, or the execution of laws by regal au- thority, as it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal : — 3. That the commission for erecting the late court of commissioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all other commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and perni- cious : — 4. That levying money for, or to the use of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, without grant of Parliament, for longer time, or in all other manner than the same is, and shall be granted, is illegal :— 5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and that all commitments and prosecutions for such peti- tioning, are illegal :— 6. That the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of parliament, is against law :— 7. That the sub- jects which are Protestants, may have arms for their defence, suitable for their conditions, and as allowed by law :— 8. That election of mem- bers of Parliament ought to be free :— 9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed- ings in Parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of par- liament :— 10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted : — 11. That jurors ought to be duly empannelled and returned ; and that jurors which pass upon men in trials for high treason, ought to be free-hold- CON 194 CON ers : — 12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons, before conviction, are illegal and void : — 13. And that for the redress of all grievances, and for the amending, strengthening, and preserving of laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, as proposed to the Convention held at Philadelphia, Mth September, 1787, and since ratified by tJie several States with amendments. Article I. Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Sen- ate and House of Representatives. Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifica- tions requisite for electors of the most numer- ous branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be ap- portioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- fifths of all other persons. The actual enume- ration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term often years, in such a manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every 30,000, but each State shall have at least one representative. When vacancies happen in the representa- tion from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expi- ration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any state, the Exec- utive thereof may make temporary appoint- ments until the next meeting of the Legisla- ture, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty j'ears, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabi- tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the s ole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside : And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two- thirds of the members present. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment according to law. Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representa- tives, shall be prescribed in each state by the Legislature thereof: But the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regula- tions, except as to the places of choosing Sen- ators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sec. 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- tute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorised to compel the attendance of ab- sent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the rules of its CON 195 CON proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a journal of its pro- ceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- ance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- ments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States : if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be re- considered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill, Bhall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays ex- cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives may be necessary (except on a ques- tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, according to the rules and limita- tions prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power — To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and ex- cises, to pay the debts and provide for the com- mon defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States : To borrow money on the credit of the United States : To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes : To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankrupt- cies throughout the United States : To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures : To provide for the punishment of counter- feiting the securities and current coin of the United States : To establish post-offices and post-roads : To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventers, the exclusive right to their re- spective writings and discoveries : To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations : To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water : To raise and support armies ; but no appro- priation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : To provide and maintain a navy : To make rules for the government and regu- lation of the land and naval forces : CON 196 CON To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insur- rections, and repel invasions : To provide for organizing, arming and disci- plining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States re- spectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of partic- ular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legisla- ture of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : — And To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- quire it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enu- meration herein before directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles export- ed from any State. No preference shall be given by any regula- tion of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another : Nor shall vessels, bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, with- out the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a ten- der in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attain- der, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobilily. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports, or exports, except what may be absolutely ne- cessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and con- trol of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- nage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. Article II. Sec. 1. The Executive power shall be vested in the President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- mit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the CON 197 CON greatest number of votes shall be the President, if sucli number be a majority of the whole num- ber of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Repre- sentatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list, the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the represen- tation from each State having one vote : a quo- rum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States ; and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest num- ber of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President. (See 12th Amendment.) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any per- son be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In the case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or ina- bility to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- President ; and the Congress may by law pro- vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accord- ingly, until the disability be removed, or a Pre- sident shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States ; and will, to the best of my abil- ity, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- tion of the United States." Sec. 2. The President shall be commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, pro- vided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appoint- ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they shall think pro- per in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expe- dient : He may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them ; and in case of disagreement between them, with re- spect to the time of adjournment, he may ad- journ them to such time as he shall think proper : He shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers : He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be re- moved from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Article III. Section 1. The Judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su- preme Court, and in such Inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and es- tablish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and Inferior Court, shall hold their offices during CON 198 CON good behavior ; and shall, at stated times, re- ceive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continu- ance in office. Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Con- stitution, the laws of the United States and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to con- troversies to which the United States shall be party ; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, be- tween citizens of the same State, claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. In all cases, affecting ambassadors, other pub- lic ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases beforementioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regula- tions, as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of im- peachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not com- mitted within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witness- es to the same overt act. or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or for- feiture, excepting during the life of the person attainted. Article IV. Section 1. Full faith and cred- it shall be given, in each State, to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be en- titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several Stales. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from jus- tice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re- moved to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person, held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into anoth- er, shall, in consequence of any law or regula- tion therein, be discharged from such service or labor ; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Con- gress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations re- specting the territory or other property belong- ing to the United States : And nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed, as to preju- dice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union, a republican form of government ; and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the Le- gislature, or of the Executive (when the Legis- lature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. Article V. The Congress, whenever two- thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a con- vention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three- fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided, that no amendment, which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hun- dred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Article VI. All debts contracted, and en- CON 199 CON tered into, before the adoption of this Constitu- tion, shall be as valid against the United States, under this Constitution, as under the Confede- ration. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance there- of, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judg- es, in every state, shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before men- tioned, and the members of the several State Le- gislatures, and all executivt and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article VII. The ratification of the Con-, ventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Amendments. Article the first. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peace- ably to assemble, and to petition the govern- ment for a redress of grievances. Article, the second. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article the third. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article the fourth. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describ- ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article the fifth. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment by a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be depriv- ed of life, liberty, or property, without due pro- cess of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Article tlie sixth. In nil criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State or district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be in- formed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Article the seventh. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the Unit- ed States, than according to the rules of com- mon law. Article the eighth. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article the ninth. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article the tenth. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article the eleventh. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to ex- tend to any suit in law or equity,. commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. Article the twelfth. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-Presiderit, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the cer- tificates, and the votes shall then be counted : the coo 200 COR person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such num- ber be a majority of the whole number of Elec- tors appointed ; and if no person have such ma- jority, then from the persons having the high- est numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Rep- resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the Repre- sentation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem- ber or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessa- ry to a choice. And if the House of Represent- atives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Pres- ident, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two high- est numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. CONTI, Armand de Bourbon, first an eccle- siastic, then a soldier, opposed his brother the great Conde. After being successively govern- or of Guiennc, general of the armies in Catalo- nia, and governor of Languedoc, he died, in 1666. COOK, James, a famous English navigator, born in a village of Yorkshire, in 1728, early went to sea. In the Mercury, of which he was master, he was present at the taking of Quebec. He was employed in several important services, and explored the South Sea Islands in 1769. From New Zealand, he sailed to New Holland, New Guinea, and Batavia, returning home in 1771. His next voyage to the southern hemis- phere was commenced in 1772, in two ships, the Resolution and Adventure, the latter being commanded by Captain Furneaux. On this voyage Cook discovered the island of New Georgia, and returning, July 30, 1775, was well received and rewarded for his services. In July, 1776, he sailed to determine the long agitated question of a northern passage to the Pacific ocean, but the attempt was abandoned as impracticable, and the Resolution and Dis- covery anchored at the Sandwich islands, on their return, November 26, 1778. Their recep- tion was at first favorable, but when Cook went on shore to seize the king of Owyhee, with the intention of keeping him as a hostage, till one of the English boats, stolen by the savages was restored, he was attacked by the natives, one of whom felled him by a club, and then des- patched him with a dagger. This event occur- red on the 14th of February, 1779. COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of Shaftesbury, and an eminent statesman, was born 1621. Although a royalist he accepted a commission from parliament, but contributed to the restoration of the king, and was according- ly rewarded. Having been acquitted on his trial for high treason in 1681, he died in Hol- land in 1688. COOPER, Samuel, a clergyman of Boston, who died in 1783 in the 59th year of his age. He was patriotic and talented. (See Chauncey.) COPENHAGEN, the capital of Denmark, on the east coast of the island of Zealand, one of the finest cities in Europe, has a good har- bor, an extensive commerce, and 110,000 in- habitants, although formerly but a poor fishing village. It was threatened by Charles XII, who, however, gave up the idea of besieging it. The city has suffered severely from several confla- grations. In 1801 it was bombarded by the British under Lord Nelson. A flag of truce alone saved it from destruction. It was again attacked in 1807 by the English under admiral Gambier. After severe firing, which commenc- ed on the 2d of September, a capitulation was settled on the 8th, and the citadel, dock-yards, batteries, vessels, and naval stores, taken pos- session of by the British. COPLEY, John Singleton, a self-taught paint- er, a native of Boston, where he was born in 1738. He went to England in 1776, where he met with great encouragement, and died in London in 1815. The death of Lord Chatham in the House of Lords, after his immortal speech in favor of America, is one of his best perform- ances. COPLEY, John Singleton, was born in Bos- ton, Mass., May 21, 1772, went to England in 1775, and became Lord Lyndhurst, and Lord High Chancellor of England. CORD AY D' ARMANS, Marie Anne Char- lotte, a beautiful and courageous young lady, belonging to an ancient and respectable family COR 201 COR of Caen in Normandy, who assassinated the in- famous Marat on the 11th of July, 1793. She fained admittance to him in the bath, and while e was listening to the pretended details of a conspiracy , she stabbed him to the heart. When she was guillotined a few days afterwards, a voice from the crowd exclaimed : " She is great- er than Brutus !" CORDOVA, the name of a province and town of Buenos Ayres. The latter contains about 10,000 inhabitants. CORE A, a kingdom of China, 500 miles long, and 150 broad. The government is royal but the king pays a tribute to China. The religion is that of Fo. Population from six to eight millions. CORFU, anciently called Drepanum, and Corcyra, an island near the coast of Albania, in the Mediterranean, 45 miles long, containing 60,000 inhabitants. It is fruitful and healthy. It is one of the islands of the Ionian republic. CORINNA, a famous poetess of Tanagra, in Bcetia, contemporary with Pindar. CORINTH, a famous city of Achaia, situated on the isthmus of the same name. The popu- lation is at present about 2,000. It was founded by Sisyphus, son of jEolus, B. C. 2616. Co- rinthus, son of Pelops, gave his name to the city. The inhabitants were once famed for their power, wealth and intelligence, and found- ed Syracuse in Sicily, which they afterward de- livered from oppression. Corinth was destroyed by the Roman consul, Mummius, 146 B. C. The consul, who was no judge of the fine arts, assured the soldiers, who had charge of the in- comparable paintings sent from Corinth, to Rome, that if they injured them, he should make them furnish new ones. Julius Csssar vainly attempted to restore the city to its for- mer importance. The government, at first monarchical, was changed 779 B. C, and it be- came the head of the Achaean league. In 1453 it fell into the tiands of the Turks. CORIOLANUS, the surname of Caius Mar- cius, given him for his victory over Corioli. Af- ter having served his country faithfully, and received many wounds in her service, he was refused the consulship, and, indignant at the ingratitude of his countrymen, who afterwards banished him, he joined the Volsci, a warlike nation, hostile to the Romans. Coriolanus ter- rified the Romans by approaching their capital at the head of a powerful army of Volscians. The offended Roman refused to listen to pro- posals made in the hope of inducing him to withdraw, and pitched his camp within five miles of the city. His enmity against his country would have been fatal, had not his wife, Volumnia, and his mother, Veturia, aided by the presence of his children, prevailed upon him to withdraw his army. Coriolanus, in yielding to his mother, and raising her from her suppliant posture, pronounced a sentence which was pro- phetic of his fate : "Oh! my mother, you have saved Rome, but you have destroyed your son." The Volscians, indignant at the treachery of Coriolanus, put him to death in the place ap- pointed for his trial, B. C. 488. CORK, a city of Ireland, capital of Cork county, situated on the Lee, with a population of 107,058. It is a large and flourishing place, and was built by the Danes in the 6th century. After the revolution of 1688, it was occupied by James II, but taken by the earl of Marlborough, in 1690. CORNEILLE Peter, a French author who flourished in the time of Louis XIV, and was the founder of French tragedy. CORNELIA, mother of the Gracchi, a Ro- man matron who lived about 130 years B. C. A lady of Campania having shown her jewels to Cornelia, in paying a visit to the latter request- ed to see her jewels in return. At that mo- ment her boys entered the room, and the noble Cornelia, pointing them out to her visiters, ex- claimed : " these are my jewels !" At her death the Romans, mindful of her worth, erected a monument to her memory. CORNWALLIS, Charles, marquis of, born in 1738, entered the English army at an early age, and rose rapidly. Although not unfavora- bly disposed to America, he accepted a com- mand in the royal army, and distinguished him- self by his bravery. On his return, being appointed governor-general of Bengal he fought with success and defeated Tippoo Saib. He was again made governor of India, but died in 1805, at Ghazepore, soon after his arrival. CORSICA, the third Italian island in point of size, lies north of Sardinia, about 50 miles north from Tuscany, and contains 195,000 in- habitants. It is generally mountainous, but the numerous valleys are extremely fertile. The Corsicans know not how to develope the various resources of their island. They are in an almost barbarous state, recklessly brave, revengeful, fond of freedom, and indolent. Corsica has been successively occupied by the Carthage- nians, the Romans, the Goths, the Saracens, the Franks, the Pope, the Pisanese, the Genoese, the French, and the English, falling into the hands of the last in 1794. The English, how- COT 202 CRA ever, did not long retain possession of the island, and it was again restored to France. CORTEZ, Fernando, the conqueror of Mex- ico, was born in 1485, in Estremadura. He came to the West Indies in high hopes, and Ve- lasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him the com- mand of an expedition designed for the reduc- tion of Mexico, which consisted of 1U ships, 600 men, 10 small field-pieces, and 18 horses. With this small armament he accomplished his enterprise, in 1519, and added the empire of Mexico to that of Spain. He took Montezuma prisoner, although received with hospitality, and the unfortunate king was killed by his own sub- jects in an attack on the Spaniards. The con- duct of the conquerors so exasperated the In- dians that they compelled Cortez to quit the city with great loss, but he regained it after some hard fighting. On the capture of Guatimozin, son of Montezuma, the city surrendered, and the empire of Mexico was at an end. At this juncture another commission arrived to deprive Cortez of his command, and he, having return- ed to Spain to procure redress, died in obscurity, in 1554. CORUNNA, a seaport of Spain, in the pro- vince of Galicia, with two fine harbors, and a population of 4,000. Here the British, on the eve of embarking, were attacked by the French under Soult, and general Sir John Moore was killed. COSSACKS, the name of several warlike tribes that inhabit the southern provinces of Russia, and form an effective portion of the Russian cavalry. Their horses are small but hardy, and will travel for a whole campaign from 50 to 70 miles a day. They fight in little bands, and their arms are long lances, bows and arrows, sabres, and pistols or guns. The regi- ments or pulks are from 500 to 3,000 strong. The chief is called a hettman. A large body of them who had previously been in the service of the czar, joined Charles XII, in 1708. COTOrAXI,a famous volcanic mountain of the Andes, in Quito, the height of which is 18,898 feet above the level of the sea. " At the port of Guayaquil, 52 leagues distant, in a straight line, from the crater, we heard, day and night, the noise of this volcano, like continued discharges of a battery ; and we distinguished these tremendous sounds even on the Pacific ocean . ' ' — Humboldt. COTTIN, Sophia, whose maiden name was Ristand, was born in France, in 1773, and mar- ried at the age of 17, soon after which her hus- band died, and she devoted herself to literature to soften her grief. Among her works Elizabeth, or the Exiles of Siberia, is the most popular and pleasing. The talented author died in 1607. COURLAJND, formerly an independent duchy, now belonging to Russia. It is situated on the Baltic, and contains 581,300 inhabit- ants. COURTRAY or Cortrijk, anciently Corto- riacvm, a town of Belgium, 22 miles southwest of Ghent, famous for^the battle fought in its vincinity, in 1302, between the Flemings and French. The latter were defeated with great loss, and, from the fact that 4000 gilt spurs were found upon the field, the engagement was call- ed the Battle of the Spurs. COWLEY, Abraham, an English poet, the son of a grocer, born in 1618, died in 1667. He was an easy writer, and patronized by royalty. COWPER, William, the poet, son of the Rev. John Cowper, was born at Berkhamstead, Herts, November 26, 1731. His education was acquired at a public school, where the girlish timidity and delicacy of the poet subjected him to constant agony from the tyranny and rough- ness of his school-fellows He studied law, and obtained the place of clerk of the House of Lords, but when the time approached for him to enter upon the duties of his office, his terror at presenting himself before the peerage, not only induced him to relinquish the place, but produced a fit of sickness. About this time his religious fears brought on a temporary derange- ment. He published several volumes of poems with various success. His death took place in April, 1800. Of all his poems the humorous ballad of John Gilpin, and the Task, are the best. CRABBE, George, a popular British poet, was born Dec. 21, 1754, at Aldborough in Suf- folk. He was intended for a surgeon and actu- ally opened a shop to which he confined him- self for some time, although barely making his expenses. In 1778, he went to^London as a literary adventurer, but was for a long time unsuccessful. When a prison was in near view, and ruin appeared to threaten him, he conceived the idea of writing to Edmund Burke, for assist- ance and advice. That great man at once be- came his friend and patron, urged him to per- severe, and induced him to study divinity and take orders. Thenceforth his circumstances were comfortable. He married the object of his early affections, devoted himself to literature, received the applause due to a genius of the highest order, and continued to use his pen till his death in 1833. His Borough and Tales of CRI 203 CRO the Hall are justly celebrated. Another poet has truly called Crabbe " Nature's sternest painter, but her best." CRANMER, Thomas, archbishop of Canter- bury, who aided the progress of the reformation in England. But he was the slave of the king, and never permitted conscience to interfere with the wishes of the crowned tyrant. He joined the partisans of lady Jane Grey, and was accordingly sent to the Tower on the ac- cession of Mary. Having been accused of blasphemy, perjury, incontinence, and heresy, he was executed March 21, 1556. CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius, a Roman con- sul, distinguished for some gallant actions, and active in crushing the gladiatorial revolt which was headed by Sparticus. He was slain by the Parthians, B. C. 53. CRECY, or Cressy en Ponthieu, a town of France, 10 miles north of Abbeville, where was fought a famous battle between the French and English, in which the latter, led by Edward III, and his son, the brave Black Prince, were com- pletely victorious, August 26, 1346. CREEKS, or Muskogees, a tribe of Indians who lately inhabited the eastern part of Alaba- ma, but have now mostly removed beyond the Mississippi. They have made some progress in agriculture, and the arts of civilization. CRICHTON, James, a Scotch gentleman, born in 1550, of a good family, who, from his pro- ficiency in the arts and sciences, particularly music and manly exercises, was stiled the Ad- mirable. He travelled in France and Italy, and in Mantua, having pleased the duke, was appointed preceptor to his son. During the carnival of 1583, Crichton, while playing upon his guitar, was attacked in the streets by a. masked band, against which he defended himself with his customary spirit, until he re- cognised his pupil in the leader. Throwing liimself upon his knees, he presented his sword to the young nobleman, who stabbed his pre- ceptor to the heart. The motives which im- pelled him are unknown. CRILLON, Louis de Balbe, surnamed the Fearless, a celebrated French commander, born of a noble family, in Provence, in 1541. He was the friend of Henry IV. He distinguished himself at the siege of Calais, and against the Huguenots, and the Turks. " Pends-toi, brave Crillon nous avons combattu a Jlrques, et tu ny itais pas ;" " Hang thyself, brave Crillon, we have fought at Arques, and thou wast ab- sent," was Henry's laconic announcement of one of his most brilliant victories to his favored friend. In 1592, he successfully defended Villebceuf, with an inferior force against Marshal Villars, and when called upon to surrender, gallantly answered ; " Crillon is within, and Villars with- out." The assailants were unsuccessful. One day, hearing a sermon in which the sufferings of Christ were forcibly described, he seized the handle of his sword and cried, " Where wert thou, Crillon ?" He died in 1616. CROATIA, an Austrian kingdom, contain- ing 9,000 square miles, and 850,000 inhabitants. The Croats have made but little progress in the arts. Their country is fruitful and productive. CROZSUS, king of Lydia. famed for his immense wealth. Being defeated by Cyrus, king of Persia, B. C. 548, he was conducted to the stake, but saved his life by repeating, in the hearing of Cyrus, the words of Solon, that " no man could be pronounced happy till his death." CROMWELL, Oliver, a distinguished char- acter in English history, was born of a good family at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, and re- ceived a careful education. He met with sev- eral narrow escapes when a child. Among other occurrences, a huge ape seized the infant and carried it to the house-top, refusing, for a long time, to relinquish his prey. He alwaj r s retained a vivid recollection of" a gigantic female figure which appeared at his bedside and foretold hfs future greatness. The excesses in which Cromwell indulged on quitting the university, were ended by his marriage with Elizabeth Bouchier, daughter of a baronet of Essex, at the age of twenty-one. In 1625, he was chosen to a seat in parlia- ment, and then, as well as in 1628, gained dis- tinction by the energy with which he opposed the measures of the royalists and the bishops. In 1640, after a temporary retirement, he was re- turned from Cambridge, and became a frequent speaker, always opposing the court, and attack- ing the church. In 1642, when hostilities were determined upon, Cromwell raised a troop of horse, and seized the plate of the university at Cambridge to defray the expenses of the war. He soon acquired the rank of Colonel, and the superior courage of his troops, procured for them at Marston Moor the name of Iron- sides. He also distinguished himself at the battle of Newbury (1643). He had now gained so great an influence, that when the famous self-denying ordinance was passed, by which all members of either house, were excluded from CRO 204 CRU command in the army, Cromwell was particu- larly excepted. He was constituted lieutenant- general, and by his skill and courage the battle of Naseby was won in 1G45, and decided the fate of the royalists. This victory was followed by a series of successes for which he was voted a pension of 2,500/. per annum, and the thanks of the house. Charles I was betrayed by the Scotch to the parliament. Cromwell contrived to get him into his power ; he then turned out of the house those members who were not likely to be gained over to his purpose, so that no ob- stacle remained to the trial of the king. He acted in this with great address, was present at the trial and execution, and concluded the tragic scene by gazing sternly at the body of Charles in his coffin. After suppressing a mutiny in the army, Cromwell, in 1649, went to Ireland, which he subdued, and leaving Ireton as deputy, returned to England in 1650. Being appointed com- mander-in-chief against the Scots, who had arrived to restore Charles II, he gained the battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, 1650, and that day, twelvemonth, defeated the royal forces at Wor- cester. He now began to carry into execution his favorite project, by moulding the army to his will ; and then, at one stroke, entering with 300 soldiers, he dismissed the parliament, and dissolved the Council of State ; afterwards he called one composed of his own officers. He next convened a mock representation of the nation, composed of 123 persons, who, being his own creatures, agreed to resign their au- thority. On this, the council of officers declared him Lord Protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The follow- ing year he called a parliament, but finding the members refractory, he made each member take an oath of allegiance to him, and dissolved them after a session of five months. In 1656, another parliament confirmed his title, and sanctioned his proceedings. He was inaugurated with great pomp. In 1658, he convened the two nouses, and addressed them in the form ordina- rily employed by the kings of England. He dissolved this assembly, and in the August of the same year, his favorite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, bitterly reproached him for his con- duct. He now experienced all the dread which tyrants feel, went constantly armed, and was horror-struck at the publication of a pamphlet by Colonel Titus, entitled Killing No Murder, in which the author endeavored to prove his assassination a public duty. These circumstances are supposed to have produced a slow fever, of which he died Sep- tember 3, 1658, in the 59th year of his age. His body was interred in Westminister abbey, from which it was taken at the Restoration, and hanged on the gibbet and afterwards buried beneath it. CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Essex, son of a blacksmith at Putney, in Surrey, was born about the year 1490. Early in life he became clerk to the English factory at Antwep, which he left to serve in Italy, where he fought be- neath the banners of the constable of Bourbon. Returning home, he was taken into the service of Cardinal Wolsey, who procured him a seat in the House of Commons. When Wolsey fell, Cromwell became a servant of the king, was raised to the office of Chancellor of the exche- quer, and, in 1534, made secretary of state, and master of the rolls. About this time he was also elected Chancellor of Cambridge. The next year he was appointed visitor-general of the monasteries. In 1536, he was made lord keeper of the privy-seal, and the same year advanced to the peerage by the title of Lord Cromwell ; and the papal supremacy being abolished, he was nominated the king's vicar- general in the convocation. In 1537, he was appointed chief«justice itinerant of all the for- ests beyond Trent, elected knight of the gartar, and made dean of Wells. To these honors was added the grant of many manors after the disso- lution of the monasteries, and, in 1539, he was created earl of Essex. Soon after, his fortune declined as fast as it had risen. His ruin was hastened by the marriage which he projected between Henry and Anne of Cleves, and he was sent to the Tower, where he was deserted by all his friends except Cranmer, who, how- ever, could not save him from the scaffold, and he suffered death with fortitude, July 28th, 1540. CRONSTADT, a Russian seaport and for- tress on an island in the gulf of Finland, founded by Peter II, in 1710. It is a naval depot, and contains 40,000 inhabitants, one-fourth of whom are sailors. CROTONA, a Greek republic in Magna Grecia, the birthplace of Milo, the famous wrest- ler, and noted for producing the best combat- tants for the circus. Its ruins are visible near Cape Colonna. CRUSADES, or Croisades, the name given to the expeditions fitted out by the Christian warriors of Europe, for the recovery of the Holy Land, from the end of the 11th to the end of the 13th century. The Crusades derived their w CRU 205 CRU name from the badge of the cross which was wrought upon their mantles, and appeared in various parts of their equipments. The age was one in which the people were peculiarly adapted to the reception of enthusiastic reli- gious impulses. The Christians could not bear to think that the places which they held so dear, and which the history of their religion hallowed, should be desecrated by the presence of infidels, and rendered dangerous to those pilgrims whom a sincere feeling of reverence called to Pales- tine. The church called upon the chivalry of Europe, and the knights responded to the sum- mons. The rise of the Crusades is immediately at- tributable to the enthusiasm of a wandering pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, who, having experienced the tyrannical exactions imposed on the visiters of the Holy Sepulchre, represented them to pope Urban II, in such lively colors, that the prelate selected him as the instrument of a grand design which he had formed to over- throw the Mohammedan power, and Peter, armed with the Holy Commission, went from province to province, to kindle up that enthu- siasm by which he was himself consuming. When the feelings of the people and the po- tentates appeared ripe for some wild project, Urban held a council in the open fields at Pia- cenza, and proposed his scheme, which was warmly applauded, but not as warmly embraced. Another council was therefore held at Clermont, graced by the presence of ambassadors from all nations, and the result was as favorable as he could have anticipated. The pope held out to the Crusaders the promise of spiritual pardon, and imposed on them only the penance of plun- der for their sins. Thus excited, the enthusi- asm became general ; noblemen sold their estates for outfits ; the meanest lords of the manors set forth at their own expense ; the poor gentle- men followed them as esquires ; and above 80,000 collected under the banners of the cross. Godfrey of Boulogne was at the head of 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, splendidly armed, were under the command of many lords who were Joined by Hugh, brother to Philip I, of France, taymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, king of Sicily, and others of equal and less note. A proposal was made to the pope to put himself at their head, but he refused. This refusal, however, did not damp their ardor. Confiding in their cause, their numbers, and their equipments, they traversed Germany and Hungary, took Nice, Antioch, and Edessa,and arrived at Jerusalem, in July 1099. The city was taken after five weeks siege. All but the Christians were massacred, and the army of crusaders after the perpetration of unparal- leled atrocities, went to shed their tears at the sepulchre of Christ. Godfrey, of Boulogne, (not without opposition from the priests), was elected king of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. In 1102, an immense army which departed for the Holy Land, was defeated, and no fewer than 200,000 men lost to Europe by the enter- prise. The capture of Baldwin and the loss of Edessa, occasioned a new crusade. France again gave the impulse to their reli- gious excitement. Pope Eugenius III, induced St. Bernard of Clairvaux, to act the part of Peter the Hermit, and the consequence was that Louis the Young, accompanied by his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, departed for the Holy Land, and Conrad III, in whose hands the red cross was placed, led a large army into Asia. Both of them, however, were unsuc- cessful. The unfortunate issue of the second crusade was precipitated by the dissensions of the Christ- ians, and the uncommon abilities of the Sultan Saladin, who, advancing at the head of an army that placed implicit confidence in the courage and skill of their leader, animated by a religious fury, no less absorbing than that which filled the breast of the Crusaders, threw himself upon Jerusalem, which, unable to hold out against him, once more echoed to the shouts of Sara- cen conquerors, as they again erected their crescent on the ramparts of the city. The Christians lost all their possessions but Antioch, Tripoli, Joppa, and Tyre. The leaders of the third crusade (1 189) were Frederick I, of Germany, surnamed Barbarossa, the chivalric Philip-Augustus of France, and the lion-hearted Richard I, of England. Bar- barossa was ultimately unsuccessful, but the monarchs of France and England took posses- sion of Ptolemais or Acre. Philip-Augustus, from motives of jealousy, left the field to Rich- ard, who proved himself a worthy rival of Sal- adin, and the two commanders performed won- derful feats of arms which were the admiration of both armies. The fourth crusade was con- ducted by Andrew II, king of Hungary, and the fifth by Frederick II of Germany. The results of these ought to have shown that the Christians could not hope to gain permanent possession of the country. It was this time that St. Louis, king of France, undertook the sixth and last crusade, which, though well con- ceived, and vigorously carried on, was unsuc- CUM 206 CUR cessful. In the last crusade no fewer than 150,000 persons perished : add to this the num- bers that died in former expeditions, and it will be seen that the east was the tomb of above two millions of Europeans ; and several countries were depopulated and impoverished by the crusades. Yet the Holy Wars were not without good. They created an intimate con- nection and a constant intercourse between the nations of Europe, which, as it was favorable to commercial enterprise, increased the wealth, improved the arts, and contributed to establish the civilization of the Christian world. CUBA is subject to the king of Spain, and is the largest of the West India Islands. It is 257 leagues long, and 38 broad. The island is rich and fertile. Its whole revenue has been estimated at $7,500,000, and the government expenses at $6,500,000. The population, ac- cording to the census of 1827, was 704,467; 311 ,051 whites ; 57,504 free mulattoes ; 48,980 free negroes ; 286,942 mulatto and negro slaves. Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492. In 1511 it was conquered by the Spaniards, and as little gain was anticipated from the mines, the natives were cruelly exterminated. In 1762 a powerful expedition for the con- quest of the island was fitted out by the British, and Havana capitulated in August. The plun- der obtained by the British was immense. By the treaty of 1763, Cuba was restored to the Spaniards in exchange for the Floridas. CULLODEN MUIR; a heath in Scotland, where the Duke of Cumberland defeated the Pretender, after an obstinate resistance, on the 27th of April, 1746. CULM ; a Bohemian village where the French under Vandamme were beaten by the allied Russian and Prussians, Aug. 30th, 1813. CUMA or Cyme, the largest city of Eolis in Asia Minor, the birth-place of the Cumfean sibyl. CUM^E ; a city of Campania, founded by Chalcis about 1030 B. C, taken by the Cam- panians 420 B. C, by the Romans 345 B. C, and eventually destroyed A. D. 1207. CUMANA, the name of a province and city. ofVenezuela. CUMBERLAND, William, Duke of, second son of George II, was born in 1721. He was wounded at the battle of Dettingen, but refused the assistance of a surgeon until the latter had finished dressing the wound of a poor soldier, who had been shot at the same time with him- self. He commanded the British army at the battles of Fontenoy and Val, which were lost through the cowardice of the Dutch troops. In 1746 he defeated the Pretender at Culloden, but disgraced his character by his cruel treat- ment of the vanquished. CUMBERLAND, Richard, an English dra- matist and miscellaneous author, son of the bishop of Cloufert, was born in 1732, and edu- cated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He be- came private secretary of the earl of Halifax, and died in London, May 7, 1811. His fame rests altogether on his comic dramas. He was extremely sensitive, self-conceited and jealous, and Sheridan, considering him as fair game, held him up to ridicule as Sir Fretful Plagiary. He was much annoyed at the success of the School for Sca?idal, and it was only for fear of exciting ridicule by refusing to witness it, that he carried two of his children to see the play. Cumberland sat behind them, the picture of jealousy and envy. When they laughed at any criticisms, in common with the audience, Cumberland would gravely extend a finger and thumb, inflict a severe pinch, and say : " What are you laughing at, my dears ? I don't see any thing to laugh at." This anecdote, however, is related on the authority of Kelly, the com- poser, the founder of whose family " must have drawn a long bow at the battle of Hastings." CUNERSDORF, a village on the Oder, at no great distance from Frankfort, where Fred- eric the Great was defeated by the Russians in 1759. CUPID, the god of love among the ancients, the son of Mars and Venus. CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean Sea, belonging to the Netherlands. Pop. 10,000. CURDS, wandering tribes whose country lies partly in Persia, and partly in the Ottoman em- pire, bordering on the Tigris and Euphrates. They are in part Mohammedans, and in part Christians, and mostly predatory in their habits. CURIUS DENTATUS. Marcus Annius, a Roman consul, famous for his fortitude and frugality. He gained several victories, and de- feated Pyrrhus, B. C. 272. The Samnite am- bassadors found him cooking some vegetables for his dinner in an earthen pot, yet he indig- nantly refused the vessels of gold with which they attempted to bribe him. CURTIUS, Marcus, a noble Roman youth; it is related, that when a pestilential chasm opened in the Roman forum, 362 B. C. and the oracle declared that it could only be closed when the most precious thing in Rome was thrown into it, Curtius, saying that arms and courage were invaluable, assumed his military CYR 207 CYR dress, and mounting an armed horse, sprang into the abyss, which closed over him for ever. CUSCO, the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, said to have been founded by Manco Capac. It contains 20 or 30,000 inhabitants. CUSHING, Thomas, a patriotic American, born in 1725. He early obtained a seat in the General Court of Massachusetts, and was chosen speaker of the house of representatives. The supposed extent of his influence induced Doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet, " Taxation no Tyranny," to remark — " One object of the Americans is said to be, to adorn the brows of Mr. Cushing with a diadem." Mr. C. was a member of the two first continental congresses, and of the council of Massachusetts, and was created judge of the court of common pleas, and of probate in the county of Suffolk. Hav- ing been honored with the post of lieutenant- governor of his native state, he died 1788. CUTLER, Timothy, a talented American divine, sometime president of Yale College. He became rector of Christ Church, in Boston, and died in his 82d year, Aug. 17, 17G5. CUV1ER, George Leopold Christian Fred- eric Dagobert, baron of, a celebrated naturalist, born at Montbeliard, Aug. 25, 17G9. His re- searches are well known to the generality of readers. He died 1832. CYCLADES, in ancient geography, a name given to certain islands in the iEgean Sea, par- ticularly those that surround Delos as with a circle. They were subjected by Miltiades, but revolted during the Persian invasion. CYCLOPS, one-eyed giants, who were em- ployed in forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. The name usually designates the three assist- ants of Vulcan, but it was believed that there was a nation of them. CYPRUS, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, famed among the ancients for its uncom- mon fertility and the mildness of its climate. It contains 120,000 inhabitants. Venus was worshipped here. Its original colonists are un- known. The Egyptians took it in 550 B. C. and the Romans, 58 B. C. It was occupied for some time by the Arabs on the decline of the Roman empire. They were, however, driven from it during the crusades, and the title of king of Cyprus was for some time held by Richard I of England. In 1480 it fell into the hands of the Venetians, from whom it was wrested, in .1750, by the Turks. CYRENAICA, now called in Arabic Djebel Akhdar, or the Green Highlands, was ancient- ly a Greek colony, in the north of Africa. At present it contains about 40,000 inhabitants, and exhibits traits of former cultivation. CYRUS : Concerning this monarch there are two distinct and irreconcilable accounts, those of Herodotus and Xenophon. The latter in his Cyropedia, has rather given us the picture of what a monarch should be, than of what a monarch was, and the account of Herodotus is generally adhered to in historical narratives. Cyrus, king of Persia, was the son of Camby- ses and Maudane, the daughter of Astyages. From a belief that he was fated to dethrone his grandfather, he was exposed as soon as born ; but was preserved by a shepherdess who edu- cated him as her own son. As he was play- ing with his equals in years, he was elected a king in one of their sports, and he exercised his power with such an independent spirit, that he ordered one of his companions to be whipped severely for disobedience. The father of the boy, who was a nobleman, complained to the king of the ill-treatment which his son had re- ceived from a shepherd's boy. Astyages order- ed Cyrus before him, and discovered that he was Maudane's son, from whom he had so much to apprehend. He therefore treat- ed him with suspicious coldness ; and Cyrus, unable to bear his tyranny, escaped from his confinement and began to levy tioops to de- throne his grandfather. He was assisted and encouraged by the ministers of Astyages, who were displeased with his oppression. Cyrus marched against and defeated Astyages in a battle fought B. C. 560. From this victory the empire of Media became tributary to the Per- sians. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against Croesus, king of Lydia, whom he conquered B. C. 548. He invaded the kingdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon by drying the channels of the Eu- phrates, and marching his troops through the bed of the river while the people were cele- brating a grand festival. He afterwards led his troops against Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetse, a Scythian nation, but was defeat- ed in a°bloodv battle, B. C. 529. The victorious queen, who had lost her son in- a previous en- counter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood ; crying, " Satisfy thy- self with the blood for which thou hast thirsted." CYRUS, the Younger, was the son of Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxeixes. On the death of his father, he attempted the life of his brother, to obtain the throne, but was pardon- ed through the intercession of his mother Pary- DAL 208 DAN satis. He then obtained the governorship of Lvdia, whence he marched against his brother. The war ended with the death of Cyrus, B. C. 400. CYTHERA, the ancient name of an island in the Ionian sea, now Cerigo, containing a population of 8,000. Venus was worshipped here, and here was one of her most splendid temples ; hence she was called Cytherea. D. DACIER, Anna Lefevre; the wife of Andre Dacier, a literary lady of high reputation, born in France in 1651. She edited and translated several of the ancient classics, and distinguished herself by her defence of Homer in answer to Lamotte. She died in 1720. DCEDALUS, an artist and machinist who lived three generations before the Trojan war. He was the builder of the Cretan Labyrinth. Being imprisoned with his son, Icarus, he is said to have invented wings cemented with wax, by which they soared high in the air. Icarus, neglecting the instructions of his father, fell into the sea, which was named from him Icarian. His father reached Sicily, and founded a town there. DAHOMY, a fertile kingdom of western Africa, the monarch and people of which are ferocious in the extreme. The king's sleeping- chamber is paved with the skulls and orna- mented with the jaw-bones of his vanquished enemies. DALE, Richard, a captain in the American navy, was born in Virginia in 1756, and com- manded a merchant vessel in 1775. He served on board the Bonne Homme Richard under Paul Jones, and was the first to spring to the deck of the Serapis in the bloody engagement which resulted in her capture. He died Feb. 24, 182(5. DALLAS, Alexander James, a native of Ja- maica, an able lawyer, who came to this coun- try, in 1783, and held various responsible offices under our government, being made secretary of the United States treasury in 1801, when he resigned the office of attorney-general. In 1815 he assumed the duties of secretary at war, and on him devolved the task of reducing the army. He had the satisfaction to see the currency of the country saved by means of the United States bank, which it had long been his object to establish. He died Jan 16, 1817. DALMATIA, a kingdom belonging to Aus- tria, lying on the Adriatic sea, and containing 320,000 inhabitants. It was conquered by the Venetians in the 15th century. DAMASCUS, a city of Syria in the fertile pachalic of Damascus, well-built and of great commercial importance. The population ac- cording to Burckhardt, is 250,000. Napoloan threatened the city, but being foiled in the siege of Acre, relinquished his design. DAM1ENS, Robert Francois, a crazy fanatic, who stabbed Louis XV, at Versailles, on the 5th of January 1757. He had long meditated the deed, and took opium to prepare himself. According to the provisions of his sentence, after the most cruel tortures, he was torn in pieces by horses on the Flace de Greve at Paris, March 28, 1757. DAMIETTA, a spacious city of Lower Egypt, with 30,000 inhabitants, anciently called Thaniiatis. It exhibits all the striking beauties of a fine oriental city, and is a place of great commerce. It was taken by the crusaders, but surrendered again to the Saracens. DAMON and PYTHIAS, two Syracusans, who were devotedly attached to each other. Dionysius, the tyrant, condemned Pythias to death, but allowed him to absent himself in order to arrange his affairs, on condition that Damon should remain as hostage. The ap- pointed time having expired, Damon was led to the scaffold, and the executioner was about to raise his axe, when Pythias arrived, breath- less with haste, threw himself into the arms of his friend, and embraced him tenderly. Diony- sius moved by the scene, in common with the people, restored both of the friends to the enjoy- ment of life and liberty. DAMPIER, William, an English navigator, born in 1652, known for his adventures in both hemispheres. His journals of his voyages have been printed in three volumes. DANDOLO, Henry, a doge of Venice, filled the highest office in the gift of the republic in 1192, being then 84 years old. Neither his age nor his defective vision prevented him from discharging his duties with honor. Joining the fourth crusade, he was the first to spring on shore with the standard of St. Mark, at the storming of Constantinople. He died at the age of 97. DANIEL, a Hebrew prophet, a man of strict virtue, and supernatural powers, for whose his- tory the reader is referred to the old Testament. DANTE or Durante Alighieri, was born in Florence in 1265. As a scholar and a soldier he was early celebrated, and as the lover of Be- atrice Portinari (who died in 1290), no less fa- DAN 209 DAR mous. He was married the year after the death of Beatrice, but he never forgot her. At the time of the troubles between the Bianchi and Neri in Florence, Dante espoused the cause of the former, and his property was confiscated. He went from place to place restless, and un- happy, loathing a state of dependence, yet un- able to retrieve his fortune. He died at Raven- na, Sept. 14, 1321. The fame of his Divina Commcdia is imperishable, and the Florentines, who had persecuted him during his life-time, paid him the highest honors at his death. " His characters were those of his own period, with whose history the public were acquainted, and whose families and descendants were alive, and frequently in the enjoyment of wealth and pow- er. But the position in which he placed them, threw an interest round their story, stronger than could have been produced by the adven- tures of any individual, however illustrious, of a more remote date. The terror and pity, and in some cases the vengeance of the Italians was awakened, when the shadowy forms of their contemporaries were made to pass in review before them, stripped of those external advan- tages which while living had rendered them respected, and had cast a veil over their crimes. The cruel husband shrunk from the picture of his murdered wife, herself condemned to perdi- tion, yet prophecying that for him was destined the lowest pit in hell. The son beheld his fa- ther plunged in eternal wo, yet continuing to feel a tender interest in his welfare. The treacherous assassin, who still occupied his place among the nobles of the land, trembled at seeing himself represented as in hell, while, according to the bold supposition of the poet, a demon animated his body. The ' mighty mantle' itself was no protection to the wearer. Pope Nicholas III, plunged head foremost in the flames, was represented as waiting there for the arrival of his guilty successors. The effect was indescribable. Some, unable to en- dure the contempt of their countrymen, con- demned themselves to voluntary exile ; some, struck with terror and despair, died broken- hearted ; and others fell victims to the private vengeance of the poet's friends." DANTON, a French revolutionary leader, who on the fall of Robespierre, was condemned to the scaffold. His character was a singular mixture. Although talented, brave, and mag- nanimous, he was also weak, cruel, and parsi- monious. DANTZIC, a city of West Prussia, on the Vistula, containing 54,000 inhabitants. It was founded in the 12th century. In 1709 it was ravaged by the plague, and in 1734 taken by the Russians and Saxons. May 1807 the French captured it after a long siege. It was occupied by a French garrison until Napoleon's disas- trous campaign in Russia, after which it was blockaded, and bravely defended by general Rapp. It surrendered, however, and in 1814, reverted to Prussia. DARDANELLES, the four castles on the European and Asiatic sides of the Hellespont, which is called the " Strait of the Dardanelles." DARFUR or DARFOOR, the name of a large kingdom between Abyssinia and Bornou, in central Africa. The inhabitants are Moham- medans, half barbarous, extensively engaged in commerce, and living under a despotic govern- ment. DARIEN, a town of Georgia, which con- tained in 1830, about 500 inhabitants. DARIUS. The name of several sovereigns of Persia, of whom the first is the most celebra- ted. Darius I, a noble satrap of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, and conspired with six other noblemen, to destroy Smerdis, the usurp- er of the Persian crown. After the death of the usurper, it was agreed among the conspira- tors that he whose horse first neighed, should be appointed king. In consequence of this singular resolution, the groom of Darius led his master's horse with a mare to the place near which the seven noblemen were to pass. On the morrow before sunrise, when they proceed- ed all together, the horse of Darius neighed, and he was saluted by his companions king. He soon showed himself fitted to grace a throne. He took Babylon, and conquered Thrace ; was defeated by the Scythians, but favored by for- tune in his campaign against the Indians. The burning of Sardis, which was a Grecian colony, incensed the Athenians and a war was kindled between them and the Persians, in which the latter were unsuccessful. Undismayed at the disaster at Marathon and his immense losses, Darius resolved to lead his troops to Greece in person, but died in the midst of his warlike pre- parations, B. C. 485. DARIUS III, surnamed Codomanus, the son of Arsanes and Sysigambis, was descended from Darius Nothus. He was no sooner seated on the throne than Alexander of Macedon inva- ded his kingdom. The Persians were defeated in the battles of the Granicus and Issus, in the last of which, Darius, leaving his wife, children, and mother, fled in disguise on the horse of his armour-bearer, and was saved by the darkness DAV 210 DEA of tho night. Being again defeated in the bat- tle of Arbela, Darius in despair fled to Media, where he was killed by Bessus, the perfidious governor of Bactria, and was found by the Macedonians in his chariot, expiring of his wounds, B. C. 331. DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician and poet, born in 1721, at Elton, was the au- thor of the Botanic Garden, and other celebrated works. He died in 1802. DAVENAiNT, Sir William, an English poet of the 17th century, the author of Gondibcrt, a heroic poem, and a theatrical writer and man- ager under Charles II. DAVID, king of Israel, one of the most re- markable characters in Jewish History. The occurrences of his life are detailed in scripture. DAVID, Jacques Louis, a French painter, born at Paris in 1750, died at Brussels in 1825. Da- vid, though an uncompromising democrat, voting for the death of Louis XVI, was the first painter of the Emperor Napoleon, and was exiled on his fall. Among his finest works are Paris and Helen, the Rape of the Sabine women, and Napoleon crossing the Alps. His best perform- ances in portrait painting are the numerous likenesses of his imperial patron. The original sketch for one of these, which indeed was never afterwards finished, was taken during the last few hours of unlimited power possessed by Napo- leon in Paris. The greater part of the preced- ing day and night had been spent in arrang- ing the final operations of the campaign which terminated in the battle of Waterloo. When now past midnight, instead of retiring to repose, the emperor sent for David, to whom he had promised to sit, and who was in waiting in an apartment of the Tuileries. " My friend," said Napoleon, to the artist; "there are yet some hours till four, when we are finally to review the defences of the capital ; in the mean time, faites votre possible (do your utmost), while I read these despatches." But exhausted nature could hold out no longer ; the paper dropped from the nerveless hand, and Napoleon sank to sleep. In this attitude the painter has represent- ed him : — the pale and lofty forehead, the care- worn features, the relaxed expression, the very accompaniments bear an impress inexpressibly tender and melancholy. With the dawn Na- poleon awoke, and springing to his feet, was about to address David, when a taper just expir- ing in its socket, arrested his eye. Folding his arms on his breast, an usual posture of thought, he contemplated its dying struggles, when, with the last gleam, the rays of the morning sun penetrated through the half-closed window- curtains. " Were I superstitious," said Napo- leon, a faint smile playing about his beautiful mouth, " the first object on which my sight has rested this day, might be deemed ominous; but," pointing to the rising sun, " the augury is doubtful — at least the prayer of the Grecian hero will be recorded — we shall perish in light." DAVIDSON, Lucretia Maria, a young Amer- ican girl, who displayed great talents for coin- - position at the age of 4 years. She died of incessant application, August 27, 1825. She was born at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, September 27th, 1808. Her Amir Khan and other poems, were published in a volume. DA VIE, William Richardson, a distinguished character in the American revolution. He held the rank of general, and was afterwards gov- ernor of North Carolina, and envoy to France. He was born in England, 1756, and died at Camden (S. C), in 1820. DAVlES, Samuel, a distinguished American divine, president of Nassau Hall, born in Dela- ware, Nov. 3, 1724, died in 17(J2. DAVIS, John, an English navigator, who gave his name to the Straits which lie between Greenland and New Britain, which he entered in endeavoring to discover the northwest pas- sage. He was killed by the Japanese in 1605. DAVOUST, Louis Nicholas; duke of Aner- stadt and prince of Eckmuhl, marshal and peer of France, born in 1770, died in 1823. He studied with Bonaparte, and served under him in his most brilliant campaigns. He only sub- mitted to Louis XVII, when the hopes of Na- poleon were destroyed. DAVY, Sir Humphrey, a distinguished Eng- lish chemist, born in 177'J, at Penzance, Corn- wall, died at Geneva, 1819. His experiments on the nature of explosive gas, to which his atten- tion was directed by the frequent accidents oc- curing to mines from fire damps, resulted in the invention of the safety -lamp. Other important discoveries were made by this distinguished man. DEAD SEA, or Asphaltites (the lake of Bitumen), a piece of water in Palestine, 180 miles in circuit, which occupies the space whereon the condemned cities of the vale of Siddim stood. The following account of it is from the pen of a late traveller. " After the pil- grims had bathed in the Jordan, we left them and turned down to the south, in company with three or four other English travellers, and a guard from the governor, to visit the Dead Sea. DEC 211 DEL We rode across plains of barren sand for an hour and a half, when we stood upon the banks of this memorable lake. Without any refer- ence to what others have said, I can testify to the following facts. The water is perfectly clear and transparent. The taste is bitter, and salt far beyond that of the ocean. It acts upon the tongue and mouth like alum, and smarts in the eye^like camphor, and produces a burning pricking sensation over the whole body. It stiffened the hair of the head much like poma- tum. The water has a much greater specific gravity than the human body, and hence, no efforts cause us to sink below the surface ; and standing perpendicularly, you would not de- scend lower than the arms. Although there was evidence in the sands thrown upon the beach, that in great storms there were waves, yet there appeared to be some foundation for the reports of its immobility. Notwithstanding Ihere was a considerable breeze, the water lay perfectly lifeless. Historians say that large quantities of bitumen were gathered from the surface of this lake ; and is it not quite possi- ble, to say the least, that it formerly existed in such quantities as to spread over the whole face of the sea, and thus effectually prevent the wind from interrupting its death-like quietude ? Modern travellers state that there is very little of this substance now to be found, and certainly we saw nothing like it. We saw no fish or liv- ing animals in the water, though birds were flyino- over it in various directions unharmed. We all noticed an unnatural gloom hanging, not merely over the sea, but also over the whole plain below Jericho. This is mentioned also by ancient historians. It had the appearance of the Indian summer of the valley. Like a vast funeral pall let down from heaven, it com- pletely shuts out all prospect, at a short dis- tance down the sea. DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval commander, born in Maryland, January 5th, 177 ( J. Soon after his entrance into the navy (1798), he received a first lieutenancy, and for his gallant conduct in recovering the frigate Philadelphia, in the harbor of Tripoli, was pro- moted to the rank of Captain. He successively commanded the Constitution, the Congress, the Chesapeake, and the United States. With the latter he captured the Macedonian, October 25th, 1812. In the war with Algiers (1815), Decatur terrified the regency into submission in 48 hours ; was equally successful at Tripoli ; and procured the renunciation of tribute, and an agreement on the part of the Barbary pow- ers, to regard captives as prisoners of war and not slaves. Decatur was killed in a duel by Commodore Barron, March 22, 1820. Dfc^CIUS, the name of a Roman Consul who devoted himself to death in battle, to save his country, B. C. 340. Also a Roman emperor, who reigned from A. D. 249, till Dec. 251. He persecuted the Christians. DEFOE, Daniel, an English author of great celebrity, born at London in 1G63. His politi- cal and commercial speculations having prov- ed unfortunate, he turned his entire attention to literature. It is unnecessary to enumerate here the various works which he produced — it will be sufficient to mention his most popular production, the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, which he is falsely said to have stolen from the papers of Alexander Sel- kirk, a Scottish mariner, long the solitary in- habitant of the island of Juan Fernandez. He died in April, 1731. . DEJANIRA, daughter of.TEneus, king ot Calydon, an jEtolian city ; the wife of Hercules, and the innocent cause of his death. The Centaur, Nessus, whom Hercules killed for insulting Dejanira, in dying, gave her a tunic dipped in his blood, which he said would restore to her the affections of her husband if he put it on. When she considered herself in danger from his inconstancy, she sent Hercules the garment, which he no sooner put on than a mor- tal poison penetrated to his vitals, and he died in agony. , _.. DELAWARE ; one of the United States, bounded north by Pennsylvania; east by Dela- ware bay, and river; south and west by Mary- land. Its three counties are subdivided into £y hundreds. The Legislature consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The surface is, with few exceptions, level. Articles of pro- duce, wheat, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, flax, buckwheat, and potatoes. Its first settlers were the Swedes and Fins, in 1627. The Dutch gained possession of it, but the English in 1004 became the masters of it. It was granted to William Penn, and remained a separate estab- lishment until the revolution. Its constitution was adopted in 1792, and amended in 1831. Population 76,748, including 3,292 saves. DELHI, a province and city of Hindoston, containing about 5,000,000 inhabitants, Hin- doos, Mohammedans, and Seiks. It is very fer- tile and a lar tary accomplishments. His love of trutn was so great that he was never known to give utterance to a falsehood. He formed a most sacred and inviolable friendship with Pelopidas whose life he saved in battle. By his advice Pelopidas delivered Thebes from the power of Lacedaemon. This was the signal of war. Epaminondas was placed at the head of the Theban armies, and defeated the Spartans in the celebrated battle of Leuctra, about 370 B. C. Epaminondas entered the territories of Lacedsemon with 50,000 men. Here he gained many friends and partisans, but, at his return from Thebes, he was seized as a traitor for violating the laws of his country. While he was making the Theban army victorious on every side, he neglected the law which forbade any citizen to retain in his hands the supreme power for more than one month, and all his EPI 237 ERA eminent services seemed unable to redeem him from death. He paid implicit obedience to the laws of his country, and only begged of his judges that it might be inscribed on his tomb, that he had suffered death for saving his coun- try from ruin. This animated reproach was felt; he was pardoned, and invested again with sovereign power. He was successful in a war with Thessaly, and again engaged against the Lacedaemonians. The hostile armies met near Mantinea 3(33 B. C. and while Epaminondas was fighting bravely in the thickest of the enemy, he received a fatal wound in the breast, and ex- pired with joy on hearing that the Baeotians had obtained the victory. On hearing his friends regret that he had left no children, he said ; " I leave behind me two immortal daugh- ters, the victories of Leuctra and Mantinea. EPEE, Charles Michael, abbe de 1', was born at Versailles in 1712. None of the teachers who had been successful with deaf and dumb pupils, had published accounts of their method, so that De L' Epee was not indebted to them for the mode of instruction which he first employed upon two sisters. His zeal in the cause of those who were destitute of speech and hearing led him into pecuniary embarrassment. One incident in his life is peculiarly interesting. He met, one day, in the streets of Paris a deaf and dumb youth in the garb of a beggar whom he was convinced was the heir of the rich fami- ly of the Count of Solar. A law-suit followed, which was at first successful, but when the friends of Solar were dead, his property was again wrested from him, and he was compelled to enlist in the army as a curaissier. De 1' Epee died in 1789. EPHESUS, the capital city of Ionia, famous for its splendid temple dedicated to the worship of Diana. This superb temple occupied 220 years in its erection, was 425 feet long, 200 broad and adorned with an immense number of lofty columns. It was burned by Erostratus 356 years B. C. to perpetuate his name. The paltry village of Aiasoluk occupies the site of the ancient city. EPICTETUS, a stoic philosopher, born at Hieropolis, in Phrygia, A. D. 90. He was the slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero. His master once struck him a severe blow upon the leg. " You will break it," was the calm reply of the stoic. The brute repeated the blow and broke it. " Did I not tell you so ? " was the quiet exclamation of the philosopher. He was afterwards freed, and made governor of Cappadocia A. D. 134. EPICURUS, was born at Gargettus, near Athens, 342 B. C. In the 36th year of his age he opened his school in an Athenian garde. 1. He taught his scholars that the summumbonum consisted in happiness ; but that happiness did not spring from sensual enjoyments but from a practice of the virtues. He commended wis- dom, was temperate, moderate, gentle, firm, and fearless of death. He died 270 B. C, and had many followers. EP1RUS, a province on the borders of Greece, the most southerly portion of the modern Alba- nia. This country was first inhabited by the Chaones, and the kingdom of Epirus may be said to have begun with Pyrrhus the son of Achilles, about the year 900 B. C. About 280 B. C. another Pyrrhus, king of this country, distinguished himself greatly by his wars with the Romans, in favor of the Tarentines. Upon the death of Deodamia, the last of this race, about the year 240 B. C, the Epirots formed themselves into a republic, which was reduced by Paulus Amilius, the Roman general, all the towns destroyed, and the inhabitants enslaved in one day. Upon the taking of Constantino- ple, in 1204, Michael Angelus seized this coun- try, and his posterity held it till it was taken by the Turks under Amurath II, in 1432. In 1447, Castriot (Scanderbeg) revolted from the Turks, but the country was finally reduced by Mohammed II, in 1466. EQUATOR, Republic of the, a South Amer- ican state, composed of the three southwestern departments of the former republic of Colombia ; Ecuador, Assuay, and Guayaquil. It lies be- tween Brazil on the east, Peru on the South, New Granada on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the west, having an area of 325,000 square miles, and a population of 650,000 souls. The eastern part is uninhabited or occupied by independent Indians. The capital of the re- public is Quito, with 70,000 inhabitants. This section formerly constituted the audiencia of Quito, dependent upon the vice-royalty of New Granada. In 1823 it was delivered from the Spanish yoke by the brilliant victory of Pichin- cha gained by the patriot general Sucre, and it joined the Colombian confederacy. When that state fell to pieces in 1830, it declared itself an independent state. ERASMUS, Desiderius, a man celebrated for his learning, was born at Rotterdam in 1467. At the age of 17 he assumed the monas- tic habit, but subsequently obtained a dispen- sation from his vows. He travelled through many countries, but was received with the ESC 238 EST greatest kindness by Henry VIII, of England, and was for a short time professor of Greek at Oxford. Erasmus died 1536. Besides his the- ological works, and his editions of the classics, he published an Encomium on Folly, which has been often reprinted. His letters are of histori- cal value. EREBUS, the son of Chaos and Darkness, the brother and husband of night, and the father of Day and Light. He was transformed into a river which flows through the infernal regions. ERFURT, a fortress in Thuringia, belonging to Prussia ; the town contains at present 21 ,"330 inhabitants. It was founded in the 5th century. It maintained a kind of independence, until the 17th century, when the elector of Mente gained possession of it. In 1814 it was granted to Prus- sia by the Congress of Vienna. Erfurt was famous for the meeting between Napoleon and the Emperor Alexander with many other kings and princes. This was in September 1808, and Napoleon's object was the pacification of all Europe. He was now at the summit of power and glory and he stood upon the very pinnacle of grandeur, with a feeling of intense enjoy- ment. " Come to Erfurt" he wrote exultingly to Talma, " and you shall play to a whole pit full of Kings ! " ERSKINE, Thomas, lord Erskine, a celebrat- ed lawyer, was the son of David Henry Erskine, tenth Ear) of Buchan, and was born in the year 1750. It was not until after he served some years in the army and navy that he embraced the legal profession at the age of 26. In 1778, he was admitted to the bar, and his success was both speedy and triumphant. During 25 years he enjoyed an extensive practice. He was appointed attorney general to the prince of Wales, and, in 1802, keeper of his seals for the duchy of Cornwall. He died in 1823. Many of his speeches and some political works have been published. His popularity may be infer- red from the fact that his pamphlet, entitled A view of the Causes and Consequences of the War with France, went through 48 editions. ERZERUM, ARZERUM, or ARZ-ROUM, anciently Arze,t\\e capital of Turkish Armenia, and of a pachalic of the same name, situated near the head of the Euphrates, 250 miles N. N. E. of Aleppo, contains about 100,000 inhabitants, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and Persians. It is a well built place and enjoys considerable trade. Its manufactures are numerous. ESCURIAL, a magnificent palace, situated on the ascent to the chain of mountains bound- ing Old Castile, 22 miles from Madrid. It was erected by Philip II, in commemoration of the victory of St. Quentin, gained over the French in 1557. The battle was fought on the day of the festival of St. Lawrence, and the palace was dedicated to this saint, wbose instrument of martyrdom, a gridiron, is immortalized in the disposition of the buildings composing the Es- curial. It is said to have cost 50,000,000 dollars, and contains many noble works of art. ESNEH, ESNE, or ASNA, a city of Upper Egypt, 27 miles S. of Thebes, standing on the site of Latopolis, and containing some superb ruins. ESQUIMAUX, dwarfish tribes of North America, occupying the northern coast of Amer- ica, from prince William's sound to the borders of the Atlantic on the coast of Labrador. They live by hunting and fishing, and are alike des- titute of laws and religion. They formerly put to death widows and orphans, and those who, from age or misfortune, were incapable of gain- ing a subsistence. ESSEQU1BO, a settlement of English Gui- ana, on the borders of a river of the same name, ceded to Great Britain in 1814. The soil is fertile and well cultivated. ESSEX, earl of, (see Devereux). ESTACHAR. or ESTAKAR, or ISTA- CHAR, a town of Persia, 160 miles S. S. E. of Ispahan, near which are the ruins of the an- cient Persepolis, the residence of the Persian kings. ESTAING, Charles Henry, count d', a French admiral and lieutenant general of the French armies before the breaking out of the revolution, was the descendant of a noble French family^ and commenced his career in the West Indies. He was twice taken prisoner by the English. He was vice-admiral in the American war, and was appointed a commander of the national guards in 1789, but was guillotined in 1793. ESTHER, a Jewish girl who became the queen of Ahasuerus, the luxurious monarch of Persia. (For the particulars of her story see the book of Esther). ESTHONIA, or the GOVERNMENT OF REVAL, part of the province of Livonia, be- longing to Russia, and containing 302.000 in- habitants. After 1385 the country was sold to the Teutonic knights, and formed a part of Li- vonia, subject for a century to Sweden, but ulti- mately reverting to the Russians. ESTREMADURA, a Spanish province, is bounded N. by Leon and Old Castile, E. by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by Por- EUG 239 EUL tugal. It is extremely fertile and contained, in 1797, 423,393 inhabitants. ESTREMADURA. a province of Portugal, bounded N. by the province of Beira, E. and S. by Alentejo, and W. by the ocean. It is 124 miles long, and 77 broad. It is generally fertile, and contains 700,500 inhabitants. ETHIOPIANS. This name was anciently applied to all nations having a dark skin, and was not confined to Africans, but was also appli- ed to Asiatics. Ethiopia being one of the names of Abyssinia, it was applied to the inhabitants. ETON, a village of England, in Bucks, sep- arated by the Thames from Windsor. It con- tains 3,230 inhabitants. Its college is well-en- dowed, and was founded in 1440. ETRURIA, the country of the Etruscans, now Tuscany, was bounded N. by the river Magna, E. by the Apennines, S. by the Tiber, and W. by the Mediterranean. The Etruscans at a very early age had received the arts from Greece, and produced some most beautiful spe- cimens. They gave to the Romans their early religious usages and architecture, and finally became the victims of Roman ambition. In 1801 the name of Etruria was restored, and the country was made a kingdom and re- mained so until amalgamated with the French empire, by a senatorial decree of May 30, 1808. The next year Eliza, the sister of Napoleon, received this territory, with the title of grand- duchess of Tuscany. In 1814 its ancient rulers regained it. ETTENHEIM, a small town of the duchy of Baden, with 2630 inhabitants. Here the duke of Enghien was arrested. EUCLID, the father of mathematics, was born at Alexandria, about 300 B. C. EUERGETyE {benefactors), a name given to the Jigriaspoz or Jirhnaspi, a tribe of the Per- sian province of Drangiana, on account of their having saved the army of Cyrus when in dan- ger of perishing for want of provisions. EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy, fifth son of Eu- gene Maurice, duke of Savoy-Carignan, was born at Paris in 1663. His mother was Olym- pia Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarin. He was educated for the church, but after the death of his father, and the exile of his mother, he and his brother Philip went to Vienna, where they met with a gracious reception. In the war which broke out with Turkey, prince Philip fell in battle, and left his command to Eugene, who signalized himself at the siege of Vienna in 1683, as he did afterwards at Buda. He next served against the French in Italy ; and in 1697 commanded the army in Hungary, where he gained a splendid victory, in which the Turks lost above 30,000 men, with their commander the grand vizier. On the breaking out of the war occasioned by the disputes about the Span- ish succession, Eugene commanded the Impe- rialists in Italy, where he was opposed to Vil- leroi, whom he made prisoner. After this he acted in conjunction with Marlborough. In 1712 the prince came to England to prevail upon the court to continue the war, but could not succeed. Compelled to act on the defensive, he exerted himself to the utmost; and, in 1714, settled preliminary articles with marshal Villars at Rastadt, which ended soon after in a general peace. In 1716 the war with the Turks was renewed, and the prince again took the field in Hungary, where he attacked the enemy in their camp, and obtained a complete victory, which was followed by the capture of Temeswar and Bel- grade. From this time to 1733 Eugene re- mained at Vienna, employed in the cabinet ; but in that year he assumed the command in Italy, where he experienced various success in the contest with the combined powers of France, Spain, and Sardinia. He was found dead in his bed, April 10, 1736. EUGENE DE BEAUHARNAIS, the son of viscount Alexander Beauharnais and Jose- phine, afterwards empress of France, was born September 3, 1781. In the French revolution he entered the army, and when his mother was married to Bonaparte, accompanied the latter to Italy and Egypt. He distinguished himself in many campaigns. In 1805 he was made prince of France and viceroy of Italy. In 1807 he was declared prince of Venice, and Napo- leon's heir to the kingdom of Italy. During the retreat from Moscow, his good conduct, with that of Ney, saved the army from total destruction. After the fall of Napoleon, he surrendered Italy to the Austrians, and went to Munich to his father-in-law, the king of Ba- varia. Thenceforth he took no share in the for- tunes of Napoleon. He was created duke of Leuchtenburg, and the principality of Eichstedt was bestowed upon him. He died at Munich, Feb. 21, 1824. EULER, Leonard, a mathematician of Bale, born in 1707. He was educated at the univer- sity of his native place. In his 19th year he gained a prize from the academy of Paris for the best treatise on the masting of vessels. He took the department of Mathematics in the academy of St. Petersburg, and published a EUR 240 EZE vast number of treatises. In the Paris Academy of Sciences he gained ten prizes. In 1741 he became professor in the Berlin academy, but returned to St. Petersburg where he died in 1783 in the office of director of the mathematical department. Throughout his life, he received honors from all quarters. He was cheerful and amiable in private life, although the last 17 years of his existence were past in total blindness. EUPHRATES, PHRAT, or FRAT, one of the largest and most celebrated rivers in Asia, 1,500 miles long, and is navigable for ships of 500 tons to Bassard. It rises in the mountains of Armenia. EURIPIDES, a celebrated tragic poet, in great favor with Archelaus, was born at Salamis on the day that the army of Xerxes was routed by the Athenians. He wrote 75 tragedies, only nineteen of which are extant. Euripides was called Misogynes for his hatred of women, and particularly of his own wife. In the 75th year of his age, he was torn to pieces by dogs. EUROPE, the least extensive, but the most improved of the four quarters of the globe, is situated between 36° and 71° N. latitude ; hav- ing from south to north a breadth of about 2,000 miles and from east to west a length of nearly 3000. It contains about three millions and a half of square miles, with a population of 330 million, and is bounded by the sea in all direc- tions except the east where it joins Asia. The following is a list of the principal States of Europe, with the religion and government of each. Religion. Government. Russia. Greek Church. Monarchy. Sweden. Lutheran. Lim. Monarchy. Denmark. Lutheran. Monarchy. Prussia. Protestant. Monarchy. Great Britain. Protestant. Lira. Monarchy. Netherlands. Prot. and Cath. Lim. Monarchy. Belgium. Prot. and Cath. Lim. Monarchy. Switzerland. Prot. and Cath. Republic. Hanover. Lutheran. Monarchy. Saxony. Lutheran. Lim. Monarchy. Wurtemberg. Lutheran. Lim. Monarchy. German Small ) i>»„,„„, . T • »» u States \ " rotestan t- Lim. Monarchy. Bavaria. Catholic. Lim. Monarchy. Austria. Catholic. Abs. Monarchy. France. Catholic. Lim. Monarchy. Spain. Catholic. Monarchy. Portugal. Catholic. Monarchy. Sardinia. Catholic. Monarchy. Naples. Catholic. Monarchy. States of the > „„.. .. ,, Church. | Cath0lic - Monarchy. Italian Small ) -, .. ,. Slates. j Catholic. Monarchy. Ionian Islands. Greek Church. Republic. Mohammedan. Despotism. Greek Church. Lim. Monarchy. Greece. EUSTATIA, ST.; one of the Leeward islands, 8 miles S. W. of St. Christopher's, a vast rock 29 miles in circumference. Population, 18,000. The Dutch settled here in 1600. It was suc- cessively in the hands of the English, French, Dutch, English, (a second time), and was re- stored to the Dutch in 1697. In 1781 Admiral Rodney reduced the inhabitants to poverty, under pretence of their having supplied the United States with provisions. The island was retaken by the French, again submitted to the English in 1809, and was again restored to the Dutch in 1814. EUTROP1US, Flavius, a Latin author, who flourished about A. D. 360; his Abridgment of the History of Rome is dedicated to the empe- ror Valens, to whose time it extends. EVE ; the first woman, wife of Adam, and created from a rib taken from his side. (See Mam.) EWING, John, a celebrated American divine and mathematician, was born in Cecil county, Maryland, June 22, 1732, and was graduated at Princeton college in 1755. After completing his education, he was for a short time tutor in the college, and instructed the philosophical classes of the college of Philadelphia, where he was settled as pastor of the first presbyterian congregation in 175!). He went to England in 1773 to obtain subscriptions for an Academy, and received the degree of D. D. from the uni- versity of Edinburgh. On his return to Amer- ica in 1775, he filled the office of provost of the university of Pennsylvania until his death. He published Lectures on Natural History, and made some most important additions to the as- tronomical articles in the American edition y > GREAT BRITAIN. (See Britain and Eng- land.\ GREECE. Ancient Greece, Gratia, Hellas, and Jlchaia, contained about 42,000 square miles. It was bounded on the west by the Ionian Sea, south by the Mediterranean Sea, east by the JEge&n, and north by Thrace and Dalmatia. This country has been esteemed superior to every other part of the earth, on account of the salubrity of the air, the temperature of the climate, the fertility of the soil, and, above all, the fame, learning, and arts of its inhabitants. The most celebrated of its cities were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Sicyon, Mycenae, Delphi, Trcezene, Salamis, Megara, Pylos, &c. The history of Greece is darkened, in its primitive ages, by the mists of fable. The in- habitants believed that they were the original dwellers in the country, and sprang from the earth, whereon they dwelt; and they heard, with contempt, the probable conjectures which traced their origin to the inhabitants of Asia, and the colonies of Egypt. In the first periods of their history, the Greeks were governed by monarchs ; and there were as many kings as there were cities. The monarchical power grad- ually decreased ; the love of liberty established the republican governments ; and no part of Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. The expedition of the Argonauts first rendered the Greeks re- spectable among their neighbors ; and in the suc- ceeding age, the wars of Thebes and Troy gave opportunity to their heroes to display their valor in the field of battle. The simplicity of the an- cient Greeks rendered them virtuous ; and the establishment of the Olympic games in partic- ular, where the only reward of the conqueror was a laurel crown, contributed to their aggran- dizement, and made them ambitious of fame, and not the slaves of riches. The austerity of their laws, and the educa- tion of their youth, particularly at Lacedemon, rendered them brave and active, insensible to bodily pain, fearless and intrepid in the hour of danger. The celebrated battles of Marathon, Thermopylee, Salamis, Platasa, and Mycale, suf- ficiently show what superiority a well train- ed, though small army possesses over millions of undisciplined barbarians. After many signal victories over the Persians, the Greeks became elated with their success, and when they found no one able to dispute their power abroad, they turned their arms against each other, and leagued with foreign states to destroy the most flourishing of their cities. The Messenian and Peloponnesian wars are examples of the dread- ful calamities which arise from civil discord and GRE 267 ORE long prosperity ; and the ease with which the gold and sword of Philip of Macedon corrupted and enslaved Greece, fatally proved that when a nation becomes indolent and luxurious at home, it ceases to be respectable in the eyes of neighboring states. The annals of Greece, how- ever, abound with singular proofs of heroism and resolution. While the Greeks rendered themselves so illustrious by their military ex- ploits, the arts and sciences were assisted by conquest, and received fresh lustre from the liberal patronage bestowed on them. From the fifteenth century until a recent period, Greece was subject to the Turkish gov- ernment. Although degraded — changed from what she was, there was yet something in Mod- ern Greece to remind the world of former days of glory. Ere the storm of the revolution broke forth, the bard could sing — " On Suli's rock, and Parga's shore, Exists the remnant of a line Such as the Doric mothers bore, And there, perhaps, some seed is sown, That Heracleidan blood might own." The revolution in the Morea broke out at a village of Achaia, March 23, 1821. From that time forward their warlike weapons were never relinquished by the Hellenists. The Greeks struggled against ferocity, bravery, wealth, and power, while, they themselves, although the sympathy of the liberal portion of the world was theirs, not only received no assistance, but even experienced checks from the cabinets of Europe. At length England took the part of the Greeks, and a Russian, French and British squadron, under Admiral Sir Edward Codring- ton, destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian armada of 110 ships, in the bay of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. In March, 1828, the war between Russia and Turkey broke out, and the interference of for- eign powers produced the pacification of Greece in 1829. The Turks were compelled to evacuate Greece ; a limited monarchy was established ; Otho I, a young man of eighteen, being at the head of the government. Schools have now been established in various places, and, freed from the oppression which prostrated its ener- gies, the Greek character now begins to appear in a happy light. GREENE, Nathaniel, a distinguished major- general in the American army during the re- volution, was born in Rhode Island, May 22, 1742, and early evinced an attachment to litera- ture and science, and a propensity for a mili- tary life. In 1770 he was elected to the state legislature, took part in the earliest battles of the revolution, and June, 6, 1775, assumed the command of the army before Boston for a short time. Want of space renders it impossible for us to follow him through all the steps of his career of glory, or even to enumerate his bril- liant actions. He died in 1786, in Georgia, whither he had removed upon some grants of land. GREENLAND, an extensive country of N. America, belonging to Denmark, and settled 800 years ago. The natives belong to the Es- quimaux family, and are rude in their man- ners, and confined in their ideas. They are of diminutive size, clothed in skins, and subsist- ing by hunting and fishing. Their religious notions are rude and primitive. There are numerous settlements upon the coast of Green- land, many of them being made by the Mora- vian missionaries. GREGORY I, pope of Rome, surnamed the Great, succeeded Pelagius II, in 590, and intro- duced many of the present ceremonies of the Romish church. He was of a noble family and induced to take monastic vows by a disgust of worldly affairs. He died in 604. GREGORY VII, called Hildebrand before his election, succeeded Alexander II, in the year 1073, being advanced by the suffrages of the cardinals, without the emperor's authority ; the better to confirm himself in the pontificate, he abolished the imperial power of conferring investiture upon bishops and clergymen, and became an inveterate enemy of the emperor Henry IV. He prevailed upon Rodolph, Duke of Suabia, to assume the title of emperor, and take up arms against Henry, but Rodolph being overthrown and slain, Henry marched directly into Italy, besieged Rome, took the city, and established Clement III upon the papal throne. Gregory fled to Salerno, and there died, after having enjoyed the papal dignity 12 years. There were several other popes of the same name. GRENADA, New, formerly a viceroyalty of South America, and more recently a portion of Colombia, but now a separate republic. Together with Venezuela, it was formerly called Terra Firina. It has an area of 375,000 square miles, and a population of 1 ,500,000 souls. The moun- tains of the republic are rich in the precious metals, yielding annually about 3,000,000 dol- lars' worth of gold. GRENOBLE, an old French city, capital of the department of here, 113 leagues S. E. of Paris. It was the first city to open its gates to Napoleon, when he returned from Elba. The GRE 268 GUA garrison had taken up arms to resist the little band of the imperialists, when Napoleon ad- vancing and uncovering his breast, said to them :— " If there be one among you, who would slay his general and emperor, he can do it— behold I am defenceless." He was answer- ed by animating shouts of " Vive I'empereur. Population 25,000. GREY, Lady Jane, an unfortunate and most amiable lady, the daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, by lady Frances Brandon daughter of the duke of Suffolk, was of royal descent on both sides. She was born in 1537, at Bradgate Hall, her father's seat in Leicester- shire ; and early in life gave proofs of uncom- mon genius. She worked admirably with her needle ; wrote an elegant hand ; played well on several instruments; and was well versed in Greek and Latin, besides being conversant with French and Italian. Roger Ascham, " the schoolmaster of princes," has given a beautiful and affecting narrative of his. interview with her at Bradgate Hall, where he found her read- ing Plato's Phsedon in Greek, while the family were amusing themselves in the park. In 1551, her father was created duke of Suf- folk ; and at this time lady Jane Grey was much at court ; where the ambitious duke of Northum- berland projected a marriage between her and his son, lord Guilford Dudley, which took place at the end of May, 1553. Soon after this Ed- ward VI died, having been prevailed upon in his last illness, to settle the crown upon the lady Jane, who, against her will, was proclaim- ed "with great pomp. The splendor of royalty, however, enduied but a short time. The nation was dissatisfied, and the nobility indignant at the presumption of Northumberland, so that Mary was not long in obtaining the victory, and, with an indignant spirit, determined on revenge. Lady Jane and her husband, after having been confined in the Tower some months, were arraigned and con- demned to death, Nov. 3, 1553. The sentence was not carried into execution, until the 12th of February in the following year, when lord Guilford first suffered, and his lady immediately afterwards, on the same scaffold. She died with the firmness and meekness of a martyr ; and such no doubt she was, since her Protestant principles were more offensive to the queen, than the part she had been compelled to act. On the evening previous to her death she sent a letter written in Greek to her sister ; and even after seeing the headless body of her husband carried to the chapel, 6he wrote three sentences, in Greek, Latin and English, in a table book, which she presented to the lieutenant of the tower. . GR1DLEY, Jeremiah, a distinguished lawyer, who was born in 1705, and flourished in Mas- sachusetts before the revolution. Although a warm opponent of the British ministry, he ac- cepted the office of attorney -general of the pro- vince of Massachusetts Bay, and defended the writs of assistance, but was completely refuted by James Otis, who had studied law in his office. He died in Boston, Sept. 7, 1707, aged about 62 ye GRISONS,The, since 1778, the largest can- ton of the Swiss confederacy, containing bb,00U inhabitants. Its exports are cattle, cheese coals, and valuable minerals. It was the Upper Rhcetia of the Romans. GRISWOLD, Roger, a governor of V onn 5£- ticut, was born at Lyme, in that state, ml7b^. He was educated at Yale College, and chosen member of Congress in 1794. In 1807 he accept- ed the office of judge of the Supreme Court of Connecticut, and after serving as lieutenant- governor, in 1811 was chosen governor of his native state. He died in 1812. GRONINGEN, the name of a province and city of the Netherlands. The city contains 27,800 inhabitants, and is the seat of a famous university. __ . GROTIUS, or De Groot, Hugo, a famous scholar and statesman, born at Delft, April 10, 1583 So precocious were his powers, that he was appointed advocate-general in his 24th V ear. Grotius, having espoused the cause ot a religious sect called the Remonstrants, was condemned to imprisonment for life in the fort- ress of Louvenstein,but having concealed him- self in a chest in which his wife had sent him some books, he was carried out of the castle unsuspected. After wandering about in seve- ral countries, having been banished for ever from his own, he went to Stockholm in lod4, and was appointed counsellor of state, and am- bassador to the French court. Although per- sonally obnoxious to Cardinal Richelieu, he held this office for 10 years, and then returned to Sweden, passing through his native country, where his reception was most flattering. We solicited his dismission from the queen of Swe- den, but, after leaving her court, was taken sicK at Rostock, in Pomerania, and died there, Au- gust 28, 1645. He was a profound and elegani scholar, and a powerful writer. GUADALAXARA, formerly an mtendancy of Mexico, now forms the state of Yalisco, m GUE 269 GUI the Mexican confederacy. It is fertile and well timbered. Population, 800,000. Number of square miles 72,000. The capital is a city of the same name, built on a fertile plain, and containing 60,000 inhabitants, Spaniards, mulat- toes, and mestizoes. GU ADALOUPE, one of the largest and most valuable of the Caribbee Islands — about 70 miles long, and 25 broad. It is divided into two parts by a channel, which runs from north to south. It was discovered by Columbus. After passing alternately from the French to the English, its possession was confirmed to the former in 1814. Population 110,000. GUANAXUATO, a rich and populous state of Mexico, containing 450,000 inhabitants on 6,300 square miles. GUANAXUATO, or Santa Fe Guanaxuato, the capital of the preceding state, is 140 miles northwest of Mexico, and contains 40,000 inhab- itants. Of these many are miners, the mines in the vicinity being uncommonly productive. The city stands at an elevation of 6,836 above the sea, and is situated in a mountainous defile. GUATIMALA, the largest of the five states of the republic of Central America. It borders on Mexico, the gulf of Honduras, and the Pacific GUATIMALD A, La Nueva, the seat of gov- ernment of Central America, was founded in 1775, and contains 40,000 inhabitants. It is situated on the river Vacas, near the Pacific Ocean. GUAXACA, or Oaxaca, an uncommonly rich and fertile state of Mexico, containing 600,000 inhabitants, many of whom are tribu- tary Indians. The capital town of the same, called also, Antequera, contains 40,000 inhabi- tants. GUAYAQUIL, a province of the Equator, containing about 90,000 inhabitants. Guaya- quil, the capital, on the west side of Guayaquil river, has an excellent harbor. GUELPHS, the name of a family, one of two opposite factions that divided Italy about the year 1255, the partisans of papal and imperial power. The family of the Uberti were at the head of the Florentine Ghibellines, the other faction ; and the people, or rather, the republi- can party, resented their contumacy so much, that they ran to arms, broke into the palace of the Uberti, and, having killed some, forced all the Ghibellines to take refuge in Sienna, where they were hospitably received, in direct viola- tion of a treaty between the Florentines and Siennese. GUESCLIN,Bertranddu, constable of France, and one of her most renowned generals, born in 1314, at the castle of Motte Broon, near Ren- nes. At the age of seventeen years, he won a prize in a tournament. After the battle of Poic- tiers, and the losses of Charles, du Guesclin came forward, and redeemed the honor of his country, wresting from the hands of the Eng- lish almost all their possessions. He died, in the midst of triumph, before Chateau-neuf-de-Rau- don, July 13, 1380. He had nothing pleasing or noble in his person, and owed his honors wholly to his own exertions. GUIANA, a country of South America, for- merly of vast extent. At present what was formerly Spanish Guiana, belongs to Venezuela, and Portuguese Guiana, to Brazil. The remain- ing portions are divided between the English. Dutch, and French. The animals and birds of Guiana are numerous, as are its vegetable pro- ductions. Parts of Guiana are yet wild and imperfectly known, and in its interior the El Dorado of the Spaniards was formerly believed to exist. GUILFORD, a town and sea-port of New Haven county, Connecticut, on Long Island Sound, containing 2,344 inhabitants. It has two harbors, and enjoys considerable trade. The Indian name of the place was Menunkatuck. GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French physician, born in 1738, was the inventor of the instrument for inflicting capital punishment, which bears his name. GUINEA. A large portion of the western coast of Africa bears this name. But its limits cannot be exactly defined. It is commonly divied into the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, and Slave Coast. GUISE ; a town and dukedom of France, in Picardy, besieged by the Spaniards in 1528. The dukes of 'Guise were very important per- sonages in all the affairs of France, from the reign of Francis I, to that of Henry IV. This family was a branch of the house of Lorraine, promoted, by Francis I, in 1528, from counts of Guise, to dukes. The first thus raised was Claude, the son of Rene II. He had eight sons, among whom were Francis, duke of Guise, Clau- dius, duke of Aumale, and Rene, marquis of El- boeuf. Francis gallantly defended Metz against Charles V, and took Calais from the English. He was assassinated in 1516. He was the father of Henry, duke of Guise, and Charles, duke of Maine, &e. Henry placing himself at the head of the Holy League, was slain in the States of Blois, by the order of his prince, in 1588. GUN 270 GUS Charles, the other brother, took up arms against Henry IV, till at last, in 1594, he was forced to submit to that victorious prince. Charles, the son of Henry, succeeded his father in the duke- dom, and was the father of Henry II, who was chosen king of Naples. GUNPOWDER PLOT, a conspiracy formed in the beginning of James I, of England, for the re-establishment of popery, which, were it not a fact well known to all the world, could scarcely be credited by posterity. The Roman Catho- lics had expected great favor and indulgence from James, both because he was a descendant of Mary, a rigid Catholic, and because he had shown some favor to that religion in his youth ; but they soon discovered their mistake, and were at once surprised and enraged to find James, on all occasions, express his resolution of strictly executing the laws enacted against them, and of persevering in the policy of his predecessor. This declaration determined them to destroy the king and parliament at a blow. They therefore stored in the vaults under the parliament-house, thirty-six barrels of gunpow- der, purchased in Holland, and covered them with coals and fagots. The meaning of a warnincr but ambiguous letter, received by lord Monteagle was first penetrated by the king. The care of searching the vaults devolved upon the carl of Suffolk, lord Chamberlain, who pur- posely delayed the search until the day before the meeting of parliament, Nov. 5, 1G05. He remarked the great piles of fagots, which lay in the vault under the house of peers, and seized a man preparing for the terrible enter- prise, dressed in a cloak and boots, with a dark lantern in his hand. This was one Guy Fawkes, who had just disposed evry part of the train for takino- fire the next morning ; the matches and other combustibles being found in his pock- ets. The whole of the design was now discov- ered ; but the atrocity of his guilt, and the des- pair of pardon, inspiring him with resolution, he told the officers of justice with an undaunted air, that had he blown them and himself up together, he had been happy. Before the coun- cil he displayed the same intrepid firmness, mixed even with scorn and disdain, refusing to discover his associates, and showing no concern but for the failure of his enterprise. But his bold spirit was :it length subdued ; after having been confined to the tower for two or three days, on the rack being shown him, his courage failed him, and he made a full discovery of his accom- plices, to the number of eighty, who all suffered punishment. GUSTAVUS I, king of Sweden, commonly called Gustavus Vasa, was imprisoned when Christian II, of Denmark, sought to enslave his country. Having escaped from prison in 1519, he arrived at Lubeck. after meeting with vari- ous difficulties. Here he was countenanced by the Senate, but failing of accomplishing his object, he was proscribed by the tyrant, and fled to Dalecarlia, where he roused the miners to revenge the wrongs of their suffering country. The young hero found the peasants prepared to receive him with open arms, and to swear to revenge the massacre at Stockholm with the last drop of their blood. The brave Dalecarlians flocked to the standard of Gustavus, who was, from this moment, irresistible. After the burn- ing of the Danish fleet, the diet assembled, Gus- tavus was proclaimed king of Sweden and of the two Gothlands, in 1523, and he soon suc- ceeded in establishing the doctrines of Luther in his dominions. In 1531, Christian made preparations for re- covering his throne, but his vast armament was defeated with great slaughter. In 1542, Gus- tavus prevailed on the states to render the crown hereditary in his own family. This valiant, wise, and virtuous hero, the true deliverer of his country, died in 1500, at the age of 70. GUSTAVUS II, Adolphus, king of Sweden, succeeded Charles IX, in 1611, at the age of eio-hteen. Gustavus having placed the Chan- cellor Oxenstiern at the head of the administra- tion of civil affairs, took charge himself of the martial operations, and, in 1613, prosecuted the war against Denmark with such vigor and suc- cess, that, through the mediation of Great Brit- ain and Holland, an advantageous peace was procured, by which the Danish monarch re- nounced all pretensions to the throne. He was equally successful with the Russians, who ceded to him the fine province of Livonia, and part of the province of Novogorod. His hostilities, however, with his cousin Sigismund, were of longer duration, and were productive of those glorious events which procured him a conspi- cuous rank among the most distinguished war- riors of his time. The king of Poland could not forget the Swedish crown of which he had been deprived by the impolitic conduct of his father and himself, and formed a plot for seiz- ing on Gustavus, who, however, avoided the snare. , The Swedish monarch, having prepared a numerous fleet, set sail, and laid siege to Riga, in 1G21. Gustavus proved victorious, but allow- ed the besieged to capitulate on honorable terms. GWI 271 HAL During a series of years he was engaged in constant warfare, which afforded him opportu- nities of training the Swedes, and forming those intrepid commanders and formidable battalions, which long kept Europe in alarm. At length, in 1629, Gustavus gloriously terminated the war with Poland, and obtained large cessions of ter- ritory. He did not, however, long enjoy the fruits of his victories in peace. The resentment which he felt against the emperor, and his am- bition to curb the power of the house of Aus- tria, determined him to march an army of sixty thousand 'men into Germany, in 1630. He re- duced Frankfort on the Oder, and various other places, and compelled the elector of Braden- burgh to unite his troops with the Swedish battalions. He then invaded Saxony. In 1631, the imperialists awaited Gustavus at Leipzig, with an army of 40,000 men. The Swedish monarch led his troops to the attack, and, after an obstinate conflict, obtained a decisive victory. He then penetrated into Bavaria, and levied contributions on the opulent districts of Ger- many. The battle of Lutzen ensued, in 1633, on the fate of which contest, that of Europe appeared to depend. The Swedish infantry performed prodigies of valor, broke the line of the imperialists, and seized their cannon. Vic- tory had already declared for the Swedes, when Gustavus was found stretched among the slain. His death plunged Sweden into the greatest affliction, but his triumphant bands for a time supported her military reputation. GUSTAVUS III, king of Sweden, the eldest son of Adolphus Frederic, duke of Holstein- Gottorp, was born in 1746, and succeeded to the throne on his father's death, February 12th, 1771. The country, which was convulsed throughout, was tranquillized by the prudent measures of Gustavus, who was wise, firm, and accomplished, although fond of pleasure, and ambitious. He determined to take part against the French revolutionists, and thereby gave very general dissatisfaction. A conspiracy was formed against him ; the most prominent mem- bers being the counts Horn, Ribbing, and An- karstroem, and he was shot by the latter at a masquerade at Stockholm, March 15, 1792. GWINNETT, Burton, an Englishman, born in 1732, emigrated to Charleston (S. C.), in 1770, and was one of the signers of the Decla- ration of Independence. He settled in Geor- gia, where he took an active share in the affairs of the revolution ; and was subsequently chosen a member of the convention assembled for the purpose of framing a state constitution. He died of wounds received in a duel with General Mcintosh, May 27, 1777, in the 45th year of his age. II. HAARLEM or Haerlem, a large city of the Netherlands, on the river Spaaren, about three miles from the sea. It contains many fine pub- lic edifices, and some scientific institutions. It is a thriving place, and has 22,000 inhabitants. HABAKKUK, a Jewish prophet, who flour- ished about 600, B. C. HvEMUS, the ancient name of the range of mountains in Turkey, now called the Balkan. HA GAR, an Egyptian slave of Abraham, and the mother of Ishmael. (For her history, vide Genesis.') IIAIJNAUT, or Hainault, a province of the Netherlands, containing 574,800 inhabitants, and 1683 square miles. Its soil is fruitful, and its minerals valuable and abundant. HALE, Nathan, a Captain in the American revolutionary army, born in Coventry, Con- necticut, and graduated at Yale College in 1773. After the retreat from Long Island, he exam- ined the British camp in disguise, but was ap- prehended, tried, condemned, and executed with circumstances of peculiar barbarity. (For an account of his last moments, see article An- dre.) HALICARNASSUS, the capital of Caria, in Asia Minor, now called Bod run, or Budron. It was here that queen Artemisia erected the famous Mausoleum to the memory of her de- ceased husband Mausolus. HALIFAX, the capital city of Nova Scotia, on Chebucto Bay. Its fine harbor is one of the best in America. Population 16,000. It was first settled by an English colony, in 1749. HALL, Lyman, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Con- necticut, in 1731, and studied medicine. He removed, however, to Georgia, where he prac- tised his profession until the breaking out of the revolution induced him to devote his property and person to the service of his country, and, in 1775, he was chosen a delegate to the gen- ral Congress, then assembled in Philadelphia. In 1782, he was chosen governor of the State of Georgia, but died in retirement in the 60th year of his age. HALLE, a Prussian city, in the province of Saxony, on the right bank of the Saale, contain- ing 23,873 inhabitants. Its university ranks deservedly very high. It was the scene of an HAM 272 HAN obstinate conflict, on the 17th of October, 1806, three days after the battle of Jena. HALLOWELL, a post-town in Kennebec county, Maine, situated forty-five miles from the mouth of the river Kennebec, 54 miles N. N. E. of Portland. It is a flourishing place, and contained, in 1830, 3,960 inhabitants. HAMBURG, a free city of Germany, situ- ated on the Elbe, about 80 miles from its mouth, containing 122,000 inhabitants. It was founded in the reign of Charlemagne, and was originally a fort called Hammenburg. In 1618, it was admitted into the number of imperial towns, subject to the counts of Holstein. In 1768, however, the subjection was annulled, and Hamburg was confirmed into an independent city. In 1807, it was taken possession of by a large French garrison, and Bonaparte seized a part of its public funds. In 1810, it was incor- porated into the French empire ; and in 1813, a memorable but unsuccessful effort was made to shake off the French yoke. A contribution of $9,000,000 was then levied upon it, and the most positive orders were given to defend it, at whatever sacrifice, against the allies. This led to incalculable distress, to the destruction of the houses on the ramparts, to the seizure of con- siderable merchandise; and, finally, of the bank funds by Davoust. At last, the city was evac- uated in May, 1814, and part of the bank funds have been restored by the Bourbons. HAMILTON, Elizabeth, a lady of fine liter- ary talent, born at Belfast, in Ireland. July 25, 1758, died July 23, 1816. During a residence in Scotland, she acquired that knowledge of the national peculiarities of the Scotch, which she has so happily displayed in her Cottagers of Glenburnie. She published several other works, principally on the subject of education. HAMILTON, Alexander, was born in the island of Nevis, in 1757. At the age of sixteen, he entered Columbia college, New York, in which institution he greatly distinguished him- self. At the age of seventeen, he published political essays in favor of the colonial cause, so powerful and brilliant, that they were at first attributed to Mr. Jay, then in the prime of life. At nineteen, eager to peril his life in the cause of his beloved country, Hamilton entered the army ; he soon rose to the rank of captain of artillery, and Washington appointed him his aid-de-camp with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, when he was but twenty years of age. At the siege of Yorktown, he was in the hottest of the fire, and headed an assault which carried one of the enemies outworks. After the war, he commenced the study of the law in New York, and was speedily admitted to practice. In 1783, he was chosen member of Congress, and distinguished himself by his ability, unwearied industry, and patriotism. After having been chosen to a seat in the Legislature of New York, he became a member of the convention, which met at Philadelphia for the purpose of framing the federal constitution. The essays which he published under the title of the Federalist, con- tributed more than any thing else to render the constitution popular. As secretary of the trea- sury, to which office he was apoointed in 1789, he gained the reputation of on f the greatest financiers of the age In 179b, he retired into private life, but in V38, as inspector general, he organized the army intended to repel the threatened invasion of the French, and in 1799, on the death of Washington, he succeeded to the chief command. On June 11th, 1804, in consequence of a dis- pute between Colonel Burr and General Ham- ilton, the parties met at Hoboken, and Hamil- ton was killed by the first shot, standing on the fatal spot where his eldest son had recently been killed in a similar rencounter. HAMPDEN, or Hamden, John, a celebrated English patriot, was born in London, in 1594. He obtained a seat in the second parliament of Charles I, and in the year 1636, his resistance to the payment of the tax, called ship money, drew upon him the eyes of all men, and he be- came the champion of the disaffected. He was one of the first to take up arms against the king ; and it is not a little remarkable, that he fell in the very same field where he mustered the militia, near Brill, in Buckinghamshire, June 18, 1643. Lord Clarendon's character of him is that which Sallust gave of Catiline : " He had a head to contrive, a tongue to persuade, and a hand to execute any mischief." But this opi- nion is that of a firm supporter of legitimate abuses, for Hampden appeared to have been in- fluenced throughout his career by purely patri- otic principles. HANAU, a province of Hesse-Cassel, the capital of which, Hanau, on the Kinzig, con- tains 9,700 inhabitants. In 1792, Hanau was attacked, but not occupied, by the French, but, at the end of October. 1813, an Austrian and Bavarian corps opposed here the great army of the French, in their retreat from Leipsig : a sanguinary conflict took place in which the Bavarians were defeated, and the flying army effected its retreat. HANCOCK, John, was born at Quincy, in HAN 273 HAN Massachusetts. Having lost his parents early, he was sent to Harvard College, where he grad- uated in 1754, by his uncle, a rich and benevo- lent merchant, to whose wealth and business he succeeded in 1764. After the battle of Lex- ington, when pardon was offered to the rebels, in case of submission to the royal authority, Hancock and Adams were the only Americans excepted by Gage from the offer of mercy. After having been president of the provincial Congress of Massachusetts, Hancock was so-' to the general Congress at Philadelphia, in 1 / and filled the presidential chair of that be' until 1779, when sickness compelled him-, relinquish it. " « was annually chosen governor of Massachusetts, from 1780 till 1785. In 1787, he was re-elected, and fil^d the post until his death in 1793, at the age of 56 years. HANDEL or Haendel, George Frederic, a native of Saxony, born February 24, 1684. He early determined to cultivate his talents for music, and he produced his earliest operas at Hamburg. In 1710, he visited England, and his fame and fortune were there established. In 1741, he brought out his master-piece, the Oratorio of the Messiah. Towards the latter part of his life, he was affected with total blind- ness, and he died, April 6, 1759, leaving a for- tune of £20,000. His appetites were coarse, his person ungainly, and his temper violent, although an external roughness was compen- sated by a humane and generous heart. The following anecdote strikingly illustrates his manners, and his peculiar humor. Dr. Greene, a personal friend, as well as a warm admirer of Handel, brought to the great Ger- man an anthem of his own composition, request- ing the favor of his opinion and remarks upon it. Handel readily received the production, promised to examine it immediately, and invited the doctor to breakfast with him the next day. Dr. Greene accordingly waited on the illustri- ous musician. Handel, who had inspected the composition, received him with cordiality, gave him an elegant breakfast, treated him with every politeness, but constantly continued to evade his visiter's questions respecting his opin- ion of the anthem. Greene, at length, too im- patient to wait any longer for the great com- poser's decision on the merits of his piece, exclaimed vehemently, "My dearest friend, keep me no longer in suspense — tell^me, I pray you — tell me what do you think of my anthem ?" Handel, who had found it scientifically written, but very deficient in melody, answered, " Oh, it is ver fine, my dear doctor, ver fine indeed, 18 only it do vant air, and so I flung it out of de vindow." HANNIBAL, or Annibal, son of Hamilcar Barcas, born B. C. 247, was a celebrated Car- thaginian general. He was educated in his father's camp, and inured from his early years to the labors of the field, having passed into Spain when nine years old ; at the request of his father he took an oath of eternal enmity to ^e Romans. After his father's death, he had e command of the cavalry in Spain, and some time after, upon the death of Asdrubal, he was . invested with the command of all the armies of Carthage, though not yet in the twenty-fifth year of his age. In three years of continual success, he subdued all the nations of Spain, which opposed the Carthaginian power, and j. took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. This city was in alliance with Rome and its fall was the cause of the second Punic war, which Hannibal prepared to support with all the courage and prudence of a finished general. The army with which he entered Italy amount- ed, by the largest computation, to 100,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. With this overwhelming force he passed the Alps, conquered his oppo- nents, crossed the Appenines, invaded Etruria defeated Flaminius at the lake Thrasymene, and Caius Terentius and L. iEmilius in the fatal bat- tle of Cannae. Had Hannibal, immediately after this battle, marched his army to the gates of Rome, it must have yielded amidst the general consternation, but his delay continued so long that the Ro- mans recovered their hopes, and, when he finally approached the walls, he was informed that the piece of ground on which his army then stood, was being sold at a high price in the Roman forum. He then, after some time, retired to Capua, the luxuries of which enervated his troops, and unfitted them for action ; this gave rise to the saying that " Capua was a Cannae to Hannibal." Marcellus, who succeeded the cautious Fabius in the field, first taught the Romans that Hannibal was not invincible. Scipio having passed over into Africa, the Car- thaginians now recalled Hannibal to combat the adventurous Roman. After sixteen years of flattering triumph, the Carthaginian general left Italy, met Scipio at Zama, was defeated, and fled to Adrumetum. The Carthaginians procured peace on favorable terms, and Hanni- bal fled to Syria, but he was pursued from place to place by the animosity of the Romans, and at length killed himself at the court of Pru- sias, king of Bithynia, B. C. 183, aged 64 years. HAR 274 HAS HANNO, a Carthaginian general of high re- putation, who was conquered by Scipio in Spain. He is not to be confounded with the great nav- igator. HANOVER, a kingdom in the north of Ger- many, consisting of the duchy of Bremen, the duchy of Lunenburg, and several other princi- palities. It was erected into a kingdom in 1814. It contains 14,800 square miles, and 1,582,574 inhabitants. The Hartz mountains contain silver, iron, cop- per, lead, Independent. Subject of ' Foreign Powers. formerly the capital of Persia. At one time it is said to have contained 1,000,000 inhabitants; at present it has about 200,000. In 1387 the in- habitants were massacred when the place was taken by Timur Beg. It contains some hand- some buildings, but retains few vestiges of its former splendor. ITALY, since the downfall of Rome, has been divided into different states, and has lost that power which it formerly enjoyed. Its his- torical remains, its schools of art, its delicious climate, give it an undying interest. It now contains 21,400,000 inhabitants. The following are its political divisions : Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Kingdom of Sardinia, States of the Church, Grand-duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, with Massa and Canara, Duchy of Lucca, Principality of St. Marino, Principality of Monaco, Austrian Italy, (Venice, and Lom-" bardy), French Italy, (Corsica), Swiss Italy, (canton of Tessin, part i of the Grisons and Valais), English Italy, (group of Malta), J Italy has borne, at different periods, the dif- ferent names of Saturnia, iEnotria, Hesperia, Ausonia, Tyrrhenia. It has been called the garden of Europe ; and the panegyric which Pliny bestows upon it, does not seem in any degree exaggerated. The ancient inhabitants called themselves Aborigines, offspring of the soil, and the country was soon after peopled by colonies from Greece. Italy has been the mother of arts as well as of arms, and the im- mortal monuments which remain of the elo- quence and poetical genius of its inhabitants are universally known. The early part of the history of this country, is, however, involved in the greatest obscurity. The first light thrown on this land of darkness was by the settlement of Greek colonies in the south, where, eventu- ally, a large tract of country was called Magna Graecia. The annals of Rome are said to go back 750 years B. C. (See Rome.) Italy continued subject to one power for more than H00 years ; until the fifth century, when the Goths crossed the barriers of the Alps. To- wards the year 560 A. D. the Lombards entered the north of Italy, took Milan and Pavia, and founded a kingdom which continued during two centuries, until overthrown by Charle- magne. After his death Italy belonged to his succes- ITA 297 JAC sors on the imperial throne, but their tenure was precarious ; the great barons laboring to assert their independence, and the popes to ex- tend their temporal dominions. The subsequent history is little more than a succession of mili- tary struggles, of little interest, until 960, when Otho I repaired, in person, to the north of Italy, granted municipal rights to the cities, and im- proved the interior government in general. The whole was united to the German empire ; but from this compact fresh feuds and commo- tions followed ; the Italian nobility were jealous of their privileges ; conspiracies were formed, detected, and suppressed, and no constant alle- giance was exhibited to the German govern- ment, or the magistracy put into authority by it. A series of wars continued for several ages. In the 14th century, Italy was divided into the kingdom of Naples, the estates of the Church, Tuscany, Parma, and Lombardy, the Genoese and the Venetian territories, and other petty states. For two centuries the Venetians and Genoese were the most considerable commer- cial people in Europe, and Venice, in particu- lar, possessed large foreign colonies ; and, in 1194, took Constantinople and held in sove- reignty portions of what now constitutes Tur- key in Europe and Greece. The foundation of the temporal power of the popes was laid about 1080, by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, who bequeathed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory VII. After that time the popes successively made great acquisitions of territo- ry : but, in 1798, Rome was taken by Berthier, and Bonaparte annexed the papal dominions to France. They were, however, restored in 1814. (See articles, Genoa, Milan, Piedmont, Rome, &c.) SUCCESSION. A. D. Odoacer, Chief of the Heruli 476 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth 493 Athalaric 526 Theodatus 534 Vitiges 536 Araric 540 Totila 541 Teias, the last of the Goths 553 Narses, governor 554 Alboin, the Lombard 568 Cleophis 572 Interregnum of 12 years in which the Lom- ) ..574 bards were governed by dukes. j '" Antharis 586 Agilulf 590 Adelwald, with his mother Theodelinda 616 Arivald 69 f> Rotharis 638 Rodoald 65 4 Aribert I C5 3 Pertharithus ) g62 Gondibert j Grimoald 663 Ganbald 672 Pertharithus, restored 673 Cunihert, his sun 680 Cunibert, alone 691 Luipertus 701 Ragiinbertus 701 Aribert II 702 Alisprandus 712 Luitprandus 713 H ildebrand 742 Ratchis, duke of Friuli 744 Astulfua 750 Desiderius or Didier 756 In 774, Desiderius, the last of the Lombards, was taken prisoner by Charlemagne ; and the kingdom of Italy was united, first to France, and afterwards to the Empire, till 888, when it was separated from the latter, on the death of Charles the Fat. Guy and Berenger I 888 Lambert 896 Louis 899 Berenger 1 restored 904 Rodolpli, king of Burgundy 922 Hugh, king of Aries 926 Lothario 947 Berenger II 950 In 963, Berenger was deposed, by pope Leo VIII, and next year the emperor Otho I reduced Italy and reunited it to the empire ; to which it continued nominally to belong till 1805, when Bonaparte revived the ancient title of king of Italy. ITHACA, now Thiaki, an island in the gulf of Patras, belonging to the Ionian republic. Population 8000. It is celebrated as the resi- dence of Ulysses. IVICA, Iviza, or Ibiza (anciently Ebusus) a fertile and valuable island in the Mediterranean, belonging to Spain. It contains 190 square miles, and 21,094 inhabitants. It fell into the hands of the Spaniards in 1294, and submitted to Sir John Leake, with a British squadron, in 1706. It has generally followed the fortunes of the neighboring islands, Majorca and Minorca. JACKSON, James, an officer in our revolu- tionary army, was born in England, in 1757, and settled in Georgia in 1772. He was en- gaged in the attack on Savannah, when but nineteen years old, and a few years afterwards was chosen brigade-major of the Georgia militia. After the close of the war, throughout which he displayed great gallantry and prudence, he commenced the practice of law, and in 1783, became a member of the legislature. In 1788 he was chosen governor of Georgia, but de- JAM 298 JAM clined the honor, and was promoted to the rank of major-general of the militia of the state. He was afterwards chosen senator to Congress, and died in Washington, Jan. ID, 1606. JACOB, the son of Isaac, and the last of the patriarchs. For his history the reader is re- ferred to the Scriptures. JAFFA, anciently Joppa, a town of Syria, in the Pachalic of Damascus, 12 leagues N. W. of Jerusalem. Population 3,650. It was taken by Bonaparte in 1799. JAMAICA, one of the West India islands belonging to Great Britain. It is about 150 miles long, and -10 broad ; and lies 30 leagues west of Hay ti. It is less fertile than some other of the West India islands, but is a rich and val- uable country. It is subject to earthquakes. Sugar, rum, molasses, indigo, cofFee, cotton, cocoa, pimento, and ginger are the most valua- ble articles of export. The present population is about 414,000 of whom 30,000 are free people of color, and 37,000 whites. The island was discovered by Columbus, May 3,1494. In 1655 it was taken from the Spanish by the English under the command of Bonn and Venables. In 1795 a war commenced between the maroons, the runaways of the Spanish settlers, and the white inhabitants, when the barbarous expedi- ent of using bloodhounds being resorted to, for the purpose of tracing the haunts of the negroes, they were at last compelled to surrender at dis- cretion to their enemies the whites. JAMES I, king of Scotland, was born in 1394. At the age of eleven years, he was sent to France, that he might escape the danger to which he was exposed by the ambition of his uncle, the duke of Albany ; but, falling into the hands of the English, he and his retinue were confined in the tower, where, however, the young prince received an excellent education. His talents were of a high order. Our distin- guished countryman, Washington Irving, has given an interesting account of him in one of the papers of the Sketch Book, which we must be permitted to condense and copy below : " 1 visited the ancient keep of the castle, where James the First of Scotland, the pride and theme of Scottish poets and historians, was for many years of his youth detained a prisoner of state. It is a large gray tower, that has stood the brunt of ages, and is still in good preserva- tion. It stands on a mound which elevates it above other parts of the castle, and a great flight of 6teps into the interior. In the armory, which is a Gothic hall, furnished with weapons of va- rious kinds and ages, I was shown a coat of armor hanging against the wall, which I was told had once belonged to James. From hence I was conducted up a staircase to a suite of apartments of faded magnificence, hung with storied tapestry, which formed his prison, and the scene of that passionate and fanciful amour, which has woven into the web of his story the magical hues of poetry and fiction. " The whole history of this amiable but un- fortunate prince is highly romantic. The in telligence of his capture, coming in the train of many sorrows and disasters, proved fatal to his unhappj' father. " The news, we are told, was brought to him while at supper, and did so overwhelm him with grief, that he was almost ready to give up the ghost into the hands of the servants that attended him. But being carried into his bed- chamber, he abstained from all food, and in three days died of hunger and grief at Bothesay. " James was detained in captivity above eigh- teen years ; but, though deprived of personal liberty, he was treated with the respect due to his rank. He was well learnt, we are told, to fight with the sword, to joust, to tournay, to wrestle, to sing and dance, he was an expert mediciner, right crafty in playing both of lute and harp, and sundry other instruments of mu- sic, and was expert in grammar, oratory, and poetry." In prison he wrote the king's Quhair (Book.) " The subject of the poem is his love for the lady Jane Beaufort, daughter of the Earl of Somerset, and a princess of the blood royal of England, of whom he became enamored in the course of his captivity." " His passion for the lady Jane, as it was the solace of his captivity, so it facilitated his release, it being imagined by the Court, that a connection with the blood royal of England would attach him to its own interests. He was ultimately restored to his liberty and crown, having previously espoused the Lady Jane, who accompanied him to Scot- land, and made him a most tender and devoted wife. " He found his kingdom in great confusion, the feudal chieftains having taken advantage of the troubles and irregularities of a long inter- regnum, to strengthen themselves in their pos- sessions, and place themselves above the power of the laws. James sought to found the basis of his power in the affections of his people. He attached the lower orders to him by the re- formation of abuses, the temperate and equable administration of justice, the encouragement of the arts of peace, and the promotion of every JAM 299 JAM thing that could diffuse comfort, competency, and innocent enjoyment, through the humblest ranks of society. He mingled occasionally among the common people in disguise ; visited their firesides ; entered into their cares, their pursuits, and their amusements, informed him- self of the mechanical arts, and how they could best be patronized and improved ; and was thus an all-pervading spirit, watching with a benevo- lent eye over the meanest of his subjects. Hav- ing in this generous manner made himself strong in the hearts of the common people, he turned himself to curb the power of the factious nobility ; to strip them of those dangerous im- munities which they had usurped ; to punish such as had been guilty of flagrant offences; and to bring the whole into proper obedience to the crown. For some time they bore this with ontward submission, but with secret impatience and brooding resentment. A conspiracy was at length formed against his life, at the head of which was his own uncle, Robert Stewart, Earl of Athol, who being too old himself for the per- petration of the deed of blood, instigated his grandson. Sir Robert Stewart, together with Sir Robert Graham, and others of less note, to com- mit the deed. They broke into his bed-cham- ber at the Dominican convent near Perth, where he was residing, and barbarously murdered him by oft-repeated wounds. His faithful queen, rushing to throw her tender body between him and the sword, was twice wounded in the inef- fectual attempts to shield him from the assas- sin ; and it was not until she had been forcibly torn from his person, that the murder was ac- complished." ' This tragedy was acted Feb. 20, 1437. When the footsteps of the ruthless assassins were heard approaching the door of the royal apartment, Catharine Douglas, one of the queen's ladies, secured it for a moment, by thrusting her arm through the staple, and sustaining, with unwa- vering fortitude, the shocks of the assailants, till her arm was broken, and the door forced. The sentiments with which Mr. Irving con- cludes his sketch of James, are best conveyed in his own beautiful language. " Others may dwell on the illustrious deeds of James as a warrior and a legislator ; but I have delighted to view him merely as the companion of his fellow men, the benefactor of the human race, stooping from his high estate to sow the sweet flowers of poetry and song in the paths of com- mon life. He was the first to cultivate the vigor- ous and hardy plant of Scottish genius, which has since been so prolific of the most wholesome and highly flavored fruit. He carried with him into the sterner regions of the north, all the fer- tilizing arts of southern refinement. He did every thing in his power to win his country- men to the gay, the elegant, and gentle arts, which soften and refine the character of a peo- ple, and wreathe a grace round the loftiness of a proud and warlike spirit. He wrote many poems, which, unfortunately for the fulness of his fame, are now lost to the world; one which is still preserved, called " Christ's Kirk of the Green," shows how diligently he had made himself acquainted with the rustic sports and pastimes, which constitute such a source of kind and social feeling among the Scottish peasantry ; and with what simple and happy humor he could enter into their enjoyments. He contributed greatly to improve the national music; and traces of his tender sentiment, and elegant taste, are said to exist in those witching airs, still piped among the wild mountains and lonely glens of Scotland. He has thus con- nected his image with whatever is most gracious and endearing in the national character ; he has embalmed his memory in song, and floated his name down to after ages in the rich stream of Scottish melody. The recollection of these things was kindling at my heart, as I paced the silent scene of his imprisonment. I have visited Vancluse with as much enthusiasm as a pil- grim would visit the shrine at Loretto ; but I have never felt more poetical devotion than when contemplating the old tower and the little garden at Windsor, and musing over the ro- mantic loves of the lady Jane, and the Royal Poet of Scotland." JAMES VI, king of Scotland, and I of Eng- land, was the son of the unfortunate Mary, by her cousin Lord Darnley, and was born at Ed- inburgh, in June, 1556. He had Buchanan for his instructer, who, when accused of hav- ing made his pupil a pedant, replied, "that he could make nothing else of him." In 1589, he married Anne, daughter of Frederick, king of Denmark, whom he brought from Copen- hagen. In 1G00, while hunting, an attempt, was made to seize his person by the earl of Gowrie, who, with his brother, was slain, while the king escaped unhurt. In 1603, he succeed- ed to the English throne ; and, the year follow- ing, the Hampton court conference, between the divines of the established church and the Puritans, was held in his presence. The next year the gunpowder plot was discovered. The condemnation and death of Raleigh was the greatest blot on the character and reign of James, JAN 300 JAY who also lessened his popularity by undertak- ing the defence of the Protestants of Germany, and then abandoning their cause. He died in March, 1625. JAMES II, king of England, succeeded his brother Charles II, in 1(385. A conspiracy set on foot by the duke of Monmouth, was the first disturbance in his reign. Monmouth had ever been the darling of the people, and some averred that Charles had married his mother, and owned his legitimacy on his death-bed. The duke of Argy le in the north, seconded his views, and, with Monmouth, planned a double insur- rection, but both were defeated and executed. James suspended the exercise of the protestant religion, acknowledged the supremacy of the pope, and allowed the Jesuits to establish them- selves in the kingdom. The indignation of the people was now roused, and they hailed with joy the arrival of the prince of Orange, before whom James fled. He was hospitably received by the king of France, who aided him in his subsequent unsuccessful attempts to regain his throne. James died at St. Germain in France, 1701. JAMESTOWN, Virginia, situated on an isl- and in James river, 32 miles above its mouth. It was the first English settlement in Virginia, and was established in 1608. It is now nearly deserted. JANIZARIES ; these formidable foot soldiers, at first the guards of the Ottoman monarchs, and for a long time the arbiters of their fate, were finally broken up in 1826, the date of their last rebellion. They were established by Amurath I, and originally consisted of the fin- est looking Christian slaves, educated in the Mohammedan religion and arms. When first formed, this new militia was consecrated in the presence of the sultan, by a dervish, who stand- ing in the front of their ranks, stretched the sleeve of his gown over the head of the foremost soldier, and delivered his blessing in these words — " Let them be called Janizaries (yingi cheri, or new soldiers) ; may their countenances be ever bright; their hand victorious; their swords keen; may their spear always hang over the heads of their enemies ; and, wheresoever they go, may they return with a white face.' Ji'Tiite and black face are common and proverbial ex- pressions of praise and reproach in the Turkish language. JANUS, a deity believed by the Romans to have the double office of opening and shutting the gate of heaven. He was represented with two faces, his temple at Rome was built in the form of a square, and was opened in time of war, and shut in time of peace. JAPAN ; an empire to the east of China, composed of a great number of islands. The principal are Niphon, Kiusin or Ximo, and Xicoco, or Sicof. The Japanese have nominal- ly two emperors, one is the Dairi, the supreme pontiff, and oracle of religion, and the other the Cubo, a secular emperor, who is invested with absolute authority. His residence is at Jeddo, a large city, the capital of the empire, in the island of Niphon. The Japanese are enterpris- ing, hardy, and warlike, but treacherous and proud. Their religion is idolatrous. Francis Xavier established a catholic congregation here, which was destroyed by the Dutch, in 1037. The soil is fertile and the productions various. The silks, cottons, porcelain, lackered wares, &c. are in high repute. The population of Japan is about 225 millions. JASON, son of iEson, king of Solchos, in Thessaly, famous for his share in the Argo- nautic expedition. JAVA; a large island in the eastern seas, 642 miles long, and 128 broad. In 1815 the population amounted to 5,000,000. Java was discovered by the Portuguese in 1510. But the Dutch obtained their possessions, and the island was divided between them, and the native prin- ces. It is exceedingly fertile, producing rice, cotton, coffee, pepper, sugar, drugs of all kinds, and various fruits. The coffee of this island is renowned. There are also mines of gold, rubies, diamonds, and emeralds. Batavia is a strongly fortified city, the. centre of the Dutch East In- dia Company, and the residence of a governor. In 1811 the island was taken by the British, but it was restored by the treaty of Paris in 1814. The natives are much oppressed, and have sev- eral times revolted. JAY, John, an American statesman and jurist, was born in the city of New York, Dec. 1, 1745, O. S., and was educated at King's (now Colum- bia) college. In 1768, he was admitted to prac- tice law, and in 1774 was chosen a delegate to the first provincial congress which met at Phil- adelphia, Two years afterwards he was chosen president of congress. In 1778 he was chosen chief justice of New York, the constitution of which he had been instrumental in framing. The next year he was sent on a mission to Spain, to procure aid and a recognition of our in- dependence. In 1782 he was one of the commis- sioners appointed to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain. On his return, Mr. Jay was placed at the head of the department for foreign JEF 301 JER affairs, in which office he continued until ap- pointed Chief Justice of the United States. In 1784 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Great Britain, and on his return entered on the duties of office of governor of the state of New York, to which he had been elected during his absence. He died May 17, 1829. JEFFERSON, Thomas, the third president of the United States of America, was born at Shadwell, Virginia, April 2, 1743, O. S. He spent two years at William and Mary's college, and then commenced the study of the law, which he was admitted to practice in 1767. In 1769 he took his seat in the general assembly of Virginia, which the governor of Virginia dis- solved. He was then elected to fill the place of Peyton Randolph in the congress, and assumed his seat in that body, June 21, 1775. He was one of the committee appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence, and that docu- ment, with a few alterations, is his own compo- sition. June 1, 1779, Mr. Jefferson was chosen governor of Virginia, but, after two years, he resigned, being of opinion that a military man would be better suited for the emergencies of the times. On July 5, 1784, Mr. Jefferson sailed for Paris, having been appointed by con- gress a third commissioner to negotiate treaties of commerce with other nations, Mr. Adams and Dr. Franklin being the other t>vo. He was actively engaged until 1789 when he returned to the United States and was appointed Secre- tary of State. Dec. 1st, 1790, he resigned this office, and lived in retirement until 1797, when he was chosen Vice President of the United States. In 1801 he was chosen president by a majority of one, Mr. Adams being his competi- tor. He filled the office of chief magistrate for eight years, when he retired to his seat at Mon- ticello, where he died on the 4th of July, 1826, the same day on which Mr. Adams expired. He made himself known as an author in 1781 , by his Notes on Virginia. In private life he was hospitable, and pleasing in his manners; in public, the unyielding, sagacious and tal- ented leader of the demorcratic party. A monu- ment of his enterprise and benevolence remains in the college established at Charlottesville, in which he filled the office of rector for some years. JEFFREYS, George, baron Wem, was born at Acton in Denbighshire. He was not regu- larly admitted to the bar, but being at Kings- ton assizes in the year of the plague, 1666, when there were scarcely any barrister's pres- ent, he was permitted to plead, and from that time continued to do so, without having his title questioned. In 1683 he was made chief justice of the King's Bench. At the accession of James II he was created baron Jeffreys of Wem, in the county of Salop ; and, on the sup- pression of the duke of Monmouth's rebellion, he was sent to try the prisoners in the west, where he committed the most shocking cruel- ties, for which, at his return, he was constituted lord chancellor of England. When the prince of Orange arrived, Jeffreys, knowing his unpop- ularity, endeavoured to escape in the disguise of a seaman, but was detected in Wapping, car- ried before the council, by the mob, and com- mitted to the Tower, where he died April 18, 1689. JENA, a town of Saxe-Weimar, in Thurin- gia, containing 5,000 inhabitants, memorable for the battle between the French and Prus- sians, on the 14th of October, 1806. The em- peor Napoleon headed the French troops, and prince Hohenlohe the Prussians. The battle was sanguinary in the extreme ; 250,000 or 300,000 men, of which the two armies were composed, with 700 or 800 pieces of artillery , scattered death in every direction, and exhibited one of the most awful scenes recorded in his- tory. The result was decisive in favor of the French. The Prussians lost, according to the bulletins of the French, 20,000 killed and wounded, and from 30,000 to 40,000 prisoners, with 300 pieces of cannon, 60 standards, and immense magazines of warlike stores and pro- visions. JEROME of Prague, a Bohemian reformer, was the scholar of Wickliffe, and John Huss, and began to publish their doctrines. In 1415, he was examined before the council of Con- stance, when John Huss was in prison. He contrived, however, to escape, but was taken, delivered into the hands of a magistrate, and burned, May 30, 1416. JERUSALEM, or HIEROSLYMA, (in He- brew, Salem, in Turkish, Solyman) a celebrated city of Palestine, subject to the pacha of Damas- cus. Its environs are barren and mountainous ; and the town irregularly built. The number of inhabitants is 25,000, 1300 being Mohamme- dans, and 4000 Jews. There are 61 Christian convents in the city. The church of the Holy Sepulchre has been an object of veneration and curiosity for 18 centuries. The temple of the Mohammedans is a splendid edifice. Melchise- dek is called the founder and king of Jerusa- lem. It was a long time in the hands of the Jeb- usites from whom king David took it. Solomon built the temple at Jerusalem. After his death JER 302 JES Sesostris, king of Egypt, took the city, and plundered it, during Rehoboam's reign. In short, it was five times taken. Its most mem- orable siege was that by Titus, B. C. 70, when the city and the temple were entirely destroyed, and 110,000 persons are said to have perished, and 97,000 to have been made prisoners, and afterwards either sold as slaves, or wantonly exposed, for the sport of their cruel victors, to the fury of wild beasts. Millman, the historian of the Jews, thus eloquently describes the de- struction of the temple. " It was an appalling spectacle to the Roman, what was it to the Jew ? The whole summit of the hill which command- ed the city blazed like a volcano. One after another the buildings fell in, with a tremen- dous crash, and were swallowed up in the fiery abyss. The roofs of cedar v/ere like sheets of flame ; the gilded pinnacles shone like spikes of red light ; the gate towers sent up tall columns of flame and smoke. The neighbouring hills were lighted up ; and dark groups of people were seen watching in horrible anxiety the pro- gress of the destruction : the walls and heights of the upper city were crowded with faces, some pale with the agony of despair, others scowling unavailing vengeance. The shouts of the Roman soldiery, as they ran to and fro, and the howlings of the insurgents who were perishing in the flames, mingling with the roar- ing of the conflagration, and the thundering sound of falling timbers. The echoes of the mountains replied, or brought back the shrieks of the people on the heights : all along the walls resounded screams and wailings ; men who were expiring with famine, rallied their remaining strength to utter a cry of anguish and desolation. " The slaughter within was even more dread- ful than the spectacle from without. Men and women, old and young, insurgents and priests, those who fought and those who entreated mercy were hewn down in indiscriminate car- nage. The numbers of the slain exceeded that of the slayers. The legionaries had to clamber over heaps of dead, to carry on the work of extermination. John, at the head of some of his troops, cut his way through, first into the outer court of the temple, afterwards into the upper city. Some of the priests upon the roof wrenched off" the gilded spikes with their sockets of lead, and used them as missiles against the Romans below. Afterwards they fled to a part of the wall, about fourteen feet wide : they were soon summoned to surrender; but two of them, Mair, son of Relgo, and Jo- seph, son of Delia, plunged headlong into the flames !" In the 7th and 8th centuries, the crusaders contended fiercely for the possession of Jeru- salem, and it was taken by Godfrey of Bou- illon. The Christians founded a kingdom there which was ended by the Turks in 1187. JESUITS, The ; the religious order of the Jesuits was founded by a military gentleman of Biscay named Ignatius Loyola. The order was sometimes called Loyolists, and sometimes Ini- ghists, from the founder's Spanish name, Inigo de Cyuipuscoa. Ignatius assembled at Rome ten of his companions, chosen, for the most part, from the University of Paris, in the year 1538. He submitted the plan of his institution, which he said was inspired by divinity, to Pope Paul A committee appointed by that pontiff" to ex- amine the character of the institution, declared it inimical to the interests of the church, as well as unnecessary. The opposition to the establish- ment of the order was overcome by the Loyo- lites agreeing in addition to the three vows of poverty, celibacy, and monastic obedience, to take an oath of submission to the pope, agree- ing to go whithersoever he should direct, and to claim nothing for their support from the holy see. In the very charter, however, by which the followers of Ignatius bound themselves to the interests of the pope, they agreed blindly to obey their general. The pope finally confirmed the institution by a bull or decree, in the year 1540. The founder of the order of Jesuits being originally an uneducated soldier, it is supposed that he was a mere tool in the hands of artful men, and that he was not in reality the author of the writings which bear his name. The order was confirmed under the title of the " Company of Jesus." At first the number of members was limited to sixty, but this restriction was removed, and the Jesuits multiplied rapidly. In the year 1710, the order had 24 professed houses; 59 houses of probation ; 340 residences ; 012 col- leges; 200 missions ; 150 seminaries and board- ing schools; and consisted of 19,998 Jesuits. The code of laws by which the Jesuits were governed was perfected by Layner and Aqua- viva, who succeeded Loyo'la as generals of the order, and were possessed of far more talent than their predecessor. Many causes contributed to ensure the suc- cess of the institution. The Jesuits were re- quired to be more active than other monks, hav- JES 303 JES ing little to do with the usual monastic func- tions. They were soldiers devoted to the ser- vice of God and the pope. They cultivated the acquaintance of the great, and were deeply imbued with the spirit of intrigue. Loyola made the government of the institution purely monarchical. The general was chosen for life by deputies from the different provinces. His power was absolute, and no case and no indi- vidual were exempt from it. The general had a despotic power over the members of the institu- tion ; a much greater power than the head of any monastic order had ever before exercised. The Jesuits were obliged to obey their general, not only in outward observances, but to him they submitted the direction of their minds. Every novice was obliged, every six months, to manifest his conscience to his superior or to some one appointed by him ; and these novices were closely watched by others of the order, who were directed to give notice to the general of any thing important. The heads of the several houses were obliged to transmit frequent reports of the character and conduct of the departments over which they presided, to the superior, and these reports were carefully kept and arranged, that the general might refer at once to the account of particular houses at any period. The provincials and heads of departments of the order transmitted full and minute accounts of the civil state of the respective countries in which they resided. The number of reports annually received was 6584, or 177 reports to each province of which there were 37. The education of youth was an object which the Jesuits were particularly anxious to promote and direct, and the business of education was soon almost entirely conduct- ed by them. In spite of their vow of poverty, they contrived to amass vast possessions, and in the East and West Indies carried on a very lu- crative commerce. They were the confessors to monarchs and men of rank, and the influence they acquired was very great. They sought to acquire and enlarge property, and in South America, being possessed of wealthy dominions, they ruled over some hundred thousand subjects, as monarchs. They favored the passions of mankind by sanc- tioning unbridled license of manners, by the moral code they taught. Regular and severe in their own habits, they were enabled to make a selfish use of the irregularities they counte- nanced. The principal end aimed at by the Jesuits, was the establishment of the doctrines of the Romish Church, and they are said to have shrunk from no crime which could further their endeavors. They were not unacquainted with the persuasive power of the tortures of the in- quisition, in making proselytes. One of their most noted missionaries was Francis Xavier, called the " apostle of India." He sailed for the Portuguese settlements in India, in 1542, and soon spread the doctrines of the Romish church over the continent and surrounding isl- ands. It is not our intention to detail the proceed- ing of the Jesuits in the process of making for- eign proselytes, nor the controversies to which it gave rise. They were accused of making compromises with some sects, permitting them to retain profane customs and improper rites, in consideration of their publicly embracing the doctrines of the Romish church. Asweliave before hinted, it is quite as probable that as many converts were made by terror as by mild- ness, since the Jesuits were willing to do any- thing to maintain a show of success. They took possession of the fertile province of Paraguay, in the 17th century, and labored to disseminate military arts and improvements among the Indians. They introduced the com- forts of civilization among the inhabitants, and thus in the first place gained their affection and esteem. Proceeding in this manner, they grad- ually strengthened their influence, so that a few priests readily ruled some hundred thousand Indians. But these priests did not maintain the purity of conduct, which they had given reason at first to suppose would be their constant guide in all their actions. They soon manifested schemes of the most daring ambition and insatiable ava- rice. They yearly sent home to the European Jesuits, immense quantities of gold, which they procured principally from Paraguay. They armed the Indians, and excited them to hatred against the Spaniards and Portuguese, evident- ly showing their intentions of making a separate sovereignty of Paraguay. In 1750, the courts of Madrid and Lisbon entered into a treaty for fixing the boundaries of their respective possessions, in South Amer- ica. When this treaty came to be executed in the year 1752, the Jesuits opposed it, and an- imated the Indians strenuously to resist the Portuguese and Spaniards, in the war which followed. The disgrace of the Jesuits at the Portuguese Courts originated in their conduct on this occasion. The Jesuits had no particular habit. They JES 304 JES were divided into five classes ; professed fa- thers, spiritual coadjutors, approved scholars, lay brothers, also termed temporal coadjutors, .and novices. Some writers add a sixth class, called adjuncts, which are said to have been numer- ous, distinguished by different garments, and incorporated with the other classes. The pro- fessed fathers publicly took the three vows of their order, and the fourth regarding obedience to the pope, missions, &c. The spiritual coadjutors made public vows of poverty, submission and celibacy, but omitted the vow of obedience to the head of the church. Approved scholars were those who after a novi- ciate of two years, were admitted, and had declared the three religious vows, but had not made them solemnly and publicly. These ap- proved scholars were on their way to become spiritual coadjutors, but were only admitted to that degree, and the degree of professed fathers, after two years' noviciate, seven years' study, seven years' regency, an additional year of no- viciate, and thirty-three years of age, at which time of life our Savior was crucified. The vows were binding on the part of the scholars, but the general could dispense with them if he saw proper. The order was divided into assistances, the assistances into provinces, and the provinces again into houses. The general resided at Rome, was invested with absolute authority for life, and had under him five assistants, named from the kingdom or country to which they belonged. These were the assistants of Italy, France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. These assistants put their departments in the way of preparing and forwarding their affairs. Each province had four sorts of houses : The professed houses, which had no lands connected with them ; colleges, where instruction was given in the sciences; residences, where people em- ployed in any thing connected with confessions, preaching, or missions, resided, and the houses of the novices. Some of the buildings appro- priated to instruction were called seminaries, in which young Jesuits went through a course of theology and philosophy. Each province was governed by a provincial, and each house by a superior, who was called Rector in the col- leges, but superior elsewhere. Members of this order could receive no pre- ferment, except it was enjoined upon them by the pope, who did so in many instances, eight cardinals having been chosen from the Jesuits. When Henry IV, of France, was assassinated by Jean Catel, a Jesuitical scholar, this act and the writings of Guignard, one of the order, in favor of regicide, caused them to be expelled by several parliaments, and denounced as cor- ruptees of youth and enemies of government. Louis XIII again countenanced them, and Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIV showed them favor. In the reign of the latter monarch, they obtained the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in favor of the Protestants. They gained an almost complete triumph over their enemies, the Jansenists, when among other things, their refusal to administer the sacra- ment to the Jansenists, created a turn of the tide against them, which ended in their dissolu- tion. The Jesuits were tried before the grand chamber of the parliament of Paris, and lost their case, which grew out of a desire to com- pound their debts, when, having carried on great commerce in Martinico, they had sus- tained heavy losses by war. An examination into their own books, only proved the charges against them. Professing poverty, they were found to possess riches ; pretending to modera- tion and justice, they were convicted of incul- cating principles which endangered the well being of the king and realm. The Jesuits were expelled from Portugal in 1759; from France in 17(34; and their society was abolished by pope Clement XIV, in 1773. Had they adhered to the principles they pro- fessed, in the outset, and merely aimed at civil- izing and converting savages, and increasing knowledge at home, the institution would have been as justly celebrated, as it is now de- nounced for ambition, avarice, cruelty, and corruption. JESUS, called also CHRIST (the anointed), was born of the Virgin Mary, at Bethlehem, in the 12th year of the consulate of Augustus, four or five years before the commencement of the vulgar era. Angels had announced his birth as tidings of great joy to mankind. He was circumcised upon the 8th day. Three Magi, learned in the science of astronomy, having perceived in the firmament a singular star, knew that it was the miraculous luminary of which the prophet Balaam had spoken, and immediately left the east, and journeyed to Bethlehem to do him homage, and present their offerings. Joseph, the husband of Mary, having received divine warnings and directions in a dream, carried the infant and his mother into Egypt, to escape the fury of Herod, who ordered an inhuman massacre of all the child- ren in the land. After the death of Herod, the JOA 305 JOH parents of Jesus dwelt at Nazareth, and they brought him, every year, to Jerusalem, to the feast of the Passover. When he was but twelve years old, Joseph and Mary found him, after an absence from them of three days, in the Temple, seated in the midst of the doctors, listening to them, and propounding questions. All who heard him were filled with admiration at the wisdom of his answers. Jesus commenced his public life in the thir- tieth year of his age. For the various acts of it the reader is referred to the New Testament. The close of his life affectingly displayed the love of God for men. On the eve of his death, after having supped with his disciples, he insti- tuted the Eucharist, and, having been betrayed by Judas, whose designs he had explained to one of his disciples, he suffered himself to be taken and bound, condemned to death before the Jewish tribunal, scourged and crowned with thorns, and crucified upon Mount Calvary. The body of our Lord was placed in a sepulchre of stone, sealed and guarded by the Jews, but on the third day, according to prediction, his resur- rection from the grave took place. He dwelt upon the earth forty days, which he passed in the company of his disciples, teaching them how to spread the light of his pure religion through the nations of the earth. On the forti- eth day he ascended to heaven in the presence of more than five hundred of his disciples, where he is seated at the right hand of the Father. JEWS (See Hebreios). JOAN OF ARC, (Jeanne d'Jlrc), called the Maid of Orleans, was born of low parentage at Domremig, a village on the borders of Lor- raine. When the affairs of France were in a deplorable state, and the city of Orleans was so closely besieged by the duke of Bedford that its fall appeared inevitable, Joan pretended to have received a divine commission to expel the invaders. At this time, a belief in the super- natural endowments was by no means uncom- mon, and, far from being confined to the lower classes, pervaded the minds of the loftiest and most pretending. Joan, on being introduced to king Charles VII, offered to raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct her prince to Rheims, there to be crowned with the usual solemnities ; at the same time demanding for herself a con- secrated sword, which had long hung suspended in the church of St. Catharine. Her request was granted, and she fulfilled her promises, entered Orleans in triumph, and appeared, clad in a splendid suit of armor, at the coronation of v 20 Charles, which took place in the Cathedral of Rheims. The gallant maid, her mission done, now sought to retire into private life, but she was urged to stay. She yielded to the general wish with fatal facility — fatal, because, having been taken with the garrison of Compeigne, she was, to the disgrace of Bedford and the English, condemned to death, and expired at the stake, in the market place of Rouen, May 30, 1431. She was never a servant, as English writers have represented ; and was a lovely crirl of eighteen, when she first sought an audi- ence of Charles. An authentic portrait, yet extant, shows that she possessed a face and figure of exquisite loveliness; a countenance to which a beaming eye, and a tender expression of melancholy, imparted an interest, which rendered her fascination irresistible. JOHN I, king of England, the youngest son of Henry II, by Eleanor of Guienne, ascended the throne in 1199. The first act of his reign was to secure the provinces on the continent, which had revolted in favor of young Arthur, his nephew, whom he murdered with his own hand in prison. John having resisted the pope's nomination of Stephen Langton to the see of Canterbury, the pope revenged himself by giv- ing away his kingdom to the king of France. This circumstance created a war, and John advanced to Dover with GO ,000 men, to meet the French king, who was preparing an army to take possession of England. In this posture of affairs, the pope, whose high authority in temporal as well as spiritual concerns, was con- sidered to be then almost omnipotent, intimated to John, by his legate, that there was but one way to secure himself from the threatened dan- ger • which was, to put himself entirely under the papal protection, and to perform whatever the pope should command. Accordingly, John took the most extraordinary oath recorded in history, in the presence of his subjects, upon his knees, and with his hands held up, between those of the legate. By this most scandalous concession, John once more averted the threat- ened blow : but he had now incurred the detes- tation of his subjects. The barons of England formed a confederacy ajrainst him, and compelled him, on the Uth of June, 1215, to sign that famous bulwark of English liberty , the Magna Charta. John, how- ever, refused to be governed by this charter. This produced a second civil war, in which the barons had recourse to the king of France for assistance. John directed his rout toward Lin- colnshire with an army, but being obliged to JOH 306 JOS keep too close to the sea-shore, and not being apprised of the influx of the tide at a particular place, he lost all his carriages, treasure, and baggage. Grief for the loss he had sustained, threw him into a fever, of which he died, at Newark, in the 51st year of his age, and the 18th of his detested reign, A. D. 1216. JOHN, Sobieski, or John III, king of Poland, was born in 1629, and distinguishea himself in arms, particularly by his brilliant victory over the Turks at Choczim, and by his repulse of the same enemies when they threatened Vienna in 1683. He died in 1696. JOHNSON, Samuel, L. L. D., one of the most eminent literary men of the 18th century, was born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, in 1709, and was the son of a bookseller. He entered Pembroke college at the age of nineteen, and passed three years there without taking a de- gree. For some years after leaving college, he was unsettled in his views, which, however, chiefly turned to literature. In 1735, he mar- ried Mrs. Porter, a mercer's widow of twice his own age, probably for her fortune of £800, although he describes the affair as a " love match on both sides." In 1737, he came to London in company with David Garrick, who had been one of his pupils, to seek his fortune. Here he supported himself by his pen, his first publication in London being a poem in imita- tion of one of Juvenal's satires. He was for many years a contributor to the Gentlemans' Magazine. In 1747, he issued his plans for an English Dictionary, a work which, when pub- lished, fully equalled the high expectations which had been formed of it. His periodical papers, the Rambler, and Idler, displayed in a favorable light, the talents of the author. The moderate success of the tragedy of Irene con- vinced Dr. Johnson that he was incapable of producing dramas which would reflect honor on his pen. His fine romance of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, was written in the even- ings of one week to defray his mother's funeral expenses. In 1762, he received a government pension of £300 per annum. He published some political pamphlets, which, however, do not display very great argumentative powers. His last undertaking, the Lives of the Poet3, was completed in 1781. He died December 13th, 1784, and was interred in Westminster Abbey, where a statue is erected to his memory. His biography, by his friend Boswell, is one of the most amusing works of the kind ever writ- ten, and still continues to enjoy high popu- larity. JONES, John Paul, was the son of a gar- dner, and was born in Scotland, July 6th, 1747. His father's name was Paul, and that of Jones was added by his son for some unknown rea- son. Jones, at the age of twelve, engaged in the merchant-service, but on the break- ing out of the American war, having been for some time a resident here, he offered his ser- vices to the colonies, and was appointed first lieutenant of the Alfred. He contributed more than any one else, to inspire confidence in our infant navy, and extend the terror of our arms. His capture of the British ship of war Serapis, in a bloody engagement off Flambourgh-head, September 23, 1779, filled the world with admi- ration at his bravery. The Bonne Homme Richard, Jones's vessel, sank soon after the en- gagement. When his services were no longer required by this country, he entered the service of Russia, but retired in disgust, and died at Paris in poverty, July 18, 1792. JOSEPH II, emperor of Germany. (See Austria.) JOSEPHINE, (Rose Tascher de la Pagcrie), was born in Martinique, June 24, 1763, and married at an early age to viscount Beauhar- nais, who was executed in the reign of terror. Josephine married Bonaparte in 1796. She lived to see Napoleon raised to the zenith of his power, and then hurled from the summit he had gained. But at that hour of affliction the affectionate Josephine had no longer a right to be near the man she adored, for he had divorced her to marry Maria Theresa, from motives of policy. Josephine had been crowned at Paris, and Milan, and retired to her beautiful seat of Malmaison with the title of empress-queen- dowager. She was called the Star of Napoleon, and his better destiny forsook him when he' cast off his amiable and lovely wife. She died May 29th, 1814, her last words being, Uile de Elbe — Napoleon! The poor mourned in her a faithful friend, the artists of the capital a kind and munificent patron, and the lovers of Napo- leon the peerless woman who had graced his throne in the brightest moments of his career. Truly did the emperor say ; " If I win battles, Josephine wins heart." JOSEPHUS, Flavius, a Jewish historian, born A. D. 37. He signalized himself by sup- porting a siege of 47 days against Vespasian and Titus in a town of Judea. The city was finally taken by treachery, and 40,000 of the inhabitants were slain, the number of captives being only 1200. Josephus saved his life by flying into a cave, and finally surrendered to JUL 307 JUP Vespasian, who gave him his liberty, and treat- ed hiin with great favor. Josephus was present at the siege of Jerusalem. He died A. D. 93, in the 5Gth year of his age. JUBA, the second of that name, was the son of Juba I, king of Numidia, and was among the captives led to Rome to grace the triumph of the victorious Caesar. He gained the hearts of the Romans by the courteousness of his man- ners, and Augustus rewarded his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony, and conferring upon him the title of king, and making him master of all the ter- ritories which his father once possessed. His popularity was so great that the Athenians rais- ed a statue to him, and the Ethiopians worship- ped him as a divinity. JUDjEA. (See Palestine.) JUGGERNAUT, or Jaganath (lord of the world), a celebrated temple in Hindostan, on the coast of Orissa. The idol is a shapeless block of wood, with a hideous black face, and cjimson jaws yawning open. This is the repre- sentative of Vishnu, the preserver of the world. On days of festival, the idol is placed on a tower, 60 feet high, moving on wheels, beneath which the blinded Hindoos throw themselves on the ground and are crushed by the progress of the car. JUGURTHA, son of Mastanabal murdered Hiempsal,the son of his uncle Micipsa, and ex- iled Adherbal, the brother of Hiempsal, to seat himself on the throne of Numidia. Adherbal supplicated the aid of the Romans, but the gold of Jugurtha procured a decision in his favor. Adherbal, who surrendered to the usurper, was inhumanly murdered, and the Roman people breathing vengeance against the murderer, the senate were constrained to declare war upon him. The Jugurthine war required an im- mense expenditure of blood and treasure, but Jugurtha was finally defeated by Marius, and starved to death in a Roman prison. Numidia then became a Roman province. JULIAN, the Apostate, (Flavius Claudianus) son of Julius Constans, the brother of Con- stantine the Great, was born at Constantinople. The massacre which attended the elevation of Constans, son of Constantine the Great to the throne, nearly proved fatal to Julian and his brother Gallus. The two brothers were private- ly educated together, and taught the doctrines of the Christian religion. Gallus received the instructions of his teachers with deference and submission, but Julian showed his dislike for Christianity by secretly cherishing a desire to become one of the votaries of Paganism. He was appointed to rule over Gaul, with the title of Caesar, by Constans, and there he showed himself worthy of the imperial dignity by his prudence, valor, and the numerous victories he obtained over the enemies of Rome in Gaul and Germany. His mildness, as well as his condescension, gained him the hearts of his soldiers ; and when Constans, to whom Julian became an object of suspicion, ordered him to send part of his forces to the east, the army im- mediately mutinied, and promised eternal fidel- ity to their leader, refusing to obey the order of Constans. They even compelled Julian, by threats and entreaties, to accept the title of em- peror, and the death of Constans, which soon after happened, left him sole master of the Ro- man empire, A. D. 361. His immediate disavowal of the doctrines of Christianity procured Julian the title of the Apostate. His change of religious opinion was attributed to the austerity with which he had been taught the doctrines of Christianity, or, according to others, to the literary conversation and persuasive eloquence of some of the Athe- nian philosophers. After he had made his pub- lic entry into Constantinople, he determined to continue the Persian war, and check those bar- barians, who had for sixty years derided the indolence of the Roman emperors. Having crossed the Tigris, he burned his fleet and bold- ly advanced into the enemy's country. He de- feated the Persian forces, but died of a wound received in battle, A. D. 365, aged 33 years. JUNIUS. The signature under which some powerful letters were published in Woodfall's Public Advertiser, in London, between the years 1769 and 1772. They were chiefly poli- tical. After the greatest scrutiny, the real au- thor has not been positively ascertained. JUPITER, the son of Rhea and Saturn, was concealed from his father, who devoured his offspring, and brought up in Crete, where he was nursed by the nymph Amalthea. He forc- ed Saturn to surrender to him the empire of the world, which he shared among his brothers, giving the ocean to Neptune, and hell to Pluto, remaining himself master of the heavens; he was called the father of gods and men. The giants, descended from his uncle Titan, made war upon him, but were defeated. He gave Juno, his wife and sister, ample cause for jeal- ousy, and from the multiplicity of his intrigues, was almost literally the father of his people. He is generally represented with thunderbolts in his hand, the eagle at his side, his flowing KAT 308 KIN hair encircled with a diadem. His figure was majestic, and a long beard added to the impos- ing aspect of his lofty countenance. Bulls, in preference to other animals, were sacrificed to him. JUSTINIAN I, surnamed the Great, empe- ror of the east, celebrated as a lawgiver, was born in 483, of an obscure family. He shared the fortune of his uncle, Justin I, who, from a lowly station, was raised to the throne. Jus- tinian flattered the people and the Senate, and, in 527, on the death of his uncle, was proclaim- ed emperor. He gained great victories, and enacted admirable laws, but he loaded his sub- jects with taxes, and was severe to strangers, while the crimes of his own servants went un- punished. He died in 565, in the 83d year of his age, after a reign of 38 years. JUTLAND, a province of Denmark, contain- ing 9,500 square miles and 440,000 inhabitants. Its pastures and woodlands are valuable, and its iron mines are a source of revenue. JUVENAL, Decius Junius, flourished at Rome in the latter half of the first century. He was sent to Egypt by Domitian, who dread- ed his satire, but returned under Trajan, in the 82d year of his age. His sixteen satires are powerful and caustic. JUXON, William, an English prelate, was born at Chichester, in 1582. In 1635 he was advanced to the post of lord high treasurer, which no churchman had held since the reign of Henry VII. This office he resigned in 1641, when it was admitted by all parties, that he had conducted himself without reproach. After at- tending his royal master, Charles I, during his imprisonment in the Isle of Wight, and on the scaffold, he went into retirement; but, at the Restoration, he was made archbishop of Can- terbury, and had the satisfaction of placing the crown on the head of Charles the Second. He died June 4, 1663. K. KALB, Baron de, born in Germany about 1717, was a major-general in the American army. Previous to serving in the war of our revolution, he had been engaged in the ser- vice of France 42 years. He was brave and benevolent. He was killed at Camden, Aug. 15 1778 KATSBACH, a river of Silesia, near which a battle was fought, Aug. 26, 1813, between the Prussians under Blucher, and French under Macdonald. KEHL, a small town of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, which has been seve- ral times taken by the French and Austrians. KEITH, James, field-marshal in the Russian service, was born in Scotland, in 1696. In 1715, he joined the pretender, and was wounded at the battle of Sheriff-muir, but made his escape to France. From Paris he went to Spain, and obtained a command in the Irish brigade ; but, on accompanying the Spanish embassy to Rus- sia, he entered into the service of that state, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-gen- eral, and invested with the order of the Black Eagle. By his skill Oczagon was taken ; and, in the war with Sweden, he materially contri- buted to the victory of Wilmanstrand, and the taking of Aland. He had, afterwads, a share in raising the empress Elizabeth to the throne; but, not being rewarded according to his ser- vices, he left Petersburg for Prussia, where the king made him governor of Berlin, and field- marshal. He was killed at the battle of Hoch- kirchen, Oct. 14, 1758. KENILWORTH, a town of Warwickshire, England, five miles north of Warwick. Pop- ulation 3,097. Its castle was founded by Geof- frey de Clinton, Chamberlain and treasurer to king Henry I. Most of the buildings, of which the remains are still visible, were raised by John of Gaunt, who had acquired the castle by mar- riage. Through his son, Henry IV, the castle again reverted to the crown, and continued so, until Queen Elizabeth conferred it on Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. This nobleman spent immense sums in enlarging and adorning the building, and when all was finished, he enter- tained the queen here for fourteen days in a style of extraordinary magnificence. KENTUCKY, one of the United States of America, bounded N. by Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, from which it is separated by the river Ohio, E. by Virginia, S. by Virginia and Ten- nesse,andW. by the river Mississippi. Popu- lation, in 1830, 687,917, of whom 4,916 were free colored persons, and 165,213 slaves. The first permanent settlement was made by Dan- iel Boone, in 1775. In 1792 Kentucky was ad- mitted into the Union as an independent state. The eastern parts of this state are mountain- ous, but the remainder partly level, and partly undulating. A large portion of the soil is ad- mirable. Education is by no means neglected, and Transylvania University, at Lexington, is a flourishing and well-endowed institution, with which a medical and law school are connected. KING, Rufus, a distinguished American KNO 309 KOR diplomatist, orator, and statesman, born at Scar- borough, Maine, in 1755, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1777, after which he studi- ed law under Theophilus Parsons of Newbury- port. After having served a short time in the army, he commenced the practice of his pro- fession and obtained a seat in the congress of 1784. In 1787 he went from Massachusetts to the convention assembled for the purpose of framing a constitution, and in 1788 removed to New York city. The next year he was elected a member of the New York legislature, and chosen senator of the United States. In the spring of 1796, Mr. King was appointed by Pres- ident Washington, Minister Plenipotentiary to the court of St. James, and continued in the discharge of the duties of his office until 1803, when he returned to this country. He was de- feated as a candidate for the office of governor of New York, but he had been nominated by his friends without his knowledge, and his con- sent to stand was given with reluctance. He died April 29, 1827, in the 73d year of his age. KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated French general, born at Strasburg. in 1754. In the Aus- trian army he served against the Turks, and rose to the rank of lieutenant. He next en- rolled himself under the banners of the French republic, and although he openly expressed his detestation of the policy of the revolutionary government, he experienced the favor of the Directory, who were loath to part with so able a soldier. Of the nature of his command in Egypt, and the manner of his death, June 14, 1800, we have already spoken (see Egypt.) KNIGHTHOOD. The consideration of this subject properly belongs to Chivalry, and, as such, has been noticed in the earlier part of this volume by a few brief remarks. (See Chivalry.) There were various orders of knights, as Tem- plars &c. See Templars. KNOX, John, the celebrated Scotch reformer, was born in 1505, at Gifford, in the county of East Lothian. He became tutor to some young gentlemen whom he carefully brought up in Protestant principles. Notwithstanding his life was sought by Cardinal Beaton, and his suc- cessor, Archbishop Hamilton, Knox went on propagating the new doctrines ; and, in 1547, preached publicly at St. Andrews; but that place being taken the same year by the French, he was carried off with the garrison. In 1549 he recovered his liberty , and landed in England ; where he was appointed chaplain to Edward VI. On the accession of queen Mary, he went to Geneva, and thence to Frankfort, where he took part with the English exiles who opposed the use of the liturgy ; but their adversaries prevailing, Knox returned to Geneva, and soon after went to Scotland. While engaged in the ministry, he received an invitation to return to Geneva, with which he complied ; and, in his absence, the bishops passed sentence of death on hiin for heresy. In 1558, he printed " The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Mon- strous Regimen of Women," intended as an attack upon Mary, queen of England, and his own sovereign ; but it had afterwards the effect of provoking queen Elizabeth and her minis- ters against the author. The year following he returned to his own country, where he render- ed the Reformation triumphant. In 1567 he preached the sermon at the coronation of James VI, and another at the opening of the parlia- ment, but he died at Leith, Nov. 24, 1572. KNOX, Henry, a major-general in the Unit- ed States army, was born at Boston, July 25, 1750. He was a bookseller before the revolu- tion, but volunteered and served at Bunker Hill. Throughout the war he distinguished himself by his bravery, but particularly at York- town, after which he was created major-gen- eral by Congress. As secretary of war, he serv- ed 11 years. His death took place Oct. 25, 1806, at Thomaston, Maine. KORAN, or AL KORAN, a book contain- ing the precepts of the Mohammedan religion, a paper copy of which, bound in silk and gems, was said to have been brought down to the lowest heaven by the angel Gabriel. KORNER, Theodore, a celebrated German poet, born in 1791. Feeble and sickly during his early youth, he roamed the garden and for- est in pursuit of health, and was not premature- ly doomed to study. His earliest instructions were received at Freyburg, but he afterwards went to Leipzig, which his imprudent conduct compelled him to quit. The month of August, 1811, the date of Korner's arrival at Vienna, commenced the most important era of his life. Shielded by the purity of his principles, and the strength of his religious convictions, he was uninfluenced by the fascinating allurements of that gayest and most light-hearted of cities, nor did he for a moment forget that the improve- ment of his literary taste, and the developement of his moral character, was a primary object in his visit of Vienna. The brilliant talents which then encircled the Viennese theatres with a halo of brightness, fired the imagination of Korner, and he resolved to appear publicly as a candi- KOR 310 KOS date for the dramatic laurel. Sixteen pieces, of different kinds, composed or finished in the space of fifteen months, and the greater part performed with a success which far exceeded the expectations of the- youthful poet, were, to- gether with a few fugitive poems, the first fruits of his residence in a world which was completely literary, as well as the earliest proofs of his tal- ent for easy versification. On the first repre- sentation of one of his tragedies, the audience demanded the appearance of the author, an honor to poetic talent which is rarely accorded in Vienna. Cherished and admired by the pub- lic, he was soon made the dramatic poet of the court. This appointment secured his worldly fortune, and, as if to fill his cup of happiness to the brim, he was inspired by an ardent pas- sion for a worthy object, and no dark shadow fell upon the tide of his affections. Such was the enviable situation of Korner, when, at the commencement of the year 1813, Prussia called upon her sons, to win back for her the priceless guerdon of her national inde- pendence. This appeal found an echo in the bosom of the poet. From this moment, all his thoughts, all his affections, turned on the lib- eration of his country, to whose service he de- voted his person and his pen, and to whom he was ready to sacrifice his life, his fortune, and his prospect of glory and love. As soon as he had resolved to fight for the emancipation of Germany, warmed with that enthusiasm which has ever been repaid with victory, he wrote thus to his father: " The Prussian eagle, ex- tending his pinions, awakes in every bosom, a hope of national liberty — at this moment, when the stars of fate are pouring down on me a flood of brightness, when all the fascinating joys of life are within my reach, at this mo- ment, I swear to God that it is a noble senti- ment which animates me, a firm belief, that no sacrifice is too great, for the greatest of bles- sings, the liberty of our beloved country. I feel compelled to rush into the fury of the tempest. Shall I, far from the path of my victorious brethren, send them hymns and songs inspired by a safe and cowardly enthusiasm ? He set out from Vienna on the 15th of March, and at Breslau was admitted into the corps of volunteers commanded by Lutzow, whose care had formed the band that bore his name. Youth distinguished by the high tone of their senti- ments, and the finish of their education, officers, already known by honorable services, men of high rank and reputation, filled with a patriotic and religious enthusiasm, had assembled in crowds beneath the banners of Lutzow, burning to avenge the wrongs of oppressed liberty. A few days after the admission of Korner, the ceremony of the consecration of Lutzow's corps took place in the village church. This was an affecting and inspiring scene. Ardent, brave, and devoted to his military duties, Korner avoided no fatigues and perils, but, on the contrary, was only wearied with in- action. He rose, by degrees, to the post of ad- jutant to Lutzow, and owed this advancement only to the intrepidity and intelligence which he displayed on every occasion. Still poetry and song occupied his leisure moments; but instead of being his recreations, they had be- come his arms ; his lyre was no less formidable than his sword. The events of the daj, his per- sonal emotions, and the patriotism of his coun- try are displayed in his verses. On the 26th of August, the corps of Lutzow confronted the French at Kitzen. During an hour's halt in a forest, Korner composed his famous Sword Song. At break of day he wrote it in his port-folio, and was reading it to a friend, when the signal for attack was given. The enemy, although superior in point of numbers, made but a brief resistance — Korner showed himself fiercely eager in the pursuit. Of a shower of balls which the French artille- rists poured upon the Prussians, but three took effect, and one of these carried to the bosom of the poet, at the age of 22, that glorious death which he had so poetically prophecied, and so religiously desired. His mortal remains were interred by the wayside, at the foot of an oak the tree, whose leaves were employed by the ancient Romans, to form their civic crowns. KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, was born of a respectable family of Lithuania, in 1756, and was educated at the military school of Warsaw, after which he went to France, and next to America, where he served as aid-de- camp to Washington. On his return home he was made major-general, and distinguished himself greatly in the war of 1792, but without effect. Two years afterwards the Poles again took up arms, and were headed by Kosciusko ; but all his exertions were fruitless, and he was made prisoner by the Russians, Catharine threw him into a dungeon, but Paul released him and tendered him his own sword, which the illus- trious patriot declined ; "I no longer need a sword, for I have no longer a country." Kor ciusko visited America a second time, but, i 1798, returned to France, where he settled. Bonaparte vainly endeavored to procure his ser- LAF 311 LAO vices. His death was occasioned by a fall with his horse down a precipice, in the vicinity of Vevay, Switzerland, Oct. 16, 1817. KOULI-KHAN, (See JVadir-Shah.) L. LABRADOR ; a country of North America of great extent, between the 50th and 60th de- grees of N. latitude. It is but little known, and the climate is uncommonly severe. The Esquimaux inhabit its coasts. It belongs to great Britain and is annexed to the government of Newfoundland. LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mottier, formerly marquis de, was born at Chavagnac, near Brion de, in Auvergne, Sept. 6, 1757. He was edu- cated at Paris, appointed an officer in the guards of honor, and, at the age of 16, married the grandaughter of the duke de Noilles. In 1777 he left France secretly, and hastened to Ameri- ca, arriving at Charleston, S. C. at the age of 19. He received a command in the continental army, and raised and equipped a body of men at his own expense. The gallant actions which he performed will for ever live in the annals of our country. In 1779 he returned to France, for the purpose of assisting the cause of Ameri- ca, and materially influenced the treaty which was then concluded with France. He returned and assumed the command of a body of 2000 men whose equipments were furnished partly at his own expense. Congress passed various resolutions, honorable to him, and, after dis- playing a chivalric gallantry at Yorktown, the young marquis once more set sail for his native country. In 1734, he complied with the vari- ous urgent entreaties to visit this country, and was every where received with the most touch- ing marks of gratitude and esteem. During the French revolution he appeared the warm and consistent friend of liberty, but the enemy of licentiousness, and, as commander-in-chief of the national guards of Paris, saved the lives of the royal family at Versailles. He organized the club of Feuillans in opposition to the infa- mous Jacobin club, the members of which he openly denounced. He was appointed, in 1792, one of the major-generals of the French armies, and vainly endeavored to save the king. His exertions in the cause of humanity, procured his denunciation before the bar of the assembly, i price was set upon his head, and he was com- pelled to fly from France. But he was taken by the Austrians, and confined in the castle of Olmutz, until Aug. 25, 1797, when he was re- leased. La Fayette opposed the usurpations of Napoleon, whose conciliatory offers he refused without a single exception. In Aug. 1824, La- fayette landed at New York, and~passed tri- umphantly through each of the states, received every where with every demonstration of de- light. The war-worn veterans of the revolu- tion hailed his return to the scenes of his earli- est exploits, and there was not one dissentient voice, in the acclamations which welcomed him. Sep. 7, 1825, the frigate Brandywine restored him to his country. In the December follow- ing Congress granted him $200,000, and a township of land. During the late French re- volution, Lafayette was appointed general-in- chief of the national guards, an office which he resigned in December. The death of this great man, which took place recently at Paris, was duly noticed both in France and this country, A political opponent once out of the arena, was to Lafayette, no longer any thing but a friend ; the circle of those admitted to share his private hospitality was so ample, that it comprised the partisans of nearly every doctrine, and almost the natives of every clime ; but no feeling was ever wounded, nor even a prejudice assailed within its sacred limits. It was, doubtless, to this admirable feature in his private character that he owed much of the affectionate esteem with which every party regarded him, and which turned Paris — frivolous, volatile Paris — into a city of mourning at his death. He died May 21, 1834, at the age of 77, of a malignant fever, occasioned by walking, bareheaded, and on foot, at the funeral of M. Dulong, a member of the chamber of deputies. LANGDON, John, an American patriot, born at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739, was bred up to the business of a merchant, but early en- tered into the military service of the colonies. In 1775 he took his seat in the general congress, in 1776, was appointed navy-agent; in 1777, was speaker of the assembly of New Hampshire, and in 1785 president of the Senate. He was afterwards a senator in Congress, and governor of New Hampshire. He died, Sept. 18, 1819. LANNES, John, marshal of France, duke of Montebello, was born in 1769, and in 1792 en- tered the army as sergeant-major. In Italy, Egypt, and Austria, he raised himself in the estimation of Napoleon, and was created by him marshal of the empire. At the battle of Esslingen, May 22, 1809, he lost both his legs by a cannon-ball and expired a few days after. LAOCOON, a priest of Neptune at Troy, who, with his two sons, was destroyed by two LAT 312 LAU enormous serpents, sent by Minerva to punish him for his impiety. There is an antique group of statuary extant representing this event. LAPUROUSE, John Francis Galaup de, a French navigator, born in Languedoc, in 1741, who, after making a successful voyage of dis- covery, was probably wrecked at Mallicolo, 11° 4' S. latitude, 169° 20' E. longitude. LAPLAND, is bounded N. by the Arctic ocean, E. by the White Sea, S. by Sweden, and W.by Norway, and the Atlantic. It is divided into Russian, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian Lapland. The country is generally broken and mountainous, and the climate intensely cold. The villages are small and scattered, and the country is thinly inhabited. The Laplanders are illiterate and unrefined, but attached to their country, hardy, and persevering. Their aver- age height is four feet. The rein-deer supplies them with food and clothing, and transports their light sledges at a rapid rate. LATIMER, Hugh, was born at Thurcaston, in Leicestershire about 1470, and was the son of a respectable yeoman. Being an admired preacher, his influence was of great importance, and in consequence he soon became obnoxious to the papal party. The martyrdom of Bilney, at Norwich, served only to animate Latimer, who had the courage to write a letter of remon- strance to the king, on the evil of prohibiting the use of the Bible in England. Henry (the Eighth) took this in good part, and presented the writer to the living of West Kington, in Wiltshire, but this only redoubled the malice of_his enemies, who were still more provoked at his elevation, in 1535, to the bishopric of Wor- cester, for which he was indebted to the good offices of Anne Bullen and Thomas Cromwell. Of his plain dealing, the following circumstance is a proof. It was then the custom for the bish- ops to make presents, on new year's day, to the king, and among the rest, Latimer waited at court with his gift, which, instead of a purse of gold, was a New Testament, having the leaf turned down at a passage denouncing the ruling passion of the king. Henry, however, was not offended by this bluntness; and when, some time afterwards, Latimer was called before him to account for a sermon which he had preached at court, he justified it so honestly, that the monarch dismissed him with a smile. But, after the fall of Cromwell, his adversa- ries prevailed, and he was sent to the Tower for speaking against some measures of the king ; and there he remained for the rest of Henry's reign. On the accession of Edward, he was re- leased ; but though he was now in favor at court, no arguments could induce him to resume the episcopal function. He resided with Cranmer at Lambeth ; and when Mary ascended the throne, " Father Latimer," as he was generally called, was cited to appear before the privy- council, by whom he was sent to the Tower. On passing through Smithfield, he said, "this place has long groaned for me;" but he was not sacrificed there ; the triumphant party or- dering him to be conveyed to Oxford, with his friends, Ridley and Cranmer. There, after a mock conference and degradation, Latimer and Ridley were brought to the stake, Oct. 16, 1555. On coming to the spot, Latimer said to his com- panion, " Be of good cheer, brother ; we shall this day kindle such a torch in England as. I trust, shall never be extinguished." LATINUS, a son of Fannus, by Marcia, and king of the Aborigines in Italy, who were called from him Latini. He married Amata, by whom he had a son and a daughter. The son died in his infancy, and the daughter, Lavinia, was se- cretly promised in marriage by her mother, to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, one of her most powerful admirers. The gods opp6sed this union, and the oracle declared that Lavinia must become the wife of a foreign prince. The arrival of iEneas in Italy seemed favorable to this prediction, and Latinus, by offering his daughter to the foreign prince, and making him his friend and ally, seemed to have fulfilled the commands of the oracle. Turnus, however, disapproving of the conduct of Latinus, claimed Lavinia as his lawful wife, and prepared to sup- port his cause by arms. JEneas took up arms in his own defence, and Latium was the seat of the war. After mutual losses, it was agreed that the quarrel should be decided by the two rivals, and Latinus promised his daughter to the conqueror. ./Eneas obtained the victory, and married Lavinia. Latinus soon after died, and was succeeded by his son-in-law. LAURENS, Henry, was born at Charleston, S. C, in 1724. He was a merchant and amassed an ample fortune by his industry. He was in London at the breaking out of the revolutionary troubles; but returned to America in 1774, and was chosen president of the council of safety. In 1776 he took his seat in congress, of which body he was president, and continued in office until 1778. In 1779 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary of the United States to Holland , but on his way was captured by the British,, and confined 14 months in the tower. He died Dec. 2, 1792, nearly 70 years of age. LAW- SIS LEE LAURENS, John, lieutenant colonel, son of the preceding, was educated in England, and joined the American army in 1777. In 1780 he was sent as a special minister to France, and by his boldness in presenting to the king a memo- rial at the levee, received a definitive answer to his application for a loan which was satisfacto- rily arranged. His first essay in arms was at Brandy wine. At the battle of Germantown, he exhibited prodigies of valor, in attempting to expel the enemy from Chew's house, and was severely wounded. He was engaged at Mon- mouth, and greatly increased his reputation at Rhode Island. At Coosahatchie, defending the pass with a handful of men, against the whole force of Provost, he was again wounded, and was probably indebted for his life to the gal- lantry of captain Wigg, who gave him his horse to carry him from the field, when incapable of moving, his own having been shot under him. He headed the light infantry, and was among the first to mount the British lines at Savannah ; displayed the greatest activity and courage dur- ing the siege of Charleston ; entered, with the forlorn hope, the British redoubt carried by storm at Yorktown, and received with his own hand, the sword of the commander ; by inde- fatigable activity, thwarted every effort of the British garrison in Charleston, confining them, for upwards of 12 months, to the narrow limits of the city and neck, except when, under pro- tection of their shipping, they indulged in dis- tant predatory expeditions ; and, unhappily, at the very close of the w?% too careless by ex- posing himself in atriflhk skirmish, near Com- babee, sealed his devoticu to his country by death. LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, count de, was born in Paris, in 1760, of obscure parents ; notwithstanding which he received a good edu- cation, became the aid-de-camp of Bonaparte, and was entrusted with several important offi- ces, besides being made a peer of France. In 1815, on the restoration of the Bourbons, he was tried, and condemned to death as an accomplice of Napoleon, but, the day before the execution, his heroic wife, who was permitted to visit him, changed clothes with him in prison, and the count passed the guard unnoticed, and entered the sedan-chair with hrs daughter. He found means to escape to Munich, but the govern- ment had the inhumanity to detain the count- ess in prison, which harshness deprived her of reason. Her husband was pardoned, and re- turned to France in 1821. LAWRENCE, James, a distinguished naval commander, was born in New Jersey, in 1781. In 1798 he entered the navy as a midshipman, and, for his services in the Tripolitan war, was made first lieutenant. Feb. 24, 1813, Law- rence, in command of the Hornet, took the British brig of war Peacock, after an action of 15 minutes. June 1, 1813, he sailed out of Bos- ton harbor, in command of the frigate Chesa- peake, to accept the challenge of captain Brooke of the Shannon. The result might have been easily foretold. The Chesapeake was an infe- rior vessel, and her crew shipped upon the spur of the moment, while the Shannon was a fine vessel, well manned, with a crew in perfect training. Lawrence was mortally wounded, but survived the action four days. His last words, before he was carried below, were, "Don't give up the ship!" The flag of the Chesapeake was not hauled down until almost all her officers were killed or wounded. LEDYARD, John, a celebrated American traveller, born at Groton, Connecticut, in 1751. At the age of 19 he entered Dartmouth college, for the purpose of acquiring the information necessary for his becoming a missionary among the Indians. He acquired knowledge with great facility, but so ardent a desire did he have for travel , that he soon escaped from college , shipped as a sailor, went to Gibraltar, enlisted there, produced his discharge, and returned home in one year. He crossed the Atlantic again, work- ing his passage to Plymouth, and thence beg- ging his way to London, where he became ac- quainted with captain Cook, whom he accom- panied in his last voyage. In 1782 he returned to Connecticut. Having formed a plan of making the tour of the globe on foot, departing from London to the eastward, he went as far as Irkutsk, where he was arrested, by an order from the empress, as a French spy, and con- ducted to the borders of Poland, where he was liberated, with an intimation that his presence in the dominions of the czarina was so little de- sirable, that a repetition of his visit would pro- duce a warrant for his execution. He reached London, after an absence of 15 months, in a destitute condition, at the age of 37 ; he imme- diately accepted a proposal to travel into the interior of Africa, on behalf of the African As- sociation, but he was taken ill at Cairo, and died, November, 1788. LEE, Charles, a major-general in our revo- lutionary army, was a native of North Wales, and became an officer at the age of eleven. After distinguishing himself at Ticonderoga, and under Burgoyne in Portugal, he entered the LEE 314 LEP Polish service. In 1773 he arrived at New York, and in J775 received a commission from congress. He was taken prisoner, and re- mained some time in the hands of the British but was released Oct. 17, 1777. At the battle of Monmouth he permitted his command to re- treat ; and was reproached by Washington, to whom he used disrespectful language, was tried by a court-martial, and sentenced to a year's suspension, Aug. 12, 1778. He died Oct. 2, 1782. He was an able officer, but proud, and ambitious. LEE, Richard Henry, a signer of the De- claration of Independence, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Va., Jan. 20, 1732, but received his education in England. He return- ed to America in his l'Jth year. In the house of burgesses, he displayed his talents and patri- otism, and, in 1765, assisted Patrick Henry's resolutions against the Stamp Act, with great zeal. In 1774 he attended the first general con- gress which assembled at Philadelphia, as one of the Virginia delegation. His services were various, and his labor incessant. June 7, 1776, he moved, " that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegi- ance to the British crown ; and that all politi- cal connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." In 1784 he was chosen president of congress, and died, July 19, 1794. LEE, Arthur, was born in Virginia, Dec. 20, 1740. He was educated in England, at Eton, and took the degree of M. D. at Edinburgh. In 1770 he commenced Ihe practice of medicine in Virginia. He was afterwards a secret agent of our government at Londpn and Paris, and, on the return of doctor Franklin to America, be- came the sole agent of Massachusetts. In 1777 he was appointed by Congress commissioner to Spain, and he was subsequently employed in Prussia. He returned to America in 1780, and the next year he was chosen to the assembly, from which he went to congress. He was called to the board of treasury, of which he con- tinued to be a member from 1784 to 1789. He died at his farm Dec. 12, 1792. LEE, Henry, general, was born in Virginia, Jan. 29, 1756, and was graduated at Princeton college in his 18th year. In 1776, he obtained the command of a troop of the Virginia light horse, and, in 1777 joined the main army, un- der Washington. His conduct throughout the whole revolutionary struggle merits the highest praise. Ever in the front of danger, he per- formed several daring feats which have been rarely equaled. After the termination of the war, he was alternately a member of Congress, and of the assembly of his state, of which he was governor for three successive years. He died in 1818. LEIPSIC, or properly Leipzig, a large city, founded in the 10th century, and now contain- ing 41,000 inhabitants. It is famous for its affairs, being the centre of the German book- trade, and is also distinguished by its university. Here was fought an important battle between the allies and the French, October 18th, 1813. The whole loss of the French has been estima- ted at 60,000, that of the allies at 45,000 in killed and wounded. LENTULUS, a celebrated family at Rome, which produced many great men in the com- monwealth. Publius Lentulus Sura joined Cat- iline's conspiracy, was convicted, imprisoned, and afterwards executed. LEO X, (Giovanni de' Medici), a pope, was born at Florence in 1475, being the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici. At the age of 13 he was made a cardinal. He succeeded Julius II in 1513, and assumed the name of Leo. He was a patron of literature, and particularly en- couraged the study of the Greek language. After opposing the king of France, he made peace with him, and, in 1515, concluded a con- cordate on the abolition of the Pragmatic sanc- tion. He died in 1521. LEOBEN, a town in the Austrian duchy of Styria, where the convention was concluded between the French and Austrians, on the 20th of April, 1797, which terminated in the peace of Campo Formio. LEON, anciently, the kingdom of Leon, one of the great divisions of Spain, is famous for its fertility, and contains 1,215,551 inhabitants. LEONIDAS, a celebrated king of Sparta, sent by his countrymen to oppose Xerxes. When the Persian monarch demanded his arms, Leonidas answered ; " Come and take them ! " With his three hundred Spartans, and a few auxiliaries, he defended the pass of Thermo- pylae against the whole Persian army. He died surrounded by heaps of slain enemies. LEPANTO, or Ainabachti, a 6eaport in Tur- key, on the gulf of Corinth, now the gulf of Lepanto, or gulf of Patras, with 2000 inhabi- tants. In 1475, the Venetians defended it against the Turks during a siege of 4 months. The famous sea fight of Lepanto. between the Turks and Spaniards, in which Cervantes lost his hand, was fought Oct. 7, 1571. The Turks, LEV 315 LIG being at anchor in the gulf, and hearing that, the Christians were bearing down upon them from Corfu, reinforced their fleet which con- sisted of 250 gallies, 70 frigates and brigantines. The Christian fleet consisted of 210 galleys, 28 transports, and 6 galeapes, furnished with heavy artillery, commanded by John of Austria, including the Spanish squadron furnished by Philip II ; the Venetian, with the flower of the nobility of Venice, and the pope's galleys. The Ottoman fleet alone was stronger than the three Christian squadrons. The two forces engaged with all the ancient and modern weapons of attack and defence, viz. arrows, javelins, grap- pling-irons, cannon, muskets, pikes, and swords. They fought hand to hand, as most of the gal- leys grappled together. Don John of Austria and Veniero,the Venetian commander, attacked the Ottoman admiral Ali, and having taken him and his galley, immediately struck off" his head, and placed it on the top of his own flag. The Turks lost upwards of 150 vessels. Their loss in killed was about 15,000, and 5,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty. The Christians are said to have lost about 5,000 men. The battle lasted from six in the morning till evening, when the approaching darkness, and the rough- ness of the sea, compelled the victors to put into the nearest haven, whence they despatched couriers to all Christian courts, with the news of the triumph. LEPIDUS, Marcus iEmilius, celebrated as being one of the triumvirs with Augustus and Antony. He was sent against Brutus and Cas- sius, and some time after, leagued with Mark Antony, who had gained the hearts of his sol- diers by artifice, and their commander by his address. He received Africa as his portion in the division of the empire ; but his indolence soon rendered him despicable in the eyes of his soldiers and of his colleagues, and Augustus, who was well acquainted with the unpopularity of Lepidus, went to his camp, and obliged him to resign the power to which he was entitled as triumvir. After this degrading event, he sunk into obscurity, and retired, by order of Augus- tus to Cerceii, a small town on the coast of La- tium, where he ended his days, B. C. 13, for- gotten as soon as he had fallen. LEUCTRA, a village of Baeotia, famous for the victory which Epaminondas, the Theban general, here obtained over the superior force of Celeombrotus, king of Sparta, B. C. 371. From that time the Spartans lost the ascenden- cy, which they had for sometime held in Greece. LEVEN, Loch, a lake of Scotland, 12 miles in circumference, in Kinrosshire. The castle of Loch Leven, was granted by Robert III to Douglas, and was formerly a very strong place, capable of accommodating a numerous garrison. It was in this castle that queen Mary was con- fined after she had been separated from Both- well, and had been taken prisoner by the con- federate lords, at the battle of Carberry hill. After various ineffectual attempts, she contrived to make her escape. LEWIS, Francis, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in South Wales in 1715, engaged in mercantile pursuits, and came to America at the age of 21. In 1775 he was elected to the continental congress from the state of New York. In the course of the war he fell into the hands of the British, and his estate was confiscated. He died Dec. 30, 1803, in his 89th year. LEXINGTON, a town of Massachusetts, 12 miles N. W. of Boston, where the struggle for liberty was commenced, April 19, 1775, the militia, to the number of 70, being drawn out to receive the British detachment sent to de- stroy the military stores collected by the pro- vincials. Seven Americans were killed, and three wounded. LIBERIA, a territory on the Western coast of Africa, where the American Colonization Society established a settlement of free blacks in 1820. It is at present in a flourishing condi- tion, although it has had many obstacles to con- tend against. LIEGNITZ, capital of the government of that name in Silesia, Prussia, has 9,600 inhabi- tants. On the ICth of August, 1760, the king of Prussia obtained a victory over the Austrian general Landon near this place. LIGNY, a village of the Netherlands, in the province of Namur, remarkable as the scene of an obstinate and sanguinary battle between the Prussians and the French, in June, 1815, which was the prelude to the decisive battle of Water- loo. On the 16th Blucher was attacked by Bonaparte with his whole force, except two- corps under Ney, and the first corps under d' Erlon. A furious conflict ensued, in which the villages of St. Amand and Ligny fell into the possession of the French. The combatants dis- played the most determined animosity, and no quarter was asked, offered, or accepted. A des- perate attack of the Prussians, led by marshal Blucher in person, suddenly recovered St. Amand and a height in its vicinity, and the- fortune of the day seemed to turn in their favor. Bonaparte instantly despatched orders to bring LIS 316 LOC up the corps under d'Erlon, but ere its arrival, the French had recovered the village. Wel- lington meantime was desirous of relieving the Prussians, but he was himself attacked; and, as the fourth corps under Bulow had not arrived, Blucher was obliged to withdraw from his po- sition at Lambref, and retire upon Tilly. LIMA, the capital of the republic of Peru, contains about 60,000 inhabitants. The manners of the inhabitants are loose, although the higher classes are well educated. It is often visited by earthquakes, of which two recent ones, in 1822, and 1828 were uncommonly destructive. LIMERICK, a city of Ireland, on the Shan- non, capital of the county of Limerick, a well- built and thriving manufacturing place, contain- ing 60,000 inhabitants. It was taken by the English in 1174, In 1651 it was reduced by Ireton, in the service of the parliament, after a vigorous siege. In 1690 it was unsuccessfully besieged by king William in person, but in 1691 it surrendered to general Ginkle, afterwards earl of Athlone. LINCOLN, Benjamin, was born at Hingham, Mass., Jan 13, 1733, old style. At the beginning of the revolutionary war, he was lieutenant- colonel of the provincial militia, but was soon appointed major-general in the continental forces. While with Gates's army in the north, he was wounded in the leg, and part of the main bone was necessarily removed. In the attack on Savannah, 1779, in conjunction with the French, Lincoln was repulsed. He was forced to capitulate in Charleston, in 1780, in consequence of the discontent of the inhabitants, and the troops under his command. At York- town General Lincoln distinguished himself as he had done throughout the whole of the revo- lutionary struggle. He afterwards commanded the militia that quelled Shay's rebellion. In May, 1787, he was elected lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, and, in the summer of 1789, was appointed collector of customs in the port of Boston. He died 1810. LISLE, or LILLE (Flemish, Ryssel) a large city of France, formerly capital of French Flan- ders, and now in the department of the Nord, containing 69,860 inhabitants. Louis XIV took it from the Spaniards in 1667; but notwith- standing the vast labor and expense bestowed in his reign on its fortifications, it surrendered in 1708, after a long and sanguinary siege, to the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene. At the peace of Utrecht, it was restored to France, and in 1792, was bom- barded by the Austrians without success. LITHUANIA, formerly an independent grand-duchy, but in 1569, annexed to Poland, seized by Russia on the dismemberment of Poland. It is fertile, and rich in minerals, while its forests abound in game. LIVINGSTON, Philip, one of the signers of the Declaration of independence, born at Albany, N. Y., January 15, 1716, was educated at Yale college, and, after graduating, became a mer- chant. In 1759 he was sent to the general pro- vincial assembly, and to congress in 1774. He likewise served as senator in the legislature of his native state, and died Jan 12, 1778, during the session of congress of which he was a mem- ber. LIVINGSTON, Robert R. was born in New York City, Nov. 27, 1746, and graduated at King's college in 1765. He studied and prac- ticed law in his native city where he enjoyed a very high reputation, was elected to the first general congress, was one of the committee to draw up the Declaration of Independence, and in 1780, was appointed secretary of foreign af- fairs. He held for several years the office of chancellor of New York, and, in 1801, was ap- pointed by president Jefferson, minister pleni- potentiary to France. Bonaparte distinguished him by peculiar favor. In 1805 Mr. Livingston returned to the United States, and died March 26, 1813. He devoted the latter part of his life to the promotion of agriculture, and was presi- dent of the New York Academy of Fine Arts. LIVINGSTON, Brockholst, son of William Livingston, governor of New Jersey, was born in the city of New York, Nov. 25, 1757, and served with great distinction under Schuyler and Arnold. He went to Spain in 1779, as private secretary of Mr. Jay. On his return he studied law and was admitted to practice in April, 1783. He was made judge of the Su- preme court of New York, Jan. 8, 1802, was raised to the bench of the Supreme court of the United States, in 1806, and died during the session of the court at Washington, March 18, 1823, in the 66th year of his age. LLOYD, James, was born in Boston, in 1769, educated at Harvard college, and commenced business as a merchant. In 1808 he was elected by the legislature of Massachusetts, a senator in congress. Throughout the most trying times he displayed great calmness, patriotism, and ability. He died at New York in 1831. LOCRIS, a country of Middle Greece, the inhabitants of which were divided into the Locri Ozolae, a Epizephyrii, the Locri, Epicnemidii, and the Locri Opuntii. They were a brave LON 317 LOU and warlike people and signalized themselves by their efforts to maintain the liberty of Greece. LODI, a large town in the government of Lombardy, belonging to Venice, on the Adda, containing 17,800 inhabitants. One of the most daring exploits that characterised the commencement of Bonaparte's military career, was performed here in 1796, by forcing the pas- sage of the bridge over the Adda, though de- fended by 10,000 Austrians. Napoleon always spoke of it as " that terrible passage of the bridge of Lodi." LOMBARDS, also called Longobardi, or Langobardi, originally a Scandinavian tribe, were first found by the Romans in the eastern part of the principality of Luneburg, and in the Altmark. At the close of the fifth century, they made their appearance on the north side of the Danube, and about the middle of the 6th century, the king Alboin gained great advanta- ges over the Gepidce, and conquered all upper Italy, and a part of Middle Italy. Desiderius, the last king, was conquered A. D. 774 by Pe- pin of France, who subverted the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, after it had been in ex- istence for the space of 206 years. The present government of Lombardy belongs to Austria, contains nearly 2,200,000 inhabitants, and its capital is Milan. LONDON. This vast city, the metropolis of Great Britain, is situated on the banks of the Thames, about 60 miles from the sea, and stands in lat. 51° 31' N. and Ion. 5' 37" W. from Green- wich. The total population, including the several parishes which belong to the city, is 1,500,000. The streets of the city are generally wide, the houses arranged with great regard to uniformity, and well built. The royal palace, Westminster Abbey, and St. Paul's Cathedral, are magnificent buildings. The manners of the lower classes are loose, and intemperance prevails among them to an alarming degree. London was fortified by the Romans in the year 50 ; walled in 294 ; made a bishop's see 604 ; re- paired by Alfred, 885. In 1090 it was not paved. In 1192 an order to build the houses of stone, and have them slated, as they were then built of wood and thached with straw, was not ob- served. In 1208 king John granted a charter to the inhabitants to choose a mayor out of their own body annually (this office having been formerly for life), to elect and remove their sheriffs at pleasure, and their common council- men annually. LONDONDERRY, Marquis of, more gene- rally known under the title of lord Castle reagh, an active statesman in the reigns of George III, and IV, by whose influence the legislative union of Ireland was effected ; and who, as secretary-of-state, promoted those measures by which the confederacy of the European powers was concentrated against Napoleon. In August, 1822, he was appointed minister from Great Britain to the congress at Verona, but two days before his intended departure, he destroyed himself in a fit of mental distraction. LONG ISLAND, or Nassau island, an island belonging to the state of New York, from which it is separated by the East river. It is 120 miles long, and from 10 to 20 broad. The soil of the island is admirably adapted for agriculture. LORRAINE, for a long time a fief of the German empire, and a subject of contention between France and Germany, at present forms the French departments of the Meuse, the Vos- gcs, the Moselle, and the Meurthe. Square miles, 10,150; pop. 1,800,000. Its forests and mountains contain great quantities of game, and many minerals. LOUDON, or Laudon, Gideon Ernest, an Austrian general, was born at Footzen, in Livo- nia, in 1716, of a family that originally came from Scotland. He displayed great talents in the seven years' war, and was made a major- general, and invested with the order of Maria Theresa. In 1757 he contributed to the victory of Hochkirchen, and afterwards gained that of Kunersdorf. He next defeated the Prussians at Landshut, and made himself master of Glatz. On the conclusion of the peace, he was created a baron of the empire ; in 1766, nominated an aulic counsellor ; and, in 1778, made field-mar- shal. He next commanded against the Turks ; and, in 1789 took Belgrade. He died, July 14, 1790. His modesty was proverbial. The duke of Aremberg, being once asked by the empress at a court party where Loudon was, answered — " There he is, as usual, behind the door, quite ashamed of possessing so much merit." LOUIS IX, king of France, commonly call- ed St. Louis, was the son of Louis VIII, and was born in 1215. Being an infant at the time of his father's death, the regency was confided to Blanche of Castile, the queen-dowager. Scarcely had Louis attained the age of 21 years, and taken the reins of government into his own hands, when Henry III of England demanded the provinces which Louis VIII had promised to restore. A tender was made of Poictou, and part of Normandy ; but Henry was resolved to try the issue of a battle, and his army was de- feated on the banks of the Charente. In 1243 LOU 318 LOU Louis undertook a crusade to the Holy Land, and landed in Egypt ; Damietta was abandoned by the Saracens on the approach of his troops, who advanced to Cairo, in full confidence of success. But famine, the sword, and disease so wasted his forces, that he fell, with all his nobility, into the hands of the enemy. His ransom was the city of Damietta, and 400,000 francs. Louis remained five years in Palestine, repaired the fortifications of some cities, ran- somed nearly 1200 prisoners, but, on the news of his mother's death, he returned promptly to France, and employed himself in securing the enjoyment of peace and justice. His piety caused him to build many churches and hospit- als, and his subjects blessed a reign which ap- peared as peaceful as it was happy, when ill news from Palestine roused the enterprising spirit of the king, and another crusade was de- termined upon. He departed with his three sons, but instead of going directly to Palestine, landed at Tunis, and commenced the siege of that place. The heat of the climate and the plague thinned the ranks of the army ; Louis lost one of his sons, and died himself at the age of 55 years, after a reign of 44. He was placed among the saints by pope Boniface VIII. LOUIS XI, the son of Charles VI, was born in 1423. In 1440 he put himself at the head of a faction called la Praguerie, against the king, his father, with whom he afterwards became reconciled. He was at the siege of Tartas, in 1442. and was afterwards present at the raising of that of Dieppe, which was besieged by the English, subsequently to which he defeated 6000 Swiss, near the city of Basle. His father's death took place July 1, 1461, and Louis was crowned August 15. He removed from his court all the princes and nobility, who then en- gaged the principal persons of the kingdom in a league, to which they gave the name of League of the Public good (Ugue du lien ■public.') The duke of Berry, the king's brother, the dukes of Bretagne and Bourbon, and the son of the duke of Burgundy, were the chiefs of this party. The king, who marched to defend Paris, engaged them July 2, 1465, without much advantage, but he broke up the league by a peace concluded in October following, at Con- flans, by which he agreed to give Normandy to his brother ; and to cede some territories to Burgundy. Louis, however, did not keep his pledges; his brother was soon poisoned, and it was thought that Louis was the author of the atrocious deed. The young duke of Burgundy determined to revenge the death of his friend, but fell in the midst of brilliant projects, in a battle with the Swiss. Louis passed his last years in the chauteau of Plessis-les-tours, a prey to the horrors of a guilty conscience, and died there in 1483. LOUIS XII, born in 1462, succeeded to the throne of France in 1 498. He became the dup& of his allies, who prevailed on him to attempt the conquest of Genoa, Naples, and Milan, the issue of which proved unfortunate. In his war against the Spaniards he was equally unsuc- cessful ; his army being defeated, and his fleet of observation, which was stationed off the coast of Catalonia, driven into port. Henry VIII of England, having waged a successful war on the French territory, suddenly broke with his allies, and, having made peace with Louis, bestowed on him the hand of his sister. In the midst of his preparations to recover the loss he had sustained in Italy, Louis died in 1515. LOUIS XIII was born in 1601, succeeded his father, Henry IV, in 1610, and, the state being placed under the regency of Mary of Medicis, the widowed queen of Henry IV. In 1611, Sully retired from the court, and was succeeded by Concini, mariechal d' Ancre, who gained unlimited sway. He supported Mary de Medicis in all her prodigal measures ; but his unpopular career was terminated by an as- sassian, and the queen mother was exiled to Blois. Richelieu reconciled the queen and Louis, and in 1624, was put at the head of the administration. He died in 1C42, and his death was soon followed by that of Louis, who sur- vived the Cardinal only a few months. LOUIS XIV, son of the preceding, ascended the throne in 1643, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, who chose cardinal Mazarin as her minister. In the war against Spain and Austria, the duke d' Enghien and marshal Turenne were victoriors in Germany and the Netherlands. By the peace of West- phalia, in 1648, France gained Alsace, and Sundgau, Brisach, and the right to garrison Phillipsburg. In the same year began the civil war of the Frondeurs, against Mazarin, who was relieved by the great prince of Conde. In 1650 Conde formed an independent party, but was arrested and imprisoned, and in 1652 was defeated by the royalists, under Turenne, at the battle of St. Antoine. In 1653, Conde joined the Spaniards, the war against whom was vigorously carried on by Turenne. By the peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis gained Roussillon and Conflans, a great acquisition of LOU 319 LOU territory; and, in 1660, received the daughter of Philip IV in marriage. In 1661, Mazarin died, and Louis took upon himself the affairs of government, appointing Colbert minister of finance, under whom the arts, commerce, and manufactures greatly flourished. On the death of Philip IV of Spain, Louis began the career of those conquests which acquired him the title of Great. By virtue of his marriage with Maria Theresa of Austria, he laid claim to Cainbresis Franche-Conte, Luxembourg, and a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, and entered Flan- ders at the head of an army of 35,000 men. However, the triple alliance of England, Swe- den, and Holland, compelled the French mon- arch to renounce all but Flanders, and to conclude the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1668. Louvois now became minister of war ; and. in 1670, Louis effected the dissolution of the triple alliance; overran great part of Holland, and compelled the elector of Brandenburg to con- clude a treaty of neutrality, in 1673. In 1674, Louis, being abandoned by his former allies, formed a league with Sweden, and resolved to humble the republic of Holland. He made a sham attack on Bommel by sea ; but the prince of Conde being compelled to retreat with his army, the united provinces were lost to France. In 1675, Turenne perished before Salzbach. At length, a treaty was signed at Nimeguen, in 1678, whereby all the provinces wrested from the Dutch were restored, and Louis gained Franche-Conte, Dunkirk, and part of Flanders. In 1681, the Chambers of Re-union were erect- ed, and, in 1684, Louis seized Strasburg, Lux- emburg, and Deux Ponts. In the same year, Louis sent a fleet against Genoa ; and, in the following year, he bombarded Tripoli and Tu- nis. In 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes, and the Protestants were compelled to fly the kingdom for safety. In 1683, he took possession of Avignon and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which he devastated in the following year. The fortune of Louis was now on the decline. Louvois died in 1691, and, in 1692, the French fleet was destroyed by the British at La Hogue. The French were, however, victorious in Spain and the Netherlands, under Vendome and Lux- emburg. In 1696, Louis concluded the peace of Turin with Savoy ; and, in the following year the peace of Ryswick was concluded, whereby Louis restored his conquests, made after the death of Charles II of Spain. In 1700 the war of the Spanish succession commenced, when Louis declared for Philip of Anjou, in opposition to Charles, archduke of Austria, sup- ported by the European confederates. War was now declared against France ; Louis was defeated at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and prince Eugene was every- where triumphant. Louis sued for peace in vain, but a change in the English cabinet gave a new turn to the politics of Europe ; and, in 1713, the peace of Utrecht was concluded, fol- lowed by that of Radstadt, between marshal Villars and prince Eugene, when Louis ceded his possessions in America to England, and his Italian dominions to Austria and Savoy. In 1715, Louis died, in the 72d year of his reign, at the age of 77. LOUIS XV, only five years of age at the death of the preceding monarch, was placed under the regency of the duke of Orleans. In 1726 the regency of Cardinal Henry commen- ced, on whose death, Louis took on himself the management of public affairs and declared war against Germany and Hungary. After a life spent in the greatest voluptuousness, he died, an object of general odium, in 1774. LOUIS XVI. (See France.) LOUIS XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, displayed much energy and bravery in his struggles against Napoleon. After Napoleon had departed for Elba, Louis entered Paris on the 3d of May, 1814. On the 20th of March, 1815, the king left the Tuileries, and Napoleon re-entered Paris. On the 8th of July, Louis again returned to Paris. His death took place September 16, 1824. LOUISBURG, formerly a considerable town and fortress of the island of Cape Breton. It was taken from the French by the English fleet under Sir Peter Warren, and the provincial forces commanded by Sir William Pepperel in the year 1745 ; but afterwards restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. It was again taken by the English, un- der the command of admiral Boscawen, and general Amherst, in 1758, and its fortifications since demolished. It is now almost deserted. LOUISIANA, is divided into three parts. The first contains the parishes east of the Mis- sissippi, the second the parishes bordering on the west side of the Mississippi, and the third the western parishes. The southern portion of Louisiana is level, and abounds with swamps and prairies, the former of which are destitute of trees, and stretch out as far as the eye can reach, in gloomy and unbroken dreariness. But on the borders of the rivers the land is the most fertile imaginable, and yields in great LUN 320 LUT abundance, cotton, sugar, and rice. Besides New Orleans, the principal towns are Baton Rouge, Alexandria, Nachitoches, St. Francis- ville, Donaldsville, &c. Education, in general, is much neglected ; there is a Catholic college, at New Orleans, which enjoys a high reputation, and there are academies in various parts of the state. Louisiana was discovered in 1G82 by La Salle, a Frenchman, and its name was bestow- ed in compliment to Louis XIV, then seated on the throne of France. It was not until 1G99 that a regular settlement was commenced at Iberville. It passed into the hands of Spain, by treaty, in 17G2, but was restored to France in 1795, and was purchased by the United States in 1803, for 15,000,000 dollars ; the vast territo- ry thus acquired includes the state of Louisiana, the State of Missouri, the territory of Arkansas, and the country beyond to the Rocky Moun- tains. Louisiana was admitted into the union as an independent state, in 1812. Population 215, 541, of which 109,600 are slaves. LOWELL, a large manufacturing town of Massachusetts, 25 miles N. W. of Boston, sit- uated at the junction of the Concord and Mer- rimack rivers, containing, according to the last census, 6,477 inhabitants, but at present double that number. LUCCA, a city and duchy of Italy, originally a colony of the Romans. It has repeatedly changed masters. The city contains 22,000 inhabitants, and the duchy 143,500. The ducal power is limited by that of the senate which is annually assembled. LUCRETIA, a noble Roman matron, the wife of Collatinus, who lived in the reign of Tarquin the Proud. While other ladies were engaged in frivolous amusements, she was found at work in the midst of her handmaidens. Sextus, the son of Tarquin, inflamed with a base passion, gained entrance to her apartment at midnight, during the absence of her husband, and dishonored her. Lucretia, unable to sur- vive her shame, killed herself. Brutus (which see) had the body conveyed to the forum, and delivered so moving and inspiring an address, that the populace rose against their oppres- sors, and the regal dignity was abolished in Rome. Brutus, and Collatinus, the husband of the matron, were the first consuls. LUNEVILLE, an open city of Lorraine, de- partment of the Meuse, containing 12,778 in- habitants. A treaty between Austria and the French republic, was concluded here in Feb. 1801. LUTHER, Martin, was born Nov. 10, 1483, at Isleben, in Lower Saxony. In 1508, he be- came lecturer in philosophy at Wittemberg, and, while thus employed, received orders from his superiors to go to Rome, where he had ample opportunity of observing the corruptions of popery. In 1517 pope Leo X published in- dulgences to enable him to complete the build- ing of St. Peters, which measure proved the cause of an incurable breach in the Roman church. Tetzel, the Dominican, who had the sale of these pardons in Germany, behaved so scandalously, that Luther published a thesis in which he denied the validity of papal indulgen- ces. Tetzel, who was then at Frankfort, caus- ed Luther's thesis to be burnt, and published another in answer to it, which roused the indig- nation of the students of Wittemberg to such a degree, that they burned his thesis in return. Luther, in the midst of these proceedings, wrote to the pope in terms of respect, and though he did not, retract his positions, he ex- pressed his readiness to submit to authority. In the meantime, the contention became fiercer between the champions for indulgences, and their opponents. The pope aggravated the matter by citing Luther to appear at Rome ; but the latter wisely declined putting himself in a place where destruction was certain. He had now secured the protection of the elector of Saxony, who, instead of giving him up, de- manded that the cause should be heard in Germany. With this the pope complied, and Cajetan was sent to Augsburg, whither Luther repaired ; but after two conferences, he left the place, from an apprehension of a design upon his hie. In 1519 was held a conference at Le- ipsic, between Luther and Eck, professor of divinity at Ingolstadt, which ended without bringing the parties nearer to each other. The pope, on his side, became exasperated, and issued his bull of excommunication against the reformer, who caused it to be publicly burnt in the presence of the whole university of Wittemberg. On his way home from the diet of Worms, in 1521, he was carried off by a party of horsemen to one of the castles belong- ing to his friend, the elector, who adopted this method to secure him from his enemies. In this Patmos, as he called it, Luther remained ten months, and then returned to Wittemberg, where he published a sharp reply to Henry VIII, who had written a book against him, on the seven sacraments. In 1529 the emperor as- sembled a diet at Spires, to check the progress of the new opinions; and here it was that the LYC 321 LYD name of Protestants first arose, from the pro- test made by the electoral princes who were in favor of the Reformation, against the rigorous measures which were proposed in this assembly. In 1534, Luther's translation of the whole bible was published ; and the same year he printed a book against the service of the mass. At length, worn out, more by labor than age, this illustrious man died at his native place, Febru- ary 18, 1546, and his remains were solemnly in- terred in the cathedral of Wittemberg. LUTZEN, a small town of Prussian Saxony, in the government of Merseburg, the neighbor- hood of which is famous for two great battles, one in 1632, in which the Austrians were de- feated by Gustavus of Sweden, who was him- self killed in the action ; and the other in 1813, when the French, under Bonaparte, defeated the combined forces of Prussia and Russia. LUXEMBURG, a province of the Nether- lands, containing 293,555 inhabitants. Its cap- ital of the same name, was besieged, in 1794, by the victorious armies of France, and capitu- lated on the 17th of June, 1795. LYCURGUS, a celebrated lawgiver of Spar- ta, the son of king Eunomus, and brother to Polydectes, flourished in the latter half of the 9th century B. C. He travelled with the spirit of a philosopher, and visited Asia and Egypt without suffering himself to be corrupted by the licentiousness and luxury which prevailed there. The confusion which followed his de- parture from Sparta, having made his presence necessary, he returned home at the earnest so- licitations of his countrymen. The disorders which reigned at Sparta induced him to reform the government. Lycurgus found no difficulty in reforming the abuses of the state, and all were equally anxious in promoting a revolution which had received the sanction of heaven. This happened 884 years before the Christian era. Lycurgus first established a senate, which was composed of 28 senators, whose authority was designed to preserve the tranquillity of the state, and maintain a due and just equilibrium between the kings and the people, by watch- ing over the encroachments of the former, and checking the seditious convulsions of the latter. All distinctions of rank were destroyed, and by making an equal and impartial division of the land among the members of the commonwealth, Lycurgus banished luxury, and encouraged the useful arts. The use of money, either of gold or silver, was totally forbidden, and the intro- duction of heavy brass and iron coin, brought no temptations to the dishonest, and left every 21 individual in possession of his effects without any fear of robbery or violence. All the citizens dined in common, and no one had greater claims to indulgence and luxury than another. The intercourse of Sparta with other nations was forbidden, and few were permitted to travel. The youths were intrusted to the public mas- ter, as soon as they had attained their seventh year, and their education was left to the wis- dom of the laws. They were taught early to think, to answer in a laconic manner, to at- tempt to excel in repartee. They were encour- aged to steal, and theft was only punished for being discovered. Thus we are told that a youth who carried off a fox beneath his cloak, permit- ted the animal to gnaw into his vitals, rather than disclose his theft by dropping the prize. These laws gave rise to a race of men distinguished for their intrepidity, fortitude and independence. After promulgating his code, Lycurgus re- tired from Sparta to Delphi, or according to others, to Crete ; and, before his departure, he bound all the citizens of Lacedremon by a sol- emn oath, that neither they nor their posterity would alter, violate, or abolish the laws which he had established, before his return. He soon after died, and ordered his ashes to be thrown into the sea, fearful lest, if they were carried to Sparta, the citizens would consider themselves freed from the oath which they had taken, and empowered to make a revolution. The wisdom and the good effect of the laws of Lycurgus have been fully demonstrated at Sparta, where, for 400 years they remained in full force, but the legislator has been censured as cruel and impolitic. Lycurgus has been compared with Solon, the celebrated legislator of Athens, and it has been judiciously observed, that the former gave his citizens morals conformable to the laws which he had established, and that the latter had given the Athenians laws which coincided with their customs and manners. The office of Ly- curgus demanded resolution, and he showed himself inexorable and severe. In Solon, arti- fice was requisite, and he showed himself mild and even indulgent. The moderation of Lycur- gus is highly commendable, particularly when we recollect that he treated with the greatest humanity and confidence Alcander, a youth who had put out one of his eyes in a seditious tumult. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated by Philopoemen, B. C. 188, but only for a little time, as they were soon after reestablished by the Romans. LYDIA, anciently Masonia, a celebrated kingdom of Asia Minor, whose boundaries were LYO 322 LYS different at different times. It received the name of Lydia from Lydus, one of its kings. It was governed by monarchs. who, after the fabulous ages, reigned 249 years, in the fol- lowing order : Ardysus began to reign 797 B. C.J Alyattes,761 ; Meles, 747 ; Caudaules, 735 ; Gyges, 718 ; Ardysus II, G80 ; Sadyattes, G31 ; Alyattes II, 619, and Croesus 562, who was con- quered by Cyrus B. C. 548, when the kingdom became a province of the Persian empire. Three different races reigned in Lydia, the Atyadae, the Heraclidae, andthe Mermnadae. The his- tory of the first is obscure and fabulous ; the Heraclidae began to reign about the time of the Trojan war, and the crown remained in their family for about 500 years, and was always transmitted from father to son. Caudaules was the last of the Heraclidae ; and Gyges the first and Croesus the last of the Mermnadae. The Lydians were great warriors in the reign of the Mermnadae. They invented the art of coining gold and silver, and were the first who exhibited public sports, &.c. Lydia remained a part of the eastern Roman empire until 1326, when it was conquered by the Turks. LYMAN, Phinehas, major-general, born at Durham, about 1716, graduated at Yale college in 1738. He was afterwards a tutor in this institution, studied law, and practised it with great success. After serving as a member of the assembly of Connecticut, he was elected to the council, and, in 1755, appointed major-general and commander-in-chief of the Connecticut forces. In the battle of lake George the com- mand devolved upon him, and he also com- manded the American forces in the expedition to Havannah. After spending some years in England, he returned to America, and, in 1775, embarked for the Mississippi, followed by his family. He died in West Florida, 1778. LYNCH, Thomas, Jr., one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in South Carolina, Aug. 5, 1749, and educated in England. In 1775 he joined the revolutionary army, but a severe sickness compelled him to relinquish his plan of serving his country in the field. He was elected to congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence, but his health failing, he was advised to go to St. Eustatia, and embarked at the close of the year 1779, after which date the vessel was not heard of. LYONS, a large city in the south-east of France, containing 135,723 inhabitants. This city sustained a siege against the Jacobins for several months in 1793, and after its surrender the principal inhabitants were massacred by the terrorists under Collot d'Herbois. In the spring of 1814, several severe actions took place in the neighborhood, between the French and Austri- ans ; on the return of Napoleon from Elba, in March, 1815, he was received here with accla- mation. LYSANDER, a celebrated general of Sparta, in the last years of the Peloponnesian war. He drew Ephesus from the interest of Athens, and gained the friendship of Cyrus the Younger. He gave battle to the Athenian fleet, consisting of 120 ships, at ./Egos Potamos, and destroyed it all, excepting three ships, with which the enemy's general fled to Evagoras, king of Cy- prus. In this celebrated battle, which happened 405 years B. C, the Athenians lost 3,000 men, and with them their empire and influence among the neighboring states. Lysander well knew how to take advantage of his victory, and the following year Athens, worn out by a long war of 27 years, and discouraged by its misfortunes, gave itself up to the power of the enemy, and consented to destroy the Piraeus, to give up all its ships, except twelve, to recall all those who had been banished, and, in short, to submit in every thing, to the power of Lacedsemon. Be- sides these humiliating conditions, the govern- ment of Athens was totally changed, and thirty" tyrants were set over it by Lysander. This glo- rious success, and the honor of having put an end to the Peloponnesian war, increased the pride of Lysander. He had already began to pave his way to universal power, by establish- ing aristocracy in the Grecian cities of Asia, and now he attempted to make the crown of Sparta elective. The sudden declaration of war against the Thebans saved him from the accu- sations of his adversaries, and he was sent, to- gether with Pausanias, against the enemy. He was defeated and killed, 394 years B. C, in the Boeotian war. LYSIMACHUS, a son of Agathocles, who was among the generals of Alexander. He sided with Cassander and Seleucus against An- tigonus and Demetrius, and fought with them at the celebrated battle of Ipsus. He afterwards seized Macedonia, after expelling Pyrrhus from the throne, B. C. 286, but his cruelty rendered him odious, and the murder of his son Agatho- cles so offended his subjects, that the most opu- lent and powerful revolted from him and aban- doned the kingdom. He pursued them to Asia, and declared war against Seleucus, who had given them a kind reception. He was killed in a bloody battle, 281 years B. C. in the 80th year of his age. MAC 323 MAD M. MACARTNEY, George, ear], celebrated in diplomatic history, principally for his embassy to China in 1792. He died in 1806. MACASSAR, formerly a large city of Ce- lebes, with a fine harbor. On its site now stands the little village of Vlaardingen with 1,000 in- habitants. The natives in the vicinity are, in general, faithful, and hospitable; their number is about 10,000. MACBETH, an usurper and tyrant, who fill- ed the Scottish throne during a part of the 11th century. He murdered his kinsman, Duncan, to clear the path to royalty. He also put to death M'Gill and Banquo, the most powerful men in his dominions. Macduff becoming the object of his suspicions, escaped into England, but the inhuman tyrant wreaked his vengeance on his wife and children, whom he caused to be butchered. Macduff and Malcolm, son of Duncan, having obtained assistance from the English, entered into Scotland, and forced Mac- beth to retreat into the Highlands, where he was soon afterwards slain in battle by Macduff. Shakspeare's Macbeth is one of the most pow- erfully drawn characters of his tragedies. MACHIAVELLI, Nicholas, a celebrated writer, born of a noble family of Florence, in 1469. His first efforts produced a comedy called Mandragora, which proved so popular, on ac- count of its satire, at Florence, that Leo X sent for the actors to exhibit it to a Roman audi- ence. Machiavelli acquired, however, greater fame by his political writings. By the influ- ence of the Medicis, and as a recompense for the suffering he had endured on the rack on sus- Jicion of a conspiracy with the Soderini against ulius, afterwards Clement VII, he was made Secretary and Historiographer to the republic of Florence. He died in 1527, of a medicine which he had taken by way of prevention. MACCABEES. (See Hebrews.) MACEDONIA, now Makdonia, or Filiba Vil- ajeti, an ancient kingdom of Europe, found- ed by Caranus and Perdiccas, B. C. 800. It first became powerful under Philip and his son Alexander the Great, the last of whom gave it new splendor, subdued the neighboring states, destroyed the liberties of Greece, 338, and con- quered the Persian empire. Macedonia con- tinued in the family of Alexander, or of his generals, until 168 B. C. ; when by the defeat of Perseus it became a Roman province ; it con- tinued to belong to the Eastern empire until 1393, when the Turks under Bajazet IV invad- ed the country, which was finally conquered by them in 1429. The present inhabitants are a hardy race. Their country is rich, well-wooded and mountainous. Population, about 700,000 ; square miles, 15,250. MACKEAN, Thomas, was born March 19, 1734, in the county of Chester, Pennsylvania, and was admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, in 1757. For seventeen successive years he was elected a member of the assembly. He was sent to the congress held at New York in 1765, took an active part in the revolutionary proceedings, and served in arms in New Jersey, where he greatly distin- guished himself. In 1777 he was chosen chief- justice of Pennsylvania, and was afterwards elected governor of the state. He died June 24, 1817, in his 84th year. MACPHERSON, James, a Scottish writer, was born in 1738. His fame rests upon his tianslation from the Gaelic of the poems of Ossian, the authenticity of which has been denied by many writers, but was finally par- tially allowed after a severe literary investiga- tion. The question gave rise to warm dispute between Macpherson and Dr. Johnson. Mac- pherson died in 1796. MADAGASCAR, a large island of Africa, 900 miles long, and from 120 to 300 broad. Pop. 3,000,000. It is extremely fertile. It was first visited by the Portuguese in the beginning of the 16th century. It is situated in the Indian Ocean, near the southern part of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique chan- nel. Madagascar yields in abundance wheat, rice, sugar, grapes, honey, and excellent fruits. Almost all the European animals are found here in abundance. The forests are composed of a prodigious variety of trees, and furnish vast quantities of ornamental wood. Among the gums of the woods, is the valuable gum elastic. The islanders are warmly attached to liberty, but licentious and indolent. The island is di- vided among many petty kings or chiefs. The religion is Mohammedan, mingled with idola- try and Judaism. The climate is very hot, but the air is, in most parts of the country, health- ful. The French have several times attempted to form settlements, but in general unsuccess- fully. MADEIRA, an island off the western coast of Africa, belongs to Portugal. Pop. 100,000. It is situated between the straits of Gibraltar and the Canaries, is 15 leagues long; 60 in cir- cumference. It was discovered by Zarco, a Portuguese, in 1419. It is celebrated for its ex- MAH 324 MAH cellent wines, the best of which is known under the name of London particular. Its other pro- ductions are sugar, grain, fruits, and cattle. Funchal is the capital. MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the intimate friend of Augustus, and so great a patron of men of letters, that his name is proverbially used to characterize persons of the same dispo- sition. According to Horace, he was descend- ed from the kings of Etruria. Augustus, one day, being on the tribunal, passing sentence of death on several persons, Maecenas sent him a paper, with this inscription, " Come down, butcher !" which struck the emperor so forcibly that he immediately descended from his seat. Maecenas was the patron of Virgil and Horace, who immortalized him in their works. He dis- tinguished himself also in the field, particularly at the battles of Modena and Philippi. When Augustus and Agrippa went to Sicily, Maece- nas assumed the administration of the govern- ment, though he was not ambitious of power. He died 8 years B. C. In private life his char- acter was stained by a devotion to sensual plea- MAGHELHAENS, or MAGELLAN, Fer- nando de, a Portuguese navigator, who, having served under Albuquerque, obtained the com- mand of a fleet from the emperor Charles V, and discovered the straits at the extremity of South America, which bear his name. He took possession of the Philippine islands, where he was slain in a skirmish with the natives in 1521. MAGNA CHARTA (the Great Charter), the charter extorted from king John by the English barons at Runnemede, June 15, 1215, which laid the foundation of the public rights of the people of England. MAHMOUD I, emperor of the Turks, raised from the dungeon to the throne in 1731 ; con- cluded the peace of Belgrade in 1739, by which he kept Belgrade, Servia, and Wallachia, and obtained Azof. MAHMOUD II, present emperor of the Turks, began his reign in 1808. His reign has been a good deal disturbed. His introduction of the European dress and discipline among his troops is said to be a fatal innovation. MAHOMET, or, according to the orthog- raphy and pronunciation of the orientals, Mo- hammed (the Glorified) surnamed Aboul Cas- sem, the founder of the Arabic empire, and of the religion to which he gave his name, was born at Mecca, the 10th of November, 570, A. D., according to the most probable opinion. He was of the tribe of the Korashites, the no- blest and the most powerful of the country. He lost his father before he was two years old, and his mother before he was eight, but their affec- tionate attention was supplied by the care of his uncle, Abu Taleb, a merchant. In the family of this friendly protector, he was employed to travel with his camels between Mecca and Sy- ria, till his 25th year, when he entered into the service of Cadiga, a rich widow, whom, though 12 years older than himself, he married three years after. Thus suddenly raised to afflu- ence and consequence above his countrymen, he formed the secret plan of obtaining for him- self the sovereign power, and judging there was no way so likely to gain his end as by ef- fecting a change in the religion of his country- men, he adopted that as his instrument. He now spent much of his time alone in a cave near Mecca, employed as he gave out, in meditation and prayer, though it is said that in reality he called to his aid a Persian Jew, well versed in the history and laws of his sect, and two Christians, one of the Jacobite, and the other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at differ- ent times from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicly as- sumed the prophetic character, calling himself the Apostle of God. His disciples were at first very few, consisting only of his wife, nephew, and servant, but in the course of three years he had greatly increased the number of his follow- ers. On these he imposed tales but too well adapted to deceive ignorant and superstitious minds. He pretended to have passed into the highest heavens in one night, on the back of a beautiful ass called Al Borak, and accompa- nied by the angel Gabriel : that he there had an interview with Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, who acknowledged his superior- ity, which was confirmed to him by the Deity himself. This romance staggered even some of his best friends, and a powerful party being formed against him, he was forced to quit Mecca, and to seek refuge in Medina. This ex- pulsion dates the foundation of his empire, and of his religion. The Mohammedans adopt it as their chronological era. calling it the Hegira, beiiTg the Ifith day of July, A. D. 622. Mahomet had still a number of disciples, upon whom he inculcated the principle, that they were not to dispute for their religion by words, but by the sword. No doctrine could possibly be better suited to a lawless and wan- dering people ; it was soon carried into practice, MAH 325 MAI and the Jewish Arabs were the first to experi- ence its effects. Upon them Mahomet com- mitted the most shocking cruelties, numbers were put to death, others were sold for slaves, and their goods distributed among the soldiers. A faith, thus propagated, could not but suc- ceed in a country like Arabia. His adherents were not only rewarded by plunder here, but had held out, to them a felicity of the most sen- sual kind hereafter. In 627 Mahomet made a treaty with the inhabitants of Mecca, which within two years he violated, and captured the place. Having made himself master of Arabia, he extended his conquests into Syria, where he took several cities, and laid some of the princes under tribute. His career was stopped only by his death, which was supposed to be occasioned by poison, administered to him by a Jewess, and sprinkled on a shoulder" of mutton, of which the prophet partook with a high relish. When the woman was examined, she declared that she had perpetrated the deed, on purpose to try whether he was a true prophet ; an answer somewhat remarkable, as the innoxiousness of poison was one of the privileges promised by our Lord to his disciples. The poison is said to have taken effect three years after it had been administered. When he found himself dying, Mahomet caused himself to be supported to the mosque, where he celebrated the praise of God, demanded pardon for his sins, and then, mount- ing his throne, said: " If any one complaineth that I have stricken him unjustly — lo ! here is my back, let him return the blows. If I have injured the reputation of anyone, let him treat me in the same manner. If I have taken money from any one, I am here ready to restore it." H.s last words were, " Lord, pardon me; and place me among those whom thou hast raised to grace and favor." He died the 8th of June, A. D. 632, having lived 63 years. He was of small stature, and of a sanguine temperament: he had a large head, regular and decided features; his eyes were large, black, and full of fire ; his forehead was large, his nose aquiline, his cheeks full, and his mouth large. His teeth were white, but set a little apart from each other, and between his eye-brows was a vein which swelled when he was in anger. Notwithstanding his corpulency, his gait was easy and graceful. After the death of Cadiga, he had several wives and concubines, by whom he had many children, but left only one daugh- ter named Fatima, who married his successor Ali, having lived to see his doctrines and his power extended over Arabia, Syria, and Persia. MAHOMET I, emperor of the Turks, was the son of Bajazet 1, and succeeded his brother Moses, in 1413. He reestablished the glory of the Ottoman empire, which had been ravaged by Tamerlane, and fixed the seat of government at Constantinople. MAHOMET IV was born in 1642, and be- came emperor in 1649, after the tragical death of his father, Ibrahim I. He marched in person against Poland, and having taken several places, made peace with that country on condition of receiving an annual tribute. Sobieski, however, defeated him near Choczim, and obtained so many other advantages, that a peace favorable to Poland, was concluded in 1676. The Janis- saries, attributing this and other misfortunes, to the indolence of the sultan, deposed him in 1687, and sent him to prison where he died in 1691. MAHRATTAS,a powerful nation of moun- taineers in India, who have maintained a series of wars with the British and native powers. Their capital, Poona, was taken in 1817. The possessions of the Mahrattas formerly extended from the coast of Malabar to that of Orissa, in the Ghaut mountains, but have been much nar- rowed. MAINE, one of the United States, bounded N. W. and N. by Lower Canada; E. by New Brunswick ; S. E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, and W. by New Hampshire. The population, in 1830, was 399,462. The Penobscot is the prin- cipal river; and the Kennebec, a noble river, waters a large extent of fertile country. The commerce of Maine is greatly facilitated by uncommon natural advantages. The principal article of export, however, is timber, as a large portion of Maine is uncultivated, and covered with forests. Portland, now a city, is the largest place in Maine. The next in importance are Bangor, Thomaston, Bath, Hallowell, Bruns- wick, and Eastport. At Brunswick, there is a flourishing institution, called Bowdoin college, which has a medical school connected with it. There is a Baptist college at Waterville, and at Bangor there is a literary and theological sem- inary, supported by the Congregationalists. The first European settlers in Maine were the Eng- lish, who established themselves at York in 1630. Until 1820, Maine formed a part of Massachu- setts, under the title of the district of Maine, but at the above-mentioned period it was erect- ed into an independent state. MA1NTENON, Frances dAubigne, March- ioness de, grand daughter of Theodore Agrippa dAubigne, was born in 1635, in the prison of MAL 326 MAL Niort, where her father was confined. On his death, Frances was sent to France, being pat- ronised by her paternal aunt, Madame de Vil- lette. From her, however, she was removed by an order of court, lest she should be brought up a Protestant. In 1651 she married the celebrat- ed Scarron, from whom she learned the Latin, Spanish, and Italian languages. On his death, being in straitened circumstances, she accepted a pension from the queen, which was renewed to her after the death of that princess, through the favor of Madame de Montespan ; and under- took the education of Louis's children by that lady. In this situation she acquired the esteem of the king, who in 1674 purchased for her the estate of Maintenon, which name she assumed. In 1685, the king, over whom she had a com- plete ascendency, made her his wife; but the marriage was never publicly avowed. She has been accused of moving him to revoke the edict of Nantes ; but this is improbable, as it is cer- tain she exerted all her influence in behalf of the suffering Protestants. Her better actions deserve, beyond all doubt, much of the notice which has been given to the meaner part of her story. She exhibited all the characteristics of a woman striving to be great beyond the sphere of her sex, and the usual inconsistencies of famous women were very conspicuous in her : yet many of her acts were undoubtedly great. The royal institution of St. Louis, for the young and indigent female nobility, was founded by Madame de Mainte- non, and liberally endowed by the king. This was afterwards called the Society of St. Cyr, and was distinguished by many excellent regu- lations. To her influence has been attributed the settlement of that peace so salutary to the French affairs, after the destructive effects of the seven years' war, carried against all the ambitious designs and mortified impatience of the French generals. For a considerable time she lived on terms of intimacy with Fenelon, and on his recommendation patronised Madame Guon ; but afterwards she joined the persecu- tors of that excellent man. On the death of Louis she retired to St. Cyr, where she died in 1718. MALACCA, a country of India beyond the Ganges, consisting of a peninsula, 170 miles long, and 120 broad. It abounds in forests, and contains many fruit trees, which render it very valuable. MALESHERBES, Christian William La- moignon, an eminent French counsellor, was born at Paris in 1721. In 1775 he was made minister of stale for the interior. Under his ad- ministration numerous abuses were removed : but the year following he resigned, and travel- led into different countries, in a plain attire, and under an assumed name. Of the revolution, he conceived a hope that it would be produc- tive of good ; yet he voluntarily pleaded the cause of Louis XVI, and defended him with all the ardor of conscious rectitude. He was con- demned to death, with his daughter and grand- daughter, by the revolutionary tribunal, April 22, 1793. MALPLAQUET, Battle of. This memora- ble battle was fought on the 11th of September, 1709. Of the allied troops, altogether amount- ing to almost 120,000 men, two armies had been formed : one commanded by the Duke of Marlborough, and the other by Prince Eugene, of Savoy. They were found to consist of 165 battalions and 270 squadrons. The French troops were, for the most part, new-raised men, ill clothed, and ill mounted, but in great num- bers. To reinforce their army in Flanders, they had drawn 15,000 men from Germany; these, and others from the Moselle, &c; made their troops amount to 150 battalions and 300 squad- rons. Marshal Villars was commander-in-chief; Marshal Bourflers had been sent to assist him at the battle, but without encroaching upon his authority. The manner in which the French were post- ed may be thus described. Their right wing was covered by the wood of Taisniere on one side, and by that of Jansart on the other. The latter had behind it thick hedges, with three ditches and artificial entrenchments one be- hind another ; the access also was difficult, be- cause of a marshy ground which lay before them. Against this wing the Dutch infantry were to make their attack. Their centre took up all the open space between the wood of Jan- sart and that of Sart. A hamlet towards the middle covered the depth of this centre, which was also defended by a line extending from one wood to the other. Their left wing was posted, partly in the wood of Sart and partly behind, in the plain ; the wood served as a natural covert, besides which they had felled trees, and raised banks of earth and fascines, fortified with can- non. In the lines of their centre were open- ings, to let their cavalry advance. Their artil- lery was posted on advantageous eminences, and they had nothing in their camp to encum- ber them. The signal for the attack was given, by the MAL 327 MAM discharge of 50 pieces of cannon. Prince Eu- gene then advanced with his right, to penetrate into the wood of Sart. In the charges of this wing, General Shulemburg, the Duke of Ar- gyle, and other generals, led on 86 battalions, and Count Loweem 22 other battalions, to at- tack the intrenchments in the woods of Sart and Taisniere. General Withers also, with 19 battalions, attacked the enemy in another in- trenchment beyond the woods of Taisniere and in Great Blagniere. The design in both succeed- ed : the fight, however, was long and obstinate, the enemy defending themselves with equal vig- or. The allies were repulsed more than once, but notwithstanding the barricadoes of felled trees and other impediments, the action wavering almost two hours, they saw themselves at last masters of the wood, and had penetrated so far that they could see the hind part of the in- trenchments of the enemy's centre. The attack of the left wing did not begin till half an hour after that of the right, but it last- ed longer, and was much more bloody. Thirty battalions, sustained by 15 others, Prussians, Hanoverians, or Hessians, engaged with above 70. These thirty battalions were commanded by Prince Friso of Nassau, general of the foot, and by Baron Fagel. Following his example, the troops of his attack advanced as far as the third intrenchment. But these they could not force, as the enemy were well seconded by fresh bat- talions drawn from their centre. The assail- ants were even driven back to their own post. Nevertheless the prince led on his troops a sec- ond time, to attack those intrenchments which he had once gained and lost again. They re- covered the two first, but the third still remain- ed impregnable. When the enemy's left retir- ed, the Duke directed the Earl of Orkney, with 15 battalions, to attack and post himself in the intrenchments in the plain between the woods of Sart and Jansart. This was executed, and gave the horse an opportunity to enter them, and advance into the plain. The first squad- rons, led by the Prince of Hesse and the Prince D'Auvergne, were put into disorder by the household troops, but rallied, under the fire of those battalions. Advantages and disadvantages succeeded alternately six times, till the Prince of Hesse turning to the left, fell upon the rear of the infantry that had been engaged with the Prince of Nassau. This was the decisive stroke. On the sight of the diversion made by the Prince of Hesse, the Dutch battalions recovered new strength, broke through the third and last in- trenchment, and drove all opposition before them. In general, the French made their re- treat in good order ; but three regiments of Danish cavalry made a terrible slaughter among several battalions of their right that had been surrounded. The allies pursued as far as the village of Quievrain ; the enemy lost 16 of their cannon, 20 colors, 26 standards, and left other indisputable marks of victory, including a num- ber of prisoners. Many were taken next morn- ing in Bavay and the neighboring places, weari- ness or their wounds not permitting them to follow their army. MALTA, anciently Melita, and formerly de- pendent on Sicily, is 7 leagues long and 4 broad, with a population of 80,000 inhabitants. Gozo and Comino are two small islands in its vicinity. Its capital, La Valette, is one of the strongest places in the world, and has a valuable harbor of great importance in the commerce of the Archipelago and the Levant. The island for- merly belonged to the order of Malta, or knights of St. John, whose head was a grand master, the sovereign of this little state. The French gained possession of it in 1798, but the English took it in 1800. The soil of this island, which is rock covered with a light bed of earth, pro- duces all sorts of vegetables, excellent fruits, the oranges, in particular, being famous, silk, sugar, and cotton. The climate is mild and the air uncommonly salubrious. The Maltese are sober, fine seamen, and devoted to commerce. MAMALUKES, MAMLOUKS, or MAME- LUKES, from the Arabic Memalik, a slave, a body of cavalry, formed in Egypt 1214, from Georgian and Circassian slaves, chosen for their beauty and strength ; from 1254 they gov- erned that country for 263 years, and expelled the Christians from Palestine in 1291. They remained a military body in Egypt, till the year 1810. but their chiefs were treacherously de- stroyed by Mohammed Ali in 1811. They were mounted on superb Turkish horses, which al- though spirited and full of fire, were docile, and obedient to the word and bit. The prevailing color of this breed is gray, and the unfailing tenderness with which the horses of the Turks are treated, is repaid by astonishing fidelity on the part of these fine animals. The horses of the Mamelukes were splendidly caparisoned, and their studded trappings and rich bits rang in their gallop. The saddles had high pum- mels and cruppers, and the huge, shovel stir- rups were occasionally gilded and curiously or- namented. The riders wore full turbans, light jackets, loose short sleeves, and flowing trow- sers. Their arms were an ataghan or sabre of MAN 328 MAR Damascus steel, which is so finely tempered that a blade composed of it breaks in the hand of an unskilful swordsman. The Mamelukes were skilled in the use of these sabres and never gave slight wounds. Besides the ataghan, the Mameluke had a carbine slung at his back, and a brace of pistols at his saddle-bow. At the famous battle of the pyramids, the Mamelukes were almost annihilated by the French infantry under Bonaparte. The im- penetrable squares of the French regiments received them with a most galling fire. The horses reared and plunged, and the riders fell by hundreds. In the very agony of death, while expiring upon the ground, some of the dis- mounted Moslem dragged themselves to the feet of the French troops, and cut at their legs with their long crooked sabres. Some backed their chargers upon the infantry, and caused them to strike the soldiers with their heels. But their rout was complete. Many perished in the Nile, and but a remnant escaped to Up- per Egypt. Although individually the finest cavalry in the world, they were incapable of acting in concert. MANCO CAPAC, the fictitious founder of the Peruvian monarchy, a deity, who appeared to the Peruvians, and taught them the arts of civilized life. MANLIUS, Marcus Capitolinus, a celebrated Roman consul and commander; who, when Rome was taken by the Gauls, retired into the capitol and preserved it from a sudden attack made upon it in the night. The dogs which were kept in the capitol made no noise ; but the geese, by their cry, awoke Manlius, who had just time to repel the enemy. Geese from that period were always held sacred among the Romans, and Manlius was honored with the surname of Capitolinus. He afterwards endeavored to sub- vert the liberties of his country, and was thrown down the Tarpeian rock, 383 B. C. MANLIUS, Titus Torquatus, a famous Ro- man, who displayed great courage in his youth as military tribune. In the war against the Gauls he accepted a challenge given by one of the enemy ; and having slain him, took his col- lar from his neck, on which account he assum- ed the name of Torquatus. He was the first Roman advanced to the dictatorship without being previously a consul. But he tarnished his glory by putting his son to death, for defeating the enemy without having received orders to attack them. This gave great disgust to the Romans ; and on account of his severity in his government, all edicts of extreme rigor were called Manliana Edicta. He flourished B. C. 340. MANTINEA, a village of Greece, where, in 363 B. C. a battle was fought between the Thebans and Lacedemonians, in which Epami- nondas was killed. MARAT, Jean Paul. The name of this mon- ster revives the recollection of the worst atro- cities of the French revolution. He wrote strongly in favor of the worst of parties, and was a member of the convention. Marat, who belonged to the Mountain party, and was deep- ly implicated in their sanguinary proceedings, was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, in 1793. MARATHON, a village of Greece, 15 miles N. E. of Athens. It is famous for the battle fought in its plains in 490 B. C, in which Mil- tiades, with a small Grecian force, totally de- feated the numerous army sent by Darius, king of Persia, to conquer Greece. MARENGO, a village in the Sardinian duchy of Montferrat, celebrated for the victory of Bo- naparte over the Austrians in 1800. Some de- tails of this most severe conflict, which, per- haps beyond all others, established the military character of Bonaparte, then consul, are well entitled to a place in a compendium of history. The French head-quarters were removed to Voghera, which the army passed through on its way to Tortona, and took up a position round Tortona to blockade it by divisions; the ad- vance-guard quietly went round the town, and passed without any thing remarkable having taken place. If the Austrian commander was doubtful as to what line of conduct he ought to pursue, this was his time to determine ; the possession of Genoa gave him choice either to fight, or shut himself up in the garrison he held ; and he should not have forgotten that so long as he held Genoa, his army had a retreat from the port, and to have kept the communi- cation open with that city should have been his chief concern. The French fought for Genoa from a knowledge of its value, and Bonaparte hastened to derive advantage from the neglect of the Austrians ; he ordered the banks of the Po opposite Valenza to be guarded, lest they should escape that way ; and the passess be- tween Piedmont and Genoa to be gained. Mas- sena and Suchet were rapidly advancing to annoy the rear of the Austrians, and the con- sul in his letter to the inferior consuls, does not seem ignorant of the movements in his favor by the army of Italy. — The French army un- derstood that Melas had evacuated Turin, and was advancing to meet them with 60,000 men. I MAR 329 MAR General Gardanne retired to take post at Ma- rengo, on the plain of which his great body of cavalry would be of much service. — The con- sul Bonaparte skirted Marengo, and was seen examining the ground with attention, by turns meditating and giving orders. The army passed that night at St. Julian's, at the entrance of the plain of Marengo : on the morning of the 14th June, some discharges of cannon roused them from their repose ; all was soon in readiness. Gardenne was attacked at seven o'clock ; the enemy showed much vigor of preparation ; a few weak points were touched on, but his intentions were unknown till late in the morning. Berthier was first in the field, and wounded soldiers arriving, owned that the Austrians were in force. General Victor's di- vision was drawn up in order of battle. Gen- eral Lannes' division formed the right wing. The French army was in two lines, and the cavalry supported its wings. — The consul Bona- parte, about 11 o'clock hastened to the field of battle. General Desaix was ordered to support Victor. The Austrians were careful of their position near the bridge, on the Bormida ; but the principal point of action was at St. Ste- fano, from hence they could cut off the retreat of the French, and they gave their attention to this point. The division under Victor began to give way, and many corps of cavalry and in- fantry were drove back. The firing came nearer, and a sudden and dreadful discharge was heard on the Bormida ; the French were soon after seen retreating, carrying the wounded on their shoul- ders, and the Austrians gained upon them. Bo- naparte advanced, and urged all he met with ; his presence encouraged them ; his own guards no longer continued about his person, but near him shared in the battle. The grenadiers of the consular guard advanced against the enemy : although they were only about 500 men, they still advanced, and forced every thing in their passage ; they were three times charged by the enemies' cavalry ; they surrounded their colors and wounded, and having exhausted all their ammunition, they then slowly fell back, and joined the rear guard. The army fought retreating in all directions ; the Austrians turned the right wing, the gar- rison of Tortona made a sortie, and the French were thus surrounded. The consul, in the cen- tre, encouraged the gallant corps that defended the defile which crossed the road, shut up on one side by a wood, and on the other by some thick vineyards of lofty growth; the village of Marengo was on the left. Of the French artil- lery, the few that remained had but little am- munition left. Thirty pieces of cannon, well served by the enemy, cut up the French. In the midst of this slaughter, the consul appeared to brave death. The ground was ploughed up by the enemies' shot, even between the legs of his horse ; but undaunted, and with the greatest coolness, he gave his orders as events requir- ed : he was urged to retire, but discovered no change. Marengo seemed the prize for which both parties contended. Gardanne flanked the corps going to attack it ; the Austrians for a mo- ment gave way, but being reinforced, marched on. General Kellerman, the younger, support- ed the left; a regiment of dragoons routed a column of Austrian cavalry, but was charged by superior numbers, and was giving way, when two more columns advanced to his as- sistance, and took 100 prisoners. The consul being informed that the reserve of General Desaix was not yet arrived, hasten- ed to the division of General Lannes to slacken its retreat : he tells them it was his practice to sleep on the field of battle. The enemy, however, advanced; the retreat was absolute- ly necessary, which took place in good order, though eighty pieces of cannon were playing on them : this did not annoy the firmness of the French, they manoeuvred as though they were on a parade. At four o'clock in the afternoon, not more than 6000 infantry stood to their col- ors, and six pieces of cannon only could be made use of; one-third of the army was unable to combat, and more than another third was occupied in removing the sick and wounded, owing to the want of carriages. Every circumstance was eminently discourag- ing to the French army, but their fortitude and courage changed their situation in the course of two hours afterwards. The divisons of Mounier and Desaix showed themselves ; they arrived on a gallop, after a forced march often leagues, anxious to avenge their fallen com- rades. The crowd of dead and wounded might well have damped their ardor, but one opinion only reigned among them, and they rushed on to glory. General Melas, being ignorant of what passed in the French line, and also igno- rant of the reinforcements that had timely ar- rived to their succor, changed that disposition which had given him success, and which it was his interest as well as duty to have followed up. He extended his wings, thinking, by this manoeuvre, to have cut the enemy off, but it only brought on his own disaster. Bonaparte, whom nothing escaped, seized on tins favor- MAR 330 MAR able opportunity, and altered his plan accord- ingly- When Desaix reached the heights, the con- sul, the generals, and the staff went through the ranks inspiring confidence. This took up near an hour, while the Austrian artillery was bearing upon their ranks, and many were thus killed without moving, except to cover their comrades' dead bodies. The signal for charg- ing was at length heard. Desaix, at the head of a light battalion, threw himself upon the Aus- trians, and charged with the bayonet : all the French were in motion at once, in two lines, their fire carried every thing before it; the ene- my were in every position overthrown. The French line now presented a formidable front ; as quick as the cannon was brought up, they made dreadful havoc among the affrighted Aus- trians ; they fell back, and their cavalry charg- ed with fury ; a powder wagon blew up, and their alarm increased ; in fact, all gave way and fled. The French cavalry rushed into the plain, and advanced towards the enemy. De- saix trampled on all obstacles which opposed him. Victor carried Marengo, and flew towards the Bormida. The centre, under Murat advanc- ed into the plain ; he much annoyed the Aus- trian centre, and kept a great body of cavalry in check. Desaix cut off the left wing of the Austrians completely, and in the moment of his victory received a mortal wound. General Kellerman made 6000 prisoners, with two gen- erals and officers of the staff. Night com- ing on, the Austrians were all in disorder; all crowded together near the centre, and many were thrown into the river, off the bridge ; their artillery intercepted their retreat. The third line of Austrian cavalry, wishing to save the infantry, came up ; a ditch separated the com- batants ; the French crossed it, and immediate- ly surrounded the two first platoons. The Aus- trians were thrown into disorder ; the pursuit continued, and they made a great many pris- oners ; the Austrian rear guard was cut to pieces. Night setting in, and the extreme fa- tigue of the horses, made Murat determine not to expose his troops more after so succesful a day's work. The armies had been fourteen hours within musket-shot of each other, and wanted rest. Victory waved on each side four times during the day, and sixty pieces of can- non were alternately won and lost. When the battle ended, the French had taken 12 stand- ards, 26 pieces of cannon, and 7000 prisoners. The Austrians lost seven generals, 400 officers, and 8000 men killed or wounded. The French lost Generals Desaix and Watrin killed, four generals of brigade wounded, and 3000 men killed, wounded, and prisoners. The French army, when the battle commenced, was reck- oned at about 45,000 strong, with about thirty pieces of artillery. The Austrian army was from 55 to 60,000 men, including near 18,000 cavalry, and an immense train of artillery well provided. MARGARET OF ANJOU, daughter of Rene, king of Sicily, and wife of Henry VI, king of England. The duke of Gloucester hav- ing opposed her marriage, she effected his ruin, and he was strangled in prison. In the wars of the rival roses, she displayed the character of a heroine. Her husband having been taken prisoner in 1455 by the duke of York, she levied forces, defeated the duke, set Henry at liberty, and entered London in triumph. In 1460, her army was defeated at Northampton by the earl of Warwick, and Henry again became a pris- oner. The queen, however, escaped, and gath- ered another army, with which she inarched against the duke of York who fell in the bat- tle of Wakefield. She next defeated Warwick at St. Albans; but was routed, after a bloody contest at Towton : on which she fled to France to implore succor from Louis XI, who refused her any assistance. This intrepid woman f hen returned to England, where she joined several of her party, but was defeated at Hexhnin. In 1471 she was taken prisoner, and in 1475 she purchased her liberty by a large ransom. She then returned to France, where she died in 1482, aged 59. MARGARET, queen of Denmark and Nor- way, commonly called the Semiramis of the north, vanquished Albert at Falkoping in 1389, and died in 1412. Albert had contemptuously termed her " the kino- in petticoats." MARIAMNE, the wife of Herod the Great, by whom she had two sons, Alexander and Aris- tobulus, and two daughters. Herod was very fond of Mariamne ; but she had little regard for him, especially after he put to death her bro- ther Aristobulus. When Herod went to Rome to court the favor of Augustus, he left secret orders with Josephus, and Sohemus, to destroy Mariamne, and her mother, if any misfortune should happen to him. Mariamne having. ob- tained the secret from Sohemus, upbraided Herod at his return, with his inhumanity, for which he put her to death, together with So- hemus, B. C. 22. MARINO SAN, an Italian republic in the ancient duchy of Urbino. It is one of the small- MAR 331 MAR est states in Europe, and contains but 7000 in- habitants, dispersed through a number of small villages. MARIUS, Caius, a celebrated Roman gen- eral. He conquered Jugurtha, king of Numidia, and afterwards, for several successive years, car- ried on war with the Cimbri and Teucones, bar- barous nations, who attempted to subdue Italy. In his old age he engaged in a civil war with Sylla, and was compelled to flee to Africa, where he was found seated amidst the ruins of Carthage. His party becoming victorious, he returned to Rome, where he died, 86 B. C. MARLBOROUGH, (Churchill, John) duke of, prince of the Roman empire, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650, and received an indifferent education, for his father took him to court at the age of 12 years. About 1666, he was made an ensign in the guards, and served for sometime at Tangier. In 1672 he was with the duke of Monmouth, who served with the French against the Dutch, and was made cap- tain of grenadiers. The conduct of Mr. Chur- chill at the battle of Nimeguen gained the par- ticular notice of Marshal Turenne, who called him the handsome Englishman. At the siege of Maestricht, his bravery was so distinguished that the French king thanked him particularly at the head of the line. He was made, on his return to England, lieutenant-colonel, gentle- man of the bed-chamber, and master of the robes to the duke of York. He attended that prince to Holland, and into Scotland, and about this time married Miss Jennings, a lady in waiting of Anne, afterwards queen of Great Britain. In 1682 he was made a peer, by the title of Baron Eymouth in Scotland ; and when James came to the crown, he was sent ambassador to France to announce the event. In 1685 he was created Lord Churchill of Sandridge in the county of Hertford. The same year he sup- pressed Monmouth's rebellion, and took him prisoner, and continued to serve king James with great fidelity, until the arrival of the prince of Orange, when he left him, but without tak- ing any soldiers with him. The prince was proud of this acquisition, gave his lordship a gracious reception, and intrusted him with the sole regulation of the army. In 1689 he was sworn of the privy council, and made one of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber of the king, and created earl of Marlborough. The same year he was sent to Holland as commander of the English forces. He next served in Ireland, and reduced Cork with other strong places. But notwithstanding these important services, he was dismissed from his employments, and com- mitted to the tower; from which, however, he was soon released. The cause of this injustice has never been explained. At the commencement of queen Anne's reign, the earl came to England, whence he had been sent ambassador to Holland, and recommended a speedy war with France and Spain, which advice was followed. He then went to the con- tinent, as captain-general of the English forces, and performed many brilliant actions through- out his various campaigns, too numerous in- deed to be detailed here. At the battle of Ram- illies, May 12, 1706, he narrowly escaped death, a cannon-shot taking off the head of Colonel Bingly, as he was helping the duke to his horse. In 1711 he returned to England, but was soon deprived of his employments by queen Anne, whose successor, however, restored him his military appointments. He died June 15, 1722. A distinguished poet thus mentions this great warrior : — " 'Twas then great Marlb'rough's mighty soul was proved, That in the shock of charging hosts unmoved, Amidst confusion, horror, and despair, Examined all the dreadful scenes of war ; In peaceful thought the field of death surveyed, To fainting squadrons sent the timely aid ; Inspired repulsed battalions to engage, And taught the doubtful battle where to rage. So when an angel, by divine command, With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, (Such as of late o'er pale Britannia past,) Calm and serene he drives the furious blast, And pleased th' Almighty's wonders to perform, Rides on the whirlwind, and directs the storm." MARMONTEL, John Francis, an eminent French writer, born at Bort, in Limousin, in 1719. He was the son of a tailor, but educated at the college of Toulouse, and afterwards made an abbe. He was imprisoned in the Bas- tille for writing a satire on an influential per- son, but escaped the revolutionary fury. He died in 1798 at Abbeville. His literary char- acter depends chiefly on his Moral Tales. MARS, in ancient mythology, the son of Juno, and the god of war. He is represented with a helmet on his head, a spear in his hand, often on a car, animated with the ardor of bat- tle. The Romans honored him most, and erect- ed many temples to him. His priests, the Salii, celebrated his festivals by dancing, and beating their bucklers in accord to music. He was the favorite of Venus, and completely supplanted Vulcan, who, however, revenged himself. MARTIN ICO, or MARTINIQUE, the larg- est of the Carribee islands, belonging to France, MAR 332 MAR contains 332,865 inhabitants. The productions are sugar, tobacco, coffee, cassava, &c. The climate is very warm. MARY STUART, queen of Scots, daughter of James V, of Scotland, and Mary of Lorraine, was born in 1532, and eight days after her birth, inherited the throne by the death of her father. The regency refused the politic offer of Hen- ry VIII, to unite both kingdoms by the marriage of his son Edward with the heiress of Scotland. At six years of age, she was contracted to the dauphin of France, and resided at Paris till the marriage was solemnized in 1548. There she committed her first political error, in deference to the wishes of her father-in-law; assuming the title of queen of England, on the ground of Elizabeth's illegitimacy from the unlawfulness of Catharine's divorce. Such an act could not be forgotten by a woman of Elizabeth's feelings ; and accordingly, on Mary's arrival in Scotland, on the death of Francis, Elizabeth never left unemployed a single opportunity of ruining her. Mary was also a formidable rival in point of female attraction, and Elizabeth could not forgive her competitor in being surpassed by her in beauty. Through the intrigues of Elizabeth, Mary, who had many offers much more suited to her rank, gave her hand to Lord Darnley, a weak but impetuous man, who was noway calculated to retain her affections. Mary, in return for his slighting and capricious conduct, gave unbe- coming countenance to an Italian musician, named Rizzio, who was invidiously supposed to share the privileges of her husband. Darnley joined some other nobles, who getting privately into the palace, burst into the queen's room, and murdered Rizzio before her face. She now transferred her favors to James Hepburn, earl Bothwell, to whom, although at first disagreeable to her, she seems to have given herself away, principally to accomplish her revenge upon her husband. Darnley was soon after killed by an explosion of his house from gunpowder, and the general voice of his- tory attributes the design to the Queen. Her subsequent conduct confirmed the belief: Both- well was publicly impeached for the murder, and the Queen markedly implicated ; yet after a scene of mock violence and plotted detention, she gave her hand to the alleged murderer of her husband. Neither party, however, was long allowed to reap the advantage of the con- nexion. Bothwell, being opposed by a powerful confederacy of the nobles, fled, and perished miserably in Norway. The confederate lords then obliged Mary to sign a renunciation of her crown in favopof her son, and she herself was committed as a prisoner, and secluded from her friends. The place of her confinement in the castle of Lochleven was all but inaccessible ; but Mary's beauty had pro- cured her a friend in one of her attendants, and by his means she contrived to escape. She found herself very speedily at the head of a con- siderable body of troops, who proclaimed her pretensions, and prepared to maintain them against those of the regent. They were, how- ever, worsted in an engagement which ensued; and Mary, panic-struck, fled towards England, and put herself under the protection of one of Elizabeth's governors. This was exactly what that princess had hoped. She, however, disguised her designs under the mask of friendship ; affected to pity the forlorn, condition of the fugitive queen; and, under the idea of granting her an asylum, betrayed her into a prison. Elizabeth thus became the arbi- ter between Mary and her late subjects, and a sort of court was appointed to hear both parties, and decide between them ; but the proceedings were stopped by Mary refusing to answer the accusations brought against her. During Mary's continuance in confinement, she engaged the affection of the Duke of Nor- folk, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, but who seems very readily to have entered into those ambitious views which such an alliance would naturally open to him. The design, however, was discovered, and Norfolk was committed to the Tower. On the promise of renouncing his scheme he was released ; but on violating it, was again committed, tried, and executed. Mary had, by the countenance she gave to this plan, rendered herself sufficiently odious to a people who almost adored the woman she wa3 endeavoring to supplant; and, on the discovery of a traitorous correspondence with Spain, in which Mary had coolly acceded to the plot of assassinating the Queen, the anger and violence of the English people knew no bounds ; and though it may well be doubted whether even this act could justify the subjecting of an inde- pendent princess to trial and punishment by a foreign people, the general exasperatfcn pre- vailed, and Elizabeth, with well-feigned reluc- tance, signed the warrant for her cousin's exe- cution. Mary's character ever rose with her misfor- tunes, and now at their climax displayed a firm- ness and an energy of which her impetuous temper and fluctuating policy had excited little MAR 333 MAR suspicion. After a long confinement at Cov- entry, she was removed to Fotheringay Castle, to undergo the formality of a trial. When brought before the commissioners she disclaimed their authority, and asserted her innocence. The commissioners, after hearing her defence, declared her guilty of conspiring the death of Elizabeth, and condemned her to death. Mary received the tidings with complacency. Many foreign powers interested themselves in her behalf; and her son James endeavored to save her life, but in vain. A warrant was sent down, and read to the royal captive, who only entreated that she might be permitted the consolations of her own reli- gion ; but even this favor was inhumanly re- fused. She was beheaded in the castle of Foth- eringay, Feb. 8, 1587, after praying to God to forgive all who had thirsted for her blood. Her remains were interred in Peterborough cathe- dral, from whence, with filial piety, they were afterwards removed by her son, and deposited in Westminster Abbey. The last letter the Queen of Scots ever ad- dressed to Elizabeth, as well as the base man- ner in which she treated it, may prove interest- ing. " Madam, I thank God from the bottom of my heart that, by the sentence which has been passed against me, he is about to put an end to my tedious pilgrimage. 1 would not wish it prolonged, though it were in my power, having had enough of time to experience its bitterness. I write at present only to make three last re- quests, which, as I can expect no favor from your implacable ministers, I should wish to owe to your majesty and to no other. First, as in England I cannot hope to be buried according to the solemnities of the Catholic church (the religion of the ancient kings, your ancestors and mine, being now changed), and as in Scot- land they have already violated the ashes of my progenitors, I have to request, that as soon as my enemies have bathed their hands in my in- nocent blood, my domestics may be allowed to inter my body in some consecrated ground ; and ab»ve all, that they may be permitted to carry ™ to France, where the bones of the Queen, my most honored mother, repose. Thus, that poor frame which has never enjoyed repose so long as it has been joined to my soul, may find it at last when they will be separated. Second, as I dread the tyranny of the harsh men to whose power you have abandoned me, I en- treat your majesty that I may not be executed in secret, but in the presence of my servants and other persons who may bear testimony of my faith and fidelity to the true church, and guard the last hours of my life and my last sighs from the false rumors which my adversa- ries may spread abroad. Third, I request that my domestics, who have served me through so much misery and with so much constancy, may be allowed to retire without molestation where- ever they choose, to enjoy for the remainder of their lives the small legacies which my poverty has enabled me to bequeath to them. I conjure you, madam, by the blood of Jesus Christ, by our consanguinity, by the memory of Henry VII, our common father, and by the royal title which I carry with me to death, not to refuse me those reasonable demands, but to assure me, by a letter under your own hand, that you will comply with them ; and I shall then die as I have lived, your affectionate sister and prisoner, Mary Queen of Scots." Whether Elizabeth ever answered this letter does not appear ; but it produced so little effect, that epistles from her to Sir Amias Paulet still exist, which prove that in her anxiety to avoid taking upon herself the responsibility of Mary's death, she wished to have her privately assas- sinated or poisoned. Paulet, however, though a harsh and violent man, positively refused to sanction so nefarious a scheme. Yet in the very act of instigating murder, Elizabeth could close her eyes against her own iniquity, and affect indignation at the alleged offences of another. But perceiving, at length, that no al- ternative remained, she ordered her secretary Davidson to bring her the warrant for Mary's execution, and after perusing it, she deliberately affixed her signature. She then desired him to carry it to Walsingham, saying, with an iron- ical smile, and in a "merry tone," that she feared he would die of grief when he saw it. Walsingham sent the warrant to the chancellor, who affixed the great seal to it, and despatched it by Beal, with a commission to the Earls of Shrewsbury, Kent, Derby, and others, to see it put in execution. Davidson was afterwards made the victim of Elizabeth's artifice, — who, to complete the solemn farce she had been playing, pretended he had obeyed her orders too quickly, and doomed him in consequence to perpetual imprisonment. From tyrants like these who would have ex- pected either mercy or justice ? Mary was per- fectly resigned to her fate, and met it like one who placed the most unwavering reliance in the efficacy of the religion she professed. After hearing the warrant for her execution, she said MAR 334 MAR that though " she was sorry it came from Eliza- beth, she had long been expecting the man- date for her death, and was not unprepared to die." " For many years," she added, " I have lived in continual affliction, unable to do good to myself or to those who are dear to me ; and as I shall depart innocent of the crime which has been laid to my charge, I cannot see why I should shrink from the prospect of immortal- ity." She then laid her hand on the New Tes- tament, and solemnly protested that she had never either devised, compassed, or consented to the death of the Queen of England. Before leaving the world, Mary felt a natural curiosity to be informed upon several subjects of public interest, which, though connected with herself, and generally known, had not penetrated the walls of her prison. She asked if no foreign princes had interfered in her behalf, — if her secretaries were still alive, — if it was intended to punish them as well as her, — if they brought no letters from Elizabeth or others, — and, above all, if her son, the King of Scotland, was well, and had evinced any interest in the fate of a mother who had always loved and never wrong- ed him. Being satisfied upon these points, she proceeded to inquire when her execution was to take place ? Shrewsbury replied that it was fixed for the next morning at eight. She ap- peared startled and agitated for a few minutes, saying that it was more sudden than she had anticipated, and that she had yet to make her will, which she had hitherto deferred, in the expectation that the papers and letters which had been forcibly taken from her would be re- stored. She soon, however, regained her self- possession ; and informing the commissioners that she desired to be left alone to make her preparations, she dismissed them for the night. Upon Bourgoine making the remark that ' more than a few hours was allowed to the meanest criminal,' she said "she must submit with resignation to her fate, and learn to regard it as the will of God." She then requested her attendants to kneel with her, and she prayed fervently for some time in the midst of them. Afterward, while supper was preparing, she employed herself in putting all the money she had by her into separate purses, and affixed to each, with her own hand, the name of the per- son for whom she intended it. At supper, though she sat down to table, she ate little. Her mind, however, was in perfect composure ; and daring the repast, though she spoke little, placid smiles were frequently observed to pass over her countenance. — The calm magnanimity of their mistress only increased the distress of her servants. They saw her sitting among them in her usual health, and with almost more than her usual cheerfulness, partaking of the viands that were set before her ; yet they knew that it was the last meal at which they should ever be present together ; and that the interchange of affectionate service upon their part, and of con- descending attention and endearing gentleness on hers, which had linked them to her for so many years, was now about to terminate for ever. Far from attempting to offer her conso- lation, they were unable to discover any for themselves. As soon as the melancholy meal was over, Mary desired that a cup of wine should be given to her ; and putting it to her lips, drank to the health of each of her attendants by name. She requested that they would pledge her in like manner; and each, falling on his knee, and mingling tears with the wine, drank to her, asking pardon at the same time for all the faults he had ever committed. In the true spirit of Christian humility, she not only willingly for- gave them, but asked their pardon also. The inventory of her wardrobe and furniture was then brought to her ; and she wrote in the mar- gin opposite each article the name of the person to whom she wished it should be given. She did the same with her rings, jewels, and all her most valuable trinkets; and there was not one of her friends or servants, either present or ab- sent, to whom she forgot to leave a memorial. These duties being discharged, Mary sat down to her desk to arrange her papers, to finish her will, and to write several letters. She then drew up her last will and testament; and with- out ever lifting her pen from the paper, or stop- ping at intervals to think, she covered two large sheets with close writing, forgetting nothing of any moment, and expressing herself with all that precision and clearness which distinguished her style in the very happiest moments of her life. She named as her four executors — the Duke of Guise, her cousin-german ; the Arch- bishop of Glasgow, her ambassador in France; Lesley, Bishop of Ross ; and Monsieur de Ruys- seau, her chancellor. She next wrote a letter to her brother-in-law, the King of France, in which she apologized for not being able to enter into her affairs at greater length, as she had only an hour or two to live, and had not been informed till that day after dinner that she was to be executed next morning. " Thanks be unto God, however," she added, " I have no terror at the idea of death, and solemnly declare to you that I meet it innocent of every crime. MAR 335 MAR The bearer of this letter, and my other servants, will recount to you how I comported myself in ,my last moments." The letter concluded with [earnest entreaties that her faithful followers should "be protected and rewarded. — Her anx- iety on their account at such a moment indi- cated all that amiable generosity of disposition which was one of the leading features of Mary's character. About two in the morning she sealed up all her papers, and said she would now think no more of the affairs of this world, but would spend the rest of her time in prayer and com- mune with her own conscience. She went to bed for some hours ; but she did not sleep. Her lips were observed in continual motion, and her hands were frequently folded and lifted up to- wards heaven. On the morning of Wednesday, the 8th of February, Mary rose with the break of day ; and her domestics, who had watched and wept all night, immediately gathered round her. She told them that she had made her will, and re- quested that they would see it safely deposited in the hands of her executors. She likewise besought them not to separate until they had carried her body to France ; and she placed a sum of money in the hands of her physician to defray the expenses of the journey. Her earnest desire was, to be buried either in the church of St. Denis, in Paris, beside her first husband Francis, or at Rheims, in the tomb which con- tained the remains of her mother. She ex- pressed a wish, too, that, besides her friends and servants, a number of poor people and children from different hospitals should be pres- ent at her funeral, clothed in mourning at her expense, and each, according to the Catholic custom, carrying in his hand a lighted taper. She now renewed her devotions, and was in the midst of them, with her servants praying and weeping round her, when a messenger from the commissioners knocked at the door, to an- nounce that all was reUdy. She requested a little longer time to finish her prayers, which was granted. As soon as she desired the door to be opened, the sheriff, carrying in his hand the white wand of office, entered to conduct her to the place of execution. Her servants crowded round her, and insisted on being allowed to accompany her to the scaffold. But contrary orders having been given by Elizabeth, they were told that she must proceed alone. — Against a piece of such arbitrary cruelty they remon- strated loudly, but in vain ; for as soon as Mary passed into the gallery, the door was closed, and believing that they were separated from her for ever, the shrieks of the women and the scarcely less audible lamentations of the men were heard in distant parts of the castle. At the foot of the staircase leading down to the hall below, Mary was met by the Earls of Kent and Shrewsbury ; and she was allowed to stop to take farewell of Sir Andrew Melvil, the master of her household, whom her keepers had not allowed to come into her presence for some time before. With tears in his eyes Melvil knelt before her, kissed her hand, and declared that it was the heaviest hour of his life. Mary assured him that it was not so to her. " I now feel, my good Melvil," said she, " that all this world is vanity. When you speak of me here- after, mention that I died firm in my faith, wil- ling to forgive my enemies, conscious that I had never disgraced Scotland my native country, and rejoicing in the thought that I had always been true to France, the land of my happiest years. Tell my son," she added, and when she named her only child, of whom she had been so proud in his infancy, but in whom all her hopes had been so fatally blasted, her feel- ings for the first time overpowered her, and a flood of tears flowed from her eyes — " tell my son that I thought of him in my last moments, and that I have never yielded, either by word or deed, to aught that might lead to his preju- dice ; desire him to preserve the memory of his unfortunate parent, and may he be a thousand times more happy and more prosperous than she has been." Before taking leave of Melvil, Mary turned to the commissioners, and told them that her three last requests were, that her secretary Curl, whom she blamed less for his treachery than Naw, should not be punished; that her servants should have free permission to depart to France ; and that some of them should be allowed to come down from the apartments above to see her die. The earls answered, that they believed the two former of these requests would be grant- ed ; but that they could not concede the last, alleging, as their excuse, that the affliction of her attendants would only add to the severity of her sufferings. But Mary was resolved that some of her own people should witness her last moments. " I will not submit to the indignity," she said, "of permitting my body to fall into the hands of strangers. You are the servants of a maiden queen, and she herself, were she here, would yield to the dictates of humanity, and permit some of those who have been so long faithful to me to assist me at my death. Re- member, too, that I am cousin to your mistress, MAR 336 MAS and the descendant of Henry VII; I am the dowager of France, and the anointed queen of Scotland." Ashamed of any further opposition, the earls allowed her to name four male and two female attendants, whom they sent for, and permitted to remain beside her for the short time she had yet to live. The same hall in which the trial had taken place was prepared for the execution. At the upper end was the scaffold, covered with black cloth, and elevated about two feet from the floor. A chair was placed on it for the Queen of Scots. On one side of the block stood two executioners, and on the other the Earls of Kent and Shrews- bury ; Beal and the sheriff" were immediately behind. The scaffold was railed off from the rest of the hall, in which Sir Amias Paulet with a body of guards, the other commissioners, and some gentlemen of the neighborhood, amounting altogether to about two hundred persons, were assembled. Mary entered, leaning on the arm of her physician, while Sir Andrew Melvil car- ried the train of her robe. She was in full dress, and looked as if she were about to hold a draw- ingroom, not to lay her head beneath the axe. She wore a gown of black silk, bordered with crimson velvet, over which was a satin mantle ; a long veil of white crape, stiffened with wire, and edged with rich lace, hung down almost to the ground ; round her neck was suspended an ivory crucifix, and the beads which the Catho- lics use in their prayers were fastened to her girdle. The symmetry of her fine figure had long been destroyed by her sedentary life ; and years of care had left many a trace on her beau- tiful features. But the dignity of the queen was still apparent; and the calm grace of men- tal serenity imparted to her countenance at least some share of its former loveliness. With a composed and steady step she passed through the hall, and ascended the scaffold, — and as she listened unmoved while Beal read aloud the warrant for her death, even the myrmidons of Elizabeth looked upon her with admiration. Mary Queen of Scots, died in the forty-fifth year of her age. Her remains now repose in Westminster Abbey, about ten yards from the tomb of Elizabeth. MARYLAND, one of the southern states, divided into two parts by Chesapeake bay which extends from north to south, and thus forms the Eastern shore and the Western shore. Population 446,913. The eastern shore, which is low and level, is sandy, and, below the falls of the rivers, the western shore is similar. But above these the ground gradually rises until the western part of the state is quite mountain- ous. Annapolis is the seat of government, but Baltimore is the largest place in the state, and the third city in the union. The university of Maryland, St. Mary's college, and Rutger's col- lege, are all well endowed and respectable in- stitutions. There are many other seminaries in different parts of the state. The most important articles of export are flour and tobacco. Charles I, in 1632, made a grant of this country to lord Baltimore, a Catholic, who commenced a settle- ment here with about 200 Catholics, in 1634. MASHAM, Abigail, bed-chamber woman to queen Anne, in which situation she supplanted the duchess of Marlborough, and procured the dismissal of the whig ministry, which led to the peace of Utrecht in 1713. MASINISSA, king of a small country in Af- rica, took part with the Carthaginians against Rome, but afterwards became the ally of the Romans, who were indebted to him for many victories. At his death he made Scipio iEmi- lianus guardian of his kingdom. He died B. C. 149. MASK, IRON, or Man in the Iron Mask, the most singular prisoner ever confined within the walls of the Bastile ; of whom, notwithstanding all the curiosity and conjecture that have been employed to ascertain his quality and pedigree, nothing authentic has transpired to the present time. In 1698 he was brought from the island of St. Marguerite by Mons. de St. Mars, the newly-appointed governor of the Bastile, was at- tended with the greatest respect, maintained a sumptuous table, and had every possible indul- gence shown him until the time of his death in Nov. 19, 1703. This mysterious prisoner, on his removal to the Bastile, was carried in a litter, accompanied by several men on horseback, who had orders to put him to death, if he made the slightest attempt to show his face or otherwise discover himself. His face was concealed with a mask of black velvet with springs of steel, which were so constructed that he could eat without taking it off. A physician of the Bas- tile, who had often attended him, said he had never seen his face, though he had frequently examined his tongue and other parts of his body ; but added, that he was admirably well made, that his skin was brown, his voice interesting; that he was very accomplished, read much, played on the guitar, and had an exquisite taste for lace and fine linen. The pains taken in his concealment show that he was a person of considerable quality and importance, and from the following circum- MAS 337 MAS stances it appears singular that he was never discovered. Whilst at St. Marguerite, he one day wrote something with his knife on a silver plate, which he threw from the window towards a boat, lying near the tower. A fisherman took up the plate and brought it to the governor, who, with great astonishment, asked the man if he had read the writing or showed it to any one ; and, although the fisherman answered in the negative, kept him in confinement until he was perfectly satisfied, after which he dismissed him, saying, " It is lucky for you that you can- not read." The abbe Papon says, in the year 1778, I had the curiosity to visit the apartment of this unfortunate prisoner : it looks towards the sea. I found in the citadel an officer in the independent company there, 7!) years of age. He told me that his father had often related to him that a young lad, a barber, having seen one day something white floating on the water, took it up. It was a very fine shirt, written almost all over ; he carried it to Mons. de St. Mars, who, having looked at some parts of the writing, asked the lad, with an appearance of anxiety, if he had not had the curiosity to read it? He assured him he had not, but two days after- wards the boy was found dead in his bed. Immediately after the prisoner's death, his apparel, linen, clothes, mattresses, and every- thing that had been used by him, were burnt; the walls of his room were scraped, the floor was taken up, and every precaution used that no trace of him might be left behind ; and yet there are traces. When he was on the road from St. Marguerite to his last residence, Mons. de St. Mars was overheard to reply to a question of the prisoner, relative to any design against his life. "No, prince, your life is in safety; you must only allow yourself to be conducted." A prisoner told M. la Grange Chancel that he was lodged, with other prisoners, in the room immediately over this celebrated captive, and found means of speaking to him by the vents of the chimney ; but he refused to inform them who he was, alleging, that it would cost him his own life, as well as the lives of those to whom the secret might be revealed. Various have been the individuals supposed to have been the masked prisoner ; particularly the duke de Beaufort, the count de Vermandois, a foreign minister, and the duke of Monmouth, have been conjectured in turn. Collateral facts, neverthe- less, demonstrate that neither of these could have been the person. Voltaire, who has ex- pressly written on this mysterious affair, says, that the secret was known to Monsieur de Chamillard, and that the son-in-law of that minister conjured him on his death bed to tell him the name of the man with the mask ; but he replied it was a state secret, which he had sworn never to divulge. From the account given in a work published in Paris, in 171)0, it appears that this unfortu- nate person was the twin brother of Louis XIV, born eight hours after this monarch, and who was the unhappy victim of superstition and cruelty. His father Louis XIII, being weak enough to give credit to the prediction of some impostors, that if the queen should be delivered of twins, the kingdom would be involved in civil war, ordered the birth of this prince to be kept a profound secret; and had him privately educated in the country as the illegitimate son of a nobleman : but on the accession of Louis XIV the young man gave indications of having discovered his parentage, of which his brother being informed, ordered him to be imprisoned for life, and to wear a mask in order to prevent his beinc recognised. MASSACHUSETTS, one of the New Eng- land states, contains 010,014 inhabitants, accord- ing to the last census. Parts of the state are very hilly. The Green mountains cross the western part of the state from N. to S. Massa- chusetts is the most commercial state of the Union, and the third as regards manufactures which are rapidly increasing. Boston is the capital, and the literary and commercial me- tropolis of the state. Other large and impor- tant towns are Salem, Lowell, New-Bedford, Newburyport, Marblehead, Beverly, Charles- town, Cambridge, Plymouth, Lynn, Nantucket, Springfield, Woicester, &c. The literary in- stitutions of Massachusetts rank deservedly high. Harvard university at Cambridge, is the oldest, and best endowed institution in the Uni- ted States. With it are connected, a theologi- cal, a law, and a medical school. Its library is the largest in the United States, containing about 40,000 volumes. Williams college at Williams- town, the Collegiate Charity institution at Am- herst, and the theological seminary at Andover, are all valuable institutions, and worthy of the patronage they receive. This state comprises the two former colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, which were united under one government in 1092. The first English settlement was made at Ply- mouth, by 101 Puritans, who fled from religious persecution, and landed on the iron-bound coast MAT 338 MAZ in the severity of mid-winter, December 22d, 1020. The men of Massachusetts were fore- most in the expeditions undertaken by the Brit- ish against the French in America. Their blood was shed before Quebec and at Louisburg. and their best and bravest were ever ready in the field to support the interests of their parent country. At length, when the oppressive meas- ures of Britain could no longer be submitted to, Massachusetts was the seat of the earliest con- flicts in favor of liberty. The plains of Lexing- ton and Concord, and the heights of Charles- town, have become hallowed by the American blood that bedewed them, and the glorious ex- ample of Massachusetts was speedily followed by the sister colonies. In 178u', an insurrection broke out under one Shays, but he was defeated at Springfield, in 1787. Since then nothing has occurred to dis- turb the tranquillity, or affect the prosperity of this flourishing and wealthy State. MASSANIELLO, a contraction for Thomas Aniello, the name of a Neapolitan fisherman, who headed a revolt of his countrymen, and threw off the Spanish yoke. Like many men of low origin who have suddenly risen to sove- reign power, he became bewildered by change of his fortunes, and his frenzy was probabiy heightened by his intemperate habits, which impelled him to commit many acts of sanguin- ary violence, and he was killed A. D. 1040. MASSENA, Andre, duke of Rivoli, and prince of Esslingen, marshal of France, born at IN ice in 1758, was a favorite general of Napo- leon, and, in consequence of his success during his Italian campaign, was called by the emperor the darling of victory. In 17il9, he defeated the Russians at Zurich, and in the following year defended Genoa during a protracted siege. In 1810 he was frustrated in his pursuit of lord Wellington before the lines of Torres Vedras. He died in 1817. MATHIAS CORV1NUS, called the great, king of Hungary and Bohemia, was the son of John Hunniades. The enemies of his father confined him in prison in Bohemia ; but on re- gaining his liberty he was elected king of Hun- gary in 1458. His election, however, was op- posed by many of the Hungarian lords, who offered the crown to Frederick III. The Turks profiting by these divisions invaded the coun- try, but were expelled by Mathias, who com- pelled Frederick to yield to him the crown of St. Stephen, of which he had obtained posses- sion. The war was afterwards renewed, and Mathia3 overrunning Austria, took Vienna and Neustadt, on which the emperor was obliged to make a peace in 1487. Mathias reformed many abuses, particularly with respect to duels and law-suits, and was preparing an expedition against the Turks when lie died of an apoplexy in 1490. MATILDA, or Maud, the daughter of Henry I, king of England, and wife of Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, was nominated in 1135 successor to the English throne by her father ; but in her absence Stephen usurped the title. Arriving in England with a large army in 1139 she defeated Stephen, and was acknowledged queen in a parliament held in 1141. Stephen afterwards defeated the empress, on which the national synod declared for him, and Matilda was obliged to leave the kingdom. On the death of the emperor she married Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by whim she had a son, afterwards Henry II, king of England. Matilda died in 1167, aged 67. MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, Roman emperor, was the son of Maximianus Hercules, and declared himself Augustus in 300. He was opposed by Galerius Maximianus, who was defeated, and slew himself. Maxen- tius then marched into Africa, where he be- came odious by his cruelties. Constantine af- terwards defeated him in Italy, and he was drowned in crossing the Tiber in 312. Before the battle, Constantine adopted the cross as his standard, and after the victory, made Christianity the religion of the empire. MAXIMINUS, Caius Julius Verus, Emperor of Rome, was the son of a peasant in Thrace, and having displayed great courage in the Ro- man armies, he rose to command. On the death of Alexander Se verus, he caused himself to be proclaimed emperor A. D. 235. He was a great persecutor ; and put to death above 4000 per- sons, on suspicion of their being concerned in a conspiracy against him. His soldiers assassi- nated him near Aquikia, A. D. 250. His stat- ure and strength were very extraordinary : and his disposition proportionably brutal. Forty pounds of meat, and eighteen bottles of wine, were his ordinary allowance for a day. His strength was such that he is said to have stopped a chariot in full speed with one of his fingers. MAZARIN, Julius, a Roman cardinal and minister of state, was born in Piscina in Italy, in 1002. Being appointed Nuncio Extraordinary to France, he acquired the friendship of Riche- lieuand the confidence of Louis XIII. In 1041, Pope Urban VIII made him cardinal ; and on the death of Richelieu, Louis appointed him MEC 339 MEN Minister of State. He was also nominated one of the executors of the king's will, and had the principal management of affairs during the mi- nority of Louis XIV ; but at length the mur- murs of the people rose so much against him, that he found it expedient to quit the kingdom, and a price was set on his head. He afterwards recovered his power, and con- tinued to render the state the most important services, the principal of which was the restor- ing peace between France and Spain in 1659. His application to business produced a disease, of which he died in 1661. MAZEPPA, John, a Polish gentleman, born in the palatinate of Podolia, was educated as the page of Jean Casimir, and, at his court, became acquainted with letters. An intrigue in his youth with the wife of a Polish gentleman caused him to be bound, naked, to the back of a wild horse. " ' Bring forth the horse ! ' — the horse was brought ; In truth, lie was a noble steed, A Tartar of the Ukraine breed ; Who look'd as though the speed of thought Were in his limbs ; but be was wild, Wild as the wild deer, and untaught ; With spur and bridle undefiled — 'Tivas but a day he had been caught ; And snorting, with erected mane, And struggling fiercely, but in vain, In the full foam of wrath and dread, To him the desert-born was led." Byron. On being loosed, the horse, which was of the Ukraine, returned thither, bearing Mazeppa, who arrived, half dead with hunger and fatigue. Some peasants afforded him succor, and he remained a long time among them, signalizing himself in many exertions against the Tartars. The superiority of his understanding acquired him the respects of the Cossacks, and, in con- sequence of his increasing reputation, the czar was constrained to make him Prince of the Ukraine. He, however, joined Charles XII, and fought for him at the fatal battle of Pultawa. In some parts of Germany, during the feudal times, an infringement of the forest-laws, was punished by chaining the offender to the back of a wild stag, which bounded away with him, through thorny thickets, and wild passes, until death relieved him of his sufferings. MECCA, a large city of Arabia, formerly containing 100,001) inhabitants; the present population is about 60,000. It derives its cele- brity from being the birth-place of Mahomet, and the seat of his power, and accordingly every pious Mussulman makes a pilgrimage to it at least once in his life. Here a conspiracy was formed against the prophet, and flight was his only resource. After an exile of seven years, however, the fugitive missionary was enthroned as the prince and prophet of his native country. MEDIA, a celebrated country of Asia. It was originally called Aria, till the age of Medus, the son of Medea, who gave it the name of Me- dia. The province of Media was first raised into a kingdom by its revolt from the Assyrian monarchy, B. C. 820 ; and, after it had for some time enjoyed a kind of republican government, Deioces. by artifice, procured himself to be called king, 700 B. C. After a reign of 53 years, he was succeeded by Phraotes, B. C. 647 ; who was succeeded by Cyaxares, B. C. 625. His successor was Astyages, B. C. 585, in whose reign Cyrus became master of Media, B. C. 551 ; and ever after the country was occupied by the Persians. The Medes were warlike in the primitive ages of their power ; they encouraged poly- gamy, and were remarkable for the homage which they paid to their sovereigns, who were styled kings of kings. This title was afterwards adopted by their conquerors, the Persians ; and it was still in use in the age of the Roman em- perors. MEDICIS, Cosmo, called the elder, the foun- der of an illustrious family at Florence, was a merchant, and was born in 1389. He acquired great wealth, which he appropriated to the no- ble purposes of advancing learning, and sup- porting learned men. He collected a noble library, which he enriched with inestimable manuscripts. The envy excited against him by his riches, raised him many enemies, by whose intrigues he was obliged to quit his na- tive country. He then retired to Venice, where he was received as a prince. His fellow-citizens afterwards recalled him, and he bore a prin- cipal share in the government of the republic thirty years. He died in 1464. On his tomb was engraved this inscription : The Father of his people, and the Deliverer of his Country. MEDINA, or Medina el Nebi, a city of Ara- bia, celebrated from its containing the tomb of Mahomet ; during his residence there it was at- tacked by an army of 10,000 enemies, but the prudence of Mahomet declined a general en- gagement, and the confederates at length retired. MEDINA SIDONIA, Alfonso Perez Guz- man, Duke de, commander of the celebrated Spanish armada in 1588. MENZIKOFF, Alexander, a prince of the Russian empire, was the son of a peasant, and the servant of a pastry-cook, who employed him to cry pies about the streets. His appearance MEX 340 MEX pleasing Peter the Great, he took him into his service. Menzikoff soon insinuated himself into the confidence of his sovereign, who made him governor of Ingria, with the rank of major- general, and at length conferred on him the title of prince. In 1713 he was accused of pecula- tion, and condemned to pay a heavy fine, which the czar remitted and restored him to favor. Under the czarina Catharine he had still more power, and his daughter was married to Peter II, who made Menzikoff duke of Cozel, and grand master of the imperial hotel. But by the intrigues of Dolgorucki, mistress of the czar, he fell into disgrace, and was banished to his es- tate ; where he lived in such magnificence, that Peter was persuaded to send him, for his own safety, into Siberia, where he died in a poor hut, in 1729. MESSALINA, Valeria, daughter of Messala Barbatus, and wife of the Emperor Claudian, an abandoned woman. Having espoused her fa- vorite Silius, in the lifetime of her husband, she was put to death by order of the emperor, A. D. 46. There was another of this name, who was the third wife of Nero, after her first husband Atticus had been put to death by that tyrant. On the death of Nero she devoted the remainder of her days to study, and acquired a great reputation. MESOPOTAMIA, or Diarbekr, part of the kingdom of Assyria, which was founded by Pul in 790 B. C. It underwent all the revolutions of this and the Persian empire, till it was con- quered by Trajan in 106 ; after which it several times changed masters betwixt the Romans and the Persians, but generally belonged to the lat- ter, till it was conquered by the Saracens, to- gether with the rest of Persia, in 651 . It was seized by the Seljuks in 1046, and by Genghis Khan in 1218. In 1360 Tur Ali Beg, the Turk- man, founded the dynasty called Ak Koyunlu, or the white sheep, in this country. It submitted to Timur Begin 1400, but he did not retain the conquest. In 1514 it was con- quered by Ismael Sofi, the Persian, was half conquered by the Turks in 1554, recovered by the Persians in 1613, but completely reduced by the Turks in 1637, when the emperor Morad took Bagdat. MEXICO, or New Spain; a republic of North America, formerly belonging to Spain, and gov- erned by a viceroy. The land attains an un- common elevation in the interior, Mexico, the capital, being 7,000 feet above the ocean. The highest summit of the Cordilleras of Mexico, is the volcanic peak of Popocatepetl, 17,716 feet high. The climate on the coast is hot, and, in general, unhealthy, but upon the high table- land, it is uncommonly salubrious. A large portion of the soil is fertile, producing maize, wheat, sugar, indigo, tobacco, agave, different kinds of fruits, bananas, manioc, vanilia, cocoa, cochineal, logwood and mahogany. The an- nual produce of the rich gold and silver mines, for which Mexico is celebrated, is about 20,000.000 dollars. One of these mines is eight miles in length, and, in one place, 1640 feet in depth. The religion is Roman Catholic. Ed- ucation is generally neglected, although there is a university in the city of Mexico. The city is well built, its streets are wide and airy, and it contains many splendid public buildings. Pop- ulation about 168,800. A large portion of the population is composed of subdued Indians. When the Spaniards, under Cortez, com- menced the conquest of Mexico, they found the native Indians far advanced in civilization, wealthy, hospitable, liberal, and, in general, in- offensive. They appeared to have an instinc- tive dread of the foreigners, and yet treated them with kindness. They were willing to share their wealth with the Spaniards, but noth- ing less than the whole would satisfy the cu- pidity of the Christians. After scenes of cruel- ty and treachery the Spanish leader completed the conquest in 1521 . The country continued under the jurisdiction of a Spanish viceroy, un- til it declared itself independent in 1820. The following description of a Mexican dinner is given by a recent traveller. At dinner nothing seemed so strange to me as the manner in which the lady of the house leaves the table. It must be premised that the dining-tables are so high, that little men are much perplexed about get- ting their food. Our hostess, who was small and pretty fat, was seated so that her mouth was at the edge of her plate and her shoulders under the table. As soon as her appetite was satisfied, she left the table at which we remained seated. In the centre of the room was suspended a ham- mock into which she flung herself with great nonchalance, and giving herself a slight push by applying her foot to a pillar, she swung to and fro in this position. Soon after, one of her waiting maids brought her a cigar rolled up in paper, and after having lighted it, began to smoke it herself and then stuck it in her mis- tress' mouth. This operation was performed so skilfully that the motion of the hammock did not for a moment cease. Our pretty hostess gave a fresh impulse to her dormitory, and when the see-sawing motion had ceased, the MIL 341 MIL cigar was smoked up, the lady asleep, and our dinner ended. MICHIGAN TERRITORY, belongs to the United States, and is a peninsula, surrounded by lakes and rivers, on all sides but the southern extremity. The face of the country is general- ly level, never rising into lofty elevations. Its fertility, except in that part bordering on lake Michigan, is very great. Detroit, the chief town, has considerable trade. Michilimacki- nack, a village, on an island in the straits of Michilimackinack, 300 miles N. N. W. of De- troit, is a thriving place. MIDDLETON, Arthur, a distinguished American patriot, was born in S. Carolina, in 1743, but was educated in England. As a mem- ber of Congress, he signed the Declaration of Independence, and lost a great part of his prop- erty during the revolution. He died Jan. 1 , 1787. MILAN, a duchy in the north of Italy, con- tains 2,250,000 inhabitants. It was comprised, with several other districts under the general name of Lombardy, until the 14th century, when Visconti, a Milanese nobleman, purchased the ducal title from the reigning emperor ; the marriage of his daughter to the duke of Or- leans, gave rise to the pretensions of the kings of France to this duchy. After the death of the last duke of this line, Francis Sforza, a man of family and talents, so ingratiated himself with the people, that he was unanimously chosen duke in 1450. On the extinction of the Sforza family a cen- tury after, the emperor Charles V gave the Milanese as a fief of the empire to his son Philip II, king of Spain, and it remained an appendage to that crown till 170G, when a brilliant cam- paign of Prince Eugene, put it in possession of the house of Austria, to which, with the excep- tion of the Sardinian Milanese, it continued subject during 90 years, until the victories of Bonaparte in 1796. On the formation of the Cisalpine republic, the whole of Milan, divided into four departments, was comprised in it ; but on the restoration of the old order of things, in 1814, the part belonging to the king of Sardinia, was restored, and the remainder incorporated with Austrian Italy. MILAN, capital city of the duchy of the same name, contains many splendid public buildings, and 130,000 inhabitants. The French made themselves masters of it in 179G; but were driven out in 1799 by the victorious army of the Austrians and Russians. After the battle of Marengo, Milan again fell into the hands of the French, and continued the seat of their viceroy until the fall of Bonaparte in 1814. MILTIADES,an Athenian, married Ilegc- sipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the king of the Thracians. In the third year of bis government his dominions were threatened by an invasion of the Scythian Nomades, whom Darius had sometime before irritated by entering their coun- try. He fled before them ; but, as their hostili- ties were but momentary, he was soon restored to his kingdom. Three years after he left Cher- sonesus, and set sail for Athens, where he was received with great applause. He was present at the celebrated battle of Marathon, in which all the chief officers ceded their power to him, and left the event of the battle to depend upon his superior abilities. He obtained an important victory over the more numerous forces of his adversaries ; and when he had demanded of his fellow-citizens an olive crown, as the reward of his valor in the field of battle, he was not only refused, but severely reprimanded for presumption. Some time after Miltiades was intrusted with a fleet of 70 ships, and ordered to punish those islands which had rovolted to the Persians. He was successful at first ; but a sudden re- port that a Persian fleet was coming to attack him, changed his operations as he was besieg- ing Paros. He raised the siege and returned to Athens, where he was accused of treason, and particu- larly of holding a correspondence with the ene- my. The falsity of these accusations might have appeared, if Miltiades had been able to come into the assembly. A wound which he had received before Paros detained him at home ; and his enemies, taking advantage of his absence, be- came more eager in their accusations, and louder in their clamors. Pie was condemned to death : but the rigor of the sentence was retracted on the recollection of his great services to the Athe- nians, and he was put into prison till he had paid a fine of 50 talents to the state. His ina- bility to discharge so great a sum detained him in confinement, and soon after his wounds be- came incurable, and he died about 489 years be- fore the Christian era. The crimes of Miltiades were probably aggravated in the eyes of his countrymen, when they remembered how he made himself absolute in Chersonesus ; and in condemning the barbarity of the Athenians to- wards a general who was the source of their military prosperity, we must remember the jea- lousy which ever reigns among a free and in- dependent people, and how watchful they are MIR 342 MIS in defence of the natural rights which they see wrested from others by violence and oppression. MINDEN, a town of Prussia, containing 8,960 inhabitants. Here Prince Ferdinand gain- ed a victory over the French in the campaign of 1759. The merit of the victory is principally to be ascribed to the valor and steadiness of the British troops engaged. Minden surrendered on the next day ; and the French retreated to the other side of the Weser. MINORCA, the second of the Balearic isl- ands in the Mediterranean, contains 30,000 in- habitants. It produces abundance of vegeta- bles, some wines, and oil; and hns mines of iron, lead, and admirable marble. The inhabit- ants are devoted to commerce, and of the Ro- man Catholic persuasion. The climate, al- though hot, is agreeable. In 1708 the English took possession of it, and retained it till 1758, when it was retaken by a French fleet and army, after the failure of an attempt to relieve it, which led to the sentence of the unfortunate Admiral Byng. At the peace of 1703 Minorca was lestored to Britain: but in 1782 it was re- taken by the Spaniards. It was once more taken by the British in 1798 ; but was restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802. MINOS, a king of Crete, who gave laws to his subjects, B. C. 1406, which still remained in full force in the age of the philosopher Plato. His justice and moderation procured him the appellation of the favorite of the gods, the wise legislator, in every city of Greece : and, accord- ing to the poets, he was rewarded for his equity, after death, with the office of supreme and ab- solute judge in the infernal regions. MIRABEAU, Honore Gabriel, Count de, a French nobleman was born in 1749. lie was born with a club foot, a defect which has given rise to a comparison with Byron more distin- guished for ingenuity than accuracy. In addi- tion to this defect, his tongue, fastened by the froenum,gave little promise of oratorical success. But the size and vigor of his limbs, and the cir- cumstance of two molar teeth being already formed in his mouth, were sufficiently extraor- dinary. He was also early attacked with the small pox which left its usual impress on his face. In a letter from the marquis, his father, to the countess of Ilochefort, the following pas- sage occurs : " A fete is this day given in honor of my mother (the dowager-marchioness, widow of Jean-Antoine de Mirabeau, then 72 years of age). It is the production of my son's tutor (an indefatigable author and actor of such fellies.) You will see a little monster perform therein, whom they call my son ; but who, were he the son of La Thorrillere, could not display a greater aptitude for all sorts of devilment." In another letter, dated 21st of September, 1758, he writes thus ; " My son, whose size, prattle, and ugliness are wonderfully on the increase, grows more exquisitely and peculiarly ugly from day to day, and, withal, a most indefatigable speech- ifier." At an early age he quarreled with his father, and fled from the paternal mansion, but the old count procured a lettre de cachet, and imprisoned him. He however escaped, and lived for a long time in habits of dissipation : in proof of which the following anecdote is related. Mirabeau, one day, called up his valet to discharge him. The fellow asked the reason. " It is this," said Mi- rabeau ; " You were drunk yesterday, as I my- self was. Now, sir, you remember you agreed to get drunk only on days when I was sober." " 1 remember it," replied the valet; " but you will excuse me when you reflect upon the im- possibility of iny obeying you — for you are drunk every day." Mirabeau reflected a mo- ment, and retained the domestic. He went to Berlin towards the close of the reign of Frederic, and was there when the French revolution commenced, on which he returned home, and was elected a member of the states-general. He rendered his name me- morable by the display of the most polished and powerful eloquence. In 1791 he became pres- ident of the national assembly ; but died of a fever on the 2d of April following. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States, con- taining, in 1830, 13(5,620 inhabitants. The north- ern part of the country is uneven, but not moun- tainous, while the southern part is a swampy level. Cotton is the staple production. After Natchez, the largest town, come Jackson, Wash- ington, Woodvifle, Port Gibson, Monticello, &c. There are two colleges in this state, one at Washington, and one at Shielcisborougli. There are but few Indians in Mississippi — most of the Chickasaws and Choctaws having been remov- ed beyond the Mississippi. The first settlement in this state was commenced at Natchez in 1716. In 1817 Mississippi was admitted into the Union as an independent state. MISSOURI, one of the United States, con- tains 140,450 inhabitants. It is well watered, and the face of the country greatly diversified. The highest peaks of the Ozark mountains reach an elevation of 3,000 feet. The soil upon the rivers is, in general, highly productive, and the staple productions are Indian corn, grain, MIT 343 MIT hemp, flax, and tobacco. The lead mines of Missouri are very valuable, and yield annually about 4,000,000 pounds of lead. Jefferson isthe seat of government. St. Louis is a large and flourishing town. Education has been provided for by liberal allowances. MITHRIDATES I, was the third king of Pontus. He was tributary to the crown of Per- sia, and his attempts to make himself independ- ent proved fruitless. He was conquered in a battle, and obtained peace with difficulty. Xen- ophon calls him merely a governor of Cappa- docia. He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, B. C. 3ti3. The second of that name, King of Pontus, was grandson to Mithridates I. He made him- self master of Pontus, which had been conquer- ed by Alexander, and had been ceded to Anti- gonus at the general division of the Macedonian empire among the conqueror's generals. He reigned about 2G years, and died at the advanc- ed age of 84 years, B. C. 302. He was succeeded by his son Mithridates III. This enterprising and powerful monarch en- larged his paternal possessions by the conquest of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, and died after a reign of thirty-six years. The fourth succeeded his father Ariobarzanes, who was the son of Mithridates III. The fifth succeeded his father Mithridates IV, and strengthened himself on his throne by an alliance with Antiochus the Great, whose daughter, Laodice, he married. He was suc- ceeded by his son Pharnaces. The sixth succeeded his father Pharnaces. He was the first of the kings of Pontus who made alliance with the Romans. He furnished them with a fleet in the third Punic war, and assisted them against Aristonicus, who had laid claim to the kingdom of Pergainus. He was murdered B. C. 123. The seventh, surnamed Eupator, and The Great, succeeded his father Mithridates VI, thougb only at the age of 11 years. The begin- ning of his reign was marked by ambition, cru- elty and artifice. He murdered the two sons whom his sister Laodice had had by Ariarathes, King of Cappadocia, and placed one of his own children, only eight years old, on the vacant throne. These violent proceedings alarmed Ni- comedes, King of Bithynia, who had married Laodice. the widow of Ariarathes. He suborned a youth to act as King of Cap- padocia, as the third son of Ariarathes, and La- odice was sent to Rome to impose upon the sen- ate, and assure them that her third son was still alive, and that his pretensions to the kingdom of Cappadocia were just and well grounded. Mithridates used the same arts of dissimula- tion. He also sent to Rome Gordius, the gov- ernor of his son, who solemnly declared before the Roman people, that the youth who sat on the throne of Cappadocia, was the third son and lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that he was sup- ported as such by Mithridates. This intricate affair displeased the Roman senate, and finally to settle the dispute between the two monarchs, the powerful arbiters took away the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithri- dates, and Paphlagonia from JNicomedes. These two kingdoms being thus separated from their original possessors, were presented with their freedom and independence ; but the Cappado- cians refused it, and received Ariobarzanes for king. Such were the first seeds of enmity be- tween Rome and the King of Pontus. Mithridates. the more effectually to destroy the power of his enemies in Asia, ordered all the Romans that were in his dominions to be massacred. This was done in one night, and no less than 150,000 according to Plutarch, or 80,000 Romans, as Appian mentions, were made, at one blow, the victims of his cruelty. This universal massacre called aloud for revenge. Aquilius, and soon after Sylla, marched against Mithridates with a large army. The former was made prisoner ; but Sylla obtained a victory over the king's generals, and another decisive engagement rendered him master of all Greece, Macedonia, Ionia, and Asia Minor, which had submitted to the victorious arms of the mon- arch of Pontus. This ill fortune was aggra- vated by the loss of about 200,000 men, who were killed in the several engagements that had been fought, and Mithridates, weakened by repeated ill success by sea and land, sued for peace from the conqueror, which he ob- tained on condition of defraying the expenses which the Romans had incurred by the war, and of remaining satisfied with the possessions which he had received from his ancestors. While these negotiations of peace were carri- ed on, Mithridates was not unmindful of his real interests. His distress, and not his inclinations, obliged him to wish for peace. He immediate- ly took the field with an army of 140,000 in- fantry and l(i,000 horse, which consisted of his own forces and those of his son-in-law Tigranes, King of Armenia. With such a numerous ar- my, he soon made himself master of the Ro- man provinces in Asia; none dared to oppose his conquests, as the Romans, relying on his MIT 344 MON fidelity, had withdrawn the greatest part of their armies from the country. The news of his warlike preparations was no sooner heard, than Lucullus, the consul, marched into Asia, and without delay block- ed up the camp of Mithridates, who was then besieging Cyzicus. The Asiatic monarch es- caped from him, and fled into the heart of his kingdom. Lucullus pursued him with the utmost celerity, and would have taken him prisoner after a battle, had not the avidity of his soldiers preferred the plundering of a mule load- ed with gold, to the taking of a monarch who had exercised such cruelties aginst their coun- trymen, and shown himself so faithless to the most solemn engagements. The appointment of Glabrio to the command of the Roman forces, instead of Lucullus, was favorable to Mithridates, and he recovered the greatest part of his dominions. The sudden arrival of Pompey, however, soon put an end to his victories. A battle, in the night, was fought near the Euphrates, in which the troops of Pontus labored under every disadvantage. An universal overthrow ensued, and Mith- ridates, bold in his misfortunes, rushed through the thick ranks of the enemy, at the head of 800 horsemen, 500 of whom perished in the attempt to follow him. Mithridates found a safe retreat among the Scythians ; and, though des- titute of power, friends, and resources, yet he meditated the destruction of the Roman em- pire, by penetrating into the heart of Italy by land. These wild projects were rejected by his fol- lowers, and he sued for peace. It was denied to his ambassadors, and the victorious Pompey declared, that to obtain it, Mithridates must ask it in person. He scorned to trust himself in the hands of his enemy, and resolved to conquer or to die. His subjects refused to follow him any longer, and they revolted from him, and made his son Pharnaces king. The son show- ed himself ungrateful to his father, and even, according to some writers, he ordered him to be put to death. This unnatural treatment broke the heart of Mithridates ; he obliged his wife to poison her- self, and attempted to do the same himself. It was in vain ; the frequent antidotes he had taken in the early part of his life strengthened his constitution against the poison, and when this was unavailing, he attempted to stab him- self. The blow was not mortal; and a Gaul, who was then present, at his own request gave him the fatal stroke, about 63 years B. C, in the 72d year of his age. This prince, who made war against the Romans forty years, and was never entirely vanquished but by Pompey, although he had lost many battles against Lu- cullus, has been much praised. Cicero calls him the greatest of kings since the time of Alex- ander the Great. MODENA, a duchy in the north of Italy, containing 375,000 inhabitants. In 179G the duke of Modena was expelled from his domin- ions by the French : and at the peace of Cam- po Forinio, in 1797, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic ; but in 1814 they were restored by the Congress of Vienna to the duke. MOLUCCAS, or SPICE ISLANDS, are be- tween the Sunda isles, the Philippines and New Holland. These islands were discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, hut now belong to the Dutch, who obtain from them sandal wood, musk, cloves, and spices. There are also mines of copper and silver, which are very productive, and delicious fruits. MONGULS,or MONGOLS, The. An Asi- atic tribe, who inhabited the central regions of the continent, and were little known till Gen- ghis Khan, by his conquests, immortalized their name. He extended his dominions through a space of more than 800 leagues from east to west, and above 1 ,000 from north to south, over the most powerful and wealthy kingdoms of Asia. It is with justice, therefore, that he is acknow- ledged to have been the greatest prince who ever filled the eastern throne. He was the son of Pisuka, who first brought under his command the greater part of the chiefs of the Mongul nations, and who designated his son by the name of Temujin, from a vanquished khan so called. After the death of his father, Temujin mar- ried the daughter of the great Khan, who, har- boring suspicions to the prejudice of his son-in- law, was dethroned, and Temujin took posses- sion of the empire. Temujin was at that time forty years of age, when, seeing himself master of very extensive dominions, he adopted the resolution of rendering his power in some de- gree lawful, by the public homage of all the princes within the precincts of his empire. Ac- cordingly, lie convoked them at Karakorom, his capital ; and, with the diadem encircling his brow, he advanced into the midst of this au- gust assembly, seated himself on his throne, and received the compliments of the khans and other nobility, who offered up prayers for his health and prosperity. They then confirmed to MON 345 MON him and his successors the sovereignty of the Mongul empire. After some subsequent victories, a similar in- auguration took place at the head of his army, when Kockja, one of his relatives, who, by strictly practising the rigid duties of religion, had obtained the reputation of being inspired, approached the prince, and informed him, that it was the pleasure of God that he should hence- forth assume the name of Genghis Khan. However, it is probable that the ambition of Genghis Khan might have been satisfied with his dominions, had not the sovereign of the Kin, or northern part of China, imprudently demanded of him the same tribute as was paid him by princes whom he had dethroned, and whose authority he had usurped. This claim irritated the haughty conqueror, whose troops poured like a torrent over China, routed its armies, desolated the country, and amassed im- mense treasures. The cities, and even the royal residence, fell into the hands of Genghis Khan, who, in the short space of five years, found him- self master of all that extensive territory, and who appointed Muhuli, his experienced gen- eral, governor and lieutenant, with the title of king, which was to descend to his posterity. Genghis Khan had determined to make the domains of Mohammed, Sultan of Karazm, the boundary of his empire ; but a disagreement taking place with that sovereign, the great khan assembled all his forces, and, after defeating the sultan, besieged and took Bochara, the centre of his dominions, where all his wealth was lodged. Though Mohammed possessed a great part of Turkestan, was master of Great Bukha- ria, and Karazm, whence his monarchy derived its name, and held in possession all Persia, Per- sian Irak, and the frontiers of India, he could make no effectual opposition. The celerity and military exploits of Genghis Khan resembled a torrent spreading devasta- tion, or rather a thunderbolt bursting over several countries at once, and involving them in flames and ruin. Though the sultan made every effort in his power to succor his wretched dominions, his armies were constantly defeated in general engagements; and, after eluding his pursuers, he landed on a small island in the Caspian Sea, where an acute disease, added to his grief, speedily terminated his life. His son Jalaloddin endeavored, but in vain, to avenge the cause of his father on the Mon- guls. While Genghis Khan, on one side of his empire, had fixed the Indus as its limits, his lieutenants on the other subjugated Persia, en- closed the Caspian Sea within his dominions, and carried their victorious arms as far as Ico- nium, whose sultans, with some other Turkish sovereigns, they rendered tributary. The fur- ther enterprises of this aspiring monarch were always crowned with victory. He was constant- ly attended by prosperity, which never quitted him to his tomb. He died A. D. 1227, at the age of seventy, after a reign of twenty-two years, preserving to the last an undiminished authority over all the surrounding nations. The qualities of Genghis Khan characterized a conqueror. He possessed a genius capable of conceiving great and ardu- ous designs, and prudence equal to their execu- tion; a natural and persuasive eloquence; a de- gree of patience, which enabled him to endure and overcome fatigue ; an admirable temper- ance ; a superior understanding, and a penetrat- ing mind, that instantly conceived the measure proper to be adopted on every occasion. His military talents appeared in his successfully in- troducing a strict discipline and severe police among the Tartars, who till that time were unused to any restraint. His laws were sim- ple, and suitable to a newly-formed people, who have few complex social connections. Though some of his own children, and princes of the blood were Christians, and some Jews and Mohammedans, they incurred no marks of his disapprobation. He instituted a grand hunt- ing-match, the model of which he left to his successors. Though Genghis Khan had declar- ed his son Octa his successor, this prince refus- ed to accept the crown till it was delegated to him by the states, which did not assemble till two years after the deatli of his father. He com- mitted the general management of affairs to Yelu, a man of integrity and extensive know- ledge ; and he placed at the head of his armies his own brother Toley, whose talents were of singular utility in the war which his father had left him to prosecute against the inhabitants of Southern China. Quay-yew, or Kayuk had a great respect for his mother, who, therefore, still retained a considerable share of the govern- ment. His beneficence and courage are deserv- edly applauded; and he commanded the armies in person at the conquest of Corea, and of the nations in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, A. D. 1247. He died at the age of 43, after a reign of eight years. On the first day of the year 13G8, Chu was solemnly proclaimed Emperor of China, amid the greatest demonstrations of joy. Touhante- mur, naturally a coward, determined to retire MON 346 MON into Tartary, and, surrounded by his guards, his wives, and others of his court, took his course towards the north. Thus ended the em- pire of the Monguls in China, after they had continued in possession of that vast country during a term of 102 years. Touhantemur re- tained his sovereignty over the Monguls in Tar- tary, where he was succeeded A. D. 1370 by his son, Ayyewshilitata, against whom, and his suc- cessors, the Chinese, sustained many sanguin- ary wars, notwithstanding the great wall which separated them. At length, however, they ceas- ed to disturb each other, and lived quietly with- in their own territories. Jn this interval the Manchoos became formidable, and in the end subdued both the Monguls and the Chinese. MONK, George, Duke of Albemarle, was descended from the Plantagenets, and born in Devonshire in 1C08. At the age of 17 he serv- ed under his relation, Sir Richard Grenville, in an expedition against Spain; and, in 1630, he went as an ensign to the Low Countries, where he obtained a captain's commission. In 1639, he attended Charles I to Scotland, and was made lieutenant-colonel ; afterwards he went to Ire- land, and for his services in the rebellion, was appointed governor of Dublin. On his return to England with his regiment, in 1(J43, he was made major-general in the Irish brigade, then employed in the siege of Nantwich, in Cheshire, where he was taken prisoner, and sent to the Tower. After remaining in confinement about three years, he was induced to accept a com- mission under the parliament against the Irish rebels ; in which service he performed several great exploits, but at last fell under censure, for concluding a treaty with O'Neil. Upon this he gave up the command, and retired to his estate ; but was soon called to serve with Cromwell in Scotland, where he bore a part in the battle of Dunbar ; after which he was left in the com- mand of the English forces in that kingdom. In 1053, he was joined with Blake and Dean in the naval service against the Dutch fleet, commanded by Van Tromp, with whom two desperate battles were fought that year, in both of which the English were victorious. Peace being soon after concluded, Monk returned to Scotland, where he remained during the usurp- ation of Cromwell, who regarded him with jeal- ousy, and even imparted to him, in a letter, the suspicions which he entertained of his design to restore the king. Monk took no notice of this, but watched his opportunity : and when the authority of Richard Cromwell declined, he began his movements, and conducted them with so much judgment as to bring about that im- portant event without bloodshed or confusion. After this he was created Duke of Albemarle, and knight of the garter. The remainder of his life was not spent inactively ; for when hostili- ties broke out with the Dutch, he again com- manded the fleet, and fought De Ruyter and Van Tromp in a tremendous battle, which last- ed three days. The duke had scarcely returned into port before he was called to London, in consequence of the dreadful fire which laid the greatest part of the capital in ashes ; and so dear was he to the people, that when he passed along, they cried out, "If his Grace had been there, the city would not have been burned." He died Jan. 3, 1670 ; and was buried in West- minster Abbey. By his duchess, who survived him but a few months, he had one son, Christo- pher, who died governor of Jamaica, without issue, in 1688. MONMOUTH, Duke of, son of Charles II by Lucy Waters, to whom it was said that mon- arch was secretly married. He was early placed in the army, and served some campaigns in Flanders with great reputation. His supposed claims to the crown placed him in enmity with the Duke of York, and he lived in intimate connection with the party that promoted the famous succession bill, and with the patriots of that age. On the death of his father he went abroad, and soon after landed in the west of England, publishing a proclamation, in which he took the regal title, and made noble professions in favor of liberty. Numbers flocked to his stand- ard, but his forces were overcome by the genius of Marlborough at Bridgewater. A terrible pro- scription followed in the western counties, in which General Kirk and Judge Jefferies com- mitted frightful cruelties ; and Monmouth him- self being taken to London, was tried and exe- cuted. MONTAGUE, Edward, Earl of Sandwich, was the son of Sir Sidney Montague, and born in 1625. At the age of 18 he raised a regiment in the service of parliament, and was present in several battles ; but in the Dutch war he left the army for the navy, and was associated with Blake in the Mediterranean. Afterwards he commanded the fleet in the North Sea; but at his return was deprived of it on suspicion of being in the royal interest. Monk, however, procured him to be replaced ; and he conveyed the king to England ; after which he was cre- ated Earl of Sandwich. In the war of 1664 he commanded under the Duke of York, and had MON 347 MOO a principal share in the great battle of June 3, 1665. Soon after this he went to Spain, where he negotiated a peace between that country and Portugal. On the renewal of the Dutch war in 1672, he commanded a squadron under the duke of York ; but his ship taking fire, he jump- ed overboard, and was drowned. MONROE, James, a president of the United States, was born April 28, 1758, in Virginia, and educated in William and Mary College. He entered the revolutionary army as a cadet in 1776. Throughout the revolution he served with distinction, and at the age of 24, was elected a member of congress. In 1794, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to France. On his return he filled the post of governor of Virginia, and afterwards was minister to France, to London, and to Spain, successively. On his return, he was chosen governor of Virginia, and in 1811 was appointed Secretary of State. In 1817 he succeeded James Madison in the presi- dency, from which office he retired at the end of his second term. He died on the 4th of July, 1831. MONTEZUMA, the king of Mexico, at the time of the invasion of the Spaniards. At a short distance from the city of Mexico, they were met by Montezuma at the head of his nobles, and surrounded by his guards and cour- tiers. Cortez was received by the emperor with hospitality and confidence which he soon for- feited : for having learned that a traditionary prophecy was current that a powerful nation, children of the sun, would chastise the country, as a punishment for their sins, he readily turn- ed the idea to his own advantage. Cortez came to the determination of seizing Montezuma in his palace, which he entered with 10 officers and soldiers. He requested Montezuma, to take up a temporary residence with the Span- iards, to which demand the monarch reluctant- ly consented. Here he suffered every indig- nity ; and Cortez, on a frivolous pretext that the monarch was the instigator of some tumults, ordered him to be fettered and thrown into prison. Montezuma remained a prisoner six months, during which period Cortez was actively em- ployed in furthering his own views. The for- mer now acknowledged himself in form a vas- sal of the Spanish king, and, a tumult arising, Cortez placed him in view of his enraged sub- jects, but in vain. The forlorn monarch was pierced by an arrow, and died broken-hearted and despairing. MONTGOMERY, Richard, a major-general in the army of the United States, born in Ire- land, in 1737. He settled in this country, after serving under Wolfe ; and having embraced the American cause, was killed in an attack upon Quebec, in 1776. MONTGOMERY, Gabriel, Count, a French nobleman, who, in 1559, had the misfortune to kill Henry II, by accidentally striking him in the eye at a tournament. He then quitted France ; but returned during the civil wars, and placed himself at the head of the Protestants. After many vicissitudes he was taken prisoner, and beheaded at Paris in 1574. MONTREAL, a city of Lower Canada, situ- ated on an island in the St. Lawrence, 180 miles above Quebec, and 200 below lake Ontario, at the head of ship navigation. The streets are regular, the houses are built of gray stone, and present a singular appearance from being cov- ered with tin. Montreal College is a very flour- ishing institution. Pop. 35,000. MONTROSE, Marquis of, one of the most chivalrous partisans of Charles I, who after the cause of the Stuarts appeared to be hopeless, persevered in exciting insurrections in Scot- land, but being taken he was brought to Edin- burg, tried, and executed on a gibbet 40 feet high, on the 23d of September, 1650. MOORE, Sir John, was born at Glasgow in 1761. At the age of 15 he obtained an ensigncy in the 51st regiment of foot ; of which, in 1790, he became lieutenant-colonel, and served with his corps in Corsica, where he was wounded in storming the Mozello fort at the siege of Calvi. In 1796 he went out as a brigadier-general to the West Indies, under Sir Ralph Abercromby, who appointed him to the government of St. Lucie, in the capture of which he had a princi- pal share. On his return home, in 1797, he was employ- ed in Ireland during the rebellion, and was raised to the rank of major-general. In 1799 he went on the expedition to Holland, where he was again wounded severely ; notwithstand- ing which, he soon afterwards went to the Medi- terranean ; and at the battle of Alexandria re- ceived a cut from a sabre on the breast, and a shot in the thigh. On his return to England he was made a knight of the Bath ; and in 1808 was appointed to command an army in Spain, where, after a signal retreat before a superior force, he fell under the walls of Corunna, Jan. 16th, 1809. The description of the battle of Corunna,and of the death of Sir John Moore, is thus briefly given by Bisset. The British army reached MOR 348 MOR Corunna on the 12th of Jan. 1S09, having lost one fourth of its numbers. Their situation was so disadvantageous that some officers suggested the proposal of terms to Soult, on condition that he should permit the troops to embark un- molested. Sir John Moore rejected the advice, and declared his resolution to accept no terms which should be in the least dishonorable to the army or to his country. In the evening of the 14th the transports from Vigo hove in sight. After the embarkation of the troops on the Kith, orders were issued, that if the French did not move, the embarkation of the reserve should commence at four in the afternoon. At mid-day, the general received information that the enemy were getting under arms. Two columns of the enemy directed their march on the right wing of the British, which was dis- advantageous^ posted. Sir John Moore hast- ened to this part of the field, when the 4th regi- ment on the right flank was menaced by a body of the enemy who were hastening up the valley to turn it. He proceeded to direct the move- ments of the other regiments in this division, and was in the act of ordering up the guards to support the 42d Highlanders, when he was struck from his horse by a cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar- bone, leaving the arm hanging by the flesh. He was borne away by six soldiers of the 42d. The troops continued to fight bravely under Sir John Hope, on whom the command devolv- ed, and at night-fall remained masters of the field. This victory was obtained under great dis- advantages ; the French force exceeded 20,000 men, well appointed and provided with cannon. The British scarcely amounted to 15,000, ex- hausted by harassing marches, and discouraged by the loss of their military chest, their 6tores, their baggage, their horses, their sick, their wounded, their wives and children. General Moore lived to hear that the battle was won ; and in his last moments, after an af- fecting reminiscence of his mother, expressed a hope that his country would do him justice. His body was removed at midnight to the cita- del of Corunna, wrapped in a military cloak and blankets, and buried in a grave dug in the ramparts. MORAVIA. The present population of this province of the Austrian empire, is 1,990,464. Its history is briefly as follows. It was ancient- ly named Quadia, and was part of the territory of the Quadi and Marcomanni, for several cen- turies the terror of the Roman frontier. Not- withstanding the many checks they received from the Romans and their barbarian neighbors, these tribes maintained their independence till they were overpowered by Attila, in the fifth century. The Sclavonians next founded a republic here, and maintained a precarious inde- pendence, till Swatopluk united the whole of the Sclavonic republics, and founded the king- dom of Moravia ; which comprehended Bohe- mia, Lusatia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, Dalmatia, &c. On the death of this prince, in 894, his pos- sessions were divided among his three sons, but dissensions arising among them, the Boii, or ancestors of the Bohemians, conquered part of them, and threatened the rest. In a short time, the Magyars, or invaders of Hungary, completely defeated the Moravians in 907, and thus crushed their independence. This fertile country, after being almost reduced to a desert, was seized on by the Dukes of Bohemia, who kept it till 1182, when it again became a sepa- rate government, and was erected into a mar- quisate. Moravia next fell into the hands of the Hungarians, but their internal troubles soon obliged them to relinquish their valuable acqui- sition. Moravia for a time resumed its independence, but after various changes, became again subject to the kings of Bohemia ; and in 1527, Moravia was added to the possessions of the house of Austria, and has since been subject to the same sovereign. MORE, Sir Thomas, Chancellor of Eng- land, was the son of Sir John More, one of the judges of the King's Bench, and was born in London, in 1480. He was educated in the family of Cardinal Morton, archbishop of Canterbury; and at the age of 21 , he obtained a seat in par- liament, where he opposed a subsidy demanded by Henry VII with such spirit, as incurred the resentment of the king, who avenged himself on the judge his father, by causing him to be fined and imprisoned. When admitted to the bar, More delivered a lecture in the church of St. Lawrence, Jewry, on part of St. Augustin's works, and the reputation he thereby acquired procured him to be chosen law-reader in Fur- nival's Inns. In 1508, he was made judge of the sheriff's court, and justice of peace. Henry VIII delighted in the conversation of More, and conferred upon him the honor of knighthood ;, besides which he made him treas- urer of the exchequer. Sir Thomas assisted the monarch in his book against Luther, and he afterwards defended it in a very able treatise. In 1523, he was chosen speaker of the House of MOR 349 MOR Commons ; and in 1530, he succeeded Wolsey as lord chancellor, which office he discharged three years with scrupulous integrity. Find- ing, however, that the affair of the king's di- vorce, to which he was adverse, would involve him in difficulties, he resigned the seals, and thereby provoked the anger of Henry, who was still more irritated by his refusal to attend the coronation of Ann Boleyn. An attempt was made to implicate him in the practices of Elizabeth Barton; and, though this railed, he was committed to the Tower, for re- fusing the oath of supremacy. After an impris- onment of twelve months, he was brouo-ht to his trial in the court of King's Bench, where, notwithstanding his eloquent defence, he was found guilty of treason, and sentenced to be beheaded. His behavior, in the interval, cor- responded with the uniform tenor of his life; and, on July 6, 1535, he ascended the scaffold, with his characteristic pleasantry, saying to the lieutenant of the Tower, " I pray you, see me safe up ; and as for my coming down, you may let me shift for myself." In the same spirit, when he laid his head on the block, he told the executioner to wait till he had removed his beard, " For that," said he, " hath committed no treason." Thus fell this illustrious English- man, whose learning and virtue entitled htm to a better fate. MOREAU, Victor, a French general, who gained great advantage over the Austrians under Kray at Mosskirk ; and, notwithstanding their gallant exertions, compelled them to re- treat with considerable loss. The subsequent actions of Bibberach and Memmingen proved equally unfortunate to the Austrians. Moreau, after signalizing himself in many celebrated victories, and in many masterly and successful military operations on the frontiers of Italy and Germany in the campaigns of 1796 and 1799, invaded Germany in 1800. Here, in co-opera- tion with Bonaparte, he resumed an offensive campaign. He took possession of Munich, and laid the Bavarian territories and the duchy of Wirtemberg under heavy contributions. The emperor of Austria now judged it expe- dient to sue for an armistice ; which Moreau granted on the 14th of July. The armistice expired in the November following ; and Mo- reau, on the 3d of December, gained the deci- sive victory of Hohenlinden. By a turn of circumstances Moreau is found in 1813 in alli- ance with Bernadotte, his early companion in arms, who commanded the army of the north in Germany against Napoleon. On the 28th of August, Napoleon came out of Dresden with 130,000 men to attack the allies, having de- tached a force, under Vandamme, to seize the passes in their rear. In the assault on the pre- ceding day, Napoleon observed Moreau con- versing with the emperor Alexander and some other officers. Turning to a cannoneer, and pointing out the object of his displeasure, he said : " Send a dozen balls upon that man !" The officers obeyed. A ball struck Moreau, shattering both his legs and tearing open the belly of his horse. He bore the amputation of both limbs with great firmness, and .vas carried in a litter, formed by the lances of the Cossacks to Toplite, where he expired. MORGAN, Daniel, a revolutionary officer, was born in New Jersey, but removed to Vir- ginia in 1755. He rose to the rank of brigadier- general. His riflemen rendered themselves formidable to the British throughout the strug- gle. Morgan died in 1799. MOROCCO, a large kingdom of Africa, and the chief of the Barbary states. Population, 6,000,000. It was formerly called Mauritania, and was then occupied by a hardy Nomadic race. It afterwards yielded to the Saracens; and, in the eleventh century, a chief of Lami- tuna assumed the character of a reformer of the Mahometan religion, and assembled all the neighboring tribes under his standard. His fol- lowers, called Almoravides, conquered Morocco, and even Barbary and Spain, thus establishing a vast empire entitled that of Mohgreb, or the West. In the following century they were supplanted by the Almohades ; and in 1557, an Arabian chief, one of the descendants of Maho- met, ascended the throne, which his posterity have since occupied. MORTON, (Earl of), was a chief actor in the transactions of the reign of Mary, and in the minority of James VI of Scotland. He joined in the murder of Rizzio, and after the death of King Darnley assisted to expel Mary from'the throne. In 1572 he was elected Re- gent, and in 158J he was beheaded at Edin- burg. MORTON, John, born in Pennsylvania; in the congress of 1776 he gave the casting vote in the Pennsylvania delegation in favor of the Declaration of Independence, and signed the document. He died in 1777. MORRIS, Gouverneur, was born at Morris- ania in New York, Jan. 31,1752. He gradu- ated at the college in the city of New York in his sixteenth year, and immediately commenced the study of law. At the age of seventeen he MOR 350 MOS assumed his pen and commenced his career as a political writer. Mr. Morris was chosen a member of the first provincial congress. He was twice elected a member of congress by the legislature of N. York. In 1780 he established himself in Philadelphia in the practice of the law. In this year, he was thrown from his car- riage, and his leg was so severely injured that it was necessary to perform amputation, an op- eration which he bore with great fortitude. In 1781 he was appointed assistant financier, and performed the duties of his office with ability for three years. He was a member of the con- vention which met in 1787 for the purpose of framing a constitution for the United States. In 1790, Mr. Morris, being then in France, re- ceived credentials from General Washington as a private agent for transacting important business with the British ministry. He pro- ceeded to London but soon returned to Paris without having effected anything. He returned to America in 1798. Here he served some years in the senate of the United States. In 1816, he married Miss Randolph of Virginia, and on the Gth of November, in the same year, he died. Mr. Sparks, in his interesting life of Morris, thus delineates his moral qualities : His acute powers of mind, a thorough consciousness of his own strength, and his quick sense of the ridiculous, joined to a lofty independence of thought, often betrayed him into a forwardness of manner, a license of expression, and an in- dulgence of his humor, little suited to soothe the pride, or flatter the vanity, or foster the self-love of those about him. He might dazzle by his genius, surprise by his novel flights of fancy, amuse by his wit, and confound by his arguments, and thus extort the tribute of admi- ration, but fail in gaining the willing applause of love. No man was better acquainted with the forms and etiquette of society, none had moved more widely in the circles of fashion and rank, or examined with a keener scrutiny the deep fountains of the human passions, or knew better how to touch the springs of men's mo- tives, yet this rare intuition, this more rare ex- perience, and this great knowledge, did little towards modifying the tendencies of his nature, or diverting the first bent of his mind. He was sometimes overbearing in conversation. At any rate, when he spoke he expected to be heard. There is an anecdote illustrative of this point. At a breakfast-table, he was in close conversation with a gentleman, to whose harangue he had listened patiently, till it was his turn to reply. He began accordingly, but the gentleman was inattentive, and a bad listener. " Sir," said Mr. Morris, " if you will not listen to my argu- ment, I will address myself to the teapot," and went on with much animation of tone and ges- ture, till he had finished his replication. But this defect, after all, was only a spot on the surface. *****Justice, truth, charity, honor, held an uncontrolled empire in his soul, and never lost their influence or authority. MOSCOW, an extensive city of Russia in Europe, founded in the middle of the 12lh cen- tury. Present population, 246,545. In 1382 it was besieged by Tamerlane, and it soon fell into the hands of the Tartars, who again attack- ed it in 1571. They burnt the city ; but it was afterwards rebuilt, and was for a century and a half the capital of the empire, and the resi- dence of the court till 1760. In September, 1812, the memorable confla- gration took place, by which three-fourths of the city was consumed. The general plan of the campaign in the war with the French was to abandon and destroy ; in August and Septem- ber, when the French continued to advance, and it was thought impossible to check their progress, Count Rostopchin forewarned the in- habitants of the sacrifices they would be called on to make. The churches and the treasury were stripped of their ornaments ; the persons belonging to the public establishments were re- moved to Kasan, and barks, laden with corn, were sunk in the Moskva, to prevent their fall- ing into the hands of the enemy. The decisive battle of Borodino was fought on the 8th of Sep- tember, about 70 miles from Moscow, and the hospitals were soon filled with wounded. On the news of the retreat of the Russian army, a general movement took place in Moscow. On the 13th of September the enemy drew near, and the mass of the population of Moscow fled into the surrounding country. On the 14th the French entered the city, and that night a fire broke out, which was soon got under. On the 15th fires burst forth from the shops ; and on the following night a general conflagration took place, explosions in different places, and fagots thrown from towers, showed that means were employed to spread destruction in every quarter. Dining the next day smoke rolled in thick clouds over the town, and at night a vast globe of flame illuminated the atmosphere sev- eral leagues round. The conflagration was rapidly spread by a violent wind, the buildings fell in with a tremendous crash, and the immense stones, calcined and blackened, only remained MUC 351 MUR to denote their site. The French sentinels were, however, unable to detect the incendiaries; several stragglers were arrested, tried, and shot, — but all the men taken in attempting to spread the flames, declared they had acted under the direction of Rostopchin and the director of po- lice. The French officers, on rinding it imprac- ticable to extinguish the flames, authorized a systematic pillage. The plunder was immense ; but the greater part was abandoned in the dis- astrous retreat. The fire raged till the 19th: Bonaparte now remained at Moscow a month, in the hope of prevailing on the Russians to conclude a peace. Baffled in this attempt, he quitted the city on the 18th of October. The young guard, which formed the garrison left by Bonaparte, intrenched itself in the Kremlin ; and, having undermined part of the walls and interior buildings, blew them up on the 23d October, the day of the final evacuation. The rebuilding of the city proceeded but slowly till 1814, when the greatest exertions were made ; and by the beginning of 1818 the new city seemed to have risen from the ruins, — and by the end of that year the whole was completed. — (See Russia.) MOSES, a celebrated legislator and general among the Jews, well known in sacred history. He was born in Egypt 1571, B. C, he conducted the Israelites through the Red Sea, and gave them laws and ordinances, during their pere- grination of 40 years in the wilderness of Arabia. He died at the age of 120. MOULTRIE, William, major-general in our revolution, came to South Carolina from England at an early age. He served against the Indians prior to 1775, and, during the revolution dis- tinguished himself at Charleston, Beaufort, Stono, and Sullivan's island, the fort of which was named after him. He died at Charleston, Sept. 27, 1805. MUCIUS, Scaevola, (the left-handed), Caius Mucius Cordus. When Porsenna, king of Etruria, had besieged Rome to reinstate Tar- quin in all his rights and privileges, Mucius determined to deliver his country from so dan- gerous an enemy. He disguised himself in the habit of a Tuscan, and as he could speak the language fluently, he gained an easy introduc- tion into the camp, and soon into the royal tent. Porsenna sat alone with his secretary when Mucius entered. The Roman rushed upon the secretary and stabbed him to the heart, mistaking him for his royal master. This occasioned a noise, and Mucius, unable to es- cape, was seized and brought before the king. He gave no answer to the inquiries of the courtiers, and only told them that he was a Ro- man, and to give them a proof of his fortitude, he laid his right hand on an altar of burning coals, and sternly looking at the king, and with- out uttering a groan, he boldly told him, that 300 young Romans like himself, had conspired against his life, and entered the camp in dis- guise, determined either to destroy him or per- ish in the attempt. This extraordinary confes- sion astonished Porsenna ; he made peace with the Romans and retired from their city. Mu- cius obtained the surname of Scavola, because he had lost the use of his right hand by burning it in the presence of the Etrurian king. MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, contains 80,000 inhabitants. It surrendered to the Swedes and German Protestants, under Gustavus Adol phus, in 1G32; in 1704, it fell into the hands ot the Austrians. In 1741 it shared the vicissitudes of the war, and in 1796, the French army under Moreau, obliged the elector to make a separate treaty. In 1800 Moreau again occupied Bava- ria, and secured his superiority by the victory of Hohenlinden ; and from that time, to 1813, Bavaria remained in alliance with the French. MURAT, an officer of Napoleon's army, cre- ated grand duke of Berg and Cleves in 1806, was the son of a pastry-cook , and was born at Achers in 1771. At a very early age he was a fine horseman, and fond of military exercises. It is not surprising, therefore, that he escaped from the convent where he was placed to study the- ology, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons. His merit raised him from the ranks and he fought under Napoleon throughout his career. On the elevation of Joseph to the Spanish throne, in 1809, Bonaparte transferred the crown of Naples to Murat, his brother-in-law. In Dec. 1812, Murat was appointed to the chief command of the French army at Wilna, after their mem- orable but ill-fated retreat from Moscow. In 1814 Murat joined the alliance against France by opening his ports to the English, and engag- ing to assist Austria with an army of 30,000 men. In 1815 Murat, by an enterprise against the Austrians in Italy, had lost the crown of Naples. When the expedition from Elba reach- ed France, he assembled his cabinet, and de- clared his resolution to support the allies ; but on learning that Bonaparte had entered Lyons, he demanded leave of the pope to march a force through his territories. Pius the VII refused ; on which two Neapolitan divisions penetrated to Rome, and his holiness, hastily retiring, placed himself under the protection of the Eng- MUR 352 NAM lish at Genoa. Murat himself advanced to An- cona, and his army marched in four columns on the routes of Bologna, Modena, Reggio, and Ferrara, while a fifth division drove the Austrian garrisons from Cesena and Rimini. Harassed on all sides by the British and Austrian forces, and having in vain solicited an armistice, he attacked Bianchi, near Tolentino, in which contest his army was totally ruined. After a disastrous retreat of ten days, he found, on approaching Naples, that the inhabitants had declared for the King of Sicily wherever the Austrians appeared ; that Colonel Church was raising against him an army of his late subjects ; and that every thing, in short, was going against him. Leaving his followers, who were now reduced to 4000 men, he hastened to Naples, and arrived at the palace, exhausted with fatigue. He escaped in disguise with a few adherents to the Isle of Ischia, and embarking thence for France, landed on the 25th of May at Cannes. Murat, after the battle of Waterloo, made his retreat in an open boat to Corsica. In Septem- ber, proposals were made to Joachim, that he should assume the name of a private person, that he should choose his abode either in Bohe- mia, Moravia, or Upper Austria ; and that he should engage not to quit those states without the consent of the emperor. He rejected this overture, and undertook, in imitation of Bona- parte, an expedition for the recovery of his kingdom. When he landed at Pizzo on the 8th of October, he could only muster about 30 offi- cers. Thus disappointed he proceeded to Mon- teleone. He was overtaken half-way by a very strong party, and after fighting desperately, broke through his pursuers, and hastened to the beach, where he was seized and conveyed be- fore General Nanziante the commandant of Ca- labria. On the 15th, pursuant to orders from Naples, he was tried by court-martial, and found guilty of having attempted to excite rebellion and civil war ; sentence of death was pronounced upon him, and executed on the same day. MURRAY, Alexander, was born at Chester- town, Maryland, in 1755. At the age of 18 he commanded a merchant-vessel. At 21 he was appointed a lieutenant in the navy, but fought on shore, until he could obtain a vessel. He commanded several letters of marque during the revolutionary struggle, and served some time under Barry. When in command of the Constellation he beat off some Tripolitan gun- boats with great spirit and success. His last appointment was to the post of commandant of the navy-yard at Philadelphia. He died, Oct. 6, 1821. MURRAY, (Earl of), was the natural son of James V, King of Scotland. He was a pow- erful supporter of the reformation. After the return of Mary from France, he administered her affairs until her marriage with Darnley, which he opposed by force of arms, and was obliged to flee into England. After the murder of Rizzio, he was again restored to favor. He went abroad to France on the murder of Darn- ley in 1566, and returned on being elected re- gent by his party. This election was confirmed by parliament, and he soon established his au- thority. Mary, escaping from Lochleven Cas- tle, collected her friends, who were defeated at Langside, near Glasgow, and she was compelled to flee into England in 1568. He was support- ed by the alliance of queen Elizabeth. In 1569, he was murdered by Hamilton, a partisan of Mary, whose life he had spared. He dispensed justice with so much impartiality, repressed the licentious borderers with so much courage, maintained religion, and established such order and tranquillity in the country, that his admin- istration was extremely popular, and he was long and affectionately remembered by the name of the " Good Regent." N. NADIR SHAH, (see Persia.) NAMUR, a province of Belgium. The soil is remarkably fertile, and the earth yields many valuable minerals. The city of Namur, the cap- ital, is situated at the junction of the Sambre and Meuse, 28 miles from Brussels, and con- tains 19,150 inhabitants. In 1692, the strength of the place being discovered to the French by the treacherous Baron de Bresse, who, under pretence of being laken, deserted the Spanish service, Louis XIV, with 80,000 men besieged it : the town was taken after a few days resist- ance. While the French continued to besiege the castle, King William III, of Great Biitain, marched, with 100,000 men to its relief: but the French, being advantageously posted, de- clined battle. His majesty, however, drove them from their posts, and attempted to pass the river by means of bridges ; but, in the mean time, a great rain swelled the river, carried down the bridges, prevented his attacking them, and gave them an opportunity to take the cas- tle, which made but a feeble defence : the great- est loss of the French was at Coehorn Fort, which was valiantly defended by Colonel Coe- horn, its founder and governor, who was danger- ously wounded. The fort was surrendered, and the castle not long after, but were retaken 1695. NAP 353 NAP NAN-KING, or Nankin, or Kiang-ning, a Chinese city, capital of Kiang-nan, 500 miles S. E. of Peking. It was formerly the imperial city, and one of the largest in the world, being 12 leagues in circuit. In 1645 its magnificent palace was destroyed by the Mantchou Tartars. Its principal ornament, the celebrated porcelain tower, was built 1411, A. D. NANTES, a city of France, capital of the department of the Lower Loire, pleasantly sit- uated on the Loire, 26 miles from the Atlantic. Population 71,730. Its manufactures are exten- sive, and its public institutions important. In history it is celebrated for the act called the Edict of Nantes, which was passed by Henry IV, by which the Protestants enjoyed toleration in France, 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685 ; by which bad policy 50,000 French Protestants were induced to quit France, and seek refuge in England. NAPLES, the capital and royal residence of the Two Sicilies, in Terra di Lavoro, containing 361,751 inhabitants, is charmingly situated on the brink of the most beautiful bay in the world, a scene on which is thus eloquently described by a recent traveller. It is evening and scarcely a breeze ruffles the bosom of the beautiful bay, which resembles a mirror reflecting on its glassy surface the bright sky and the thousand glittering stars with which it isstudded. Naples, with its white colonnades, seen amidst the dark foliage of its terraced gar- dens, rises like an amphitheatre ; lights stream from the windows, and fall over the sea beneath like columns of gold. The castle of St. Elmo crowning the centre ; Vesuvius, like a sleeping giant in grim repose, whose awaking all dread, is to the left ; and to the right are the vine- crowned heights of beautiful Varmero, with their palaces and villas peeping forth from the groves that surround them ; while rising above it, the convent of Camaldoli lifts its head to the skies. Resina, Portici, Castel-a-Mare, and the lovely shores of Sorrento, reach out from Vesuvius, as if they tried to embrace the isle of Capri, which forms the central object ; and Pausihppo and Misenum, which in the distance seemed joined toProcidaand Ischia, advance to meet the beau- tiful island on the right. The air as it leaves the shore, is laden with fragrance from the orange-trees and jasmine, so abundant round Naples ; and the soft music of the guitar, or lively sound of the tambourine, marking the brisk movements of the tarantella, steals on the ear. But hark ! a rich stream of music, silenc- 23 ing all other, is heard, and a golden barge ad- vances; the oars keep time to the music, and each stroke of them sends forth a silvery light ; numerous lamps attached to the boat, gives it at a little distance, the appearance of a vast shell of topaz floating on a sea of sapphire. Nearer and nearer draws this splendid pageant, the music falls more distinctly on the charmed ear — and one sees that its dulcet sounds are pro- duced by a band of glittering musicians clothed in royal liveries. This illuminated barge is followed by another, with a silken canopy overhead, and the curtains drawn back to admit the balmy air. Cleopatra, when she sailed down the Cydnus, boasted not a more beautiful vessel ; and, as it glides over the sea, it seems impelled by the music which precedes it, so perfectly does it keep time to its enchanting sounds, leaving a bright trace be- hind, like the memory of departed happiness. But who is he that guides this beauteous bark ? His tall and slight figure is curved, and his snowy locks, falling over ruddy cheeks, show that age has bent, but not broken him : he looks like one born to command — a hoary Neptune steering over his native element — all eyes are fixed on him, but his follow the glittering barge that precedes him. And who is she that has the seat of honor at his side ? Her fair, large, and unmeaning face wears a placid smile ; and those ligjht blue eyes and fair ringlets speak her of another land ; her lips, too, want the fine chiseling which marks those of the sunny clime of Italy ; and the expression of her countenance has more in it of earth than heaven. Innume- rable boats, filled with lords and ladies, follow, but intrude not on the privacy of this regal bark, which passes before us like the visions in a dream. He who steered was Ferdinand, king of the two Sicilies; and she who sat beside him was Maria-Louisa, ex-empress of France. The climate of Naples is delightful, and such of the lazzaroni as are unable to procure shelter experience no painful results from sleeping in the open air. The nobles are opulent and lux- urious, and a love of pleasure pervades alike all classes. The necessaries of life are easily ob- tained, and the poor lazzaroni, of whom there are 30,000, lay by enough money to enable them to witness the cheap amusements of their city. During the government of Pandulph II, as Prince of Benevento, A.D. 1003, the Normans first arrived in Italy, and established themselves in this country ; Landulph V, the son of Pan- dulph, was expelled from the government by Richard I, the Norman Count of Aversa, who NAP 354 NAP caused himself to be proclaimed Prince of Ben- evenlo. Thus the dominion of the Lombards in this principality terminated in A. D. 1059. — Richard was succeeded in the government of Benevento by Jordanus, Richard II, Robert, Richard III, Jordanus II, Robert II, and Roger, who assumed the title of king, and obtained the investiture of the dukedom of Naples. Some years after, Roger having taken Pope Innocent prisoner, obliged his holiness to confirm to him the title of king. To him succeeded William in 1154, William II in 11(36, Tancred, Count of Lecce, in 1190, Frederick in 1208, who enlarged and embel- lished the city of Naples, which he made the chief place of his residence ; and Conrad in 1250. Four years after Conrad died, and was succeed- ed by Conradin, whose army was attacked and dispersed by Manfred. In 1253 Manfred as- sumed the crown of Sicily ; and in 1260 was defeated and slain by the army of Charles of Anjou, on whom Pope Urban had conferred the title of king. Soon after Conradin laid claim to Sicily, and marched with an army into Italy, but was entirely defeated and taken prisoner by Charles, who caused him and the Duke of Aus- tria to be publicly beheaded upon a scaffold in the market-place of Naples, A. D. 1269. Charles, by his arbitrary and oppressive gov- ernment, so entirely lost the affections of the Sicilians, that they offered their allegiance to Peter, king of Arragon, who was soon after crowned at Palermo, and from this period the history of Naples is one unvaried and uninter- esting detail of similar scenes of war and inva- sion, during nearly the space of two hundred years. At length, after a long separation, Alphonso of Arragon united both Sicily and Naples under his dominion. Upon the death of Ferdinand, Charles V succeeded to Naples, as well as to the rest of the Spanish monarchy. During his reign, and that of his successors Philip II, Philip III, and Philip IV, this country was governed by the Viceroys of Spain, and suffered greatly from their oppression. On the death of Philip IV, A. D. 1664, Charles II succeeded to the crown of Spain, and adopted Philip of An- jou, afterwards Philip V, as the heir of all his dominions. In 1700 Philip succeeded to the crown of Na- ples and Sicily ; but his title was opposed by the house of Austria, and a conspiracy procured the government of Naples for Charles II, son of the emperor Leopold. However, by the con- ditions of the general peace, Naples again owned the sway of Philip in 1719 ; hut Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy. Some years after, the emperor, Charles VI, again seized upon Naples, and by cession obtained also Sicily. He con- tinued to reign over them for several years, till Don Carlos, being vested with the rights of his father, who was yet alive, conquered these two kingdoms in 1734, and fixed the seat of his gov- ernment among his subjects. Don Cailos changed the face of his kingdoms, which, on his taking possession of the crown of Spain, he left in a flourishing condition to his son Ferdinand IV, in 1759. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from Na- ples, and were all conveyed into the pope's do- minions, the vicinity of whose territories ren- dered every scheme of opposition fruitless. During the invasion of Italy by the French, after some immaterial hostilities, a suspension of arms was agreed to between the king of Na- ples and the republican commander in 1796; and soon after a peace was concluded between the two powers, Naples being required to pay a sum of eight millions, either in money or in na- val stores. In 1798 the king of Naples commenced hos- tilities against the French, attacked the new Roman republic, and entered Rome in triumph; but, in the year following, he was obliged to conclude an armistice with the enemy on very hard conditions. Naples was reduced under the power of the French in 1799, who constituted it a republic, and established a provisionary gov- ernment. However, a few months afterwards, the great successes of the Austro-Russian army forced the French to evacuate Naples ; and, by the aid of the English, the king of the Two Sicilies, who had hoisted his flag on board the Foudroyant, the English admiral's ship, was en- abled to return once more to his capital. But the victory of Bonaparte at Marengo, and the conditions of the treaty of Luneville gave the French a great ascendency in Italy. In 1805 Bonaparte issued a proclamation, de- claring that the Neapolitan dynasty had ceased to reign, and ordered his troops to subject the whole of Italy to his laws or those of his allies. In consequence of this, a French army, under the command of Joseph Bonaparte, entered Na- ples, and- occupied all the principal fortresses in the kingdom. The king of Naples and the royal family were obliged to seek an asylum in Sicily. Under the prince of Hesse, Gaeta made a long and memorable defence against the French troops ; and was taken only in conse- quence of that commander being badly wound- NAP 355 NAP ed, and some of his officers proving treacherous. On the translation of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain, in 1803, Joachim Murat, who had married a sister of Napoleon, was nominat- ed to the kingdom of Naples. After an extraordinary career, in which some of the martial talents and vigor of Murat were displayed, but were ill seconded by his troops, Naples was invested by land, whilst an English naval force entered its port, and compelled a surrender of the ships and arsenal. The Nea- politan commanders, and those of Austria and England, signed a convention, of which the prominent feature was the abdication of Joa- chim. Naples was occupied by the allies, who were joined by an armament of English and Sicilians ; and Ferdinand IV, king of the Two Sicilies, after an absence of nine years, was re- stored in 1815. Naples has suffered, at different periods, from earthquakes and eruptions of Vesuvius. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, one of the most extraordinary characters recorded in his- tory, and distinguished alike for his extraordi- nary fortunes, his civil talents, and his military genius, was one of the numerous family of an advocate of Ajaccio, in Corsica, and was born there August 15, 1709. After receiving the rudiments of a classical education, he entered the military school at Brienne where he was distinguished by the gravity of his character, and his sedulous study of the mathematics. Even his sports partook of his graver pursuits, and we are told that he was successful in the little military operations which he undertook. On the occurrence of a day which was com- monly considered a holiday, Bonaparte's in- structors confined him and his companions to the school-grounds. The young engineer con- structed a mine with great ingenuity, which, in exploding, blew down the walls and enabled the juvenile rebels to escape. When he could en- list no young recruits in his mimic army, Na- poleon would use flints as substitutes for sol- diers, and marshal them with great care. A boy who disturbed his array was severely punished by Napoleon. Many years after when the im- perial diadem was on his head, Napoleon was informed that one of his old schoolmates desired an interview. This gentleman assured the chamberlain that the emperor would recollect him if lie mentioned that there was a deep scar on his forehead. When the emperor was in- formed of this, he said, J ' I do not forget how he got that scar — I threw a general at his head at Brienne." At sixteen he received the commission of second lieutenant in the regiment of Lafere, which he joined at Valence. At '20 he was pro- moted to a captaincy, and in December, 1793 obtained the command of the artillery in the at- tack on Toulon, then occupied by the English, and contributed by the originality of his plans to the success of their operations. In 1794 he was commandant of the artillery in the army of Italy, and so much distinguished himself, that in May 1795, he was made general of infantry. In 1795 when some of the sections of Paris rose in insurrection against the convention, the com- mand of the conventional troops was entrusted to him and he gained a complete victory. He was at that time very thin, although distin- guished for corpulency in the latter part of his life. On one occasion he gained a bloodless victory over the rabble whose exertions were stimulated by a very fat old woman. " There," cried she, " look at the soldiers ! they 're the wretches thatfatten in idleness while we starve." " Look at her and look at me," said Napoleon, " and tell us which is the fattest." This raised a laugh, and the populace dispersed quietly. On this, as on many other occasions, his know- ledge of human nature was apparent. In his- twenty-sixth year, Napoleon was appointed commander-in chief of the army of Italy, and commenced his brilliant operations in that ca- pacity, in April, 1796. He successively defeat- ed the Austrians and Piedmontese at Monte- notte, Millesimo, Mondovi, and Lodi ; forcing the king of Sardinia to make peace, and over- running Lombardy, the Venetian States, the States of the Church, and Naples, in spite of every exertion of the Austrians and their allies, during which he gained a series of brilliant and decisive victories, and compelled Austria in 1797, to make peace at Campo Formio. In 1798 he took the command of the army destined against Egypt, and on his passage from Toulon, captured Malta. He afterwards landed at Alexandria, and overran Egypt and Syria, every where victorious except at Acre ; where, for want of besieging artillery, he was repulsed by Sir Sydney Smith. In Oct. 1799, the mis- government of France, and the disasters which had befallen the French troops, induced him to return ; and being received as a savior by the French nation, on the 9th of Nov. he effected a revolution in Paris, and was proclaimed first consul of the republic. After offers of peace to the confederates which were rejected, he crossed the Alps with an army of recruits, and in June 1800, gained the battle of Marengo and re-ac- NAP 356 NAP quired possession of Italy. A general peace was the consequence. In 1802 lie was elected consul for life, and in May, 1804, he assumed the title of Napoleon I, emperor of the French, and in Dec. 2, was crowned at Paris by the Pope. In March, 1805, he was declared king of Italy, and in May crowned at Milan. He had previously established his military order of the Legion of Honor and distributed the crosses which were the distinguishing badges. ' Of all to whom the cross of the legion of honor was tendered, Lafayette alone had the courage to decline it. Napoleon, either from want of true perception of moral greatness, or because the detestable servility of returning emigrants had taught him to think, there was no such thing as honor or independence in man, exclaimed, when they told him that Lafayette refused the decora- tion, " What, will nothing satisfy that man, but the chief command of the National Guard of the Empire ?" Yes, much less abundantly satisfied him ; — the quiet possession of the poor rem- nants of his estate, enjoyed without sacrificing his principles.' In September, 1805, the confederacy of Eu- ropean powers being renewed, he invaded Ger- many, and at Ulm captured 30,000 Austrians. In November, he entered Vienna, and on Dec. 2, gained the battle of Austerlitz, over the em- perors of Russia and Austria, after which he concluded peace with Austria, created the elec- tors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg kings, and made his elder brother, Joseph, king of Naples. In October, 1806, he invaded Prussia, and on the 3d of that month gained a decisive victory at Jena and Auerstadt, by which the whole Prussian monarchy, and Germany to the Baltic, came under his authority. The " Man of Des- tiny " had now filled Europe with the terror of his name, the bare mention of which shook the crowned heads of the oldest monarchies of the continent with palsied apprehension. In vain the dagger, the mine, and the bowl had been prepared for him. His star had not yet begun to decline from the zenith. Napoleon was al- most miraculously preserved from poison. It is well known that he was an inveterate snuff- taker. When his mind was deeply engaged his snuff-box was in constant requisition. He once left his apartment for a few moments, and re- turned to take his box from the mantel-piece. He thought the snuff felt somewhat strangely, and calling to a dog, that was lying near him, administered a pinch. The poor animal soon rolled over in the agonies of death ; and Napo- leon thenceforth kept his snuff in his waistcoat pockets which he had sheathed with tin. November 20th, he promulgated at Berlin the famous decree by which he proposed to exclude the trade of Britain from all the ports of the continent. In June, 1807, having overrun Po- land, he totally defeated the emperor of Russia at Eglan and Friedland, after which an inter- view took place between them on a raft on the Niemen, followed by the treaty of Tilsit. In November of that year, he marched an army into Lisbon, driving the Portuguese court to the Brazils; and on December 1, created his young- er brother Jerome, king of Westphalia. On May 5, 1808, was concluded the treaty by which Charles IV ceded to the emperor all his rights in the crown of Spain. Joseph, brother of the emperor, was proclaimed king of Spain, on the 6th of June. On the 27th of September, in the same year, Napoleon had an amicable interview with the emperor of Russia at Erfurt, and they jointly proposed peace with England, which was rejected. On the 29th of October, the emperor departed from Paris and placed himself at the head of the army in Spain, the right wing of which pursued Sir John Moore to Corunna, while he marched to Madrid and seated his bro- ther on the Spanish throne ; but in the meantime, the Austrians took the field ; Napoleon hastened to oppose them, and gained successive victories at Abensburg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon. On the 16th of December, 1809, he divorced the em- press Josephine, and on the 2d of April, 1810, married Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria. The 20th of March, 1811, was signalized by the birth of his son who was crowned king of Rome. In 1812, he assembled a great army in Po- land, and invaded Russia, and having at the Borodino, and at Moskwa, gained two bloody victories, he entered Moscow on the 14th of September ; that city, having been afterwards burned by the Russians, became untenable, and the French retreated for winter quarters towards Poland, but an early and unusual frost setting in during their march, they lost their horses, were compelled to abandon their artillery, and three fourths of the army perished or were made prisoners. On this Napoleon returned to Paris, and Poland and Prussia were occupied by the Russians. In April 1813, Napoleon again took the field against the Prussians, and gained the victories of Lutzen, Bantzen,and Wartzen ; but the Aus- trians and Bavarians joined the confederacy against him, and he was attacked at Leipsic by the combined armies of the European nations ; being forced to abandon that city with immense loss, and retreat to Metz, thereby abandoning his German conquests. In 1814, the confede- NAP 357 NAP rates having passed the Rhine, penetrated, after various battles, to Paris, which, being surren- dered by marshals Marmont and Mortier, Na- poleon concluded a treaty with the allies at Fontainebleau, by which he agreed to retire to the island of Elba, with provision for himself and family. In March, 1815, Napoleon embarked with 600 of his guards and made a sudden descent in Provence. On the 10th, he entered Lyons, on the 20th, Paris in triumph. His banners flew from steeple to steeple, until they finally waved in the wind from the pinnacles of Notre Dame. On the 1st of June, he held the meeting in the Champ de Mai, and soon joined the army on the Belgian frontier, where on the lGth, he de- feated Blucher at Ligny with a loss of 22,000 men. On the 18th, was fought the bloody bat- tle of Waterloo, in which the French army was completely defeated. The following account of the conduct of Napoleon at the battle of Water- loo is from the journal of a French officer. He has ruined us — he has destroyed France and himself; — yet I love him still. It is im- possible to be near him and not to love him : he has so much greatness of soul — such majesty of manner. He bewitches all minds ; approach him with a thousand prejudices, and you quit him filled with admiration : but then, his mad ambition ! his ruinous infatuation ! his obstina- cy without bounds ! Besides, he was wont to set every thing upon a cast : his game was all or nothing ! Even the battle of Waterloo might have been retrieved, had he not charged with the guard. This was the reserve of the army, and should have been employed in covering his retreat instead of attacking, but, with him, whenever matters looked desperate, he resem- bled a mad dog. He harangues the guard — he puts himself at its head — it debouches rapidly — it rushes upon the enemy. We are mowed down by grape — we waver, — turn our backs — and the rout is complete. A general disorgani- zation of the army ensues, and Napoleon, re- turned to himself, is cold as a stone. The last time I saw him was in returning from the charge, when all was lost. My thigh had been broken by a musket shot in advancing, and I remained in the rear, extended on the ground. Napoleon passed close to me ; his nose was buried in his snuff-box, and his bridle fell loose- ly on the neck of his horse, which was pacing leisurely along. A Scotch regiment was ad- vancing at the charge in the distance. The Emperor was almost alone. Lallemande only was with him. The latter still exclaimed, " All is not lost, sire ; all is not lost ; — -rally, soldiers ! rally !" The Emperor replied not a word. Lallemande recognises me in passing. " What ails you, Raoul !" " My thigh is shat- tered by a musket ball." " Poor devil, how I pity you ! how I pity you ! Adieu — adieu '." The emperor said not a word ! " When, after the disaster at Waterloo, Na- poleon came back in desperation to Paris, and began to scatter dark hints of dissolving the representatives Chamber, repeating at Paris the catastrophe of Moscow, and thereby endeavor- ing to rouse the people of France to one univer- sal and frantic crusade of resistance, Lafayette was the first to denounce the wild suggestion. He proposed a series of resolutions, announcing that the independence of the nation was threat- ened, declaring the Chambers a permanent body, and denouncing the instant penalties of high treason against all attempts to dissolve it. The same evening he proposed, in the secret assembly of the council of state, the abdication of Napoleon. The subject was again pressed the following day ; but the voluntary act of the emperor anticipated the decision." On the 8th of July, the king returned to Pa- ris, and on the 15th of July, Napoleon surren- dered himself to the English at Rochefort. He only asked permission to pass the remainder of his days in England, under an assumed name, and in a private character, but he was conveyed to St. Helena, as a prisoner of state. A few officers of his suite accompanied him. In the island he was treated with great indignity and meanness until his death which was the result of an intestine disorder, and took place May 5, 1821. In his last moments, he was delirious, and his last words — tcte d' arme'e — proved that he fancied himself, at the head of his troops, watch- ing the fluctuating current of a battle. He was buried in a little valley where a simple slab marks the place of his repose. Two weeping willow trees wave over it, and an iron railing encircles that spot of ground which is so dear to millions. Napoleon, in person, was below the middle size ; and, in the latter part of his life, quite corpulent. His strait brown hair fell over a broad high forehead ; his complexion was clear olive, and his features regular and classical. An air of subdued melancholy was the prevailing characteristic of his countenance in repose ; but he had the power of dismissing all expression from his features, when he chose to baffle scru- tiny. At such times the curious observer might gaze upon his still grey eye and quiet lip with- NAP 358 NAR out finding any indication of the thoughts which were passing within. Napoleon was ambitious — and committed some of the crimes to which ambition leads. He drenched the sands of Egypt and the snows of Russia, and the plains of Germany, and Italy, and Spain, with the best blood of France and the best of Europe : — yet he was not destitute of the feelings of humanity, and, as he rode over a field heaped with the dead and dying victims of his ambition, his fine eye would fill with tears. But feeling without repentance is of no avail. Yet if Napoleon was lavish of the lives of others, he was no less prodigal of his own ; and often proved that he possessed a soldier's soul, amidst the hottest fire of the enemy. If he laid his grasp upon nations — "Their ransom did the general coffers fill." He often pardoned, but he never failed to re- ward. It was thus that he attached his soldiers to him with indissoluble bonds. A thousand proofs may be given of their attachment to their emperor. At Waterloo, one man was seen, whose left arm was shattered by a cannon ball, to wrench it off with the other, and throwing it up in the air, he exclaimed to his comrades, Vive Vempereur, jusqud, la mart ! When he took his final farewell of France, all wept, but particularly Savary, and a Polish officer who had been exalted from the ranks by Bonaparte. He clung to his master's knees : wrote a letter to Lord Keith, entreated permission to accom- pany him, even in the most menial capacity, which could not be admitted. With men like these to follow him, Napoleon had the power of choosing his own course. Cir- cumstances did not force him into the path he followed : — he was, in a degree, the controller of his fate — a free agent, with ample means to f ratify his wishes. He might have been a Washington — he preferred to be a Caesar. " When the soldier citizen Swayed not o'er his fellow men — Save in deeds that led them on Where Glory smiled on Freedom's son — Who, of all the despots handed, With that youthful chief competed ? Who could boast o'er France defeated, Till lone tyranny commanded? Till, goaded by ambition's sting, The Hero sunk into the king? Then he fell ; — So perish ali, Who would men by man inlhral '." Byron. NAPOLI DI ROMANIA, or Nauplia,a port and city on the eastern coast of the Morea, on the gulf of Nauplia, or Argolis, containing about 5000 inhabitants. It was taken by the Greeks during their last revolution, and in 1824 became for a time the seat of government. In 1205, it was taken by the French and Venetians ; and a little after king Giannoviza seized and plun- dered it. The Venetians bought it of Peter Cornaro's widow in 1?83, and defended it gal- lantly against Mahomet II, in 1460, obliging him to raise the siege, as they did Solyman, 1537. In 1086, general Morosini, after he had taken Navarin and Modon, ordered general Konings- mark to possess himself of Mount Palamida, which is near the town, and commands it ; and whilst he battered it from this place, general Morosini gave battle to the Serasker, who came to relieve it ; defeated him, and took Argos their fleet, together with their king Ternis The Seraskier advanced again with 1000 men, and fell upon the Venetians in their trenches, where the battle was dubious for three hours; but at last the Turks fled, general Konings- mark, the princes of Brunswick and Turenne, signalizing themselves in the action. After the battle, the siege was pushed on with vigor, and the Turks, having capitulated, were conducted to Tenedos. The Venetians found in the cas- tle 17 brass cannons, seven iron cannons, and one mortar. NARBONNE, anciently Narbo-Martius, a city of France, in the department of the Aude, containing 10,0f)7 inhabitants. It is one of the most ancient cities of that kingdom. In 435, the Visigoths besieged this city in vain ; but it was treacherously delivered to them in 462, by count Agripin. And in 732, the Saracens being admitted into the city as friends, took posses- sion of it, and slew all except the king. In 736, Charles Martel took it from the Saracens ; since which it has been subject to the crown of France. The cathedral church is very ancient and famous, and is by some supposed to have been a metropolitan see, since the year 309. It is dedicated to St. Justus and St. Martyr, and renowned for its organs, and the raising of Laz- arus, painted by an eminent artist. The city is well fortified, and has only two gates. The dukes of Septimania. were also dukes of Nar- bonne ; the counts of Toulouse, who succeeded them, had the same title ; and the city and dio- cese was governed under them by viscounts. Gaston de Foix, king of Navarre, in 14(38, be- stowed the lordship of Narbonne upon John his second son, who married the sister of Louis XII, by whom he had Gaston de Foix, killed at the battle of Ravenna in 1513. This Gaston ex- changed the city and lordship of Narbonne with his uncle, for other lands, in 1507, by which means it became united to the crown of France. NAX 359 NEL NASEBY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, famous for the battle fought there in 1645, between king Charles I and the parlia- mentary forces. This decisive and well dis- I puted engagement was fought with nearly equal j forces on both sides. The king commanded in | person, and displayed all the conduct of a pru- dent general and stout soldier. Fairfax and Skippon were his opponents; and Cromwell behaved with his usual prudence and gallantry. The royal infantry was entirely discomfited ; I and, though the king cried aloud to the caval- ' ry, " One charge more and we recover the day !" they could not be prevailed on to renew the combat, and the king was obliged to quit the | field. The slain on the side of the parliament, however, exceeded those of the king. Among the spoils was found the king's cabinet, with copies of his letters to the queen. NASSAU, a sovereign duchy of the German 1 empire, with an area of 1959 square miles, and a population of 303,470. The soil is extremely fertile. NATCHEZ, a city of Mississippi, on the east bank of the Mississippi, 280 miles above New Orleans. Population in 1830, 2790. This city possesses great commercial advantages, but unfortunately has been frequently visited by the yellow fever The place is well-built, the streets are of considerable width. NATOLIA, Annatolia, or Anadoli, a fertile and productive province of Asiatic Turkey, 650 miles in length, and 400 broad, containing 270,000 square miles, and 6,000,000 inhabitants. It is also called Asia Minor, and anciently com- prised Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Galatia, Pheygia, Mysia, iEolia, Ionia, Lydia, Caria, Doris, Pysi- dia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Cappadocia,and Pontus. NAVARINO (JVeocastro ;) a fortified town on the S. W. coast of the Morea, with a large harbor. In 1715 it was in the hands of the Ve- netians who fortified it against the Turks. Here (Oct. 20, 1827) the combined Russian, French, and English fleet, commanded by admiral Cod- rington, destroyed the Turco-Egyptian fleet, of 214 sail, in three hours. NAVARRE, a province of Spain, with the title of kingdom, divided formerly into Upper and Lower Navarre. The latter is now in- cluded in the French department of the Lower Pyrenees, and the former forms the Spanish kingdom of Navarre. Spanish Navarre con- tains 271 ,235 inhabitants. NAXOS, now Nazia, in very ancient times Dia and Stongylc, the largest island of the Cy- clades, contains 169 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants. The Naxians were anciently gov- erned by kings, but they afterwards exchanged this form of government for a republic, and en- joyed their liberty till the age of Pisistratus, who appointed a tyrant over them. They were reduced by the Persians ; but in the expedition of Darius and Xerxes against Greece, they re- volted and fought on the side of the Greeks. During the Peloponnesian war, they supported the interest of Athens. The capital was also called Naxos ; and near it, B. C. 377, the Lace- daemonians were defeated by Chabrias. NEBUCHADNEZZAR 1, or Jfubuchodono- sar, king of Nineveh and Babylon. He is sup- posed to be the same with Nabopolassar, gov- ernor of Babylon, who founded the kingdom of Nineveh. He sent Holophernes against Judea, who was slain by Judith. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, king of Assyria and Babylon, is supposed to have been the son of the preceding. He invaded Judea, took Je- rusalem, and carried the treasures of the temple, and a number of captives, to Babylon. After this, he set up a golden statue in the plain of Dura, which he commanded all his subjects to adore, on pain of being cast into a fiery furnace. Three young Jews, named Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, refused to submit to this idola- try, and the sentence was executed upon them; but they were preserved amidst the flames. Having lost his senses, he became an outcast from the society of men, and lived among wild beasts in the forest ; but on recovering his rea- son, he again ascended the throne and died, B. C. 562, after reigning 43 years. NECHO, king of Egypt, called in scripture, Pharaoh Necho, succeeded his father, Psamme- ticus,B. C.616. He undertook to make a canal from the Nile to the Arabian gulf, which un- dertaking he was forced to abandon, after losing a great number of men. The ships of Necho sailed from the Red Sea, round the coast of Africa, into the Mediterranean ; and returned to Egypt, after a voyage of three years. Thia monarch invaded Assyria, and on his march was attacked by Josiah, king of Judah, who was slain in the battle. The king of Egypt was de- feated in his turn by Nebuchadnezzar, and obliged to return to his own country, where he died, B. C. 600. NELSON, (Horatio, Viscount), an English admiral, was the fourth son of the rector of Burnham Thorpe in Norfolk, where Horatio was born Sept. 29, 1758. At the age of twelve years he was taken to sea by his maternal un- NEL 360 NEL cle, Captain Suckling, of the Raisonable man- of-war. In 1773 in a voyage undertaken for the discovery of a north-west passage, the young seaman distinguished himself by his skill, cour- age, and promptitude. Soon after his return he was appointed to a station in the Seahorse, in which he sailed to the East Indies. He passed for a lieutenant in 1777, and re- ceived his commission as second of the Lowes- toff frigate ; in which he cruised against the Americans. In 1779 he obtained the rank of post captain, and was appointed to the command of the Hinchinbrooke, with which he sailed to the West Indies, and while there essentially contributed to the taking of Fort Juan in the gulf of Mexico. We find him next commanding the Boreas, having under him the Duke of Cla- rence, who was captain of the Pegasus. While thus engaged he married the daughter of William Woodward, judge of the Island of Nevis, by whom he never had any issue. On the breaking out of the war with France he was nominated to the Agamemnon of 64 guns, on board of which he sailed to the Mediterranean, and was present at the taking possession of Toulon. He was also present at the siege of Bastia, where he served at the batteries with a body of seamen ; as he afterwards did at Calvi : and while employed before that place he lost an eye. He was so active on that station that his name was dreaded throughout the Mediter- ranean. He was with Admiral Hotham in the action with the French fleet, March 15, 1795; and the same year he took the island of Elba. In 1796' he was appointed commodore on board La Mi- nerve, in which frigate he captured La Sabine, a forty gun ship. Soon after this he descried the Spanish fleet, and steered with the intelli- gence to Sir John Jervis off St. Vincent. He had scarcely communicated the news, and shift- ed his flag on board the Captain of 74 guns, when the enemy hove in sight. A close action ensued, which terminated in a complete vrctory on the side of the British, who were inferior in numbers. On this occasion Commodore Nelson attacked the Santissima Trinidada of 136 guns ; and afterwards he boarded and took the San Nicolas of 80 guns, from whence he proceeded in the same manner to the San Josef of 112 guns ; both of which surrendered to him. For his share in this glorious victory, the commodore was honored with the order of the Bath ; and having soon afterwards hoisted his flag as rear admiral of the blue, he was appointed to com- mand the inner squadron at the blockade of Cadiz. He there made a bold but unsuccessful attempt to bombard the city, heading his men himself The next exploit in which he was engaged was an attempt to take possession of Teneriffe, which design also failed, with the loss of Cap- tain Bowen of the Terpsichore. In this expe- dition Admiral Nelson lost his right arm by a cannon shot, and was carried off to the boat by his son-in-law Captain Nesbit, on his back. He now returned to England for the recovery of his health, and received the grant of a pension of 1000/. a year. The brave admiral, however, did not long remain inactive: he rr joined Earl St. Vincent, who, on receiving intelligence of the sailing of Bonaparte from Toulon, detached Sir Horatio Nelson with a squadron in pursuit of him. After exploring the coast of Italy, this inde- fatigable commander steered for Alexandria, where to his great mortification not a French ship was to be seen. He then sailed to Sicily, and having taken in a fresh supply of water, and obtained more correct information, returned to Alexandria, which he descried August 1, 1798, at noon. The enemy were discovered in Aboukir Bay, lying at anchor in line of battle ; and supported by strong batteries on an Island, and strengthened by gun-boats. Notwithstand- ing this formidable appearance, the British ad- miral made the signal for battle ; and, by a mas- terly and bold manoeuvre, gave directions for part of his fleet to lead inside the enemy, who were thus exposed between two fires. The contest was hot and bloody. Several of the French ships were soon dismasted ; and, at last the admiral's ship l'Orient of 120 guns took fire, and blew up. The firing, however, con- tinued, but by the dawn of day only two sail of the line were discovered with their colors fly- ing, all the rest having struck. Soon after this he sailed for Sicily, and from thence to Naples, where he quelled a rebellion, and restored the king. Having performed these and other im- portant services, Lord Nelson returned to Eng- land, and was received with enthusiastic joy. A confederacy of the northern powers having alarmed the government, he was employed to dissolve it. A fleet was fitted out, the com- mand of which was given to Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, assisted by Lord Nelson. On their ar- rival off the Cattegat, and being refused a pas- sage, Lord Nelson offered his services for con- ducting the attack on the Danish force, which was stationed to oppose an entrance. This being accepted, he shifted his flag to the Ele- NEI 361 NER phant, and passed the Sound with little loss. On the 2d of April the action commenced at ten o'clock, and after a sharp conflict seventeen sail of the Danes were sunk, burnt, or taken. A negotiation was then entered into between his lordship and the Crown Prince ; in conse- quence of which the admiral went ashore, and an armistice was settled. Having accomplished these great objects, he returned to England, and was created a vis- count. In August 1801, he bombarded the enemy's flotilla of gun-boats at Boulogne, but without any material effect. A treaty suddenly taking place, his lordship retired, but hostilities recommencing he sailed for the Mediterranean, and in March 1803, took the command of that station on board the Victory. Notwithstanding all his vigilance, the French fleet escaped from Toulon, and was joined by that of Cadiz ; of which being apprized, he pursued them to the West Indies with a far inferior force. The combined squadrons, however, struck with ter- ror, returned without effecting any thing; and, after a partial action with Sir Robert Calder off Farrol, re-entered Cadiz. Admiral Nelson re- turned to England, but soon set sail to join his fleet off Cadiz. The French under Admiral Villeneuve, and the Spaniards under Gravina, ventured out with a number of troops on board, October 19, 1805, and on the 21st, about noon, the action began off Cape Trafalgar. Lord Nelson ordered his ship the Victory to be carried alongside his old antagonist, the Santissima Trinidada, where he was exposed to a severe fire of musketry; and, not having the precaution to cover his coat, which was decorated with his star and other badges of distinction, he became an object for the riflemen placed purposely in the tops of the Bucentaur, which lay on his quarter. A shot from one of these entered just below his shoul- der, of which he died in about two hours. In this action the enemy's force consisted of thirty- three ships of the line, and several of extraordi- nary magnitude ; while the British were only twenty-seven. After the fall of Lord Nelson, the command devolved on Admiral Colling- wood, by whose bravery and skill a complete victory was obtained. The remains of Lord Nelson were interred with great pomp in St. Paul's cathedral, January 9, following. NELSON, Thomas, junior; a signer of the Declaration of American Independence, was born at York, in Virginia, Dec. 26, 1738. He received an excellent education in England, and returned to America about the close of the year 1761. After having been a member of the house of burgesses in his native state, he was chosen a member of the first congress, and re- tained his seat until 1777. At this date, the feeble state of his health obliged him tempora- rily to relinquish his seat, and as soon as he recovered, he was chosen brigadier-general and commander-in-chief of the forces of the com- monwealth. In 1779 he was re-elected to con- gress, but obliged by sickness to return home again. However, he took up arms against the British and distinguished himself in several military expeditions. In 1781 he succeeded Mr. Jefferson as governor of Virginia, and through the most troubled times of the common- wealth, acquitted himself fearlessly and well. He died Jan. 4, 1789, in his 51st year. NEPTUNE, in ancient mythology, the god of the sea, the brother of Jupiter from whom he derived his sovereignty. He is generally represented as a bearded old man, with a tri- dent in his hand, seated in a huge marine shell which is drawn over the waters by sea-horses. NERO, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, after his adoption called Claudius Drusus, the son of Caius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, was born at An- trum, A. D. 37. He was adopted by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 50, and four years after he succeeded to him on the throne. The beginning of his reign was marked by acts of the greatest kindness and condescension, by affability, complaisance, and popularity. The object of his administration seemed to be the good of his people ; and when he was desired to sign his name to a list of mal- efactors that were to be executed, he exclaimed, I wish to heaven I could not write. He was an enemy to flattery, and when the senate had liberally commended the wisdom of government, Nero desired them to keep their praises till he deserved them. These promising virtues were soon discovered to be artificial, and Nero dis- played the propensities of his nature. He de- livered himself from the sway of his mother, and at last ordered her to be assassinated. This unnatural act of barbarity might astonish some of the Romans, but Nero had his devoted adherents ; and when he declared that he had taken away his mother's life to save himself from ruin, the senate applauded his measures, and the people signified their approbation. Many of his courtiers shared the unhappy fate of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or caprice all such as obstructed his pleasure. He sacrificed to his wantonness his wife Octavia ft NER 362 NER PoppEEa, and the celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, &c. The Christians also did not escape his barbarity. He had heard of the burning of Troy, and as he wished to renew that dismal scene, he caused Rome to be set on fire in different places. The conflagration became soon universal, and during nine successive days the fire was unextinguish- ed. All was desolation, nothing was heard but the lamentations of mothers whose children had perished in the flames, the groans of the dying, and the continual fall of palaces and buildings. Nero was the only one who enjoyed the general consternation. He placed himself on the top of a high tower, and he sang on his lyre the de- struction of Troy, a dreadful scene which his barbarity had realized before his eyes. He at- tempted to avert the public odium from his head, by a feigned commiseration of the miseries of his subjects. He began to repair the streets and the public buildings at his own expense. He built himself a celebrated palace, which was profusely adorned with gold, and precious stones, and with whatever was rare and exquisite. The entrance of this edifice could admit a large co- lossus of the emperor 120 feet high, the galleries were each a mile long, and the whole was cov- ered with gold. The roofs of the dining halls represented the firmament in motion as well as in figure, and continually turned round night and day, show- ering down all sorts of perfumes and sweet wa- ters. When this grand edifice, which occupied a great part of the city, was finished, Nero said, that now he could lodge like a man. His pro- fusion was not less remarkable in all his other actions. When he went a fishing, his nets were made with gold and silk. He never ap- peared twice in the same garment, and when he undertook a voyage, there were thousands of servants to take care of his wardrobe. This continuation of debauchery and extravagance, at last roused the resentment of the people. Many conspiracies were formed against the em- peror, but they were generally discovered, and such as were accessary suffered the greatest punishments. The most dangerous conspiracy against Ne- ro's life, was that of Piso, from which he was delivered by the confession of a slave. The conspiracy of Galba proved more successful; and the conspirator, when he was informed that his plot was known to Nero, declared himself emperor. The unpopularity of Nero favored his cause, he was acknowledged by all the Ro- man empire, and the senate condemned the ty- rant that sat on the throne to be dragged naked through the streets of Rome, and whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown down from the Tarpeian rock like the meanest malefactor. This, however, was not done, Nero, by a vol- untary death, having prevented the execution of the sentence. He killed himself, A. D. 68, in the 32d year of his age, after a reign of 13 years and eight months. Rome was filled with acclamations at the in- telligence, and the citizens, more strongly to indicate their joy, wore caps such as were gen- erally used by slaves who had received their freedom. Their vengeance was not only exer- cised against the statues of the deceased tyrant, but his friends were the objects of the public resentment, and many were crushed to pieces in such a violent manner, that one of the sen- ators, amid the universal joy, said that he was afraid they should soon have cause to wish for Nero. Though his death seemed to be the source of universal gladness, yet many of his favorites lamented his fall, and were grieved to see that their pleasures and amusements were stopped by the death of the patron of debauch- ery and extravagance. Even the king of Par- thia sent ambassadors to Rome to condole with the Romans, and to beg that they would honor and revere the memory of Nero. His statues were also crowned with garlands of flowers, and many believed that he was not dead, but that he would soon make his appearance, and take a due vengeance upon his enemies. NERO, CLAUDIUS, a Roman general sent into Spain to succeed the two Scipios. He suf- fered himself to be imposed upon by Asdrubal, and was soon after succeeded by young Scipio. He was afterwards made consul, and intercepted Asdrubal, who was passing from Spain into Italy with a large reinforcement for his brother Annibal. An engagement was fought near the river Metaurus, in which 56,000 of the Cartha- ginians were left on the field of battle, and great numbers taken prisoners, 207 B. C. NERVA COCCEIUS, a Roman emperor after the death of Domilian, A. D. 96. He rendered himself popular by his mildness, his generosity, and the active part he took in the management of affairs. He suffered no statues to be raised to his honor, and he applied to the use of the government all the gold and silver statues which flattery had erected to his prede- cessor. In his civil character he was the pat- tern of good manners, of sobriety, and tempe- rance. He made a solemn declaration that no senator should suffer death during his reigrit ; NET 363 NEW and this he observed with such sanctity, that when two members of the senate had conspired against his life, he was satisfied to tell them that he was informed of their wicked machina- tions. He also conducted them to the public spectacles, and seated himself between them, and, when a sword was offered to him, according to the usual custom, he desired the conspirators to try it upon his body. Such goodness of heart, such confidence in the self conviction of the human mind, and such reliance upon the con- sequence of his lenity and indulgence, concil- iated the affection of all his subjects. Yet, as envy and danger are the constant companions of greatness, the praetorian guards at last mu- tinied, and Nerva nearly yielded to their fury. He uncovered his aged neck in the presence of the incensed soldiery, and bade them wreak their vengeance upon him, provided they spared the life of those to whom he was indebted for the empire, and whom his honor commanded him to defend. His seeming submission was unavail- ing, and he was at last obliged to surrender to the fury of his soldiers, some of his friends and supporters. The infirmities of his age, and his natural timidity, at last obliged him to provide himself against any future mutiny or tumult, by choosing a worthy successor. He had many friends and relations, but he did not consider the aggrandizement of his family, and he chose for his son and successor, Trajan, a man of whose virtues and greatness of mind he was fully con- vinced. This voluntary choice was approved by the acclamations of the people ; and the wis- dom and prudence which marked the reign of Trajan showed how discerning was the judg- ment, and how affectionate were the intentions of Nerva for the good of Rome. He died A. D. 98, in his 72d year, and his successor showed his respect for his merit and his character by raising him altars and temples in Rome, and in the provinces, and by ranking him in the num- ber of the gods. Nerva was the first Roman emperor who was of foreign extraction, his fa- ther being a native of Crete. NETHERLANDS, a kingdom of Europe, separated from Belgium in the revolution of 1830, previously to which it contained 25,375 square miles, and 0,059,566 inhabitants. The earliest accounts of the Netherlands are from the Romans, by whom all the southern and central part (called Belgia) was kept in subjec- tion till the decline of their empire in the fifth century. It was formerly, under the govern- ment of counts, but being incorporated with the extensive possessions of the duke of Burgundy, the Netherlands passed to Maximilian of Aus- tria, father of Charles V, who united the 17 provinces into one state ; but the bigotry of his son Philip II, produced the separation of the Dutch provinces, and great dissension and dis- tress in the others. They remained under the Spanish crown until the middle of the 17th century, when arduous exertions were made by Conde and Turenne to add them to the domin- ions of Louis XIV. The quadruple alliance, concluded at the Hague in 1668, however, put a stop to their progress, but the wars from 1672 to 1679, and 1689 to 1697, were prosecuted chiefly for the Netherlands. At length, in 1702, Louis obtained them, but the French being de- feated by the duke of Marlborough at the battle of Ramilics, in 1706, the southern provinces were brought under the power of the allies, and assigned to Austria at the peace of Utrecht. A peace ensued, until the war of 1741 was trans- ferred to the Netherlands, and the French un- der Marshal Saxe recovered them. Bergen-op- Zoom was captured by the French in September 1747, and Maestricht in the following year, when the successes of the British navy, and the persevering aspect of the coalition led to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and the south- ern Netherlands thus became restored to Aus- tria. By the treachery of Austria in 1756 they were once more nearly ceded to France, but the scheme was not carried into effect. In tlie campaign of 1792 Austria again lost the Nether- lands, and though recovered in 1793, they again passed over to France in 1794. The hope of recovering them was the cause of the coalition of 1799 and 1805, both baffled in their object. The disasters of the French army in Russia in 1812, at length, opened the long-wished for prospect. In 1813, Germany occupied all the exertions of the allies, but in 1814 the Nether- lands were detached by a consequence of the revolution by which the Bourbons were restored ; and the British cabinet accomplished the union of the seventeen provinces, and their erection into an independent state, under the prince of Orange, in 1815. The prince, therefore, as- sumed the title of king of the Netherlands, and grand duke of Luxembourg. NEW BRUNSWICK, a British province of North America. Population 110,000. In the interior of the country the soil is admirable, and the uplands are well timbered. Grass and grain are the principal agricultural productions, and the main exports are timber and fish. The river St. John's is the principal stream. NEWFOUNDLAND, an island in the North NEW 364 NEW Atlantic ocean near the gulf of St. Lawrence, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497. The population is estimated at about 80,000. It is 380 miles long, and from 40 to 280 broad, being of triangular shape. The face of the country is very rugged, but timber is abundant. The cli- mate is cold and dreary. The fisheries off* the banks employ more than one hundred thousand men. St. John's, the capital, contains about 12,000 inhabitants. NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United States, bounded north by Lower Canada; east by the Atlantic ocean and the state of Maine ; south by Massachusetts, and west by Connecticut river. It has an area of 7,491 miles, and a pop- ulation of 259,533. There are numerous rivers in the state, which is very mountainous, the White Mountains displaying some of the most sublime scenes to be found in this country. The chief towns are Concord, the seat of gov- ernment, Portsmouth, Dover, Walpole, Clare- mont, Hanover, Hopkinton, Salisbury, Lon- donderry, and Durham. Dartmouth College, in Hanover, and Philip's Academy at Exeter, are both flourishing institutions. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people. John Smith discovered New Hampshire in 1614, but its name was bestowed by John Mason, to whom, and Sir Ferdinand Gorges, grants of land were made by the crown in 1022. The country was thence popularly termed the Hampshire Grants, The first settlements were made in 1623, at Dover and Portsmouth. From 1641, to 1679, the settlements formed a portion of Suffolk county, Massachusetts. Charles II separated them. It was afterwards reunited to Massa- chusetts, but finally separated in 1741. The present constitution is that which was altered in 1792, from that of 1784. NEW JERSEY, one of the United States; bounded north by New York ; east by New York and the Atlantic Ocean ; south by the Ocean, and west by Delaware and Pennsylva- nia. The northern part of the state is moun- tainous, but the southern level. The former is the most fertile and has soil well adapted to agricultural purposes. Iron is found among the mountains in great abundance. The chief towns are Trenton, the seat of government, Newark, New Brunswick, Elizabethtown, Bur- lington, Patterson, elphus, and grandson of Lycorus. The Greek historians gave to this city the name of Delphos, which some suppose to have been so called from Mdpkoi, brethren, because Apollo and his brother Bacchus were both worshipped there ; and others, with greater probability, derive the name from Delphos, single or solitary, referring to the retired situation of the city among the mountains. Justin questions which was the most wor- thy of admiration, the fortification of the place, or the majesty of the god who here delivered his oracles. The temple of Apollo occupied a large space, and many streets opened to it. The first discovery which laid the foundation of the extraordinary veneration in which the oracle of Delphos was held, and of the riches accu- mulated in the temple, is said to have been ©ccasioned by some goats which were feeding on Mount Parnassus, near a deep and large cavern, with a narrow entrance. These goats having been observed by the goatherd, Core- tas, to frisk and leap after a strange manner, and to utter unusual sounds immediately upon their approach to the mouth of the caven, he had the curiosity to view it, and found himself seized with the like fit of madness, skipping, dancing, and foretelling things to come. At the news of this discovery multitudes flocked thither, many of whom were possessed with such frantic enthusiasm, that they threw themselves headlong into the opening of the cavern, insomuch that it was necessarv to issue an edict, forbidding all persons t ) approach it. This surprising place was treated with singular veneration, and was soon covered with a kind of chapel, which was originally made of laurel boughs, and resembled a large hut. This, ac- cording to the Phocian tradition, was surround- ed by one of wax, raised up by bees ; after this a third was built of solid copper, said to have been the workmanship of Vulcan. This last was destroyed by an earthquake, or (according to some authors) by fire, which melted the copper ; and then a sumptuous tem- ple, altogether of stone, was erected by two ex- cellent architects, Trophimus and Agamedes. This edifice was destroyed by fire in the 58th Olympiad, or 548 years B. C. The Amphicty- ons proposed to be at the charge of building another ; but the Alcmeonides,a rich family of Athens, came to Delphos, obtained the honor of executing the building, and made it more magnificent than they had at first proposed. The riches of this temple, amassed by the do- nations of those who frequented it, and consult- ed the oracle, exposed it to various depreda- tions. At length the Gauls, under the conduct of Brennus, came hither for the same purpose, about 278 years B. C. ; but they were repulsed with great slaughter. Last of all, Nero robbed it of five hundred of its most precious brazen and golden statues. It has not been ascertained at what time this oracle was founded. It is certain, however, that Apollo was not the first who was consulted here. iEschylus, in his tragedy of Eumenides, says, Terra was the first who issued oracles at Delphi : after her, Themis, then Phoebe, another daughter of Terra, and, as it is said, mother of Latona, and grandmother to Apollo. Pausanias says, that before Themis, Terra and Neptune had delivered oracles in this place, and some say that Saturn had also been consulted here. At length the oracle of Apollo became estab- lished and permanent ; and such was its repu- tation, and such were the multitudes from all parts that came to consult it, that the riches which were thus brought into the temple and ORA 374 ORA city, became so considerable as to be compared with those of the Persian kings. About the time when this oracle was first discovered, the whole mystery requisite for ob- taining the prophetic gift, is said to have been merely to approach the cavern and inhale the vapor that issued from it, and then the god inspir- ed all persons indiscriminately ; but at length, several enthusiasts, in the excess of their fury, having thrown themselves headlong into the cavern, it was thought expedient to contrive a prevention of this accident, which frequently occurred. Accordingly, the priests placed over the hole, whence the vapor issued, a machine which they called a tripod, because it had three feet, and commissioned a woman to seat her- self in it, where she might inhale the vapor without danger, because the three feet of the machine stood firmly upon the rock. This priestess was named Pythia, from the serpent Python, slain by Apollo, or from the Greek pu- thesthai, signifying to inquire, because people came to Delphi to consult this deity. The fe- males first employed, were virgins, selected with great precaution ; but the only qualifica- tion necessary was to be able to speak and re- peat what the god dictated. This was done by placing her ear close to one of the horns of the altar, and listening to the voice of one of Apollo's priests, to whom the question had been communicated. This priest, who stood near the altar, in the interior of the temple, having been assisted by his brethren in the necessary devotions and sacri- fices, opened the Book of Fate, which was de- posited in the temple, and after many prayers worked the required problems. The answer, which from the nature of the case in hand, was often conditional, being communicated to the priestess on the tripod, was, after various cere- monies, delivered to the inquiring multitude, or to the individual who came privately to con- sult the oracle. The custom of choosing young virgins con- tinued for a long time, till one of them, who was extremely beautiful, was dishonored by a young Thessalian. An express law was then enacted, that none should be chosen but wo- men above fifty years old. At first there was only one priestess, but afterwards there were two or three. The oracles were not delivered every day ; but gifts and sacrifices were in some cases presented for a long time, and even for a whole year ; and it was only once a year, in the month bosion, which answered to the beginning of spring, that Apollo inspired the priestess. Except on this day, she was forbid- den, under pain of death, to go into the sanc- tuary to consult Apollo. Alexander, before his expedition into Asia, came to Delphi on one of those days when the sanctuary was shut, and entreated the priestess to mount the tripod; which she steadily refus- ed, alleging the law which forbade her. The prince became impatient, and drew the priestess by force from her cell, and whilst he was con- ducting her to the sanctuary, she took occasion to exclaim, " My soti, thou art invincible! .'" As soon as these words were pronounced, Alexan- der cried out that he was satisfied, and would have no other oracle. It is here to be observed, however, that great, but unnecessary, preparations were often made, for giving mysteriousness to the oracle, and for commanding the respect that was paid to it. Among other circumstances relating to the sac- rifices that were offered, the priestess herself fasted three days, and before she ascended the tripod, she bathed herself in the fountain Cas- talia. She drank water from that fountain, and chewed laurel-leaves gathered near it. She was then led into the sanctuary by the priests, who placed her upon the tripod. As soon as she began to be agitated by the divine exhalation, said to arise from the cavern, but which was merely the vapor of incense burnt there, in order to give more mystery to the affair, her hair stood on end, her aspect be- came wild and ghastly, her mouth began to foam, and her whole body was suddenly seized with violent tremblings. In this condition she attempted to escape from the priests, who de- tained her by force, while her shrieks and howl- ings made the whole temple resound, and filled the bystanders with a sacred horror. At length, unable to resist the impulse of the god, she surrendered herself up to him, and at certain intervals uttered from the bottom of her stomach, by the faculty or power of ventrilo- quism, some unconnected words, which the priests ranged in order, and put in form of verse, giving them a connection which they had not when they were delivered by the priestess. The oracle being pronounced, the priestess was taken off the tripod, and conducted back to her cell, where she continued several days, to re- cover herself. Lucan tells us, that speedy death was frequently the consequence of her enthu- siasm. The oracles pronounced by tire priestess being generally delivered to the poets, who at- tended on the occasion, and being put by them into wretched verse, gave occasion to the rail- ORA 375 ORA lery, that " Apollo the prince of the muses,, was the worst of poets." The priests and priest- esses, to whose conduct the responses of the oracle were committed, were, however, fre- quently guilty of fraud and imposture. And many instances might be mentioned, in which the Delphic priestess was not superior to cor- ruption. Hence she persuaded the Lacedagmo- nians to assist the people of Athens in the ex- pulsion of the thirty tyrants. Hence, also, she caused Demaratus to be divested of the royal dignity to make way for Cleomenes ; and sup- ported the impostor Lysander, when he endea- vored to change the succession to the throne of Sparta. It is not improbable, that Themisto- cles, who well knew the importance of acting against the Persians by sea, inspired the god with the answer he gave, " to defend them- selves with walls of wood." These answers were likewise, on many occa- sions equivocal. Thus, when Croesus was about to invade the Medes, he consulted this oracle upon the success of the war, and received for an- swer, that by passing the river Halys, he should ruin a great empire. But he was left to conjec- ture, or to determine by the event, whether this empire was his own or that of his enemies. Such was also the same oracle's answer to Pyrrhus, — i Aio te, JEacidc, Romanos vlncere posse,' — which meant, " I say O son of iEacus, that thou canst overcome the Romans," or, " I say O son of yEacus, that the Romans can overcome thee." The oracle of Apollo, in Delos, was one of the most famous oracles in the world, not only for its antiquity, but for the richness of the sacred presents dedicated to the god, and the numbers of persons that resorted hither from all parts foi advice ; in which respect it surpassed not only all the oracles of other gods, but even those of Apollo himself, — that of Delphos alone ex- cepted. Some writers say, that the island had the name of Delos, from the clear and simple terms in which the answers were here given by the oracle, contrary to the ambiguity observed in other places ; but it was consulted only while Apollo made Delos his summer residence, for his winter abode was at Patara, a city of Ly- cia. The presents offered by the votaries to Apollo, were laid on the altar, which, as some say, was erected by Apollo himself, when he was only four years old, and formed of the horns of goats, killed by Diana, on Mount Cyn- thus. It was preserved pure from blood and every kind of pollution, as offensive to Apollo. The whole island was an asylum, which ex- tended to all living creatures, dogs excepted, which were not suffered to be brought on shore. The native deities, Apollo and Diana, had three very magnificent temples erected for them in this island. That of Apollo, was, according to Strabo, (lib. x.) begun by Erysiapthus, the son of Cecrops, who is said to have possessed this island 1558 years B. C. ; but it was after- wards much enlarged and embellished at the general charge of all the Grecian stales. But Plutarch says, that it was one of the most state- ly buildings in the universe, and describes its altar, as deserving a place among the seven wonders of the world. The inscription in this temple, as Aristotle informs us, (Ethic. 1. i. c. 9.) was as follows : " Of all things the most beau- tiful is justice ; the most useful is health ; and the most agreeable is the possession of the be- loved object." Round the temple were magni- ficent porticoes, built at the charge of various princes, as appears from the still legible inscrip- tions. To this temple the neighboring islands sent yearly a company of virgins to celebrate with dancing the festival of Apollo, and his sister Diana, and to make offerings in the name of their respective cities. Delos was held in such reverence by most nations, that even the Persians, after having laid waste the other islands, and every where destroyed the temples of the gods, spared De- los ; and Datis, the Persian admiral, forbore to anchor in the harbor. The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the deserts of Libya, nine days journey from Alex- andria. It had a famous oracle, which, accord- ing to ancient tradition, was established about 18 centuries before the time of Augustus, by two doves which flew away from Thebais in Egypt, and came, one to Dodona, and the other to Libya, where the people were soon informed of their divine mission. The oracle of Ammon was consulted by Hercules, Perseus, and others ; but when it pronounced Alexander to be the son of Jupiter, such flattery destroyed its long established reputation, and in the age of Plu- tarch it was scarcely known. The situation of the temple was pleasant ; and there was near it a fountain whose waters were cold at noon and midnight, and warm in the morning and even- ing. There were above 100 priests in the tem- ple, but the elders only delivered oracles. There was also an oracle of Jupiter Ammon in iEthi- opia. Dodona was a town of Thesprotia in Epirus. There was in its neighborhood, upon a small hill called Tmarus, a celebrated oracle of Jupi- OR A 376 ORA ter. The town and temple of the god were first built by Deucalion, after the universal deluge. It was supposed to be the most ancient oracle of all Greece, and according to the traditions of the Egyptians mentioned by Herodotus, it was founded by a dove. Two black doves, as he relates, took their flight from the city of Thebes in Egypt, one of which flew to the tem- ple of Jupiter Amnion, and the other to Dodona, where with a human voice they acquainted the inhabitants of the country that Jupiter had con- secrated the ground, which in future would give oracles. The extensive grove which surround- ed Jupiter's temple was endowed with the gift of prophecy, and oracles were frequently de- livered by the sacred oaks, and the doves which inhabited the place. This fabulous tradition of the oracular power of the doves, is explained by Herodotus, who observes that some Phoeni- cians carried away two priestesses from Egypt, one of whom went to fix her residence at Do- dona, where the oracle was established. It may further be observed, that the fable might have been founded upon the double meaning of the word peleiai, which signifies doves in most parts of Greece, while in the dialect of the Epirots, it implies old women. In ancient times the oracles were delivered by the murmuring of a neighboring fountain, but the custom was after- wards changed. Large kettles were suspended in the air near a brazen statue, which held a lash in its hand. When the wind blew strong, the statue was agitated and struck against one of the kettles, which communicated the motion to all the rest, and raised that clattering and discordant din which continued for a while, and from which the priests drew their predic- tions. Some suppose that the noise was occa- sioned by the shaking of the leaves and boughs of an old oak, which the people frequently con- sulted, and from which they pretended to re- ceive the oracles. It may be observed with more probability that the oracles were delivered by the priests, who, by concealing themselves behind the oaks, gave occasion to the multitude to believe that the trees were endowed with the power of prophecy. As the ship Argo was built with some of the oaks of the forest of Dodona there were some beams in the vessel which gave oracles to the Argonauts, and warned them against the approach of calamity. Within the forest of Dodona there was a stream with a fountain of cool water, which had the power of lighting a torch as soon as it touched it. This fountain was totally dry at noon-day, and wa3 restored to its full course at midnight, from which time till the following noon it began to decrease, and at the usual hour was again de- prived of its waters. The oracles of Dodona were originally delivered by men, but afterwards by women. The Roman Augurs, were certain priests at Rome who foretold future events, and took their name, ab avium garritu. They were first created by Romulus to the number of three. Servius Tullius added a fourth, and the tri- bunes of the people, A. U. C. 454, increased the number to nine ; and Sylla added six more during his dictatorship. They had a particular college, and the chief amongst them was called Magister Collegii. Their office was honorable ; and if any one of them was convicted of any crime, he could not be deprived of his privi- lege ; an indulgence granted to no other sacer- dotal body at Rome. The augur generally sat on a high tower, to make his observations. His face was turned towards the east, and he had the north to his left, and the south at his right. With a crooked staff he divided the face of the heavens into four different parts, and afterwards sacrificed to the gods, covering his head with his vestment. There were generally five things from which the augurs drew omens : the first consisted in observing the phenomena of the heavens, such as thunder, lightning, comets, &c. The second kind of omen was drawn from the chirping or flying of birds. The third was from the sacred chickens, whose eagerness or in- difference in eating the bread which was thrown to them, was looked upon as lucky or unlucky. The fourth was from quadrupeds, from their crossing or appearing in some unaccustomed place. The fifth was from different casualties, which were called Dira, such as spilling salt upon a table, or wine upon one's clothes, hearing strange noises, stumbling or sneezing, meeting a wolf, hare, fox, or prejniant bitch. Thus did the Romans draw their prophecies ; the sight of birds on the left hand was always deemed a lucky object, and the words sinister et larcus, though generally supposed to be terms of ill luck, were always used by the augurs in an auspicious sense. A strange old woman crime once to Tarqui- nius Superbus, king of Rome, with nine books, which she said were the Oracles of Sibyls, and proffered to sell them. But the king making some scruple about the price, she went away and burnt three of them ; and returning with the six, asked the same sum as befure. Tarquin only laughed at the humor ; upon which the old woman left him once more ; and after she had ORA 377 ORE burnt three others, came again with those that were left, but still kept to her old terms. The king began now to wonder at her obstinacy, and thinking there might be something more than ordinary in the business, sent for the augurs to consult what was to be done. They, when their divinations were performed, soon acquainted him what a piece of impiety he had been guilty of, by refusing a treasure sent to him from heaven, and commanded him to give whatever she demanded for the books that re- mained. The woman received her money, and delivered the writings, and only charging them by all means to keep them sacred, immediately vanished. Two of the nobility were presently after chosen to be the keepers of these oracles, which were laid up with all imaginable care in the capitol, in a chest under ground. They could not be consulted without a special order of the senate, which was never granted, unless upon the receiving some notable defeat, upon the ris- ing of any considerable mutiny or sedition in the state, or upon some other extraordinary occasion. The number of priests in this, as in most other orders, was several times altered. The Duumviri continued till about the year of the city 388, when the tribunes of the people preferred a law, that there should be ten men elected for this service, part out of the nobility, and part out of the commons. We meet with the Decemviri all along from hence, till about the time of Sylla the dictator, when the Quindecemviri occur. It were needless to give any further ac- count of the Sibyls, than that they are generally agreed to have been ten in number ; for which we havfe the authority of Varro, though some make them nine, some four, some three, and some only one. They all lived in different ages and countries, were all prophetesses, and, ac- cording to common opinion, foretold the coming of our Saviour. As to the writing, Dempster tells us it was on linen. Solinus acquaints us, that the books which Tarquin bought were burnt in the conflagra- tion of the capitol, the year before Sylla's dic- tatorship. Yet there were others of their inspired writings, or at least copies or extracts of them, gathered up in Greece and other parts, upon a special search made by order of the senate ; which were kept with the same care as the former, till about the time of Theodosius the Great, when the greatest part of the senate having embraced the Christian faith, they began to grow out of fashion ; till at last Stilicho burnt them all under Honorius, for which he is severe- ly censured by the poet Rutilius. ORDEAL. In the dark ages, when judicial proceedings were exceedingly imperfect, it was believed that on extraordinary occasions, the guilt or innocence of a suspected person would be manifested by a direct interposition of the deity, and various methods were resorted to to procure conviction or acquittal. These were termed ordeals or judgments of God. As late as the lGth century it was generally believed that if a murderer was forced to touch the corpse of the person he had murdered, blood would flow from the lips and wounds. The ordeal was of various kinds ; that of fire, that of red hot iron, that of cold water, that of judicial pottage, that of hallowed cheese, that of boiling water, that of the cross, and that of dice laid on relics covered with a woollen cloth. There were particular masses for each species of ordeal. Fire ordeal was performed either by taking up in the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, or three pounds' weight; or else by walking barefoot and blindfold, over nine red-hot ploughshares, laid lengthwise, at une- qual distances ; and if the party escaped with- out injury, he was adjudged innocent, but if otherwise, as without collusion it generally hap- pened, he was then condemned as guilty. One of these proceedings was as follows : a ball of iron was prepared, of one, two, or three pounds' weight, according to the nature of the accusa- tion. When all the prayers and religious cere- monies were finished, the ball was heated red- hot. The prisoner, having crossed himself, and sprinkled his hand with holy water, took the ball of hot iron in his hand, and carried it to the distance of nine feet ; after which his hand was placed in a bag, that was sealed and re- mained so for nine days ; at the expiration of which it was examined, in the presence of twelve persons of each party. If any marks of burning appeared upon it, the accused was found guilty ; if otherwise, he was declared innocent. The ordeal of water was performed either by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boil- ing water, or by casting the suspected person into a river or pond of cold water, and if he floated therein, without any action of swim- ming, it was deemed an evidence of his guilt, but if he sunk he was acquitted. The latter ordeal was adopted with regard to witches and sorcerers and was thought infallible. The Chi- nese, Africans, Tartars, and Hindoos have their OREGON DISTRICT, that portion of the United States territory which lies west of the ORL 378 OTH Rocky Mountains, discovered by Gray, an American navigator, in 1790. The soil is gen- erally fertile. ORKNEY ISLANDS, or ORC ADES, a clus- ter of small islands on the northern coast of Scotland, about 67 in number, only 29 of which are inhabited. Pop. 27,179. The population of Kirkwall, (or Pomona or Mainland, the princi- pal island) is 2212. These islands are scattered over a space 50 miles long, and 30 broad. Little of the soil is adapted foi agriculture, although it affords good pasturage. Game is abundant — red grouse, plovers, and snipe, eagles, wild ducks geese, solan geese or gannets, swan, &c. thronging to the Orkneys. They are mentioned by several Roman writers, and were visited by the fleets of Agricola, sent to explore the isl- and. The first inhabitants were the Picts, but they were subdued by the Norwegians or Nor- mans, at the time that that enterprising people effected conquests through almost every part of Europe. Orkney, after this, was governed by a succession of warlike earls, who constantly kept up a powerful fleet, with which they rav- aged the coasts of England, Ireland, and Scot- land; in the latter of which, they conquered several northern counties. The black raven which was the flag of Orkney continued to be an object of terror till the time of James III of Scotland, in 1474, when the Orkneys were ceded to that monarch as part of the mar- riage portion of Margaret of Denmark ; and this treaty was afterwards confirmed on the marriage of James VI with Ann of Denmark. The piratical expeditions of the earls of Ork- ney were then suppressed, and it has long been a well regulated and peaceable portion of the British empire. ORLEANS, Louis Joseph Philip, was born in 1747, and bore the title of duke of Chartres until 1787. He was rich and handsome, and, although not deficient in intelligence, ignorant, credulous, selfish, and sensual. In the revolu- tion he took part against the royal family, ren- dering himself infamous by his libels on Marie Antoinette. After the death of the king, the Jacobins, who had no further use for him, pro- cured his condemnation by the revolutionary tribunal. He met his fate with firmness, Nov. 6, 1793. t He is well known by his assumed name of Egaliti. ORLOFF, Count, the favorite of Catharine II of Russia, murdered the czar Peter III, 17C2. Catharine loaded him and his brothers with honors, and dignified them with the title of counts. Orloff having, however, aimed at the honor of publicly receiving the hand of Cath- arine, he was ordered to travel, together with a grant of 100,000 rubles in ready money, a pen- sion of 50,000, a magnificent service of plate, and an estate containing 6,000 peasants. OSTEND, a fortified and well-built seaport in the Belgic province of West Flanders. Pop. 10,500. It is noted for the sieges which it has withstood ; particularly for a terrible siege of three years, from July 5, 1G01 , to Sept. 22, 1G04, against the armies of Spain, when the tower was valiantly defended by the troops of the prince of Orange, assisted by the forces of queen Eliza- beth, under the command of Sir Francis Vere, who was chief general for five months. The loss of the Spaniards was immense, being little short of 100,000 men ; and although they after- wards succeeded in taking the place, it was yet at such an expense of men and treasure, that this siege is justly considered as the chief cause of the ruin of their affairs in the Netherlands, and of the establishment of the independence of the United Provinces. On the death of Charles II of Spain the French seized Ostend : but in 170G, after the battle of Ramillies,it was retaken by the allies. The emperor Charles VI established an East India Company here, but it met with such a powerful opposition from the maritime powers, that after many negotiations, it was abolished in 1731. Ostend was taken by the French in 1745, but given up at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,in 1748. In the war of 1750 the French garrisoned the town for the empress Maria Theresa. The emperor Joseph again at- tempted to establish an East India trade, but was not very successful. In 1792 it was taken by the French, and retaken by the English in 1793, who garrisoned it for the emperor Fran- cis II. When the French conquered Belgium, Ostend fell into their hands. In the course of the war, a detachment of British troops landed, and destroyed the sluices of the canals through which the French were collecting a naval force. The detachment after effecting their object were made prisoners of war. OTHO, Marcus Salvius, a Roman emperor, descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. Fie was acknowledged by the senate and the Roman people, but the sudden revolt of Vitclli- us, in Germany, rendered his situation precari- ous, and it was mutually resolved that their re- spective right to the empire should be decided by arms. Otho obtained three victoiies over his enemies, but in a general engagement near Brixellum, his forces were defeated, and he stabbed himself when all hopes of success were OTT 379 OTT vanished, after a reign of about three months, on the 20th of April. A. D. 69. OTHO I, emperor of Germany, elected at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 936. At the earnest solici- tation of the Italians, Otho repaired in person to Rome, where he was solemnly crowned empe- ror of the Romans in 9(i0, dignified with the ap- pellation of Augustus, and honored with the homao-e of the senate and people. He died in 972. OTHO II, surnamed the Sanguinary, suc- ceeded his father on the imperial throne : but his authority was warmly disputed by Henry, duke of Bavaria, and the commencement of his reign was disturbed by some hostile incursions of the Danes and Bohemians. In 979 he led a numerous body of forces into Italy, in order to punish a re volt of the Romans. He died in 983, and was succeeded by his son Otho III, at the age of 12 years, OTIS, James, was born in Massachusetts, Feb. 5, 1725, and was graduated at Harvard college, after which he studied law, and was admitted to the bar in Plymouth. He removed to Boston in 1750, and rose rapidly in his pro- fession. His speech against the " writs of as- sistance," (see Jidams) was the first public proof which Mr. Otis gave of his attachment to the cause of liberty. In May 1761 he was chosen to the legislature. Six years afterwards, on the repeal of the Stamp Act, he was chosen Speak- er of the House of Representatives, but was negatived by the governor. In 1769 he received a wound on the head in a scuffle with one of the commissioners of customs in the British coffee- house, to which injury his subsequent derange- ment has been attributed. He was killed by a stroke of lightning May 23, 1783. " He was," says Mr. Tudor, his biographer, 1 " a man of powerful genius and ardent temper, ' with wit and humor that never failed : as an orator, he was bold, argumentative, impetuous, and commanding, with an eloquence that made his own excitement irresistibly contagious ; as a lawyer, his knowledge and ability placed him at the head of his profession ; as a scholar, he was rich in acquisition, and governed by a clas- sic taste ; as a statesman and civilian he was sound and just in his views ; as a patriot, he re- sisted all allurements that might weaken the cause of that country to which he devoted his life, and for which he sacrificed it." OTTOMAN EMPIRE, Turkish Empire, Ottoman, or Sublime Porte. The Ottomans are displeased with the name of Turks, which they reject as indicating uncivilized barbarians. The remembrance of Turk, a descendant of Ja- phet, and the father of all the nations or tribes that inhabit Tartary, might confer on that branch of the Ottomans the honor of being the most ancient and illustrious in the world. Othman I, descended from the celebrated Genghis Khan, with seven other Turkish cap- tains, seized all the countries which had been in the possession of the Seleucidse in Asia Minor, A. D. 1300. He assumed the title of sultan, and, pursuing his conquests, took Prusa in Bithynia, which he made the seat of the Ottoman empire or king- dom. He died after a reign of twenty-seven years, in 1328, which had been entirely spent in military expeditions, and was succeeded by his son Orchan, who continued the conquests of his father in the Greek empire, and took Nicea or Nicomedia. Murad, or Amurath I, the son and successor of Orchan, succeeded also to his father's usur- pation of the country, in 1356; and passing the straits of Gallipoli, he took Adrianople, which he made the seat of his empire. Amurath is extolled for his justice, temper- ance, modesty, and piety. He was succeeded by his son, Bajazet I, in 1389, whose brother, attempting to supplant him, was strangled ; and this is said to have been the first instance of that sanguinary cus- tom, afterwards so common, of putting to death princes of the royal blood. This prince is cel- ebrated by his victories, and by the most dis- tressing misfortunes. He flew from Asia to Europe, and returned to Asia with such incon- ceivable rapidity, that the Turks have given him the surname of Thunderbolt. He provoked the attacks of Timur Bee, or Tamerlane, who wish- ed to accommodate their differences, but who accepted the challenge of Bajazet, and in the plains of Prusa proved completely victorious, in one of the bloodiest battles that had ever been fought. It continued a whole day, and thou- sands on both sides fell by the sword ; but, while displaying the -utmost efforts of valor, Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner. An interregnum of 12 years succeeded, dur- ing which the three sons of Bajazet governed each a separate part of the empire ; but, at length, it was united under Mohammed, in 1413, who had an opportunity of displaying a noble character, the brightest features in which were gratitude and clemency. He was suc- ceeded by his son Murad, or Amurath II, in 1422, who was a cruel tyrant, and who took Thessalonica, or Salonica, and put the inhabit- OTT 380 OTT ants to the sword ; and invaded and subdued Servia, destroying all before him ; entered Tran- sylvania, ravaging the country, and murdering the natives ; and acted the same brutal part in Walachia. He gained the famous battle at Varna, in which Stephen, king of Hungary, was slain. Amurath died of age and grief at his ill success against Scanderbeg king of Epirus, and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed II, in 1451, the greatest warrior of all the Turkish sultans. His reign lasted 30 years, and was a continued series of battles and victories, almost without a single reverse. However, he had to contend with generals capable of suspending his progress, and of checking his ambition, had their forces been equal to their courage. Among these were the celebrated Huniades, king of Hungary ; Matthias Corvinus, his son ; and above all, Scanderbeg, after whose death the Turks made relics of his bones, which they wore as a preservative against dangers. On the 29th of May, 1453, Mohammed took the city of Con- stantinople. Thus ended the Greek empire, and the seat of the Turkish was founded. Un- provoked, the Turks attacked it, and never ceased till they had usurped the throne, as they had done those of so many other states and kingdoms, murdering millions in cold blood, and by tortures of inconceivable barbarity. Af- ter Mohammed had taken the capital, he turned his arms against what still remained of the Greek empire, in the isles and on the continent. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Bajazet II, in 1480, who subdued the Moldavians ; made a conquest of Caramania ; rendered several of the Asiatic princes tributary ; had considerable success in Syria; reduced Croatia; occasioned great devastation in the Morea ; landed a body of troops in the island of Rhodes : and paved the way for the conquest of Egypt, by depriving the Mamelukes, who commanded in that coun- try, of the necessary succors which they derived from Circassia. Exhausted with fatigue and debauchery, Bajazet was desirous of placing the crown on the head of his eldest son, Ahmed. In this situation of affairs, Selim, the youngest, arrived in the neighborhood of Constantinople, under the pretence of paying a visit to his father. This young prince was soon surround- ed by the whole court, who ranged themselves under his banners ; and the aged monarch, fore- seeing what would be the event of such a visit, willingly resigned his crown into the hands of Selim. Selim ascended the throne in the 45th year of his age, in 1512, and caused his brothers. Ahmed and Corcul, with five of his nephews, and a great many of the nobility, to be put to death. As he had received the crown from the suffrages of the soldiers, who wished only for war, he endeavored to gratify their desires, and leading his army into Egypt, completely de- feated the Mamelukes. Howevet, as he im- agined he could not ensure the quiet possession of Egypt, but by the total extinction of that people, he offered rewards to those who should discover any of them, and denounced the se- verest punishment against such as concealed them. When he thought he had them all as- sembled, he ordered a superb throne to be erect- ed for him upon the banks of the Nile, without the gates of Cairo ; and these unhappy wretch- es being brought into his presence, he caused them all to be murdered before his eyes, and their bodies to be thrown into the river. Solyman, the son of Selim, had scarcely mounted the throne, in 1520, when he formed the design of extending his empire as much in Europe, as his father had done in Asia. He directed his attempts against the Christians, and soon took Rhodes from the knights of St. John, who had possessed the island for upwards of 200 years. He then attacked Hungary, took Buda, and entered Austria with fire and sword. He laid siege to Vienna ; where finding a des- perate resistance, he withdrew his troops, but previously massacred all his prisoners, men, women, and children. He made John, king of Hungary, tributary to him, and took Bagdad, the whole of Assyria, and Mesopotamia. In short, he extended his reputation as a warrior to both extremities of the world. Selim, the son of Solyman, made peace with Germany and Persia, and took the island of Cyprus from the Venetians, in 1566. Amurath III, the eldest son of Selim, in 1575, was obliged to give large sums to appease the janisaries, who, having been accustomed, dur- ing the vacancy of the throne, to plunder, and even massacre their fellow-citizens, were dis- appointed on this occasion. To give employ- ment to his untractable soldiery, he made war upon Russia, Poland, Germany, and Venice, and subdued Georgia. He is said to have been of a quiet disposition, a lover of justice, and very zealous in his religion. lie left, behind him 20 sons, of whom 19 were strangled by the eldest, his successor. Mohammed III, having thus secured to him- self the throne by the slaughter of his brothers, in 1596, thought it necessary also to take away the life'of all the late sovereign's wives and OTT 381 OTT concubines, by whom it was possible that there should be any posthumous progeny. The in- solence of the janisaries now greatly increased, and they were perpetually revolting and fight- ing with the other soldiers. The pachas also rebelled in many provinces ; and the sultan, through fear>made peace with them, and con- firmed them in their office. Immersed in the pleasures of the seraglio, Mohammed bestowed no other attention on public affairs than was absolutely necessary. He caused his eldest son, a prince of inestimable qualities, to be put to death. Ahmed ascended the throne when he was scarcely 15 years old, in 1605, and soon demon- strated that the sceptre was not unworthily in- trusted to him. Under his reign, those fires which are so common began at Constantinople, and which seldom or never breakout but when the people are discontented. Ahmed was suc- ceeded by his brother Mustapha, in 1617. His cruelties rendered him so odious, that he was deposed and sent to prison in the castle of the Seven Towers, and his nephew, Othman, placed on the throne, in 1618. Othman, discontented with his janisaries, meditated revenge against them ; and as he could not drive them from Constantinople, he formed the design of trans- ferring the seat of government into Asia. But the janisaries discovering his intention, massa- cred the grand vizier, who they supposed to be the author of the measure, imprisoned the em- peror, who was soon after put to death, and re- instated Mustapha on the throne. The uncle, however, derived very little benefit from this event. He was treated as an idiot, led about upon an ass exposed to the derision and insults of the populace, and then carried back to prison, where he was strangled by the orders of his successor. Amurath IV, brother to the unfortunate Oth- man, by intrepidity and courage repressed the turbulence of the janisaries, and freed himself from every kind of rebellion, in 1621. During his reign, which lasted 17 years, he caused 14,000 men to be destroyed. His chief amuse- ment was to run about the streets in the night, with a sabre in his hand, and to cut down all whom he met. He was succeeded by his bro- ther Ibrahim, in 1639, who had languished four years in prison, and who, on being restored thus unexpectedly to liberty and empire, was so intoxicated by the new pleasures which they presented, that resigning the administration of government to the former ministers, he devoted himself entirely to the luxuries of the haram. The mufti having excited a revolt among the janisaries, and Ibrahim, finding himself unable to resist, resigned the crown, and in a few days was put to death. Mohammed IV the eldest son of Ibrahim, suc- ceeded his father, in 1649. His reign was long and glorious ; but after so many years passed in prosperity, which ought to have established his power, he was forced to abdicate the throne, though he survived his deposition, and was not molested in his apartment, which served as a prison. The exploits of this emperor, which, if detailed at length, would fill a volume, are not so far distant from the present period as to be obscured by the veil of time. The famous siege of Candia, which subjected the ancient Crete to the dominion of the crescent, makes a con- spicuous figure in the page of history. At the beginning of the 18th century, fathers at Vi- enna were accustomed to relate to their chil- dren the battles which they had witnessed un- der the walls of that city, when Sobieski disap- pointed the hopes of the Mohammedans. Mo- hammed IV distinguished himself by his incli- nation to mercy, and seldom commanded his troops in person ; which probably caused the revolt of the soldiers, who placed the crown on the head of one of his brothers. Solyman II did not seat himself on the throne without ap- prehension, in 1685; and, while receiving the usual congratulations, seemed every moment to expect his formidable brother with the execu- tioners and instruments of death. Solyman had to support a disastrous war against Germany and Venice, the misfortunes of which were at- tended with the most ruinous consequences. But Kiopruli Mustapha Pacha being appointed grand- vizier, regenerated the empire, and putting himself at the head of the main army, besieged and took the fortress of Belgrade. He died of the dropsy, and was succeeded by his brother, Ahmed II, in 1691, who had as little judgment, and as little influence in the government. Ki- opruli being killed on the banks of the Danube, when on the point of obtaining a victory, the sovereign soon followed his general to the grave. Mustapha II, son of Mohammed IV, gave new vigor to the empire, in 1695, which had languished under his predecessors. He resolved to command his troops in person, but met with a more disgraceful and more complete defeat than the Turks had ever experienced. His troops, not receiving their pay in due time, took up arms, deposed Mustapha, and invited Ahm- ed his brother to repair to the army. Ahmed III in the course of five months put = OTT 382 PAI to death more than 14,000 soldiers, who had taken the greatest share in the rebellion, and who were carried away in the night-time, and drowned in Lie Bosphorus. A war broke out between the Porte and Russia ; that with Ger- many and Venice was rekindled; and another was carried on in Persia. These military ex- peditions, though not always unsuccessful, re- duced the empire to a state of general weak- ness, which was felt particularly in the capital : all tended to irritate the minds of men, and pro- duced a revolt that dethroned Ahmed, after a reign of 27 years. On the deposition of Ahm- ed, in 1730, and the elevation of his nephew Mohammed V, a considerable alteration took place in the mode of carrying on the govern- ment. From the time of" Mohammed II, the whole administration had been usually delega- ted to the vizier ; but as this and the preceding rebellion had originated in the overgrown pow- er and ambition of these officers, Mohammed V took the authority into his own hands, and de- termined to change his viziers frequently. This prince was unfortunate in his battles both with the Russians and Kouli Khan, whom he was obliged to acknowledge as sophi of Persia. On the death of Mohammed, his brother Os- man came from confinement to the throne ; in 1754 ; and the kislar-aga and his secretary gain- ed the confidence of his new sovereign, and as- sumed all their former power. Osman was suc- ceeded by Mustapha III, the son of Ahmed, in 1757, who deprived the kislar-aga of his place and influence, and attached to the vizierat great part of the emoluments formerly given to the kislar-aga. Mustapha having attacked the Russians, in 1769, a bloody war commenced with the exploits of Prince Gallitzin, who gain- ed four separate and complete victories over the Turks, whom he obliged to abandon Choczin. The Russians speedily overran Moldavia and Walachia, and gained a great naval victory off Tchesme, where the whole of the Turkish fleet was destroyed. These and other important suc- cesses of the Russians compelled the Turks to conclude a dishonorable peace, soon after the death of Mustapha, and the accession of his bro- ther Abdulhamid. The peace of 1774, was the first great step towards the limitation of an em- pire, originally founded, and gradually extend- ed, hy rapine and injustice. On the death of Abdulhamid, in 178!), Selim III, son of Musta- pha, ascended the throne, at a time when the empire was engaged in another unsuccessful war with Russia, which terminated greatly in favor of the latter power. From this period, the most interesting and important concerns relating to the Ottoman empire, were for some time connected with the internal and civil broils, in which the celebrated Passwan Oglu, or Pez- man Ohlu, took a very active and decided part against the regular government. Civil war, which was probably fomented by the French, when they invaded Egypt, appeared likely to become general throughout Turkey ; a revolu- tion was effected by the janisaries, who deposed Selim III, and raised to the throne Mustapha IV, in 1801, and had it not been for the assist- ance of the English, and the regard which they paid to its interests, in the treaty of pacification , in 1802, it is probable that the Ottoman Porte would have ceased to exist as an independent nation. Russia declared war against Turkey, on the pretext of a peace concluded with Eng- land by the latter power, in 1809, and the Turks and Russians commenced hostilities against each other with no other apparent object than mutual destruction. At length, mutual ex- haustion rendered the operations on both sides languid ; and Russia finding herself invaded by the formidable power of France, a treaty of peace was concluded with Turkey, in 1812, which ceded the cities and districts on the left of the Pruth as the price of pacification. The present sultan, Mahmoud, has met with many losses. He is attached to the European dress and discipline, and has introduced many improvements, which are, however, regarded merely in the light of innovations by his subjects. OXENSTIERN (Axel), a Swedish states- man, was born in 1583. He was the favorite of Gustavus Adolphus, after whose death he conducted the affairs of the kingdom with equal ability and integrity. He died in 1054. PACA, William, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, born in Maryland Oct. 31, 1740. After graduating at the college of Philadelphia, he studied law, and commenced practice in Annapolis. From 1774 to 1778 he was a member of congress, and vacated his seat when he was appointed chief justice of the su- preme court of his state, of which he was chosen governor in 1782. In 1789 he was appointed by Washington judge of the district court of the United States for Maryland, and held that im- portant post until his death, which took place 10 years after, in the sixtieth year of his age. PAUSE, Robert Treat, one of the signers of the American Declaration of Independence, was PAI 383 PAL born at Boston, in 1731. For some time after graduating from Harvard college, he kept a public school. Having studied theology, lie became a chaplain in the provincial forces in 1755, but soon studied law in which he made great proficiency, and settled at Taunton. After Raving served at the general representative as- sembly, he was chosen member of the continen- tal congress which met at Philadelphia in 1774. He was several years in congress, and was an active member of the committee that framed the constitution of Massachusetts. He held the office of attorney -general from the time the gov- ernment was organized until 1790, when he was made judge of the supreme court, an office which he held until 1804. He died in the 85th year of his age, May 11, 1814. PAINE, Thomas, a political and deistical writer, was born in 1737 at Thetford in Norfolk, where he was brought up to the business of a stay maker. He afterwards became an excise- man at Lewes; but being dismissed for some mal-practices, he went to America in 1774, be- came editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine, and aided the revolution by a pamphlet called Com- mon Sense, for which he was rewarded with £500 by the legislature of Pennsylvania. He was also appointed clerk to the committee for foreign affairs. In 1780 he was appointed clerk to the assembly of Pennsylvania, and in 1785 received $3,005 from congress, and 500 acres of land from the state of New York. In 1790 he went to London and excited con- siderable notice by his Rights of Man, written in answer to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution. A prosecution, however, being commenced against him, he fled to France, where he was chosen a member of the national convention, but incurred the displeasure of the Jacobins for recommending a lenient course towards Louis XVI, and was thrown into prison. Here he narrowly escaped death. The jailor, when he received orders for a batch of prisoners to be carried to execution, was in the habit of marking the doors of their cells with chalk. One day, Paine had left his cell to visit a fellow- prisoner, and the door stood wide open. The drunken jailor, having occasion to single out some victims, chalked the inside of Paine's door, which was afterwards closed, and thus he escaped notice, when, on the ensuing day, the devoted prisoners were delivered up to the proper authorities. By the publication of his Age of Reason, a work levelled at Revelation, he forfeited the esteem of many Americans who had been his warm friends. He fell into disre- pute, when, on his return to America, he gave himself up to intemperate habits. He died June 8, 1809, the victim of his excesses, and was buried on his own farm, interment on their ground having been refused by the society of 1 riends to whom application was made. Cob- bett, who professes an unbounded admiration for Tom Paine, dug up his bones, and carried them to England. PALESTINE, (See Judma). Palestine ex- tends from Ccelo-Syria to Arabia Petrea; on the west it has the Mediterranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. The country is moun- tainous, and there is only one principal river, the Jordanes, or Jordan, which rising on Mount Hermon, falls into the lake of Gennesareth, or sea of Tiberias ; after which it loses itself in a more spacious one, Lacus Asphaltites, the Bi- tuminous Lake, or Dead Sea. On the western side of Jordan were Judcea on the south, Sama- ria in the middle, and Galilee in the north ; on the eastern side was Pera^a. The Philistines were mostly on the coast towards Egypt. In the kingdom of Judah stood Hierosolyrna, or Jerusalem, built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Sion ; it formed the southern part of the city. On the east of the second, or lower city, was Mount Moriah. Jerusalem, when enlarged and beautified by David, Solo- mon, &c, became a most renowned city, and as such is mentioned by Herodotus under the name of Cadytis. Its temple on Mount Moriah, was a noble and costly structure. Both the city and temple were destroyed by the Chalde- ans, about 600 years B. C. The second temple, which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Her- od the Great. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus was A. D. 70. Under Adrian, a new- city, altogether Roman, and called ^Elia, was built, but there was an alteration in its site. Sion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised within the new city. It subsists at present, but in a deplorable condition, inhabited by a motley group of Turks, Jews, and Christians. A mosque has supplanted the temple. Northeast of Mount Moriah was the Mount of Olives, beyond the brook and valley of Kedron ; on the south was the valley of Hin- nom, and on the north Mount Calvary. Six miles to the southeast was Bethlehem. A rugged mountainous country lay between Jeru- salem and Jericho, famous for its balm. For this, and for their p;ilm-trees, both Judssa and Idumrea were celebrated. Hebron, a place of higli antiquity, was the sepulchre of Abraham and his family. In the time of the crusades it PAM 384 PAM bore the name of St. Abraham ; and the Arabs, who always respect their primitive names, call it Cabr Ibrahim, or the tomb of Abraham. Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve their names, as also Ekron. Gath is more inland. Azotus was the ancient Ashdod. Lydda, in the inte- rior, has the name of Lod. South of it is Arim- athea. Towards the south lay Idumea, or Edom : the natives were subdued by the Macca- bees, and incorporated with the Jewish nation. In Jerome's time the country was deserted, the few inhabitants having their dwellings in cav- erns. PALMYRA, the ruins of a great city of Asia, in the desert of Syria, said to have been de- stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. The only brilliant part of its history was under Odenathus and his queen Zenobia. It afterwards fell under the power of the Mahometans, but at what period it sank into its present state of desolation is uncertain. PAMPAS; vast plains in the southern part of Buenos Ayres, extending from the de la Plata nearly to the Andes, 750 miles long, and 450 broad. Part of these plains are covered with grass, and part with open forests. They con- tain herds of wild horses and cattle and some beasts of prey, and are inhabited by the Gua- chos, a race of men of Spanish origin who live on horseback and subsist by hunting, and the fierce Indians who lead the life of the Guachos, but are constantly at war with them. Captain Head's Rough Notes of some Rapid Journeys across the Pampas, and among the Andes, con- tains the best and most amusing account we have of them. The Guachos make use of the lasso in hunt- ing. The lasso, so called from the Spanish lazo, or noose, consists of a rope made of twisted strips of untanned hide, varying in length from fifteen to twenty yards, and is about as thick as the little finger. It has a noose or running- knot at one end, the other extremity being fast- ened by an eye and button to a ring in a strong hide belt or surcingle, bound tightly round the horse. The coil is grasped by the horseman's left hand, while the noose, which is held in the right, trails along the ground except when in use, and then it is whirled round the head with considerable velocity, during which, by a pecu- liar turn of the wrist, it is made to assume a circular form ; so that, when delivered from the hand, the noose preserves itself open until it falls over the object at which it has been aimed. The unerring precision with which the lasso is thrown, is perfectly astonishing, and to one who sees it for the first time, has a very magi- cal appearance. Even when standing still it is by no means an easy thing to throw the lasso ; but the difficulty is vastly increased when it comes to be thrown from horseback and at a gallop, and when, in addition, the rider is oblig- ed to pass over uneven ground, and to leap hedges and ditches in his course. Yet such is the dexterity of the guachos or countrymen, that they are not only sure of catching the an- imal they are in chase of, but can fix, or as they term it, place the lasso on any particular part they please. Suppose that a wild bull is to be caught, and that two mounted horsemen, guassos, as they are called in Chili, or guachos on the Pampas, undertake to kill him. As soon as they dis- cover their prey, they remove the coil of the lasso from behind them, and, grasping it in the left hand, prepare the noose in the right, and dash off, at full gallop, each swinging his lasso round his head. The first who comes within reach aims at the bull's horns, and when he sees, which he does in an instant, that the lasso which he has thrown will take effect, he stops his horse, and turns it half round, the bull con- tinuing his course, till the whole cord has run out. The horse, meanwhile, knowing, by ex- perience, what is going to happen, leans over as much as he can in the opposite diiection from the bull, and stands trembling in expecta- tion of the violent tug which is to be given him by the bull, when brought up by the lasso. So great, indeed, is the jerk which takes place at this moment, that were the horse not to lean over in the manner described, he would cer- tainly be overturned ; but standing, as he does, across the road, with his feet planted firmly on the ground, he offers sufficient resistance to stop the bull as instantaneously as if he had been shot, though, the instant before, he was running at full speed. If the intention be to kill the animal for the sake of the tallow and hide alone, as is often the case, one of the guachos dismounts, and running in, cuts the bull's hamstrings with a long knife which he always wears in his girdle ; and, instantly afterwards, dispatches him by a dexterous cut across the back of the neck. The most surprising thing is, the manner in which the horse, after being left by his rider, manages to preserve the lasso always tight; this would be less difficult if the bull were to remain always steady, but it sometimes happens that he makes violent struggles to disentangle himself from the lasso, rushing backwards and forwards in a fu- PAM 385 PAR rious manner. The horse, however, with won- derful sagacity, alters his pace, and prances about, as if conscious of what he is doing, so as to resist every movement of the bull, and never to allow the lasso to be relaxed for a moment. When a wild horse is to be taken, the lasso is always placed round the two hind legs, and, as the guacho rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, without endangering his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching the poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate animal's head : he then forces into his mouth one of the powerful bits of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and, bestriding him, removes the poncho; upon which, the astonished horse springs on his legs, and endeavors, by a thousand vain efforts, to disencumber himself of his new master, who sits quite composedly on his back ; and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete obedience that he is soon trained to lend his speed and strength in the capture of his wild companions. The equestrian education of the dwellers on the Pampas, commences early. At the age of four the Guacho is mounted on horseback, and assists in driving the cattle to the enclosure. Even then he is adventurous, and can bring back by force those horses that attempt to es- cape. As his years increase, he becomes more daring and manly, and spends his time in gal- loping after the ostrich, the gama, the hare, and the tiger. The Pampas Indians, a daring and hardy race of men, who have never been conquered, and to whom the great changes of the seasons ap- pear to come with singularly little inconven- ience, are always on horseback, whether beneath the burning skies of summer, or the piercing cold of winter ; and they are at all seasons wholly without clothing. They are formed into tribes, under the command of caciques, and are a war- like people. Mounted on their fleet and sure- footed horses, with their spears eighteen feet long, which they can manage with great power, and dexterity, they are most formidable. On foot they are almost powerless ; as their habitual riding deprives them of the faculty of walking. When mounted, however, their fleetness is almost incredible. When they march for an attack, they collect a great troop of horses, and, raising their war-cry, set off" at a gallop. If the march be long, they change horses several times, and always reserve their best ones to be 25 mounted fresh when they are in sight of the enemy. The horses only are used for riding, but they drive mares along with them to serve as food. Their onset is destructive, and, until their horses are worn out with fatigue, to resist them is no easy matter. Riding in the Pampas is rendered dangerous by the numerous holes which the bisacho bur- rows in the ground like a rabbit. , Their holes frequently cause great injury to the feet of the horses, but custom renders the horse cautious amidst these dangers; and, as for the Guacho, it is impossible to eject him from the saddle, unless the horse shall actually fall. Captain Head tried the rapid mode of travelling prac- tised by the Guachos, and survived to describe it. At first he found his head a little confused with the constant galloping, and when he dis- mounted, he was so giddy that he could not stand ; but he in time got accustomed to it, and found it more pleasant. He found the young men the worst drivers in point of speed. The children had no fear, and therefore always dash- ed on at the most rapid rate, and the old men made up in skill, while the young men wanted alike the daring forwardness of the children, and the experience of the old men. Captain Head must have travelled at a prodigious rate. From Mendoza he determined to gallop to Bue- nos Ayres, and, attended by a single Guacho, mounted horse to recross the Pampas. It was now that the captain tried the velocity and felt the pleasure of really independent travelling across the Pampas; and his speed can be com- pared to nothing upon record — even that of the Guacho who accompanied him, or of Mazeppa as he was bound to the wild horse. Starting from Mendoza before day-break, he found him- self at half past seven in the evening, at the distance of one hundred and fifty-three miles; which, as he had been just fourteen hours and a half on horseback, was nearly at the rate of ten miles an hour. He was fatigued, and could get nothing to eat, and so, taking his saddle into a shed, he laid down his head on it, and was asleep in an instant. The voice of the Guacho roused him an hour before daylight, and he again galloped oft' at the rate of the preceding day. It is needless to follow the course of this adventurous traveller — enough has been said to show the mode of life and travelling in the Pampas. PARAGUAY, a state of South America, bounded N. by Brazil, E. and S. by the Parana, and W. by the Paraguay. It contains a popu- lation of 150,000 according to the lowest esti- PAR 386 PAR mate ; some give twice that number. It was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and in 1776 formed a province of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. The independence of Paraguay was acknowledged in 1827, by Don Pedro, then emperor of Brazil. The government is in the hands of Doctor Francia, who has been named dictator for life. Although tyrannical, he ap- pears to aim at the improvement and welfare of his subjects. PARGA, a sea-port on the coast of Albania, was built on the decline of the Roman empire. It is hardly mentioned in history till 1401 , when it entered into an alliance with Venice, which continued until the subversion of the latter in 1797. In 1814 Ali Pacha marched against it with a military force ; the Pargiots withstood the attack, but applied to the British in Corfu, and received a garrison from them, in the hope of being incorporated with the republic of the Ionian Islands. To this compact, however, the British did not give effect, the dread of con- tinued dissensions with the Albanians led to a negotiation for its surrender ; Ah paying an in- demnity to those who should refuse to remain after a change of government. The evacua- tion took place in 1819, most of the inhabitants removing to the Ionian Islands. PARIS, the capital of France, lies upon both banks and two islands of the Seine, 112 miles S. E. of Havre. The population, in 1827, was 890,451. It is an archiepiscopal see, the resi- dence of the monarch, the legislative body, the ministers and ambassadors, one of the largest, most populous, and richest cities in the world, containing some most superb monuments. In- cluding its suburbs, it is 18 miles in circumfer- ence, and is much superior to London in pala- ces and public edifices. Not only does it enjoy a literary and scientific preeminence, but is one of the gayest capitals in Europe. The houses are lofty and built of the stone taken from the quarries that extend beneath the city, thus forming the celebrated catacombs. The royal palaces are the Louvre, and Tuileries. It was very strong, when, under the name of Lutetia, it resisted a Roman detachment sent against it by Ca?sar. The Romans strengthened the for- tifications; in the fifth century it was taken by the Franks ; and in 508 was constituted the capital of the kingdom. It was improved by Charlemagne, and surrounded with walls at the end of the twelfth century. Under Louis XIV some improvements were made : but Versailles being then the chief care of the Bourbons, Paris received only slow and partial embellishments, until the revolution, when it became essential for the new rulers (particularly Bonaparte) to conciliate the favor of so important a city. PARK, Mungo, a native of Scotland, born near Selkirk, Sept. 10, 1771, fell a victim to the cause of science, being murdered in Africa, while engaged in his third expedition, 1805. His published travels are highly interesting. PARMA, a fine city in the north of Italy, capital of the duchy of the same name, con- taining 35,000 inhabitants. It was founded by the ancient Etrurians. In the Kith century, Paul III gave it to his son Luigi Farnese whose descendants continued to reign as dukes of Par- ma till the extinction of the male branch. In 1714, Elizabeth Farnese married Philip V of Spain, and brought him the duchy as a dowry. Her son Don Carlos took possession of it in 1731 ; but it being settled in 1735, that Don Carlos should be made king of the two Sicilies, the duchy of Parma and Piacenza was ceded to the emperor, and governed by the house of Austria till 1748, when they were given up to Don Philip, son of Philip V. By the peace of Luneville, the duke of Parma was raised to the throne as king of Etruria, in 1801. In 1805, Parma and Piacenza were united to France, and on the fall of Bonaparte they were taken by the Austrians, and in 1814 were given by the treaty of Paris to Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, devolving on her death to Austria and Sardinia — a provision which has since been modified by certain equivalents. PARSONS, Theophilus, was the son of a minister of Byfield, Mass., and was born Feb., 1750. After completing his legal studies, he opened an office in Newburyport, and assumed a high standing in his profession ; in 1806 he succeeded chief-justice Dana in the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts. He died at Boston, Oct. 30, 1813. PARTH1A, this celebrated kingdom of an- tiquity was situated in the northern part of the modern Khorassan, and was bounded on the N. by Ilyrcania, on the S. by Aria, on the E. by Carmania the Desert, and on the VV. by Media. The ancient Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being expelled from the land of their nativity, took up their abode in this part of Asia. Arsaces, the founder of the Parthian monarchy, assumed the regal dignity B. C. 250. His son Arsaces II subdued Media, but was soon dispossessed of this acquisition. On the death of Arsaces, the government de- volved on his son Priapatius, who bequeathed the crown to his eldest son Phraates. This last PAR 337 PAR prince subdued the Mardi, a warlike people of the east. He left the kingdom to his brother Mithridates, who soon reduced Bactria, Persia, Media, Elymais, and several other countries, and carried his victorious arms into India, even beyond the boundaries of Alexander's conquests. He afterwards made himself master of Babylo- nia and Mesopotamia ; and his reign is regarded as the epoch of the Parthian grandeur. We pass over a few unimportant reigns till we come to that of Orodes, who engaged in war with M. Licinius Crassus, which was attended with a vast effusion of blood, and proved ex- tremely disastrous both to the Parthians and the Romans. At length, Crassus was overthrown with a great slaughter, and his head sent to Orodes ; whilst his vanquished troops tamely surrendered or were put to the sword. Orodes sent an army to besiege the city of Antioch, which, however, the Parthians could not take. To revenge the death of Crassus, the Romans entered Syria, B.C. 50, and, after some partial en- gagements, succeeded in defeating Pacorus, the son of Orodes, who was killed in the battle. Oro- des appointed Phraates his successor, B. C. 36. Phraates no sooner attained to this height of power than he caused all his brothers by the daughter of Antiochus Eusebes to be put to death, and attempted to despatch Orodes also, by poison, which proving ineffectual, he ordered him to be stifled in his bed, and exercised the same cruelty upon the prime nobility, his eldest son, and the other branches of the royal family. To elude the vengeance of this barbarian, many of the Parthian nobles emigrated into Syria, and prevailed on Marc Antony to invade their un- happy kingdom. The Romans, however, were so harassed by the enemy, that they were re- duced to the most pitiable extremities, and nar- rowly escaped destruction. The Parthian monarch continuing to exercise the most wanton cruelties upon his own sub- jects, the nobles entered into a conspiracy, and chasing him from the country, conferred the sovereignty on Tiribates, one of their own body. Phraates, however, returned, and defeating his rival in a pitched battle, recovered his paternal inheritance. At length, this tyrant was poisoned by his wife, that her son Phraatices might ascend the throne. Phraatices had scarcely assumed the diadem, when his subjects, resolving to revenge the crime to which he had been accessary, rose in arms, and placed one Orodes, who was of the Arsacidan family, on the throne. This prince was assassinated. On the death of Orodes II, the emperor Au- gustus was requested by the Parthians to send one of the sons of Phraates, who had been edu- cated at Rome, to assume the government. Accordingly, he sent them Vonones, but the Parthians growing weary of him, persuaded Artabanus, king of Media, to chase him from the throne. Artabanus, at length, firmly estab- lished himself in the government of Parthia, and died in the 31st year of his reign. He was suc- ceeded by his son Bardanes, who made war upon Izates, king of Adiabene, A. D. 47, who had greatly assisted in restoring Artabanus to the throne of Parthia. This ingratitude was so warmly resented by the Parthian nobles, that they caused Bardanes to be assassinated, and bestowed the crown on his brother. Gotarzes was succeeded by one Venones, governor of Media, A. D. 49. On the demise of this last prince, the government devolved on Vologeses, the son of Gotarzes, who maintained a bloody war against the Romans, on account of the crowns of Armenia and Syria, which he had bestowed on Tiridates and Pacorus, two of his brothers. Artabanus III next ascended the throne. He was succeeded by his son Pacorus. Cosdroes, the son of Pacorus, invaded Arme- nia in the beginning of his reign, and expelled Exadares, who had been placed on the throne of that country by the emperor Trajan. To re- venge this insult, Trajan marched into the East, recovered Armenia, made himself master of Mesopotamia, pursued his route to Babylon and Ctesiphon, and bestowed their crown on Par- thanaspates, a prince of the Arsacidan family. On the death of Trajan, however, the Parthi- ans recalled Cosdroes, and chased Parthanas- pates from the throne. After a very long reign, Cosdroes was succeeded by his eldest son, Vol- ogeses II, who, after carrying on hostilities against Rome for about four years, with various success, consented to acknowledge the sove- reignty of tlie Roman people. On the demise of the Parthian king, his nephew Vologeses III ascended the vacant throne, and having incensed the emperor Se- verus, was stripped of his treasures, his wives, and his children. Artabanus, the son and suc- cessor of Vologeses, had scarcely established himself in the kingdom, when the emperor Ca- racalla, desirous of signalizing himself against the Parthians, sent ambassadors to demand his daughter in marriage. This wos readily grant- ed ; and the king, being informed that the em- peror was coming to solemnize the nuptials, went out to meet him, with the chief of the PAU 388 PEL Parthian nobility, all unarmed and habited in splendid dresses. This peaceable train no soon- er approached the Roman troops, than they were attacked with the utmost fury, and Artabanus himself was compelled to elude destruction by a precipitate flight. On account of this exploit, the base Caracalla assumed the surname of Parthicus. Artabanus swore irreconcilable hatred to the perfidious emperor, and inspired the whole nation with the same spirit of vengeance. An engagement was fought between the Parthians and the Romans, which was terminated only by darkness. Ca- racalla dying, an alliance between the two em- pires was proposed, and peace was concluded. At this juncture, an enterprising Persian, named Artaxares, after a dreadful engagement, defeat- ed Artabanus at the head of all the Parthian forces. Artaxares caused Artabanus to be put to death, and restored the empire to the Per- sians, after they had been subject to the princes of Parthia for the space of 475 years. The roy- al family of Arsaces, however, continued to reign in Armenia till the time of the emperor Justinian. PATAGONIA, a vast country occupying the southern extremity of South America, discov- ered by Magellan in 1519. The climate is cold and the natives are wandering savages. Some of the tribes are large-bodied, though not the giants which they have been described. PATNA, a celebrated city of Hindostan, and capital of the province of Bahar. On the 25th June, 1763, the British detachment stationed there for the protection of the factory, scaled the walls, and began pillaging the houses. They were, however, attacked by the garrison, and taken prisoners. In revenge for this affair, the Rajah gave orders that all the Europeans should be shot, which sentence was carried into execution upon 40 persons, by a serjeant, who fired into the doors and windows on the prison- ers, while they were at dinner in the hall of the factory. On the 6th November, in the same year, the city was stormed by major Adams, since which it has been under the British sway. PAUSANIAS, a Spartan general, who great- ly signalized himself at the battle of Platosa, against the Persians. He was afterwards set at the head of the Spartan armies, and extended his conquests in Asia ; but the haughtiness of his behavior created him many enemies, and the Athenians soon obtained a superiority in the affairs of Greece. Pausanias was dissatisfied with his countrymen, and he offered to betray Greece to the Persians, if he received in mar- riage, as the reward of his perfidy, the daugh- ter of their monarch. His intrigues were dis- covered by means of a youth, who was intrust- ed with his letters to Persia, and who refused to go, on the recollection that such as had been em- ployed in that office before had never returned. The letters were given to the Ephori of Sparta, and the perfidy of Pausanias laid open. He fled for safety to a temple of Minerva, and as the sanctity of the place screened him from the violence of his pursuers, the sacred building was surrounded with heaps of stones, the first of which was carried there by the indignant mother of the unhappy man. He was starved to death in the temple, and died about 471 years before the Christian era. PELOPIDAS, a celebrated general of Thebes, son of Hippocles. No sooner had the interest of Sparta prevailed at Thebes, and the friends of liberty and national independence been ban- ished from the city, than Pelopidas, who was in the number of the exiles, resolved to free his country from foreign slavery. His plan was bold and animated, and his deliberations were slow. Meanwhile, Epaminondas, who had been left by the tyrants at Thebes, as being in ap- pearance a worthless and insignificant philoso- pher, animated the youths of the city ; and at last Pelopidas, with eleven of his associates, en- tered Thebes, and easily massacred the friends of the tyranny, and freed the country from for- eign masters. After this successful enterprise, Pelopidas was unanimously placed at the head of the government ; and so confident were the Thebans of his abilities as a general and a magis- trate, that they successively reelected him thir- teen times to fill the honorable office of governor of Boaotia. Epaminondas shared with him the sovereign power, and it was to their valor and prudence that the Thebans were indebted for a celebrated victory at the battle of Leuctra. In a war which Thebes carried on against Alexan- der, tyrant of Pherce, Pelopidas was appointed commander ; but his imprudence, in trusting himself unarmed into the enemy's camp, prov- ed fatal to him. He was taken prisoner, but Epaminondas restored him to liberty. The per- fidy of Alexander irritated him, and he was killed bravely fighting in a celebrated battle in which his troops obtained the victory, B. C. 364 years. Pelopidas is admired for his valor, as he never engaged an enemy without obtain- ing the advantage. The impoverished state of Thebes before his birth, and after his fall, plain- ly demonstrates the superiority of his genius and of his abilities; and it has been justly ob- PEN 389 PEN served that with Pelopidas and Epaminondas, the glory and the independence of the Thebans rose and set. PELOPONNESUS, a celebrated peninsula which comprehends the most southern parts of Greece. It received its name from Pelops, who settled there as the name indicates, (the island of Pelops). It had been called before, Apia, Pelasgia, and Argos, and in its form, it has been observed by the moderns, highly to resemble the leaf of the plane tree. Its pre- sent name is Morea, which seems to be deriv- ed from the Greek word signifying a mulberry- tree, which is found there in great abundance. The Peloponnesus was conquered, some time after the Trojan war, by the Heraclidce or de- scendants of Hercules, who had been forcibly expelled from it. The inhabitants of this pen- insula rendered themselves illustrious like the rest of the Greeks, by their genius, their fond- ness for the fine arts, the cultivation of learn- ing, and the profession of arms; but in nothing more than by a celebrated war which they carri- ed on against Athens and her allies for twenty- seven years, and which from them received the name of the Peloponnesian war. PENN, William, was born in London, in 1644. At an early age he joined the society of friends or quakers, and was expelled from the university at Oxford as a nonconformist. His unshaken adherence to the principles he had adopted drew down upon him the indignation of his father, which was a source of grief to Penn, although it did not induce him to relin- quish the society which he had chosen. In 1668, he appeared as a preacher, and also as- sumed his pen to make known and defend his principles, for which he was fined and impris- oned. In 1681, finding no rest from perse- cution, he petitioned Charles II for the patent of a province and drew up the Constitution of Pennsylvania. He wrote to the Indians to pro- pitiate them and assure them of his good inten- tions, and having displayed the plausibility of his scheme, induced a large number of respect- able families to embark for the New World. In 1682 Penn visited his province in person, and remained two years, regulating the affairs of Philadelphia, and establishing amicable rela- tions with his neighbors. The treaty which Penn concluded with the Indians was never violated. In 1699 he made a second visit to Pennsylvania, but the machinations of his ene- mies at home induced him to return in 1701. He died in 1718. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States, is bounded N. by New York, E. by the river Delaware, separating it from New Jersey ; S. E. by the state of Delaware, S. by Maryland and part of Virginia, and W. by Virginia and Ohio. It has an area of 47,000 square miles, and in 1830, it contained 1,348,233 inhabitants. COUNTIES. Adams Erie Northampton Alleghany Fayette Northumberland Armstrong Franklin Perry Beaver Greene Philadelphia Bedford Huntington Potter Berks Indiana Pike Bradford Jefferson Schuylkill Bucks Juniatta Somerset Butler Lebanon Susquehanna Cambria Lehigh Tioga Centre Luzerne Union Chester Lycoming Venango Clearfield Lancaster Warren Columbia M'Kean Washington Crawford Mercer Wayne Cumberland Mifflin Westmoreland Dauphin Montgomery York Delaware The large rivers are the Delaware, Schuyl- kill, Susquehanna, Lehigh, Juniatta, Allegha- ny, Mononghahela, Ohio, &c. The Alleghany and Blue Mountains intersect this state. As a large portion of the state is hilly and moun- tainous, some of the soil is poor; but a great part is admirably adapted to tillage. Among the minerals found in Pennsylvania, coal is ob- tained in the largest quantities. As a manufac- turing state Pennsylvania takes the precedence of others. The principal places are Philadel- phia, Pittsburg, Lancaster, Reading, York, Harrisburg (the seat of government), Carlisle, Easton, Chambersburg, Columbia. There are various seminaries of learning in this state, among which may be mentioned the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Dickinson College at Carlisle, Washington College at Washington, Jefferson College at Cannons- burg, and Alleghany college at Meadville. The late Stephen Girard left a fund of two million dollars which has been appropriated to a college for the education of orphans. It is situated in the city of Philadelphia, long the residence of its beneficent founder. The inhabitants of Pennsylvania are of Eng- lish, German, Irish, Scotch, Welsh, Swedish, and Dutch origin. The grant to Penn has been noticed in the preceding article. The city of Philadelphia was laid out in 1682; but Swe- dish settlements had been made in the state as early as 1638. The rights of the native posses- sors of the soil, were respected, in every in- PEP 390 PER stance, and they only relinquished their land on being paid fair prices. The policy of this con- duct was perceptible in the amicable disposition of the Indians. In 1799 the seat of government was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster, and again, in 1812, to Harrisburg, where it re- mains. PEPIN, surnamed the short, king of France, the first of the second race of the French mon- archs, was the son of Charles Martel, and bro- ther of Carloman. The two brothers divided the government between them after the death of their father, but Carloman retiring afterwards into Italy, Pepin remained sole manager, and carried his design farther ; in short, seeing that all concurred to set the crown upon his head, and to dethrone Childeric III, he called a par- liament that he might have their consent, which was unanimously granted him, and in the mean time deputed Bouchard, bishop of Wurtzburg, and Fulrad, abbot of St. Denys, and chaplain to the prince, to go to Rome, in order to be in- formed of Pope Zachary , who was the worthiest to be on the throne, he who took no care of the affairs of the kingdom, or he who, by his pru- dence and valor, governed it wisely, and kept it from the oppressions of the enemy. Zacha- ry, who stood in need of Pepin's forces, declared in his favor. This answer being related in France, the bishops who were assembled at Soissons with Boniface, archbishop of May- ence, having the suffrage and universal consent of the grandees and people, crowned king Pe- pin on the 1st of May, 752. At the same time Childeric was deposed, and afterwards put into a monastery. After the performance of this ceremony, the new king put a stop to the revolt of his brother Griphon, and took Vannes. Pope Stephen II, who succeeded Zachary, finding himself extremely incommoded by the Lom- bards, had recourse to Pepin, whom he came into France to see. The king received him at the castle of Poictier near Vitri, and sent him to the abbey of St. Dennis ; and some time after, this pope anointed and crowned him, with his two sons Charles and Carloman, at Ferrieres, July 28, 754. Next year Pepin went into Italy, and having forced Astulphus, king of the same Lombards, to give up all that he had taken from the church of Rome, he returned into France, and sent back pope Stephen into Italy ; but the Lombards failing to keep their word, the king repassed the Alps in 756, and constrained them to give all manner of satisfaction to the pope of Rome ; being come back into France, he spent the rest of his life in making war upon the Sax- ons, and upon Gaifre,or Waifer, duke of Aqui- tain, whom he defeated six or seven times, till the year 768, when this prince being killed by his own subjects, the king remained master of all his dominions. Some time after, he died of a dropsy, the 24th of September, in the same year, aged 54 ; having reigned after his corona- tion by the pope 16 years. PEPIN I, of that name, king of Aquitain, was the second son of Louis the Debonnaire, and of Ermengarda, made king of Aquitain in 817, was afterwards head of the conspiracies against his father in 830 and 833. He died in the year 838, and was buried in the collegiate church of St. Radegonda in Poictiers. PEPIN II, king of Aquitain, succeeded his father in his dominions ; he conducted some troops to Lotharius I, his uncle, and served him at the battle of Fontenay, in the year 841 : he was afterwards taken by Sanchus, count of Gascony, and sent to Charles the Bald, his un- cle, who put him into a monastery ; two years after which he found a way to escape, and join- ed the Normans. He plundered Poictiers, and several other places, in 857; but the Aquitains fell upon him, and having made him prisoner, delivered him to the French, who condemned him as a traitor to his country, and to Chris- tianity, and put him to death, in 864. PEPIN, king of Italy, was the son of Charle- magne, and Hildegarda his second wife, born in the year 777. The king, his father, carried him to Rome, where he was baptized, and received the name of Carloman ; wh : ch pope Adrian I changed into that of Pepin , when crowning him king of the Lombards, on Easter-day, in the year 781. He, on several occasions, gave proof of his courage and bravery. In 799, he beat the Huns, and subdued Griinauld, duke of Bene- ventum ; he died at Milan, in the year 810. PEPIN, surnamed the Fat, mayor of the pal- ace in France, was the son of Anchises, and grandson of St. Arnold, afterwards bishop of Metz. He began to govern in Austrasia, and was vanquished in the year 681, by Ebroin ; but in 687, he defeated king Thierri, and acted his part so well, that he had all the authority in the two kingdoms, under Clovis III, Childebertand Dagobert III ; and it must be confessed, he was worthy of the empire of the Franks. He gained several battles against Berthairus, in 691 ; Rad- bord, duke of Friezland, in 707; and Wiler, duke of Suabia, whom he defeated in 709, and 712. He died in 714, near Liege. PERCEVAL Spencer, second son of John, earl of Egmont, was born in 1762. He was PER 391 PER educated at Harrow School, and next at Trini- ty College, Cambridge, where he took his mas- ter's degree in 1782, and the year following be- came a student of Lincoln's Inn. He com- menced practice as a barrister in the king's Bench, from whence he removed to the Court of Chancery. In 1796 he was made king's counsel, and about the same time attracted the notice of Mr. Pitt, by a pamphlet, proving that an impeachment of the House of Commons does not abate by a dissolution of parliament. The same year he was returned for Northamp- ton. In 1801 he was made solicitor-general, and the next year attorney-general. On the change of administration, in 1807, he was ap- pointed chancellor of the exchequer in which situation he displayed great political talents, particularly in the settlement of the regency ; but, unhappily he fell soon afterwards, in the lobby of the House of Commons, by the hands of an assassin, named Bellingham, May 11, 1812. PERICLES, an Athenian of a noble family, son of Xanthippus and Agariste. When he took a share in the administration of public af- fairs, he rendered himself popular by opposing Cimon, who was the favorite of the nobility ; and to remove every obstacle which stood in the way of his ambition, he lessened the dignity and the power of the court of the Areopagus, which the people had been taught for ages to respect and to venerate. He also attacked Cimon, and caused him to be banished by the ostracism. Thucydides also, who had succeeded Cimon on his banishment, shared the same fate, and Peri- cles remained for 15 years the sole minister, and as it may be said the absolute sovereign of a republic, which always showed itself so jeal- ous of her liberties, and which distrusted so much the honesty of her magistrates. He made war against the Lacedaemonians, obtained a victory over the Sicyonians near Ne- meea, and waged a successful war against the inhabitants of Samos. The Peloponnesian war was fomented by his ambitious views, and when he had warmly represented the flourishing state, the opulence, and actual power, of his country, the Athenians did not hesitate a moment to un- dertake a war against the most powerful repub- lics of Greece, a war which continued for 27 years, and which was concluded by the destruc- tion of their empire, and the demolition of their walls. The arms of the Athenians were for some time crowned with success ; but an unfortunate expedition raised clamors against Pericles, and the enraged populace attributed all their losses to him, and to make atonement for their ill suc- cess, they condemned him to pay 50 talents. This loss of popular favor, did not so much affect Pericles as the recent death of all his chil- dren ; and when the tide of unpopularity was passed by, he condescended to come into the public assembly, and to view with secret pride the contrition of his fellow-citizens, who uni- versally begged his forgiveness for the violence which they liad offered to his ministerial char- acter. He was again restored to all his honors ; but the dreadful pestilence which had diminished the number of his family, proved fatal to him, and about 429 years before Christ, in his 70th year, he fell a sacrifice to that terrible malady, which robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. Pericles was for 40 years at the head of the administration, 25 years with others, and 15 alone ; and the flourishing stale of the empire during his government, gave occasion to the Athenians publicly to lament his loss, and ven- erate his memory. As he was expiring, and seemingly senseless, his friends that stood around his bed expatiated with warmth on the most glorious actions of his life, and the victories which he had won ; when he suddenly interrupted their tears and conversation, by saying that in mentioning the exploits that he had achieved, and which were common to him with all generals, they had for- got to mention a circumstance which reflected far greater glory upon him as a minister, a general, and above all, as a man. " It is," said he, " that not a citizen in Athens has been obliged to put on mournings on my account." PERSIA, IRAN, or CHAHISTAN, a coun- try of Asia, is bounded N. by Russia, the Cas- pian sea, and Independent Tartary, E. by Be- loochistan and Afghanistan, S. by the Persian gulf, and W. by Turkey ; containing 500,000 square miles, and 9,500,000 inhabitants. The Persians profess the Mohammedan religion, of the sect of Ali. The country contains a few Guebres or Fire-worshippers. Persia has excel- lent fruits, cotton, fine wool, silk, horses, cam- els, pearls, vines; mines of precious stones and different minerals. Much of the soil is sandy. The Persians are true Asiatics — effeminate and fond of pleasures ; they are of small size. It anciently extended about two thousand eight hundred English miles in length, from the Hellespont to the mouth of the Indus; and about two thousand miles in breadth, from Pon- tus to the mouth of the Arabian Gulf. The Persians are supposed to have descended from PER 392 PER Elam, the son of Shem; and, in Scripture, they are sometimes denominated Elamites. The first king of Elam mentioned in Scrip- ture is Chederlaomer, who conquered many of the Asiatic provinces, and held the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Bela, Admah, and Zeboim, in subjection for twelve years. He was, how- ever, vanquished by the patriarch Abraham, and lost the sovereignty of the Pentapolis. From tliis period to the reign of Cyrus, the his- tory of Elam or Persia is clouded with fiction. Cyrus, styled the Great, on account of his extensive conquests, and his restoration of the captive Jews, was the son of Cambyses, a Per- sian grandee, and of Mandane, daughter of As- tyages, king of the Medes. In the fortieth year of his age, he was called to the assistance of his uncle Cyaxares, who had ascended the throne of Media, and who ap- pointed him generalissimo both of the Medes and Persians. The powerful alliance formed against the Medes in 557, induced the king of Armenia to withhold his usual tribute. Cyrus, therefore, marched against him, and compelled him to pay his tribute, and to furnish his customary quota of auxiliaries. The Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, Thra- cians, and other nations of Lesser Asia, having entered into an alliance cTgainf-t Cyaxares, chose Croesus, King of Lydia, to be their general. The confederates assembled in the vicinage of the river Pactolus, and advanced to Thymbra, whither Cyrus also marched with one hundred and thirty thousand troops, besides three hun- dred armed chariots, several moving towers, and a considerable number of camels, upon which were mounted Arabian archers. The forces of Crcesus, however, were twice as numerous as those of Cyrus, and amounted to four hundred thousand men. The battle was extremely bloody, and Cyrus himself was some- time in imminent danger; but at length the confederates gave way on all sides. After this engagement, Cyrus took Sardis, the capital of Lydia, and made Crcesus prisoner, whom he replaced on the throne. After sub- duing Syria and Arabia, he marched against Babylon, which he reduced after a siege of two years, and put an end to the Babylonian em- pire. About two years after the reduction of Baby- lon, Cyaxares died, and left the whole govern- ment of the empire to Cyrus, 534, who at this time published the famous decree by which the Jews were permitted to return to their native country, and restored all the vessels which Ne- buchadnezzar had brought from Jerusalem. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who, soon after his accession to the throne, re- solved to undertake an expedition against Egypt, and in that kingdom committed great cruelties and devastations. Cambyses was returning into Persia, to quell a revolt which had been occasioned by Smerdis, one of the magi, who pretended to be the brother of the king, when he accidentally received a wound from his sword, of which he died. The counterfeit Smerdis was injured by his excessive precautions. Cyrus having formerly caused the ears of the magi to be cut ofi', this mutilation occasioned a discovery ; and a con- spiracy of seven of the principal Persian grand- ees being formed against Smerdis, he was assas- sinated. When the public tumults had subsided, the conspirators held a council on the kind of gov- ernment which should be established, and after some debate, they determined in favor of mon- archy. They agreed, therefore, to meet next morning on horseback, at an appointed place near the city, and to acknowledge him whose horse first neighed, as King of Persia. This plan was adopted, and Darius, by a stratagem of his groom, obtained the sovereignty. Darius had scarcely entered the fifth year of his reign, when he was compelled to lead all his forces against Babylon, which had revolted, and made great preparations for sustaining a regular siege. To prevent the consumption of their provis- ions, the Babylonians collected all their old men, women, and children, and strangled them without distinction, only reserving one wife for each man, and a female servant. After Babylon had been besieged a year and eight months, it was taken by the contrivance of Zopyrus, who cut off his own nose and ears, and pretending that he was thus mangled by the Persian monarch for advising him to relin- quish his undertaking, was admitted into the city by the inhabitants. Having settled the affairs of Babylon, Darius undertook an expedition against the Scythians, B. C. 514, on pretence of revenging the calam- ities which that people had brought upon Asia, about one hundred and twenty years before. By means of a bridge of boats, he transported his army across the Bosphorus, and subdued Thrace ; and having appointed his fleet to join him at the Ister, or Danube, he also passed over that river into Scythia. PER 393 PER The Scythians avoided an engagement, and retired before him, laying waste the country, and filling up all the wells and springs, till the Persian troops were quite exhausted with tedious and fatiguing marches. At last, Darius resolved to abandon this wild enterprise, and causing a great number of fires to be lighted, he left the old men and invalids in the camp, and marched with all expedition to regain the pass of the river. The king re-crossed the Danube, and returned into Thrace, where he left Megabyzus, one of his generals, to complete the conquest of that country, and, repassing the Bosphorus, took up his quarters at Sardis. Darius having declared his son Xerxes, who was born after his father's exaltation to the throne, his successor in the kingdom, this prince made preparations against Greece, B. C. 485. He entered into an alliance with the Cartha- ginians, who were to attack the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, and who raised an army of three hundred thousand men in Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Africa. To prevent a repetition of a former disaster which befell the Persian fleet, Xerxes commanded a passage for his galleys to be cut through mount Athos. He also ordered a bridge of boats to be laid across the Hellespont for the passage of his troops into Europe. Having made the necessary preparations, the Persian monarch began his march against Greece, B. C. 480, with a land army of one mil- lion eight hundred thousand men. His fleet consisted of twelve hundred and seven large ships, and three thousand galleys and transports, which contained five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten men; so that the whole body of forces amounted to two millions three hundred and seventeen thousand six hun- dred and ten. This number was so much in- creased on the march by such nations as made their submissions, that Xerxes arrived at Ther- mopylae with two millions six hundred and forty one thousand six hundred and ten men, besides servants, eunuchs, women, &c. The Grecian fleet was victorious over that of Persia in some partial engagements, and after- wards completely at the battle of Salamis, in which the dispersion was so general, and the defeat so decisive, that Xerxes, afraid of not being able to preserve a single vessel to carry him from Europe, made an expeditious retreat, and was conveyed into Asia in a small boat. This success inspired the other Greeks with new courage ; and they joined the Athenians and Lacedaemonians in harassing the Persians on all sides. The land-army ventured a decis- ive battle at Platsea in Boeotia, B. C, 479, where, out of three hundred thousand, only three thou- sand Persians escaped. The dissolute conduct of Xerxes rendered him obnoxious to his sub- jects; and he was murdered by his chief favo- rite, Artabanus, who persuaded Artaxerxes, the king's third son, that Darius, his eldest brother, had been guilty of the crime of parricide. Ar- taxerxes, therefore, killed Darius, and finding that Artabanus entertained a design against him, he ordered him to be put to death, B. C. 4C5. The new monarch having thus removed one formidable competitor, endeavored to secure his crown against the attempts of his brother, Hystaspes, who held the government of Bactria. Artaxerxes attacked and defeated the adherents of Artabanus. He then sent an army into Bac- tria, which had declared in favor of Hystaspes ; and though victory was doubtful in the first battle, Artaxerxes was successful in the second ; and firmly established himself in the empire. Artaxerxes died in peace, and left the succession to Xerxes, B.C. 424, the only son he had by his queen, though by his concubines he had seven- teen, among whom were Sogdianus, Ochus, and Arsites. Xerxes II had assumed the diadem only forty-five days, when, being inebriated at a pub- lic entertainment, Sogdianus seized an oppor- tunity to assassinate him. The regicide was scarcely seated on the throne, when Ochus hav- ing declared his intention of revenging the mur- der of Xerxes, Sogdianus was deserted by all his subjects, and finally doomed to expiate his crimes by a cruel death. Ochus, being now invested with supreme au- thority, assumed the name of Darius, and is mentioned by historians under the appellation of Darius Nothus, or Darius the bastard. In this reign, the Egyptians shook off the Persian yoke ; and the Medes also revolted. Darius, having settled the affairs of the rebel- lious provinces, bestowed the supreme command of Asia Minor on his youngest son, Cyrus, B. C. 407, who was ordered to assist the Lacedae- monians against the Athenians. This order, however, soon exposed the weakness of the king's politics ; for the Lacedaemonians, after conquering the Athenians, invaded the Persian provinces in Asia. Darius died, B. C. 404, and left the imperial diadem to his son, Arsaces, who assumed the name of Artaxerxes, and received the appella- tion of Mnemon, on account of his extraordinary PER 394 PER memory. Cyrus resolved to exert all his abil- ities to drive his brother from the throne, and having procured a number of Grecian auxilia- ries, inarched his troops to the plains of Cunaxa, in the province of Babylon, where he found Ar- taxerxes, at the head of nine hundred thousand men, ready for battle. A sanguinary contest immediately commenc- ed ; and Cyrus, on seeing his brother, engaged him with such fury as seemed to change the battle into a single combat. The rebellious prince, however, fell by the hands of the king and his guards. The ten thousand Greeks', under the conduct of Xenophon, effected that memorable retreat, which has always been con- sidered as a noble achievement among military operations. On the death of Darius, three of the princes, viz., Ariaspes, Ochus, and Arsames, became competitors for the crown. Ochus practised so effectually on the credu- lity of Ariaspes, that he poisoned himself; and Arsames was assassinated by the son of Tiriba- zus. These acts of cruelty overwhelmed Arta- xerxes with such insupportable grief that he died. Ochus concealed the death of the king, and assumed the administration of government in the name of Artaxerxes. He caused himself, in the name of the king, to be declared his suc- cessor; and after ten months, he published the death of Artaxerxes. An insurrection in sev- eral of the provinces immediately followed ; but the leaders of the confederacy disagreeing among themselves, the rebellion terminated without any effusion of blood. Ochus no sooner possessed absolute authority, than he began to fill his capital and the whole empire with carnage and misery. He caused Ocha, his own sister and mother-in-law, to be buried alive ; shut up one of his uncles, with a hundred of his sons and grand-sons, in a court of the palace, where they were massacred by a body of archers; and put all the branches of the royal family to death. This insupportable tyranny occasioned another rebellion, which was not quelled without much difficulty. This revolt was scarcely terminated, when the Sidonians and other natives of Phoe- nicia joined the Cypriots and Egyptians in a confederacy against Persia. Ochus effected the reduction of Sidon, and compelled all the other cities to make submis- sions. He also reduced the city of Jericho, and having concluded a peace with the kings of Cyprus, he led his victorious troops into Egypt which he completely subdued. Ochus passed his time amidst every species of luxury and voluptuousness. Bagoas, an Egyptian eunuch, prevailed on the king's physician to administer a strong poi- son, instead of' medicine, to his royal benefactor. Having thus accomplished his purpose, he caused the flesh of the king to be cut in pieces and thrown to dogs and cats. He then placed on the throne Arses, the youngest prince, and condemned all the rest to death. But Arses, sensible of the slavery in which he was held , concerted measures to free himself from it. Bagoas, therefore, effected his destruc- tion in the second year of his reign, B. C. 336, and bestowed the imperial diadem on Darius Codomanus, who was a descendant of Darius Nothus, and at that time governor of Armenia. This prince, however, had not long enjoyed the sovereignty, when the ambitious eunuch determined to remove him, and with this design provided a deleterious potion ; but Darius, being apprised of his danger, compelled Bagoas to drink the poison, and thus established himself on the throne. In the second year of this reign, Alexander, king of Macedon, crossed the Hellespont at the head of a well-disciplined army, with the design of revenging the injuries which Greece had re- ceived from the Persians during three hundred years. On his arrival at the Granicus, he found on the opposite bank a numerous Persian army, amounting to 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. Though Alexander had not more than 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse, he crossed the Granicus at the head of his cavalry, and attacked with impetuosity the whole Persian force. An ob- stinate conflict ensued, in which the Persians were defeated with the loss of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse, and in which Alexander exposed his life to the most imminent danger. The invasion having assumed a serious as- pect, Darius led his army into Cilicia, B. C. 333, and advanced to the city of Issus, near which Alexander drew up his troops on an ad- vantageous ground. Darius retreated precipi- tately to the adjoining mountains, where he mounted a horse, and continued his flight. Al- exander was now entire master of the field, and of the Persian camp, in which the mother, wife, and son of Darius, were taken prisoners. In 331, B. C, the Persian monarch, having assembled a numerous army, prepared for bat- tle in a large plain near the city of Arbela, on the confines of Persia. The Persians com- menced the attack, but were totally routed, and PER 395 PER Darius was again compelled to seek safety in flight. Darius, who had sought an asylum at Ecbatana, in Media, had collected another army, with which he intended to make a last effort, B. C. 330. He was, however, prevented by Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes, a Persian nobleman, who entered into a conspi- racy against him, and binding him with golden chains, shut him up in a covered cart, and re- treated precipitately towards Bactria. They intended, if Alexander pursued them, to deliver up the object of his resentment ; or, if they es- caped the Macedonian conqueror, to murder Darius, and usurping the imperial diadem, to renew the war. When Alexander was informed of the base designs of Bessus and Nabarzanes, he advanced with a small body of light-armed cavalry ; and, as soon as the king of Macedon came within sight of the enemy, they immediately took to flight, and having discharged their darts at the unfortunate Persian monarch, left him welter- ing in his blood. Thus died Darius, in the fif- tieth year of his age, and sixth of his reign, and with him ended the Persian empire, after it had existed 206 years. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians for the space of 475 years, Artaxares, a Persian of mean descent and spurious birth, excited a revolt among his countrymen; and, the reigning monarch being dethroned and put to death, the Persian empire was restored. The emperor Alexander Severus, attacked and de- feated Artaxares, and wrested from him several of his provinces. Artaxares, however, recov- ered these provinces, and, after swaying the sceptre with great reputation for the space of twelve years, died in peace. He was succeeded by his son Sapor, A. D. 242, who was equally famous for his personal strength and mental abilities, but who was of a fierce, cruel, and untractable disposition. Sapor left his kingdom to his son Hormisdas, who, refusing to interfere in the affairs of the Romans, died in peace, A. D. 273, after a reign of one year and ten days. His son Vararanes I, enjoyed the regal dignity three years, without being disturbed by the Ro- mans, or attempting to extend the limits of his empire. Vararanes II meditated an invasion of the Roman provinces, A. D. 277, but on the ap- proach of the Emperor Probus, he abandoned his design, and sued for peace. Voraranes III was denominated Segansaa, or king of the Segans, and was succeeded by Narses, A. D. 294, a prince of great abilities and resolution. He died in the seventh year of his reign, and was succeeded by Misdates, whose actions were not sufficiently interesting to claim the attention of posterity. Sapor II his successor, A. D. 308, was a zealous assertor of the dignity of the Persian crown, and endeavored to unite all the provinces of the ancient empire under his authority. This restless and ambitious monarch was succeeded by Artaxerxes, A. D. 380, who lived in amity with the Romans, and enjoyed the regal dignity about four years. Vararanes IV, succeeded his father Sapores, and governed his dominions eleven years. Is- digertes was deservedly celebrated for his vir- tuous disposition, and, at the death of the Em- peror Arcadius, A. D. 401, was intrusted with the care of his son Theodosius II, and the Ro- man empire. He was succeeded by his son Vararanes V, A. D. 421. In his reign, the indiscreet zeal of a Christian, who set fire to a Persian temple, renewed the war with the Romans. The Per- sian monarch obtained the assistance of the Sa- racens, and, notwithstanding the defeats which he experienced from the Romans, he rendered even victory disadvantageous to the enemy. Vararanes VI, was next invested with the diadem, A. D. 442, which he wore for seventeen years and four months. His son and successor, Peroses, being incensed against the Euthalites or White Huns, marched an army into their country ; but the Euthalites cutting off his re- treat, obliged him to swear that he would never more invade them. Peroses, however, assem- bled his forces, and marched a second time to- wards the northern frontiers ; but, the Euthalites rushing unexpectedly upon him, slew and took captive most of his army, and put him to death. The nobles bestowed the crown on his brother Valens, who, at the expiration of four years, fell a victim to the oppressive cares of government. He was succeeded by Cavades, the son of Pe- roses, A. D. 486. On the death of Cavades, his son Chosroes ascended the throne, A. D. 531. The Persian monarch, however, was almost constantly engaged in hostilities with the east- ern empire ; but, the Romans having given him a complete defeat, he was so deeply affected with his ill success, that he sickened and died. He was succeeded by his son Hormisdas, A. D. 579. Hormisdas was dethroned by a person of the royal blood, named Bindoes, who had been loaded with chains for a slight offence. The PER 396 PER unfortunate monarch being heard in his own defence, recommended his younger son Hor- misdas as his successor, in preference to his elder son Chosroes. The assembly, however, at the instigation of Bindoes, caused his son Hormisdas, and the prince's mother, to be cut in pieces ; and ordered the eyes of the deposed monarch to be put out with a hot iron. Chosroes II, ascended the throne, A. D. 592. On the death of the Emperor Mauritius, he took up arms against the Romans, A. D. 605, and such was his success, that, in nine years, he plundered the provinces of Syria, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Galacia, Paph- lagonia, and all the country as far as Chalcedon. He also ravaged Judea; pillaged the city of Jerusalem; and sold ninety Christians to the Jews, who put them all to death. These extra- ordinary conquests induced him to make an expedition into Egypt; he reduced Alexandria and all the country toward Libya, and added the empire of Africa to that of Asia. He was defeated in several battles, and finally murdered in a dungeon by command of his own son. Siroes having ascended the throne of Per- sia, A. D. 626, concluded a treaty of perpetual peace with Heraclius ; but, he was murdered by one of his generals, after twelve months reign. His son, Ardeser, was next invested with the government, but was assassinated in the seventh month of his reign by Sarbas, com- mander-in-chief of the Persian forces, who seiz- ed the diadem for himself. A civil war, how- ever, crushed the ambitious projects of the usurper, and elevated to the throne Isdio-ertes II, A. D. 630. The reign of this prince was short and un- happy. He defended his country with becom- ing resolution against the Saracens, till the spirits of his subjects were entirely broken by repeated defeats. At last he was slain in bat- tle ; and, in him ended the royal line of Artax- ares. With his death terminated the Persian empire, which had maintained a splendid exist- ence for upwards of 400 years. The founder of the dynasty of Shahs in Per- sia, was Ismael, surnamed Sophi, who was de- scended in the direct male line from Ah, the son-in-law of Mohammed. In 1500 there was a great number of the sectaries of Ali among the Mohammedans of Asia. Ismael assembled about 700, who were attached to his family ; and attacking his father's murderer, slew him in battle, and took possession of his dominions. He was a monster of inhumanity and cruelty, and reigned 23 years ; during which period be- gan the struggle for power between the Persians and the Turks. Ismael was succeeded by his son Tahmasp, A. D. 1523. He was succeeded by Ismael II, his son, A. D. 1575. Mohammed, the brother and successor of Ismael, had spent his life in privacy, wholly devoted to religious duties; and assumed the sceptre, A. D. 1577. Mohammed left three sons, the two eldest of whom, Hamzeh and Ismael, merely appeared upon the throne, about 1584, and are scarcely numbered among the emperors. By the contrivance of a vizier, named Kouli Khan, Shah Abbas prosecuted the war against the Turks, which he conducted in person, with great success and glory; retook Tauris, and defeated his enemies in several engagements. In his dying moments, he sent for four of the chief lords of his council to his bed side, and told them that it was his will that his grandson, Mirza, should succeed him, and assume the' name of his father. After assembling all the lords in the neighborhood of Ispahan, they crowned him A. D. 1623. On his accession to the throne, he assumed the name of Safi. This prince was a second Nero, who, bearing in his countenance every mark of clemency and good- ness cherished in his heart the vicious inclina- tions of a savage and inexorable tyrant. He reigned 13 years, and left a son named Abbas, who succeeded him, and whom his father had ordered to be deprived of sight ; but the com- passion of the executioner had spared him. Under Abbas II, A. D. 1642, intoxication, passion, and an uncontrollable love of power rendered life not more secure than under his brutal father. On the death of Abbas, his el- dest son Safi was immediately saluted emperor A. D. 1666, but afterwards assumed the name of Solyman. Solyman died a natural death, after a reign of 29 years, A. D. 1694 ; and was succeeded by his son Shah Husseyn, the most merciful and most unfortunate prince of his race. History furnishes few instances of a dis- solution so entire as that of the kingdom of Per- sia, under the feeble and inactive Husseyn. At length, after a series of disasters, Husseyn was obliged to abdicate the throne to Mahmoud. Before this ceremony took place, the king tra- velled through the principal streets of Ispahan on foot, deploring the misfortunes of his reign, and consoling the people who surrounded hfm, by endeavoring to excite in them hopes of bet- ter fortune under a new government. In dispossessing Husseyn, A. D. 1723, Mah- moud avenged himself on all those, who, by PER 397 PET negligence, ignorance, parly-spirit, cowardice, or treason, had contributed to the ruin of the state. The conduct of Mahmoud tended to ex- cite the odium of his subjects ; and he saw his projects defeated, and himself beginning to be treated with general hatred. In order to avert these misfortunes, which he imputed to the an- ger of heaven, he imposed on himself a sort of penance, which continued 15 days, and which had the effect of completely deranging his senses. His captains, seeing him at the point of death, turned their thoughts on Ashraf, who refused the crown, except the head of his cousin Mah- moud should be brought to him. Mahmoud, therefore, who could not have lived many hours longer, was put to death ; and the destroyer of the dynasty of the Shahs enjoy- ed his triumph only two years. Ashraf ordered all the guards, ministers, and confidants of Mah- moud, to be executed ; and did not spare even those who had placed him on the throne. About this time, Kouli Khan became distin- guished ; and having tendered his services to Tahmasp, in three campaigns he made him master of all the possessions of the Afghans. Ashraf offered to abdicate the throne, and to restore the treasures which he had inherited after Mahmoud's death ; but Kouli Khan, refus- ing to listen to any terms of accommodation, pursued his enemy even to death, and with him ended the transitory dynasty of the Afghans. Tahmasp was reestablished on the throne by the power of Kouli Khan, A. D. 1730 ; who, in a short time deposed him, and introduced into his place his infant son,- by the name of Abbas III. The infant emperor dying within six months, Kouli Khan was elected to the vacant throne ; and, on his accession, took the name of Nadir Shah. The reign of this prince was marked with glory and conquest. His government was des- potic and tyrannical ; and he formed the design of a general massacre of the principal Persians. He conquered Usbec Tartary ; but was not so successful against the Daghistan Tartars. He beat the Turks in several engagements, but was unable to take Bagdad. His conduct became so intolerable, that he was assassinated in his own tent, in the year 1747. Many pretenders, upon his death, started up; but the fortunate candidate was Kerim Khan, who was crowned at Tauris, in 1763. His death gave rise to another disputed succession, with civil wars, which lasted 14 years. At length, Aga Mohammed raised himself to the sove- reignty. After a short reign he died, and trans- mitted the throne to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah, an accomplished prince; under whose sway, Persia may for a time enjoy some tranquillity. PERTH, a city of Scotland, capital of Perth- shire, on the Tay, 39 miles north of Edinburgh, containing 20,000 inhabitants. It is supposed to have been founded by Agricola the Roman general during his invasion of Scotland. On Feb. 21, 1437, king James I was murdered here in a monastery, by Robert Graham. In 1644 Montrose seized on Perth, after the battle of Tibbermier : it was likewise the head-quarters of the Earl of Mar and the Pretender, in 1715. PERU, are public of South America, for- merly a viceroyalty, containing 500,000 square miles, and 1 ,800,000 inhabitants. It is rich in mineral and vegetable productions. The popu- lation is composed of European Spaniards, Cre- oles, Mestizoes, Indians, and mulattoes. It was discovered by Pizarro, in 1524. The battle of Caxamarca, on the 10th of November, 1532, de- cided the fate of Peru ; and Atahualpa, the captive monarch, was treacherously and inhu- manly put to death by the cruel and avaricious Spaniards. Pizarro, after having defeated Paula Inca, the brother of Atahualpa, entered Cusco, the capital. Quito was next taken. In 1533, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, and employed himself in establishing a form of government. While thus employed, a new enemy started up, — the ambitious Almagro ; who, in a decisive battle fought near Cusco, was taken prisoner and beheaded. Two years afterwards, Pizarro was assassinated, on the 26th of June, 1541. The viceroyalty of Peru, being transmitted down from one governor to another, in a line directed more by the fortunes of war, and the vicissitudes of events, than by any regular plan of succession, terminated in June, 1821, by the capture of Lima; and, by a declaration pub- lished in the next month, the independence of Peru was declared to be the wish of the people. PETER the Great, czar of Russia, was the son of Alexis Michaelowitz, and born May 30, 1672. On the decease of his half-brother, Feo- dor, in 1682, Peter was proclaimed czar, in con- junction with John, his eldest brother, who died in 1696, and left him in full possession of the empire. While a youth, he conceived those projects of improvement which have stamped immortality upon his name. He entered into the military life, and performed the duties of a common soldier, till, by rising gradually from the ranks to the command of a body of troops, he exhibited the duty of obedience, and the ne- PET 398 PET cessity of discipline, in his own example. He visited Holland under a disguised name, in 1698. Here he worked as a common laborer in the dock-yard, and then went to England. While thus engaged, the news of an insurrec- tion, excited by the Princess Sophia, obliged him to return to Russia, where he severely punished the conspirators, and confined his sis- ter in a nunnery. In 1700 he declared war against Charles XII, of Sweden, and though unsuccessful at first, he afterwards gained such advantages as induced him to build a fortress on the Baltic, called, after him, Petersburg. In I70S), the czar obtained the victory of Pultowa, after which he conquered Livonia, Ingria, Fin- land, and part of Pomerania. But he had a narrow escape, when engaged in a contest with the Turks, who surrounded his army on the banks of the Pruth : from which perilous state he was extricated by the Empress Catharine, who entered into a treaty of peace with the grand vizier. In 1716, the czar and his consort visited Denmark and Holland, where he left Catharine while he made a journey to Paris. He died of a strangury, Jan. 28, 1725, and was succeeded by the czarina Catharine. A colossal statue was erected to his memory at St. Petersburg, by Catharine second. The huge block of granite which forms its pedestal, and which weighs upwards of fifteen tons, was conveyed from a marsh at a distance of four English miles from St. Petersburg, and two from the sea. On approaching near to the rock, the simple inscription fixed on it in bronze letters, " Petro Primo, Catherina Secunda, MDCCLXXXII," meets the eye. The same inscription in the Russian language appears on the opposite side. The area is enclosed within a handsome railing placed between granite pillars. " The idea," says Dr. Granville, " of Falco- net, the French architect, commissioned to erect an equestrian statue of the extraordinary man at whose command a few scattered huts of fisher- men were converted into palaces, was to repre- sent the hero as conquering, by enterprise and personal courage, difficulties almost insur- mountable. This the artist imagined might be properly represented by placing Peter on a fiery steed, which he is supposed to have taught by skill, management and perseverance, to rush up a steep and precipitous rock, to the very brink of a precipice, over which the animal and the imperial rider pause without fear, and in an attitude of triumph. The horse rears with his fore feet in the air, and seems to be impatient of restraint, while the sovereign, turned towards the island, surveys with calm and serene coun- tenance his capital rising out of the waters, over which he extends the hand of protection. " The bold manner in which the group has been made to rest on the hind legs of the horse only, is not more surprising than the skill with which advantage has been taken of the allego- rical figure of the serpent of envy spurned by the horse, to assist in upholding so gigantic a mass. This monument of bronze is said to have been cast at a single jet. The height of the fig- ure of the emperor is eleven feet; that of the horse seventeen feet ; the general weight of the metal in the group is equal to 36,636 Eng- lish pounds. " 1 heard a venerable Russian nobleman, who was living at St. Petersburg when this monu- ment was in progress, relate, that as soon as the artist had formed his conception of the design, he communicated it to the Empress, together with the impossibility of representing to nature so striking a position of man and animal, with- out having before his eyes a horse and rider in the attitude he had devised. General Melessi- no, an officer having the reputation of being the most expert as well as the boldest rider of the day, to whom the difficulties of the artist were made known, offered to ride daily one of Count Alexis OrlofFs best Arabians, to the summit of a steep artificial mound formed for the purpose ; accustoming the horse to gallop up to it, and to halt suddenly, with his fore legs raised, pawing the air over the brink of a precipice. This dan- gerous experiment was carried into effect by the general for some days, in the presence of seve- ral spectators and of Falconet, who sketched the various movements and parts of the group from day to day, and was thus enabled to pro- duce perhaps the finest, certainly the most cor- rect statue of the kind in Europe." PETER the Hermit, a French enthusiast of the 11th century, who made a pilgrimage to Palestine, and, on his return to Europe, preach- ed up the crusade, for the recovery of the holy city from the infidels. His success was such as might have been expected in an ignorant age. He passed through Hungary with an immense crowd of followers, thousands of whom perished miserably. Peter, however, entered Syria, and displayed great bravery at the taking of Jerusa- lem. He then returned to France, where he died, in the abbey of Noirmoutier, of which he was the founder. PETERS, Richard, was born near Philadel- phia, Aug. 22, 1744, and was graduated at the PHI 399 PHI University of Pennsylvania. He studied law, and, having served a short time, as captain in the revolutionary army, he was transferred to the board of war where his services were pub- licly acknowledged. For thirty-six years he held the station of judge of the District Court of Pennsylvania. He made many agricultural experiments, most of which were highly suc- cessful. He was particularly distinguished for a fertile fancy, and great wit, and many of his bon mots bid fair to be long remembered. One day, arriving at a tavern, he perceived the entrance occupied by two persons — a very fat and a very lean man. After waiting for a long time in hopes of their making way for him, he dashed in between them, exclaiming ; " In I go, through thick and thin ! " His celebrity for wit commenced at an early age. PETRARCA, Francesco, or, as he is gener- ally termed by English writers, Petrarch, was an Italian poet and scholar, who adorned the 14th century. He was born at Arezzo in Tus- cany, July 4, 1304. He studied law, and the- ology, entering into the ecclesiastical state in 132b'. His platonic affection for the beautiful Laura led him to write amatory sonnets in his native tongue, which tributes of affection were continued after the death of the virtuous lady who inspired them. Petrarch died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. PHILADELPHIA, is situated in a county of the same name, in the state of Pennsylvania, about five miles from the junction of the Dela- ware and Schuylkill rivers. The city was founded by William Penn in 1682. The mem- bers of the first continental congress assembled here Sept. 5, 1774. In 1777 it was in the hands of the British from Sept. 26 until the 18th of June. The population of Philadelphia, accord- ing to the last census, was 167,811. It is one of the most regular cities in the world, being handsomely built of brick, and is a place of great trade and opulence, and, with regard to manufactures surpasses all other cities in the United States. It contains 100 houses of pub- lic worship, many other public buildings, and numerous literary and humane institutions. PHILIP I king of France, born in 1053, was the son of Henry I crowned at Rheims, 1059. His jealousy against William the Conqueror laid the foundations of the wars between Eng- land and France. He died at Milan, July 2'.), 1108, having reigned 49 years. PHILIP II, king of France, surnamed Au- gustus, was born August 22, 1165. He began to reign in 1180. He made war with the Eng- lish ; but some time after, he undertook the crusade in 1190. He took Acre, defeated sev- enteen thousand Saracens, and returned about Christmas, 1191. In 1214, the Emperor Otho IV, a Count of Flanders, and several confed- erate princes raised an army of 150,000 men against him, when the king engaged them at Bovines, and gained the victory. The king fought with great intrepidity at Bovines, and had his horse killed under him. He died at Mante upon the Seine, July 14, 1223, after a reign of 42 years. PHILIP III, king of France, surnamed the Hardy, was the son of St. Louis. Having con quered the Saracens, he returned to France, where he was crowned in 1271. Philip went in person against the Arragonese, and took Gi- rone, and on his return died of a malignant fever at Perpignan in the 16th year of his reign, aged 41. PHILIP IV, king of France, surnamed the Fair, as also le Grand, born at Fontainebleau in 1268, and succeeded his father Philip III in 1285. The ill conduct of James of Castillon, Earl of St. Paul, caused a sedition at Bruges. The king sent an army to reduce it, under the command of Robert earl of Artois ; but they were defeated at the battle of Courtray in 1302. Philip recovered himself in some measure again, especially on the 18th of August 1304, in the memorable battle at Mons in Puelle, where above 25,000 Flemings were slain. At length, peace was made in 1305. Philip died at Fon- tainbleau, in 1314, after a reign of 29 years. PHILIP V, king of France, surnamed the Long, youngest son to Philip the Fair, succeed- ed to the crown in 1317, but died after a reign of five years. He renewed his alliance with the Scots in 1318, and expelled the Jews out of his dominions. He died at Long-Champ, aged 28 years. PHILIP VI, king of France, succeeded in 1328. Having a dispute with Edward of Eng- land, war broke out in 1338. Next year Cam- bray was besieged by the English. The king had taken the part of Charles de Blois, his nephew, and had received homage for Britany, which John de Montfort pretended to ; but the latter was supported by king Edward, who made a descent into Normandy, took Caen, and gained the victory at Cressy, in which 11 French princes, 80 barons, 1200 knights, and 30,000 soldiers were slain. The English, flushed with this victory, took Calais, which continued in their hands 210 years, till 1558. Philip VI died at Nogent le Potrou, 1350, aged 57, in the 23d PHI 400 PHI year of his reign. He had great courage and resolution ; but was blamed for introducing the imposition upon salt. PHILIP II, of Spain, born in 1527, was son of the Emperor Charles V, and Isabel of Portu- gal. He made a league with the English, and sent 40,000 men into Picardy, who gained a victory over 18,000 French at St. Quintin in 1557. This misfortune was repaired by the taking of Calais, Thionville and Dunkirk ; and was afterwards followed by a peace made at Chateau Cambresis in 1559. In 1580, Philip made himself master of the kingdom of Portu- gal ; and his troops contributed to the defeat of the Turks at the battle of Lepanto. He also reduced the Moors who revolted against him in 1561. He subdued Pignon or Peunon de Velez in Africa, and the isles which from him are called, the Philippine Islands. After this, Philip sent out a fleet of above fourscore ships, which was called, the Invincible Armada, against Queen Elizabeth of England. They sailed from Lisbon, May 29, 1588, and were destroyed partly by storms, and partly by the valor of the English. This loss is said to have amounted to 10,000 men and GO ships ; but Philip received the news of it without the least discomposure. On the news being communicated to him, he answered calmly, that he thanked God, that he was able to rig out such another. Philip died at the Escurial, Sept. 13, 1598, aged 71. PHILIP III, of Spain, born at Madrid, 1578, succeeded his father Philip II, in 1598, reform- ed the courts of judicature, expelled the Moors out of Spain, and made a peace in the Low Countries, and afterwards lived in repose. He died on the 31st of March 1021, in the 43d year of his age, and 23d of his reign. PHILIP of Macedon, son of Argoeus, suc- ceeded his father and reigned 38 years, B. C. 640. The second of that name was the fourth son of Amyntas, king of Macedonia. He was sent to Thebes as an hostage by his father, where he learnt the art of war under Epatni- nondas, and studied with the greatest care the manners and the pursuits of the Greeks. He was recalled to Macedonia, and ascended the throne. The neighboring nations ridiculing the youth and inexperience of the new king of Macedonia, appeared in arms ; but Philip soon convinced them of their error. Unable to meet them as yet in the field of battle, he suspended their fury by presents, and soon turned his arms against Amphipolis, a colony tributary to the Athenians. Amphipolis was conquered, and added to the kingdom of Macedonia; and Philip meditated no less than the destruction of a republic which had rendered itself so formidable to the rest of Greece, and had even claimed submission from the princes of Macedonia. He made himself master of a Thracian colony, to which he gave the name of Philippi. In the midst of his political prosperity, Philip did not neglect the honor of his family. Every thing seemed now to conspire to his aggrandize- ment; and historians have observed, that Philip received in one day the intelligence of three things which could gratify the most unbounded ambition, and flatter the hopes of the most as- piring monarch, — the birth of a son, an honor- able crown at the Olympic games, and a victory over the barbarians of Illyricum. But all these increased rather than satiated his ambition ; he declared his inimical senti- ments against the power of Athens, and the in- dependence of all Greece, by laying siege to Olynthus, a place which, on account of its situ- ation and consequence, was most advantageous to the intrigues of every Macedonian prince. The Athenians sent 17 vessels and 2,000 men to the assistance of Olynthus, but the money of Philip prevailed over all their efforts. The greatest part of the citizens suffered themselves to be bribed by the Macedonian gold, and Olyn- thus surrendered to the enemy, and was instant- ly reduced to ruins. In his attempts to make himself master of Euboea, Philip was unsuccess- ful; and Phocion, who despised his gold, obliged him to evacuate an island whose inhabitants were as insensible to the charms of money, as they were unmoved at the horrors of war, and the bold efforts of a vigilant enemy. From Euboea he turned his arms against the Scythi- ans, but the advantages which he obtained over this indigent nation were inconsiderable. He next advanced far into Bosotia, and a gen- eral engagement was fought at Chaeronea. The fight was long and bloody, but Philip obtained the victory. At the battle of Chasronea the in- dependence of Greece was extinguished ; and Philip, unable to find new enemies in Europe, formed new enterprises, and meditated new conquests. He was appointed general of the Greeks against the Persians, and was called upon to re- venge those injuries which Greece had suffered from the invasions of Darius and of Xerxes. But he was stopped in the midst of his warlike preparations, being stabbed by Pausanias as he entered the theatre, at the celebration of the nuptials of his daughter Cleopatra. He was PHO 401 PHO murdered in the 47th year of his age, and the 24th of his reign, 346 years before the Chris- tian era. PHILIP, king, Sachem of Pokanoket, was the youngest son of Massasoit. In 1075, he commenced a war with the English, who suf- fered severely from his enmity. He was killed Aug. 12, 1676. PHILIPPINES, a group of islands in the Pa- cific ocean, 1200 in number. They were dis- covered by Magellan in 1521, and the first set- tlements were made by the Spaniards in 1570. Manilla is the capital of the Spanish posses- sions. The population is composed of Chinese, Spaniards, mestizoes, and natives, and amounts to about two and a half millions. These islands are fruitful and productive, but subject to rava- ges from hurricanes, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. PHOCION, an Athenian, celebrated for his virtues, private as well as public. He often checked the violent and inconsiderate measures of Demosthenes, and when the Athenians seemed eager to make war against Philip, king of Macedonia, Phocion observed that war should never be undertaken without the strongest and most certain expectations of success and victory. He was 45 times appointed governor of Athens, and no greater encomium can be passed upon his talents as a minister and statesman, than that he never solicited that high, though dangerous, office. It was through him that Greece was saved from an impending war, and he advised Alexander rather to turn his arms against Persia, than to shed the blood of the Greeks, who were either his allies or his subjects. But not totally to despise the favors of the monarch, he begged Alexander to restore to their liberty four slaves that were confined in the citadel of Sardis. When the Piraus was taken, Phocion was accused of treason, and therefore, to avoid the public indignation, he fled for safety to Poly- perchon. Polyperchon sent him back to Athens, where he was immediately condemned to drink the fatal poison. He received the indignities of the people with uncommon composure ; and when one of his friends lamented his fate, Pho- cion exclaimed, " This is no more than what I expected ; this treatment the most illustrious citizens of Athens have received before me." He died about 318 years before the christian era. It has been observed of Phocion, that he never appeared elated in prosperity, or dejected in ad- versity ; he never betrayed pusillanimity by a tear, nor joy by a smile. His countenance was 26 stern and unpleasant, but he never behaved with severit} 7 , his expressions were mild, and his re- bukes gentle. At the age of 80 he appeared at the head of the Athenian armies like the most active officer, and to his prudence and cool va- lor in every period of life his citizens acknow- ledged themselves much indebted. His merits were not buried in oblivion ; the Athenians re- pented of their ingratitude, and honored his memory by raising him statues, and putting to a cruel death his guilty accusers. PHOCIS, an ancient country of Greece, bounded N. by Thessaly, E. by Locris and Boeotia, S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and W. by Doris, and the country of the Ozolian Locrians. Phocis was rendered famous for a war which it maintained against some of the Grecian repub- lics, and which has received the name of the Phocian war. This celebrated war originated in the following circumstances : When Philip, king of Macedonia, had fomented divisions in Greece, and disturbed the peace of every repub- lic, the Greeks universally became discontented in their situation, and jealous of the prosperity of the neighboring states. The Amphictyons, who were the supreme rulers of Greece, and who at that time were subservient to the views of the Thebans, the inveterate enemies of the Phocians, showed the same spirit, and like the rest of their country- men, were actuated by the same jealousy and ambition. As the supporters of religion, they accused the Phocians of impiety for ploughing a small portion of land which belonged to the god of Delphi. They immediately commanded, that the sacred field should be laid waste, and that the Phocians, to expiate their crime, should pay a heavy fine to the community. The inability of the Phocians to pay the fine, and that of the Amphictyons to enforce their commands by violence, gave rise to new events. The people of Phocis resolved to oppose the Amphyctyonic council by force of arms. Dur- ing two years hostilities were carried on be- tween the Phocians and their enemies, the The- bans and the people of Locris, but no decisive battles were fought. Philip of Macedonia, who had assisted the Thebans, was obliged to retire from the field with dishonor, but a more successful battle was fought near Magnesia, and the monarch, by crowning the head of his soldiers with laurel, and telling them that they fought in the cause of Delphi and heaven, obtained a complete vic- tory. This fatal defeat, however, did not ruin the Phocians : Phayllus, took the command of PIC 402 PIN their armies, and doubling the pay of his sol- diers, he increased his forces by the addition of 9,000 men from Athens, Lacedaemon, and Achaia. But all this numerous force at last proved in- effectual, the treasures of the temple of Delphi, which had long defrayed the expenses of the war, began to fail, dissensions arose among the ringleaders of Phocis, and when Philip had crossed the Straits of Thermopylae, the Phocians, relying on his generosity, claimed his protec- tion, and implored him to plead their cause be- fore the Amphictyonic council. His feeble in- tercession was not attended with success, and the Thebans, the Locrians, and the Thessalians, who then composed the Amphictyonic council, unanimously decreed, that the Phocians should be deprived of the privilege of sending members among the Amphictyons. The Phocians, ten years after they had un- dertaken the sacred war, saw their country laid desolate, their walls demolished, and their cities in ruins, by the wanton jealousy of their ene- mies, and the inflexible cruelty of the Macedo- nian soldiers, B. C. 348. They were not, how- ever, long under this disgraceful sentence, their well known valor and courage recommended them to favor, and they gradually regained their influence and consequence by the protection of the Athenians, and the favors of Philip. PHCENICE, or Phoenicia, a country of Asia, at the east of the Mediterranean, whose bound- aries have been different in different ages. Some suppose that the names of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine, are indiscriminately used for one and the same country. Phoenicia, according to Ptol- emy, extended on the north as far as the Eleu- therus, a small river which falls into the Medi- terranean sea, a little below the island of Ara- dus, and it had Pelusium, or the territories of Egypt, as its more southern boundary, and Syria on the east. Sidon and Tyre were the capital towns of the country. The inhabitants planted colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, particularly Carthage, Hippo, Marseilles, and Utica ; and their manufactures acquired such a superiority over those of other nations, that among the ancients, whatever was elegant, great, or pleasing, either in apparel, or domes- tic utensils, received the epithet of Sidonian. The Phoenicians were originally governed by kings. They were subdued by the Persians, and afterwards by Alexander, and remained tributary to his successors and to the Romans. P1CHEGRU, Charles, a French general, was born at Arbois, in 1761, in Franchecomte. His parentage was mean, but he received a good education under the monks in his native town ; after which he entered into the army, and be- came a serjeant. In the revolution he was ele- vated to the rank of a general, and in 1793 gained a victory over the combined armies at Hagenau ; in consequence of which he succeed- ed to the command of the army of the north. His most celebrated exploit was the subjugation of Holland, for which he was elected a member of the national assembly. At length he fell un- der the suspicion of being a royalist, and was banished to Cayenne, from whence he escaped to England. In the spring of 1804, he went to Paris, but was soon seized, and thrown into a dungeon of the temple, where he probably strangled himself on the 6th of April of the same year. PICKENS, Andrew, a celebrated revolution- ary officer, born in Bucks county, Pennsylva- nia, Sept. 13, 1739. While he was still young, his residence was removed to South Carolina. He had fought against the French, and the Cherokees before the breaking out of the revo- lution. He again encountered the Indians in the revolutionary war, and acted a gallant part at the battle of Cowpens, as well as at that of Eutaw springs. At the conclusion of the war, he served his country in various civil offices, and died, full of years and honors, Oct. 11, 1817. PICKERING, Timothy, colonel, was born at Salem, Mass., July, 17, 1745, and was edu- cated at Harvard college. He served with dis- tinction during the revolutionary war; towards the close of which he succeeded general Greene as quarter-master-general, and contributed great- ly to the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. In 1791 he was made postmaster-general, and in 1794, secretary of war. In 1803 he was cho- sen senator to Congress from Massachusetts, and in 1811, when his term of office had expired, was made member of the executive council. During the last war with Great Britain, he was a member of the board of war for the defence of the state. From 1814 to 1817 he was in con- gress. Having retired to private life, he died Jan. 29, 1829. PIEDMONT, a principality of the Sardinian monarchy, containing an area of 6,575 square miles, with 1,400,000 inhabitants. From 1798 to 1802 it was attached to France. PINCKNEY, Charles Cotesworth, was born in South Carolina, but educated in England, where he studied law. He returned to his na- tive state in 1769. He held a colonel's com- mission during the revolutionary war, and aid- PIS 403 PIT ed in the defence of Charleston. After the con- clusion of the war he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to France, where his treatment by the French director}' was insulting. He was ordered to leave the French territories. He died in 1825. PINCKNEY, Thomas, a major-general in the army of the United States, the brother of the preceding, was born in Charleston, South Caro- lina, Oct. 23, 1750. He studied iaw in Eng- land. During the revolution, he served with distinction, and at the conclusion of the war, was elected second governor of South Carolina. At the expiration of his term of office, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court of St. James. After a few years he was ap- pointed minister to the court of Spain. He re- turned to America in 1796, and was soon elect- ed to Congress. In the war of 1812 he received the commission of major-general. He died Nov. 2, 1828. PINKNEY, William, a distinguished Ameri- can lawyer, born at Annapolis, in Maryland, March 17, 1764. He three times went to Eu- rope as minister, and commanded a volunteer company during the war of 1812, receiving a severe wound in the battle of Bladensburg. He died Feb. 25, 1822. PISISTRATUS, an Athenian, son of Hip- pocrates, who early distinguished himself by his valor in the field and by his address and elo- quence at home. After he had rendered him- self the favorite of the populace by his liberali- ty, and by the intrepidity with which he had fought their battles, particularly near Salamis, he resolved to make himself master of his coun- try. Pisistratus was not disheartened by the measures of his relation Solon, but he had re- course to artifice. The people too late per- ceived their credulity ; yet, though the tyrant was popular, two of the citizens, Megacles and Lycurgus, conspired together against him, and by their means he was forcibly ejected from the city. The private dissensions of the friends of lib- erty proved favorable to the expelled tyrant, and Megacles, who was jealous of Lycurgus, secretly promised to restore Pisistratus to all his rights and privileges in Athens, if he would marry his daughter. Pisistratus consented, and by the assistance of his father-in-law, lie was soon enabled to expel Lycurgus, and to re-es- tablish himself. In the midst of his triumph, however, Pisistratus felt himself unsupported, and some time after, when he repudiated the daughter of Megacles, he found that not only the citizens, but even his very troops were alien- ated from him by the influence, the intrigues, and the bribery of his father-in-law. He fled from Athens, where he could no lon- ger maintain his power, and retired to Eubcea. Eleven years after, he was drawn from his ob- scure retreat by means of his son Hippias, and he was a third time received by the people of Athens as their master and sovereign. He died about 527 years before the Christian era, after he had enjoyed the sovereign power at Athens for 33 years, including the years of his banish- ment. PITCAIRN.'S ISLAND, in the South Pa- cific ocean, is 6 miles long and 3 broad, and re- markably fertile, possessing a fine climate. It was discovered by Carteret in 1767, but was then uninhabited. In 1789, however, it was settled by some of the mutineers of the English ship Bounty. The mutiny of the Bounty is of such importance as to claim our attention here. It is best described in the following extract from the voyage of captain Bligh : On the 27th of December it blew a severe storm of wind from the eastward, in the course of which we suffered greatly. One sea broke away the spare yards and spars out of the star- board mainchains ; another broke into the ship and stove all the boats. Several casks of beer that had been lashed on deck broke loose, and were washed overboard ; and it was not with- out great risk and difficulty that we were able to secure the boats from being washed away entirely. A great quantity of our bread was also damaged and rendered useless, for the sea had stove in our stern, and filled the cabin with water. On the 5th of January, 1788, we saw the island of Teneriffe about twelve leagues distant, and next day, being Sunday, came to an anchor in the road of Santa Cruz. There we took in the necessary supplies, and, having finished our business, sailed on the 10th. I now divided the people into three watches, and gave the charge of the third watch to Mr. Fletcher Christian, one of the mates. I have always considered this a desirable regulation when circumstances will admit of it, and I am persuaded that unbroken rest not only contri- butes much towards the health of the ship's company, but enables them more readily to ex- ert themselves in cases of sudden emergency. As I wished to proceed to Otaheite without stopping, I reduced the allowance of bread to two-thirds, and caused the water for drinking to be filtered through drip-stones, bought at Ten- PIT 404 PIT eriffe for that purpose. I now acquainted the ship's company of the object of the voyage, and gave assurances of certain promotion to every one whose endeavors should merit it. On Tuesday the 26th of February, being in South latitude 39° 38', and 44° 44' West longi- tude, we bent new sails, and made other neces- sary preparations for encountering the weather that was to be expected in a high latitude. Our distance from the coast of Brazil was about 100 leagues. On the forenoon of Sunday the 2d of March, after seeing that every person was clean, divine service was performed, according to my usual custom on this day. I gave to Mr. Fletcher Christian, whom I had before directed to take charge of the third watch, a written order to act as lieutenant. The change of temperature soon began to be sensibly felt, and, that the people might not suf- fer from their own negligence, I supplied them with thicker clothing, as better suited to the climate. A great number of whales of an im- mense size, with two spout-holes on the back of the head, were seen on the 11th. On a complaint made to me by the master, I found it necessary to punish Matthew Quintal, one of the seamen, with two dozen of lashes, for insolence and mutinous behavior, which was the first time that there was any occasion for punishment on board. We were off Cape St. Diego, the eastern part of the Terra de Fuego, and, the wind being un- favorable, I thought it more advisable to go round to the eastward of Staten-land than to attempt passing through Straits le Maire. We passed New Year's Harbor and Cape St. John, and on Monday the 31st were in latitude 60° 1' south. But the wind became variable, and we had bad weather. Storms, attended with a great sea, prevailed until the 12th of April. The ship began to leak, and required pumping every hour, which was no more than we had reason to expect from such a continuance of gales of wind and high seas. The decks also became so leaky that it was ne- cessary to allot the great cabin, of which I made little use except in fine weather, to those people who had not berths to hang their hammocks in, and by this means the space between decks was less crowded. With all this bad weather, we had the addi- tional mortification to find, at the end of every day, that we were losing ground ; for, notwith- standing our utmost exertions, and keeping on the most advantageous tracks, we did little bet- ter than drift before the wind. On Tuesday the 22d of April, we had eight down on the sick list, and the rest of the people, though in good health, were greatly fatigued ; but 1 saw, with much concern, that it was impossible to make a passage this way to the Society Islands, for we had now been thirty days in a tempestu- ous ocean. Thus the season was too far ad- vanced for us to expect better weather to enable us to double Cape Horn ; and, from these and other considerations, I ordered the helm to be put a-weather, and bore away for the Cape of Good Hope, to the great joy of every one on board. We came to an anchor on Friday the 23d of May, in Simon's Bay, at the Cape, after a tol- erable run. The ship required complete caulk- ing, for she had become so leaky, that we were obliged to pump hourly in our passage from Cape Horn. The sails and rigging also re- quired repair, and, on examining the provisions, a considerable quantity was found damaged. Having remained thirty-eight days at this place, and my people having received all the advantage that could be derived from refresh- ments of every kind that could be met with, we sailed on the 1st of July. A gale of wind blew on the 20th, with a high sea; it increased after noon with such violence, that the ship was driven almost forecastle under before we could get the sails clewed up. The lower yards were lowered, and the top-gallant mast got down upon deck, which relieved her much. We lay to all night, and in the morn- ing bore away under a reefed foresail. The sea still running high, in the afternoon it became very unsafe to stand on ; we therefore lay to all night, without any accident, excepting that a man at the steerage was thrown over the wheel and much bruised. Towards noon the violence of the storm abated, and we again bore away under the reefed foresail. In a few days we passed the Island of St. Paul, where there is good fresh water, as I was informed by a Dutch captain, and also a hot spring, which boils fish as completely as if done by a fire. Approaching to Van Dieman's land, we had much bad weather, with snow and hail, but nothing was seen to indicate our vicinity, on the 13th of August, except a seal, which ap- peared at the distance of twenty leagues from it. We anchored in Adventure Bay on Wednes- day the 20th. In our passage hither from the Cape of Good Hope, the winds were chiefly from the west- ward, with very boisterous weather. The ap- PIT 405 PIT I proach of strong southerly winds is announced by many birds of the albatross or petrel tribe ; and the abatement of the gale, or a shift of wind I to the northward, by their keeping away. The thermometer also varies five or six degrees in I its height, when a change of these winds may be expected. In the land surrounding Adventure Bay are many forest trees one hundred and fifty feet high ; we saw one which measured above thirty- three feet in girth. We observed several eagles, , some beautiful blue-plumaged herons, and par- roquets in great variety. The natives not appearing, we went in search of them towards Cape Frederic Henry. Soon after, coming to a grapnel close to the shore, for it was impossible to land, we heard their voices, like the cackling of geese, and twenty persons came out of the woods. We threw trinkets j ashore tied up in parcels, which they would not 1 open out until 1 made an appearance of leaving them ; they then did so, and, taking the arti- cles out, put them on their heads. On first coming in sight, they made a prodigious clatter- I ing in their speech, and held their arms over i their heads. They spoke so quick, that it was | impossible to catch one single word they uttered. Their color is of a dull black ; their skin scari- fied about the breast and shoulders. One was J distinguished by his body being colored with red ochre, but all the others were painted black, with a kind of soot, so thickly laid over their faces and shoulders, that it was difficult to as- certain what they were like. On Thursday, the 4th of September, we sailed out of Adventure Bay, steering first towards the east-southeast, and then to the northward of cast, when, on the 19th, we came in sight of a cluster of small rocky islands, which I named Bounty Isles. Soon afterwards we frequently observed the sea, in the night time, to be cov- ered by luminous spots, caused by amazing quantities of small blubbers, or medusae, which emit alight, like the blaze of a candle, from the strings or filaments extending from them, while the rest of the body continues perfectly dark. We discovered the island of Otaheite on the I 25th, and, before casting anchor next morning in Matavai Bay, such numbers of canoes had come off, that, after the natives ascertained we were friends, they came on board, and crowded the deck so much, that in ten minutes I could scarce find my own people. The whole distance which the ship had run, in direct and contrary courses, from the time of leaving England until reaching Otaheite, was twenty-seven thousand and eigh- ty-six miles, which, on an average, was one hundred and eight miles each twenty-four hours. Here we lost our surgeon on the 'Jth of De- cember. Of late he had scarcely ever stirred out of the cabin, though not apprehended to be in a dangerous state. Nevertheless, appearing worse than usual in the evening, he was re- moved where he could obtain more air, but without any benefit, for he died in an hour af- terwards. This unfortunate man drank very hard, and was so averse to exercise, that he would never be prevailed on to take half a dozen turns on deck at a time, during all the course of the voyage. He was buried on shore. On Monday the 5th of January, the small cutter was missed, of which I was immediately apprised. The ship's company being mustered, we found three men absent, who had carried it off. They had taken with them eight stand of arms and ammunition ; but with regard to their plan, every one on board seemed to be quite ig- norant. I therefore went on shore, and engaged all the chiefs to assist in recovering both the boat and the deserters. Accordingly, the for- mer was brought back in the course of the day, by five of the natives ; but the men were not taken until nearly three weeks afterwards. Learning the place where they were, in a dif- ferent quarter of the island of Otaheite, I went thither in the cutter, thinking there would be no great difficulty in securing them with the assistance of the natives. However, they heard of my arrival ; and when I was near a house in which they were, they came out wanting their fire-arms, and delivered themselves up. Some of the chiefs had formerly seized and bound these deserters ; but had been prevailed on, by fair promises of returning peaceably to the ship, to release them. But finding an opportunity again to get possession of their arms, they set the natives at defiance. The object of the voyage being now com- pleted, all the bread-fruit plants, to the number of one thousand and fifteen, were got on board on Tuesday the 31st of March. Besides these, we had collected many other plants, some of them bearing the finest fruits in the world ; and valuable, from affording brilliant dyes, and for various properties besides. At sunset of the 4th of April, we made sail from Otaheite, bid- ding farewell to an island where for twenty- three weeks we had been treated with the ut- most affection and regard, and which seemed to increase in proportion to our stay. That we were not insensible to their kindness, the suc- ceeding circumstances sufficiently proved ; for PIT 406 PIT to the friendly and endearing behavior of these people may be ascribed the motives inciting an event that effected the ruin of our expedition, which there was every reason to believe would have been attended with the most favorable issue. Next morning we got sight of the island Hua- heine ; and a double canoe soon coming along- side, containing ten natives, I saw among them a young man who recollected me, and called me by my name. I had been here in the year 1780, with Captain Cook, in the Resolution. A few days after sailing from this island, the weather became squally, and a thick body of black clouds collected in the east. A water-spout was in a short time seen at no great distance from us, which appeared to great advantage from the darkness of the clouds behind it. As nearly as I could judge, the upper part was about two feet in diameter, and the lower about eight inches. Scarcely had I made these remarks, when I observed that it was rapidly advancing towards the ship. We immediately altered our course, and took in all the sails except the fore- sail ; soon after which it passed within ten yards of the stern, with a rustling noise, but without our feeling the least effect from it being so near. It seemed to be travelling at the rate of about ten miles an hour, in the direction of the wind, and it dispersed in a quarter of an hour after passing us. It is impossible to say what injury we should have received, had it passed directly over us. Masts, I imagine, might have been carried away, but I do not apprehend that it would have endangered the loss of the ship. Passing several islands on the way, we an- chored at Annamooka, on the 23d of April ; and an old lame man called Tepa, whom I had known here in 1777, and immediately recollect- ed, came on board, along with others, from dif- ferent islands in the vicinity. They were de- sirous to see the ship, and on being taken be- low, where the bread-fruit plants were arranged, they testified great surprise. A few of these being decayed, we went on shore to procure some in their place. The natives exhibited numerous marks of the peculiar mourning which they express on losing their relatives ; such as bloody temples, their heads being deprived of most of the hair, and what was worse, almost the whole of them had lost some of their fingers. Several fine boys, not above six years old, had lost both their little fin- gers ; and several of the men, besides these, had parted with the middle finger of the right hand. The chiefs went off with me to dinner, and we carried on a brisk trade for yams ; we also got plantains and bread fruit. But the yams were in great abundance, and very fine and large. One of them weighed above forty-five pounds. Sailing canoes came, some of which contained not less than ninety passengers. Such a number of them gradually arrived from differ- ent islands, that it was impossible to get any thing done, the multitude became so great, and there was no chief of sufficient authority to command the whole. I therefore ordered a watering party, then employed, to come on board, and sailed on Sunday the 26th of April. We kept near the island of Kotoo all the af- ternoon of Monday, in hopes that some canoes would come off to the ship, but in this we were disappointed. The wind being northerly, we steered to the westward in the evening, to pass soutli of Tofoa ; and I gave directions for this course to be continued during the night. The master had the first watch, the gunner the mid- dle watch, and Mr. Christian the morning watch. This was the turn of duty for the night. Hitherto the voyage had advanced in a course of uninterrupted prosperity, and had been at- tended with circumstances equally pleasing and satisfactory. But a very different scene was now to be disclosed ; a conspiracy had been formed, which was to render all our past labor productive only of misery and distress ; and it had been concerted with so much secrecy and circumspection, that no one circumstance es- caped to betray the impending calamity. On the night of Monday, the watch was set as I have described. Just before sunrise, on Tuesday morning, while I was yet asleep, Mr. Christian, with the master at arms, gunner's mate, and Thomas Burkitt, seaman, came into my cabin, and seizing me, tied my hands with a cord behind my back ; threatening me with instant death if I spoke or made the least noise. I nevertheless called out as loud as I could, in hopes of assistance ; but the officers not of their party were already secured by sentinels at their doors. At my own cabin door were three men, besides the four within ; all except Christian had muskets and bayonets ; he had only a cut- lass. I was dragged out of bed, and forced on deck in my shirt, suffering great pain in the mean time from the tightness with which my hands were tied. On demanding the reason of such violence, the only answer was abuse for not holding my tongue. The master, the gun- ner, surgeon, master's mate, and Nelson the gardener, were kept confined below, and the fore hatchway was guarded by sentinels. The boatswain and carpenter, and also the clerk, PIT 407 PIT were allowed to come on deck, where they saw me standing abaft the mizzen-mast, with my hands tied behind my back, under a guard, with I Christian at their head. The boatswain was | then ordered to hoist out the launch, accom- i panied by a threat, if he did not do it instantly, TO TAKE CARE OF HIMSELF. The boat being hoisted out, Mr. Hayward and Mr. Hallet, two of the midshipmen, and Mr. Samuel, the clerk, were ordered into it. I demanded the intention of giving this order, and endeavored to persuade the people near me not to persist in such acts of violence ; but it was to no effect; for the constant answer was, " Hold your tongue, sir, or you are dead this moment." The master had by this time sent, requesting that he might come on deck, which was permit- ted ; but he was soon ordered back again to his cabin. My exertions to turn the tide of affairs l were continued ; when Christian, changing the cutlass he held for a bayonet, and holding me by the cord about my hands with a strong gripe, threatened me with immediate death if 1 would not be quiet; and the villains around me had their pieces cocked and bayonets fixed. Certain individuals were called on to get into I the boat, and were hurried over the ship's side ; I whence I concluded, that along with them I was to be set adrift. Another effort to bring about a change produced nothing but menaces of having my brains blown out. The boatswain and those seamen who were to be put into the boat, were allowed to collect twine, canvass, lines, sails, cordage, an eight- and-twenty gallon cask of water ; and Mr. Sam- uel got 150 pounds of bread, with a small quan- tity of rum and wine : also a quadrant and com- pass : but be was prohibited, on pain of death, to touch any map or astronomical book, and any instrument, or any of my surveys and drawings. The mutineers having thus forced those of the seamen whom they wished to get rid of into the boat. Christian directed a dram to be served to each of his crew. I then unhappily saw that nothing could be done to recover the ship. The officers were next called on deck, and forced over the ship's side into the boat, while I was kept apart from every one abaft the mizzen-mast. Christian, armed with a bayonet, held the cord fastening my hands, and the guard around me stood with their pieces cocked ; but on my daring the ungrateful wretches to fire, they un- cocked them. Isaac Martin, one of them, I saw had an inclination to assist me; and as he fed me with shaddock, my lips being quite parched, we explained each other's sentiments by looks. But this was observed, and he was reir.oved. He then got into the boat, attempting to leave the ship ; however, he was compelled to letum. Some others were also kept contrary to their inclination. It appeared to me, that Christian was some time in doubt whether he should keep the car- penter or his mates. At length he determined on the latter, and the carpenter was ordered into the boat. He was permitted, though not with- out opposition, to take his tool chest. Mr. Samuel secured my journals and com- mission, with some important ship papers ; this he did with great resolution, though strictly watched. He attempted to save the time-keep- er, and a box with my surveys, drawings, and remarks, for fifteen years past, which were very numerous, when he was hurried away v ith — " Damn your eyes, you are well off to get what you have." Much altercation took place among the mu- tinous crew during the transaction of this whole affair. Some swore, " I'll de damned if he does not find his way home, if he gets any thing with him," meaning me; and when the carpi liter's chest was carrying away, " Damn my f)is, he will have a vessel built in a month;" while others ridiculed the helpless situation of the boat, which was very deep in the water, and had so little room for those who were in her. As for Christian, he seemed as if mediating destruction on himself and every one elst I asked for arms, but the mutineers laughed at me, and said I was well acquainted w itii the people among whom I was going; four cut- lasses, however, were thrown into the bixit, af- ter we were veered astern. The officers and men being in the boat, they only waited for me, of which the masi^r-at- arms informed Christian, who then said, " ( ome, Captain Bligh, your officers and men aie now in the boat, and you must go with them ; if you attempt to make the least resistance, you will instantly be put to death;" and without further ceremony, I was forced over the side by a tribe of armed ruffians, where they untied my hands. Being in the boat, we were veered astern by a rope. A few pieces of pork were thrown to us, also the four cutlasses. The armorer and car- penter then called out to me to remembei that they had no hand in the transaction. After having been kept some time to make sport for these unfeeling wretches, and having under- gone much ridicule, we were at length cast adrift in the open ocean. Eighteen persons were with me in the boat, PIT 408 PIT — the master, acting surgeon, botanist, gunner, boatswain, carpenter, master, and quarter-mas- ter's mate, two quarter-masters, the sail maker, two cooks, my clerk, the butcher, and a boy. There remained on board, Fletcher Christian, the master's mate; Peter Haywood, Edward Young, George Stewart, midshipmen ; the mas- ter-at-arms, gunner's mate, boatswain's mate, gardener, armorer, carpenter's mate, carpenter's crew, and fourteen seamen, being altogether the most able men of the ship's company. Having little or no wind, we rowed pretty fast towards the island of Tofoa, which bore north-east about ten leagues distant. The ship while in sight steered west-north-west, but this I considered only as a feint, for when we were sent away, " Huzza for Otaheite !" was fre- quently heard among the mutineers. Christian, the chief of them, was of a respect- able family in the north of England. This was the third voyage he had made with me. Not- withstanding the roughness with which I was treated, the remembrance of past kindnesses produced some remorse in him. While they were forcing me out of the ship, I asked him whether this was a proper return for the many instances he had experienced of my friendship ? He appeared disturbed at the question, and an- swered with much emotion, " That — Captain Bligh — that is the thing — I am in hell- I am in hell." His abilities to take charge of the third watch, as I had so divided the ship's company, were fully equal to the task. Haywood was also of a respectable family in the north of England, and a young man of abili- ties, as well as Christian. These two had been objects of my particular regard and attention, and I had taken great pains to instruct them, having entertained hopes that, as professional men, they would have become a credit to their country. Young was well recommended ; and Stewart of creditable parents in the Orkneys, at which place, on the return of the Resolution from the South Seas in 1780, we received so many civilities, that in consideration of these alone I should gladly have taken him with me. But he had always borne a good character. When I had time to reflect, an inward satis- faction prevented the depression of my spirits. Yet, a few hours before, my situation had been peculiarly flattering ; 1 had a ship in the most perfect order, stored with every necessary, both for health and service ; the object of the voyage was attained, and two-thirds of it now com- pleted. The remaining part had every pros- pect of success. It will naturally be asked, what could be the cause of such a revolt? In answer, I can only conjecture that the mutineers had Mattered them- selves with the hope of a happier life among the Otaheitans than they could possibly enjoy in England ; which, joined to some female con- nections, most probably occasioned the whole transaction. The women of Otaheite are handsome, mild, and cheerful in manners and conversation ; pos- sessed of great sensibility, and have sufficient delicacy to make them be admired and beloved. The chiefs were so much attached to our peo- ple, that they rather encouraged their stay among them than otherwise, and even made them promises of large possessions. Under these, and many other concomitant circum- stances, it cught hardly to be the subject of sur- prise that a set of sailors, most of them void of connections, should be led away, where they had the power of fixing themselves in the midst of plenty, in one of the finest islands in the world, where there was no necessity to labor, and where the allurements of dissipation are beyond any conception that can be formed of it. The utmost, however, that a commander could have expected, was desertions, such as have al- ready happened more or less in the South Seas and not an act of open mutiny. But the secrecy of this mutiny surpasses be- lief. Thirteen of" the party who were now with me had always lived forward among the sea- men ; yet neither they, nor the messmates of Christian, Stewart, Haywood, and Young, had ever observed any circumstance to excite sus- picion of what was plotting ; and it is not won derful if I fell a sacrifice to it, my mind being entirely free from suspicion. Perhaps, had ma- rines been on board, a sentinel at my cabin-door might have prevented it ; for I constantly slept with the door open, that the officer of the watch might have access to me on all occasions. If the mutiny had been occasioned by any griev- ances, either real or imaginary, I must have discovered symptoms of discontent, which would have put me on my guard ; but it was far other- wise. With Christian, in particular, I was on the most friendly terms ; that very day he was engaged to have dined with me ; and the pre- ceding night he excused himself from supping with me on pretence of indisposition, for which I felt concerned, having no suspicions of his honor or integrity. PITT, William, the second son of Earl Chatham, was born May 28, 1759. In 1780, he obtained a seat in parliament, where he exerted PIU 409 PLA the power of his eloquence against Lord North. On the .removal of that minister, Mr. Pitt did not obtain a place ; but when the Earl of Shel- burne succeeded the Marquis of Rockingham, he became chancellor of the exchequer. This ministry, however, was soon displaced by the coalition of Lord North and Mr. Fox, in 1782 ; but the famous India bill of the latter producing another change, at the end of 1783, Mr. Pitt be- came first lord of the treasury, as well as chan- cellor of the exchequer. Though in this situa- tion he had to encounter an extraordinary com- bination of talents and influence, he overcame all obstacles, and carried many important meas- ures, particularly his own India bill, a commer- cial treaty with France, the acts against smug- gling, and the establishment of a sinking fund. The illness of the king, in 1788, opened a new field for the energies of this great man, who, by taking constitutional ground in regard to the right of parliament to settle a regency, ingra- tiated himself with the nation, though certain of being removed when that appointment should take place. The recovery of his majesty, how- ever, fixed him more firmly in his seat. The next great event in his life was that of being called to oppose the power of revolutionary France, and to secure the nation from similar convulsions. At length he acceded to the wish that an experiment for peace should be tried, which took place in 1801, under Mr. Adding- ton ; but the event proved how fallacious were the hopes of the people; and, in 1804, Mr. Pitt was recalled to power. But his health was now in a very precarious state, and he died at Put- ney, Jan. '23, 1806. His remains were deposit- ed in Westminster Abbey. Very honorable eulogiums were pronounced on his memory by all parties, and his debts weie paid at the public expense, according to a vote of parliament. PIUS VI, Pope, or John Angelo Braschi, was born at Cesena in 1717. He succeeded Cle- ment XIV in 1775, and soon after made a re- form in the public treasury. When the empe- ror Joseph II decreed that all the religious or- ders in his dominions were free from papal ju- risdiction, Pius, apprehensive of the consequen- ces of such a measure, went in person to Vienna in 1782; but though he was honorably received, his remonstrances were ineffectual. The French Revolution, however, was of more serious con- sequence to the papal see. The pope, having favored the allies, Bonaparte entered the eccle- siastical territory ,and compelled him to purchase a peace. Basseville was then sent from the re- public to Rome, where the people assassinated him in 1793. This furnished the pretext for another visitation, and accordingly Bonaparte again entered Italy, made the pope prisoner in his capital, and hurried him over the Alps to Valence, where he died, August 29, 1799. PIZARRO, Francisco, the conqueror of Pe- ru, was the son of a gentleman in Truxillo. He embarked for America as a soldier ; and in 1524, associated at Panama with Diego de Almagro, and Hernandez Lucque, a priest, in an enter- prise to make discoveries. In this voyage they fell in with the coast of Peru, but being too few to make any attempt at a settlement, Pizarro returned to Spain, where all that he gained was a power from the court to prosecute his object. However, having raised some money, he was enabled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, where a civil war was then raging between Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and his half-brother Ata- hualpa. Pizarro, by pretending to take the part of the latter, was permitted to march into the interior, where he made the unsuspecting chief his prisoner, and exacted an immense ransom. This drew fresh adventurers ; and soon after Pizarro murdered the unfortunate Atahualpa, by burning him at a stake. In 1535, the con- queror laid the foundation of Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest arose between him and Almagro, who was defeated and executed. The son and friends of Almagro, however, avenged his death, and on June 26, 1541, Pizarro was assassinated in his palace. PLATA, United Provinces of the, or the Ar- gentine Republic, a republic of South America, consisting of a part of the former Spanish vice- royalty of the Rio de la Plata, or Buenos Ayres, contains 800,000 inhabitants. The country was discovered by Don Juan Diaz de Solis, in 1517, and settlements were made in 1553. The gov- ernment was at first dependant upon that of Peru. In 1810 the insurrection against Spain broke out, and in 1816 the provinces of Buenos Ayers formally declared their independence. PLATiEA, and Platceae, a town of Bceotia, near mount Cithajron, on the confines of Me- garis and Attica, celebrated for a battle fought there, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lace- daemonian and the Athenians. The Persian army consisted of 300,000 men, 3,000 of which scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few men, and among these 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 16 Tegeans, were the only sol- diers found in the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Per- P01 410 POL sian camp was immense. Pausanias received the tenth of all the spoils, on account of his un- common valor during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their re- spective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same day as the battle of Mycale, 479 B. C, and by it Greece was deliv- ered from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian inva- sions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force be- yond the Hellespont. Platasa was taken by the Thebans, after a famous siege, in the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, and destroyed by the Spartans, B. C. 427. Alexander rebuilt it, and paid great encomiums to the inhabitants, on ac- count of their ancestors, who had so bravely fought against the Persians at the battle of Ma- rathon, and under Pausanias. POITIERS, anciently Pictavi, a town of France, now capital of the department of the Vienne, containing 21,502 inhabitants. It is memorable for a battle between the English un- der Edward the Black prince, and the French under John II, fought here on Sept. 19, 1356. The van of the army which consisted altogether of only 8,000 men was commanded by the Earl of Warwick ; the rear by the Earls of Salisbury and Suffolk ; the main-body by the prince him- self. The first division of John's army, which consisted of 80,000 strong, was commanded by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother; the second by the dauphin ; the third by the king himself. A French detachment which ad- vanced first to the charge, was discomfited and overthrown, one of the marshals was slain, the other taken prisoner ; and the remainder of the detachment fell back, and put every thing into disorder. In that critical moment, the Captal de Buche unexpectedly appeared and attacked the dauphin's line, which fell into confusion. Landas, Bodenai, and St. Venant, now set the example of flight, which was followed by that of the whole division. The Duke of Orleans, seized with a panic, thought no longer of fight- ing, but carried off his division by a retreat, which soon after turned into a flight. The di- vision under king John was still, however, more numerous than the whole English army ; and the only resistance made that day was by his line of battle. The prince of Wales fell with impetuosity on some German cavalry placed in the front ; a fierce battle ensued : but the Ger- man generals, together with the Duke of Athens, falling in the engagement, that body of cavalry gave way, and left the king himself exposed to the whole fury of the enemy. The king, spent with fatigue, and overwhelmed by numbers, might easily have been slain, but every English gentleman, ambitious of taking alive the royal prisoner, spared him in the action, exhorted him to surrender, and offered him quarter. Several who attempted to seize him suffered for their temerity. In this dilemma he cried out, " Where is my cousin, the Prince of Wales ?" and seemed unwilling to become prisoner to any person of inferior rank ; but being told that the prince was at a distance, he threw down his gauntlet, and yielded himself, together with his son, to Dennis de Morbec, a fugitive knight of Arras. — The moderation which Edward dis- played on this occasion, has for ever stamped his character. At a repast which was prepared in his tent for his royal prisoner, he served be- hind his chair, as if he had been one of his reti- nue. He refused to seat himself at table with his majesty : and John received, when a cap- tive, those honors which had been denied him when on a throne. POLAND, in Polish Polska; a country in the northern part of Europe. It was formerly of vast extent, and although now dismembered, a part of it retains the ancient name, and con- tains about 4,600,000 Poles. The events of the late unhappy struggle for independence, with the most powerful empire of Europe, are in the minds of every one who takes an interest in the fate of nations. The revolution commenced with an insurrection at Warsaw, Nov. 19, 1830. The Polish diet on the 24th of January declared the independence of their country. The spirit of resistance was not quelled without a long struggle and a horrible effusion of blood on both sides. Poland was formerly called the granary of Europe; but this was when its boundaries ex- tended from the Baltic to the Black Sea; and when the Ukraine and Lithuania were includ- ed. At present its limits are so circumscribed and its arable surface so indifferently cultivated, or naturally so infertile that the kingdom of Po- land, strictly speaking, furnishes little more corn than supplies its own population. The immense supplies of wheat, sent to Dantzic,are chiefly from the detached provinces of Galicia, united to Austria, and from Volhynia and Po- dolia, now belonging to Russia. The landed estates of Poland are almost every where large, and either belong to the crown, to the nobles, or to religious corporations. They are farmed by the proprietors, by means of stew- ards ; or let out in small portions on the meyer POL 411 POL or leibeigener tenure. There are scarcely any free farmers or cottagers. Bonaparte passed an edict while Poland was under has protection as a duchy, to annul the leibeigener tenure ; but it is said the peasants were too much afraid to trust to their own industry to take advantage of it ; and it was never carried into effect. The nobles have, generally, houses on their estates which they occupy at least part of the year ; at other periods it is taken care of by the steward, who is always admitted to the table of his lord, being himself what is called of noble descent. The estates of religious houses are of great ex- tent ; they are sometimes let to nobles and others on a corn rent, who generally sublet them ; and in a few cases they are farmed by the corpora- tion. The postmasters on the different main roads invariably rent a considerable portion of land for the support of their horses. Most of these are meteycrs, but some are free men and pay a money rent, and there are one or two in- stances of nobles farming the post. The houses and offices of these postmasters afford the strong- est resemblance to a British farm-yard. The farm-house and farmery of the peasant postmaster are both included in an immense shed or barn, with a small apartment at one end for the master's dwelling, the remaining space divided for live stock and implements of every description, and for the cattle, carriages, and lodging place of travellers who may stop during the night. Most of these places are sufficiently wretched as inns, but in the present state of things they answer very well for the other pur- poses to which they are applied, and are supe- rior to the hovels of the farmers who are not postmasters, and who are clustered together in villages or in the outskirts of towns. Some villages, however, in the south of Poland, are almost entirely built still on the same general plan of a living-room of a large barn, the main area of which serves for the purposes of a com- plete farmery. The buildings of Poland, ex- cepting those of the principal towns, are con- structed of timber and covered with shingles. The sheds and other agricultural buildings are boarded on the sides ; but the cottages are formed of logs joined by moss or clay; of frames filled up with wicker work and clay ; or of other modes and materials still more rude. The commonest have no chimnies or glass windows. The climate of Poland, though severe, is much less precarious than that of the south of Germany or of France. A winter of from five to seven months, during the greater part of which the ground is covered with snow, is suc- ceeded by a rapid spring and warm summer ; and these are followed by a short, cold, wet autumn. The surface of Poland is remarkably even ; to the traveller passing through the coun- try it appears an interminable forest. Rye is the bread corn of the country. The digittaria sanguinalis is sown as a plant of luxury in a few places, and the seeds ground and used as meal. Potatoes are now becoming general and succeed well in every part of the country. Turnips or cabbages are rarely seen, even in gardens ; few of the cottagers indeed have any garden ; those who have, cultivate chiefly po- tatoes and kohlrube. Many species of mush- rooms grow wild in the woods and wastes, and most of these are carefully gathered and cooked in a variety of ways, as inRussia. The wastes or commons are left entirely to nature. The implements and operations of agricul- ture are incredibly rude. We have seen lands ploughed by one cow, tied by the horns to a sharpened pole ; in other instances a pair of oxen drag a wretched implement, formed by the pea- sant, who is in all cases his own plough and wheelwright as well as house carpenter and builder. Their best or usual plough has no mold board ; and the crop is in many cases moie indebted to the excellence of the soil, and the preceding winter's frost, than the farmer. Horses are their general beasts of labor ; their harness is willow shoots. The body of their best market carts, in which even the lesser no- bles visit each other, are of wicker work, and the axle and wheels are made without any iron. The family of the Lechs kept possession of this country "till the year 550, when it was vested in 12 Palatines or Way wodes, who divided Po- land into the same number of provinces. To them succeeded the family of Piastus, under whom it was raised from a dukedom to a kingdom, and after whose extinction the race of Jagello were invested with the regal dignity. On°the death of Sigismund, the last of the Ja- gello family, Henry, duke of Anjou,and brother to Charles IX of France, ascended the Polish throne ; but, on the death of the king of France, he quitted Poland, and was succeeded by Ste- phen Bathori ; this prince subdued the barbarian Cossacks. On the death of Ladislaus VI, his brother, John Cassimer, a cardinal, was elected to fill the throne ; but grieved at beholding his king- dom laid waste by domestic and foreign war, he abdicated the government. Under Michael Coribut, Poland was obliged to become tributary POL 412 POM to the Ottoman Porte; but John Sobieski, ge- neral of the crown, defeated the Turks, and delivered his country from tribute. On the death of Michael, Sobieski ascended the throne ; and having again defeated the Turks with great slaughter, he compelled them to raise the siege of Vienna, in 1683. After a glorious reign, Sobieski died; when Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony, was cho- sen king, in opposition to the Prince of Conti. Augustus was dethroned by Charles XII of Sweden ; who placed on the throne Stanislaus ; but Augustus was afterwards re-established by the Czar of Russia. On his death, Stanislaus was chosen king a second time; but through the influence of Germany and Russia, his election was annulled ; and the son of the late king was invested with the sovereignty, by the name of Augustus III. On his death, through the intervention of Rus- sia, Count Poniatowski was elected king, and proclaimed by the title of Stanislaus Augustus ; but his reign was one continued scene of con- fusion and distress. In 1772, the courts of Russia, Prussia, and Vienna, in a most unprincipled manner, divided among themselves the greater part of this un- fortunate country. In 1795, they completed this great political crime, by seizing on the remaining part, and expunging Poland from among independent nations. At the congress held at Vienna in 1815, part of Poland was united to the Russian empire, with the preservation of its own consti- tution ; and, on this event, Alexander, emperor of Russia, assumed the title of King of Poland. What a melancholy task is his who seeks for the records of Poland on the historical tablet for the last fifty years ! The nation which once carried its conquests as far as Dacia, made the Divan tremble, and chased the flying Spalii be- yond the Danube, the king who once paternally planned his country's weal, the nobles who once appeared at the signal of foreign invasion, clad in brass and steel, the peasant who once bared his brawny breast and stood in the last rampart of his country, where are their names recorded? Can we avoid recurring to the past, to that mo- ment which promised to be so propitious, when the hopes of the country were, after a long in- terval of death-like sleep, awakened, but awak- ened to slumber again, perhaps in eternal sleep ? The giant warrior of Corsica spread before the Poles a golden vision. He mocked Poland with the name of liberty ! At the head of his myriad men of war he said to the Polish mother, " that son, which is in thy cradle, shall be free!" " Poland shall be free." Six months passed, and the dome which had echoed these words was filled with the lances of the Cossacks. POLIGNAC, Melchior de, a cardinal, was born in 1661, at Puy, in Langu^doc. He stud- ied at Paris, after which he was employed in diplomatic concerns, in which he gave such sat- isfaction, as to be rewarded with the purple. During the regency he was banished to his abbey of Anchin ; but afterwards he was recall- ed, and appointed agent for French affairs at Rome. In 1726, he was made archbishop of Auch. He died in 1741. POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a Roman consul under the reign of Agustus, who distinguished himself as much by his eloquence and writings, as by his exploits in the field. He was with J. Cffisar when he crossed the Rubicon. He defeated the Dalmatians, and favored the cause of Antony against Agustus. He was greatly esteemed by Agustus, when he had become one of his adherents, after the ruin of Antony. He died in the 80th year of his age, A. D. 4. POMPADOUR, (Jeanne Antoinette, Poisson, Marchioness of,) the mistress of Louis XV, was the daughter of a financier, and the wife of M. d'Etioles, when she attracted the notice of the king, who made her a marchioness in 1745. She liberally encouraged the arts, and collected a valuable cabinet of curiosities. She died in 1764, aged 44. POMPEII, an ancient city of Campania, buried, like Herculaneum A. D. 79. It was first discovered in 1748. POMPEY, (C), surnamed the Great from the greatness of his exploits, was son of Cneius Pompeius Strabo and Lucilia, and was born B. C. 107. He early distinguished himself in the field of battle, and fought with success and bravery under his father, whose courage and military prudence he imitated. In the disturb- ances which agitated Rome, by the ambition and avarice of Marius and Sylla, Pompey fol- lowed the interest of the latter, and by levying three legions for his service he gained his friend- ship and his protection. In the 26th year of his age, he conquered Sic- ,ily, which was in the power of Marius and his adherents, and in forty days he regained all the territories of Africa, which had forsaken the interest of Sylla. He now appeared, not as a dependant, but as a rival, of the dictator, Sylla; and his opposition to his measures totally ex- cluded him from his will. After the death of Sylla, Pompey supported POM 413 POM himself against the remains of the Marian fac- tion, which were headed by Lepidus. He was soon made consul, and in that office he restored the tribunitial power to its original dignity : and in forty days removed the pirates from the Me- diterranean, where they had reigned for many years, and by their continual plunder and au- dacity almost destroyed the whole naval power of Rome. While he extirpated these maritime robbers, Pompey was called to greater undertakings, and empowered to finish the war against Mi- thridates, king of Pontus, and Tigranes, king of Armenia. His operations against the King of Pontus were bold and vigorous ; and in a general engagement the Romans so totally de- feated the enemy, that the Asiatic monarch escaped with difficulty from the field of battle. Pompey did not lose sight of the advantages which despatch would ensure: he entered Ar- menia, and received the submission of King Tigranes. Part of Arabia was subdued, Judea became a Roman province, and when he had now no- thing to fear from Mithridates, who had volun- tarily destroyed himself, Pompey returned to Italy with all the pomp and majesty of an east- ern conqueror. The Romans dreaded his approach ; they knew his power, and his influence among his troops, and they feared the return of another tyrannical Sylla. Pompey, however, banished their fears ; he disbanded his army, and the conqueror of Asia entered Rome like a private citizen. To strengthen himself, and to triumph over his enemies, Pompey soon after united his interest with that of Cossar and Crassus, and formed the first triumvirate, by solemnly swearing that their attachment should be mutual, their cause common, and their union permanent. But this powerful confederacy was soon after broken ; the sudden death of Julia, the wife of Pompey, and daughter of Cresar, and the total defeat of Crassus in Syria, shattered the political bands which held the jarring interest of Csesar and Pompey united. Pompey dreaded his father-in-law, and yet he affected to despise him; and, by sufFering anarchy to prevail in Rome, he convinced his fellow-citizens of the necessity of investing him with dictatorial power. But while the conqueror of Mithridates was as a sovereign at Rome, the adherents of Caesar were not silent. They de- manded that either the consulship should be given to him, or that he should be continued in the government of Gaul. This just demand would perhaps have been granted, but Cato op- posed it ; and when Pompey sent for the two legions which he had lent to Caesar, the breach became more wide, and a civil war inevitable. Cffisar was privately preparing to meet his enemies, while Pompey remained indolent, and gratified his pride in seeing all Italy celebrate his recovery from an indisposition by universal rejoicings. But he was soon roused from his inactivity ; and it was now time to find his friends, if any thing could be obtained from the caprice and the fickleness of a people which he had once delighted and amused by the exhibi- tion of games and spectacles in a theatre which could contain 20,000 spectators. Ca?sar was now near Rome ; he had crossed the Rubicon, which was a declaration of hostil- ities; and Pompey, who had once boasted that he could raise legions to his assistance by stamp- ing with his foot, fled from the city with pre- cipitation, and retired to Brundusium with the consuls and part of the senators. Cresar was now master of Rome, and in sixty da3's all Italy acknowledged his power, and the conqueror hastened to Spain, there to defeat the interest of Pompey, and to alienate the hearts of his sol- diers. He was too successful; and, when he had gained to his cause the western parts of the Roman empire, Ctesar crossed Italy, and arrived in Greece, where Pompey had retired, supported by all the power of the east, the wish- es of the republican Romans, and a numerous and well-disciplined army. Pompey repelled him with great success ; and he might have decided the war if he had con- tinued to pursue the enemy while their confu- sion was great, and their escape almost impos- sible. Want of provisions obliged Cffisar to advance towards Thessaly ; Pompey pursued him, and in the plains of Pharsalia the two armies engaged. The whole was conducted against the advice and approbation of Pompey ; and by suffering his troops to wait for the ap- proach of the enemy, he deprived his soldiers of that advantage which the army of Ca:sar obtained by running to the charge with spirit, vigor, and animation. The cavalry of Pompey soon gave way, and the general retired to his camp overwhelmed with grief and shame. But here there was no safety ; the conqueror pushed on every side, and Pompey disguised himself and fled to the sea-coast, whence he passed to Egypt, where he hoped to find a safe asylum till better and more favorable moments returned, in the court of Ptolemy , a prince whom he had once protected and ensured on his throne. POR 414 POR When Ptolemy was told that Pompey claimed his protection, he consulted his ministers, and had the baseness to betray and to deceive him. A boat was sent to fetch him on shore and the Roman general left his galley after an affection- ate and tender parting with his wife Cornelia. The Egyptian sailors sat in sullen silence in the boat ; and when Pompe}' disembarked Achil- las and Septimius assassinated him. His wife, who had followed him with her eyes to the shore, was a spectator of the bloody scene ; and she hastened away from the bay of Alexandria, not to share his miserable fate. He died 13. C. 48, in the 53th or 59th year of his age, the day after his birth-day. PONDICHERRY, a city on the sea-coast of the south of India, since 1672 capital of a French colony, and contains 40,000 inhabitants. Inef- fectually besieged by the British, under Admi- ral Boscawen, in 1748. In 1761 it was taken, after a tedious siege and blockade, by the army under Colonel Coote, when 2000 Europeans were made prisoners, and 500 pieces of cannon and 100 mortars taken. In 1763 it was restored to the French; in October, 1778, it surrendered to the British, under Sir H. Monro; but was again restored in 1783. PONTUS, an ancient kingdom of Asia Mi- nor. This country came into subjection to Crcesus, king of Lydia, about 560 B. C, and underwent the revolutions of the Lydian and Persian empires till about 300 B. C, when it became independent of the Macedonians under Mithridates II. It grew very considerable un- der Mithridates VII, who extended his empire overall Asia Minor; but could not retain his conquests, being defeated successively by Sylla, Tiucullus, and Pompey ; and, after many dread- ful defeats, this country was disposed of by the Romans on his death in 64 B. C. Upon the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Alexius Comnenus established at Trebisond, in this country, a new empire of the Greeks, which continued till Mohammed II put an end to it in 1459. POPE, Alexander, a celebrated English poet, born in London, May 22, 1688. His application and talent for versification were manifested at an early age; his Pastorals being written at the age of 16. His translation of Homer's Iliad, his Epistle from Elo'isa to Abelard, the essay on Man, and the Dunciad, are well known to every English scholar. He died May 30, 1744. His temper was soured by his bodily infirmities which were numerous. PORSENNA, or Porsena, a king of Etruria, who declared war against the Romans because they refused to restore Tarquin to his throne, and to his royal privileges. He w r as at first successful, the Romans were defeated, and Por- senna w T ould have entered the gates of Rome, had not Codes stood at the head of a bridge, and supported the fury of the whole Etrurian army, while his companions behind were cutting off the communication with the opposite shore This act of bravery astonished Porsenna ; but when he had seen Mutius Scsevola enter his camp with an intention to murder him, and when he had seen him burn his hand without emotion, to convince him of his fortitude and intrepidity, he no longer dared to make head against a people so brave and so generous. He made a peace with the Romans, and never after supported the claims of Tarquin. The gene- rosity of Porsenna's behavior to the captives was admired by the Romans, and to reward his humanity they raised a brazen statue to his honor. PORTUGAL; a kingdom of Europe, bound- ed N. and E. by Spain, S. and W. by the At- lantic ocean. Population in 1826, 3,530,000. Anciently Lusitania, it was successively sub- ject to the Suevi, the Goths and the Moors. About the beginning of the twelfth century, it regained its liberty by the valor of Henry of Lorraine, grandson of the French monarch, who possessed it with the title of count. His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained a deci- sive victory over five Moorish kings, was pro- claimed king by the soldiers. On the death of Ferdinand, in 1383, the states gave the crown to his natural brother John, surnamed the Bas- tard, who was equally politic and enterprising, and in whose reign the Portuguese first projected discoveries in the western ocean. In the reign of his great-grandson, John II, who was a prince of profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made conquests in the interior of Africa, and discovered the Cape of Good Hope. Emanuel adopted the plan of his predecessors, and sent out a fleet; which, ranging through unknown sens, arrived at the city of Calicut, on the coast of Malabar ; while others of his vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501. These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery, which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voyage of Co- lumbus, and the discovery of America. They also established valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive empire in India. John III, the son of Emanuel, admitted the PRE 415 PRU new-founded order of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism and superstition. Sebastian his grandson, heroically led an army against the Moors in Africa, where he perished in battle. Sebastian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Hen- ry, who also dying without children, Philip, king of Spain, obtained the crown, A. D. 1580. In 1604, Portugal rendered itself independent of Spain ; and John, duke of Braganza, ascended the throne, by the title of John IV. His son, Alphonso VI, was deposed on account of his cruelties ; and the sceptre was transferred to his brother. Peter II reigned peaceably thirty years; and, under the mild government of his son, John V, the arts began to flourish. In the reign of Joseph I, in 1755, the city of Lisbon was laid in ruins by an earthquake, in which 10,000 persons lost their lives. He was suc- ceeded by his daughter, Mary Frances Isabella ; who for many years was so infirm in body and mind, that the affairs of the kingdom were managed by a regency. In 1807, the Prince Regent retired with the queen, his mother, and the rest of the royal family, to the Brazils, in South America. Rio de Janeiro then became the seat of the Portuguese government. Por- tugal was, however, wrested by the English out of the hands of the French in 1808. The strug- gle between Dom Pedro, and his brother Dom Miguel has ended in Portugal. Dom Pedro, having secured the crown to his daughter Don- na Maria la Gloria, expired in the midst of tri- umph. PRAGA, a town of Poland, taken by storm by General Suwarrow, in 1794, when it was plundered, set on fire, and the inhabitants and the troops of the Polish insurgents who had taken refuge there, together amounting to 20,000, were barbarously massacred. PREBLE, Edward, a celebrated American naval officer, was born in the part of Fal- mouth now called Portland, Maine, Aug. 15, 1761. In 1779 he obtained a midshipman's warrant on board the Protector, a state ship of 26 guns, which was captured by the English. Preble, however, was released at New York and returned home. When first lieutenant of the Winthrop sloop of war, he displayed great fallantry in cutting out a hostile brig of war in enobscot harbor. After performing various services, in 1803 he was invested with the command of the Constitution, and being sta- tioned in the Mediterranean, he not only pre- vented a war between Morocco and the United States, but bombarded Tripoli, and brought the bashaw to terms. For this service he received the thanks of Congress, and an emblematical medal. He died Aug. 25, 1807, in the 47th year of his age. PRESCOTT, William, one of the heroes of the American revolution, was born at Goshen, in Massachusetts, in 1726. He was a lieutenant in the continental forces at the taking of Cape Breton, in 1758, and greatly distinguished him- self on that occasion. He commanded at the battle of Bunker Hill, and was the last to leave the entrenchments. He resigned his colonel's commission in 1777, but was present at the cap- ture of Burgoyne as a volunteer under Gates. He died in 1795. PRESTON-PANS, a Scotch village 8 miles E. of Edinburgh, memorable for the defeat of the royalists by the troops of the Pretender in 1745. PRUSSIA, the smallest of the great powers of Europe, contains 13,726,833 inhabitants, and 106,852 square miles. It is generally a level country, Silesia alone being much broken. The productions are grain, flax, hemp, &c. Nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants, the remainder Catholics. Prussia contains many universities of high repute, and in few coun- tries are the seeds of knowledge so general- ly disseminated. This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it Borussia : which has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered by the knights of the Teutonic order ; whom Cassimer IV, king of Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves his vassals ; and to allow Polish Prussia to con- tinue under the protection of Poland. Albert, Margrave of Brandenburgh, and grand master of the order, had the dukedom of Prus- sia conferred on him, by Sigismund I, king of Poland, A. D. 1525. Frederick William, elector of Brandenburgh, surnamed the Great, was freed from paying any homage to the crown of Poland. His son Frederick, raised the duchy of Prus- sia to a kingdom, A. D. 1701. His son, Frederick William, was a wise and politic prince, who amassed a prodigious treas- ure, though he maintained an army of 60,000 men. He was succeeded by his son Frederick II, who was one of the first military, political, and literary characters, that ever filled a throne ; but very despotic in the administration of his gov- ernment. His reign was pregnant with striking histo- rical events. In 1744, he added Silesia to his PTO 416 PTO dominions ; but in 1756, Russia, Austria, and France, leagued against him ; and he main- tained against them the famous seven years' war. He was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William III, a weak and an impolitic prince; he joined in the league against the French re- public, and then deserted his allies. Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by Frederick William IV, who unhappily revived some obso- lete pretensions to Hanover, in 1805; and, on Napoleon proposing to restore that electorate to the king of England, in 1806, Frederick took the field ; but being totally defeated at Jena, his kingdom was conquered by Napoleon. His ally, the Emperor of Russia, came too late to his assistance ; and being himself over- thrown at Friedland, was forced to conclude a treaty at Tilsit, in 1807 ; by which the fortresses of Prussia were left in the hands of the French, till a peace with England. The French have since been expelled, and Prussia, in conjunc- tion with the other powers of Europe, twice assisted in deposing Napoleon, and has recover- ed the conquered provinces. PTOLEMY I, surnamed Lagus, a king of Egypt, son of Arsinoe. When Alexander in- vaded Asia, the son of Arsinoe attended him as one of his generals. During the expedition, he behaved with uncommon valor, and killed one of the Indian monarchs in single combat. After the conqueror's death, in the general division of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy obtained, as his share, the government of Egypt, with Libya, and part of the neighboring territories of Arabia. He made himself master of Ccelosyria, Phoenicia, and the neighboring coast of Syria ; and when he had reduced Jerusalem, he carried about 100,000 prisoners to Egypt, to people the extensive city of Alexandria, which became the capital of his dominions. He made war with success against Demetrius and Antigonus, who disputed his right to the provinces of Sy- ria. The bay of Alexandria being dangerous of access, he built a tower to conduct the sailors in the obscurity of the night; and that his subjects might be acquainted with literature, he laid the foundation of a library, which, under the suc- ceeding reigns, became the most celebrated in the world. He also established in the capital of his dominions, a society, called Museum, of which the members, maintained at the public expense, were employed in philosophical re- searches, and in the advancement of science and the liberal arts. Ptolemy died in the 84th year of his age, after a reign of 39 years, about 284 years before Christ. The second son of Ptolemy I succeeded his father on the Egyptian throne, and was called Philadelphus by antiphrasis, because he killed two of his brothers. While Ptolemy strength- ened himself by alliances with foreign powers, the internal peace of his kingdom was disturb- ed by the revolt of Magas, his brother, king of Cyrene. The sedition, however, was stopped, though kindled by Antiochus, king of Syria; and the death of the rebellious prince re-estab- lished peace for some time in the family of Phil- adelphus. Philadelphus died in the 64th year of his age, 246 years before the Christian era. During the whole of his reign, Philadelphus was employed in exciting industry, and in encouraging the liberal arts and useful know- ledge among his subjects. The inhabitants of the adjacent countries were allured by promises and presents, to increase the number of the Egyptian subjects ; and Ptolemy could boast of reigning over 33,339 well-peopled cities. He gave every possible encouragement to com- merce; and by keeping two powerful fleets, one in the Mediterranean, and the other in the Red Sea, he made Egypt the mart of the world. His army consisted of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, besides 300 elephants, and 2000 armed chariots. His palace was the asylum of learn- ed men, whom he admired and patronised. He increased the library which his father had found- ed, and showed his taste for learning, and his wish to encourage genius. This celebrated library, at his death, contained 200,000 volumes of the best and choicest books ; and it was after- wards increased to 700,000. Part of it was burnt by the flames of Caesar's fleet, when he set it on fire to save himself; a circumstance, however, not mentioned by the general : and the whole was again magnificently repaired by Cleopatra, who added to the Egyptian library that of the kings of Pergamus. It is said that the Old Testament was translated into Greek during his reign ; a translation which has been called Septuagint, because translated by the labors of 70 different persons. The third, succeeded his father Philadelphus on the Egyptian throne. He early engaged in a war against Antiochus Theus, for his unkind- ness to Berenice, the Egyptian king's sister, whom he had married with the consent of Phil- adelphus. With the most rapid success he con- quered Syria and Cilicia, and advanced as far as the Tigris; but a sedition at home stopped his progress, and he returned to Egypt loaded PTO 417 PTO with the spoils of conquered nations. The last years of Ptolemy's reign were passed in peace, if we except the refusal of the Jews to pay the tribute of 20 silver talents, which their ances- tors had always paid to the Egyptian monarchs. Evergetes (as he was called by the Egyptians) died 221 years before Christ, after a reign of 25 years : and like his two illustrious predeces- sors, he was the patron of learning, and, indeed, he is the last of the Lagides who gained popu- larity among his subjects by clemency, moder- ation, and humanity, and who commanded re- spect even from his enemies, by valor, pru- dence and reputation. The fourth succeeded his father Evergetes on the throne of Egypt, and received the surname of Philopater by antiphrasis ; because, according to some historians, he destroyed his father by poison. He began his reign with acts of the greatest cruelty and debauchery. In the midst of his pleasures, Philopater was called to war against Antiochus, king of Syria ; and at the head of a powerful army, he soon invaded his enemy's territories, and might have added the kingdom of Syria to Egypt, if he had made a prudent use of the victories which attended his arms. In the latter part of his reign, the Ro- mans, whom a dangerous war with Carthage had weakened, but at the same time roused to superior activity, renewed, for political reasons, the treaty of alliance which had been made with the Egyptian monarchs. Philopater at last, weakened and enervated by intemperance and continual debauchery, died in the 37th year of his age, after a reign of 17 years, 204 years before the Christian era. The fifth succeeded his father Philopater, as king of Egypt, though only in the fourth year of his age. The Romans renewed their alliance with him after their victories over Annibal, and the conclusion of the second Punic war. When Ptolemy had reached his 14th year, according to the laws and customs of Egypt, the years of his minority had expired. He received the surname of Epiphanes, or Illustrious, and was crowned at Alexandria, with the greatest so- lemnity. Young Ptolemy was no sooner deliv- ered from the shackles of his guardian, than he betrayed the same vices which had character- ized his father. His cruelties raised seditions among his subjects ; but these were twice quel- led by the prudence and the moderation of one Polycrates, the most faithful of his corrupt min- isters. In the midst of his extravagance, Epiphanes did not forget his alliance with the Romans ; 8 27 above all others, he showed himself eager to cultivate friendship with a nation, from whom he could derive so many advantages ; and dur- ing their war against Antiochus, he offered to assist them with money against a monarch, whose daughter, Cleopatra, he had married, but whom he hated on account of the seditions he raised in the very heart of Egypt. After a reign of 24 years, 180 years before Christ, Ptolemy was poisoned by his ministers, whom he had threatened to rob of their possessions, to carry on a war against Seleucus, king of Syria. The sixth succeeded his father Epiphanes on the Egj'ptian throne, and received the surname of Philometer, on account of his hatred against his mother Cleopatra. He made war against Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, to re- cover the provinces of Palestine and Ccelosy- ria, which were part of the Egyptian domin- ions ; and after several successes, he fell into the hands of his enemy, who detained him in confinement. During the captivity of Philo- meter, the Egyptians raised to the throne his younger brother, Ptolemy Evergetes, or Phys- con, also son of Epiphanes; but he was no sooner established in his power, than Antio- chus turned his arms against Egypt, drove out the usurper, and restored Philometer to all his rights and privileges as king of Egypt. This artful behavior of Antiochus was soon compre- hended by Philometer ; and when he saw that Pelusium, the key of Egypt, had remained in the hands of his Syrian ally, he recalled his bro- ther Physcon, and made him partner on the throne, and concerted with him how to repel their common enemy. This union of interest in the two royal brothers, incensed Antiochus; he entered Egypt with a large army, but the Ro- mans checked his progress, and obliged him to retire. No sooner were they delivered from the impending war, than Philometer and Physcon, whom the fear of danger had united, began with mutual jealousy to oppose each other's views. Physcon was, at last, banished by the superior power of his brother ; and as he could find no support in Egypt, he immediately repaired to Rome. To excite more effectually the compas- sion of the Romans, and to gain their assist- ance, he appeared in the meanest dress, and took his residence in the most obscure corner of the city. He received an audience from the senate ; and the Romans settled the dispute be- tween the two royal brothers, by making them independent of one another, and giving the government of Libya and Cyrene to Physcon, and confirming Philometer in the possession of PTO 418 PTO Egypt, and the island of Cyprus. The death of Philometer, 145 years before the Christian era, left Physcon master of Egypt, and all the de- pendent provinces. The seventh Ptolemy, surnamed Physcon, as- cended the throne of Egypt after the death of his brother Philometer ; and as he had reigned for some time conjointly with him, his succes- sion was approved, though the wife and the son of the deceased monarch laid claim to the crown. He ordered himself to be called Ever- getes, but the Alexandrians refused to do it, and stigmatized him with the appellation of Kaker- getes, or evil-doer, a surname which he deserv- ed by his tyranny and oppression. A series of barbarities rendered him odious ; but as no one attempted to rid Egypt of her tyranny, the Alexandrians abandoned their habitations, and fled from a place which continually streamed with the blood of their massacred fellow citi- zens. Physcon endeavoured to re-people the city which his cruelty had laid desolate ; but the fear of sharing the fate of the former in- habitants, prevailed more than the promise of riches, rights, and immunities. He died at Alexandria in the 67th year of his age, after a reign of 2d years, about 116 years before Christ. The eighth, surnamed Lathyrus, from an ex- crescence, like a pea, on the nose, succeeded his father Physcon as king of Egypt. He had no sooner ascended the throne, than his mother Cleopatra, who reigned conjointly with hiin, ex- pelled him, and placed the crown on the head of his brother, Ptolemy Alexander, her favorite son. Lathyrus, after he had exercised the great- est cruelty upon the Jews, by his conquest of Judaea, and made vain attempts to recover the kingdom of Egypt, retired to Cyprus till the death of his brother Alexander restored him to his native dominions. In the latter part of his reign, Lathyrus was called upon to assist the Romans with a navy for the conquest of Athens ; but Lucullus, who had been sent to obtain the wanted supply, though received with kingly honors, was dismissed with evasive and unsat- isfactory answers, and the monarch refused to part with troops which he deemed necessary to preserve the peace of his kingdom. Lathyrus died 81 years before the Christian era, after a reign of 36 years, since the death of his father Physcon ; 11 of which he had passed with his mother Cleopatra on the Egyptian throne, 18 in Cyprus, and seven after his mother's death. The 12th, the illegitimate son of Lathyrus, ascended the throne of Egypt at the death of Alexander III. He received the surname of Auletes, because he played skilfully on the flute. His rise showed great marks of prudence and circumspection ; and as his predecessor, by his will, had left the kingdom of Egypt to the Ro- mans, Auletes knew that he could not be firmly established on his throne, without the approba- tion of the Roman senate ; and when he had suffered the Romans quietly to take possession of Cyprus, the Egyptians revolted, and Auletes was obliged to fly from his kingdom, and seek protection among the most powerful of his allies. The senators of Rome decreed to re-establish Auletes on his throne ; and he was no sooner restored to power, than he sacrificed to his am- bition his daughter Berenice, and behaved with the greatest ingratitude and perfidy to Rabi- rius, a Roman who had supplied him with money when expelled from his kingdom. Au- letes died four years after his restoration, about 51 years before the Christian era. The 13th, surnamed Dionrjs'ms, or Bacchus, ascended the throne of Egypt conjointly with his sister Cleopatra, whom he had married, ac- cording to the directions of his father Auletes. He was in the 13th year of his age, when his guardian, Pompey, after the fatal battle of Phar- salia, came to the shores of Egypt, and claimed his protection. He refused to grant the requir- ed assistance; and by the advice of his minis- ters, he basely murdered Pompey, after he had brought him to shore under the mask of friend- ship and cordiality. To obtain the favor of the conqueror of Pharsalia, Ptolemy cut off the head of Pompey ; but Caesar turned with indig- nation from such perfidy, and when he arrived at Alexandria, he found the King of Egypt as faithless to his cause as to that of his fallen enemy. Caesar sat as judge to hear the various claims of the brother and sister, to the throne; and to satisfy the people, he ordered the will of Auletes to be read, and confirmed Ptolemy and Cleopatra in the possession of Egypt, and ap- pointed the two younger children masters of the island of Cyprus. This fair and candid de- cision might have left no room for dissatisfac- tion ; but Ptolemy refused to acknowledge Cae- sar as a judge or a mediator. The Roman en- forced his authority by arms, and three victo- ries were obtained over the Egyptian forces. Ptolemy, who had been for some time a prisoner in the hands of Caesar, now headed his armies ; but a defeat was fatal, and as he attempted to save his life by flight, he was drowned in the Nile, about 46 years before Christ, and three years and eight months after the death of Au- letes. PUN 419 PUN PUEBLA LA, or La Puebla de los Angeles, a state of the Mexican confederacy, containing 20,000 square miles, and 813,300 inhabitants. It anciently comprised the Indian republic of Tlascala, which the Spaniards, on their arrival in the country, found in a flourishing condition. PULAWSKI, Count Joseph, a noble-minded Pole, who having been banished from his na- tive land, entered the service of the United States, and fell in the attack on Savannah, Oct. 9 1779. ' PULTAWA or POLTAWA, a fortified town of Russia, 450 miles S. W. of Moscow, with 9,000 inhabitants, before which Peter the Great defeated Charles 12th of Sweden, June 27, 1709. Charles, who had been wounded in a former engagement, was much indisposed. The litter in which he caused himself to be carried was twice overturned, and the second time broken by the enemy's cannon. After an obstinate and bloody engagement, the Swedish army was en- tirely routed and dispersed; 9,000 of the van- quished were left dead on the field of battle, and a great number surrendered themselves prison- ers of war. Charles, with 300 of his guards, escaped with difficulty to Bender, a Turkish town in Moldavia. PULTENEY, William, earl of Bath, was born of an ancient family, in 1682. After trav- elling through Europe, he was elected into par- liament, and became distinguished as a zealous whig. On the accession of George I he was appointed a privy-councillor, and secretary at war, being then the friend of Sir Robert Wal- pole ; but afterwards a difference arose be- tween them, and Pulteney became the leader of opposition. He also joined Bolingbroke in conducting a paper called "The Craftsman," the object of which was to annoy the minister. This produced a duel between Pulteney and Lord Iiervey ; and the king was so much dis- pleased with the conduct of the former, that he struck his name out of the list of privy coun- cillors, and also from the commission of the peace. On the resignation of Walpole, in 1741, Pulteney was created Earl of Bath ; but from that time his popularity ceased. He died June 8, 1764. PUNIC WAR. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, B. C. 264. Sicily, an island of the highestcon- gequence to the Carthaginians as a commercial nation, was the seat of the first dissensions. The Mamertini, a body of Italian mercenaries, were appointed by the king of Syracuse to guard the town of Messana ; but this tumultuous tribe, in- stead of protecting the citizens, basely massa- cred them, and seized their possessions. This act of cruelty raised the indignation of all the Sicilians, and Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had employed them, prepared to punish their per- fidy ; and the Mamertini, besieged in Messana, and without friends or resources, resolved to throw themselves for protection into the hands of the first power that could relieve them. They were, however, divided in their sentiments, and while some implored the assistance of Carthage, others called upon the Romans for protection. Without hesitation or delay, the Carthaginians entered Messana, and the Romans also hastened to give to the Mamertini that aid which had been claimed from them with as much eagerness as from the Carthaginians. At the approach of the Roman troops, the Mamertini, who had implored their assistance, took up arms, and forced the Carthaginians to evacuate Messana. From a private quarrel the war became general. The Romans obtained a victory in Sicily, but as their enemies were masters at sea, the advan- tages which they gained were small and incon- siderable. Duilius at last obtained a naval vic- tory, and he was the first Roman who ever re- ceived a triumph after a battle by sea. The losses which they had already sustained induc- ed the Carthaginians to sue for peace, and the Romans, whom an unsuccessful descent upon Africa, under Regulus, had rendered diffident, listened to the proposal, and the first Punic war was concluded B. C. 241, on the following terms : — The Carthaginians pledged themselves to pay to the Romans, within 20 years, the sum of 3,000 Euboic talents ; they promised to re- lease all the Roman captives without ransom, to evacuate Sicily, and the other islands of the Mediterranean, and not to molest Hiero, king of Syracuse, or his allies. The Romans, to stop the progress of the Carthaginians towards Italy, made stipulations with them, by which they were not permitted to cross the Iberus, or to molest the cities of their allies the Saguntines. When Hannibal succeeded to the command of the Carthaginian armies in Spain, he spurned the boundaries which the jealousy of Rome had set to his arms, and he immediately formed the siege of Saguntum. The Romans were ap- prised of the hostilities which had been begun against their allies, but Saguntum was in the hands of the active enemy before they had taken any steps to oppose him. Without delay, B. C.218, Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse, towards Italy, re- solved to carry on the war to the gates of Rome. PUN 420 PUN The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, threw Rome into the greatest apprehensions, but the prudence and dilatory measures of the dictator Fabius, soon taught them to hope for better times. Yet the conduct of Fabius was universally censured as coward- ice, and the two consuls who succeeded him in the command, pursuing a different plan of oper- ations, brought on a decisive action at Cannfe, in which 45,000 Romans were left on the field of battle. This bloody victory caused so much consternation at Rome, that some authors have declared that if Hannibal had immediately marched from the plains of Cannre to the city, he would have met with no resistance, but could have terminated a long and dangerous war with glory to himself, and the most inesti- mable advantages to his country. The news of this victory was carried to Carthage by Mago, and the Carthaginians refused to believe it till three bushels of golden rings were spread be- fore themj which had been taken from the Ro- man knights in the field of battle. Affairs now took a different turn, and Marcellus, who had the command of the Roman legions in Italy, soon taught his countrymen that Hannibal was not invincible in the field. In different parts of the world the Romans were .making very rapid conquests. Hannibal no longer appeared formid- able in Italy ; if he conquered towns in Campa- nia or Magna Gra?cia, he remained master of them only while his army hovered in the neigh- borhood, and if he marched towards Rome the alarm he occasioned was but momentary, the Romans were prepared to oppose him, and his re- treat was therefore the more dishonorable. The conquests of young Scipio in Spain had now rais- ed the expectations of the Romans, and he had no sooner returned to Rome than he proposed to remove Hannibal from the capital of Italy by carrying the war to the gates of Carthage. This was a bold and hazardous enterprise, but though Fabius opposed it, it was universally approved by the Roman senate, and young Scipio was empowered to sail to Africa. The conquests of the young Roman were as rapid in Africa as in Spain, and the Carthaginians, apprehensive for the fate of their capital, recalled Hannibal from Italy. Hannibal received their orders with in- dignation, and with tears in his eyes he left Italy, where for sixteen years he had known no superior in the field of battle. At his arrival in Africa, the Carthaginian general soon collected a large army, and met his exulting adversary in the plains of Zama. The battle was long and bloody, and though one nation fought for glory, and the other for the dearer sake of lib- erty, the Romans obtained the victory, and Han- nibal, who had sworn eternal enmity to the gods of Rome, fled from Carthage after he had ad- vised his countrymen to accept the terms of the conqueror. This battle of Zama was decisive, the Carthaginians sued for peace, which the haughty conquerors granted with difficulty. During the 50 years which followed the con- clusion of the second Punic war, the Carthagi- nians were employed in repairing their losses by unwearied application and industry ; but they found still in the Romans a jealous rival and a haughty conqueror, and in Masinissa, the ally of Rome, an intriguing and ambitious mon- arch. The king of Numidiamade himself mas- ter of one of their provinces ; but as they were unable to make war without the consent of Rome, the Carthaginians sought relief by em- bassies, and made continual complaints in the Roman senate of the tyranny and oppression of Masinissa. Commissioners were appointed to examine the cause of their complaints ; but as Masinissa was the ally of Rome, the interest of the Carthaginians was neglected, and whatever seemed to depress their republic, was agreeable to the Romans. Cato, who was in the number of the commissioners, examined the capital of Africa with a jealous eye ; he saw it with con- cern, rising as it were from its ruins ; and when he returned to Rome, he declared in full senate, that the peace of Italy would never be estab- lished while Carthage was in being. The sen- ators, however, were not guided by his opinion, and the delenda est Carthago of Cato did not pre- vent the Romans from acting with moderation. But while the senate were debating about the existence of Carthage, and while they consid- ered it a dependent power, and not as an ally, the wrongs of Africa were without redress, and Masinissa continued his depredations. Upon this the Carthaginians resolved to do their cause that justice which the Romans had denied them ; they entered the field against the Numidians, but they were defeated in a bloody battle by Masinissa, who was then 90 years old. In this bold measure they had broken the peace ; and as their late defeat had rendered them despe- rate, they hastened with all possible speed to the capital of Italy to justify their proceedings, and to implore the forgiveness of the Roman sen- ate. The news of Masinissa's victory had al- ready reached Italy, and immediately some forces were sent to Sicily, and from thence or- dered to pass into Africa. The ambassadors of Carthage received evasive and unsatisfactory PUN 421 PUT answers from the senate ; and when they saw the Romans landed at Utica, they resolved to purchase peace by the most submissive terms which even the most abject slaves could offer. The Romans acted with the deepest policy : no declaration of war had been made, though hostilities appeared inevitable ; and in answer to the submissive offers of Carthage the con- suls replied, that to prevent every cause of quar- rel, the Carthaginians must deliver into their hands 300 hostages, all children of senators, and of the most noble and respectable families. The demand was great and alarming, but was no sooner granted, than the Romans made ano- ther demand, and the Carthaginians were told that peace could not continue, if they refused to deliver up all their ships, their arms, engines of war, with all their naval and military stores. The Carthaginians complied, and immediately 40,000 suits of armor, 20,000 large engines of war, with a plentiful store of ammunition and missile weapons were surrendered. After this duplicity had succeeded, the Romans laid open the final resolutions of the senate, and the Car- thaginians were then told that, to avoid hostil- ities, they must leave their ancient habitations and retire into the inland parts of Africa, and found another city, at the distance of not less than ten miles from the sea. This was heard with horror and indignation ; the Romans were fixed and inexorable, and Carthage was filled with tears and lamentations. But the spirit of liberty and independence was not yet extin- guished in the capital of Africa, and the Cartha- ginians determined to sacrifice their lives for the protection of their gods, the tombs of their forefathers, and the place which had given them birth. Before the Roman army approached the city, preparations to support a siege were made, and the ramparts of Carthage were covered with stones, to compensate for the weapons and instruments of war which they had ignorantly betrayed to the duplicity of their enemies. The town was blocked up by the Romans, and a regular siege begun. Two years were spent in useless operations, and Carthage seemed still able to rise from its ruins, to dispute for the empire of the world; when Scipio,the descend- ant of the great Scipio, who finished the second Punic war. was sent to conduct the siege. De- spair and famine now raged in the city, and Scipio gained access to the city walls, where the battlements were low and unguarded. His entrance into the streets was disputed with un- common fury, the houses, as he advanced, were set on fire, to stop his progress; but when a body of 50,000 persons, of either sex, had claim- ed quarter, the rest of the inhabitants were dis- heartened, and such as disdained to be prison- ers of war, perished in the flames, which grad- ually destroyed their habitations, 147 B. C. after a continuation of hostilities for three years. During 17 days Carthage was inflames; and the soldiers were permitted to redeem from the fire whatever possession they could. This re- markable event happened about the year of Rome 606. The news of this victory caused the greatest rejoicings at Rome ; and immedi- ately commissioners were appointed by the Ro- man senate, not only to raze the walls ofLCar- thage, but even to demolish and burn the very materials with which they were made : and in a few days, that city which had been once the seat of commerce, the model of magnificence, the common store of the wealth of nations, and one of the most powerful states of the world, left behind no traces of its splendor, of its power, or even of its existence. PUTNAM, Israel, a distinguished American officer, who served both in the French and Eng- lish wars, was born at Salem, Mass. Jan. 7, 1718. In 1739 he settled at Pomfret, Connecti- cut, where he had purchased a tract of land. Here he descended into a dark cavern, and kill- ed a wolf, which had committed great depreda- tions upon the flocks of the farmers. He en- tered on his first campaign in the war of 1755, being then appointed to command a company, and he received a major's commission in 1757. His services prior to the breaking out of the revolutionary war were various and valuable. The news of this great event found Putnam at the plough. He unyoked his oxen, and set off for the scene of action. Having levied a regi- ment he was appointed major-general, and, on the retreat of the Americans from Bunker Hill, checked the pursuing forces. He was indefati- gable and ardent in the discharge of his duty, and his value was properly appreciated as we see from the important duties which were en- trusted to him. After the battle of Monmouth, he was posted at Reading, Connecticut, with orders to protect the Sound, and the garrison at West Point. On a visit to one of his outposts, attended by only 150 men, he was closely pursued by Governor Tyron, at the head of 1200 royal troops, and escaped by plunging on horseback, down a pre- cipice so steep that foot passengers descended only by an artificial stairway. Putnam com- manded the Maryland line, stationed near West Point, in the campaign of 1779. A paralytic PYR 422 PYR affection seized upon the right side of Putnam during the latter part of his life, but did not impair his cheerfulness and spirit. He died at Brooklyn, Connecticut, May 29, 1790, aged 72 years. PYRRHUS, a king of Epirus, was saved when an infant, by the fidelity of his servants, from the pursuit of the enemies of his father, who had been banished from his kingdom, and he was carried to the court of Glautias, king of Ulyricum, who educated him with great tender- ness. Cassander, king of Macedonia, wished to despatch him, as he had so much to dread from him; but Glautias not only refused to deliver him up into the hands of his enemy, but he even went with an army and placed him on the throne of Epirus, though only twelve years of age. About five years after, the absence of Pyrrhus to attend the nuptials of one of the daughters of Glautias, raised new commotions. The mon- arch was expelled from his throne by Neoptole- mus, who had usurped it after the death of iEacides ; and being still without resources, he applied to his brother-in-law Demetrius for assistance. He accompanied Demetrius at the battle of Ipsus, and afterwards passed into Egypt, where, by his marriage with Antigone the daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a sufficient force to attempt the recovery of his throne. He was successful in the undertaking, but to remove all causes of quarrel, he took the usurper to share with him the royalty, and some time after he put him to death under pretence that he had attempted to poison him. In the subsequent years of his reign, Pyrrhus engaged in the quarrels which disturbed the peace of the Macedonian monarchy ; he marched against Demetrius. By dissimulation he ingra- tiated himself in the minds of his enemy's sub- jects, and when Demetrius labored under a mo- mentary illness, Pyrrhus made an attempt upon the crown of Macedonia, which, if not then successful, soon after rendered him master of the kingdom. This he shared with Lysima- chus for seven months, till the jealousy of the Macedonians, and the ambition of his col- league, obliged him to retire. Pyrrhus was meditating new conquests, when the Tarentines invited him to Italy to assist them against the encroaching power of Rome. He gladly accept- ed the invitation, but his passage across the Adriatic proved nearly fatal, and he reached the shores of Italy, after the loss of the greatest part of his troops in a storm. At his entrance into Tarentum, B. C. 280, he began to reform the manners of the inhabitants, and by introducing the strictest discipline among their troops, to accustom them to bear fatigue and to despise dangers. In the first battle which he fought with the Romans, he obtained the victory, but for this he was more particu- larly indebted to his elephants, whose bulk and uncommon appearance astonished the Romans and terrified their cavalry. The number of the slain was equal on both sides, and the conqueror said that such another victory would totally ruin him. He also sent Cineas, his chief min- ister, to Rome, and though victorious, he sued for peace. These offers of peace were refused. A second battle was fought near Asculum, but the slaughter was so great, and the valor so conspicuous on both sides, that the Romans and their enemies reciprocally claimed the victory as their own. Pyrrhus still continued the war in favor of the Tarentines, when he was invited into Sicily by the inhabitants, who labored under the yoke of Carthage and the cruelty of their own petty tyrants. His fondness for novelty soon determined him to quit Italy ; he left a garrison at Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, where he obtained two victories over the Carthaginians, and took many of their towns. He was for awhile suc- cessful, and formed the project of invading Af- rica; but soon his popularity vanished. He had no sooner arrived at Tarentum than he renewed hostilities with the Romans with great acrimony, but when his army of 80,000 men had been defeated by 20,000 of the enemy, under Curius, he left Italy with precipitation. B. C. 274, ashamed of the enterprise. In Epirus he attacked Antigonus, who was then on the Macedonian throne. He gained some advantages over his enemy, and was at last restored to the throne of Macedonia. He afterwards inarched against Sparta, at the re- quest of Cleonymus, but when all his vigorous operations were insufficient to take the capital of Laconia, he retired to Argos where the treach- ery of Aristeus invited him. The Argives de- sired him to retire, and not to interfere in the affairs of their republic which were confounded by the ambition of two of their nobles. He compiled with their wishes, but in the night he marched his forces into the town, and might have made himself master of the place had he not retarded his progress by entering it with his elephants. The combat that ensued was obstinate and bloody, and the monarch, to fight with more boldness, and to encounter dangers with more QUE 423 RAL facility , exchanged his dress. He was attacked by one of the enemy, but as he was going to run him through in his own defence, the mo- ther of the Argive, who saw her son's danger from the top of a house, threw down a tile, and brought Pyrrhus to the ground. His head was cut off. and carried to Antigonus, who gave his remains a magnificent funeral, and presented his ashes to his son Helenus, 272 years before the Christian era. Q QUEBEC, city ; the capital of Lower Canada, situated on a promontory, on the northwest side of the river St. Lawrence, 180 miles below Montreal, containing about 40,000 inhabitants. ft is divided into two parts, the Upper and Lower Town. The Upper Town is built on a bold precipice of naked rock, rising to the height of 345 feet. Some of the most striking peculi- arities of the place are thus forcibly described by an American author : — " Quebec, for an American city, is certainly a peculiar town : a military town — most com- pactly and permanently built — stone its sole material — environed, as to its important parts, by walls and gates — and defended by numerous heavy cannon — garrisoned by troops, having the arms, the costume, the music, the discipline of Europe — foreign in language, features, and origin, from most of those whom they are sent to defend — founded upon a rock, and its higher parts overlooking a great extent of country — between three and four hundred miles from the ocean — in the midst of a great continent, and yet displaying fleets of foreign merchantmen, in its fine capacious bay, and showing all the bustle of a crowded seaport — its streets narrow, populous, and winding up and down almost mountain declivities — situated in the latitude of the finest parts of Europe — exhibiting in its environs the beauty of a European capital, and yet, in winter, smarting with the cold of Sibe- ria — governed by people of different language and habits from the mass of the population — opposed in religion, and yet leaving that popu- lation without taxes, and in the full enjoyment of every privilege, civil and religious." Its siege and capture in 1759, by Major Gen- eral Wolfe, was fatal both to the English and French commanders. In 1776, General Mont- gomery and Arnold attempted to take Quebec by storm, but Montgomery fell, and Arnold was compelled to retreat. QUERETARO, one of the states of the Mex- ican confederacy, formed in 1824, containing 15,000 square miles, and GO ,000 inhabitants. The climate is temperate and the productions valua- ble. QUINCY, Josiah, junior, was born in Bos- ton, February 23, 1744, and graduated at Har- vard College in 1763, after which he Btudied law, and raised himself to eminence in his profession. Together with John Adams, Mr. Quincy defended the soldiers who fired upon the Bostonians on the 5th of March, and pro- cured the acquittal of all but two, who were punished by a slight branding. In May, 1774, he published his Observations on the Act of Parliament, commonly called the u Boston Port Bill," with Thoughts on Civil Society, and Standing Armies, — a work of great power. In September, 1774, Mr. Quincy sailed for Lon- don, in the hopes of benefitting his country by his patriotic exertions in England. His ser- vices were indeed valuable — but his application completed the prostration of his bodily powers which had been previously sapped by long and hopeless disease. He died on his voyage home, April 20th, 1775. QUITO, recently a part of the republic of Colombia, and formerly attached to New Gra- nada. It now forms the republic of the Equa- tor. The city of the same name has 90.000 inhabitants. R. RAAB, a city of Hungary, where the Aus- trians commanded by the Archduke John, were defeated by the French under Eugene Beau- harnais, viceroy of Italy, June 14th, 1809. RALEIGH, or Ralegh, Sir Walter, was born in Devonshire, in 1552. He served in the Netherlands; and in 1579, accompanied his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on a voy- age to America. On his return, he distin- guished himself against the Irish rebels, and was joined in a commission for the government of Munster. In 1584, he obtained letters patent for discov- ering unknown countries, by virtue of which he took possession of that part of America, which was afterwards called, in honor of Eliza- beth, Virginia. Soon after this he received the honor of knighthood, was elected into parlia- ment for Devonshire, made warden of the Stan- naries, and also rewarded with several grants of land in England and Ireland. In 1588, he bore an active part in the destruc- tion of the Spanish armada ; and the year fol- RAM 424 REE lowing he accompanied the King of Portugal to his dominions, for which the queen gave him a gold chain. In 1592, he commanded an expedition against Panama. Soon after this he fell under the royal displeasure, on account of an amour with the daughter of Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, though Raleigh acted honorably in marrying the lady. In 1595, he engaged in an enterprise for the conquest of Guiana, where he took the city of San Josef. The year following, he dis- played great valor in the expedition against Cadiz ; and he was also appointed to a command in the armament sent out to intercept the Span- ish pi ite fleet, which he would have captured had he not been thwarted by the earl of Essex. The ruin of that unfortunate nobleman was hastened by Raleigh, who little thought that he was thereby preparing the way for his own destruction. On the accession of James, he was deprived of his preferments, and brought to trial at Winchester, for conspiring, with Lord Cobham and others, to place Arabella Stewart on the throne. Raleigh was condemned ; but the sentence was respited, and he lay twelve years in the Tower. In 1616, he was released, and intrusted with a squadron destined against Guiana ; but the enterprise failed, after an attack on the town of St. Thome, where Sir Walter's eldest son was killed. When Raleigh landed in Eng- land, he was arrested, and sent to the Tower, from whence he endeavored to make his escape, but was taken, and received sentence of death, which was carried into execution in Old Palace Yard. Oct. 29, 1618. RAMILLIES, a village of Belgium, twen- ty-six miles southeast of Brussels, celebrated for a victory gained over the French by the duke of Marlborough, May 23, 1706. The vic- tories obtained about this time by the allies in Spain determined Louis to assemble all his forces in Flanders and on the Rhine. Villeroy was sent to check the conquests of the Duke of Marlborough. His army was attacked by Marl- borough near the village of Ramillies with such impetuosity, that the French were scarcely assailed when they were vanquished. The troops of the royal household, however, on the right, forced the Dutch and Danish cavalry to retreat towards the left, and would have com- pletely routed them had not Marlborough hast- ened to their succor. The troops of the ro} - al household were driven back, and their ranks broken. The detachments stationed in the village were either put to death or made pris- oners ; and Villeroi and the elector of Bava- ria escaped with great difficulty. In the tu- multuous disorder of the French troops, the fugitives who were pursued by the enemy's cavalry, were impeded in their retreat by the baggage, and great numbers of them were slain. The field of battle was strewed with 8000 killed, and 6000 were made prisoners. Thus the most formidable army which Louis XIV had raised for a considerable time, as the last effort of his despair, melted away with the glory of the nation, of which it was the sole resource. RANDOLPH, Peyton, president of the first Congress, was born in Virginia, and received his legal education in England. In 1748, hav- ing returned to Virginia, he was appointed king's attorney -general for the colony, although but twenty-five years of age. April 12, 1766, he was chosen speaker of the house of burgesses, and resigned the office of attorney-general. As soon as he joined the first continental congress, he was chosen its president. His patriotic exertions were unfortunately terminated by a stroke of apoplexy, Oct. 21, 1775. RAVAILLAC, a fanatic, who assassinated Henry IV, of France, May 14th, 1610. The king had got into his carriage at four in the afternoon, to pay a visit to his minister Sully. He had been followed eight days by the regi- cide, who had a poinard in his hand, and had not quitted the side of the carriage since its departure from the palace of the Louvre. In the rue de la Ferronnerie, a very narrow street, there was a stoppage which induced the mon- arch to alight from his carriage. While he was stepping out, the assassin stabbed him twice with his poinard ; the second blow was fatal, and the corpse was conveyed to the Lou- vre. Ravaillac was seized, and put to death by the most horrid tortures which cruelty could devise. READ, George, one of the signers of the Dec- laration of Independence, born in Maryland, in the year 1731. In 1753, he was admitted to the bar, although but nineteen years old, and he commenced the practice of the law in the town of Newcastle. Through the revolutionary war he held a seat in Congress, and was a Senator of the United States, after the adoption of the constitution, until 1793, when he was made chief-justice of Delaware. He died suddenly in 1798. REED, Joseph, president of the state of Penn- sylvania, was born in New Jersey, August 27, 1741. He graduated at Princeton College, and studied law. Through part of the revolutionary REF 425 REF war he served with distinction, having the rank of adjutant-general. In 1778, he was elected to Congress. He was now secretly offered £10,000 bj the British agents, if he would exert his abilities to effect a reconciliation with the parent country. His answer deserves com- memoration. " I am not worth purchasing ; but, poor as I am, the king is not rich enough to buy me." In the same year, he was elected president of Pennsylvania; and held the office three years. He first detected and exposed the character of Arnold, whom he brought to trial for mal-practices. President Reed died on the 5th of March, 1784. REFORMATION, that great change in the corrupted system of Christianity, begun by Lu- ther in the year 1517. Leo X, when raised to the papal throne, found the revenues of the church exhausted by the vast projects of his two ambitious predecessors, Alexander VI, and Julius II. His own temper, naturally liberal and enterprising, rendered him incapable of that severe and patient economy which, the situation of his finances required. On the contrary, his schemes for aggrandizing the family of Medici, his love of splendor, his taste for^pleasure, and his magnificence in rewarding men of genius, involved him daily in new expenses ; in order to provide a fund for which, he tried every device that the fertile invention of priests had fallen upon, to drain the credulous multitude of their wealth. Among others, he had recourse to a sale of indulgences. The right of promulgating these indulgences in Germany, together with a share in the pro- fits arising from the sale of them, was granted to Albert, elector of Mentz, and archbishop of Magdeburg, who, as his chief agent for retail- ing them in Saxony, employed Tetzel, a Domi- nician friar of licentious morals, but of an active spirit, and remarkable for his noisy and popular eloquence. He, assisted by the monks of his order, executed the commission with great zeal and success, but with little discretion or de- cency ; and though by magnifying excessively the benefit of their indulgences, and by dispos- ing of them at a very low price, they carried on for some time an extensive and lucrative traffic among the crudulous and the ignorant ; the extravagance of their assertions, as well as the irregularities in their conduct came at last to give general offence. Whilst Luther was at the height of his repu- tation and authority, Tetzel began to publish indulgences in the neighborhood of Wittem- berg, and to ascribe to them the same imaginary virtues which had, in other places, imposed on the credulity of the people. As Saxony was not more enlightened than the other provinces of Germany, Tetzel met with prodigious suc- cess there. It was with the utmost concern that Luther beheld the artifices of those who sold, and the simplicity of those who bought indul- gences. The opinions of Thomas Aquinas and the other schoolmen, on which the doctrine of indulgences was founded, had already lost much of their authority with him; and the Scriptures, which he began to consider as the great stand- ard of theological truth, afforded no counte- nance to a practice equally subversive of faith and of morals. His warm and impetuous tem- per did not suffer him long to conceal such important discoveries, or to continue a silent spectator of the delusion of his countrymen. From the pulpit, in the great church at Wit- temberg, he inveighed bitterly against the irreg- ularities and vices of the monks who published indulgences ; he ventured to examine the doc- trines which they taught, and pointed out to the people the danger of relying for salvation upon any other means than those appointed by God in his word. The boldness and novelty of these opinions drew great attention .; and being recommended by the authority of Luther's per- sonal character, and delivered with a popular and persuasive eloquence, they made a deep impression on his hearers. Encouraged by the favorable reception of his doctrines among the people, he wrote to Albert, elector of Mentz and archbishop of Magdeburg, to whose juris- diction that part of Saxony was subject, and remonstrated warmly against the false opinions, as well as wicked lives, of the preachers of indulgences; but he found that prelate too deeply interested in their success to correct their abuses. His next attempt was to gain the suffrage of men of learning. For this purpose he published ninety-five theses, containing his sentiments with regard to indulgences. These he proposed, not as points fully estab- lished, or of undoubted certainty, but as subjects of inquiry and disputation ; he appointed a day, on which the learned were invited to impugn them, either in person or by writing; to the whole he subjoined solemn protestations of his high respect for the apostolic see, and of his implicit submission to its authority. No oppo- nent appeared at the time fixed ; the theses spread over Germany with astonishing rapidity ; they were read with the greatest eagerness ; and all admired the boldness of the man, who REF 426 REF had ventured not only to call in question the plenitude of papal power, but to attack the Do- minicans, armed with all the terrors of inquisi- torial authority. The friars of St. Augustin, Luther's own order, gave no check to the publication of these uncommon opinions. Luther had, by his piety and learning, acquired extraordinary authority among his brethren : he professed the highest regard for the authority of the pope ; his pro- fessions were at that time sincere ; and as a secret enmity subsists among all the monastic orders of the Romish church, the Augustins were highly pleased with his invectives against the Dominicans, and hoped to see them exposed to the hatred and scorn of the people. His sovereign, the elector of Saxony, the wisest prince at that time in Germany, secretly encouraged his attempts, and flattered himself that this dispute among the ecclesiastics them- selves might give some check to the exactions of the court of Rome, which the secular princes had long, though without success, been endeav- oring to oppose. Several theses appeared in opposition to the ninety-five published by Luther ; and the argu- ments produced for his confutation were the sentiments of schoolmen, the conclusions of the canon law, and the decrees of popes. In the mean time, these novelties in Luther's doc- trines, which interested all Germany, excited little attention and no alarm in the court of Rome. Leo, fond of elegant and refined plea- sures, intent upon great schemes of policy, a stranger to theological controversies, and apt to despise them, regarded with the utmost indif- ference the operations of an obscure friar, who, in the heart of Germany, carried on a scholas- tic disputation in a barbarous style. He impu- ted the whole to monastic enmity and emula- tion, and seemed inclined not to interpose in the contest, but to allow the Augustins and Dominicans to wrangle about the matter with their usual animosity. The solicitations, however, of Luther's adver- saries, together with the surprising progress which his opinions made in different parts of Germany, roused at last the attention of the court of Rome, and obliged Leo to take meas- ures for the security of the church against an attack that now appeared too serious to be despised. For this end he summoned Luther to appear at Rome, within sixty days, before the auditor of the chamber, and the inquisitor-gen- eral, who had written against him, whom he empowered jointly to examine his doctrines, and to decide concerning them. He wrote, at the same time, to the elector of Saxony, be- seeching him not to protect a man whose heret- ical and profane tenets were so shocking to pious ears; and enjoined the provincial of the Augustins to check, by his authority, the rashness of an arrogant monk, which "brought disgrace upon the order of St. Augustin, and gave offence and disturbance to the whole church. The professors in the university of Wittemberg, anxious for Luther's safety, wrote to the pope, and, after employing several pre- texts to excuse Luther from appearing at Rome, entreated Leo to commit the examination of his doctrines to some persons of learning and au- thority in Germany. The elector requested the same thing of the pope's legate at the diet of Augsburg ; and as Luther himself, who at that time did not even entertain the smallest suspi- cion concerning the divine origin of papal au- thority, had written to Leo a submissive letter, promising an unreserved compliance with his will, the pope gratified them so far as to em- power his legate in Germany, cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, eminent for scholastic learning, and passionately devoted to the Roman see, to hear and determine the cause. Luther, having obtained the emperor's safe conduct, immediately repaired to Augsburg. The cardinal required him, by virtue of the apostolic powers with which he was clothed, to retract his errors with regard to indulgences and the nature of faith, and to abstain for the future from the publication of new and danger- ous opinions. Luther, fully persuaded of the truth of his own tenets, and confirmed in the belief of them by the approbation which they had met with among persons conspicuous both for learning and piety, was surprised at this abrupt mention of a recantation, before any endeavors were used to convince him that he was mistaken. He declared with the utmost firmness, that he could not, with a safe con- science, renounce opinions which he believed to be true ; nor should any consideration ever induce him to do what would be so base in itself, and so offensive to God. At the same time, he continued to express no less reverence than formerly for the authority of the apostolic see ; he signified his willingness to submit the whole controversy to certain universities which he named, and promised neither to write nor preach concerning indulgences for the future, provided his adversaries were likewise enjoined to be silent with respect to them. All these offers Cajetan disregarded or rejected, and still REF 427 REF insisted peremptorily, on a simple recantation, threatening him with ecclesiastical censures, and forbidding him to appear again in his pres- ence, unless he resolved instantly to comply with what he had required. The judges before whom Luther had been required to appear at Rome, without waiting for the expiration of the sixty days allowed him in the citation, had already condemned him as an heretic. Leo had, in several of his briefs and letters, stigmatized him as a child of ini- quity, and a man given up to a reprobate sense. As every step which was taken by the court of Rome, convinced Luther that Leo would soon proceed to the most violent measures against him, he had recourse to the only expedient in his power, in order to prevent the effect of the papal censures. He appealed to a general coun- cil, which he affirmed to be the representative of the Catholic church, and superior in power to the pope, who, being a fallible man, might err, as St. Peter, the most perfect of his prede- cessors, had erred. It soon appeared that Luther had not formed rash conjectures concerning the intentions of the church of Rome. A bull of a date prior to his appeal, was issued by the pope, in which he magnified the virtue and efficacy of indul- gences ; he required all Christians to assent to what he delivered as the doctrine of the catho- lic church, and subjected those, who should hold or teach any contrary opinion, to the heaviest ecclesiastical censures. Among Lu- ther's followers, this bull, which they consider- ed as an unjustifiable efFort of the pope in order to preserve that rich branch of his revenue which arose from indulgences, produced little effect. But among the rest of his countrymen, such a clear decision of the sovereign pontiff against him, and enforced by such dreadful penalties, must have been attended with conse- quences very fatal to his cause, if these had not been prevented, in a great measure, by the death of the emperor Maximilian, whom both his principles and his interest prompted to sup- port the authority of the holy see. To this event was owing the suspension of any fur- ther proceedings against Luther for 18 months. Perpetual negotiations, however, in order to bring the matter to some amicable issue, were carried on during that space. The manner in which these were conducted having given Lu- ther many opportunities of observing the cor- ruption of the court of Rome, he began to utter some doubts with regard to the divine original of the papal authority. A public disputation was held upon this important question at Leip- sic, between Luther and Eccius, one of his most learned and formidable antagonists ; but it was fruitless and indecisive. Nor did this spirit of opposition to the doctrines and usurp- ations of the Romish church break out in Sax- ony alone ; an attack no less violent, and occa- sioned by the same causes, was made upon them about this time in Switzerland. The Fran- ciscans being intrusted with the promulgation of indulgences in that country, executed their commission with the same indiscretion, which had rendered the Dominicans so odious in Ger- many. They proceeded nevertheless with un- interrupted success till they arrived at Zurich. There Zuinglius, a man not inferior to Lu- ther in zeal and intrepidity, ventured to oppose them ; and being animated with a republican boldness, he advanced with more daring and rapid steps to overturn the whole fabric of the established religion. The appearance of such a vigorous auxiliary, and the progress which he made, was at first matter of great joy to Luther. On the other hand, the decrees of the universi- ties of Cologne and Louvaine, which pronounc- ed his opinions to be erroneous, afforded great cause of triumph to his adversaries. But the undaunted spirit of Luther acquired additional fortitude from every instance of op- position ; and he began to shake the firmest foundations on which the wealth or power of the church were established. At last, on the 15th of June, 1520, the bull, so fatal to the church of Rome, was issued. Forty-one pro- positions, extracted out of Luther's works, are therein condemned as heretical, scandalous, and offensive to pious ears; all persons are for- bidden to read his writings, upon pain of ex- communication ; such as had any of them in their custody, are commanded to commit them to the flames : he himself, if he did not, w-ithin CO days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books, is pronounced an obstinate heretic ; is excommunicated, and delivered unto Satan for the destruction of his flesh ; and all secular princes are required, under pain of incurring the same censure, to seize his person, that he might be punished as his crimes deserved. This sentence, which he had for some time expected, did not disconcert or intimidate Lu- ther. After renewing his appeal to the general council, he published remarks upon the bull of excommunication ; and being now persuaded that Leo had been guilty both of impiety and injustice in his proceedings against him, he boldly declared the pope to be that man of sin, REF 428 REF or antichrist, whose appearance is foretold in the New Testament ; he declaimed against his tyranny and usurpations with greater violence than ever; he exhorted all Christian princes to shake off such an ignominious yoke ; and boasted of his own happiness in being marked out as the object of ecclesiastical indignation, because he had ventured to assert the liberty of mankind. In the following year he was re- quested to appear before his avowed enemy, the Emperor Charles V, in the diet at Worms, when, unmoved by the apprehensions of his friends, who reminded him of the fate of Huss, he instantly obeyed, and there acknowledged, that his writings had occasionally been violent and acrimonious ; but he refused to retract his opinions, until they should be proved erroneous by the scriptures. An edict, pronouncing him an excommuni- cated criminal, and commanding the seizure of his person as soon as the duration of the safe conduct which he had obtained should have ex- pired, was immediately promulgated. Freder- ick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who had all along countenanced him without professing his doctrines, now withdrew him from the storm. As Luther was returning from Worms, a troop of horsemen, in masks, rushed from a wood, seized him, and conveyed him to the castle of Wartburg, where he was concealed nine months, encouraging his adherents by his pen, and cheered in return by accounts of the rapid diffusion of his doctrines. John, the successor of Frederick, took a decisive step, and establish- ed the reformed religion in 1527 throughout his dominions. In a diet at Spires, held about the same time, the execution of the edict of Worms against the Lutherans, now too formid- able to be oppressed with impunity, was sus- pended until the convocation of a general coun- cil, to remedy the disorders of the church. But in another diet held at the same place, in 1529, the suspension was revoked by a decree obtain- ed through the influence of Charles ; who then found himself at more leisure to push forward his views against the supporters of" the reform- ation. Against this new decree, six princes, and the deputies of thirteen imperial cities and towns, solemnly protested ; and from this the appellation of Protestants became common to all who embraced the reformed religion. At the diet of Augsburg, in Swabia, the following year, a clear statement of the reformed faith, drawn up by Luther and Melancthon, was pre- sented to Charles and the diet, on behalf of the Protestant members of the empire ; and hence it obtained the name of " the Confession of Augsburg." This confession was received as the standard of the Protestant faith in Germany. The same or next year, the Protestant princes made the famous league of Smalkalde, for the mutual defence of their religion, which obliged the emperor to grant the Protestant Luther- ans a toleration, till the differences in religion should be settled in a council, which he engaged himself to call in six months. The Protestant party gaining strength every day, instead of being viewed only as a religious sect, as hither- to, soon came to be considered as a political body of no small consequence ; and having re- fused the bull for convening a council at Man tua, Charles summoned a general diet at Ratis- bon, where a scheme of religion, for reconcil- ing the two parties, was examined and proposed, but without effect. At length, in 1545, the famous council of Trent was opened for accommodating the dif- ferences in religion; but the Protestants refused to attend or obey a council convoked in the name, and by the authority, of the pope, and governed by his legates. The following year Luther died, but the work of reformation w r hich he had begun did not die with him ; for though Charles, having concluded a treaty with the pope for the destruction of the reformed reli- gion and its adherents, assembled troops on all sides, and was at first successful in the field, yet on the appearance of Maurice, elector of Saxony, in arms against him, with a force which he was wholly unprepared to resist, he was checked in his career, and the consequences were, the " religious peace," concluded at Pas- sau, in Bavaria, in 1552, and the complete security of religious freedom to the Protestant states in Germany, which they have enjoyed ever since. During the course of these events the reformed opinions were extending their in- fluence in various other countries. Before this time, they were completely adopted in Sweden, and had likewise obtained perfect toleration in Denmark, where they were adopted soon after as the doctrines of the national church. They were, also, daily gaining converts in other king- doms of Europe. They acquired many friends even in Italy. They privately diffused them- selves in Spain, notwithstanding the crowded dungeons and busy flames of the Inquisition. In France they had still more ample success, where their abettors have long been contempt- uously termed Huguenots. This appellation was given to the Protestants in France in 15G0, and is supposed by some to be derived from a REG 429 REV gate in Tours called Huguon, where they first assembled. According to others, the name is taken from the first words of their original pro- test, or confession of faith, Hue nos venimus, &c. At Geneva, they were firmly established by Calvin ; but their principal triumph was in Great Britain, where the papal power and juris- diction were abolished by parliament, the king was declared supreme head of the church, and all the authority of which the popes were de- prived was vested in him. In England, that vast fabric of ecclesiastical dominion, which had been raised with such art, and of which the foundations seemed to have been laid so deep, being no longer supported by the veneration of the people, was overturned in a moment. In the reign of Edward VI, a total separation was made from the church of Rome in articles of doctrine, as well as in matters of discipline and jurisdiction. The Roman Catholics themselves are ready to admit, that the papal doctrines and authority would soon have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world, in consequence of the opposition made to them by Luther and his adherents, had not the force of the secular arm, and the fire of the Inquisition, been employed to support the tottering edifice. In the Netherlands par- ticularly, the most grievous persecutions took place ; so that, by the Emperor Charles V, up- wards of 100,000 were destroyed, whilst still greater cruelties were exercised upon the peo- ple there by his son, Philip II. The formida- ble ministers of the Inquisition put so many to death, and perpetrated such horrid acts of cru- elty and oppression in Italy, &c, that most of the reformed consulted their safety by a volun- tary exile, while others returned to the religion of Rome, at least in external appearance. In France, too, the Huguenots were persecuted with unparalleled fury ; and, though many princes of the blood, and of the first nobility, had embraced their sentiments, yet in no part of the world did the reformers suffer more. REGULUS, M. Attillius, a consul during the first Punic war. He reduced Brundusium ; and, in his second consulship, he took sixty- four, and sunk thirty, galleys of the Cartha- finian fleet on the coast of Sicily. Afterwards e landed in Africa ; and so rapid was his suc- cess, that in a short time he defeated three gen- erals, and made himself master of about two hundred places of consequence on the coast. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but the con- queror refused to grant it, and soon after he was defeated in a battle by Xanthippus, and 30,000 of his men were left on the field of battle, and 15,000 taken prisoners. Regulus was in the number of the captives, and he was carried in triumph to Carthage. He was afterwards sent by the enemy to Rome to propose an accommo- dation, and an exchange of prisoners; and, if his commission was unsuccessful, he was bound by the most solemn oaths to return to Carthage without delay. When he came to Rome, Reg- ulus dissuaded his countrymen from accepting the terms which the enemy proposed ; and when his opinion had had due influence on the senate, he then retired to Carthage, agreeably to his en- gagements. The Carthaginians were told that their offers of peace had been rejected at Rome by the means of Regulus ; and, therefore, they prepared to punish him with the greatest sever- ity. His eyelids were cut off, and he was expos- ed for some days to the excessive heat of the meridian sun, and afterwards confined in a bar- rel, whose sides were every where filled with large iron spikes, till he died in the greatest agonies. His sufferings were known at Rome, and the senate permitted his widow to inflict whatever punishments she pleased on some of the most illustrious captives of Cartharge who were in their hands. She confined them also in presses filled with sharp iron points ; and was so exquisite in her cruelty, that the senate at last interfered, and stopped the barbarity of her punishments. Regulus died about '251 years before Christ. REVOLUTION , AMERICAN. For an ac- count of the causes which produced this great event, the reader is referred to the article United States. In the present article we shall present a somewhat detailed account of the war, touch- ing briefly, however, on those events which have been noticed under their respective heads. The first battle of the American Revolution was fought upon the 19th of April, 1775, at Lexington and Concord. Stores had been col- lected at the last named place, 18 miles from Boston, for the American army, and General Gage determined to destroy them. Wishing to do it without fighting, he sent out 800 grena- diers and light infantry, from Boston, at 11 o'clock in the evening of the 18th. as silently as possible. It was heard of, however, in the country. By two o'clock in the morning, 130 of the Lexington militia had assembled on the freen, at the meeting-house, to oppose them, 'hey were dismissed, but collected again be- tween four and five, at the beat of the drum. The 800 British troops came marching up the road, Major Pitcairn at their head. REV 430 REV " Disperse, you rebels !" cried the major, ad- dressing the militia; " throw down your arms, and disperse !" They did not disperse, however. He now rode forward, discharged a pistol, bran- dished his sword, and ordered his soldiers to fire. They did so, and three or four of the Americans were killed. The soldiers shouted, fired again, and then proceeded towards Con- cord. At Concord, they disabled two large cannon, threw 500 pounds of ball into wells, and staved about 60 barrels of flour. They fired upon the Concord militia under Major Butterick's com- mand. Two men were killed; a skirmish fol- lowed, and the English retreated, as fast as possible, to Lexington. The people were com- ing upon them, by this time, from all parts of the country. The British were fired upon, on all sides, from the sheds, houses and fences. At Lexington, where they halted to rest, they were joined by 900 more troops, sent out from Boston, under Lord Percy. These brought two cannon with them; and the country people were kept back. They still fired upon the troops, however, and, being generally good marksmen, made terrible havoc The regulars, as the En- glish troops were called, reached Charlestown at sunset, and returned the next day into Bos- ton. Sixty-five of their number had been kill- ed, one hundred and eighty wounded, and twenty-eight made prisoners. Of the provin- cials, fifty were killed, and thirty-eight wound- ed and missing. There were never more than three or four hundred of the latter fighting at one time, and these fought as they pleased, without order. The regulars were obliged to keep in the main road; but the militia, knowing every inch of the country, flanked them, and fired upon them at all the corners. The news of this first battle produced a tre- mendous excitement throughout the country. The dead were buried with great ceremony and pomp. Great bodies of militia marched towards Boston. Agreements were entered into by thousands of people, to defend the Bostonians to the last gasp. The English forts, arsenals, magazines, and public money, were seized upon by the people ; and more money was coined, and more troops were raised. Every body was armed, and ready for battle. When the news of the Lexington battle reached Barnstable, a company of militia started off" for Cambridge at once. In the front rank was a young man, the only child of an old farmer. As they came to the old gentleman's house, they halted a moment. The drum and fife ceased. The farmer came out with his gray head bare. " God be with you all," said he ; " and you, John, if you must fight, fight like a man, or never let me see you again." The old man gave him his blessing. The poor fellow brushed a tear from his eye, and the company marched on. The news of the battle reached a small town in Connecticut, on the morning of the Sabbath. It was nearly time to go to meeting, when the beating of a drum, and the ringing of the bell, attracted the attention of the people. In ex- pectation that some great event was about to happen, every unusual signal had a startling effect upon the public ear. When the drum and the bell were heard, therefore, the men came running to the meeting-house green, in breathless haste. Soon the clergyman was among them, and they were all told, that some of their countrymen had been shot by the Brit- ish soldiers, at Lexington. The faces of the men, as they heard it, were pale, but not from fear ; it was immediately resolved, that thirty persons should be equipped, and set out for Boston. Those who could best go, were select- ed, and went home to make preparations. At noon, they had all returned to the little lawn in front of the meeting-house. Theie was a crowd of people around. There were friends, and acquaintances, and wives, and children. Such as were not well supplied with clothes and equipments, were immediately sup- plied by their neighbors. Among the crowd, there was one remarkable individual. This was a rich old miser, w T ho was never known to part with his money, but with extreme reluctance. On the present occasion, his na- ture seemed changed. He took several of the soldiers apart, whom he supposed likely to be destitute, and put into their hands about thirty dollars in hard cash ; at the same time saying, in a low voice, " Shoot the rascals ! shoot them ! If you comeback, perhaps you will pay me; if not, God bless you." After all the arrangements were made, the soldiers entered the broad aisle of the church. An affecting and fervent prayer was then offer- ed by the clergyman, in behalf of the country, and in behalf of these brave men, that were about to enter upon the dangerous chances of war. Afte'r the prayer, he made a short but animated address, encouraging the men to do their duty. He pronounced a blessing, and then they departed. General Putnam was a farmer, and was ploughing in the field, when the tidings from REV 431 REV Lexington were brought to him. He did not stay even to unharness his cattle ; but, leaving the plough in the unfinished furrow, he went to his house, gave some hasty directions re- specting his affairs, mounted his horse, and with a rapid pace proceeded to Boston. The Assembly was, at this time, sitting at Watertown, a few miles from Boston. They sent a letter, explaining the whole affair, to the English people. They complained, that the troops had long been insulting the provincials, ( and had now undertaken to murder them. They begged of the government to interfere, and prevent war ; but declared, they would submit to no more tyranny. They called God ito witness the justice of their cause, and pledg- ed themselves to defend each other to the last drop of blood. Letters were sent also to other Colonies. They voted to raise a large army, and, in a (short time, 30,000 were assembled about Bos- ton; thousands, who were not needed, were sent home. General Putnam commanded at Cambridge, and General Thomas at Roxbury; ill intercourse between the English troops and jthe country ended at once. It must be considered, however, that this 'collection of people was very different from a well- trained army. But they were brave, and j Heartily devoted to the cause. The country people supplied them with large quantities of i vegetables and meat. But they went and came is they pleased. They had few uniforms ; their I nuskets were of all sizes and shapes ; they had jjnly sixteen cannon, and half of these were not lit for use ; and, though all the men were good Inarksmen, only a few regiments had been rained enough to appear like regular soldiers. I The same might be said of the militia ] hroughout the country. But they determined ( o make the best of themselves, of their heavy old cannon, and rusty muskets; and were in ,'rreat hopes, that, by a few short battles, the i English would be entirely driven from the I ountry. The English, on the other hand, especially in England, had a mean opinion of he American courage. One of their generals promised, if they would give him five or six egiments, he would drive the whole of these |owardly rebels from one end of the continent o the other. The British troops soon began to feel a little uncomfortable in Boston. The provincials had urrounded them so completely, that no pro- isions could enter the city. Fresh meat and •egetables were very scarce ; and though they had vessels enough, they could get no supplies on the coast of New England. The people every where had driven their cattle into the back country. The governor would not suffer the inhabi- tants of Boston to leave the town. He feared that, if they left, the Americans would fall upon him at once. But he promised them, at last, that, if all their arms should be handed in at Faneuil Hall, or some other place, they should be allowed to go away, and thirty carts should be admitted from the country to carry off their furniture. About 1800 muskets, and a great many pis- tols and bayonets, were given up accordingly ; and several of the citizens received passports, and left the town. But the governor soon after pretended, that the people had deceived him, in keeping back part of their arms, and he refused any more passports. The poor and sick only were suffered to go. Among these, there were several who were terribly afflicted with the small-pox. The disease spread among the militia about Boston, and the Americans were now more angry than ever, for they sus- pected this to be a matter of design on the part of General Gage. While these things were passing, the other Provinces were also preparing for war. The people of New York refused the English troops there all supplies. They armed and trained themselves, seized upon the ammunition in the arsenals, removed the women and children, and determined, if nothing else would do, to burn the whole of that large and beautiful city. In New Jersey, at the news of the Lexington battle, the people seized upon the public treas- ure, and, at Baltimore, upon about 1500 Eng- lish muskets. Similar steps were taken in South Carolina, where two regiments of infan- try, (foot soldiers.) and one of cavalry, (horse- men,) were raised in a few days. There was, at this time, a great deal of diffi- culty in Virginia, between the English gover- nor, Dunmore, and the Assembly. He feared the people would seize on the powder of the public magazine at Willianisburgh, and order- ed it to be carried on board a vessel called the Jasper, lying at anchor in the river James. The mob crowded about his house ; and he be- gan to talk of setting free the negro slaves, and destroying the city. On the whole, it was clear, that both the governor and the people were in a humor for fighting. They went farther than this in Connecticut. It was there resolved to undertake an expedi- REV 432 REV tion to Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, near Canada. As this place was full of stores, and stood upon the great route by which every thing and every body passed, between Canada and the Provinces, it was important to conquer it. The Connecticut Assembly voted 1,800 dollars for the purpose ; and powder, ball, and whatever would be needed for a siege, was provided. The troops assembled with as little display as possible, at Castletown, on the banks of Wood Creek, on the great road to Ticonderoga. Some of these troops were from Connecticut, some from the Boston army, and some were people from the Green Mountains, in Vermont. These latter were called Green Mountain Boys, and were famous for skill in the use of the rifle. The captain of one of these companies cap- tured an English officer, a year or two after the time we are speaking of. The Englishman complained to the American captain, that these riflemen gave the regulars a great deal of trou- ble. " They aim," said he, " at an English officer, as far as they can see his uniform plain- ly, and shoot him dead. They hardly conde- scend to kill any thing less than a corporal." " They can do better still," said the Ameri- can captain ; and he ordered up two of his riflemen. " Is your piece in good order ? " said he to the first. " Yes, sir," answered the Green Mountaineer. He then stuck a knife in a tree, about fifty paces distant, and ordered the man to split his ball. He fired, and the ball was cut in two pieces on the edge of the knife. The other was ordered to shoot the ace of clubs out of a card; and he did so. The Englishman was amazed. These sharp-shooters had only been four weeks from their ploughs in Vermont. The leaders of the expedition against Ticon- deroga, were Colonel Ethan Allen and Colonel Easton. They were joined at Castletown by Colonel Arnold, from the Boston army. They marched on quietly, and arrived in the night on the bank of the lake, opposite Ticonderoga. They crossed over, and landed on the other side, close by the fortress. They entered it under the covered way, by day-break, with a tremendous shout. The sol- diers of the garrison were roused, ran out, half dressed, and began firing. A hot scuffle, with gun-breeches and bayonets, hand to hand, en- sued. The commander of the fort came at last. Colonel Allen ordered him to surrender. " To whom ? " said the officer, in great astonishment. " To the American Congress ! " said Allen, in a voice of thunder. The commander saw it was in vain to resist, and so he gave up the fort. Here were found 124 fine brass cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition. A hundred cannon more were taken by the Americans at Crown Point, another fort on the ( same lake, defended by a small garrison. The next plan was to seize upon an English armed vessel, called a corvette, which lay anchored near fort St. John. The Americans soon rigged out a schooner. Arnold commanded it, and sail- ed with a fair wind for the fort, while Allen followed slowly, with his troops, in some flat boats. Arnold came upon the corvette, and captured it without the least difficulty. The wind sud- denly shifted, and he was far on his way back, with the prize, when he met Allen and the boats. After taking another fort at Skeensbo- rough, the officers and soldiers returned home. Meanwhile, the English were skirmishing with the provincials at Boston. There were some islands in the harbor, where the English found forage for their horses and cattle. The Americans undertook to carry off these cattle from Noddle's Island and Hog Island, and suc- ceeded, after some fighting. They scoured Pettick's Island and Deer Island, soon after, in the same way. The English were put to a good deal of trouble to get food. They were finally so much pressed by the American army, that General Gage found him- self obliged to make a new effort against them. The provincials had sent 1000 men, under Colonel Prescott, to fortify Bunker's Hill, in Charlestown. Instead of doing so, however, by some mistake, he fortified Breed's Hill, which is nearer the city. The Americans took possession of it in the evening, and worked so well, that, before morning, they had thrown up a redoubt about eight rods square ; and so silently, that the British knew nothing of it till day-break. The latter, when they discovered the redoubt, began firing upon the people in the fort ; but the Americans worked on, till they raised a breastwork, reaching from the east side of the redoubt to the bottom of the hill. As Breed's Hill commands the city, the British saw they must either be driven off, or drive off the pro- vincials. They, therefore, opened a tremendous fire from the batteries and armed vessels, that floated on all the waters about Boston. Show- ers of bombs and balls were fired. A terrible battery was raised upon Copp's Hill, opposite Breed's ; but all in vain. The Americans work- ed on, and had finished a trench, or ditch before noon, which reached to the bottom of the hill. REV 433 REV It was now the 17th of June, and on this day was fought the famous battle of Bunker Hill. The British were determined to make a great effort. The provincials lay ready for them on the hill. General Putnam, of Connecticut, commanded the whole force. They had mus- kets, but few of them bayonets or rifles. They were sharp-shooters, however, and were brave men as ever breathed. About noon of a terribly hot day, the whole British camp seemed to be in motion. A vast multitude of sloops and boats started from the Boston shore, covering the water far and wide. The soldiers landed at Moreton's Point, in Charlestown, protected by their batteries behind them. Here they paraded in fine order. They were the flower of the English army, and were commanded by General Howe and General Pigot. But the Americans appeared a little too strong and too cool for them ; and they waited for a iew more companies to join them. The Americans took this opportunity to pro- tect themselves still more, by pulling up some post and rail fences, which they set before them, in two rows, and filled the space between with fresh hay, which they gathered from the hill. The British began to march. The militia left to defend Charlestown, retreated. The British entered it, and set fire to the buildings. In a few moments, 500 wooden buildings were in flames. The wind blew high, and the fire streamed up, and roared in the most terrible manner. Thousands of people were gazing at the scene, from the Boston steeples, and waiting with great anxiety for the fate of the battle. There were multitudes, also, on all the high roofs and hills round about. Never was there such a bustle and stir. The English marched slowly towards the redoubt, halting now and then, for the cannon to come up and fire. They came, at last, within musket-shot; and the re- doubt, which had been as still as the grave, till this moment, blazed all at once, with a tremen- dous volley. The British were soon thinned off, and com- pelled to retreat. Many fled for their lives, and threw themselves into the boats. The green field of battle was covered with dead bodies. The officers ran hither and thither, to rally the troops ; and, after some time, persuaded them to march forward again. The Americans wait- ed for them quietly, and received them once more with a flood of balls. The British fled down the hill to the shore. General Howe was alone upon the field ; all 28 ' his officers being killed and wounded around him. General Clinton, who had been watching the battle from Copp's Hill, now came to his aid with new troops. They made a third effort, with more spirit than before. Clinton led on the whole body ; the cannon still firing from the ships and batteries, and the flames and smoke of the burning town sweeping over them like the blast of a furnace. The powder of the Americans was now ex- hausted, and they were compelled to draw off. They retired to Prospect Hill, fighting with their muskets as if they were clubs, and there began throwing up new works. The British intrenched themselves on Bunker Hill, and neither army seemed willing to attack the other. They had had fighting enough for one day. Of 3000 British troops, 1054 were killed or wounded. A large part of these were officers. The sharp-shooters had taken the poor fellows down like so many gray squirrels. The Americans lost five pieces of cannon. Their killed, of about 1,500 engaged in the bat- tle, amounted to 134; their wounded to 314. General Warren was among the dead. He was a brave man, and was loved and lamented by all classes of people. An English officer, who knew him by sight, saw him in the retreat, rallying the Americans. He borrowed a gun of one of his soldiers, and, taking a fatal aim, shot him in the head, and he fell dead on the spot. The battle of Bunker Hill, as it was called, though fought on Breed's Hill, had no decisive effect ; yet it roused the country, showed the Americans that they were able to contend with the regulars, and taught the British, that the provincials were not exactly the cowards they had taken them for. The capture of Breed's Hill did them more hurt than good. They were obliged to defend it now, and they had not too many men before to defend the town. Their soldiers were also worn out with fatigue, and were much depressed by the hot weather. The Americans began now to fortify the town of Roxbury. Their works went up very fast, notwithstanding the continual fire of the British cannon. They had plenty of food, too, while the British were near starving. The latter could get nothing on the Boston islands, or along the Massachusetts coast, but by hard fighting ; and very little by that. They were at last obliged to let most of the Bostonians pass out of the town. They had not provisions enough to keep them alive. A British sloop of war, the Falcon, Captain REV 434 REV Linzee,one day, " hove in sight," as the sailors say, off that town. She had been in search of two American schooners from the West Indies. One of these, Captain Linzee had just captured, and he now followed the other into Gloucester harbor. He anchored, and sent two barges, with tri- teen men in each, armed with muskets and swivels, and followed by a whale boat, in which was a lieutenant and six privates, with orders to seize the schooner, and bring her off. The Gloucester people saw what was going on, and brought out their rusty muskets along shore in great numbers. The lieutenant, with the barge- men, boarded the schooner at the cabin win- dows. The militia, however, began to blaze away at them off the shore. Three of the Brit- ish were killed, and the lieutenant was wound- ed in the thigh. He soon made off for the Fal- con, as fast as his boat would carry him. Captain Linzee now sent a cutter and the schooner he had taken, with orders to fire on the " saucy rebels," wherever they should see them. He amused himself, meanwhile, by cannonading the town. He fired a broadside into the thickest part of the settlement, to begin with. " Now," said he to the crew, " now, my boys, we'll aim at that dirty old church. Well done ! crack away ! one shot more ! knock 'em down ! " The balls went through the houses in every direction ; but not a man, woman or child was injured. Meanwhile the men of Gloucester had gone out upon the water, and taken possession of both schooners, the cutter, the two barges, the boat, and every man in them all. They had but one killed, and two wounded. The British lost about forty men. The Continental Congress met again at Phil- adelphia, May 7, 1775. They were men sent from all the Colonies but Georgia ; and though they had no precise right, by any law, to act for the whole country, yet the whole country were ready to obey them. _ They chose George Washington, of Virginia, commander-in-chief of the American army, and appointed many other officers to act under him. Among these were Gates, Lee, Schuyler and Montgomery, of New York ; Pomeroy, Heath and Thomas, of Massachusetts; Greene, of Rhode Island ; Putnam, Wooster and Spencer, of Connecticut ; Ward and Sullivan, of New Hampshire. These were some of the bravest and best men of the country. General Washington went directly to the army at Cambridge. He arrived there on the 3d of July. Though he used no parade, wearing only a small sword at his side, epaulettes on his shoulders, and a black cockade on his hat, he was easily known, by his fine figure and noble countenance. He was treated every where with the greatest respect. Having reviewed the army, he found only 14,500 men in a condition for service ; these had to defend a line of twelve miles. They were now arranged and trained as well and as fast as possible, no man understanding this business better than General Gates, who was an old soldier, as well as Washington. They had not 10,000 pounds of powder, at this time, in the army, being only nine charges to a man. Had the enemy known this, and attacked them, they must have fled like a flock of deer. Great efforts were made, however, and several tons soon arrived from New Jersey. The provincials had, at this time, no riflemen; though light troops of this kind were exceeding- ly needed, to bring in recruits, and provisions, and to scour such a wild country as America then was, abounding in rivers, swamps, moun- tains, and woods. Congress soon raised a few companies in Pennsylvania and Virginia ; and 1,400 of them arrived at the camp early in Au- gust. These troops had, some of them, marched five or six hundred miles, and were stout and hardy men ; many of them were more than six feet tall. They were dressed in white frocks, or rifle shirts, and round hats. They were terrible fellows for sha^i-shooting ; equal to the Green Mountain "oys already mentioned. At a re- view, a company of them, on a quick march, fired their balls into marks seven inches across, at the distance of 250 yards. They often shot down the British officers, in Boston, like so many wild animals, at more than double the common musket distance. More powder was procured about this time, from the coast of Africa, in exchange for New England rum. This was managed so shrewdly, that every ounce in the British forts there, was bought up for the American army. The Mas- sachusetts rulers passed a law, also, that no powder should be fired at any beast, bird, or mark ; they wished it all to be saved for the war. Congress took measures for the coining of money, and the raising of troops in all quarters. The people obeyed the directions of Congress with alacrity. Every man, from sixteen years of age to fifty, was a member of some militia company ; and one fourth part of the whole, called minute men, were to keep themselves ready for action at a moment's notice. REV 435 REV Captains were to be paid twenty dollars a month ; lieutenants and ensigns, thirteen ; cor- porals and sergeants, eight ; and privates, six. No province was more active than Pennsylva- nia. Companies were raised in all the country towns. Many of the Quakers, even though they did not approve of fighting, were so carried away with the general feeling, as to turn out and train with the rest. Three large battalions were raised in Phila- delphia alone, besides artillery, cavalry, rifle- men, pioneers, and others. They often manoeu- vred in presence of Congress. The whole city was full of the music of drums, fifes and bugles. Among others, a company was formed of eighty old Germans, who had, most of them, fought a long time before in Europe. They were called the Old Men's Company. Instead of cockades, they wore black crape, to signify their sorrow at taking up arms at such an age. The captain was near a hundred years old, and had been in seventeen battles. He had been a soldier forty years. The drummer was ninety- four, and the youngest in the corps was about seventy. In the county of Bristol, a regiment was raised, and they were clothed, armed, and furnished with colors by the women. About this time, Congress took the necessary steps to keep peace with the Indian tribes. But they never employed them to fight against the English, though the English hired them to fight against the Americans. One objection that the Americans had to employing them was, that the Indian way of fighting war entirely too barbarous and cruel to be suffered <+.. —g civil- ized people. Another was, that they could not be depended on. They were greedy for wages, but so de- ceitful, that they could not be safely trusted. A story told of a sergeant, who travelled through the woods of New Hampshire, on his way to the American army, will show the character of the Indians. He had twelve men with him. Their route was far from any settlement ; and they were obliged every night to encamp in the woods. The sergeant had seen a good deal of the Indi- ans, and understood them well. Early in the afternoon, one day, as they were marching on, over bogs, swamps and brooks, under the great maple trees, a body of Indians, more than their own number, rushed out upon a hill in front of them. They appeared to be pleased at meeting with the sergeant and his men. They considered them, they said, as their best friends. For themselves, they had taken up the hatchet for the Americans, and would scalp and strip those rascally English for them, like so many wild cats. " How do you do, pro ?" (meaning broth- er,) said one ; and " How do ye do, pro?" said another ; and so they went about, shaking hands with the sergeant and his twelve men. They went ofF, at last ; and the sergeant, having marched on a mile or two, halted his men, and addressed them. " My brave fellows,' said he, " we must use all possible caution, or, before morning, we shall all of us be dead men. You are amazed; but, depend upon me, these Indians have tried to put our suspicion to sleep. You will see more of them by and by." They concluded, finally, to adopt the follow- ing scheme for defence. They encamped for the night near a stream of water, which pro- tected them from behind. A large oak was felled, and a brilliant fire kindled. Each man cut a log of wood about the size of his body, rolled it nicely up in his blanket, placed his hat on the end of it, and laid it before the fire, that the enemy might take it for a man. Thirteen logs were fitted out in this way, representing the sergeant and his twelve men. They then placed themselves, with loaded guns, behind the fallen tree. By this time, it was dark ; but the fire was kept burning till mid- night. The sergeant knew, that if the savages ever came, they would come now. A tall Indian was seen, at length, through the glimmering of the fire, which was getting low. He moved cautiously towards them, skulking, as an Indian always does. He seem- ed to suspect, at first, that a guard might be watching ; but, seeing none, he came forward more boldly, rested on his toes, and was seen to move his finger, as he counted the thirteen men, sleeping, as he supposed, by the fire. He counted them again, and retired. Another came up, and did the same. Then the whole party, sixteen in number, came up, and glared silently at the logs, till they seemed to be sat- isfied they were fast asleep. Presently they took aim, fired their whole number of guns upon the logs, yelled the horrid war-whoop, and rushed forward to murder and scalp their supposed victims. The sergeant and his men were ready for them. They fired upon them ; and not one of the Indians was left to tell the story of that night. The sergeant reached the army in safety. Treaties having been made with the Indians, Congress recommended, that the 20th day of July, 1775, should be observed, in all the Pro- REV 436 REV vinces, as a day of fasting and prayer; and it was so. The people were every where disposed to implore Heaven to prevent war, and to soften the hearts of their enemies. In Philadelphia, Congress attended church in a body. As they were just entering the house of wor- ship, they received news from Georgia, that this Province had at last concluded to join in the common cause, with the other twelve. Un- til this time, the people there had said and done but little ; but they determined now to make amends for lost time. A Declaration of Rights was soon after writ- ten by Congress, and sent over every part of the country. It gave a history of the whole difficulty, from first to last, between England and America ; and ended with an account of the burning of Charlestown, the seizure of the provincial vessels by the British, and the hiring of the savages to fight against the Americans. " We are compelled," said they, " to submit to tyranny, or to take up arms. We have counted the cost of this war, and have deter- mined to be free, as our fathers have been be- fore us, and as we trust our children shall be after us. We declare, before God, that we will defend each other, and the liberties of the whole country, to the last moment of life." This was signed by John Hancock, president, and by Charles Thompson, secretary, of Con- gress. The ministers read it from their pulpits in all parts of the nation. It was read in Cam- bridge, to a vast multitude, and General Putnam assembled his troops on Prospect Hill to hear it. This was followed by a prayer from a cler- gyman. All the troops cried, three times, "Amen;" the artillery fired a general salute, and the colors were seen flying, with the usual mottoes; on one side, " An appeal to Heaven," and, on the other, " He who has brought us over will defend us." A petition was next drawn up to the English king, and addresses were written to the people of England, Ireland, and Canada. Congress were resolved to leave nothing unsaid, or un- done, that offered any chance of restoring peace. The Canadians were persuaded to remain neu- tral, taking no part on either side. The British general, Carle ton, used efforts to make them enlist as soldiers. They were offer- ed two hundred acres of land in any part of America they should choose, at the end of the war. Each married man was to have fifty acres more for his wife, and fifty for each of his chil- dren ; with a guinea, (about five dollars,) as a bounty, at the time of enlisting. A few only were persuaded in this way ; a good many Indians, however, were hired. They collected at Montreal, in great numbers, in July, 1775. Among the rest were six famous tribes, called the Six Nations. They swore, in the presence of Carleton, to fight for the English king ; and thus, soon after, the Indian war be- gan. It may seem strange, that, during the dis- turbances in the various Colonies, little or no- thing should have been done, by the English governors, to put down the rebellion. The truth is, they had no troops, and not much mo- ney, at their disposal; and r before they could be supplied, the spirit of independence had gone too far to be repressed. In Virginia, Governor Dunmore, being com- pelled to leave Williamsburgh, and fearing that it would not be safe for him to remain upon the land, went on board a royal armed vessel. Hav- ing collected a fleet, he resolved to harass the Virginians as much as possible, if he could not govern them. He was joined by all the tories, that is, the Americans who favored the English. He laid waste the coast, at various places, in the most shocking manner, murdering and burning like a pirate. He burnt Hampton, on the bay of Hampton, among the rest, and un- dertook to establish his camp there. But the Virginians soon drove him back upon the wa- ter. He then declared all the negro slaves to be free, and invited them to join him. A few of them succeeded in doing so. He landed again at Norfolk, where the tories were numerous ; and a battle was fought, a few miles from that city, at a place called Great Bridge, with a regiment of Virginia militia and minute men. The governor had only 200 regulars about him. The rest was a mere mob, of black, white and gray. The first attack was made by the British, on the American entrenchment. The battle lasted some time, with a good deal of spirit. At last, the British captain was killed, and the troops fell back upon the bridge. The governor did not like fighting ; so, during the battle, he con- tented himself with looking- on at a distance. The negroes loved fighting as little as the gov- ernor. They found it by no means pleasant to have their flesh cut to pieces with bullets ; so, after a few shots, they ran away as fast as they could. The governor also thought it best to retreat, and, accordingly, he and his men went on board of their vessels. This affair did not serve to sweeten Governor REV 43? REV Dunmore's temper ; nor did it put him in a better humor, to find that his friends, the tories at Norfolk, had been handled roughly by the peo- ple there, after his retreat with his negro allies. He now returned into the bay, with a ship of war, and sent a message ashore, declaring that, unless the people furnished him provisions, he should batter the town down about their ears. They refused to supply him : so he gave them notice, in the morning, to remove the women and children ; and then, with his own sloop of war, the frigate Liverpool, and two corvettes, he blazed away upon the place, till scarcely one stone was left upon another. The provincials, to disappoint him of his provisions, burnt the whole country round about. In South Carolina, Governor Campbell ar- rived at Charleston, from England, about the same time with the news of the Lexington bat- tle. The people were on their guard, and he tried in vain to get the better of them, by invit- ing the tories to assist him ; but the tories were afraid to do so. He began to be frightened a little himself, being a man of less courage than Governor Dunmore ; so he said little or nothing for some time. To unmask him, the American leaders sent privately to him one Adam Macdonald, captain in a militia regiment. He called himself Dick Williams, and offered his services to the gov- ernor. The latter was delighted, and told him all his plans. Having heard them attentively, Adam went away, and told the whole to the persons who employed him. They immediately sent a committee, Mac- donald among the number, to wait upon his excellency, and request him to show his royal commission, if he had any, as governor. He declined this proposal. There were some hints then thrown out, about putting him in confine- ment. These came to his ears, and he retreated, with very little ceremony or delay, to an Eng- lish corvette, anchored in the harbor. The Assembly requested him to return ; but he re- fused. Nothing more was seen of him, or his gov- ernment, in Charleston. The tories were nu- merous in other sections of the Province, how- ever, and he mustered them together in great force. The people were alarmed. The militia were ordered out ; and the two parties were on the eve of an engagement. But at length the tories were dispersed, and they gave no more trouble at that time. The provincials in South Carolina continued to be very active. They captured Fort John- son, on James's Island, in Charleston harbor, and placed batteries on Point Huddrel. The English ships were at last driven off. The next thing with the people was, to send an expedi- tion after an English vessel laden with powder, which was anchored on the bank, called the Bar of St. Augustine, a town on the coast of East Florida. She was taken, and 15,000 pounds of powder were carried to Charleston. In North Carolina, the Provincial Congress raised 1000 regular militia, and 3000 minute men. The English governor, Martin, disliked the appearance of things, and endeavored to muster a force of the Irish and Scotch part of the inhabitants. He also fortified his own house, at Newbern, with artillery. The people seized upon his cannon ; and he fled to a fort upon Cape Fear River. The provincials marched after him, led on by Colonel Ashe. He retreated on board a vessel, as the other governors had done. Colonel Ashe burnt the fort to ashes the same night. The Assembly declared the governor a traitor. He answered them in a very long letter, which the}' ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. A large quantity of ball and powder was found in his cellar and gardens, at Newbern. In Pennsylvania, the people prepared active- ly for war. A single mill, near Philadelphia, manufactured five hundred pounds of powder a week. Governor Tryon, after endeavoring a long time to manage the Province, followed the example of the other governors. In other parts of the country, the enemy was not asleep. One Captain Wallace, command- ing an English squadron of small vessels off Rhode Island, was doing all the damage in his power, by ravaging the coast, and making prize of the merchant vessels. His chief object seemed to be, to supply himself and his force with provisions. With this view, he made a furious attack upon the town of Bristol, and fired, from morning till night, upon their houses and churches. He bored them through and through, till, finally, the people supplied him and his squadron with fresh meat, and he sailed away. About this time, a body of American troops were sent from Massachusetts to Rhode Island, under General Lee. He was a man of great courage, and warm temper. He obliged all the inhabitants, whom he went to defend, to take the most terrible oaths, to do precisely what Congress should command; and, at all events, to break off all intercourse with the tools of tyranny, " vulgarly called," as the oath said. REV 438 REV " the fleets and armies of the king." Congress were not much pleased with this manoeuvre. It was well meant, without doubt, but it was very rough, and of no real use. On the 18th of October, 1775, Falmouth, now Portland, in Maine, was bombarded by Captain Moet, of the ship Canceaux, of 16 guns. The whole town was consumed. He had formerly received some affront in the place, and revenged himself in this way. He sent the people word at night, that he should destroy the town in the morning ; they removed their furniture, and he went to work early the next day with his can- non. The town had been twice sacked by the Indians, but never suffered so severely before. The most important affair of this year, was an expedition to Canada. The provincials had done so well upon Lake Champlain, that the scheme of another expedition in the same quar- ter was much approved of. Congress hoped that, if Canada was invaded at once, manj' of the inhabitants would join the Americans. Three thousand men, commanded by Gener- als Montgomery, Wooster and Schuyler, were fitted out. Boats were built for them on the lake, at Crown Point, and the sum of 50,000 dollars was collected, to pay the expenses. Gov- ernor Carleton, of Canada, intrenched himself, with a strong force, at the entrance of the river Sorel, which leads out of the lake, and which the Americans would be obliged to pass. The latter took possession of an island in the lake, at the mouth of the river, and, from that place, planned an attack on Fort St. John, where the governor was. This fort stood on the left bank of the Sorel, and commanded the passage to Canada. The Americans moved on, without cannon, to a swamp within a mile and a half of the fort. They defeated a body of In- dians, who attacked them in crossing a small river, waited for reinforcements, and laid siea-e to the fort. Farther north, on the Sorel, was a small fort, called Chambly. The English had no idea of the provincials passing St. John to fall upon Chambly ; but they did so ; took the garrison prisoners; obtained 124 barrels of powder for the siege of St. John, and sent the colors they had captured to Congress. Other detachments scoured the country between the Sorel and the St. Lawrence ; the Canadians supplying them every where with arms and provisions. Just at this time, Colonel Allen and Major Brown undertook an expedition against the city of Montreal, which stands on an island in the St. Lawrence. Allen found boats ready for him at Longueville, and crossed the river in the night, below Montreal. Here Brown was to have joined him with his troops, but missed his way, and Allen was left, with a small force, in the neighborhood of the city. It was just sunrise. The murmur of the city was heard at a few miles' distance, and by and by the roll of the English drums came upon the ear. The Americans now saw that they were discovered. Before long, a column of British infantry came marching down the bank of the river. There was an almost breathless silence in Allen's small band, as they came up. Even Allen himself stood fast, and gazed at them. " To the boats ! to the boats !" cried a dozen of his soldiers ; " there's a thousand of them." "Silence! every man of ye!" roared Allen, brandishing a huge horse-pistol. " The first man that turns his back upon the red coats, shall smell gunpowder." They were satisfied with this arrangement, on the whole, examined their rifles, and stood ready for the onset. " Stand your ground, boys !" shouted Allen. A party of British soldiers was moving towards them from the main body, at double quick time. " Let them come !" cried a tall, fine looking hunter at his side; "let them come!" He brought his rifle to his eye, as he spoke. "Fire!" shouted the British officer, and in- stantly the hunter dropped dead at the feet of Allen. His hardy followers shrunk back. They were sprinkled with the blood of the poor hunt- er. " Fire ! fire !" shouted Allen, with a voice of thunder. They fired, and a hot skirmish commenced. Several of the English fell, and several of the Americans : others fled. Some defended themselves behind rocks and trees. Allen was at last left alone, surrounded, and compelled to surrender. He brushed a few tears away for the fate of his friend, the young hunter, and marched on with the English. He was kept a prisoner more than two years, and then was exchanged for some English offi- cer, whom the Americans had taken. The irons put upon him were so fastened about him, and so heavy, that, for a long time, he could lie down only on his back. A chest was his seat by day, and his bed by night. He was sent to England, to be tried as a pri- soner of state, not as a fair and open enemy, but as a rebel. At this time, all the Americans were called rebels, and the English used to speak of hanging great numbers of them, when the war was over. Allen was a man of very large frame, and prodigious strength. He possessed great cour- REV 439 REV age, and was much inclined to daring enter- prise. His reputation, it seems, had gone be- fore him to England ; and he was, therefore, kept in very close confinement. The people were as much afraid of him, as if he had been a whale, or a sea-serpent. They sometimes used to come and see him in his prison ; but they were very shy, and, if he so much as turned round, they would run away like a flock of startled sheep. But the Americans were always on the watch. They thought it probable, that the governor would set out about this time, and were ready for him. He embarked his 800 men in a large number of boats, and undertook to cross the St. Lawrence, precisely where Allen had crossed it, at Longueville. But Colonel Warner, with three hundred of the Green Mountain sharp-shooters, and a few cannon, lay among the bushes, on the river bank, as the governor's boats came over. The Americans waited quietly till they were fairly within reach, and then poured out upon them a tremendous volley of grape-shot. The governor's party retreated in great haste, with some loss of lives ; and nothing more was seen of them. News of this defeat soon came to Major Pres- ton, the British commander of the besieged fort of St. John. He began to think it a desperate case with him, and so concluded to surrender to the American general, Montgomery. This he did on the 3d of November, 1775. He had held out like a brave man, the siege having lasted six weeks. The Americans found in this fort seventeen brass cannon, twenty-two iron ones, and a large quantity of balls and bombs. The powder had been used to the last kernel, and the provisions to the last morsel. The capture was an impor- tant one. St. John, standing on the Sorel, which leads from Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence, commanded the passage to and from Canada ; and was, therefore, called the Key of Canada. The next movement of the Americans was, to take possession of the mouth of the Sorel, where it empties into the St. Lawrence. The point of land which is formed by the meeting of the two rivers, was fortified with batteries, which swept the river in such a manner, that no English vessel could pass, without being bored through and through. As the St. Law- rence is wide here, the Americans provided a fleet of boats and floating batteries, to guard the other side, and thus completely stopped the pas- sage up and down that river. Just at this time, Governor Carleton had left Montreal, which stands farther up the St. Law- rence from the sea, with a fleet of English ships under his command, and without having heard of these fortifications. What added to the dif- ficulty of his situation, was, that, the very day after he left Montreal, another body of Ameri- cans, under Montgomery himself, appeared un- der the walls of that city, and called upon the people to surrender. This detachment had marched across the country from Fort St. John. The land is flat and marshy, and their journey had been slow and difficult. It gave them great satisfaction to have reached Montreal just as the governor had gone off with his force. The city, having no defence, was compelled to surrender. General Montgomery treated the people so handsomely, that they supplied him with a large quantity of clothes for his troops. These were very much needed. It was now the middle of November, and they were weary of a long, cold march. Some of the soldiers, during this severe journey, would have gone back to their snug homes in Vermont and the other Provinces ; but General Montgomery di- vided the clothes among them, and encouraged them to proceed. Governor Carleton was now unpleasantly sit- uated on the river, with Montreal, in the posses- sion of Montgomery, above him, and the fortifi- cations at the mouth of the Sorel below. If he could have been taken, all Canada would have been easily conquered ; but he contrived, one dark night, to pass through among the floating batteries, in a small boat, with the oars muffled. Thus he escaped safely to a town on the north- ern bank, called Trois Rivieres ; and from that place he went to Quebec. The English fleet, which the governor had left behind°, surrendered to the Americans, in a day or two, with a large number of soldiers and officers aboard. General Montgomery left gar- risons in Montreal, and Forts Chambly and St. John, on the Sorel, to keep the Indians in awe, and marched on to Quebec, with a small force of three hundred men. While these things were going forward, Gen- eral Washington, in his camp at Cambridge, had conceived the plan of sending an expedi- tion against Quebec, by way of a rough, wild route, known only to the backwoodsmen and hunters. This was through the District of Maine. He selected Colonel Arnold to command the expedition ; a rash but brave man, who had as- sisted, as we have seen, in the capture of Ti- REV 440 REV Conderoga and Crown Point. Fourteen com- panies were put under his command ; three of riflemen, and one of artillery, under Captain Lamb, being among the number. In all, there were about eleven hundred men. A few others joined them, of their own accord; and amono- these volunteers was Aaron Burr, afterwards vice-president. He was then 20 years of age. Maine is crossed, from north to south, as a map will show, by the river Kennebec, rising in the mountains between Maine and Canada, and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, not far from Casco Bay, near a town now called Bath. On the other side of the same mountains, and close, therefore, by the small upper streams of the Kennebec, another river rises, called the Chau- diere. This empties into the St. Lawrence nearly opposite Quebec. In crossing these mountains, between the sources of the two rivers, on the two sides, & is necessary to pass very steep and wild plJ«;s, over marshes and torrents. No human being dwelt there then, and nobody lives there to this day. Such was the route Arnold and his brave soldiers were to travel. He left Boston in September, 1775, and ar- rived at Newburyport, near the mouth of the Mernmac. The vessels that waited for him here, conveyed him and his men to the mouth of the Kennebec. With a fresh south wind, they sailed up the river fifty miles, to a town called Gardiner. Here were two hundred bat- teaux, ready for them. These were lono-, light, flat boats, much used by the Canadians, hunt- ers and others, in shoal waters. Having laden these with his arms and pro- visions, Arnold proceeded up the river to Fort Wester, on the right bank. Here he divided . his corps into three detachments. The rifle- men, under Captain Morgan, moved on forward as a vanguard, to explore the country; to sound the fords, that is, ascertain where the river might be crossed easily ; and to look out for the portages. These are places where the river ceases to be navigable, on account of shoals falls, or rocks. The lading of the boats must,' therefore, be carried forward upon the banks by hand, or by beasts of burden. The batteaux are then carried on, also, till the river becomes deeper and smoother. Arnold's second detachment marched the next day after the first; and the third detach- ment the day after that. The current of the fiver was rapid, the bottom rocky, and often interrupted by falls. Every hour, the water entered some of the batteaux, and damaged the provisions and arms. At every portage,— and these occurred very often,— the boats were to be unladen, and carried on the shoulders of the troops. In places where the river was rapid, yet free of rocks, the batteaux were hauled up slowly by soldiers on the banks, who dragged them along with ropes. The army, however, ad- vanced, and at length they had wild mountains to cross, steep precipices to climb, vast shady forests to pass under, and quagmires to wade through. They had also deep valleys to tra- verse, where the pine trees were tossing over their heads in the stormy wind, and where the river was rushing and foaming over the rocks, with a noise like the ocean. They were sometimes a whole day in travel- ling four or five miles, with their baggage laced on their backs, and axes in their hands to hew a road through the wilderness. Some of the men died at last with weariness ; many others fell sick, and all of them were at length sorely pressed for food. Many a young soldier, as he lay down at night, hungry and tired, on his pillow of green boughs, thought of the warm bright fire-side, where a mother was weeping for him. But these thoughts were vain. They rose in the morning, and pressed on patiently, brave men as they were. By the time they had reached the source of Dead River, a branch of the Kennebec, their provisions were almost exhausted. The sol- diers were living, or rather starving, now, upon the poor lean dogs they had taken with them, and even this food was a luxury. At this place ' Colonel Enos received orders from Arnold to send back the sick to Boston. He took the op- portunity to return himself, with his whole de- tachment. He was afterwards tried for this desertion, by a court-martial, and acquitted, for the reason that the men must otherwise have starved. But Colonel Arnold marched on. For thirty- two days, not a single human dwelling was met with. The army arrived at last upon the mountains, between the Kennebec and the Chaudiere. The little food still left was divid- ed equally, and then the troops were directed to look out as they could for their own living. They discovered, finally, with inconceivable joy the sources of the Chaudiere, and the first log- houses of the Canadians. These people received them well, and assisted them. Arnold addressed a proclamation to the Canadians, waited for his rear guard to over- REV 441 REV take him, pressed on, and arrived, November 9th, at Point Levy, nearly opposite Quebec. The people of the city were as much amazed at the sight of him and his men, as if they had been so many goblins. The English colonel, Maclean, had heard ot their coming, however, by a letter, which Ar- nold had given to an Indian on the Kennebec, to carry to General Schuyler. The Indian gave it to Maclean, and the latter removed all his batteaux from the Point Levy side of the river, to the other bank. The wind blew a gale too ; and so the city had time to prepare for defence. All the people of Quebec were immediately armed, and brought within the walls— soldiers or not soldiers, English, French, Scotch and Irish, regulars and marines. The wind mode- rated, and Arnold undertook to pass the river on the night of November 13th. The same day, Montgomery had taken Montreal. One hundred and fifty men remained to make ladders for scaling the city walls. The rest suc- ceeded in crossing the river. The banks being very steep here, Arnold and his men marched down upon the edge of the river towards Que- bec, and climbed the Heights of Abraham, close by the city, and almost overlooking it. Here he waited for his 150 ladder men, and hoped that the city would surrender. They were prepared for him, however; and Maclean not only refused to receive the message requiring him to surrender, but fired upon the bearer of it. Arnold had no cannon, and only six charges of powder to each man. Hearing, therefore, that Maclean was about to sally out upon him, he retired twenty miles up the river, to Point au Tremble. He met, on his march, the ship in which Governor Carleton was sail- ing down to Quebec ; and heard, when he reach- ed the point, that he had left it but a few hours before. . General Montgomery arrived here, and join- ed Arnold, on the 1st of December, 1775, after a weary march from Montreal. The weather was excessively cold, and the roads were block- ed up with snow. His force was about three hundred men ; and never were people more de- lighted to see each other, than were these three hundred, and the little band of brave fellows, who had followed Arnold. Montgomery had brought clothing for the latter ; and they stood in great need of it, indeed. The soldiers now marched in company, and arrived in sight of Quebec on the 5th. A sum- mons was sent to Carleton to surrender; but he ordered his troops to fire upon the bearer. Montgomery then planted a battery of six can- non within 700 paces of the walls. They were laid upon banks of snow and ice ; the pieces were small ;. and the fire had little effect. The snow had now fallen in huge drifts, and the weather was excessively cold. A council of war was called, and an immediate assault on the city was resolved upon. Two detachments, under Montgomery and Arnold, were to attack the walls of the lower part of the town. This taken, the rest would probably submit without fighting. On the last day of the year 1775, between four and five in the morning, in the midst of a heavy snow- storm, the American columns advanced. An Irish captain, going his rounds upon the walls of the town, observed the guns fired by the Americans as a signal, and at once caused the drums to beat, and roused the garrison to arms. Montgomery, with his detachment, pass- ing along under Cape Diamond, came to a small battery of cannon. The guard threw down their arms, and fled. The Americans had nearly taken possession of it, but the road was impeded with immense masses of snow. Montgomery, with his own hands, opened a path for his troops. Two hundred of them came up at last, and rushed on. Just then, a cannoneer, who had fled, on seeing the Americans halt, returned to his post, at the little battery , and, taking a match, which happened to be still burning, fired a can- non charged with grape-shot. The Americans were within forty paces. Montgomery dropped dead upon the spot, and his troops soon fled. Arnold had made an assault, meanwhile, at another point. But he soon received a musket ball in the leg, which splintered the bone ; and he was carried off to the hospital, almost by force, as he was unwilling to quit the field. Captain Morgan, with two companies of riflemen, now advanced upon the battery. His sharp-shooters killed many of the English through the embra- sures. The guard fled. Morgan rushed forward , and some prisoners were taken. But here the courage of his troops failed them. Morgan alone stood lirm. As the morning dawned, he rallied his riflemen with a voice of thunder, and they rushed forward. A detachment sallied out up- on them, at this moment, from the walls; and the English captain summoned them to lay down their arms Moro-an aimed a musket at him, and shot him dead. °The English retreated ; a hot skirmish ensued. Some ladders were planted against the walls, but a terrible fire was poured down upon the men who attempted to ascend them. A de- REV 442 REV tachment of the British now assaulted the Amer- icans on another side, and they were compelled at last, to surrender. Arnold, with his remaining force, retreated three miles from the city, and intrenched him- self. Governor Carleton kept within the walls ot Uuebec, satisfied with waiting till reinforce- ments should reach him from England, in the spring. So ended the famous assault upon tiuebec. r A braver man than Montgomery never fell on a field of battle. The whole country wept tor his loss. Even the Canadians lamented him, and Larleton buried his body with all the hon- ors of war. Colonel Barre, and Fox, and Burke the great orators of England, pronounced his' praises in the English parliament. Congress, ordered a monument to be procured from France and erected to his memory. Having given some account of the most im- portant events of the year 1775, the first of the war, we come now to 1776. In the winter and spring of this year, Boston was still surround- ed by the American army under Washington. Ine British in the town, meanwhile, were re- duced to great extremity. For fuel, they used the timber of houses, which they pulled down for the purpose. They were in want of food, and some armed Ships were ordered to Georgia, to buy up rice : but the people of that Province opposed them with so much success, that, of eleven vessels only two got off with their cargoes. The Old South Church, in Washington street, was entirely destroyed inside, and Ssed as a ndiHg-room for a regiment of drao-oons. Ine pulpit and pews were taken out, and the floor covered with earth. The frame-work of one pew, carving, silk furniture, and all, was taken out, and used for a pig-sty. The North Church, so called, was entirely demolished. All this time, notwithstanding there was much suffering in the town, the Eno-lish officers and the tories contrived to pass the" time, when they were not fighting the Americans, in danc- ing, and other amusements. They had a small theatre, and, in the evening of February 8th were acting a farce, called " The Blockade of Boston. ' One figure, meant to ridicule Wash- ington, was rigged out in the most uncouth style, with a large wig, and a long rusty sword. Another character was an American ser- geant, in his country dress, with an old gun on his shoulder, eight feet long. At the moment this figure appeared, one of the British sergeants came running on the stage, and cried out, " The Yankees are attacking our works on Bunker Hill. The audience took it for a part of the play ; but General Howe knew it was no joke an £ called out," Officers, to your alarm-posts !" lhe American army, at this time about Bos- ton, was but little better provided for than the English. Many fell sick with fatigue and ex- posure. They had provisions enough from the country, to be sure, while the English troops were said to be living wholly on salt meat, and the Boston tories upon horse-flesh. But the whole number, in January, was reduced to less than ten thousand ; and these, having enlisted for a few months only, were every day going At one time, there were hardly men enough to man the lines. As for powder, they had but four rounds to a man ; and but four small brass cannon, and a few old iron pieces, full of holes with the wood-work broken off. They were' fitted into logs, like the barrel of a gun into the stock, and lifted up and down, and wheeled ^l out m . th is vvay, but to some good purpose, lhe British laughed at these machines, at first, but they soon found them no laughing matter. They kept up a continual cannonade, in re- turn ; firing about two thousand shot and bomb- shells, it is said, in the course of a few months But the whole of this firing killed only twelve Americans. It was about this time, that a party of the English officers, walking on Beacon Hill in the course of the season, in the evenino-, were' frightened by terrible noises in the air. ° They ran down the hill with the greatest despatch. It seems that they mistook the buzzing of a few beetles and bugs, for the whizzing of" air-guns." They suspected that the cunning Yankees had contrived some queer machines for killing them, without the noise of gunpowder. There were two cannon kept in a gun-house opposite the Mall, at the corner of West street in the care of one Paddock. The British found it out, and Paddock promised to deliver them up. A party of school boys undertook to pre- vent him from doing it. The school-house was the next building to the gun-house, separated only by a yard, com- mon to both, and surrounded by a high fence. The boys contrived to enter the gun-house' windows, in the rear, in spite of an English guard, which had been placed before the build- ing. The guns were taken off their carriages, carried into the school-room, and placed in a large box under the master's desk, in which wood was kept. The English soon missed the guns, and began REV 443 REV to search the yard. They then entered the school- house, and examined it all over, excepting the box, which the master placed his lame foot upon. They were too polite to disturb him, and excused him from rising. The boys looked on, but lisped not a word. The guns remained in the box for a fortnight, when one of the largest boys carried them away in a trunk, one eve- ning,on a wheel-barrow. A blacksmith at the south end, kept them some time under a pile of coal ; and they were at last put into a boat at night, and conveyed safely to the American camp. The condition of the American army in the earlv part of the year 1776 was miserable. They soon after received five brass cannon, small arms of all kinds, cargoes of provisions, &c. These were all captured from the British, off the coast, by American privateers. Privateers are armed vessels, fitted out by private individuals. In England, the year 177G opened with new resolutions, on the part of the ministry, and the majority of Parliament, to continue the war. The party called the whigs, were violently op- posed to it; but the tories, the ministry, and king, regarded the Americans as rebels, and resolved to spare no pains to punish them se- verely. They found it difficult to enlist soldiers in England, for the war was unpopular with the lower classes. Recruiting officers were sent about, the royal standard was raised in all the cities, and large bounties and wages were pro- mised ; but to little purpose. In Scotland, some thousands were raised ; and a bargain was made with some of the small states of Germany, for about seventeen thousand German troops. These were called Hessians, because a part of them came from Hesse. In the meantime, the American army at Bos- ton, began to form plans for seizing upon the town, for taking the British garrison prisoners, and for destroying their fleet in the harbor. But they kept quietly in their quarters till March, 1770 ; the British now and then sallying out on the American lines; and the latter returning the compliment, by playing upon the town with their rusty cannon. During this month, the news came ot the doings of the ministry in England, and of the king's violent speech, at the close of the session of Parliament. The whole American army was greatly excited. The speech was publicly burnt in the camp. At the same time, the red ground of the American flag was changed, and, in place of it, thirteen blue and white stripes were in- serted, as an emblem of the thirteen Colonies, that were united in the struggle for liberty. These stripes are still retained in our national flag. There was something of the same feeling in Congress as in the army. Stimulated by the conduct of the king and Parliament, they re- solved, from this time, to follow up the war, at all hazards. Hearing that an attack would be made upon New York, they urged General Washington to press, as closely as possible, the siege of Boston, so that the British might not be able to spare troops to send against New York. He wished to attack the town at once, but most of his generals opposed this plan ; and he con- cluded to fortify the heights of Dorchester, which command the entire city on the south side. Heavy batteries were opened from the Ame- rican works in Cambridge, Roxbury and Lech- mere Point. The bombs fell into the town every hour, and houses were constantly set on fire by them. All this was to employ the British upon that side, while the Americans, on the night of the 4th of March, secretly marched over Dor- chester Neck. The frost rendered the roads good, and such was the silence of the march, and the tremen- dous roar kept up by the batteries, that 2,000 troops passed over, with 300 loaded carts, and nothing was known of it till morning. Had the British suspected this manoeuvre, they would have taken measures to prevent it. By four o'clock in the morning, two fortifications were raised upon the two heights. The British were amazed. " These rebels have done more in one night," said General Howe, who now commanded, " than my army would have done in a week." A terrible can- nonade now opened from the British forts, and the shipping, upon the American fortifications on Dorchester Heights. But few men, howev- er were killed ; and the Americans worked on in'hio-h spirits, taking no notice of the cannon- balls, as they came, ploughing the ground about them. ... , General Howe saw that he must either leave the town, or dislodge the Americans from the heights. He resolved upon the latter ; but a long storm, and a very high sea, prevented his troops from crossing over. He finally conclud- ed to give up the town, and transport his whole force to Halifax, in Nova Scotia. Knowing that his shipping might be prevented from passing out of the harbor, by the American fortifications, he prepared a great mass ot stutt REV 444 REV for setting fire to the town, and then proposed to Washington and the selectmen, that if his troops were suffered to pass safely, the town should be left standing. This was agreed to. He had 150 carrying vessels, called transports, m the harbor ; and he embarked on board these, °u l A e 17 - h ° f March > taking with him 1,500 of the American tories. Never was such a scene of confusion, plunder, hurrying, crying and quarrelling; there were fathers bearing their baggage, mothers leading their children, beasts of burden loaded with furniture. The vessels were crowded. The British were some days getting out of the bay ; and had the pleasure, meanwhile, of seeing the American army marched into Boston, with great rejoicing. The siege had lasted sixteen months. Pro- visions had become so scarce, that fresh fish sold at a shilling a pound ; geese at nine shil- lings apiece ; a turkey at two dollars ; hams at two ehilhngs a pound; sheep at six dollars each ; and apples at six dollars a barrel. Two hundred and fifty pieces of cannon were left behind; also a quantity of wheat and other grain, a good deal of coal for fuel, and 150 horses. u T *i e English soldiers now began to think that the Americans were an enemy worth conquer- ing, and that powder was not absolutely wasted upon them, as upon so many crows. They were provoked by the treatment they had received from the sharp-shooters at Breed's Hill, and the rough compliments of the old cannon. The Americans, on the other side, now en- tered upon the war with their whole hearts. Iney were irritated more than ever at the con- duct of the English ministry, in hiring the Hessian soldiers. This irritation was not al- layed by the bill which had just passed through Farliament, compelling all persons found in American vessels, to serve on board his majes- ty s ships of war. From this time, the war, on both sides, assum- ed a more determined character. A strong English force was sent to relieve Carleton, in Canada. Arnold's whole force before Quebec now amounted to only 3,000 men. Many of Hiese were sick of the small-pox. General Inomas died of the disease. The river was clear of ice, April, 177G, and English reinforce- ments were expected every day by the govern- f T \ , Al l attack was made upon Quebec, but it tailed of success; and Arnold was now obliged to break up his camp and retreat, leaving his baggage behind. Governor Carleton pursued, till the Americans reached the mouth of the river Sorel. About the last of May, English forces arrived at Quebec, amounting to 13,000 men, com- manded by Burgoyne, Phillips, and a German general, called Reidesel. Arnold, meanwhile, was skirmishing with the Canadians and In- dians, about Montreal and the Sorel. In a short time, he went down the St. Lawrence to Trois Rivieres, where there was a lame bodv of English. s ' He expected to surprise them in the night, but was misled by his guide; and, when he arrived late in the morning, the enemy was drawn up in battle array. A skirmish began, and the Americans were defeated. They fled over a wild, swampy country of woods, leaving many prisoners behind them; and, having crossed the St. Lawrence, at last arrived at Fort St. John, on the Sorel. The English pursued them to this place. Arnold's force was too small to resist a siege. He therefore set fire to the magazine and bar- racks, and retreated farther south to Crown Point. The English, having lost their batteaux, could pursue him no farther, and soon after returned to Quebec. The Americans, under Arnold, had suffered exceedingly in the retreat. They sometimes waded in the water to the waist, and dragged the loaded batteaux up the rapids by main strength. Two regiments, at one time, had not a single man in health ; another had only six and a fourth only forty. On the first of July they reached Crown Point. And thus ended the courageous, but unfortunate expedition to Canada. During the summer of 1776, Crown Point was taken by the British ; and the Americans, now commanded by General Gates, withdrew to Ticonderoga. A fleet was built on the lake, at Skeensborough, consisting of a sloop, three schooners, and six gondolas, which are large flat vessels. They carried, in the whole, more than 100 guns, and more than 400 men. Ar- nold commanded the fleet. By the month of October, the British had collected a much larger naval force; and, as nothing could be done, by way of invading the Provinces from Canada, till Lake Champlain should be cleared of the Americans, they sailed up the lake, and engaged them. The two fleets fought till night. Arnold then very skilfully made his escape, and, in the morning, not an American sail was to be seen. The British fleet followed on, however, and REV 445 REV found them again off Crown Point. Some of the American vessels escaped to Ticonderoga. Seven of them remained. They were attacked, and the action continued some hours. Arnold was determined that his vessels should not be taken. He contrived, therefore, to run them on shore, and there they were blown up. He did not leave his own vessel till she was wrapped in flames. Lake Champlain was now in the power of the British ; but Gates and Arnold had prevented them, strong as their force was, from invading the Provinces farther south. It was now too late in the season to attempt it. Boston, which had been entered by the American army on the 17th of March, was no longer disturbed by the enemy. The British, finding that the Provinces of North Carolina and Virginia were too strong for them, deter- mined to make an attack upon the city of Charleston, in South Carolina. Admiral Parker and General Clinton reached Charleston harbor on the 28th of June, and, with eleven large vessels of war, commenced a tremendous attack upon Fort Moultrie. This stood upon Sullivan's Island, six miles from the city, and was built of a kind of wood called palmetto, so spongy and soft, that the balls were buried in it, and no splinters were thrown off. The fort was defended by sixty pieces of cannon. Ship after ship poured in their tre- mendous broadsides. The whole harbor seemed to be but a sheet of flame. The Americans aimed well, and every shot had its effect. Some of the English vessels were soon stranded. The Thunder, after firing more than sixty bombs, was disabled. The Bristol was almost destroy- ed, and a -great number of men were killed. The fire of the fort suddenly stopped. Their powder was exhausted. The enemy thought themselves sure of the victory, and the ships moved nearer, with their flags flying, and their drums beating. But the Americans were soon supplied from the shore, and the battle lasted, hotter than ever, till seven in the evening. The English drew off" in the night, and the enterprise was abandoned. This defence of Fort Moultrie was one of the most gallant ac- tions of the war. Every man and every officer fought like a hero. Congress voted their thanks to the whole garrison, and to several of the officers by name. A sword was presented to a sergeant of grena- diers, named Jasper. In the heat of the battle, the staff* of the fort flag had been cut down by a ball. It fell from the parapet to the ground be- low. Jasper sprang after it, fastened it to the rammer of a cannon, and hoisted it again, amid the fire of the enemy. General Clinton arrived at Staten Island, off the harbor of New York, about the 12th of July. General Howe, with the army which left Boston for Halifax, in March, had taken possession of the island on the second of the month. Two hundred of the inhabitants enlisted under his banner. Some of the New Jersey people came into his camp, and Governor Tryon, of New York, visited him, informed him of the state of the Province, and encouraged him to believe that every thing must soon yield to his army. The British plan now was, to direct the whole English force upon the Province of New York, and to make it, with the city of New York, the -centre of all their operations in America. From this point, they could march south upon the southern Provinces ; here they could receive stores from England by water, and provisions from Staten and Long Islands ; and here they could ascend the Hudson, and meet Burgoyne, in his route south from Canada. At least, such were the views of the English officers; but the event will show, that these things were more easily said than done. The revolution in America had now reached a point from which it could not turn backward. The feelings of a great part of the people were alienated from England, and a deep hostility was planted in their bosoms. They had origi- nally asked for justice, and that was denied. Oppression followed, and that they resisted. Then came the British armies, with fire and sword, to consume their dwellings, and shed their blood. A high-spirited people were not likely to look on these things but with resentment. Their love and respect for England were originally very strong. These, indeed, lasted up to the period of which I am now speaking. But now all thoughts of reconciliation were abandoned. The people no longer asked for redress ; they cast off their allegiance to the king, and deter- mined to be free ; the " spirit of '76," which is often alluded to, was the earnest voice of a na- tion, resolving that they would risk everything for independence. In June, 1776, Congress had chosen five of their members to consider the great question, whether the Provinces should declare them- selves a Free and Independent Nation. These were Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston. They reported in favor of so doing ; and Congress agreed with them. Independence was solemnly declared on the fourth day of REV 446 REV July . The declaration was written by Jefferson , and signed by John Hancock, president. It was then signed by every other member of Congress. This declaration has become famous among all nations. It was drawn up by Thomas Jef- ferson ; and then it was a great deal discussed by the members of Congress, and many amend- ments and alterations were made. It was a long time before Congress could satisfy themselves. One gentleman objected to one word, and another to another word, till, as Franklin said to Mr. Jefferson, it fared like the sign of a hatter in Philadelphia, composed in these words, "John Thompson, hatter, makes and sells hats for ready money," with the figure of a hat at the end. Before nailing it over his door, the hatter submitted it to his friends for correction. One thought the word " hatter " of no use, it be- ing followed by the words " makes hats." So "hatter" was struck out. A second said that " makes " might as well be omitted ; his cus- tomers would not care who made the hats. A third thought "ready money" was useless; it was not the custom of the place to sell for any thing but money. These were brushed out, and it now read, "John Thompson sells hats." "Sells hats!" says the next man the hatter met; "why, nobody will expect you to give them away." " Sells" was knocked out, and then "hats," because there was one painted on the board. This, with "John Thompson," was all that remained. The declaration was trimmed in much the same manner. But it satisfied every body at last. This story, therefore, only applies to the man- ner in which the Declaration of Independence was discussed in Congress. As it was finally passed and signed by the members of Congress, it was one of the most noble efforts of the hu- man mind. The people received and read it with great joy. Independence was proclaimed, with great parade, at Philadelphia, on the 8th. Cannon were fired, the bells rung, bonfires were kindled, and the people seemed to be mad with joy. On the 11th, the declaration was read to eachbrigade of the American army, then assembled at New York, and received with prodigious peals of applause. The same evening, the statue of George III, erected in 1770, was dragged through the streets, by the " sons of liberty ; " and the lead it was made of was melted into musket balls. An immense multitude, at Baltimore, received the declaration in the same manner ; the air ringing with shouts, and the roar of cannon. The king's effigy was made the sport of the populace, and burnt in the public square. In Boston, the declaration was read from the gallery of the State-house, to an immense crowd, gathered from all quarters. Men, women and children assembled to hear it, and every moment the air sounded with the shouts of the multi- tude. The troops were drawn up, splendidly dressed and armed, in King street, which from that time was called State street. The bells rang, the people shouted, the can- non thundered and blazed, and the striped ban- ners waved from the steeples, till the whole air seemed to be alive. In the evening, all the ensigns of royalty, English lions, sceptres or crowns, whether graven or painted, were torn in pieces, and burnt in State street. The Virginian Convention voted, that the king's name should be struck out from all the public prayers. They ordered, that the great seal of that Commonwealth should represent Virtue as the guardian genius of the Province, resting one hand upon her lance, and holding with the other a sword, trampling upon tyranny, in the shape of a prostrate man, with a crown fallen from his head, and a broken chain in his hand. Such was the declaration of independence, and such the manner in which it was received by the Americans. They had now declared them- selves to the world as a free people ; but ere their freedom could be established, they had yet to pass through a long, bloody and desolating war. General Washington now occupied New York and Long Island, which lies a few miles from the city, with seventeen thousand troops. On the 22d of August, the English landed, in great force, on the island, and a very hot battle was fought, among the hills and woods. A whole regiment of fine young men from Mary- land were killed, some cannon were lost, and the Americans retreated to the northern part of the island. Here the stormy weather kept the enemy from attacking the camp again. But, fearing an assault every moment, the Americans con- cluded to pass over to the island of New York, and join the rest of the army. This was done in the night of August 29th. They kindled up circles of bright fires in their camp, to deceive the enemy, and started off in their boats at 11 o'clock in the evening. They were so near the British all the while, as to hear the sound of their pickaxes, and now and then the shout of a British soldier, as he walked on guard. They were neither seen nor REV 447 REV heard, however. The fleet of boats moved off from the shore, like an army of ghosts. Not a word was said, no drums beat, no bugles rang, no colors waved in the breeze. A fair wind favored the troops ; they crossed the water like birds. In the morning, at eight, when the fog cleared up, which had covered them in the passage, and the sun shone out bright and warm upon the green shores, the wooded hill-tops of the islands, and the smooth surface of the bay, the American army had vanished. The camp was deserted, the fires had gone down, and nothing was seen, but a few distant boats, which had come back for the cannon. Previous to the retreat of the Americans, several skirmishes were fought between the two armies. Two forts, one belonging to the English, and the other to the Americans, were within half gun shot of each other, and were only separated by a small creek. It was at last agreed between the British and American offi- cers, that the sentinels should not fire upon each other, as they went their rounds. So they became very civil. " Give us a quid of your tobacco, my good friend," cried the English guard to the American sentinel. " Oh ! cer- tainly," said the latter. He drew his twisted roll from his pocket, and tossed it across the creek to the Englishman, who gnawed off a quid, and threw it back again. The British army now pressed the Americans with great activity ; the latter were driven back from point to point. They left the city of New York, at last, and the British entered it. A few days after, a terrible fire raged in the place, and consumed more than a thousand houses. The British supposed the inhabitants had set it on fire, and were so angry, as to throw some of them into the flames. Washington now retreated into the back coun- try. The British scoured the Province of New York with their troops, and covered all the shores with their vessels. Several strong forts were taken, together with their garrisons. Nothing could be done to oppose them. The Americans were never so much discouraged. General Washington, with his army, marched into New Jersey, and attempted to harass the British army there, under Cornwallis. But they were too strong, and Washington was obliged to retreat night and day : over mountain and valley, he fled before them. The time the militia had enlisted for was short, and many of them went home. Whole companies deserted, and the army was so small in December, that Washington knew every man by his name. They were so nearly naked and ragged, too, and looked so miserable, that their own coun- trymen would not join them. Large numbers went over to the enemy. They were driven, week after week, up and down the banks of the Delaware. The infantry left the frozen ground bloody behind them, with their bare and sore feet. They were so closely pursued, that they could scarcely cross a stream, and beat down the bridges after crossing it, before the enemy came galloping up on the other side. The British cavalry traversed the country, with their large, fine horses, and elegant uni- forms. The hundred or two horsemen of the American army, were mounted upon wretched, worn-out horses, so lean and frightful, as to be the constant theme of ridicule with the British soldiers. The riders were not much better. " Ragamuffins" had become a common name for them. These were gloomy times : and the Ameri- can people began to fear, that they would be crushed in their struggle for freedom. Many were gntirely disheartened. Some persons base- ly de&rted the cause of their country, in this hour of trouble, and went over to the enemy. But Washington remained firm and undismay- ed. While other minds were shaken with doubt and fear, he remained steadfast and re- solved. Looking deeply into the future, and placing his trust in Heaven, he seemed to pene- trate the clouds, that shed their gloom upon the land , and to see beyond them a brighter and a happier day. He always appeared before his soldiers with a smile, and fought or fasted with them, as neces- sity required. He inspired all around him with courage, and wrote many letters to Congress, entreating them to make great exertions to send him assistance. Accordingly, they endeavored to rouse the country, by representing to the peo- ple the necessity of an immediate increase of the army. This appeal was not without its effect. Phi- ladelphia, in a very short time, furnished Wash- ington with a regiment of fifteen hundred noble fellows, who were resolved to support him to the last. They had been accustomed to the gay company and high living of the city; but they shouldered the musket, slept, with a mere blan- ket around them, on the frozen ground, or in sheds and barns ; and suffered every thing with the poorest of the army. The British now withdrew into winter quar- ters. They occupied the villages for many miles, up and down, on the eastern side of the REV 448 REV Delaware, with their army. Washington was below them, on the other side. But they were tired of pursuing him ; and they believed that his army would soon dwindle away, and the whole country be conquered. They scarcely took the trouble to set guards at night. But Washington watched them like a lynx. On the night of December 25th, he crossed the Delaware, again, with a large part of his army. The night was dark, stormy and cold. The river was crowded with broken ice, rushing together, and sweeping down upon its swift current. But, notwithstanding these difficulties and dangers, the river was passed by the American troops, and they marched on to Trenton. They entered that place at eight in the morn- ing. A large body of Hessians were stationed there. They were completely surprised ; but they fought bravely for a short time. Five hundred cavalry made their escape ; but some fine cannon and more than a thousand prisoners were taken by the Americans. Cornwallis, who lay a few miles off, thought so little of the American " ragamuffins," at this time, that he mistook the noise of the cannon at Trenton for thunder. The British army were amazed at this unex- pected event. They moved and marched about, but to no purpose. Washington started off for the mountains of New Jersey. The British were close upon his rear. They encamped so near him one evening, that they thought it im- possible for him to escape. They put off attack- ing him, however, till the next morning. The Americans kindled up their fires, as usual, and marched off at one o'clock, without noise. They reached Princeton at daybreak, and fell upon the British there so suddenly and so fierce- ly, that sixty of them were killed, and three hundred taken prisoners. Their commanding officer had some fears of an attack, and had written to the commander of the British army, a day or two before, for a reinforcement. " Don't be alarmed," was the answer; " with a corporal and six men, you may scour the whole coun- try ; don't be alarmed." They found themselves mistaken, however, as we have seen. Wash- ington now formed a camp at Morristown. Mil- itia came to him from all parts. The British treated their prisoners with cru- elty. Hundreds were confined in the New York prisons. They were often insulted as rebels. A party of them was once brought before General Howe, to be tried. An English gentleman pleaded their youth in their favor. " It won't do," said the general; " hang up the rascals ! hang them up !" They were only cart- ed through the streets, however, seated on cof- fins. Halters were tied about their necks, and the British soldiers hooted at them. While these things were going on, late in the year 1776, at New York, Sir Peter Parker scoured the coasts of Rhode Island with a large squadron, and overran the whole Province. Meanwhile, a man by the name of Stuart was sent, by the British, among the Indians in the high, wild lands back of Virginia, and the other southern Colonies. The Cherokees were persuaded by him to make war ; and they rushed in upon the settle- ments of the whites, burning the villages, and scalping men, women and children. But a large American force soon marched into their own country. Their wigwams were burnt to the ground, and their cornfields trampled under foot. They were frightened at last, and begged for peace. It once happened, during the expedition against the Indians, that, the Americans hav- ing marched a long way among the hills, Major Pickens was sent ahead with twenty-five men, as a scouting party, to examine the country. One morning, as he and his party waded through the tall grass on the bank of a stream called Little River, more than two hundred Indians came rushing out on a ridge of land just above them. " Let us scalp them," cried the Indian leader to his men ; " they are too few to shoot." But Major Pickens was prepared for their onset. His men were sharp-shooters, and each man had his rifle. He ordered them not to fire until he did; to take sure aim; and, having fired, to bury themselves in the grass, and load their rifles. The Indian chief soon came up within twenty-five yards of the little band, yelling and shaking his tomahawk. Pickens stretched out his rifle, took a deliberate aim, and shot him dead. The twenty-five brave riflemen now fired. The Indians fell on all sides. They yelled more than ever, with fury and terror, dropped their tomahawks, and fell back among the trees. Even there the rifles were too sure for them. Not an Indian could show himself over a log or a rock, but a bullet instantly whistled through him. One of them was seen running his gun through the roots of a fallen tree. A rifleman aimed at him as coolly as if he had been a wooden mark, hit him precisely in the nose, and laid him flat on his back. Another Indian REV 449 REV lifted the dead body, and was running off with it, — for the Indians never leave the dead, — when another rifleman fired, and killed him. Dozens of them were picked off in this way, and the rest fled. A few such skirmishes as these made the In- dians soon tired of fighting the Americans, to which they had been instigated by the British. The next year, when an attempt was made to set them upon the white inhabitants along the frontiers, they replied to the British emissaries, that " the hatchet was buried so deep that they could not find it." In the spring of 1777, General Howe amused himself by sending out detachments from his camp to ravage various parts of the country. On the 2Gth of April, Governor Tryon embark- ed at New York with a detachment; sailed through the Sound; and landed at Fairfield, Connecticut. They marched through the coun- try in battle array, and reached Danbury in twenty hours. As they came, the few militia who were there fled at full speed. The British began to burn and demolish every thing except the houses of the tories. Eighteen houses were consumed ; and eight hundred barrels of pork and beef, two thousand barrels of flour, and seventeen hundred tents were carried off or destroyed. But the militia now began to mus- ter from the country round about. At Ridgefield, General Arnold blocked up the road in front of the British, who were now returning. He had with him about five hun- dred men. These brave fellows, who had marched fifteen or twenty miles in the rain, kept up a brisk fire upon the enemy, as they came on; and stood their ground, till the Brit- ish formed a lodgment upon a hill at their left hand. They were then obliged to give way. The British rushed on, and a whole platoon fired at General Arnold, who was not more than thirty yards distant. His horse was killed. A soldier advanced to run him through with his bayonet; Arnold shot him dead with his pistol, and escaped. The British lost more than two hundred men, but made good their retreat to the Sound. Congress presented General Ar- nold with a fine war-horse, richly caparisoned, for his gallantry. By way of retaliation, on the 24th of May, Colonel Meigs, an American, crossed the Sound with one hundred and seventy men, in whale- boats, and fell upon the enemy at Sagg Harbor, on Long Island. They burned twelve vessels, destroyed a large quantity of forage, killed six 29 men, and brought off ninety prisoners, without losing one of their own men. They returned to Guilford, having been the distance of ninety miles in twenty-five hours from the time of their departure. Congress ordered an elegant sword to be presented to Colonel Meigs. General Howe made great efforts, in the spring of 1777, to persuade the Americans to enlist under him. They were promised large wages and bounties ; but very few of them could be wheedled in this way. They hated the Germans even more than they did the Eng- lish. But great numbers of militia crowded to Washington's camp, at Middle Brook, New Jer- sey. His army amounted to fifteen thousand men. He was so strongly intrenched among the hills, that Howe dared not attack him. The summer was spent in marching to and fro, in New Jersey, without effecting much. But in July, the British mustered a force of sixteen thousand men, at New York. These left there, soon after, with a large fleet. An attack was expected every where upon the coast ; but no one knew whither they were bound. Having been off at 'sea, with high winds, for a long time, they entered Chesapeake Bay at last, and landed at Turkey Point. They left that place September 3d, and, marching towards Philadelphia, came up with Washington's army at a place called Chad's Ford, on the river Brandywine. On the 11th, they had a warm skirmish, and the Americans were driven back. Congress removed to York- town, Virginia; and Howe entered Philadel- phia, in great triumph, September 26th. The Americans were defeated again at Ger- man town, on the 4th of October. The battle began early in the morning, when nothing could be seen farther than thirty yards. Dur- ing the whole action, which lasted nearly three hours, the firing on both sides was directed by the flash of each other's guns. The smoke of the cannon and musketry, mingled with the thick fog, rested over the armies in clouds. The Americans saved their artillery, even to a single cannon, which had been dismounted. This piece belonged to General Greene's divi- sion ; and he stopped in the midst of the re- treat, and coolly ordered it to be placed in a wagon. In this manner it was carried off. General Greene's aid-de-camp, Major Burnet wore a long cue in this battle, as the fashion then was in the army. As he turned round to attend to the cannon just mentioned, his cue was cut off by a musket ball from the enemy. REV 450 REV " Don't hurry, my dear major," cried Greene, laughing ; " pray dismount, and get that long cue of yours ; don't be in haste." The English were driving after them at a tre- mendous rate, cavalry, cannon, and all. The major jumped from his horse, however, and picked up his cue. Just at that moment, a shot took off a large powdered curl from the head of Greene. The major, in turn, advised him to stop and pick it up ; but he rode on quietly, and was the last man on the field. About this time, a smart action was fought at Red Bank, on the Jersey side of the Delaware, seven miles below Philadelphia. The Ameri- cans had erected batteries here, and upon Mud Island, half a mile distant, in the middle of the river. Nothing, therefore, belonging to the British, could pass up and down between their camp, which was now at Philadelphia, and their fleet in the river below. Two ranges of chevaux-de-frise' were placed in the channel. They stretched from the isl- and nearly to the bank. Howe sent down two thousand Germans, under Col. Donop, to attack the Red Bank re- doubt. This was defended by four hundred men. This number was so small, that half the redoubt was left vacant, and a line was drawn through the middle of it. The enemy came on fiercely enough, with a brisk cannonade ; enter- ed the empty part of the redoubt, and shouted for victory. But it was now the garrison's turn. They poured out such a tremendous fire, that the Germans, after a brief conflict, fled, with the loss of four hundred men. Their brave commander, Donop, was killed. Late in the season, however, these fortifications in the river were abandoned. Washington retired into winter quarters, at Valley Forge, sixteen miles from Philadelphia. His army might have been tracked, by the blood of their feet, in marching, without shoes or stockings, over the hard, frozen ground. Thou- sands of them had no blankets, and were oblig- ed to spend the night in trying to get warm, in- stead of sleeping. They erected log-huts for lodgings. For a fortnight, they nearly starved. They were sometimes without bread and without meat. A person passing by the huts of these poor fellows in the evening, might have seen them, through the crevices, stretching their cold hands over the fire, and a soldier occasion- ally coming in or going out, with nothing but a blanket on his shoulders. " No pay, no clothes, no provisions, no rum," said they to each other. But they loved Washington and their country too well, to desert them in these trying times. While a British force lay on the west side of Rhode Island, under General Prescott, during this last season, (1777,) one Barton, a militia major, learned their situation from a deserter, and planned an attack upon them. He collect- ed his regiment, and asked, which of them would hazard their lives with him. If any were willing, they should advance two paces. Every man came forward ; they knew Barton well for a brave fellow. He chose thirty-six of them, mustered five whale-boats, and started off" at nine o'clock in the evening. The men promised to follow him at all hazards. He directed them to sit perfectly still, like statues, and obey him. Barton's boat went ahead, distinguished by a long pole run out from the stem, with a handkerchief tied to it. As they rowed by Prudence Island, they heard the English guard cry, " All's well." A noise was heard on the main land, like the trampling of horses ; but, as the night was very dark, nothing could be seen, and no man whispered a word. They now landed, and set off silently for Prescott's lodgings, which were a mile from the shore. The Americans had to pass by a house occupied by a company of troopers. " Who comes there ?" cried the sentinel. They said nothing ; and a few trees standing before them, their number could not be seen. They moved on. " Who comes there ?" mut- tered the sentinel again. " Friends," replied Barton. "Friends," says the soldier, "ad- vance, and give the countersign." " Poh ! poh !" said Barton ; " We have no countersign — have you seen any rascals to-night?" He rushed upon the guard, at this moment, like a lion, and threatened to blow his brains out, if he uttered a syllable. The poor fellow was hor- ribly frightened, but they took him along with them. They soon reached the house, burst in the door, and rushed forward. A British sol- dier, with only a shirt on, rushing out at the same time, ran for the cavalry house, to give the alarm. The men would not believe him, but laughed at him for being frightened at ghosts. He confessed that the creature (Barton) was clothed in white — and so it passed off. " Is General Prescott here ?" shouted Barton, to the master of the house. " No, sir ! oh no, sir !" said the poor fellow, scared almost out of his wits. Nobody in the house seemed to know any thing about Prescott. " Then," shouted Barton, at the head of the staircase, " I will REV 451 REV burn the house down about your ears." And he serzed a flaming brand from the fire place. " What noise is this ?" cries somebody in the next chamber. Barton opened the door, and found an elderly gentleman sitting up in bed. " Are you General Prescott, sir?" " Yes, sir." "You are my prisoner, then," said Barton. Prescott was half dressed by the soldiers in a moment, and carried off to the shore, with a Major Barrington, who had leaped from a chamber window. They had scarcely rowed through the Eng- lish fleet, when a discharge of cannon, gave the alarm. Fifty boats pursued them in the dark. They escaped, however, and, in six hours from the time of starting, landed at Warwick Point. " You have made a monstrous bold push, ma- jor," said Prescott, as they stepped ashore. " Thank you, sir," said Barton, with a bow ; " we have done as well as we could." This capture occasioned great joy throughout the country. Having seen Washington's army in 'their winter quarters at Valley Forge, we shall now follow the northern army, under Gates, and the English under Burgoyne, through the cam- paign of 1777. The latter intended to break his way from Canada, up the river Sorel, through Lakes Champlain and George, and the river Hudson, to New York. He had under his com- mand one of the finest armies ever seen. The Americans were driven before him, from Champlain almost to Albany. Burgoyne press- ed after them ; but his route lay through the woods, and the Americans cut large trees on both sides of the road, so that they fell across it, and blocked it up entirely. The country was so covered with marshes, and crossed by creeks, that the British were obliged to build no less than forty bridges ; one of them was a log bridge, extending two miles across a swamp. July 30th, Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, on the Hudson. He had with his army a large number of In- dian warriors, and they ravaged the country in the most horrible manner. One of them mur- dered a beautiful American girl, Miss McRea. She was the daughter of a tory, and was to be married to a young English officer. The latter sent two Indians to guide her across the wood from the fort to his own station. They quar- relled on the way, which should have special charge of her, and one of them, to terminate the dispute, sunk his tomahawk in her head, and ended her life. The spirit of the whole country was greatly excited by these things ; and an army of thir- teen thousand men was collected under Gen- eral Gates, to oppose Burgoyne. Meanwhile, a British force, under General St. Leger, had crossed Lake Ontario, from the St. Lawrence, and laid siege to Fort Schuyler, on the southern side. General Herkimer marched northward with eight hundred militia, to relieve it. He fell into an ambuscade, however, in the woods, and was killed. In his last moments, though mortally wound- ed, he was seen sitting on a stump, still en- couraging his men. They stood firm, and sev- eral of the British Indians fell at their first fire. The rest were so enraged, that they turned upon the tories and the British, and murdered seve- ral of them. The Rattle was heard at the fort, and two hundred and fifty of the Americans came out to reinforce the detachment. The British were wholly routed. The Indians fled, howling like wild beasts, and left their kettles, blankets, tomahawks and deer-skins behind. But St. Leger, with his Indians and tories, still besieged Fort Schuyler. General Arnold was now sent, with one thousand men, to at- tack them. But this force was too small, and the Americans had recourse to a stratagem to frighten the enemy. Colonel Brooks, after- wards governor of Massachusetts, seized upon one Cuyler, a tory, who owned a large farm- house. He was in great terror, lest the Ameri- cans should plunder him ; but Brooks agreed to let him go, and spare his property, if he would travel to Fort Schuyler, and tell the Brit- force there, that Arnold was coming upon them with an immense army. Cuyler consented. He bored his coat through in two or three places, in the skirts, and made all haste across the woods to the British camp. He informed the Indians there, that Arnold was rushing upon them with a tremendous force ; he said he had fled before them for his life, and showed them the bullet-holes in his old coat, in proof of his story. The Indians were frightened. Nothing could persuade them to stay with St. Leger. " You told us," said they, " there would be no fight- ing for us ; that we should smoke our pipes ; and when you had taken the prisoners in the fort, we were to have the pleasure of cutting their throats. But this won't do." According- ly, seven or eight hundred immediately left him. He was himself so alarmed, that he fled with his troops, and left his baggage behind him. Two Indian chiefs, who, it seems, understood REV 452 REV the plot, followed them in their march, and played jokes upon the officers. One of the chiefs had loitered behind ; and just as the offi- cers reached a deep, muddy place, he came running up to them, out of breath, and cried out, "They are coming! they are coming!" The soldiers threw down their knapsacks, and plunged through the mire as fast as they could go. St. Leger himself was completely plaster- ed with mud from head to foot. In this way, Fort Schuyler was relieved from the siege without bloodshed. The stratagem practised by the Americans, afforded a great deal of amusement to the army. About the middle of August, Burgoyne sent five hundred Hessians and one hundred Indians, under Colonel Baum, to take possession of a collection of American provisions, at Benning- ton, Vermont. But General Stark was there, luckily, with eight hundred New Hampshire and Vermont militia. Colonel Baum, finding this force greater than his own, threw up tem- porary breastworks for defence, and sent to Burgoyne for reinforcements. Several skir- mishes now followed, in which the Americans had the advantage. Animated by success, they at length ventured to make a general attack upon the breastworks of the enemy. They were without cannon, and destitute even of bayonets. The Hessians, too, fought very brave- ly for two hours. But they were now opposed by still braver men. The Americans rushed into the very flash of their cannon and musketry. Stark had said, at the outset of the battle, " My fellow soldiers, we conquer to-day, or this night Mary Stark is a widow." Such deep resolution seemed to be in the breast of every man. They could not be resisted. Multitudes of the ene- my fell before their keen and well-directed fire. Baum himself was killed, and most of his de- tachment either lost their lives, or were taken prisoners. The Americans, not expecting another ene- my, had dispersed themselves after the battle. Suddenly, a reinforcement of several hundred British troops, under Colonel Breyman, arrived at Bennington. The Americans were now near losing all they had gained. But it happened that a regiment, under Colonel Warner, reached the place soon after. These, with the militia, immediately made an attack upon the enemy. They fought till sunset, when the British re- treated, and, undercover of the night, the great- er part effected their escape. In these two engagements, four hundred of the enemy were killed and wounded, six hun- dred were taken prisoners ; and two hundred and fifty dragoon swords, eight loads of bag- gage, and twenty horses, fell into the hands of the Americans. A Vermont clergyman, at the commencement of the first day's battle, mounted a stump, and prayed for the Americans. The British heard him, and fired at him. The stump was bored through with their bullets, but the clergyman was unhurt. He stepped down. " Now give me a gun," said he ; and he fired the first shot on the American side. An old farmer in the neighborhood had five sons in the battle. He was told the next day, that one of them had come to a miserable end. "What!" cried the gray-headed patriot, " did he leave his post ? did he run from the enemy ?" " Oh no, sir ; worse than that — he fell among the slain, fighting like a hero." " Then I am satisfied," said the old man ; " bring him in ; let me look upon my noble boy." The corpse was brought in ; he wept over it. He then called for a bowl of water, and a napkin ; washed the blood away with his own trembling hands, and thanked God, that his son had died for his country. By the middle of September, the American army under Gates was within three miles of the great army of Burgoyne, on the Hudson. The latter was now severely pressed for provisions, and undertook to march on towards Albany. The Americans met him at Stillwater, on the 19th ; a fierce battle was fought ; and the Brit- ish could advance no farther. They pitched their camp on the plains of Saratoga, three miles above the village, within cannon-shot of the American lines. General Clinton was at this time attempting to force a passage up the Hudson, from New York, to reinforce Burgoyne. Spies and scouts were constantly passing between the two armies. One Palmer was at last caught in this business, and brought into the camp of the American general, Putnam, at Peekskill, New York. He was found to be an American tory, and the British had made him a lieutenant for his pains. Governor Tryon wrote for his release, and threatened vengeance if he were executed. Putnam addressed the following note to the governor, in reply : — " Sir — Nathan Palmer, a lieutenant in your service, was taken in my camp as a spy ; he was tried as a spy ; he was condemned as a REV 453 REV spy ; and you may rest assured, sir, he shall be hanged as a spy. I have the honor to be, &c. Israel Putnam. To his Excellency Governor Tryon. P. S. Afternoon. He is hanged." Hot skirmishes now took place every day be- tween the two armies at Saratoga. September 23d, a cannonade was kept up, with a tremen- dous roar and blaze, for three hours. The field was strown with the killed. An English cap- tain, with forty-eight men, had the command of four fine cannon. He fought till thirty-six of his men were killed. His horses being shot down at last, the cannon were left to the Ameri- cans. Some of the American soldiers, during these skirmishes, often placed themselves in the boughs of high trees, the country being wild and woody, and played with their rifles upon the rear and flanks of the enemy. The British officers were picked off like birds. Burgoyne himself once narrowly escaped. His aid-de- camp, General Phillips, was delivering a mes- sage to him, when he received a rifle ball in his arm. His saddle was furnished with very rich lace, and the sharp-shooter had taken him for Burgoyne. October 7th, the whole British line was driven back by a tremendous charge. The German lines stood firm to the last, and Colonel Brooks was ordered to attack them. He galloped toward them at the head of his regiment, waving his sword ; and Colonel Arnold rushed on with him. Arnold was wounded, and carried off. Brooks kept on, and the Germans were driven back. Colonel Cilley,of New Hampshire, cap- tured a cannon with his own hands, and was seen astride upon it, in the heat of the battle, shouting to his soldiers. In this battle, Burgoyne had a bullet pass through his hat, and another through the edge of his vest. The English general Frazer fought nobly for a long time. Colonel Morgan ob- served him at last, called up one of his best rifle- men, and pointed him out. " Do you see that tall, fine looking fellow," said he, " fighting like a lion ? It is Frazer. I honor the man — but he must die." This was enough for the rifleman. He aimed, and Frazer was shot dead. On the 18th of October, 1777, the whole British army under Burgoyne surrendered to General Gates. There were nearly ten thou- sand men, including Indians; forty cannon, seven thousand muskets, and a vast quantity of tents and cartridges. The whole country was filled with rejoicing. The thanks of Congress were voted to Gates and his army. But the best effect of the victory was, that the French now concluded to fight with the Americans against England. Treaties between the two nations were signed February Gth, 1778, and a fast sailing schooner from France reached Casco Bay, in Maine, in about a month, with the news. It occasioned prodigious joy in Congress, in the army at Val- ley Forge, and over the whole country. A French fleet arrived on the coast early in July. General Clinton knew that they were coming, and therefore thought it necessary to remove to New York. He left Philadelphia on the 18th of June, and marched through New Jersey, to- ward the latter place. The British army had been in possession of Philadelphia for many months. Their departure was a most welcome event to the inhabitants. The business of the city was very much interrupted while they were there, and the intercourse of the inhabi- tants with the neighboring towns and villages, was attended with much difficulty and vexation. The following is the story of Captain Plun- kett, who escaped from the British, while they were at Philadelphia, in a curious manner. He was an American officer, and, being taken pris- oner, was carried to that city, and kept in con- finement. Some years before, he had formed a very pleasant acquaintance with a young Qua- keress. She became apprized of his situation, and determined to effect his release. Accord- ingly, she privately sent him the uniform of a British officer. The captain put it on, and or- dered the guard to open the door. The latter, taking him for a British officer, allowed him to pass into the streets. He immediately went to the house of the young Quakeress, where he remained concealed for some time. His bene- factress then procured for him an old market woman's gown, bonnet and shawl. The cap- tain dressed himself in these, and, thus disguised, set out to leave the city. The British soldiers, who were on guard at the gate, taking him for a market woman, allowed him to pass; and thus he escaped from the enemy. The Americans contrived some machines, which were filled with gunpowder, and sent down the river Delaware, near to the city. They expected that these would explode, and annoy the British shipping; they did, in fact, no damage, but the British were very much alarm- ed ; accordingly, they fired cannon at every thing they saw floating in the river. The Americans heard of all this, and they were very REV 454 REV much amused with it. Mr. Francis Hopkinson, a man of great wit, wrote a ballad on the sub- ject, which follows. Sir William, spoken of in the poem, was Sir William Howe, the British commander. THE BATTLE OF THE KEGS. Gallants, attend, and hear a friend Trill forth harmonious ditty: Strange things I'll tell, which late befell In Philadelphia city. 'Twas early day, as poets say, Just when the sun was rising, A soldier stood on log of wood, And saw a thing surprising. As in a maze he stood to gaze, — The truth can't be denied, sir, — He spied a score of kegs, or more. Come floating down the tide, sir. A sailor too, in jerkin blue, This strange appearance viewing, First rubb'd his eyes, in great surprise, Then said, " Some mischief's brewing. " These kegs do hold the rebels bold, Pack'd up like pickled herring; And they're come down t' attack the town, In this new way of ferrying." The soldier flew, the sailor too, And, scar'd almost to death, sir, Wore out their shoes, to spread the news, And ran till out of breath, sir. Now up and down, throughout the town, Most frantic scenes were acted ; And some ran here, and others there, Like men almost distracted. Some fire cried, which some denied, But said the earth had quaked ; And girls and boys, with hideous noise, Ran through the streets half naked. Sir William he, snug as a flea, Lay all this time a snoring, Nor thought of harm, as he lay warm The land of dreams exploring. Now in a fright he starts upright, Awaked by such a clatter: He rubs both eyes, and boldly cries, " Alas, what is the matter?" At his bedside he then espied Sir Erskine at command, sir ; Upon one foot he had one boot, And the other in his hand, sir. "Arise, arise !" Sir Erskine cries; " The rebels — more's the pity — Without a boat, are all afloat, And ranged before the city. " The motley crew, in vessels new, With Satan for their guide, sir, Pack'd up in bags, or wooden kegs, Come driving down the tide, sir. " Therefore prepare for bloody war, — These kegs must all be routed, Or surely we despised shall be, And British courage doubted." The royal band now ready stand, All ranged in dread array, sir, With stomach stout, to see it out, And make a bloody day, sir. The cannons roar from shore to shore, The small arms make a rattle ; Since wars began, I'm sure no man E'qr saw so sXrange a battle. The rebel dales, the rebel vales, With rebel trees surrounded, The distant woods, the hills and floods, With rebel echoes sounded. The fish below swam to and fro, Attack'd from every quarter; " Why sure," thought they, " the d 's to pay, 'Mongst folks above the water." The kegs, 'tis said, though strongly made, Of rebel staves and hoops, sir, Could not oppose their powerful foes, The conquering British troops, sir. From morn to night, these men of might Display'd amazing courage, And when the sun was fairly down, Retired to sup their porridge. An hundred men, with each a pen, Or more, upon my word, sir, It is most true, would be too few, Their valor to record, sir. Such feats did they perform that day, Against these wicked kegs, sir, That years to come, if they get home, They'll make their boasts and brags, sir. As soon as Washington heard that Clinton had left Philadelphia, he broke up his quarters at Valley Forge, and followed hard after him. A hot battle was fought on the 28th, near Mon- mouth court-house. It did not cease till the evening. Washington slept upon his cloak under a tree, expecting more fighting in the morning; but the British marched off in the night. Sixty of their soldiers were found dead on the battle-field, without wounds. Fatigue and the excessive heat had killed them. In the beginning of this battle, one Molly Pitcher was occupied in carrying water from a spring to a battery, where her husband was employed in loading and firing a cannon. He was shot dead at last, and she saw him fall. An officer rode up, and ordered off the cannon. " It can be of no use, now," said he. but Molly stepped up, offered her services, and took her husband's place, to the astonishment of the army. She fought well, and half pay for life was given her by Congress. She wore an epaulette, and was called Captain Molly, ever after. In the midst of the fight, there was a soldier, whose gun-lock was knocked off by a bullet. At the same instant, a soldier at his side was killed. He picked up the dead man's musket, and was preparing to fire, when a bullet entered the muzzle of the gun, and twisted the barrel REV 455 REV into the shape of a cork-screw. Although the bullets were flying around him like hail-stones, he deliberately knelt down upon the spot, un- screwed the lock from the musket in his hand, and fastened it to his own gun, which he had thrown away. In a few minutes, he was again prepared, and then engaged in the deadly con- flict. No other great battles were fought during the campaign of 1778. The armies only molested each other by sending out small detachments. One Gray, called " No Flint Gray," because he always ordered his soldiers to carry their flints in their pockets, and use the bayonets only, lay in wait in a barn, one night, for a British party. He set guards on the road, but these fell asleep. The enemy found out his situation, rushed in upon him, and surprised him in profound slumber. Sixty-seven, out of one hundred and four of his men, were cruelly bayoneted on the spot. Twenty were made prisoners, and a few escaped. One of these had eleven bayonet wounds in his body ; but he lived many years afterward. Colonel McLane, of Lee's famous legion of troopers, had a narrow escape. He had planned an attack on a small British force stationed on a turnpike road, eight miles from Philadelphia, and rode ahead with a single soldier, to point out the way for his men. It was in the gray of the morning. His comrade suddenly shouted, " Colonel, the British !" spurred his horse, and was out of sight in 'a moment. There, indeed, were the enemy all about him. They had lain in ambuscade, and thus suddenly came upon him. A dozen shots were fired, but his horse only was wounded in the flank. This spurred the animal on at such a furious rate, that he dashed through the woods like a hawk. The colonel now came up with a farm-house by the road-side, when a number of British officers observed him as he passed. They thought he was on his way to the English army, which was directly ahead. He dashed by, and they soon found out their mistake, and pursued him. His horse went with such speed, however, over fences and fields, and every other obstacle, that, at last, only two men continued to pursue him. These came up with him at the ascent of a small hill, the three horses so exhausted, that neither could be forced out of a walk. One of the soldiers cried, " Surrender, you rebellious rascal, or we will cut you to pieces." The colonel made no reply, but laid his hand on his pistols. The man now came up, and seized him by the collar, without drawing his sword. The colonel drew a pistol from his hol- ster, aimed it at the Englishman's heart, and killed him. The other now seized him on the other side ; a fierce struggle ensued. The colo- nel received a severe sword-gash in his left arm ; but he drew his second pistol that moment with his right, placed it between the Englishman's eyes, and killed him by a shot in the head. Colo- nel McLane now stopped the flow of his own blood, by crawling into a mill-pond, and at last reached the American camp. In the camp at Morristown, during the win- ter and the spring of 1779, the Americans were often without meat or bread ; and they ate peas, barley, and almost every kind of horse-food, but hay. Salt could only be got for eight dollars a bushel. The snow was four feet deep. They had nothing but a bed of straw and a blanket at night. They made log huts in February, which were tolerably comfortable. But many deserted, and the rest were almost discouraged. Small parties were often sent out by each of the armies to annoy the other. On one occa- sion, a man by the name of Mayhew was pur- sued through the snow by two of the British troopers. They gained fast upon him, and he found he must be overtaken. So he turned about, and asked, if they would give him quar- ter. " Yes, you dog," shouted both of them, "we'll quarter you." Upon this, Mayhew resolved to give them one shot. He fired at the foremost, who immediately yelled out, " The rascal has broken my leg." Both of them wheeled about, and galloped away as fast as they could go. Little was done on either side during the year 1779. The British main army, under Clinton, was at New York; and the Americans, under Washington, were among the Highlands, above that city, on the river Hudson. In the spring, a British force was sent to ravage the coast of Virginia. They destroyed every thing in their way — villages, shipping and stores. The Virginians sent to the British general to ask, " what sort of war this was." He replied, that " all rebels must be so treated." A month or two afterwards, Governor Tryon was sent to commit similar havoc in Connecti- cut. Colonel Whiting had mustered the militia at Fairfield. Tryon came to that place, and commanded him to surrender. He gave him an hour for consideration ; but, before that time had elapsed, his soldiers set the town on fire, and a great part of it was laid in ashes. At New Haven, all possible damage was REV 456 REV done. The harbor was covered over with feathers, poured out from the beds of the peo- ple. Desks, trunks, closets and chests were broken open ; the women were robbed of their buckles, rings, bonnets and aprons. East Ha- ven was afterwards burnt, and Norwalk shared a similar fate. At a place near Stamford, the British came upon General Putnam, who had one hundred and fifty militia-men with him, and two can- non. With these, he kept the enemy at bay for some time. He then ordered the soldiers into a swamp hard by, where the British troop- ers could not follow ; and he himself rode at full fallop down a steep rock behind the meeting- ouse. Nearly one hundred steps had been hewn in it, like a flight of stairs, for the people to ascend in going to meeting. The troopers stopped at the brink, and dared not follow him. He escaped with a bullet-hole through his hat. In July, a fleet of thirty-seven small vessels was fitted out from Boston, with fifteen hun- dred militia on board, under General Wads- worth and General Lovell. The object was, to drive the British from the Penobscot river, in Maine, where they had built a fort at a place called Bagaduce then, now Castine. They were near succeeding, when a British fleet ap- peared off the mouth of the river. They were obliged to leave their vessels, and most of the troops, after some fighting, escaped across the wild lands of Maine, to the settlements on the river Kennebec. On the Hudson, the Americans were more successful. On the 15th of July, Washington sent General Wayne up the river with twelve hundred men, to attack a strong British fort called Stony Point. At eleven in the evening, Wayne arrived within a mile or two of the fort. The troops were now formed into two columns. Colonel Fleury marched on in front, with one hundred and fifty volunteers, guided by twenty picked men. They marched silently, with unloaded guns and fixed bayonets. A disor- derly fellow, who persisted in loading his gun, was run through the body by his captain. No man was suffered to fire. The fort was defended by a deep swamp, covered with water. The troops marched through it. waist deep. jThey proceeded with charged bayonets, under a tremendous fire of cannon and musketry from the British, till the two columns met in the centre of the fort. The garrison, six hundred in number, were taken prisoners, with fifteen cannon, and a large quantity of stores. The Americanslo st a hundred men : seventeen of the twenty picked men, who marched in front, were among the number. General Lincoln commanded in the Southern Provinces during 1779, the British still holding possession of Savannah. He besieged them there with the help of the French fleet, but was driven off. Prevost, the British general, him- self, met with the same bad luck in besieging Charleston, South Carolina. The people resist- ed him nobly, with some assistance from Lin- coln, and the siege was abandoned. But Prevost ravaged the country, burning and plundering without mercy. The tories joined him, and the negro slaves were hired to serve him as spies and scouts. Peter Francisco, an American trooper, made himself famous at this time. A British plundering dragoon enter- ed a hut in the country, where he happened to be, and ordered him to " deliver up every thing, or die." "I have nothing to deliver," said Peter, who was unarmed ; " do as you please." " Off with those great silver buckles on your shoes, you scoundrel !" said the dragoon. " Take them, if you like," answered Peter; "I will not give them." The soldier stooped to cut them off with his knife, placing his sword under his arm, with the hilt towards Peter. He seized upon it, and struck the dragoon with such force as to sever his head from his body at a single blow. Sergeant Jasper was another brave fellow, who has been mentioned before. He once went secretly, with a young friend of his, by the name of Newton, to visit his brother, a sol- dier at a British fort. As he stayed there a day or two, his brother took him to see some Amer- ican prisoners, just brought in. They were all hand-cuffed. There was a young woman among the rest, with her husband, and a beau- tiful little boy, five years old, leaning his head on her bosom, and weeping. Jasper and Newton were hardly able to bear this. They walked to a wood near by. " I shall not live long," said Jasper. " Why so?" said the other. " Why, the thought of that poor woman haunts me. I shall die, if I do not save them." " That is my mind, exactly," said Newton, grasping Jasper's hand. " Go on, my brave friend ; 1 will stand by you to the last." After breakfast, the prisoners were sent on towards Savannah, under a guard of ten armed men. The two friends followed them through the woods, but without arms. Thinking they would stop at the Spa, a famous spring two REV 457 REV miles from Savannah, they went secretly round to that place, and concealed themselves in the bushes. By and by, the party came up, and the prisoners were suffered to rest at the spring. Two men kept guard with their muskets, while two more came to the spring for water. The others piled their arms up, and sat down at a distance. The two guards now rested their guns against a tree, and began drinking from their canteens. " Now's the time," cried Jas- per. At the same instant, the two heroes sprang from the bushes, snatched the two mus- kets, and shot down the two guards. By this time, two of the soldiers had seized upon their guns. But they were instantly knock down. Jasper and Newton stood over the pile of guns, and ordered the other six to surrender. They were glad to do so. The American prisoners were, now armed, and the hand-cuffs were taken from them, and put upon the British soldiers, and the party soon reach- ed the American camp. During the year 1780, nothing of great conse- quence was done in the Northern Provinces. The two armies lay near each other, the British being in New York, and the Americans on the Hudson ; but no battles were fought. When the British troops took New York, and the Americans had retired some distance up the North River, De Lancey joined the British, took a colonel's commission, and raised a regiment of horse, which was called Le Lancey 's corps. The other took a captain's commission in the American army ; and now, feelings of hostility took the place of the former friendship and kind- ness that subsisted between them. The British often sent out parties to procure, in whatever way they could, cattle, sheep, &c, for food. On one occasion, such a party had collected a large number of these animals, and succeeded in driving them within the British lines, before they were discovered. The place to which they had conveyed their plunder, was within fifteen or twenty miles of New York, and was considered a place of security. Captain Moulton was one of the most active partisans in the American army, and was often employed in enterprises which required both daring and dex- terity. Being well acquainted with the country, the posts where the British were stationed, and also the place where they had retired with their plun- der, he requested and obtained permission to attempt its recapture. In this service, he had about one hundred men under his command. His plan was, to avoid the British posts, dash upon his prey, take them by surprise, and make his retreat before any alarm could be given. Unless completely successful, the destruction of the whole party seemed inevitable. It was about thirty or forty miles from the head-quarters of the American army to the scene of action, which lay several miles within the enemy's lines. Captain M. and his party began their march about noon. He ordered several of his men to keep half a mile or more in advance, to guard against surprise. At sunset, they were about ten or fifteen miles from the place where they expected to find the cattle. They rested till midnight, and then set off for the scene of ac- tion. °They found all still and quiet on their route. When within a mile, they halted, and Captain M. gave directions as to the assault, which he intended to make soon after day-break. He ordered his men not to fire a gun, but told them to rush upon those who guarded the cat- tle, and kill, or take them prisoners. These orders were strictly obeyed, and the surprise was complete. In less than an hour, the cattle were collected, and, with a few pris- oners, were on their way to the American camp, under the escort of twenty men, who were di- rected by Captain M. to push on as fast as possi- ble, until they had passed a large open plain, which lay in their route. He was to stay with the rest of the party , and destroy the stores which they could not convey away, and was then to follow and endeavor to overtake them, by the time they had crossed the plain. It was two hours after his first arrival, before Captain M. commenced his return. His situa- tion he knew to be extremely critical. Colonel De Lancey was stationed but ten or twelve miles distant, with his regiment of horse ; and he feared he would be upon him before he could join the rest of the party. He had just reached the plain already mentioned, when he heard the tramp of horses, and saw a troop of cavalry coming at full gallop upon him. He ordered his men to push on, hoping to cross the plain before he was overtaken. But he had only reached the middle, when De Lancey and his troop had come very near. Captain Moulton immediately halted, and formed his men in a hollow square, ordering the front line to kneel on one knee, and present their bayonets, resting the butt-end of the gun on the ground ; the others to present theirs over the heads of their comrades. He warned them not to fire a gun, and not to speak; but to be unmoved, firm and steadfast. Scarcely were REV 458 REV they thus formed, when the horse, to the num- ber of two or three hundred, came on at full charge, appearing as if they would ride over the little band, and trample them to the earth. But in vain did their riders urge them to the onset. When within a rod of the bristling bay- onets, they recoiled, and, wheeling to the right and left, passed round the corps, and formed for another charge, which was made with little suc- cess. They could only bring their horses near enough to clash their swords upon the bayonets, but without reaching the soldiers. A few pistols were fired, but without effect. Colonel De L. then called upon Captain M. to surrender, but received no answer. At length the horsemen wheeled about, and were preparing for a third charge. Captain M. then spoke to De Lancey : — " If you make another assault upon us, I will order twenty balls to be put through your heart, though we are sacrificed the next moment ! " De Lancey knew this to be no idle threat. He therefore retired with his men, and left the little patriot band to pursue their march. The next day, they arrived at head quarters, with their plunder and prisoners. The most important event of this year, was the treason of General Arnold. He commanded a very strong fort at West Point, sixty miles from New York, on the North River. He un- dertook to deliver it into the possession of the British. Major Andre, a young British officer, went on shore in the night from a British ship in the river, to arrange the business with Arnold. The two officers met privately at some distance from the fort. Arnold agreed, for a certain sum of money, and other considerations, to surrender the fort, with the garrison, cannon and ammu- nition, into the hands of the British commander. In settling the details of this business, Andre was detained till the next day ; and then the boatmen refused to carry him back. He had to return by land, and to pass by the American camp, on his way to New York. He was fur- nished with a horse, and exchanged his uniform for a common coat. He thought himself already out of danger, when, as he trotted quietly on through the woods, he was stopped by three Americans, who were scouting between the out-posts of the two armies. "Who goes there?" cried the first, seizing his bridle. Andre was frightened, and asked the scout where he belonged. " Below," answered he, meaning New York. "So do I," said Andre, deceived; "I'm a British officer, in great haste ; don't stop me." "Are you, indeed?" said the scouts; "then we'll see about that! " They found his papers in his boots. He offered them his gold watch, horse and purse, if they would release him ; but they told him they knew their business too well. He was carried to the camp, and though a brave and accomplished young man, yet he was con- demned and hanged, according to the usages of war, as a spy. Even the Americans shed many tears for him. The scouts were handsomely re- warded. Arnold escaped from West Point in great haste. Andre had contrived to send him notice of his capture. He was dining with some of his friends, when the letter came. They saw he was very much agitated. He started up, and looked wild ; made an excuse to go out, and they saw nothing more of him. He went to New York, and joined the British army; was paid about fifty thousand dollars, and was appointed a general in the British service, for his intended treason. His name was covered with everlast- ing shame and disgrace. Even his gallantry and decided military talents were overlooked and forgotten in his infamy. The British them- selves despised him. After the war, he went to England, where he lived many years in obscu- rity and contempt. The head-quarters of General Washington were at Tappan, on the Hudson, at the time he heard of Arnold's treason. Having taken meas- ures to put the fort in a state of security, he ap- pointed a court-martial, to try Andre. After a very deliberate examination, he was found guilty, and condemned to be hanged as a spy. When the gallant young officer heard that he was condemned to be hanged, he wrote a very pathetic letter to Washington, praying that he might be shot, and die as a soldier, rather than be executed like a felon. No man had a kinder heart than General Washington ; and he would gladly have granted the request of the unfortunate young English- man. But duty to his country would not per- mit him to soften the sentence of the law. He was very anxious to bring Arnold to justice, and imagined that, if he could be taken, Andre might be set free. He resolved to make an attempt to effect these desirable objects, and, having form- ed his plan, Washington sent to Major Lee to repair to head-quarters, at Tappan. " I have sent for you," said General Washington, "in the expectation that you have some one in your corps, who is willing to undertake a delicate and hazardous project. Whoever comes forward will confer great obligations upon me personally, and, REV 459 REV in behalf of the United States, I will reward him amply. No time is to be lost; he must proceed, if possible, to-night. 1 intend to seize Arnold, and save Andre." Major Lee named a sergeant-major of his corps, by the name of Champe, a native of Vir- ginia, a man full of bone and muscle, with a countenance grave, thoughtful, and taciturn, of tried courage, and inflexible perseverance. Champe was sent for by Major Lee, and the plan proposed. This was for him to desert; to escape to New York ; to appear friendly to the enemy ; to watch Arnold, and, upon some fit opportunity, with the assistance of some one whom he could trust, to seize him, and conduct him to a place on the river, appointed, where boats should be in readiness to bear them away. Champe listened to the plan attentively ; but, with the spirit of a man of honor and integrity, replied, " that it was not danger nor difficulty that deterred him from immediately accepting the proposal, but the ignominy of desertion, and the hypocrisy of enlisting with the enemy." To these objections Lee replied, that although he would appear to desert, yet, as he obeyed the call of his commander-in-chief, his departure could not be considered as criminal ; and that, if he suffered in reputation for a time, the mat- ter would one day be explained to his credit. As to the second objection, it was urged, that to bring such a man as Arnold to justice, loaded with guilt as he was ; and to save Andre, so young, so accomplished, so beloved ; to achieve so much good in the cause of his country, was more than sufficient to balance a wrong, exist- ing only in appearance. The objections of Champe were at length sur- mounted, and he accepted the servic"e. It was now eleven o'clock at night. With his instruc- tions in his pocket, the sergeant returned to camp; and, taking his cloak, valise and orderly book, drew his horse from the picket, and mount- ed, putting himself upon fortune. Scarcely had half an hour elapsed, before Captain Carnes, the officer of the day, waited upon Lee, who was vainly attempting to rest, and informed him, that one of the patrol had fal- len in with a dragoon, who, being challenged, put spurs to his horse, and escaped. Lee, hoping to conceal the flight of Champe, or at least to delay pursuit, complained of fatigue, and told the captain that the patrol had probably mistaken a countryman for a dragoon. Carnes, however, was not thus to be quieted ; and he withdrew to assemble his corps. On examination, it was found that Champe was absent. The captain now returned, and acquainted Lee with the dis- covery, adding, that he had detached a party to pursue the deserter, and begged the Major's written orders. After making as much delay as practicable without exciting suspicion, Lee delivers his or- ders, in which he directed the party to take Champe, if possible. " Bring him alive," said he, " that he may suffer in the presence of the army ; but kill him if he resists, or tries to escape after being taken." A shower of rain fell soon after Champe's de- parture, which enabled the pursuing dragoons to take the trail of his horse ; his shoes, in com- mon with those of all the horses of the corps, being made in a peculiar form, and each having a private mark, which was to be seen in the path. Middleton, the leader of the pursuing party, left the camp a few minutes past twelve, so that Champe had the start of but little more than an hour — a period by far shorter than had been con- templated. During the night, the dragoons were often delayed in the necessary halts to examine the road ; but, on the coming of morning, the impression of the horse's shoes was so apparent, that they pressed on with rapidity. Some miles above Bergen, a village three miles north of New York, on the opposite side of the Hudson, on ascending a hill, Champe was seen not more than half a mile distant. Fortunately, Champe descried his pursuers at the same moment, and, conjecturing their object, put spurs to his horse, with the hope of escape. By taking a different road, Champe was, for a time, lost sight of; but, on approaching the river, he was again perceived. Aware of his danger, he now lashed his valise, containing his clothes and orderly book, to his shoulders, and prepared himself to plunge into the river, if ne- cessary. Swift was his flight, and swift the pursuit. Middleton and his party were within a few hundred yards, when Champe threw him- self from his horse, and plunged into the river, calling aloud upon some British galleys, at no great distance, for help. A boat was instantly despatched to the sergeant's assistance, and a fire commenced upon the pursuers. Champe was taken on board, and soon after carried to New York, with a letter from the captain of the gal- ley, stating the past scene, all of which he had witnessed. The pursuers having recovered the sergeant's horse and cloak, returned to camp, where they arrived about three o'clock the next day. On their appearance with the well known horse, the soldiers made the air resound with the acclama- REV 460 REV tion that the scoundrel was killed. The agony of Lee, for a moment, was past description, lest the faithful, honorable, intrepid Champe had fallen. But the truth soon relieved his fears, and he repaired to Washington to impart to him the success, thus far, of his plan. Soon after the arrival of Champe in New York, he was sent to Sir Henry Clinton, who treated him kindly, but detained him more than an hour in asking him questions ; to answer some of which, without exciting suspicion, re- quired all the art the sergeant was master of. He succeeded, however, and Sir Henry gave him a couple of guineas, and recommended him to Arnold, who was wishing to procure Ameri- can recruits. Arnold received him kindly, and proposed to him to join his legion. Champe, however, expressed his wish to retire from war ; but assured the general, if he should change his mind, he would enlist. Champe found means to communicate to Lee an account of his adventures ; but, unfortunate- ly, he could not succeed in taking Arnold, as was wished, before the execution of Andre. Ten days before Champe brought his project to a conclusion, Lee received from him his final communication, appointing the third subsequent night for a party of dragoons to meet him at Hoboken, opposite New York, when he hoped to deliver Arnold to the officers. Champe had enlisted into Arnold's legion, from which time he had every opportunity he could wish, to attend to the habits of the gene- ral. He discovered that it was his custom to return home about twelve every night, and that, previously to going to bed, he always visited the garden. During this visit, the conspirators were to seize him, and, being prepared with a gag, they were to apply the same instantly. Adjoining the house in which Arnold resided, and in which it was designed to seize and gag him, Champe had taken off several fence-pal- ings, and replaced them, so that with ease, and without noise, he could readily open his way to the adjoining alley. Into this alley he intended to convey his prisoner, aided by his companion, one of two associates, who had been introduced by the friend to whom Champe had been origi- nally made known by letter from the com- mander-in-chief, and with whose aid and coun- sel he had so far conducted the enterprise. His other associate was with the boat, prepared at one of the wharves on the Hudson River, to re- ceive the party. Champe and his friend intended to place themselves each under Arnold's shoulder, and thus to bear him, through the most unfrequented alleys and streets, to the boat, representing Ar- nold, in case of being questioned, as a drunken soldier, whom they were conveying to the guard-house. When arrived at the boat, the difficulties would be all surmounted, there being no dan- ger nor obstacle in passing to the Jersey shore. These particulars, as soon as made known to Lee, were communicated to the commander-in- chief, who was highly gratified with the much desired intelligence. He requested Major Lee to meet Champe, and to take care that Arnold should not be hurt. The day arrived, and Lee, with a party of accoutred horses, — one for Arnold, one for the sergeant, and the third for his associate, who was to assist in securing Arnold, — left the camp, never doubting the success of the enterprise, from the tenor of the last received communica- tion. The party reached Hoboken about mid- night, where they were concealed in the ad- joining wood ; Lee, with three dragoons sta- tioning himself near the shore of the river. Hour after hour passed, but no boat approached. At length the day broke, and the major re- tired to his party, and, with his led horses, returned to the camp, where he proceeded to head-quarters, to inform the general of the much lamented disappointment, as mortifying as it was inexplicab' e. Washington, having perus- ed Champe's plan and communication, had in- dulged the presumption, that at length the object of his keen and constant pursuit was sure of execution, and did not dissemble the joy which such a conviction produced. He was chagrined at the issue, and apprehended that his faithful sergeant must have been detected in the last scene of his tedious and difficult enterprise. In a few days, Lee received an anonymous letter from Champe's patron and friend, inform- ing him, that on the day preceding the night fixed for the execution of the plot, Arnold had removed his quarters to another part of the town, to superintend the embarkation of troops, preparing, as was rumored, for an expedition to be directed by himself; and that the American legion, consisting chiefly of American deserters, had been transferred from their barracks to one of the transports, it being apprehended that, if left on shore until the expedition was ready, many of them might desert. Thus it happened, that John Champe, instead of crossing the Hudson that night, was safely deposited on board one of the fleet of transports, from whence he never departed, until the troops REV 461 REV under Arnold landed in Virginia. Nor was he able to escape from the British army until after the junction of Lord Cornwallis at Petersburg, when he deserted ; and, proceeding high up into Virginia, he passed into North Carolina, and, keeping in the friendly districts of that state, safely joined the army soon after it had passed the Congaree, in pursuit of Lord Rawdon. His appearance excited extreme surprise among his former comrades, which was not a little increased, when they saw the cordial re- ception he met with from the late Major, now Lieutenant-Colonel Lee. His whole story was soon known to the corps, which re-produced the love and respect of officers and soldiers, hereto- fore invariably entertained for the sergeant, heightened by universal admiration of his late daring and arduous attempt. Champe was introduced to General Greene, who very cheerfully complied with the promise made by the commander-in-chief, so far as in his power ; and, having provided the sergeant with a good horse, and money for his journey, sent him to General Washington, who munifi- cently anticipated every desire of the sergeant, and presented him with a discharge from fur- ther service, lest he might, in the vicissitudes of war, fall into the hands of the enemy, when, if recognised, he was sure to die on a gibbet. When General Washington was called by President Adams, in 1798, to the command of the army, prepared to defend the country against French hostility, he sent to Lieutenant-Colonel Lee, to inquire for Champe ; being determined to bring him into the field at the head of a com- pany of infantry. Lee sent to Loudon county, Virginia, where Champe settled after his dis- charge from the army ; when he learned that the gallant soldier had removed to Kentucky, where he soon after died. We must now return to our history. Con- gress continued to make great efforts to supply the army, though the paper money they had issued was worth so little, that a soldier would give forty of these dollars for a breakfast, and a colonel's pay would hardly find oats for his horse. The merchants of Philadelphia raised a large sum of better money, however, and sent it to the army. The ladies of that city furnish- ed a large quantity of clothing. But the British, all this time, were overrun- ning the two Carolinas. They had taken Charleston on the 11th of May, 1780, after a long siege, and a brave defence by General Lincoln. General Gates was soon after sent to take command of the southern army . He was joined by hundreds of the Carolina militia. Congress sent him some fine Maryland and Delaware troops also. They had a very long and hard march through the woods, finding nothing to eat on the way, but peaches and green corn, with now and then a flock of wild turkeys, or a drove of wild hogs. But they were brave men, and did not murmur. They even joked each other on account of their thin faces, and lank legs. A battle took place on the 16th of August, near Camden, South Carolina, between Gates and the British under Lord Cornwallis. The former was defeated, and fled eighty miles into the back country. The lean, northern soldiers we have just mentioned, fought nobly an hour after all the rest had been routed like an army of sheep. The brave Baron De Kalb was wound- ed in eleven places. He fell from his horse, and died in the hands of the British. He was a Frenchman, and sent his compliments, in his last moments, to " his gallant Maryland and Delaware soldiers." Generals Marion and Sumpter gave the Brit- ish great trouble during this campaign. Small parties of the mountain militia joined them, and they swept down upon the enemy, wherever they could find them in small parties. The far- mers' wives furnished them pewter spoons and platters, to make into bullets ; and they forged swords of scythes and the saws of saw-mills. In October, sixteen hundred of these moun- taineers mustered together to attack a British force under Major Ferguson, who had encamp- ed not far from the mountains. For weeks, they had no salt, bread, or spirits; they slept upon boughs of trees, without blankets, drank onlv from the running streams, and lived upon wild game, or ears of corn, and pumpkins, roast- ed by their great log-fires in the woods. They were to assault Ferguson in three par- ties, and Colonel Cleaveland addressed his party in these words : " My brave boys, we have beat the red-coats and the tories, and we can beat them again. They are all cowards. You must fight, each man for himself, without orders. Fire as quick as you can, and stand as long as you can. If you must retreat, get behind the trees — don't run, my fine fellows, don't run !" " Hurrah for the mountaineers !" cried they, and rushed down upon the enemy. The Americans were driven back at the point of the bayonet ; but they only lay down among the logs and rocks, and, being sharp-shooters, killed more than two hundred of the enemy. Ferguson was killed himself, and eight hundred REV 462 REV of his soldiers surrendered. Ten of the most savage tories, notorious rascals, were hung up on the neighboring trees. With the year 1781, on which we now enter, the war drew rapidly toward a close. It was carried on almost entirely in the Southern Prov- inces. General Greene was appointed to com- mand the American forces in that quarter. At the time of his arrival, they were a miserable, half-starved militia, of three thousand men. They marked the frozen ground with the blood of their bare feet, and lived half the time upon frogs, taken from the swamps, wild game, rice, and wretchedly lean cattle. But they were soon reinforced ; and small parties, under Sumpter, Marion, Morgan, and others, often annoyed the forces of Cornwallis. Colonel Washington laid siege to a strong block- house near Camden, defended by a British colonel, and a hundred tories. He had no can- non, and few men ; but he carved out a few pine logs in the shape of cannon, mounted them on wheels, and summoned the tories to surren- der. They were frightened at the appearance of his big cannon, and surrendered. Not a shot was fired upon either side. On the 17th of January, Colonel Morgan, with eight hundred militia, was attacked at a place called the Cowpens, in South Carolina, by Tarleton, a famous British officer, witli eleven hundred men and two cannon. The enemy rushed on with a tremendous shout. The front line of militia were driven back. Tarleton pur- sued them, at full gallop, with his troopers, and fell upon the second line. They too were giv- ing way. At this moment, Colonel Washington charged Tarleton with forty-five militia-men, mounted, and armed as troopers. The whole line now ral- lied under Colonel Howard, and advanced with fixed bayonets. The British fled. Their cannon were left behind ; three hundred British soldiers were killed and wounded, and five hundred were taken prisoners ; eight hundred muskets, sev- enty negroes, and one hundred dragoon horses, also fell into the hands of the Americans. Many British officers were killed. Morgan always told his sharp-shooters " to aim at the epaulettes, and not at the poor rascals who fought for six- pence a day." General Greene was now driven back, by Cornwallis, into North Carolina. The latter pursued him through the Province, over moun- tains and swamps, and arrived at the river Dan, just as Greene had crossed it. Cornwallis now found it necessary to turn about ; and so he marched back, and Greene soon followed him with new forces. Sumpter joined him at Orangeburg, having received orders to do so during his hasty retreat before the enemy. It seems Greene could find no man in his army who would carry the mes- sage to Sumpter. A country girl, named Emily Geiger, at last offered her services, and was sent. She was taken by the British, and confined for the purpose of being searched. She, however, ate up the letter which she carried, piece by piece. They released her, to go home, as they supposed ; but she took a roundabout way, reached Sumpter's camp safely, and delivered her message, in her own words. The Americans were defeated near Guilford court-house on the 15th of March. But Corn- wallis retreated soon after. He had suffered great loss, and his army was small. A militia colonel cried out in this battle, as the British were marching up, " They will surround us." He was frightened himself, and frightened his soldiers so much, that they gave way, while the enemy were one hundred and forty yards distant. Colonel Washington, at the head of his troop- ers, nearly captured Cornwallis in this battle. He was just rushing upon the British general, when his cap fell from his head. As he leaped to the ground for it, the leading American officer behind him was shot through the body, and ren- dered unable to manage his horse. The animal wheeled round, and galloped off with his rider; and the troop, supposing it was Washington's or- der, wheeled about also, and rode off at full speed. Fort Watson, between Camden and Charles- ton, surrendered, in April, with 114 men, to General Marion. The fort was built on a mound of earth thirty feet high ; but Marion, with his mountaineers, had raised a work which over- looked it in such a manner, that not a man in the fort could show his head over the parapets, or scarcely point his musket through a hole in the walls, but the riflemen above would shoot him. Greene was again defeated at Camden, on the 25th of April, by nine hundred English, under Lord Rawdon. But in a month or two, the British lost six forts, and that of Augusta was among them. Here there were three hundred men, as a garri- son, who almost buried themselves under ground, while the Americans were building up batteries within thirty yards, which swept the fort through and through. Greene and all his officers, and all his men, fought nobly the whole season. " I will recover the Province," said the general, " or die in the attempt." It is remarka- REV 463 REV ble, that although his force was much inferior to that of Cornwallis, and though he was frequently defeated, yet, by his admirable manoeuvres, the result of the campaign was entirely favorable to the Americans, and injurious to the British. Greene attacked the enemy at Eutaw Springs, September 8th, and completely defeated them, killing and capturing eleven hundred of their best soldiers. In pursuing the enemy, one Manning found himself surrounded by them. He seized upon a small British officer; and, be- ing himself a stout man, placed him on his shoulders, and retreated, the English not daring to fire at him. The little officer was horribly frightened, but Manning took good care of him. The war was closed by the capture of Corn- wallis, at Yorktown, on York River, Virginia. He had left Carolina, and now expected to over- run Virginia. But in September, the Ameri- cans and French, under Washington, surround- ed him from all quarters, on the land ; while the French fleet, riding in Chesapeake Bay, blocked up the mouths of the rivers, and kept the Eng- lish fleet from coming in. It was impossible for Clinton, with all his forces at New York, to reinforce Cornwallis. Washington had kept him in fear all summer, and made him believe, till the last moment, that he was to be besieged in New York. It was not till August 24th, that Washington left his camp on the Hudson, and marched through New Jer- sey and Penns3'lvania, to the head of the Chesa- peake. The French Admiral De Grasse, who had just arrived, carried the American forces down the bay to Yorktown. The army passed through Philadelphia, on this march, in the most splendid style. The line was more than two miles long. The streets were crowded with spectators ; and the win- dows, to the highest stories, were filled with la- dies, waving their handkerchiefs, as the gallant troops passed by. It was a magnificent specta- cle. There was Washington, with all his gen- erals ; the French Count Rochambeau, with all his; General Knox, with one hundred fine can- non; and the whole army, pressing on with proud steps and a noble confidence. The music was beautiful ; every body thought they would conquer ; and, just at this time, news came, that the French fleet had arrived in the Chesapeake. The city rang with the shouts of the immense multitude. By the 7th of October, Cornwallis was com- pletely besieged. He had raised intrench- ments; but the allied army, the Americans and French, had erected breast- .vorks all about him, circle after circle, and now opened a battery of one hundred cannon. They fired day and night. The roar was terrible. The ground, for miles, shook with it ; and the bombs and shells were seen whirling and crossing each other in the dark sky, and blazing like comets. If they fell upon the ground, it was torn up for a rod around, and dozens were killed when they burst. The bombs sometimes went over the heads of the enemy, and fell among the Brit- ish vessels in the harbor, near the British works at Gloucester Point, on the other side of the river. The water spouted in columns as they fell. One night, an attack was made upon two re- doubts, which the British had built out so far, that they stood in the way of some American works just building around them. The French were ordered to take one redoubt, and the Amer- icans, under Lafayette, the other. The two parties tried to out-do each other. Lafayette carried his redoubt first, however, and sent his aid-de-camp to the leader of the French party, through all the fire of the batteries, to tell him he was in. " So will I be," said the Frenchman, " in five minutes;" and he performed his promise. Cornwallis surrendered on the 19th. His ar- my, of about seven thousand men, marched out, at two o'clock, and passed between the Ameri- can line on one side, and the French on the other, stretched out for more than a mile. They were all dressed in their most splendid uniforms, with fine music, and colors flying. The Eng- lish inarched, carrying their colors bound up, with a slow and solemn step. The English general rode up to Washington, at the head of the line, and excused the absence of Cornwallis, who feigned sickness. Wash- ington pointed him politely to General Lincoln, and the latter directed him to a large field, where the whole British army laid down their arms, and were led away prisoners. After this capture, the English gave up all hopes of success. No fighting of any consequence took place, after this, upon the land. The British troops were wholly withdrawn from the United States of America in the fol- lowing season. The terms of peace with Eng- land were settled by the British and American ambassadors at Paris, in November, 1782. The 3d of November, 1783, was fixed upon by Congress for the final disbanding of the American army. On the day previous, Wash- ington issued his farewell orders, and bade an affectionate adieu to the soldiers who had fought with him in the great struggle, which was now over. RHO 464 RIC Soon after taking leave of the army, General Washington was called to the still more painful hour of separation from his officers, greatly en- deared to him by a long series of common suf- ferings and dangers. The officers, having previously assembled in New York for the purpose, General Washing- ton now joined them, and, calling for a glass of wine, thus addressed them : " With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take my leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." Having thus affectionately addressed them, he took each by the hand, and bade him fare- well. Followed by them to the side of the Hud- son, he entered a barge, and, while tears flowed down his cheeks, he turned towards the com- panions of his glory , and bade them a silent adieu. Thus ended the American Revolution. REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, an eminent En- glish painter, born at Plympton in Devonshire, in 1723. He was particularly celebrated for his portraits, in which he rejected the stiff, formal style of his predecessors. In 1769 he was elect- ed president of the royal academy and received the honor of knighthood. He lived in habits of intimacy with Johnson, Garrick, Burke, and other eminent men of his time, and, although afflicted with incurable deafness in the latter part of his life, enjoyed conversation by means of a trumpet. In 1791 his eyesight failed, and the following year he died, at the age of seventy. Mr. Burke once observed to Sir Joshua Rey- nolds — " What a delight you have in your pro- fession." — " No, Sir," said Dr. Johnson, taking up the question, " Reynolds only paints to get money — " Miss Hannah Moore, who was pre- sent, defending Sir Joshua, insisted that the pleasure experienced by the artist was derived from higher and more luxuriant sources than mere pecuniary consideration. * : Only answer me," said the moralist, in an impressive tone, " did Leander swim the Hellespont merely be- cause he was fond of swimming?" RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States, bounded N. and E. by Massachusetts, S. by the Atlantic ocean, and W. by Connecticut ; con- taining 1350 square miles, and 97,212 inhabi- tants. COUNTIES AND SHIRE TOWNS. Bristol - - - Bristol Kent ... East Greenwich Newport - - - Newport Providence - - Providence. Rhode Island is extensively engaged in man- ufactures. The principal article is cotton goods. The land in the vicinity of Narraganset bay is very fertile, in other parts poor. Brown Uni- versity, at Providence, is a well-endowed and flourishing institution ; and education generally receives careful attention. Roger Williams, a minister who was driven from Massachusetts on account of his religious principles, made the first settlement in this state at Providence in 1636. He established a community in which persecution for religion was unknown. The official style of the state is the state of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The island which gives its name to the state is in Narra- ganset bay, is about 15 miles long and 3 broad, healthy and pleasant, and containing 3 town- ships, Newport, Portsmouth, and Middletown. RHODES, an island in the Grecian archi- pelago, 10 miles from the southern coast of Asia Minor, now in the hands of the Turks. It was formerly celebrated for the fertility of its soil, its consecration to the gods, and its wonderful works of art, including the celebrated Colossus (see Colossus of Rhodes). It was made a Roman province in the reign of Vespasian, in 1309 the knights of St. John held possession of it but were forced to surrender it to Soliman II, in 1522. RICHARD I, king of England, surnamed Cceur de Lion, was born at Oxford, 1157, and was crowned at London Sept. 3, 1189 ; released the king and people of Scotland from their oaths of homage they had taken to his father, for 10,000 marks, Dec. 5, 1189; embarked at Do- ver, Dec. 11 ; set out on the crusade, and joined Philip of France on the plains of Vezelay, June 29, 1190; took Messina the latter end of the year ; married Berengera, daughter of the king of Navarre, May 12, 1191 ; defeated the Cypri- ans, and took their king prisoner, 1191 ; and was taken prisoner near Vienna, on his return home, by Leopold, Duke of Austria, Dec. 20, 1192, by whom he was detained two years, and was ransomed for 40.000/., and set at liberty at Mentz. He returned to England March 20, 1194, but a war breaking out between England and France, King Richard besieged the castle of Chaluz, near Limoges, in Normandy, where he was shot with an arrow, and died April 6, 1199; he was buried at Fpntevraud, and suc- ceeded by his brother. RICHARD II, King of England, was born at Bourdeaux in 1367, and succeeded King Ed- ward III in 1377. Being only eleven years old when he came to the crown, the kingdom was governed, during his minority, by his uncles, RIC 465 RID the Dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester. His reign was disturbed by the famous rebellion of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw. He next found himself involved in a war with the barons, who forced him at last to sacrifice his misleading fa- vorites to their revenge. But the events which proved most fatal to him were the Duke of Gloucester's death, whom he caused to be smothered, and his unjust seizure of the Duke of Lancaster's goods upon his decease. Upon these provocations, Richard, having gone to Ireland to pacify a disturbance there, Henry, the young Duke of Lancaster, landed in England with some forces, which soon increased to a great number by the discontented party. The Duke of York, whom King Richard had left to govern the kingdom in his absence, could gain but little assistance to oppose the Duke of Lancaster. The king's affairs now bore so dismal an aspect, that he offered to resign his crown. On this, he was conducted to London, where he was lodged in the Tower. A parliament was sum- moned at Westminster, in which King Richard was charged with the breach of his coronation oath, in thirty-two articles ; the result of which was, his solemn resignation of the crown to his cousin Henry, Duke of Lancaster, which was accepted by the parliament. Thus the house of Lancaster obtained the throne in the person of this Henry IV of that name ; till the house of York prevailing in the reign of Henry VI, the Lancasterian line lost the crown. Upon this resignation, King Richard was removed to Pomfret Castle, where he was soon after mur- dered, Feb. 13, 1400. RICHARD III, formerly duke of Gloucester, was the youngest brother of King Edward IV, and the last king of England of the line of York. This wicked prince, to obtain the crown and secure it when it was in his possession, spared nothing that stood in his way. Having first killed King Henry VI, and Prince Edward his son, he next procured the death of the Duke of Clarence, his own brother, by an impeachment of high-treason in the reign of Edward IV. Ed- ward dying, left two sons in their nonage, Ed- ward V, his next successor, and Richard. Be- fore Edward could be crowned, Richard, his uncle, seated himself on the throne by the as- sistance of the Duke of Buckingham. This being done, he had Edward and his brother, then in the Tower, smothered in their beds. There was then at the court of the Duke of Bretagne, in France, Henry, earl of Rich- mond, the next heir to the house of Lancaster, whose advancement to the crown Buckingham, 30 with some others of the conspiracy, resolved upon ; with this sage proviso, that Henry should consent to marry the Lady Elizabeth, eldest daughter of King Edward IV, in order to unite the two houses of York and Lancaster ; but be- fore the plot was carried into execution, the duke being betrayed by an old servant of his, lost his head without any form of trial. Henry, in the mean time, was preparing to come over, and landed soon after with 200 men at Milford Haven. At last, with a body of 5000 men, he encountered King Richard at Bosworth, in Lei- cestershire, in 1485. The battle was sharp, and some time doubtful ; and at last Henry gained the day, and by this single victory obtained the crown. Richard was killed in the field, and was buried at Leicester. (See Bosworth Field.) King Richard is erroneously represented as a deformed person. He was of small stature, but not otherwise noticeable. Walpole has done much towards removing some of the darker stains upon his character. RICHELIEU, (Armand Jean du Plessis), a cardinal and statesman, was born of a noble family at Paris, in 1585. He studied in the Sorbonne, and in 1007 obtained the bishopric of Lucon. He was also appointed grand-al- moner, and in 1G16 made secretary of state. When Mary de Medici fell into disgrace, Rich- elieu was banished to Avignon, where he wrote his "Method of Controversy." Being soon after recalled to court, he brought about a rec- onciliation between the king and queen, for which he was rewarded with a cardinal's hat, and appointed prime minister, in which situa- tion, he displayed extraordinary talents. He subdued the Protestants, reduced Savoy, hum- bled Spain, struck terror into Germany, and commanded the admiration of all Europe. In the midst of this splendor, he died Dec. 4, 1642, and was buried at the Sorbonne, where Girardon constructed a magnificent mausoleum to his memory. RIDLEY (Nicholas), a Protestant martyr, was born in Northumberland. To qualify him- self for divinity, he went to Paris, and studied some time in the Sorbonne. On his return he was chosen proctor of the university, in which capacity he signed the declaration against the papal supremacy. He was also elected public orator, and archbishop Cranmer made him his chaplain. Soon after this he became master of Pembroke Hall, with which he held some con- siderable church preferment at Canterbury and Westminster. On the accession of Edward VI, he was consecrated bishop of Rochester; and, ROB 466 ROB in 1550, was translated to London, where he discharged the duties of his office with unwea- ried diligence. He was also employed in all the ecclesiastical measures of that reign, par- ticularly in the compiling of the liturgy, and the framing of the articles of religion. But one of the most distinguished occurrences in the life of this great prelate, was that of inciting King Edward to endow the three great foundations of Christ's, Bartholomew's, and St. Thomas's hospitals. It was the misfortune, however, of the bishop, to become the dupe of the Duke of Northumberland, who prevailed upon him to concur in the proclamation of Lady Jane Grey. For this he was committed to the Tower, and after a confinement of eight months, sent to Oxford, these to hold a disputation with the tri- umphant party. This mockery was followed by a degradation from the episcopal dignity, and sentence of condemnation to the flames, which he endured with the venerable Latimer before Baliol College, Oct. 15, 1555. RIZZIO (David), a Piedmontese musician, who ingratiated himself into the favor of Mary queen of Scotland. He became her secretary for French despatches, and was the only avenue by which honors or emolument could be ob- tained ; at the same time that he became more and more obnoxious to the whole kingdom, particularly to the nobles. He was barbarously assassinated by Darnley, the husband of Mary, on the suspicion of a criminal intercourse be- tween her and Rizzio. ROBERT II, king of Scotland, and first of the Stuarts, succeeded David Bruce, his uncle, in 1371. At the solicitation of Charles V of France, he invaded England, took Berwick and Perth, and defeated 15,000 English, who invaded Scotland, under General Talbot. A truce being agreed upon betwixt the English and French soon after, in which the Scots were compre- hended, the English invaded the Scots before the publication, wasting the lands of the Doug- lasses and Lindsays. The truce being ended, the Scots invaded England; on which, Richard II invaded Scotland with 60,000 foot and 8000 horse. The Scots, not having force enough to fight him, invaded England again, to divert him. The Scots designed to invade England again, but knowing the king to be of a peaceable in- clination, and his eldest son unfit for war, they made application to Robert, earl of Fife, the second, and levied 30,000 men privately for the expedition. The Scots divided their army into two parts ; the greatest commanded by the king's two sons, marched towards Carlisle. Douglas, with 300 horse and 2000 foot entered Northumberland. The great army carried all before them without opposition ; but Douglas, having wasted the country as far as Durham, came before New- castle, and threatened it with a siege. He staid before the town two days, which were spent in skirmishes ; and at last the generals, Douglas and Percy agreed upon a personal rencounter, wherein Percy was dismounted and disarmed ; but his men coming to his rescue, he was saved. Douglas now marched off with his men, and attacked Otterburn castle. Douglas resolved to stay there and answer Percy's challenge; who, marching against him with 10,000 men, had nearly surprised him at supper. But the alarm being given, and the Scots ad- vantageously posted, the battle began with great vigor. Douglas broke into the thick of the en- emy, and made a terrible slaughter, but before his men came up, he had received three mortal wounds. The English, at length, were totally routed, 1840 slain, 1000 wounded, and 1040 taken prisoners. The Scots carried off the Fer- cies, with four hundred prisoners of note ; dis- missed the rest; took Douglas's corpse, with those of other great men, along with them, and buried them at Melrose. This victory was ob- tained July 21, 1388, but Douglas was so deeply lamented, that both the Scots armies returned home as melancholy as if they had been con- quered. King Robert died April 19, 1390, in the 19th year of his reign. ROBERT HI, called John Robert, succeeded Robert II in 1390. He was the first who cre- ated dukes in Scotland ; and his brother, the viceroy, was made Duke of Albany ; but Doug- las refused this new title. A war happened af- terwards with England, in which the Earl of March took part with the English, who invaded the kingdom, and besieged Edinburgh castle; the English returning without having effected their purpose, the Scots invaded Northumber- land, and were surprised and defeated on re- turning with their spoil ; when Archibald Doug- las gathered 10,000 men, but was defeated, taken prisoner, and many of the nobles slain, by Henry Percy of Northumberland, and George earl of March abovementioned, May 7, 1401. In the mean time all things went to ruin ia Scotland, by the tyranny of the governor, who starved his nephew, the prince, to death ; so that the king was obliged to secure James by sending him to France ; but landing at Flam- borough in Yorkshire, he was detained prisoner by the English, contrary to the truce, which so ROD 467 ROM afflicted his father, that he died April 1, 1406, and the government was settled upon his broth- er ; during whose administration the English invaded Scotland, and overran the southern counties. In 1419 auxiliaries were sent to France under the Earl of Buchan, who defeated the Duke of Clarence ; for which the Earl of Buchan was made Lord High Constable of France. Robert, the governor of Scotland, died in 1420, and his son Murdo succeeded him : -during whose re- gency more auxiliaries were sent to France, and Douglas was created Duke of Touraine in that kingdom ; but they were twice defeated by the English, under John duke of Bedford, who carried James I king of Scotland with him, be- ing still prisoner since his arrival at Flambo- rough. James being prevailed upon to forbid his subjects to fight against that army where he was in person, they answered, that they did not acknowledge him for their king while he was in the power of his enemy. But not long after, Murdo, the governor, being displeased with the insolence of his own sons, James 1 was ransomed and brought home in 1423. ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- worth, Marquis of, came into power on the dissolution of the Grenville administration, in 1765, and was appointed first Lord of the Trea- sury. He was a nobleman possessing but a mediocrity of understanding, and noway scal- culated to warrant the expectation of his long continuance in office : he was, however, a man of disinterested principles and unaffected patri- otism. The chief business of his administration was to undo all that his predecessors had done, particularly repealing the stamp and cider acts. In 1766 he was succeeded in his office by the Duke of Grafton. RODNEY, Caesar, a signer of the American declaration of independence, was born at Dover, Delaware, about 1730. He successively filled the offices of high sheriff, justice of the peace, and judge of the lower courts, and represented his county in the provincial legislature. In 1775 he was made brigadier-general. In 1777 he remained for two months in the camp near Princeton, laboriously occupied. For four years he was president of his state, but retired from office in 1782, and died the following year. RODNEY, George, Brydges, admiral, was the son of captain Henry Rodney , a naval officer. He was born in 1717, entered early into the navy, and in 1742 obtained the command of a ship. In 1749 he was appointed Governor of Newfoundland; and on his return, in 1753, married the sister of the Earl of Northampton. In 1759 he was made Admiral of the Blue; and the same year destroyed the stores, prepared at Havre de Grace, for an invasion of England. In 1761 he served on the West India station with such activity, that at the conclusion of the war he was made a baronet. In 1768 he was elected into parliament for Northampton ; but the contest ruined his estate. In 1771 he went to Jamaica as commander-in-chief; and at the expiration of the term of service, retired to France, where overtures were made to him on the part of that government, which he refused with indignation. In 1779 he was again called into employment ; and the year following, by defeating the Spanish fleet, off Cape St. Vin- cent, he saved Gibraltar. After this he went to the West Indies, where, on the 12th of April, 1782, he gained a great victory over Count de Grasse ; for which he was made a peer. He died in London, May 24, 1792. ROE, Sir Thomas, a statesman, was born about 1560, at Low Lay ton, in Essex, and ed- ucated at Magdalen college, Oxford ; after which he became a student of one of the Inns of court. In 1604 he was knighted, and soon after went to make discoveries in America. In 1614 he was sent on an embassy to the Mogul, at whose court he remained three years. In 1621 he went in the same capacity to Constantinople, and during his residence there, collected a num- ber of manuscripts, which he presented to the Bodleian library. In 1629, Sir Thomas negoti- ated a peace between Poland and Sweden : and it was by his advice, that Gustavus Adolphus entered Germany, where he gained the battle of Leipsic. In 1640 he was chosen to repre- sent the university of Oxford in parliament. The next year he was sent ambassador to the diet of Ratisbon, and on his return was made Chancellor of the Garter. He died in 1644. ROME, a city of Italy, the capital of the Ro- man empire, situate on the banks of the river Tiber, at the distance of about sixteen miles from the sea. The name of its founder, and the manner of its foundation, are not precisely known. Romulus, however, is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of that celebrated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the 4th year of the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palatine ; and ROM 468 ROM the founder, to give his followers the appear- ance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common asylum, for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from their native country to avoid the pun- ishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the death of the founder, the Ro- mans had covered with their habitations, the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Caslius, and Quirinalis. After many successful wars against the neigh- boring states, the views of Romulus were di- rected to regulate a nation naturally fierce, war- like, and uncivilized. Under the successors of Romulus, the power of Rome was increased, and the boundaries of her dominions extended ; while one was employed in regulating the forms of worship, and inculcating in the minds of his subjects a reverence for the Deity, another was engaged in enforcing discipline among the ar- my, and raising the consequence of the soldiers in the government of the state ; and a third made the object of his administration consist in adorning his capital, in beautifying its edifices, and in fortifying it with towers and walls. During 244 years the Romans were governed by kings, but the tyranny, the oppression, and the violence of the last of these monarchs, and of his family, became so atrocious, that a revo- lution was effected in the state, and the demo- cratical government was established. The monarchical government existed under seven princes, who began to reign in the following order : Romulus, B. C. 753 ; and after one year's interregnum, Numa, 715; Tullus Hosti- lius, 672 ; Ancus Martius, 640 ; Tarquin Pris- cus, 616; Servius Tullius, 578; and Tarquin the Proud, 534, expelled 25 years after, B. C. 504 ; and this regal administration has been properly denominated the infancy of the Roman empire. After the expulsion of the Tarquins from the throne, the Romans became more sensible of their consequence : with their liberty they ac- quired a spirit of faction, and became so jealous of their independence, that the first of their con- suls who had been the most zealous and ani- mated in the assertion of their freedom, was banished from the city because he bore the name, and was of the family of the tyrants ; and another, to stop their suspicions, was obliged to pull down his house, whose stateliness and magnificence above the rest, seemed incompati- ble with the duties and the rank of a private citizen. To the fame which their conquests and daily successes had gained abroad, the Romans were not a little indebted for their gradual rise to superiority ; and to this may be added the poli- cy of the census, which every fifth year told them their actual strength, and how many citi- zens were able to bear arms. And, indeed, it was no small satisfaction to a people, who were continually making war, to see, that in spite of all the losses which they might sustain in the field, the increase of the inhabitants of the city was prodigious, and almost incredible : and had Romulus lived after the battle of Actium, he would have been persuaded with difficulty of the great number of inhabitants contained with- in those walls, which, in the most flourishing period of his reign, could scarce muster an ar- my of 3000 infantry and 300 horse. But when Rome had flourished under the consular government for about 120 years, and had beheld with pleasure the conquests of her citizens over the neighboring states and cities, which, according to a Roman historian, she was ashamed to recollect in the summit of her pow- er, an irruption of the barbarians of Gaul ren- dered her very existence precarious, and her name was nearly extinguished. The valor of an injured individual, Camillus, saved it from destruction, yet not before its buildings and temples were reduced to ashes. This celebrated event, which gave the appel- lation of another founder of Rome to Camillus, has been looked upon as a glorious era to the Romans. But no sooner were they freed from the fears of their barbarian invaders, than they turned their arms against those states which re- fused to acknowledge their superiority, or yield their independence. Their wars with Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, displayed their character in a different view ; if they before had fought for freedom and independence, they now drew their swords for glory ; and here we may see them conquered in the field, and yet refusing to grant that peace for which their conqueror himself had sued. The advantages they gained from their battles with Pyrrhus were many. The Roman name became known in Greece, Sicily, and Africa, and in losing or gaining a victory, the Romans were enabled to examine the ma- noeuvres, observe the discipline, and contem- plate the order and the encampments of those soldiers whose friends and ancestors had accom- panied Alexander the Great in the conquest of Asia. Italy became subjected to the Romans at the end of the war with the Tarentines, and that ROM 469 ROM period of time has been called the second age, or the adolescence of the Roman empire. Af- ter this memorable era, they tried their strength not only with distant nations, but also upon a new element ; and in the long wars which they waged against Carthage, they were successful, and obtained the sovereignty of the sea : and though Hannibal for sixteen years kept them in continual alarms, hovered round their gates, and destroyed their armies almost before their walls, yet they were doomed to conquer, and soon to add the kingdom of Macedonia and the provinces of Asia to their empire. Yet while their conquests were so extensive abroad, we find them torn by factions at home ; and so far was the resentment of the poorer cit- izens carried, that we see the enemy at the gates of the city, while all are unwilling to take up arms and to unite in the defence of their com- mon liberty. The senators and n«bles were ambitious of power, and endeavored to retain in their hands that influence which had been ex- ercised with so much success, and such cruelty, by their monarchs. This was the continual occasion of tumults and sedition. The people were jealous of their liberty. The oppression of the nobles irritated them, and the stripes to which they were too often exposed without mercy, were often productive of revolutions. The plebeians, though originally the poorest and most contemptible citizens of an indigent nation, whose food in the first ages of the em- pire was only bread and salt, and whose drink was water, soon gained rights and privileges by their opposition. Though really slaves, they became powerful in the state ; one concession from the patricians produced another, and when their independence was boldly asserted by their tribunes, they were admitted to share in the highest offices of the state, the laws which for- bade the intermarriage of plebeian and patrician families were repealed, and the meanest peasant could by valor and fortitude be raised to the dig- nity of dictator and consul. It was not till these privileges were obtained by the people from the senate, that Rome began to enjoy internal peace and tranquillity, her battles were then fought with more vigor, her soldiers were more anima- ted, and her sovereignty was more universally established. But supreme power, lodged in the hands of a factious and ambitious citizen, becomes too often dangerous. The greatest oppression and tyran- ny took the place of subordination and obedi- ence ; and from those causes proceeded the un- parralleled slaughter and effusion of blood under a Sylla and a Marius. It has been justly ob- served, that the first Romans conquered their enemies by valor, temperance, and fortitude ; their moderation also and their justice were well known among their neighbors, and not only private possessions, but even mighty kingdoms and empires, were left in their power, to be dis- tributed among a family, or to be ensured in the hands of a successor. They were also chosen umpires to decide quarrels, but in this honorable office they con- sulted their own interest ; they artfully sup- ported the weaker side, that the more powerful might be reduced, and gradually become their prey. Under J. Ca?sar and Pompey, the rage of civil war was carried to unprecedented excess : it was not merely to avenge a private injury, but it was a contest for the sovereignty ; and though each of the adversaries wore the mask of pre- tended sincerity, and professed himself to be the supporter of the republic, no less than the abo- lition of freedom and the public liberty was the aim. What Julius began, his adopted son achieved : the ancient spirit of national inde- pendence was extinguished at Rome ; and after the battle of Actium, the Romans seemed una- ble to govern themselves without the assist- ance of a chief, who, under the title of impera- tor, an appellation given to every commander by his army after some signal victory, reigned with as much power and as much sovereignty as another Tarquin. Under their emperors, the Romans lived a luxurious and indolent life, they had long forgot to appear in the field, and their wars were left to be waged by mercenary troops, who fought without spirit or animosity, and who were ever ready to yield to him who bought their allegi- ance and fidelity with the greatest sums of money. Their leaders themselves were not the most prudent or the most humane ; the power which they had acquired by bribery was indeed precarious, and among a people, where not only the highest offices of the state, but even the imperial purple itself are exposed to sale, there cannot be expected much happiness or tranquil- lity in the palace of the emperor. The reigns of the successors of Augustus were distinguished by variety ; one was the most abandoned and profligate of men, whom his own vices and extravagance hurried out of the world, while his successor, perhaps the most clement, just, and popular of princes, was sacrificed in the midst of his guards and attend- ants, by the dagger of some offended favorite or ROM 470 ROM disappointed eunuch. Few indeed were the emperors of Rome whose days were not short- ened by poison, or the sword of an assassin. If one for some time had the imprudence to trust himself in the midst of a multitude, at last to perish by his own credulity, the other consult- ed his safety, but with no better success, in the innumerable chambers of his palace, and changed every day, to elude discovery, the place of his retirement. After they had been governed by a race of princes, remarkable for the variety of their characters, the Roman possessions were divided into two distinct empires, by the enter- prising Constantine, A. D. 328. Constantino- ple became the seat of the eastern empire, and Rome remained in the possession of the west- ern emperors, and continued to be the capital of their dominions. In the year 800 of the Christian era, Rome with Italy was delivered by Charlemagne, the then emperor of the west, into the hands of the pope, who still continues to hold the sovereign- ty, and to maintain his independence under the name of the Ecclesiastical States. The original poverty of the Romans has often been disguised by their poets and historians, who wished it to appear that a nation who were masters of the world, had had a better begin- ning than a race of shepherds and robbers. Yet it was to this simplicity they were indebted for their successes. Their houses were originally destitute of every ornament, they were made with unequal boards, and covered with mud, and these served them rather as a shelter against the inclemency of the seasons than for relaxa- tion and ease. Till the age of Pyrrhus, they despised riches, and many salutary laws were enacted to restrain luxury and to punish indo- lence. They observed great temperance in their meals ; young men were not permitted to drink wine till they had attained their 30th year, and it was totally forbidden to women. Their national spirit was supported by pol- icy ; the triumphal procession of a conqueror along the streets amidst the applause of thou- sands, was well calculated to promote emula- tion ; and the number of gladiators who were regularly introduced, not only in public games and spectacles, but also at private meetings, served to cherish their fondness for war, whilst it steeled their hearts against the calls of com- passion ; and when they could gaze with plea- sure upon wretches whom they forcibly obliged to murder one another, they were not inactive in the destruction of those whom they consid- ered as inveterate foes or formidable rivals in the field. In their punishments, civil as well as milita- ry, the Romans were strict and rigorous; a de- serter was severely whipped and sold as a slave, and the degradation from the rank of a soldier and dignity of a citizen was the most ignomin- ious stigma which could be affixed upon a se- ditious mutineer. The transmarine victories of the Romans proved at last the ruin of their innocence and bravery. They grew fond of the luxury of the Asiatics : and conquered, by the vices and indo- lence of those nations whom they had subdued, they became as effeminate and as dissolute as their captives. Marcellus was the first who in- troduced a taste for the fine arts among his countrymen. The spoils and treasures that were obtained in the plunder of Syracuse and Corinth, rendered the Romans partial to ele- gant refinement and ornamental equipage. Though Cato had despised philosophy, and de- clared that war was the only profession of his countrymen, the Romans, by their intercourse with the Greeks, soon became fond of litera- ture ; and though they had once banished the sophists of Athens from their city, yet they be- held with rapture their settlement among them in the principal towns of Italy, after the con- quest of Achaia. They soon after began to imitate their pol- ished captives, and to cultivate poetry with suc- cess. From the valor of their heroes and con- querors, indeed, the sublimest subjects were offered to the genius of their poets; but of the little that remains to celebrate the early victo- ries of Rome, nothing can be compared to the nobler effusions of the Augustan age. There were no less than 420 temples at Rome, crowded with statues, the priests were nume- rous, and each divinity had a particular college of sacerdotal servants. Their wars were de- clared in the most awful and solemn manner, and prayers were always offered in the temples for the prosperity of Rome, when a defeat had been sustained, or a victory won. The power of fathers over their children was very exten- sive, and indeed unlimited ; they could sell them or put them to death at pleasure, without the forms of a trial, or the interference of the civil magistrate. Many of their ancient fami- lies were celebrated for the great men whom they had produced, but the vigorous and inter- ested part they took in the government of the republic exposed them often to danger ; and some have observed that the Romans sunk into indolence and luxury when the Cornelii, the Fabii, the iEmilii, the Marcelli, and ruined it about i r ■ rl C1 , ty stood on lhe ed g e of a spacious and fruitful plain, and has still many marks of its antiquity to be found amongst its ruins It was anciently one of the strongest inland cities of Asia, especially when besieged by Antiochus Magnus. In this city Antigonus caused Cleo- patra, the sister of Alexander the Great, to be put to death. SARMATIA, an extensive country in the north of Europe and Asia, divided into Europe- an and Asiatic. The European was bounded by the ocean on the north, Germany and the Vis- tula on the west, the Jumna on the south, and the ranais on the east. The Asiatic was bound- ed by Hyrcania, the Tanais, and the Euxine sea. The former contained the modern king- doms of Russia, Poland, Lithuania, and Little 1 artary ; and the latter, Great Tartary, Circas- sia, and the neighboring country. The Sarma- tians were a savage uncivilized nation, often confounded with the Scythians, naturally war- SAV 489 SAV like, and famous for painting their bodies to ap- pear more terrible in the field of battle. They were well known for their lewdness, and they passed among the Greeks and Latins by the name of barbarians. In the time of the empe- rors they became very powerful ; they disturbed the peace of Rome by their frequent incursions ; till at last, increased by the savage hordes of Scythia, under the barbarous names of Huns, Vandals, Goths, Alans, &c, they successfully invaded and ruined the empire in the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era. SATURN, the Kronos of the Greeks, father of the gods. As destiny had foretold that he would be dethroned by one of his sons, he de- voured all that were born, with the exception of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, whom their mother Rhea saved. He was dethroned by Ju- piter and sought refuge with Janus in Italy, where he occupied himself with agriculture. He is represented as an old man with a scythe in one hand, and an hour-glass in the other, to show that time destroys every thing, and rolls onward without interruption. SAVILLE, George, marquis of Halifax, a statesman, was born in Yorkshire, in 1630. He was created a peer for his loyalty at the Resto- ration ; and in 1682 was raised to the dignity of a marquis, soon after which he was made lord privy seal. At the beginning of the reign of James II, he was appointed president of the council, but on refusing his consent to the repeal of the test acts, he was dismissed. In the con- vention parliament, he sat as speaker of the House of Lords, and concurred in all the meas- ures of the Revolution ; but afterwards he joined the opposition. He died in 1695. SAVOY, an Italian duchy belonging to the Sardinian monarchy, bordering on France, Switzerland, and Piedmont, contains 3,750 square miles, and 501,165 inhabitants. The soil is poor. From the year 1000 till 1580, a long list of princes governed Savoy ; but their reigns were uninteresting, and marked by no political event of importance. In 1580, Charles Eman- uel invaded the marquisate of Saluces, which he wrested from France, and thereby gained a frontier for his capital of Turin. He was suc- ceeded by Victor Amadeus I, who waged war against the Spaniards with equal euccess, in 1635. Francis Hyacinth, Charles Emanuel II, and Charles Emanuel III, were his successors. To the last of these princes, Turin owes some of her most magnificent structures ; and he also caused the amazing passage through the rock Mount Viso to be cut. Charles Emanuel was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus II, in 1675, who persecuted his Protestant subjects, the Valdenses, with all the fury and malice of a bigot, and who was besieged in his capital, Tu- rin, by the French, till the latter had lost four- teen thousand men before the place, and the ammunition of the besieged was almost ex- hausted. The duke of Savoy was soon after joined by prince Eugene, whom he assisted in defeating the French, and driving them out of Lombardy. He formally resigned his crown to the prince of Piedmont, in 1730, Charles Em- anuel, his son, reserving for himself a yearly income of one hundred thousand pounds. Ac- cordingly, Charles Emanuel HI succeeded him in the government ; 'but being persuaded by an interested minister, that his father was endeav- oring to gain over the troops, and that he held frequent conferences with physicians and apoth- ecaries, he caused him to be dragged from his bed, and carried to a house with latticed win- dows, which in every thing resembled a prison, in 1732. The old man died soon after. Some years after the commencement of the French revolution, Savoy was ceded by Charles Eman- uel IV to France, and constituted one of the de- partments, called the department of Mont Blanc. In this state it continued till the general peace, in 1814, when Savoy was restored to the family of its former possessors, in the person of Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia. SUCCESSION OF PRINCES. 1000 Beroald the Saxon. 1027 Humbert I White Hands. 1048 Amadeus I Count of Maurienne. 1072 Humbert II. 1108 Amadeus II. 1148 Humbert II the Saint. 1188 Thomas. 1233 Amadeus HI. 1253 Boniface, or Roland. 1263 Peter, or Charlemagne the Little. 1268 Philip. 1285 Amadeus IV or V the Great. 1323 Edward. 1329 Aimon. 1343 Amadeus VI the Green. 1383 Amadeus VII the Red. DUKES. 1391 Amadeus VIII the Pacific. 1451 Louis. 1465 Amadeus IX the Saint. 1472 Philibert I the Hunter. 1482 Charles I the Warlike. 1489 Charles II. 1496 Philip Lackland. SAX 490 SAX 1497 Philibert II the Fair. 1504 Charles III the Good. 1553 Emanuel Philibert, Iron Hand. 1580 Charles Emanuel I the Great. 1630 Victor Amadeus I. 1637 Francis Hyacinthus. 1638 Charles Emanuel II. 1675 Victor Amadeus II. In 1713, the house of Savoy became regal, by the accession of Victor Amadeus to the crown of Sicily, which, in 1718, he exchanged with the emperor for Sardinia. Kings of Sardinia and Dukes of Savoy. 1718 Victor Amadeus II. 1730 Charles Emanuel III. 1773 Victor Amadeus III. 1796 Charles Emanuel IV. In 1792, Savoy was seized by the French re- publicans, and made a department, under the name of Mont Blanc. In 1802, Piedmont was also annexed to that republic. Kings of Sardinia. 1802 Victor Emanuel. 1821 Charles Felix. 1831 Charles Albert. SAXE, Maurice, count de, a celebrated gen- eral, was born in 1696, at Dresden, being the natural son of Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, by the countess of Konigsmark. At the age of twelve years he was at the siege of Lisle, where he displayed signal courage ; as he did the following year at that of Tournay. He bore a part in the battle of Malplaquet, and in 1711 accompanied the king of Poland to Stralsund, where he swam over the river, with a pistol in his hand, insight of the enemy. On his return to Dresden, the king raised a regiment of horse for him, which he instructed in new evolutions. He continued to distinguish himself in the war with Sweden ; and in 1717 served against the Turks. In 1720 he obtained the rank of marechal de camp, in the French army. In 1726 he was chosen duke ofCourland; but the election being set aside, he returned to France, where he was made lieu- tenant-general in 1734. In 1741 he took Prague by assault ; in 1744 he was appointed a marshal of France ; and the next year he gained the battle of Fontenoy. This was followed by the capture of Brussels, and the battle of Raucoux, for which the king of France made him mare- chal-general of his camps and armies. In 1747 he achieved the victory of Lahfeldt ; and in 1748 took Maestricht. He died Nov. 30, 1750. SAXONY, kingdom of, is bounded N. and E. by Prussia, S. by Bohemia, W. by the Saxon principalities and Bavaria. It contains 5,800 square miles, and 1,414,528 inhabitants. The Saxons are supposed by most authors to be the ancient Catti described by Tacitus. The gov- ernment of the whole Saxon nation was vested in twelve chieftains, who were chosen annually, and who elected from among them'selves a chief judge. In time of war they chose a king, whose power ceased on the return of peace. Charle- magne, on succeeding his father Pepin, in 772, resolved to compel the Saxons to change their religion, and embrace Christianity. Accord- ingly, he attacked and defeated them, and obliged their king, Wittekind, to fly into Den- mark, who, finding himself totally unable to re- sist the force of the victorious Charlemagne, accepted the conditions offered him, and was baptized with his whole family, by Lullo, bish- op of Mentz. In 804, after a calamitous war of thirty years, the Saxons were entirely subdued, when Charles had defeated them in numerous battles, and transported many thousands to Flanders, Brabant, and other countries. The subsequent sovereigns of Saxony have uniformly asserted themselves to be descended from the illustrious Wittekind ; and the reign- ing family still pride themselves on the same origin. They reckon among their progenitors several great men who were honored with the surnames of the Grave, the Pacific, the Con- stant, the Pious, the Magnanimous, and some of whom wore crowns, whilst others declined them. From the middle of the ninth century, when the succession of the dukes of Saxony com- menced, to the present time, are reckoned thir- ty-six, almost without interruption, and this proves that the generality of those princes at- tained an advanced age, though living chiefly amid the dangers of war. Frederic Augustus succeeded his father as elector, in 1763, at the age of thirteen years. The Saxons remained neutral in the war of 1740, between Russia and Austria. In 1756 they were tempted to take a part by the flattering promises of Austria, but they soon had cause to repent. In the war of 1793, the contingent furnished by Saxony against France was not large, and no decided part was taken in the war until 1806, when the elector sent all his troops to the field in support of Prussia. The overthrow of that power enabled Bona- parte to attach the Saxons to his cause by the most substantial advantages. For although the king of Saxony was under the necessity of making his peace with the conqueror, upon any SAY 491 SCA terms which the latter might choose to dictate to the vanquished party, yet in order to separate him from the interests of the Prussian monarch the emperor of the French treated him with great lenity, induced him to accede to the con- federation of the Rhine, and gave him the title of king, with considerable accessions of terri- tory Further additions were made to the king- dom of Saxony in 1809 ; but these acquisitions were only temporary. On the irruption of the allied armies into bax- ony, in 1813, the king quitted Dresden, and identified his interests with the interests of France. After the battle of Leipsic, that city was taken by assault ; and the king of Saxony was made prisoner with his whole court. This country was afterwards placed under the provi- sional occupation of Prussia ; and Frederic Wil- liam made known his intention of uniting Sax- ony to Prussia. However, the energetic conduct of the king of Saxony preserved him from total By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, that sove- reign ceded to Prussia certain districts and ter- ritories belonging to the kingdom of Saxony ; and the Saxon people, to whom the paternal sway of their king had endeared him, passed under the government of Prussia with extreme reluctance. SAY, Thomas. This distinguished naturalist, died at New Harmony, Indiana, on the 10th October, 1834. It may be fearlessly asserted that few individuals, certainly none in this coun- try, have contributed so extensively to enlarge the boundaries of Natural Science, as Mr. Say. To his native genius supported by untiring zeal, and indefatigable research, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia is indebted for its opening reputation. Mr. Say was among the earliest members, if not one of the founders of this institution. His original communications to the society alone, in the most abstruse departments of zoolo- gy crustacea, insects, &c.,of the United States occupy more than 800 printed pages of their jour- nal ; his essays published in some of our leading periodical journals are equally respectable, per- haps equally numerous. His contributions to the American Encyclopaedia, though highly val- uable, are not so generally known. His separate work on American Entomology, and another on ConchoWy have met with deserved appro- bation with the learned. With the brilliant re- sults of his laborious exertions as naturalist to the two celebrated expeditions by the authority of the United States government under com- mand of Major, now Lieutenant Colonel 8. H. Long, the reading public is already familiar. Some years previously he accompanied Mr. Mac- lure, and other kindred spirits on a scientific excursion to the Floridas. The pages of the Academy's Journal, were subsequently enriched by details of the fruits of this undertaking. In the year 1825 our devoted student consent- ed in an evil hour to forego the society of his early friends, and the companions of his labors, and to remove to New Harmony on the Wabash, where he ended his useful career by a disease brought on by the peculiar climate of the coun- try ; b fhe correspondent of the National Gazette to whom we are indebted for the above abstract, from a very interesting account of Mr. Say's life and last illness, says, " on the 10th, death came over him like a summer cloud— he met the em- brace as the weary traveller falls into the arms of restoring sleep. Intellect triumphed to the last hour." SCANDERBEG, the name given by the Turks to George Castriotto, king of Albania ; his father's name was John, who being reduced to extremity by Amurath II, was forced to put five of his sons into his hands, of whom Scan- derbeg was the youngest. He pleased the ty- rant, who poisoned his brothers, but spared him. Finding him endowed with very extraordinary qualities, he had him educated. Having given several instances of his courage in Amurath's service, who was the usurper of his estates, Scanderbeg thought it was high time to think of making use of his valor for himself against the tyrant. In this design he so dexterously deceived the governor ofCroya,the chief city of Albania, that he made himself master of that and several other places ; and in 1433 took possession of his hereditary dominion, and upon his being admit- ted to the crown declared himself a Christian. He compelled the Turks to raise the siege of Croya, and cut to pieces the forces that were sent against him. Amurath himself having laid a second siege to this place, died before the walls, without being able to take it, though he was extremely desirous of being revenged on Scanderbetr. Under Mahomet II he had seven or eiffht armies to contest with, but the victory was still on his side. It is said, that though he had killed above two thousand Turks with his own hand, yet was he never wounded. Ma- homet, compelled by his valor and success, made peace with him, while Scanderbeg took a jour- ney to the kingdom of Naples. The Turks, SCH 492 SCH seeing the truce expired, laid siege again to Croya, but to no purpose ; for Scanderbeg was soon with them, and forced them to raise the siege twice. He died at Lissa, a city belonging to the Venetians, Jan. 27, 1467, in the sixty- third year of his age. SCANDINAVIA, a name given by the an- cients to Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Lap- land, which they supposed to be an island. SCAURUS, M. jEmilius, a Roman consul, who distinguished himself by his eloquence at the bar, and by his successes in Spain, in the capacity of commander. He was sent against Jugurtha, and some time after was accused of suffering himself to be bribed by the Numidian prince. Scaurus conquered the Ligurians, and during his censorship built the Milvian bridge at Rome, and began to pave the road, which from him was called the ^Emilian. He was origi- nally very poor. He wrote some books, and among these a history of his own life, all now lost. His son, of the same name, made himself known by the large theatre which he built dur- ing his edileship. This theatre, which could contain 30,000 spectators, was supported by 360 columns of marble, 38 feet in height, and adorned with 3000 brazen statues. This celebrated edi- fice, according to Pliny, proved more fatal to the manners and the simplicity of the Romans, than the proscriptions and wars of Sylla had done to the inhabitants of the city. SCHILLER, Frederic, a German poet of great reputation, was born at Manheim, a small town of Wurtemberg, Nov. 10, 1759, and was the son of a gentleman, who, having served in the army as a surgeon and officer, had retired to private life, and, at the date of the birth of the poet, was holding an inconsiderable post under the king of Wurtemberg. Both the parents of the poet, appear to have been persons possessed of estimable moral qualities, and no inconsiderable share of literary taste and talent. Schiller was not destitute of filial gratitude, and may be sup- posed to have expressed his own feelings in the following passage from one of his historical dramas. Don Carlos is addressing his father Philip : " How sweet and rapturous it is to feel Ourself exalted in a lovely soul, — To know our joys make glow another's cheek, Our fears to tremble in another's heart, Our sufferings bedew another's eye ! How beautiful and grand 'tis, hand in hand With a dear son, to tread youth's rosy path, Again to dream once more the dream of life ! How sweet and great, imperishable is The virtue of a child, to live for ages, Transmitting good unceasingly! How sweet To plant what a dear son will one day reap, — To gather what will make him rich, — to feel How deep one day will be his gratitude !" Schiller was placed in the school of Stuttgard, where he may be said to have educated nim- self, for literature and the fine arts were under the ban of the duke of Wurtemberg, whose pedantic pedagogues vainly endeavored to turn the gigantic mind of Schiller from its natural inclination. Knowing nothing of the world but from books, forbidden to mingle in female society, and seeing in his fellow students but multiplied copies of a certain severe and soul- less model, which their preceptors continually held up for admiration and imitation, the poet turned to his own fancy for relief, and to be- guile the tedium of his unnatural life, wrote the tragedy of the Robbers, an extraordinary per- formance, full of imagination and energy, bril- liant with the light of genius and youth, but, to use the deliberate criticism of its author, " a monster, for which by good fortune the world has no original, and which I would not wish to be immortal, except to perpetuate an example of the offspring which Genius, in its unnatural union with Thraldom, may give to the world." The anonymous author of an admirable Life of Schiller thus speaks of the effect produced by the Robbers. " The publication of such a work as' this naturally produced an extraordinary feeling in the literary world. Translations of the Robbers soon appeared in almost all the languages of Europe, and were read in all of them with a deep interest, compounded of admiration and aversion, according to the relative proportions of sensibility and judgment in the various minds which contemplated the subject. In Germany, the enthusiasm which the Robbers excited was extreme. The young author had burst upon the world like a meteor ; and surprise, for a time, suspended the power of cool and rational criti- cism. In the ferment produced by the univer- sal discussion of this single topic, the poet wa8 magnified above his natural dimensions, great as they were : and though the general sentence was loudly in his favor, yet he found detractors as well as praisers, and both equally beyond the limits of moderation. " One charge brought against him must have damped the joy of literary glory, and stung Schiller's pure and virtuous mind more than any other. He was accused of having injured the cause of morality by his work : of havftig set up to the impetuous and fiery temperament of youth a model of imitation, which the young SCH 493 SCH were too likely to pursue with eagerness, and which could only lead them from the safe and beaten tracks of duty into error and destruc- tion. It has even been stated, and often re- peated since, that a practical exemplification of this doctrine occurred, about this time, in Ger- many. A young nobleman, it was said, of the fairest gifts and prospects, had cast away all these advantages ; betaken himself to the forests, and, copying Moor, had begun a course of active operations, — which, also copying Moor, but less willingly he had ended by a shameful death. " It is now hardly necessary to contradict these theories ;. or to show that none but a can- didate for Bedlam as well as Tyburn could be seduced from the substantial comforts of exist- ence, to seek destruction and disgrace, for the sake of such imaginary grandeur. The Ger- man nobleman of the fairest gifts and prospects turns out, on investigation, to have been a Ger- man blackguard, whom debauchery and riotous extravagance had reduced to want ; who took to the highway, when he could take to nothing else, — not allured by an ebullient enthusiasm, or any heroical and misdirected appetite for sub- lime actions, but driven by the more palpable stimulus of importunate duns, an empty purse, and five craving senses. Perhaps, in his latter days, this philosopher may have referred to Schiller's tragedy, as the source from which he drew his theory of life ; but if so, we believe he was mistaken. For characters like him, the great attraction was the charm of revelry, and the great restraint, the gallows, — before the period of Karl Von Moor, just as they have been since, and will be to the end of time. Among motives like these, the influence of the most malignant book could scarcely be discer- nible, and would be little detrimental, if it were. <: Nothing, at any rate, could be farther from Schiller's intentions than such a consummation. In his preface he speaks of the moral effects of the Robbers in terms which do honor to his heart, while they show the inexperience of his head. Ridicule, he signifies, has long been tried against the wickedness of the times, whole car- goes of hellebore have been expended in vain ; and now he thinks recourse must be had to mbre pungent medicines. We may smile at the simplicity of this idea ; and safely conclude that, like other specifics, the present one would fail to produce a perceptible effect : but Schiller's vindication rests on higher grounds than these. His work has on the whole furnished nourish- ment to the more exalted powers of our nature ; the sentiments and images which he has shaped and uttered, tend, in spite of their alloy, to elevate the soul to a nobler pitch; and this is a sufficient defence. As to the danger of misap- plying the inspiration he communicates, of for- getting the dictates of prudence in our zeal for the dictates of poetry, we have no great cause to fear it. Hitherto, at least, there has always been enough of dull reality, on every side of us, to abate such fervors in good time, and bring us back to the most sober level of prose, if not to sink us below it. We should thank the poet who performs such a service ; and forbear to inquire too rigidly whether there is a ' moral ' in his piece or not. The writer of a work which interests and excites the spiritual feelings of men, has as little need to justify himself by showing how it exemplifies some wise saw or modern instance, as the doer of a generous action has to demonstrate its merit, by dedu- cing it from the system of Shaftsbury, or Smith, or Paley, or whichever happens to be the favor- ite system for the age and place. The instruc- tiveness of the one, and the virtue of the other, exist independently of all systems or laws, and in spite of all." The tragedy of the Robbers, although written before the completion of Schiller's college course, did not appear until he had attained the age of twenty-one, and was beginning to dis- charge the duties of surgeon in the army. The spirit and popularity of the poet's performance were highly displeasing to the despotic duke of Wurtemberg, who issued an order for Schil- ler to confine himself to the studies peculiar to his profession. The youthful poet was com- pelled to suffer a week's confinement for the crime of having gone to Manheim to attend the representation of his drama, and fearing a severer punishment for the repetition of the offence, he fled to Manheim, and thence to the hospitable dwelling of Madam von Wollzogen, near Meiningen. Protected by this lady he sent forth two new plays — Fiesco,and Court Intrigue and Love. He was next appointed poet to the theatre at Manheim, a post of honor and profit. At the expiration of eighteen months, Schiller growing dissatisfied with his situation, went from Manheim to Leipsic, and thence to Dres- den. At the latter place he concluded his famous tragedy of Don Carlos. " Schiller's Carlos is the first of his plays that bears the stamp of any thing like full maturity. The opportunities he had enjoyed for extending his knowledge of men and things, the sedulous practice of the art of composition, the study of purer morals, had not been without their full SCH 494 SCH effect. Increase of years had done something for him ; diligence had done much more. The ebullience of youth is now chastened into the steadfast energy of manhood ; the wild enthu- siast, that spurned at the errors of the world, has now become the enlightened moralist, that laments their necessity, or endeavors to find out their remedy. A corresponding alteration is visible in the external form of the work, in its plot and diction. The plot is contrived with great ingenuity, embodying the result of much study, both dramatic and historical. The lan- guage is blank verse, not prose, as in the former works ; it is more careful and regular, less ambitious in its object, but more certain of at- taining it. Schiller's mind had now reached its full stature : he felt and thought more justly ; he could better express what ne felt and thought." " The tragedy of Carlos was received with immediate and universal approbation. In the closet and on the stage, it excited the warmest applauses equally among the learned and un- learned. Schiller's expectations had not been so high; he knew both the excellences and the faults of his work : but he had not anticipated that the former would be recognised so instan- taneously. The pleasure of this new celebrity came upon him, therefore, heightened by sur- prise. Had dramatic eminence been his sole object, he might now have slackened his exer- tions ; the public had already ranked him as the first of their writers in that favorite depart- ment. But this limited ambition was not his moving principle ; nor was his mind of that sort for which rest is provided in this world. The primary disposition of his nature urged him to perpetual toil : the great aim of his life, the unfolding of his mental powers, was one of those which admit but a relative, not an absolute progress. New ideas of perfection arise as the former have been reached ; the student is al- ways attaining, never has attained. " Schiller's worldly circumstances, too, were of a kind well calculated to prevent excess of quietism. He was still drifting at large on the tide of life : he was crowned with laurels, but without a home. His heart, warm and affec- tionate, fitted to enjoy the domestic blessings which it longed for, was allowed to form no permanent attachment : he felt that he was unconnected, solitary in the world ; cut off from the exercise of his kindlier sympathies; or if tasting such pleasures, it was ' snatching them rather than partaking of them calmly.' The vulgar desire of wealth and station never entered his mind for an instant ; but as years were added to his age, the delights of peace and continuous comfort were fast becoming more acceptable than any other ; and he looked with anxiety to have a resting-place amid his wan- derings, to be a man among his fellowmen. " For all these wishes Schiller saw that the only chance of fulfilment depended on un- wearied perseverance in his literary occupations. Yet though his activity was unabated, and the calls on it were increasing rather than diminish- ed, its direction was gradually changing. The drama had long been stationary, and of late been falling in his estimation ; the difficulties of the art, as he viewed it at present, had been over- come, and new conquests invited him in other quarters.* The latter part of Carlos he had written as a task rather than a pleasure ; he contemplated no farther undertaking connected with the stage. For a time, indeed, he seems to have wavered among a multiplicity of enter- prises ; now solicited to this, and now to that, without being able to fix decidedly on any. The restless ardor of his mind is evinced by the number and variety of his attempts ; its fluctua- tion by the circumstance that all of them are short in extent, or left in the state of fragments. Of the former kind are his lyrical productions, many of which were composed about this period, during intervals from more serious labors. The character of these performances is such as his fornaKr writings give us reason to expect. With a deep insight into life, and a keen and comprehensive sympathy with its sorrows and enjoyments, there is combined that impetuosity of feeling, that pomp of thought and imagery which belong peculiarly to Schiller. If he had now left the drama, it was clear that his mind was still overflowing with the elements of poetry ; dwelling among the grandest concep- tions, and the boldest or finest emotions ; think- ing intensely and profoundly, but decorating its thoughts with those graces, which other facul- ties than the understanding are required to afford. With these smaller pieces, Schiller oc- cupied himself at intervals of leisure through- out the remainder of his life. Some of them are to be classed among the finest efforts of his genius. The Walk, the Song of the Bell, contain exquisite delineations of the fortunes and history of man ; his Rittcr von Toggenburg, his Cranes of Ibycus, his Hero and Lcander, are among the most poetical and moving ballads to be found in any language." Schiller now turned his attention to history, his first performance in this department being The Revolt of the Netherlands, unfortunately SCH 495 SCH a fragment, but written in an exceedingly pure style, and displaying throughout a most pene- trating and philosophical spirit. Of his habits the following is an interesting account. " He wrote and thought with an impetuosity beyond what nature always could endure. His intolerance of interruptions first put him on the plan of studying by night ; an alluring but per- nicious practice, which began at Dresden, and was never afterwards forsaken. His recrea- tions breathed a similar spirit : he loved to be much alone, and strongly moved. The banks of the Elbe were the favorite resort of his mornings ; here, wandering in solitude amid groves and lawns, and green and beautiful places, he abandoned his mind to delicious musings ; watched the fitful current of his thoughts, as they came sweeping through his soul in their vague, fantastic, gorgeous forms ; pleased himself with the transient images of memory and hope ; or meditated on the cares and studies which had lately been employing, and were again soon to employ him. At times, he might be seen, floating on the river in a gondola, feasting himself with the loveliness of earth and sky. He delighted most to be there, when tempests were abroad : his unquiet spirit found a solace in the expression of his own unrest on the face of Nature; danger lent a charm to his situation ; he felt in harmony with the scene, when the rack was sweeping storm- fully across the heavens, and the forests were sounding in the breeze, and the river was rol- ling its chafed waters into wild eddying heaps. " Yet before the darkness summoned him exclusively to his tasks, Schiller commonly de- voted a portion of the day to the pleasures of society. Could he have found enjoyment in the flatteries of admiring hospitality, his present fame would have procured them for him in abundance. But these things were not to Schiller's taste. His opinion of the " flesh-flies " of Leipzig we have already seen ; he retained the same sentiments throughout all his life. The idea of being what we call a lion is offen- sive enough to any man, of not more than com- mon vanity, and less than common understand- ing : it was doubly offensive to him. His pride and his modesty alike forbade it. The delicacy of his nature, aggravated into shyness by his education and his habits, rendered situa- tions of display more than usually painful to him ; the digito vrattereuntium was a sort of celebrity he was far from coveting. In the cir- cles of fashion, he appeared unwillingly, and seldom to advantage : their glitter and parade were foreign to his disposition : their strict cere- monial cramped the play of his mind. Hem- med in, as by invisible fences, among the intri- cate barriers of etiquette, so feeble, so inviolable, he felt constrained and helpless ; alternately chagrined and indignant. It was the giant among pigmies ; Gulliver, in Lillipnt, tied down by a thousand packthreads. But there were more congenial minds, with whom he could associate ; more familiar scenes, in which he found the pleasures he was seeking. Here Schil- ler was himself; frank, unembarrassed, pliant to the humor of the hour. His conversation was delightful, abounding at once in rare and sim- ple charms. Besides the intellectual riches which it carried with it, there was a flow of kindliness and unaffected good humor, which can render dulness itself agreeable. Schiller had many friends in Dresden, who loved him as a man while they admired him as a writer. Their intercourse was of the kind he liked, sober, as well as free and mirthful. It was the careless, calm, honest effusion of his feelings that he wanted ; not the noisy tumults and coarse delirium of dissipation. For this, under any of its forms, he at no time showed the small- est relish." In 1789, Schiller, chiefly through the interest of his friend Goethe, was appointed Professor of History at the University of Jena, a few miles from the town of Weimar. He was then thirty years old, and married von Lengefeld of Rudol- stadt, to whom he had been engaged some time before. In 1791 he published his History of the Thirty Years' War. ^ An ardent admirer of Shakspeare, he thus writes in 1797 ; " I have just been reading the plays of Shak- speare, which treat of the war between the two roses; and now, after finishing Richard the Third, am filled with a real wonder. This is one of the sublimest of tragedies, and at this moment I cannot name even another of Shakspeare's that is superior to it. The great destinies prepared in the preceding pieces are here accomplished after a truly great fashion, and according to the most sublime conception. That the subject excludes all that is feminine, tender, sentimen- tal, adds very much to the high effect : all in it is energetic and grand : nothing common disturbs the resthetic emotion : one enjoys, as it were, the pure form of the dread tragic. A high Nemesis presides over the piece, the conscious- ness of which penetrates the mind from the be- ginning to the end. It is to be wondered at, how the poet always succeeds in forcing the SCH 496 SCH unpoetic matter to render up poetic booty ; and how skilfully he represents that which cannot be directly represented; — I refer to his art in using symbols, where the reality cannot be exhibited. No play of Shakspeare reminds me so strongly of the Greek tragedy." Wallenstein, a drama in three parts, which cost Schiller the labor of two years, was follow- ed speedily by Mary Stuart, a work of great power, but not equalling the play which im- mediately preceded it. As there is no English version of Mary Stuart, the following anony- mous translation of Queen Elizabeth's soliloquy previous to her signing the death-warrant for the execution of the queen of Scots, may be ac- ceptable as giving some idea of the tragic in- terest of the drama from which it is extracted. Subjection to my subjects ! O, most vile Of servitudes ! I'm worn and sick at heart, With fawning on the idol I despise. When shall I sit upon my throne in freedom ? No longer flattering men's wishes, whims — To win their praise ; nor sueing for support To a vile rout best managed by a juggler. Ah, he who has a public he must please, Call him not king — he, only he, deserves The name, whose deed asks no man's commendation. Why have I reigned in law and justice ever, Quelling my own desires — to find, when now A deed despotic must, ay, must be done, A shackle on my hands? Before the model Myself have raised, I shrink, and am condemned. Had I, like Spanish Mary, ruled these realms With iron hand, — the queenly blood, which now I thirst for, might be shed — and none dare murmur. Was't then my own free choice, this luckless justice? No 't was the offspring of necessity — The stern necessity, which sways e'en princes. This making Law the partner of my reign Has gained my people's love. What, but that love, Could, or can now, support me on my throne ? — A throne disputed, envied, circled in, Assaulted by a host of enemies ! Europe bands all her powers to destroy me. On my poor head Rome's vengeful pontiff hurls The excommunicating bann : great France Salutes me with a Judas kiss : fast, fast, O'er ocean bound a thousand giant ships, To pour the Spaniards wrath unquenchable On this lone isle, and its devoted queen. Here then I stand — a woman 'gainst a world. In this extremity, I must secure My subjects' faithfulness, at any hazard ; The bareness of my title to the crown I must deck out with certain royal virtues : The stains, which my own father's words have fixed Upon my birth — in vain, in vain I seek To hide them ! Busy-fingered hate, still by, Lays them all bare ; and ever holds before My blasted eyes, this Stuart — threatening spectre — Thwarting, and maddening — O, I'll not endure it. I must— I will have peace. Her head shall fall. —She is the fury of my life— a spirit Of torment conjured up by Fate against me ! Where'er some lonely flower of hope or joy Blooms in my path — there coils this snake of Hell. My fate's whole blackness centres in one name — The freezer of my friends, the thief, who hath stolen My lover's heart, the pest, that, day and night, Haunts me, and now is pulling me to earth — All blister on my lips in that one name — 'Tis Mary Stuart. Purge the earth of her, And I am free — free as the mountain air. [A long pause. In what succeeds the Queen re- fers to a late interview with her prisoner.] With what a look of scorn she eyed me ! Ha ! Didst think to blast me? Wretch! Poor, powerless wretch ! Thy glance kills not. I wield a better weapon : Its stroke is death ! it strikes, and where art thou ? [Advancing to the table with a quick step, and seizing the pen.] A bastard, am I ? True, while thou dost live. But babbling doubts of my imperial birth Perish with thee. Quit thou my subjects' sight — They doubt, compare, prefer, rqjbel, no more, And I am hailed at once their true-born queen. [ She signs the paper with rapid and firm strokes; then drops the pen and starts back with a look of terror.] Mary Stuart, was followed by the Maid of Orleans, the Bride of Messina, and William Tell. Schiller died in the spring of 1805, at the age of forty-five, in the full vigor of his in- tellectual powers. SCHOMBERG, Charles, esteemed by Louis XIII for his many important services rendered to the crown of France. He first signalized himself at the siege of Sommierie, in Langue- doc ; showed great conduct at the attack of Pas de Suse, and taking of Privas, in 1629 ; accom- panied the king in his voyage to Savoy, in 1630 ; was dangerously wounded at the battle of Rou- vroi, in 1632; but afterwards worsted the Span- iards in R.oussillon ; forced them to raise the siege of Leucate ; overthrew them at Canet and Sigean,in 1639; relieved Uhes, in Catalonia, in 1640 ; and took Perpignan and Saluzzo in 1642. He died in 1656, in the 56th year of his age. SCHOMBERG, Henry, count of Nanteuil and Duretal, was the son of Gaspar Schomberg, a German, and succeeded his father as general field-marshal of the German troops in the French king's service. He was sent ambassador ex- traordinary to England, in 1615; at his return he had a command in the army of Piedmont, under the marshal Lesdiguieres, and contribu- ted to the taking of several places in 1620. He assisted at the reduction of the cities of Rouen, Caen, la Fleche, Pont de Ce, and Navarreins, as well as at the sieges of St. Jean d'Angely and Montauban. He also shared in the honor of taking of Roianne, Negrepelisse, Marsillar- gues, and other places in Languedoc ; in 1627 SCI 497 SCI he was present at the action of the Isle of Re, where the English were defeated. In 1630 he took Pignerol, and relieved Cazal, and gained the battle of Castelnaudary. He died at Bour- deaux in 1632, in the forty -ninth year of his age. He was buried in the church of the priory of Nanteuil. SCHOMBERG, Frederic, duke of, an emi- nent general, was the son of count Schomberg, by the daughter of lord Dudley, and was born in 1619. He served first in the army of the United Provinces ; but in 1650 retired to France, where he was esteemed next to Conde and Turenne. In 1660 he visited England, from whence he proceeded to Portugal, where he was created a grandee, and obtained a pension. On his return to France, he commanded in Flanders, and obliged the prince of Orange to raise the siege of Maestricht, for which he was made a mar- shal. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he went again to Portugal ; but being obliged to quit the kingdom by the inquisition, he re- moved to Holland, and afterwards entered into the service of the elector of Brandenburg. In 1688 he accompanied the prince of Orange to England ; and after the Revolution was created a duke, with which title he received a grant of one hundred thousand pounds. In 1689 he commanded in Ireland, where he was killed at the battle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. SCHUYLER, Philip, a general in the Amer- ican revolution, was born at Albany, N. Y., in 1731 , and being appointed major general, in 1775, evinced great courage and skill through- out the war. He was a member of the old con- gress, and, in 1789, was appointed a senator in the national legislature. He died Nov. 18, 1 804, in the 73d year of his age. SCIO or Chios (in Turkish, Saki-JJdassi) a fertile island in the Grecian Archipelago, con- taining 392 square miles. In April 14, 1822, the revolt of the Sciots was punished by the Turks, by the massacre of 40,000 persons with- out distinction of age or sex. Such was the fero- cious spirit exercised towards them, that in 1823, the population had been reduced from 120,000 to 16,000. SCIPIO. Cneius, surnamed Asina, was con- sul A. U. C. 494 and 500. He was conquered n his first consulship in a naval battle, and lost 17 ships. The following year he took Aleria, n Corsica, and defeated Hanno, the Carthagi- nian general, in Sardinia. He also took 200 of ihe enemy's ships, and the city of Panormum n Sicily. He was father to Publius and Cneius ipio. Publius, in the beginning of the sec- 32 ond Punic war, was sent with an army to Spain to oppose Hannibal ; but when he heard that his enemy had passed over into Italy, he at- tempted by his quick marches and secret evo- lutions to stop his progress. He was conquered by Hannibal near the Ticinus, where he nearly lost his life, had not his son, who was afterwards surnamed Africa- nus, courageously defended him. He again passed into Spain, where he obtained some memorable victories over the Carthaginians, and the inhabitants of the country. His brother Cneius shared the supreme com- mand with him, but their great confidence proved their ruin. They separated their ar- mies, and soon after Publius was furiously at- tacked by the two Asdrubals and Mago, who commanded the Carthaginian armies. The forces of Publius were too few to resist with success the three Carthaginian generals. The Romans were cut to pieces, and their com- mander was left on the field of battle. No soon- er had the enemy obtained this victory, than they immediately marched to meet Cneius Scipio, whom the revolt of 30,000 Celtiberians had weakened and alarmed. The general, who was already apprized of his brother's death, secured an eminence, where he was soon surrounded on all sides. After desperate acts of valor he was left among the slain, or, according to some, he fled into a tower, where he was burnt with some of his friends by the victorious enemy. SCIPIO, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africa- nus, was son of Publius Scipio, who was killed in Spain. He first distinguished himself at the battle of Ticinus, where he saved his father's life by deeds of unexampled valor and boldness. The battle of Cannoe, which proved so fatal to the Roman arms, instead of disheartening Scipio, raised his expectations, and he no sooner heard that some of his desperate countrymen wished to abandon Italy, and to fly from the insolence of the conqueror, than with his sword in his hand, and by his firmness and example, he obliged them to swear eternal fidelity to Rome, and to put to immediate death the first man who attempted to retire from his country. It was soon known how able he was to be at the head of an army; the various nations of Spain were conquered, and in four years the Carthaginians were banished from that part of the continent ; the whole province became tributary to Rome ; New Carthage submitted in one day, and in a battle 54,000 of the enemy were left dead on the field. After these signal victories, Scipio was recalled to Rome, which still trembled at SCI 498 SCI the continual alarms of Hannibal, who was at her gates. The conqueror of the Carthaginians in Spain was looked upon as a proper general to encounter Hannibal in Italy ;. but Scipio op- posed the measures which his countrymen wish- ed to pursue, and he declared in the senate that if Hannibal was to be conquered he must be conquered in Africa. These bold measures were immediately adopted, though opposed by the eloquence, age, and experience of the great Fabius, and Scipio was empowered to conduct the war on the coasts of Africa. With the dig- nity of consul he embarked for Carthage. Han- nibal, who was victorious at the gates of Rome, was instantly recalled to defend the walls of his country, and the two greatest generals of the age met each other in the field. Terms of ac- commodation were proposed ; but in the parley which the two commanders had together, noth- ing satisfactory was offered, and while the one enlarged on the vicissitudes of human affairs, the other wished to dictate like a conqueror, and recommended the decision of the controversy to the sword. The celebrated battle was fought near Zama, and both generals displayed their military know- ledge in drawing up their armies and in choos- ing their ground. Their courage and intrepidi- ty were not less conspicuous in charging the enemy ; a thousand acts of valor were perform- ed on both sides, and though the Carthaginians fought in their own defence, and the Romans for fame and glory, yet the conqueror of Italy was vanquished. About 20,000 Carthaginians were slain, and the same number made prison- ers of war, B. C. 202. Only 2000 of the Ro- mans were killed. This battle was decisive ; the Carthaginians sued for peace, which Scipio at last granted on the most severe and humiliat- ing terms. The conqueror after this returned to Rome, where he was received with the most unbound- ed applause, honored with a triumph, and dig- nified with the appellation of African us. Here he enjoyed for some time the tranquillity and the honors which his exploits merited, but in him also as in other great men, fortune showed herself inconstant. Scipio offended the popu- lace in wishing to distinguish the senators from the rest of the people at the public exhibitions ; and when he canvassed for the consulship for two of his friends, he had the mortification to see his application slighted, and the honors which he claimed, bestowed on a man of no character, and recommended by neither abilities nor meritorious actions. He retired from Rome, no longer to be a spec- tator of the ingratitude of his countrymen, and in the capacity of lieutenant accompanied his brother against Antiochus, king of Syria. In this expedition his arms were attended with usual success, and the Asiatic monarch submit- ted to the conditions which the conquerors dic- tated. At his return to Rome, Africanus found the malevolence of his enemies still unabated. Cato, his inveterate rival, raised seditions against him, and the Petilli, two tribunes of the people, accused the conqueror of Hannibal of extortion in the provinces of Asia, and of living in an in- dolent and luxurious manner. Scipio condescended to answer to the accu- sation of his calumniators ; the first day was spent in hearing the different charges, but when he again appeared on the second day of his tri- al, the accused interrupted his judges, and ex- claimed, " Tribunes and fellow-citizens, on this day, this very day, did I conquer Hannibal and the Carthaginians: come, therefore, with me, Romans; let us go to the capitol, and there re- turn our thanks to the immortal gods for the victories which have attended our arms." These words had the desired effect ; the tribes, and all the assembly followed Scipio, the court was deserted, and the tribunes were left alone in the seat of judgment. Yet when this memorable day was past and forgotten, Africanus was a third time summon- ed to appear ; but he had fled before the im- pending storm, and retired to his country-house at Liternum. The accusation was therefore stopped, and the accusers silenced, when one of the tribunes, formerly distinguished for his ma- levolence against Scipio, rose to defend him, and declared in the assembly, that it reflected the highest disgrace on the Roman people, that the conqueror of Hannibal should become the sport of the populace, and be exposed to the malice and envy of disappointed ambition. Some time after Scipio died in the place of his retreat, about 184 years before Christ, in the 48th year of his age ; and so great an aversion did he express, as he expired, for the depravity of the Romans, and the ingratitude of their sen- ators, that he ordered his bones not to be con- veyed to Rome. They were accordingly in- humated at Liternum, where his wife ./Emilia, the daughter of Paulus VEmilius, who fell at the battle of Cannre, raised a mausoleum on his tomb, and placed upon it his statue, with that of the poet Ennius, who had been the compan- ion of his peace and of his retirement. SCIPIO, Lucius Cornelius, surnamed Asiati- SCI 499 SCI cus, accompanied his brother Africanus in his expeditions in Spain and Africa. He was re- warded with the consulship, A. U. C. 5G4, for his services to the state, and he was empowered to attack Antiochus, king of Syria, who had de- clared war against the Romans. Lucius was accompanied in this campaign by his brother Africanus ; and by his own valor, and by the advice of the conqueror of Hannibal, he soon routed the enemy, and in a battle near the city of Sardes he killed f>0,000 foot and 4,000 horse. Peace was soon after settled by the submis- sion of Antiochu3, and the conqueror, at his re- turn home, obtained a triumph, and the sur- name of Asiaticus. He did not, however, long enjoy his prosperity ; Cato, after the death of Africanus, turned his fury against Asiaticus, and the two Petilli, his devoted favorites, pre- sented a petition to the people, in which they prayed that an inquiry might be made to know what money had been received from Antiochus and his allies. The petition was instantly re- ceived, and Asiaticus, charged to have suffered himself to be corrupted by Antiochus, was sum- moned to appear before the tribunal of Teren- tius Culeo, who was on this occasion created prastor. The judge, who was an inveterate enemy to the family of the Scipios, soon found Asiaticus, with his two lieutenants and his qusestor, guilty of having received, the first 6,000 pounds weight of gold, and 480 pounds weight of silver, and the others nearly an equal sum, from the mon- arch against whom, in the name of the Roman people, they were enjoined to make war. Im- mediately they were condemned to pay large fines ; but while the others gave security, Scipio declared that he had accounted to the public for all the money which he had brought from Asia, and therefore that he was innocent. For this obstinacy Scipio was dragged to pri- son, but his cousin Nasica pleaded his cause be- fore the people, and the prffitor instantly ordered the goods of the prisoner to be seized and con- fiscated. The sentence was executed, but the effects of Scipio were insufficient to pay the fine, and it was the greatest justification of his inno- i sence, that whatever was found in his house had never been in the possession of Antiochus or his ■subjects. This, however, did not totally liber- i ite him ; he was reduced to poverty, and re- \ fused to accept the offer of his friends and of his clients. Some time after he was appointed to I settle the disputes between Eumenes and Seleu- •,us, and at his return the Romans, ashamed of iheir severity towards him, rewarded his merit with such uncommon liberality, that Asiaticus was enabled to celebrate games in honor of his victory over Antiochus, for ten successive days, at his own expense. SCIPIO Nasica was son of Cneius Scipio, and cousin to Scipio Africanus. He was refused the consulship, though supported by the inter- est and the fame of the conqueror of Hannibal; but he afterwards obtained it, and in that hon- orable office conquered the Boii, and gained a triumph. He was also successful in an expe- dition which he undertook in Spain. When the statue of Cybele was brought to Rome from Phrygia, the Roman senate delegated one of their body, who was the most remarkable for the purity of his manners and the innocence of his life, to go and meet the goddess in the har- bor of Ostia. Nasica was the object of their choice, and as such he was enjoined to bring the statue of the goddess to Rome with the greatest pomp and solemnity. Nasica also distinguished himself by the active part which he took in confuting the accusations laid against the two Scipios, Africanus and Asiaticus. There was also ano- ther of the same name, who distinguished him- self by his enmity against the Gracchi, to whom he was nearly related SCIPIO, Publius iEmilianus, son of Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, was adopted by the son of Scipio Africanus. iEmilianus first ap- peared in the Roman armies under his father, and afterwards distinguished himself as a legion- ary tribune in the Spanish provinces, where he killed a Spaniard of gigantic stature, and ob- tained a mural crown at the siege of Intercatia. He passed into Africa to demand a reinforce- ment from king Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and he was the spectator of a long and bloody battle which was fought between that monarch and the Carthaginians, and which soon produced the third Punic war. Some time after, iEmili- anus was made edile, and next appointed con- sul, though under the age required for that im- portant office. He was empowered to finish the war with Carthage, and as he was permitted by the sen- ate to choose his colleague, he took with him his friend Laelius, whose father, of the same name, had formerly enjoyed the confidence and shared the victories of the first Africanus. The siege of Carthage was already begun, but the operations of the Romans were not continued with vigor. Scipio had no sooner appeared be- fore the walls of the enemy, than every com- munication with the land was cut off, and that SCI 500 SCO they might not have the command of the sea, a stupendous mole was thrown across the harbor, with immense labor and expense. This, which might have disheartened the most active ene- my, rendered the Carthaginians more eager in the cause of freedom and independence. All the inhabitants, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, employed themselves without cessation to dig another harbor, and to build and equip another fleet. In a short time, in spite of the vigilance and activity of iEmilianus, the Ro- mans were astonished to see another harbor formed, and 50 gallies suddenly issuing under sail, ready for the engagement. This unexpected fleet, by immediately attack- ing the Roman ships, might have gained the victory; but the delay of the Carthaginians proved fatal to their cause, and the enemy had sufficient time to prepare themselves. Scipio soon got possession of a small eminence in the harbor; and, by the success of his subse- quent operations, he broke open one of the gates of the city, and entered the streets, where he made hi-3 way by fire and sword. The surren- der of above 50,000 men was followed by the re- duction of the citadel, and the total submission of Carthage, B. C. 147. The captive city was set on fire ; and though Scipio was obliged to demolish its very walls, to obey the orders of the Romans, yet he wept bit- terly over the melancholy and tragical scene ; and in bewailing the miseries of Carthage, he expressed his fears lest Rome, in her turn, in some future age, should exhibit such a dreadful conflagration. The return of jEmilianus to Rome was that of another conqueror of Hanni- bal, and like him he was honored with a mag- nificent triumph, and received the surname of Africanus. He was chosen consul a second time, and appointed to finish the war which the Romans had hitherto carried on without success or vigorous exertions, against Numantia. The fall of Numantia was more noble than that of the capital of Africa, and the conqueror of Car- thage obtained the victory only when the ene- mies had been consumed by famine or by self- destruction, B. C. 133. For his conquests in Spain, iEmilianus was honored with a second triumph, and with the surname of Numantinus . Yet his popularity was short ; and by telling the people that the murder of their favorite, his brother-in-law, Gracchus, was lawful, since he was turbulent, and inimical to the peace of the republic, Scipio incurred the displeasure ofthe tribunes, and was received with hisses. His authority for a mo- ment quelled their sedition, when he reproach- ed them for their cowardice, and exclaimed, " Factious wretches, do you think that your clamors can intimidate me ; me, whom the fury of your enemies never daunted ? Is this the gratitude that you owe to my father Paulus, who conquered Macedonia, and \o me ? With- out my family, you were slaves. Is this the respect you owe to your deliverers? Is this your affection?" This firmness silenced the murmurs ofthe assembly, and some time after, Scipio retired from the clamors of Rome to Caieta, where, with his friend Laslius, he passed the rest of his time in innocent pleasure and amusement, in diversions which had pleased them when children. He afterward returned to Rome, and again engaged in public affairs. This active part of Scipio was seen with pleasure by the friends of the republic, and not only the senate, but also the citizens, the Latins, and neighboring states, conducted their illustrious friend and patron to his house. It seemed also the universal wish that the troubles might be quieted by the election of Scipio to the dictator- ship ; and many presume that that honor would be conferred upon him. In this, however, the expectations of Rome were frustrated : Scipio was found dead in his bed, to the astonishment of the world ; and those who inquired for the causes of this sudden death, perceived violent marks on his neck, and concluded that he had been strangled, B. C. 128. SCLAVONIA, a province in the. south ofthe Austrian empire. It formed, under the Ro- mans, a part ofthe ancient Illyria, and derived its present name from a tribe of Sclavi, or Slavi, who settled here in the 6th century. It was overrun by the Turks, and continued in their possession about 170 years. The Franks, in their military successes before and during the age of Charlemagne, often encountered Sclavo- nic tribes, and, carrying them into captivity, the name of Slave, or Esclave, became synony- mous with captive. SCOTLAND ; a country of Europe forming the northern division of Great Britain, contain- ing 29,600 square miles, and 2,365,700 inhabi- tants. It is divided by the Grampian mountains into two parts, the Highlands and Lowlands. HIGHLAND COUNTIES. Orkney (Isles) Inverness. Caithness Argyle Sutherland Bute Nairn Aberdeen Murray Kincardine Banf Angus Ross Perth Cromarty Fife SCO 501 SCO LOWLAND COUNTIES. Kinross Ayr Clackmannan Wigton Stirling Lanark Dumbarton Peebles West Lothian Selkirk Mid Lothian Roxburgh East Lothian Dumfries Berwick Kircudbright. Renfrew Scotland contains many beautiful lakes, or lochs. The southern part of Scotland is agree- ably diversified, but the northern contains many mountains, with few fertile valleys. Bennevis, one of the summits of the Grampian mountains, rises to the height of 4,387 feet. The chief towns are Glasgow, Edinburgh, Paisley, Aber- deen, Dundee, Greenock, Perth, Dumfermline, Inverness, Falkirk, Kilmarnock, and Montrose. Scotland is noted for its manufactures, the prin- cipal of which are cotton, linen, woollen, and iron. The Scotch are Presbyterians. The universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. An- drew's, and Aberdeen, enjoy great celebrity ; and by the number and excellence of common schools, the Scotch are well-informed. This part of the island of Great Britain was anciently called Caledonia, and the inhabitants Caledones, who were of Celtic original, and probably those tribes of the Britons, who had wandered the farthest northward. In the fourth century we find them distinguished into Scots and Picts. In 85, Agricola, the Roman gene- ral, attempted to conquer this part of the island, but did not effect the conquest of more than that part whi«h is south of the Forth and Clyde. In 121 Adrian relinquished more, building a wall from the Solway Frith to the river Tyne. In 144 the Romans extended their boundaries again as far as the wall of Agricola; but Seve- rus, though he invaded the whole country in 208, thought proper to adhere to the boundary of Adrian. Upon the Romans quitting this island in 410, the Scots regained the possession of all that is now called Scotland, and made excursions very far southward, though without retaining their conquests. About 839 the Picts are said to have been entirely reduced by Kennet II, the first sole king of" all Scotland. Donald, brother to Ken- net, reigned four years, and was succeeded by Constantine, his nephew, son of Kennet, who being made prisoner by a party of Danes, was beheaded by the enemy in a cave, after- wards called the Devil's Cave. He was suc- ceeded by his brother Eth, who, after a reign of one year, was followed by Gregory, surnamed the Great. The king of Ireland being a minor, his authority was usurped by two factious no- blemen. Gregory therefore passed over into that country as guardian of the young king, and after appointing a regency, he returned into Scotland, where he finished a life of action and of glory at Dun-o-deer, in the Garioch, in 892, and was buried with his ancestors at Icolm- kill. Donald VI, the worthy successor of Gregory, rendered considerable service to Alfred, king of England, in his wars with the Danes. He was succeeded by Constantine III, who, depart- ing from the policy of his predecessors, entered into an alliance with the Danes, in the hope of being able to extend his dominions by their help. But he was disappointed. After failing in an expedition against England, he resigned his crown to Malcolm, and spent the remainder of his life in the solitude of the cloister. The connection of the English and Scots against the Danes, was continued under Indulf, who defeated these freebooters in many bloody en- gagements. His successor Duff resigned his principality of Cumberland to Colin, the son of Indulf; but the latter, not contented with his domain, excited various insurrections in the kingdom, and at last Duff was either slain or driven into exile. Colin indulged in the greatest licentiousness, and was succeeded by Kennet III, the son of Malcolm, who vigorously prosecuted the war against the Britons of Strathcluyd, till at last their principality was finally subjected to the dominion of the Scots. However, Kennet was assassinated, and the throne was usurped by Constantine the Bold, who fell in an engage- ment with Grime, the son of Duff, in 993. Grime, regardless of the claims of Malcolm, son of Kennet, and prince of Cumberland, caus- ed himself to be crowned at Scone, but was defeated and slain after a reign of eight years. In 1004, Malcolm having convened the nobil- ity, was acknowledged sovereign, and invested with the royal dignity. He defeated in three different engagements the Danes, who had ef- fected a settlement in Cambria ; and these suc- cesses gained him the title of the most victorious king. He died after a reign of thirty years, and left no issue to succeed him except Dun- can, a grandson by his daughter Beatrix. Duncan was cut off by the hand of domestic treachery in the seventh year of his reign, and the throne was usurped by his murderer Mac- SCO 502 SCO beth. Consciousness of guilt kept alive in his breast a jealousy which prompted him to re- peated acts of cruelty ; and he put to death Mac Gill, then Banquo, the most powerful man in his dominions, with the wife and infant children of Macduff, who saved his own life by flying into England. Macduff applied himself to Malcolm, son of the late king Duncan, who on the death of his father had escaped to his principality in Cum- berland ; and having obtained assistance from England, they made war on the usurper, whom they soon drove to the most inaccessible parts of the Highlands, where, after defending him- self for the space of two years, he was at last killed in a sally by MacdufF. Malcolm mount- ed the throne of his fathers ; he married Mar- garet of England, who had fled to Scotland for safety of her life. Malcolm engaged in war with the king of England, and after laying waste the open country, besieged Alnwick, in Northumberland. According to Scottish historians, the place was so closely pressed, that a knight came out of the castle with its keys on the point of a spear, and pretending that he wished to lay them at Malcolm's feet, that prince advanced to receive them, and was by the traitor run through the eye, and killed on the spot. They also add, that the prince Edward was mortally wounded in endeavoring to avenge his father's death. According to English historians, Mal- colm and his son fell in battle, and their army suffered a total route. Margaret, who was at this time sick at Edin- burgh, being informed of the death of her hus- band and son, made confession, received the sacrament, gave her dying blessing and advice to her children, and expired. Malcolm and Margaret left six children; Edmund, Edgar, Alexander, David, Matilda, and Mary. Ano- ther of Malcolm's sons was of illegitimate birth, and was called Duncan. Donald, the brother of Malcolm, presented himself as a candidate for the crown ; but the illegitimate Duncan advanced his pretensions with great firmness, and obliged his father's brother to relinquish. In order to support him- self on the throne, Duncan called in the Nor- wegians, renouncing in their favor all claims on the Orkney and Shetland isles. But those barbarians rendering themselves more odious than ever the English had been, the nobles re- nounced their allegiance to Duncan, and placed on the throne Malcolm's eldest son Edgar, who had returned to Scotland with his two brothers, and who, after a reign of eight years, which was disturbed neither by domestic conspiracy nor foreign wars, died in the year 1107. He was succeeded by his brother Alexander, who being also destitute of progeny, left the crown to David, the last of Malcolm's sons. Immediately on his accession a contest which had for some time prevailed, concerning the independence of the Scottish church, was re- newed. Jn an advanced age David lost his only son Henry, but, before his death, which happened in the year 1153, he caused his grand- son Malcolm to be proclaimed and acknow- ledged heir to his crown. Malcolm IV, who was only twelve or fifteen years of age at the time of his accession, ceded the counties of Northumberland and Cumber- land to Henry II of England, did homage for the earldom of Huntingdon, and meeting that monarch at Carlisle, followed him in his expe- dition against Toulouse in France. On his return he was continually disturbed with insur- rections, and was saved only by the intervention of the clergy. He died unmarried at the age of twenty-five years. William was crowned immediately after his brother's death, in 1165, and entering into a confederacy against Henry king of England, was defeated and taken prisoner. William ac- cepted his liberation on the most humiliating terms ; five castles being delivered up to the English as sureties, and the king's brother and twenty nobles as hostages. The accession of Richard to the English throne was, however, fortunate for Scotland. He released William and his kingdom from that feudal dependency on England, which had been unjustly extorted from him during his captivity, and engaged to restore his fortresses. William reigned forty- nine years, and died in the seventy-second year of his age. His son and successor, Alexander II, settled by treaty the claims which had been the sub- jects of contest between the two crowns, and procured for himself a reign as peaceable as could be expected in a nation full of turbulent nobles. Alexander III was only nine years of age when he was crowned. Ambassadors were sent to London to demand Henry's daughter in marriage ; and this being easily granted, both courts met at York, and the ceremony was per- formed with great pomp. Alexander did hom- age to Henry for his English possessions, which the latter confirmed by a charter. The king saw himself bereft of all his chil- dren, except Margaret, who was married to SCO 503 SCO Eric of Norway ; and in the lliird year after her marriage she also died, leaving only an infant daughter, on whom the crown of Scotland was settled. Alexander was thrown from his horse over a precipice, and perished in the fall. Ed- ward, who was one of the most valiant and politic monarchs that ever sat on the English throne, being ambitious of adding Scotland to the dominions of his crown, applied to the court of Rome to authorise a marriage between his son and his grand-niece, and having gained the consent of Eric, he intrigued with the Scottish nobles to obtain their concurrence. Every thing seemed to favor his views, when the child was taken ill on the passage from Norway, and died at Orkney. The Scots now saw full before them the un- happy prospect of a disputed succession, war with England, and intestine discord. In order, therefore, to avoid the miseries of a civil war, both parties made choice of Edward as umpire, and agreed to aquiesce in his decree. The chief competitors for the crown were Bruce and Ba- liol, both descendants of David, earl of Hun- tingdon, who was brother to the two kings, Malcolm and William. Edward advanced with a great army to the frontiers of Scotland, whither he invited the nobility and all the competitors to attend him. However, in the character of umpire, the king of England arrogated to himself the feudal sov- ereignty of the kingdom, compelled all the ba- rons to swear allegiance to him, and took pos- session of all the fortresses with his troops. One hundred and four commissioners being appointed to examine the several claims, gave their verdict in favor of Baliol, who was crown- ed accordingly in 1292. But Baliol renouncing his allegiance soon after, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland with an immense army, and compelled this weak prince to submit and make a solemn and irrevocable resignation of his crown into the hands of the king of England. National ani- mosities, and the insolence of victory, conspired to render the English government intolerable to the Scots, who bore with the utmost impa- tience a yoke, to which, from the earliest period of their monarchy, they had always been unac- customed. In 1296, Sir William Wallace, whose mag- nanimous soul could no longer brook to see his country torn by factions, deserted by its chiefs, and oppressed by foreigners, bravely stepped forth to re-unite the friends of liberty under his banner, and undertook several enterprises, all of which added to the glory of his name, and to the number of his followers, till at length he obtained a numerous army. The Scots were now forced to the cruel ex- pedient of putting to the sword every English- man they found in arms. King Edward, who was then in France, ordered the earl of Surrey to suppress this daring insurrection ; and lord Henry Percy marched at the head of an army of forty thousand men against Wallace. The latter retreated northward, where he was joined by new adherents ; and when Warrene advanc- ed to Stirling, he found Wallace encamped in excellent order on the opposite bank of the Forth. A desperate engagement ensued, in which the English were utterly defeated, and obliged to evacuate the kingdom. This success pro- cured Wallace the title of Guardian ; but he still acknowledged the captive king, Baliol. However, the cause was ruined by the jealousy of the nobles. The English monarch returned from France, and marched into Scotland at the head of seventy thousand men. Wallace now voluntarily resigned his authority, and retained only one corps that refused to fight under any other leader. The English army came up with the enemy near Falkirk, and defeated and dis- persed the Scots with great slaughter. At length, with much difficulty, Edward completed the conquest of Scotland, without being able to seize or subdue the patriotic Wal- lace. Disappointed in all his schemes for that purpose, he did not disdain to stoop to treach- ery ; and Sir William was basely betrayed by a traitor, and sent to London, where he was tried and barbarously put to death as a rebel. Robert Bruce, the restorer of the Scottish throne, and father of a new race of kings, was the grandson of the competitor of Baliol for the crown. Having resolved to quit the court of Edward, to whom his father and grandfather had meanly sworn allegiance, he contrived to escape, and to join the Scotch patriots of Lochmaben. Af- ter collecting what forces he could, in 1306, he attacked the English, who were unprepared, and having gained possession of several castles, he was solemnly crowned at Scone. King Ed- ward immediately dispatched A_ymer de Val- ence into Scotland, who, falling in with Bruce at Methven, attacked him, and notwithstanding a most vigorous resistance, totally defeated the Scottish army. Bruce fled almost unattended, to the Western Isles, where he wandered about for some time SCO 504 SCO in distress ; but Edward dying on his way to Scotland, Bruce was delivered from a powerful enemy, and his party daily increased. In 1313 Edward II assembled his whole forces, amount- ing, according to the Scottish historians, to one hundred thousand men. Robert's army did not exceed thirty thousand men, but they were men of tried valor. He encamped beside a rivulet called Bannockburn, near Stirling, the castle of which had been long besieged by the Scots. Edward being determined to relieve it, the two armies commenced an engagement, which lasted for a long time, and in which both sides displayed great bravery. However, the English at length betook them- selves to flight, and were pursued by the Scots, who made a great slaughter. King Edward with difficulty escaped to Dunbar : the flower of his nobility fell in this battle, and the liberty of Scotland triumphed. However, it was not till the deposition of Edward that Robert Bruce wrested from England a solemn renunciation of all claims on Scotland, and secured a peace by marrying his son David to Joan, sister to Edward III. Thus ended the glorious conflict of Robert for the independence of his crown, after a reign of 24 years. During the minority of David, Edward, son of John Baliol, being supported by the English, invaded Scotland in 1332, was proclaimed king, and, like his father, did hom- age as vassal of England. David, with his queen, found refuge in France ; but Edward Baliol dismembering his kingdom in favor of the English, lost the affections of his subjects. David returning from France, repulsed Ba- liol, and was himself taken prisoner near Dur- ham. Baliol resigned his claims to Edward, who, soon after, acknowledged David as king, and restored him to liberty on condition of his paying a great ransom. David, leaving no progeny, was succeeded by Robert II, grandson of Bruce, and the first king of the Stuart family. In 1371, the war with England was renewed, and continued with little interruption to the end of this reign. Robert III refused to do homage for his crown to Henry IV. In 1390, understanding that his eldest son was starved to death by his uncle, the duke of Albany, and wishing to secure his surviving child James, he made him embark for France; but his ill-fated stars threw the prince into the hands of his enemies, and the father fell a prey to his grief, on being told of his son's captivity in the tower of London. James was still detained in the hands of king Henry ; and the regency of the duke of Albany, his uncle, the murderer of his brother, was rec- ognised in Scotland in 1405. After a long captivity he was restored to his kingdom, which he governed thirteen years, when he was barbarously assassinated. New broils attended the minority of James II, who was only seven years old at the time of his ac- cession in 1437. At the age of fourteen the young king assumed the reins of government, but he was soon after killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh. James III succeeded him in 1460. After marrying Margaret of Denmark, he gave him- self up to astrology, and through jealousyAnade away with his own brother, the earl of Mar, while the duke of Albany, the other brother, escaped to France. Being invited to England, now again at war with her northern neigh- bor, the duke of Albany took the title of Alex- ander, king of Scotland, by the gift of Edward, and marched to the borders But a treaty being concluded, Albany returned to his allegiance, and to his brother's favor. Albany, however, again withdrew to England ; and a fresh con- spiracy being formed against James, the rebels prevailed on the king's son, the young duke ofRothsay, to head their army. An engage- ment took place near Bannockburn, in which the rebels were successful, and the king, in his flight, was thrown from his horse, and car- ried to the first hovel, where he was stabbed to the heart by one of the insurgents. James IV succeeded his father in 1488. At the instigation of the French court, he rashly entered into a war against Henry VIII, brother of his queen, and, notwithstanding the advice of his best counsellors, led an army into Eng- land, where, at the memorable battle of Flodden field, he lost the flower of his nobility and his own life. James V being only two years old at the death of his father, his mother Margaret, sister to the king of England, was appointed regent and guardian by the will of her husband. The young king assumed the government at the age of thirteen, in 1513, with a council of eight; but he soon shook off the yoke of his council. Henry VIII having proclaimed war against Scotland, an inroad was planned on the west- ern borders ; but James despising and distrust- ing his nobles, gave the command of the army to a man of less note. This insult provoked the troops, who refused to fight at the Raid of Sol- way Moss, and ten thousand men laid down their arms before five hundred English, without SCO 505 SCO striking a blow. These sad tidings broke the proud heart of James, who refused from that moment to take any sustenance, and, after lan- guishing some days, expired in the thirty-first year of his age. Mary, queen of Scots, was born a few days before the death of her father. The disasters of her reign began and ended only with her life. At an early age Mary was sent to France, where she was brought up at the court of Henry II, whose eldest son Francis was destined to be her husband. The minority of Mary Stuart was agitated by great disturbances ; and the re- gency was claimed by different competitors as a privilege of blood or family appanage. At length, the queen abandoned the helm of gov- ernment to any adventurer who might wish to seize it. The tempests excited by ambition and jealousy, were increased by the gusts of religi- ous fanaticism. Popery struggled against the Reformation with an already evident disadvantage ; and the vessel of state, buffetted by those storms, was every moment in imminent danger of sink- ing. At this critical situation of affairs, Mary re- turned to assume the sovereignty of her king- dom after the death of Francis II, who had left her a widow at the age of eighteen years. By assuming the title of queen of England on the death of Henry VIII, she excited the jealousy of Elizabeth, who succeeded to the English throne, and who never pardoned her cousin this assertion of her rights. The religious dissen- sions by which Scotland was divided, were ef- fectually subservient to the views of Elizabeth, who gained the affections of the reformed party, and excited their suspicions against their sove- reign, Mary being sprung from the blood of the Guises, and niece to the cardinal de Lorraine, who was the scourge of the Protestants. To their religious and political opinions the young queen could not reconcile herself, and hence arose a decided aversion between the sovereign and her subjects. Her council in- duced her to re-marry, and she gave her hand to her cousin Henry lord Darnley. This mar- riage displeased Elizabeth. Soon after Mary's marriage witli Darnley, she became disgusted with his deceit and plausibility. Darnley , think- ing this change of disposition was occasioned by her having conceived a passion for some other man, unjustly suspected David Rizzio, an Italian musician. However, he soon found a set of willing accomplices in the execution of vengeance against his wife ; and, accordingly, one evening, while the queen was at supper with the countess of Argyle, Henry conducted the confederates by a private staircase into the queen's apartment, where they seized Rizzio, and after dragging him into an adjoining room, despatched him with fifty-six wounds. Nothing couTd exceed the grief and indigna- tion of Mary on this occasion ; but, finding her- self entirely in the power of the conspirators, she was obliged to dissemble. On the 19th of June, 15C6, at Edinburgh Castle, she bore her oply son, afterwards James VI of Scotland, and I of England. At length, after a series of tra- gical disasters, Mary placed herself in the hands of Elizabeth, by whose order she was executed at Fotheringay castle in 1587. (See Mary Queen of Scots.) All the rights and pretensions of Mary now devolved upon her son, who was considered, as well by Catholics as Protestants, as the pre- sumptive heir to the throne of England, and the rightful sovereign of Scotland. The pacific disposition and the clemency of James towards offenders, multiplied crimes of all kinds, and encouraged such acts of violence as brought his government under contempt. All was foment- ed by the intrigues of Elizabeth, who still strove to retain James weak, by keeping his affairs continually embroiled. On the death of Eliza- beth, in l(i03, the lords of the privy council proclaimed James king of England. Before this monarch left Scotland to take pos- session of his new kingdom, he had with great zeal labored to civilize the northern and west- ern Highlands. He was himself a scholar ; and to his love of learning the Scots are indebted for the parochial schools, which afford the com- mon people so much advantage in point of edu- cation, over other countries. He encouraged trade and the fisheries, and greatly promoted the industry of his subjects. In 1G03, he took his farewell. By means of the king's accession to the English throne, the regal power in Scot- land acquired additional strength ; and James attempted to avail himself of this cir- mstance for the union of both the national churches and the kingdom into one. After a reign and life of nearly 59 years, James was seized with his last illness, which some affirm to have been caused by poison. Charles I entered Edinburgh with great magnificence, and was crowned at Holyroodhouse^ In the Parhuent which was now summoned, the lords of the articles brought in a bill for confirming the royal prerogative, to- gether with the power granted to the late king to prescribe apparel to churchmen with their SCO 506 SCO own consent. This unpopular, and indeed fri- volous and vexatious bill, passed through Parlia- ment, and received the royal sanction ; and un- der Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, and Spots- wood the historian, archbishop of St. Andrews, the king proceeded to introduce a book of liturgy into the public worship of the Scottish churches. These measures excited the most general dis- content, and produced the most violent com- motions. A civil war at length became unavoidable; and the covenanters prepared for it with vigor and resolution. They received arms, ammunition, and money, from France, and other countries; and no regularly established commonwealth could take wiser measures. Lesley, a soldier of experience and ability, the earl of Montrose, a youth of heroic genius, with other leaders of the party, all of them men of sense and resolu- tion, conducted the military affairs. After seizing and fortifying the most important places of strength in the kingdom they invaded Eng- land, and compelled the royal forces to retreat to York. At this period, the English rebels courted a closer union with their Scottish friends, and agreed to receive the solemn league and cove- nant, to preserve the reformed religion establish- ed in the church of Scotland, and to reform Eng- land and Ireland, according to the word of God, and the example of the purestchurches. Accord- ingly a subsidiary army of 20,000 Scots hastened to join Lord Fairfax, and effectually assisted him in reducing the city of York. While the king's affairs declined in England, the brave Montrose had left the Scottish army, and raised the royal standard in the north. This active nobleman, having raised a supply of 1200 troops from Ire- land, hastened to take the command of this auxiliary force, and several more flocked to his standard. He attacked and defeated a party of the covenanters, 6000 in number, under Tulli- bardine ; and Perth opened its gates to the vic- tor, and was laid under contribution. At Aber- deen, Montrose gained a second victory over the troops under Lord Burleigh, and laid waste the country of Argyle. Montrose gained in succession the victories of Auldearn, Alford, and Kilsyth, but his whole army was destroyed at Philiphaugh by the troops under Sir David Lesley, and he was never able afterwards to bring a formidable force into the field, notwith- standing all the efforts he could make. The fortunes of Charles being now ruined in England, he was reduced to the desperate ex- pedient of seeking refuge in the heart of an army which was in open rebellion against him. The immediate consequences of this fatal step were orders expedited to his adherents to lay down their arms. Montrose obeyed, and retir- ed to France. The English parliament demand- ing of the Scottish army the person of the king, they preferred delivering him up rather than go to war in his defence. The kingdom was, however, divided into two parties, and the duke of Hamilton and the majority in parliament, in opposition to the church, succeeded in raising a numerous army to support the king against Cromwell and his adherents, who appeared to entertain designs totally hostile both to the king's person and government : with this army they set forward to invade England, and to res- tore the king to his ancient rights. But the violent party considered it the height of impiety to fight for an uncovenanted king. The Scotch troops, not daring to unite them- selves with the English royalists who had re- fused the covenant, both armies were easily destroyed by Cromwell, who, after exercising the severest vengeance against the friends of Charles in Scotland, returned in triumph to England, and brought Charles to public trial and execution. The covenanters now declar- ed for the young king, Charles II, then in Holland, on condition of his becoming the pu- pil of Presbyterianism, and taking the covenant. Montrose was despatched to the Orkneys, to make an attempt for the king's restoration on better terms ; but being attacked by a much superior force, he was defeated, and put to death in 1650. With him were executed Spotswood, Hay, Sibbald, and Ury of Urry, all friends to the royal cause. Charles II now sailed from Holland for the Scottish coast, and threw himself entirely into the hands of the covenanters, who required him to sign the covenant, and exhorted him to be faithful to that holy confederacy. Cromwell inarched into Scotland against the now royal covenanters, whom he attacked, and defeated at Dunbar. Notwithstanding this defeat, the roy- alists in Scotland increased. Charles was crowned at Scone on the 1st of January, 1651 ; but he was obliged to take the covenant, and to undergo other mortifications. Cromwell, however, succeeded in an attempt to cut off the royalists from all their communica- tions with the north and the Highlands ; and when they invaded England, defeated them at Worcester. Charles escaped, and at last took shipping from the coast of Sussex, and arrived safe at Feschamp in Normandy. SCO 507 SCO After the restoration of Charles II, in 1GG0, the Parliament was opened with unusual splen- dor at Edinburgh ; and in the proceedings of this assembly, the royal prerogative was exalted to a pitch of despotism. Deprived at last of public worship, the persecuted Presbyterians rose in open rebellion. On the Pentland hills they were met by the king's forces, under Dal- ziel, and were routed with considerable slaugh- ter, at the first onset. Commotions and insur- rections multiplied during the whole reign of Charles II, who attempted, sometimes by gentle means, and sometimes by acts of severity, to crush Presbyterianism,and to induce the people to substitute another form of church govern- ment. Though the people of England, as well as the Parliament of Scotland, had made a surrender to the crown of all their constitutional rights, in 1685, the history of the reign of James VII proves how little dependence is to be placed on those professions. James was not ignorant of the intrigues and ambition of his son-in-law, the prince of Orange, with whom Monmouth, Argyle, Dalrymple, afterwards earl of Stair, Burnet, soon to be bishop of Sarum, and the English and Scotch exiles, found refuge. The insurrections occasioned by Argyle and Mon- mouth widened the breach between the unfor- I tunate monarch and his disaffected subjects. James proposed to his Scottish Parliament a relaxation of the penal laws against the Roman Catholics ; but the proposal was received with such coldness, that the chancellor thought it prudent to drop the bill entirely. However, the court issued declarations in favor of Presbyte- rians, of Quakers, of Roman Catholics, and at last " suspended all penal and sanguinary laws for nonconformity to the religion established by law." The Presbyterians of Edinburgh, and the ministers all over Scotland, gladly accepted of this toleration, and thanked the king for his protection. In 1688, James, finding himself abandoned by his friends, fled ; and his constrained flight was pronounced an abdication of the throne of Scotland. Indifferent as to modes of religion, William treated with Presbyterians as well as Episcopalians. The throne was declar- ed vacant by the convention ; and William ac- cepted of the crown tendered to him by a deputa- tion from the states, and, with his spouse, took a coronation oath. By a majority of the votes in Parliament, William was reluctantly prevail- j ed on to repeal the constitution of the lords of articles, to abandon the patronage and the supremacy over the church, and to re-establish Presbytery. William, after a fruitless attempt to gain the chieftains by pecuniary offers, issued a procla- mation denouncing military execution against all who should not before the expiration of the year take an oath of fealty to him. William dying in 1702, the accession of queen Anne gave new hopes to the pretender, son of the late king James, and his adherents. William had never dissolved the Convention Parliament. The members of this Parliament assembled, and empowered the queen to nomi- nate commissioners for treating of an union. The commissioners repaired to London, to treat with those appointed in England. At length, the whole of the articles of the union were completed and signed by all the Scottish com- missioners excepting one, who was Lockhart of Carnwarth. Notwithstanding the strong op- position which this measure experienced, on Thursday the 16th of January, 1707, the whole articles of the union were, without any material alteration, approved by a legal majority in Par- liament ; and the lord high commissioner, touch- ing the act with the sceptre, sanctioned it with that consent of the crown, which was requisite to give it in Scotland the force of a law. The treaty of union, thus finally ratified by the Sco- tish Parliament, was immediately transmitted to London, where it was equally honored by the sanction of the Parliament and the royal consent. On the 28th of April, the Scottish Parliament was dissolved, never more to be as- sembled; and the Scots and English were hence- forth to be one people. KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Fergus I. B. C. 330 Ferftharis — 305 Mainus — 290 Dornadilla — 261 Nothatus — 233 Reutherus — 213 Reuthra — 187 Thereus — 173 Josina — 161 Finnanus — 137 Durstus — 107 Evenus I. — 98 Gillus — 79 Evenus II. — 77 Ederus — 60 Evenus III. — 12 Me tall an us ' — 5 Caractacus A. D. 32 Corbred I. — 54 SCO 508 SCO Dardanus Corbred II, Luctacus Mogaldus Conarus Ethodius I. Satrael Donald I. Ethodius II. Achiro Nathalocus Findocus Donald II. Donald HI. Crathilinthus Finchormarc hus Romachus Angusianus or JEneas Fethelmachus Eugenius I. Fergus II. Eugenius II. Dongard Constantine I. Congale 1. Goran I. Eugenius III. Congale II. Kinnatellus Aidan Kennet I. Eugenius IV. Ferchard II. Donald IV. Ferchard I, Maldwin Eugenius V. Eugenius VI. Amberchelet Eugenius VII. Mordac Etfinius Eugenius VIII. Fergus III. Solvatius Achaius Congale III. Don gal Alpin Kennet II. Donald V. Constantine II. Ethus Gregory Donald VI. Constantine III. 70 Malcolm I. — 938 72 Indulphus — 958 104 Duphus — 968 107 Cullenus — 972 142 Kennet III. — 973 161 Constantine IV. — 994 193 Grimus — 996 197 (Malcolm II. — 1004 216 Duncan — 1034 230 Macbeth — 1040 242 Malcolm III. — 1057 252 Donald VII. — 1093 262 Duncan II. — 1095 263 Donald VII. again — 1095 277 Interregnum — 1096 320 Edgar — 1097 368 Alexander I. — 1107 371 David I. — 1124 373 Malcolm IV. — 1153 376 William — 1165 413 Alexander II. — 1214 419 Alexander III. — 1240 451 Interregnum — 1245 457 John Baliol — 1292 479 Robert I. — 1306 501 David II. — 1329 545 Edward Baliol — 1332 548 David II. again — 1341 568 Robert II. — 1371 569 John Robert — 1390 604 James I. — 1405 606 James II. — 1437 622 James III. — 1460 63^ James IV. — 1488 646 James V. — 1513 664 Mary Stuart — 1542 684 James VI. — 1567 687 SCOTT, sir Walter, baronet, the eldest son 697 of Walter Scott, was born in the city of Edin- 698 burgh, Scotland, Aug. 15, 1771. It is proper to 715 remark that his mother was a lady of talent, the 730 friend of Burns and Ramsay, and the author of 761 some meritorious verses. Sir Walter was edu- 763 cated at the high school of Edinburgh, and at 766 the university. At an early age, he was cele- 787 brated as a story-teller, " when the applause of 819 his companions was his recompense for the dis- 824 grace and punishments which the future ro- 831 mance-writer incurred by being idle himself, 834 and keeping others idle, during hours that should 854 have been employed on their tasks." 858 Sir Walter Scott's account of his birth and 874 circumstances is characterized by his usual mod- 876 esty. 892 " My birth, without giving the least preten- 903 sion to distinction, was that of a gentleman, and SCO 509 SCO connected me with several respectable families and accomplished persons. My education had been a good one, although I was deprived of its full benefit by indifferent health, just at the pe- riod when I ought to have been most sedulous in improving it. The young men with whom I was brought up, and lived most familiarly, were those who, from opportunities, birth and talents, might be expected to make the greatest advances in the profession to which we were all destined ; and I have the pleasure still to pre- serve my youthful intimacy with no inconside- rable number of them, whom their merit has carried forward to the highest honors of their profession. Neither was I in a situation to be embarrassed by the res angusla dojni, which might have otherwise interrupted my progress in a profession in which progress is proverbially slow. I enjoyed a moderate degree of business for my standing, and the friendship of more than one person of consideration efficiently disposed to aid my views in life. The private fortune, also, which I might expect, and finally inherit- ed, from my family, did not, indeed, amount to affluence, but placed me considerably beyond all apprehension of want. I mention these partic- ulars merely because they are true. Many better men than myself have owed their rise from in- digence and obscurity to their own talents, which were, doubtless, much more adequate to the task of raising them tham any which I possess. Al- though it would be absurd and ungracious in me to deny that I owe to literature many marks of distinction to which I could not otherwise have aspired, and particularly that of seeming the acquaintance, and even the friendship, of many remarkable persons of the age, to whom I might not otherwise have made my way ; it would on the other hand, be ridiculous to affect gratitude to the public favor, either for my position in so- ciety, or the means of supporting it with decen- cy — matters which had been otherwise secured under the usual chances of human affairs. Thus much I have thought it necessary to say, upon a subject which is, after all, of very little conse- quence to any one but myself." In 1792 he was called to the bar. Of his success in his profession, and the nature of his studies and pursuits, we will give his own ac- count, taken from one of his interesting prefaces. " It may be readily supposed that the attempts which I made in literature had been unfavorable to my success at the bar. The goddess Themis is, at Edinburgh, and I suppose every where else, of a peculiarly jealous disposition. She will not readily consent to share her authority, and sternly demands from her votaries not only that real duty be carefully attended to and dis- charged, but that a certain air of business shall be observed even in the midst of total idleness. It is prudent, if not absolutely necessary, in a young barrister, to appear completely engrossed by his profession; however destitute of employ- ment he may be, he ought to preserve, if pos- sible, the appearance of full occupation. He should at least seem perpetually engaged among his law papers, dusting them, as it were ; and, as Ovid advises the fair, Si nullus erit pulvis, tamen excute nullum. Perhaps such extremity of attention is more es- pecially required, considering the great number of counsellors who are called to the bar, and how very small a proportion of them are finally dis- posed, or find encouragement, to follow the law as a profession. Hence the number of deserters is so great, that the least lingering look behind occasions a young novice to be set down as one of the intending fugitives. Certain it is, that the Scottish Themis was at this time peculiarly jealous of any flirtation with the Muses, on the part of those who had ranged themselves under her banners. This was probably owing to her consciousness of the superior attractions of her rivals. Of late, however, she has relaxed in some instances in this particular; an eminent example of which has been shown in the case of my friend, Mr. Jeffrey, who, after long con- ducting one of the most influential literary pe- riodicals of the age, with unquestionable ability, has been, by the general consent of his brethren, recently elected to be their Dean of Faculty, or President, being the highest acknowledgment of his professional talents which they had it in their power to offer. But this is an incident much beyond the ideas of a period of thirty years' distance, when a barrister who really pos- sessed any turn for lighter literature, was at as much pains to conceal it, as if it had in reality been something to be ashamed of; and I could mention one instance in which literature and society have suffered loss, that jurisprudence might be enriched. Such, however, was not my case ; for the reader will not wonder that my open interference with matters of light literature di- minished my employment in the weightier mat- ters of the law. Nor did the solicitors, upon whose choice the council takes rank in his pro- fession, do me less than justice by regarding others among my contemporaries as fitter to discharge the duty due to their clients, than a young man who was taken up with running after ballads, whether Teutonic or national. My pro- SCO 510 SCO fession and I, therefore, came to stand nearly upon the footing on which honest Slender con- soled himself with having established with Mis- tress Anne Page : " There was no great love in the beginning, and it pleased Heaven to decrease it on farther acquaintance."' I became sensible that the time was come when I must either buckle myself resolutely to the " toil by day, the lamp by night," renouncing all the Delilahs of my imagination, or bid adieu to the profession of the law, and hold another course. I confess my own inclination revolted from the more se- vere choice which might have been deemed by many the wiser alternative. As my transgres- sions had been numerous, my repentance must have been signalized by unusual sacrifices. I ought to have mentioned, that, since my four- teenth or fifteenth year, my health, originally delicate, had become extremely robust. From infancy I had labored under the infirmity of a severe lameness, but, as 1 believe is usually the case with men of spirit who suffer under personal inconveniences of this nature, I had, since the improvement of my health, in defiance of this incapacitating circumstance, distinguished my- self by the endurance of toil on foot or horseback, having often walked thirty miles a day, and rode upwards of a hundred, without stopping. In this manner I made many pleasant journeys throuo-h parts of the country then not very accessible, faining more amusement and instruction than have been able to acquire since I have travel- led in a more commodious manner. I practised most sylvan sports, also, with some success, and with great delight. But these pleasures must have been all resigned, or used with great mod- eration, had I determined to regain my station at the bar. It was even doubtful whether I could, with perfect character as a jurisconsult, retain a situation in a volunteer corps of cavalry, which I then held. The threats of invasion were at this time instant and menacing : the call by Brit- ain on her children was universal, and was an- swered by many, who, like myself, consulted rather their will than their ability to bear arms. My services, however, were found useful in as- sisting to maintain the discipline of the corps, being the point on which their constitution ren- dered them most amenable to military criticism. In other respects the squadron was a fine one, consisting of handsome men, well mounted and armed at their own expense. My attention to the corps took up a great deal of time ; and while it occupied many of the happiest hours of my life, it furnished an additional reason for my re- luctance again to encounter the severe course of study indispensable to success in the juridical profession. On the other hand, my father, whose feelings might have been hurt by my quitting the bar, had been for two or three years dead ; so that I had no control to thwart my own inclination ; and my income being equal to all the comforts, and some of the elegancies, of life, I was not pressed to an irksome labor by necessity, that most powerful of motives; consequently, I was the more easily seduced to choose the employ- ment which was most agreeable. This was yet the easier, as in 1800 I had obtained the prefer- ment of Sheriff of Selkirkshire, about £300 a year in value, and which was the more agreeable to me, as in that county I had several friends and relations. But I did not abandon the pro- fession to which I had been educated, without certain prudential resolutions, which at the risk of some egotism, I will here mention ; not with- out the hope that they may be useful to young persons who may stand in circumstances similar to those in which I then stood. In the first place, upon considering the lives and fortunes of per- sons who had given themselves up to literature, or to the task of pleasing the public, it seemed to me that the circumstances which chiefly af- fected their happiness and character were those from which Horace has bestowed' upon authors the epithet of the irritable race. It requires no depth of philosophic reflection to perceive, that the petty warfare of Pope with the dunces of his period, could not have been carried on without his suffering the most acute torture, such as a man must endure from musquitoes, by whose stings he suffers agony, although he can crush them in his grasp by myriads. Nor is it necessary to call to memory the many humiliating instances in which men of the greatest genius have, to avenge some pitiful quarrel, made themselves ridiculous during their lives, to become the still more degraded objects of pity to future times. Upon the whole, as I had no pretension to the genius of the distinguished persons who had fallen into such errors, I concluded there could be no occasion for imitating them in these mis- takes, or what I considered as such ; and, in adopting literary pursuits as the principal occu- pation of my future life, I resolved, if possible, to avoid those weaknesses of temper which seem- ed to have most easily beset my more celebrated predecessors. With this view, it was my first resolution to keep, as far as was in my power, abreast of society ; continuing to maintain my place in general company, without yielding to the very natural temptation of narrowing myself SCO 511 SCO to what is called literary society. By doing so, I imagined I should escape the besetting sin of listening to language which, from one motive or other, ascribes a very undue degree of conse- quence to literary pursuits ; as if they were, in- deed, the business, rather than the amusement of life. The opposite course can only be com- pared to the injudicious conduct of one who pampers himself with cordial and luscious draughts, until he is unable to endure whole- some bitters. Like Gil Bias, therefore, I resolv- ed to stick by the society of my commis, instead of seeking that of a more literary cast; and to maintain my general interest in what was going on around me, reserving the man of letters for the desk and the library. My second resolution was a corollary from the first. I determined that, without shutting my ears to the voice of true criticism, I would pay no regard to that which assumes the form of satire. I therefore resolved to arm myself with the triple brass of Horace, against all the roving warfare of satire, parody, and sarcasm; to laugh if the jest was a good one ; or, if otherwise, to let it hum and buzz it- self to sleep. It is to the observance of these rules (according to my best belief), that, after a life of thirty years engaged in literary labors of various kinds, I attribute my never having been entangled in any literary quarrel or controversy ; and, which is a more pleasing result, that I have been distinguished by the personal friendship of my most approved contemporaries of all par- ties. I adopted, at the same time, another reso- lution, on which it may doubtless be remarked, that it was well for me that I had it in my pow- er to do so, and that, therefore, it is a line of conduct which can be less generally applicable in other cases. Yet I fail not to record this part of my plan, convinced that, though it may not be in every one's power to adopt exactly the same resolution, he may nevertheless, by his own ex- ertions, in some shape or other, attain the object on which it was founded ; namely, to secure the means of subsistence, without relying exclusive- ly on literary talents. In this respect, I deter- mined that literature should be my staff, but not my crutch ; and that the profits of my labor, how- ever convenient otherwise, should not become necessary to my ordinary expenses. With this purpose I resolved, if the interest of my friends could so far favor me, to retire upon any of the respectable offices of the law, in which persons of that profession are glad to take refuge when they feel themselves, or are judged by others, incompetent to aspire to its higher offices and honors. Upon such an office an author might hope to retreat, without any perceptible altera- tion of circumstances, whenever the time should arrive that the public grew weary of his en- deavors to please, or he himself should tire of the occupation of authorship. At this period of my life I possessed so many friends capable of assisting me in this object of ambition, that I could hardly overrate my own prospects of ob- taining the moderate preferment to which 1 lim- ited my wishes : and, in fact*, 1 obtained, in no long period, the reversion of a situation which completely met them." The preferment of which he here speaks was to the office of Sheriff of Selkirkshire, of about £ 300 a year in value. In 1806 he was appoint- ed a clerk of the session in Scotland. His first original productions were several ballads of great merit. Sir Walter thus notices the circum- stances which engaged him in literary pursuits. " During the last ten years of the eighteenth century, the art of poetry was at a remarkably low ebb in Britain. Hayley to whom fashion had some years before ascribed a higher degree of reputation than posterity has confirmed, had now lost his reputation for talent, though he still lived admired and respected as an amiable and accomplished man. The Bard of Memory slum- bered on his laurels, and he of Hope had scarce begun to attract his share of public attention. Cowper, a poet of deep feeling and bright ge- nius, was dead; and even while alive, the hy- pochondria, which was his mental malady, im- peded his popularity. Burns, whose genius our southern neighbors could hardly yet compre- hend, had long confined himself to song-writing. Names which are now known and distinguished wherever the English language is spoken, were then only beginning to be mentioned ; and, un- less among the small number of persons who habitually devote a part of their leisure to litera- ture, those of Southey, Wordsworth, and Cole- ridge, were but little known. The realms of Parnassus, like many a kingdom at the period, seemed to lie open to the first bold invader, whether he should be a daring usurper, or could show a legitimate title of sovereignty." " I had, indeed, tried the metrical translations which were occasionally recommended to us at the High School. I got credit for attempting to do what was enjoined, but very little for the mode in which the task was performed ; and I used to feel not a little mortified when my ver- sions were placed in contrast with others of ad- mitted merit. At one period of my schoolboy days 1 was so far left to my own desires as to become guilty of verses on a thunder-storm, SCO 512 SCO which were much approved of, until a malevo- lent critic sprung up, in the shape of an apoth- ecary's blue-buskined wife, who affirmed that my most sweet poetry was stolen from an old magazine. I never forgave the imputation, and even now I acknowledge some resentment against the poor woman's memory. She indeed accused me unjustly, when she said I had stolen my brooms ready made ; but as I had, like most premature poets, copied all the words and ideas of which my verses consisted, she was so far right, that there was not an original word or thought in the whole six lines 1 made one or two faint attempts at verse, after I had under- gone this sort of daw-plucking at the hands of the apothecary's wife ; but some friend or other always advised me to put my verses in the fire, and like Dorax in the play, I submitted, though ' with a swelling heart.' In short, excepting the usual tribute to a mistress's eyebrow, which is the language of passion rather than poetry, I had not for ten years indulged the wish to couple so much as love and dove, when, finding Lewis in possession of so much reputation, and conceiv- ing that, if I fell behind him in poetical powers, I considerably exceeded him in general infor- mation, I suddenly took it into my head to at- tempt the style by which he had raised himself to fame." Having now married, he resided at Ashie- steel, a delightful retirement, in an uncommon- ly beautiful situation, by the side of a fine river, whose streams were favorable for angling, and surrounded by hills abounding in game. His Lay of the Last Minstrel, and Marmion, poems of great originality and beauty, were produced in 1805 and 1808, and received at once into favor. The Lady of the Lake was published in 1810. Speaking of this poem, the author remarks : " I remember that about the same time a friend started in to ' heeze up my hope,' like the min- strel in the old song. He was bred a farmer, but a man of powerful understanding, natural good taste, and warm poetical feeling, perfectly 'competent to supply the wants of an imperfect or irregular education. He was a passionate admirer of field sports, which we often pursued together. As this friend happened to dine with me at Ashiesteel one day, I took the opportunity of reading to him the first canto of the Lady of the Lake, in order to ascertain the effect the poem was likely to produce upon a person who was but too favorable a representative of readers at large. It is, of course, to be supposed, that I determined rather to guide my opinion by what my friend might appear to feel, than by what he might think fit to say. His reception of my re- citation, or prelection, was rather singular. He placed his hand across his brow, and listened with great attention through the whole account of the stag hunt, till the dogs threw themselves into the lake to follow their master, who embarks with Ellen Douglas. He then started up with a sudden exclamation, struck his hand on the table, and declared, in a voice of censure calcu- lated for the occasion, that the dogs must have been totally ruined by being permitted to take the water after such a severe chase. I own I was much encouraged by the species of reverie which had possessed so zealous a follower of the sports as this ancient Nimrod, who had been completely surprised out of all doubts of the reality of the tale." The Lady of the Lake was followed by the Vision of Don Roderick, Rokeby, Lord of the Isles, Harold the Dauntless, and the Bridal of Triermain. " The Lady of the Lake, "says Scott, " brought out on the usual terms of division of profits be- tween the author and publishers, was not long after purchased by them for £500, to which Messrs. Longman and Co. afterwards added £100 in their own unsolicited kindness, in con- sequence of the uncommon suocess of the work. It was handsomely given 10 supply the loss of a fine horse, which broke down suddenly while the author was riding with one of the worthy publishers." ****** "The publishers of the Lay of the Last Minstrel, emboldened by the success of that poem, wil- lingly offered a thousand pounds for Marmion. The transaction being no secret, afforded Lord Byron, who was then at general war with all who blacked paper, an opportunity to include me in his satire entitled English Bards and Scotch Kevietcers. I never could conceive how an ar- rangement between an author and his publish- ers, if satisfactory to the persons concerned, could afford matter of censure to any third par- ty. I had taken no unusual or ungenerous means of enhancing the value of my merchan- dise. — I had never higgled a moment about the bargain, but accepted at once what I considered the handsome offer of my publishers. These gentlemen, at least, were not of opinion that they had been taken advantage of in the transaction, which indeed was one of their own framing; on the contrary, the sale of the poem was so far beyond their expectation, as to induce them to supply the author's cellar with what is always an acceptable present to a young Scottish house- keeper, namely, a hogshead of excellent claret." SCO 513 SCO We must extract the account of his own change from poetry to prose. — He is speaking of Rokeby. " The cause of mj failure, had, however, a far deeper root. The manner, or style, which, by its novelty, attracted the public in an unusual degree, had now, after having been three times before them, exhausted the patience of the read- er, and began in the fourth to lose its charms. The reviewers may be said to have apostrophiz- ed the author in the language of Parnell's Ed- win : — " And here reverse the charm, he cried, And let it fairly now suffice, The gambol has been shown." The licentious combination of rhymes, in a man- ner not perhaps very congenial to our language, had not been confined to the author. Indeed, in most similar cases, the inventors of such nov- elties have their reputation destroyed by their own imitators, as Action fell under his own dogs. The present author, like Bobadil, had taught his trick of fence to a hundred gentlemen (and ladies), who could fence very nearly, or quite, as well as himself. For this there was no remedy ; the harmony became tiresome and or- dinary, and both the original inventor and his invention must have fallen into contempt, if he had not found out another road to public favor. What has been said of the metre only, must be considered to apply equally to the structure of the poem and of the style. The very best pas- sages of any popular style are not, perhaps, sus- ceptible of any imitation, but they may be ap- proached by men of talent : and those who are less able to copy them, at least lay hold of their peculiar features, so as to produce a burlesque instead of a serious copy. In either way, the effect of it is rendered cheap and common ; and, in the latter case ridiculous to boot. The evil consequences to an author's reputation are at least as fatal as those which befall a composer, when his melody falls into the hands of the street ballad-singer. Of the unfavorable specimens of imitation , the author's style gave room to a very large number, owing to an appearance of facility on which some of those who used the measure unquestionably leaned too far." " The effect of the more favorable imitations, composed by persons of talent, was almost equal- ly unfortunate to the original minstrel, by show- ing that they could overshoot him with his own bow. In short the popularity which Once at- tended the school, as it was called, was now fast decaying. Besides all this, to have kept his ground at the crisis when Rokeby appeared, 33 its author ought to have put forth his utmost strength, and to have possessed at least all his original advantages, for a mighty and unexpect- ed rival was advancing on the stage — a rival not in poetical powers only, but in that of at- tracting popularity, in which the present writer had preceded better men than himself. The reader will easily see that Byron is here meant, who after a little velitation of no great promise, now appeared as a serious candidate in the First Canto of Childe Harold. I was astonish- ed at the power evinced by that work, which neither the Hours of Idleness, nor the English Bards and Scotch Revieicers, had prepared me to expect from its author. There was a depth in his thought, an eager abundance in his dic- tion, which argued full confidence in the inex- haustible resources of which he felt himself possessed ; and there was some appearance of that labor of the file, which indicates that the author is conscious of the necessity of doing every justice to his work, that it may pass war- rant. Lord Byron was also a traveller, a man whose ideas were fired by having seen, in dis- tant scenes of difficulty and danger, the places whose very names are recorded in our bosoms as the shrines of ancient poetry. For his own misfortune, perhaps, but certainly to the high increase of his poetical character, nature had mixed in Lord Byron's system those passions which agitate the human heart with most vio- lence, and which may be said to have hurried his bright career to an early close. There would have been but little wisdom in measuring my force with so formidable an antagonist ; and I was as likely to tire of playing the second fiddle in the concert, as my audience of hearing me. Age also was advancing. I was growing in- sensible to those subjects of excitation of which youth is agitated. I had around me the most pleasant but least exciting of all society, that of kind friends and an affectionate family. My circle of employments was a narrow one ; it oc- cupied me constantly , and it became daily more difficult for me to interest myself in poetical composition : — " How happily the days of Thalaba went by ! " Yet, thouo-h conscious that I must be, in the opinion ofgood judges, inferior to the place I had for four or five years held in letters, and feeling alike that the latter was one to which I had only a temporary right, I could not brook the idea of relinquishing literary occupation, which had been so long my chief employment. Neither was I disposed to choose the alternative of sinking into a mere editor and commentator, 3fc= SCO 514 SCO though that was a species of labor which I had practised, and to which I was attached. But I could not endure to think that I might not, whether known or concealed, do something of more importance. My inmost thoughts were those of the Trojan captain in the galley race : Non jam prima peto Mnestheus, neque vincere certo : Quanquam O,— Sed superent, quibus hoc, Neptune, de- disti : Extremos pudeat rediisse : hoc vincite, cives, Et prohibete nefas." " Waverly, or ' Tis Sixty Years Since," a novel published in 1814, established the reputa- tion of the author, and was followed in rapid succession by many others. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter Scott, at a public dinner in 1827. These Waverly novels exhibit a profound knowledge of human nature, an intimate acquaintance with history, national traditions, and manners, and a most surprising versatility. Ivanhoe, which appeared in 1820, without being the most finished of his works, presents the learning and powers of its author in a striking light. Never were the long gathered stores of most extensive erudition applied to the purposes of imaginative genius with so much easy, lavish, and luxurious power — never was the illusion of fancy so complete — made up of so many min- ute elements, — and yet producing such entire- ness of effect. It is as if the veil of ages had been, in truth, swept back, and we ourselves had been, for a time, living, breathing, and mov- ing in the days of Coeur de Lion — days how dif- ferent from our own! the hot, tempestuous, chivalrous, passionate, fierce youth of Christen- dom. Every line in the picture is true to the life— every thing in the words, in the gesture— every thing in the very faces of the personages called up before us, speaks of times of energetic volition — uncontrolled action— disturbance tumult — the storms and whirlwinds of restless souls and ungoverned passions. It seems as if the atmosphere around them were all alive with the breath of trumpets, and the neighing of chargers, and the echo of war-cries. And'yet, with a true and beautiful skilfulness, the author, has rested the main interest of his story, not upon these fiery externals, in themselves so full of attraction, and every way so characteristic of the age to which the story refers, but on the workings of that most poetical of passions which is ever deepest where it is most calm, quiet, and delicate, and which, less than any other is chang- ed, even in its modes of manifestation, in con- formity with the changes of time, manners, and circumstances. For the true interest of this romance of the days of Richard is placed nei- ther in Richard himself, nor in the Knight of Ivanhoe, the nominal hero, — nor in any of the haughty Templars or barons who occupy along with them, the front of the scene, but in the still, devoted, sad, and unrequited tenderness of a Jewish damsel— by far the most fine, and at the same time most romantic creation of female character the author has ever formed — and se- cond, we suspect, to none that is to be found in the whole annals of poetry and romance. Besides writing his novels, Sir Walter Scott edited various works, and produced some vol- umes of history, and a life of Napoleon Bona- parte, to which, however, his party prejudices and hurried composition prevented him from doing justice. The failure of his bookseller, an unforeseen misfortune, darkened the close of Sir Walter's life by pecuniary embarrassment. His health suffered by the assiduity with which he labored to relieve his fortunes. Shocks of paraly- sis warned him of his approaching fate, and, after having travelled without benefit to his health, this truly great and good man died at his seat at Abbotsford, in the year 1832. Sir Walter Scott was beloved by all who knew him, for, in private life, he had none of that affectation of eccentricity and haughtiness, which disfigures so many men of superior ge- nius. He was ever a welcome visiter in the dwellings of the poor and old, and in many of his lonely wanderings acquired that traditional in- formation which he reproduced in his immortal works. An old woman, it is said, with whom Sir Walter was intimate, having recognised some of her own lore in one of his earlier ro- mances, charged him with being the author. When Sir Walter denied the fact, the old lady exclaimed : " I'm no daft ! Do ye think 1 dinna ken by ain kail, amang ither folks broth ? " Hogg, the poet, the friend of Sir Walter Scott, relates the following anecdote, illustrative of his benevolence. Although so shy of his name and literary assistance, which, indeed, he would not grant to any one, on any account, save to Lockhart, yet to poor men of literary merit his purse strings were always open, and as far as it was in his power to assist them. I actually knew several unsuccessful authors who depend- ed on his bounty for their daily bread. And then there was a delicacy in his way of doing it which was quite admirable. He gave them some old papers or old ballads to copy for him, pre- tending to be greatly interested in them, for which he sent them a supply every week, mak- ing them believe that they were reaping the SCY 515 SCY genuine fruit of their own labors. There was one day, when I was chatting with Ballantyne in his office, where I was generally a daily visiter, as well as my illustrious friend, I chanced to say, that I never in my life, knew a man like Scott, for I knew to a certainty he was at that time feeling himself a successful author, lend- ing pecuniary assistance to unsuccessful ones, and the best thing of all, he never let his left hand know what his right hand was doing. Bal- lantyne 's face glowed with delight, and the tear stood in his eye. " You were never more right in your life," said he, "yot» never were more right in your life ! and I am glad that you know and so duly appreciate the merits of our noble, our invaluable friend. Look here," and with that he turned up his day-book, and added, "some word, it seems, had reached Scott, that Maturin, the Irish poet, was lying in prison for a small debt, and here have I, by Mr. Scott's orders, been obliged to transmit him a bill of exchange for sixty pounds, and Maturin is never to know from whom or whence it came." I have said it oft, and now say it again for the last time, that those who knew Scott only from the few hundreds or, I might say, hundreds of thousands of volumes to which he has given birth and cir- culation through the world, knew only one half of the man, and that not the best half either. As a friend, he was sometimes stern, but always candid and sincere, and I always found his coun- sels of the highest value, if I could have follow- ed them. SCYTHIANS, inhabitants of the southern parts of Siberia, north-east of the Caspian Sea, whose tribes have in different ages overrun Asia and Europe. According to the chronicles of Eri, there existed a race of Scythian monarchs during 1011 years; after which they moved southward, and occupied Mesopotamia, till then inhabited by an Arab race 293 years, and then extended their conquests over all nations, main- taining their dominion 1809 years, when their empire was divided by Assyrians from the east, who overran Media, Parthia, and Bactria like a mighty flood, about the epoch of the Hebrew deluge, led by Bel, who founded Babylon and the Assyrian empire on the ruins of the Scythian. The same chronicles, — describe Noah as a Scythian chief, who fled to Armenia after his defeat ; and Bel, as the Nimrod of the Hebrews. The empire of the Scythians, by these chroni- cles, extended from the Indus, where they were called Indo-Scythians, to the confines of Europe, where they were called Celto-Scythians : the Scythians Arabs, and Egyptians, being the most powerful known nations, till the former were lost in the Assyrians; or, according to the Hebrew historians, the people of Ashur. By the same authority we learn, that about 2000, B. C, the Scythians overran Thrace and Greece, founding the kingdoms of Sicyon, Argos, Athens, Co- rinth, and Thebes ; their original irruption into Thessaly giving rise to the fable of the flood of Deucalien. According to Mr. O'Connor, the chief of the Scythians who conducted the first Tolony into Thrace, was Japan, or Oavan, the son of Jaforth, the son of Ardfier, the same as the Hebrew No- ah, who, according to him, was the last supreme chief of the Scythian empire ; this Japan left Armenia in the second year of the reign of his brother Og, with a colony called the Og-eageis ; while another colony landed in the south from Egypt, built Athens, &c, and were called Pelas- goi. Cadmus, a Phoenician, afterwards brought a colony of Sidonian Scythians, and settled in Bceotia, about 1000 B. C. The Pelasgoi settled in Italv, and Saturn conducted another colony from Crete, to which country Evander emi- grated in 940, and ^Eneas, from Troy, in 883. Hence Greece was of Scythian origin, and Italy was peopled with their descendants. Scythes, who is the first king of this nation mentioned in history, is fabled by the Greeks to have been the offspring of Hercules and a monster. Sagillus is said to have sent his son Panasagorus, to assist the Amazons against Theseus, king of Athens ; but the heroines in- spiring the prince with disgust, he left them to the mercy of their enemies, by whom they were defeated. Maydes was a warlike prince, under whose conduct the Scythians invaded Media, and held the greater part of Upper Asia in sub- jection for the space of twenty-eight years. They also made an incursion into the land of the Philistines, and thence marched into Egypt ; but Psammeticus, king of that country, prevail- ed on them to return, and thus saved his domin- ions from plunder and desolation. Tomyris was a Scythian heroine, whom Cy- rus the Great demanded in marriage ; but she refusing him, that prince led his army against the Massagetes, who were under her dominion, and lost his life. Jancyrus was a haughty and magnanimous prince, who, when the Persian heralds demanded of him earth and water, sent to Darius a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five ar- rows, without any farther reply. The Persian monarch immediately supposed that this present was sent in token of submis- sion : but Gobrias, who knew the Scythians bet- SEB 516 SEJ ter than his master, interpreted it to denote, that the Persians must not expect to elude the effects of Scythian valor, unless they could fly like birds, plunge under water like frogs, or bury themselves in the earth like mice. This explanation was soon justified, and the Scythians obtained a signal victory over the Persian army. Saulius is said to have killed Anacharsis, a prince of the blood, for presuming to introduce the nocturnal rites of the mother of the gods into Scythia. Aripithes had a numer- ous progeny, and in particular a son named Scy- thes, whose mother had caused him to be in- structed in all the Grecian customs. When Scythes, therefore, ascended the throne, he appeared to possess so great a predilection for the effeminate luxuries of the Greeks, that his subjects, irritated at this preference, dethron- ed him, and elected his brother Octamasades king in his stead. Ariantes is said to have or- dered all his soldiers to appear before him, and every one to throw the tip of an arrow into a common heap, which amounted to so great a bulk, that he caused it to be melted down and cast into a large vessel, as a monument of the transaction. Atheas obtained from Philip, king of Macedon, considerable succor against an in- vasion with which he was threatened ; and when the enemy, terrified by the preparations of Phil- ip, desisted from their design, he pretended that he owed him no recompense, because a war had not taken place. In consequence of this, an ob- stinate battle ensued, in which the Scythians were vanquished, and twenty thousand women and children were made prisoners. SEBASTIAN, Don, king of Portugal, the son of John II, was born in 1554. He succeeded John III, and was a man of great zeal for religion, and of extraordinary courage, which inspired him with the design of making an expedition into Africa against the Moors in 1574. Taking with him the principal nobility and gentry of Portu- gal, he landed at Tangier on the 9th of July, 1578, and gave battle to Abdemelech at Alcacer, the 4th of August the same year, where his army was defeated. Abdemelech, who was sick, died in a litter, Mahomet perished in a bog, and the report was, that Sebastian himself was killed there in the 25th year of his age. Notwithstand- ing this, in 1598, a man at Venice declared him- self to be king Sebastian ; he resembled him so exactly in face, stature, and voice, that the Por- tuguese that were in that city, and amongst them one of his servants, owned him for their king. Some days after he was seized, and conveyed before judges, before whom he always maintain- ed himself to be king Sebastian ; he told them that the Moors who took him prisoner did not know him to be the king ; that the sorrow and repentance which seized him for having so rash- ly undertaken that expedition, had nearly caus- ed his death ; and that now after having suffered in a strange country, he came to re-demand the crown. He showed upon his body the same marks which several had seen formerly on the body of the king of Portugal, and discovered to the Venetians some secrets they had formerly proposed to him by their ambassadors, to prove he was king Sebastian. The Spaniards, who had upon the report of his death invaded the crown of Portugal, treated him as a madman and imposter, and obliged the Venetians to expel him from their dominions ; he was seized again in Tuscany, and brought to Naples, where they set him upon an ass, and led him through all the streetsof the city, exposing him to the abuses of the rabble. Some time after they shaved his head, and placed him to row like a slave in a galley ; and afterwards being brought to Spain, he died in a prison, at the same time that the Portuguese, abhorring and detesting these bar- barous dealings of the Spaniards, wished to have him whom they knew to be their king, restored to them. SEBASTIAN, St., a considerable town of the north-east of Spain, containing 12,000 inhabi- tants. It has been repeatedly taken by the French ; it fell into their hands in the short war of 1719 ; in the revolutionary contest of 1794 ; and in Bonaparte's invasion in 1808. On the last occasion it remained five years in their pos- session, and when the victory of Vittoria, by the British, (21st June, 1813) opened a prospect of its recapture, the French had time to throw into it a garrison capable of making a very ob- stinate defence. An attempt on the part of the British, to take it by assault, on the 25th of July, was repulsed with heavy loss. It became necessary to make approaches with great cau- tion, and even to incur a severe sacrifice of lives in the final attack, on the 31st of August, when it fell into the hands of the British. SEJANUS, the favorite of Tiberius a native of Vulsinum in Tuscany, who distinguished himself in the court of Tiberius. His father's name was Servius Strabo, a Roman knight, com- mander of the praetorian guards. His mother was descended from the Junian family. Seja- nus first gained the favor of Caius Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, but afterwards he attach- ed himself to the interest and the views of Ti- berius, who then sat on the imperial throne. SEJ 517 SEL The emperor, who was naturally of a suspicious temper, was free and open with Sejanus, and while he distrusted others, he communicated his greatest secrets to this fawning favorite. As commander of the praetorian guards, he was the second man in Rome, and in that im- portant office he made use of insinuation, and every mean artifice to make himself beloved and revered. His affability and condescension gained him the hearts of the common soldiers, and by appointing his own favorites and adhe- rents to places of trust and honor, all the officers and centurions of the army became devoted to his interest. The views of Sejanus in this were well known ; yet to advance them with more success, he attempted to gain the affections of the senators. In this he met with no opposi- tion. A man who has the disposal of places of hon- or and dignity, and who has the command of the public money, cannot but be the favorite of those who are in need of his assistance. It is even said, that Sejanus gained to his views all the wives of the senators, by a private and most secret promise of marriage to each of them, whenever he had made himself independent and sovereign of Rome. Yet, however successful with the best and noblest families in the empire, Sejanus had to combat numbers in the house of the emperor ; but these seeming obstacles were soon removed. All the children and grandchildren cf Tiberius were sacrificed to the ambition of the favorite under various pretences ; and Drusus the son of the emperor, by striking Sejanus, made his de- struction sure and inevitable. Li via, the wife of Drusus, was gained by Sejanus, and though mother of many children, she was prevailed upon to assist her adulterer in the murder of her husband, and she consented to marry him when Drusus was dead. No sooner was Drusus poi- soned, than Sejanus openly declared his wish to marry Livia. This was strongly opposed by Tiberius ; and the emperor, by recommending Germanicus to the senators for his successor, rendered Sejanus bold and determined. He was more urgent in his demands ; and when he could not gain the consent of the em- peror, he persuaded him to retire to solitude from the noise of Rome and the troubles of the gov- ernment. Tiberius, naturally fond of ease and luxury, yielded to his representations, and retir- ed to Campania, leaving Sejanus at the head of the empire. This was highly gratifying to the favorite, and he was now without a master. Pru- dence and moderation might have made him what he wished to be ; but Sejanus offended the whole empire when he declared that he was em- peror of Rome, and Tiberius only the dependent prince of the island of Caprese, where he had retired. Tiberius was, upon this, fully convinced of the designs of Sejanus ; and when he had been informed that his favorite had had the meanness and audacity to ridicule him, by introducing him on the stage, the emperor ordered him to be accused before the senate. Sejanus was deserted by all his pretended friends, as soon as by for- tune ; and the man who aspired to the empire, and who called himself the favorite of the peo- ple, the darling of the praetorian guards, and the companion of Tiberius, was seized without re- sistance, and the same day strangled in prison, A. D. 31. SELEUCUS I, one of the captains of Alex- ander the Great, surnamed Nicator, or Victori- ous, was son of Antiochus. After the king's death he received Babylon as his province ; but his ambitious views, and his attempt to destroy Eumenes as he passed through his territories, rendered him so unpopular, that he fled for safety to the court of his friend Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He was soon after enabled to recov- er Babylon, which Antigonus had seized in his absence, and he increased his dominions by the immediate conquest of Media, and some of the neighboring provinces. When he had strength- ened himself in his empire, Seleucus imitated the example of the rest of the generals of Alex- ander, and assumed the title of independent monarch. He afterwards made war against Antigonus, with the united forces of Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus ; and after this monarch had been conquered and slain, his ter- ritories were divided among his victorious ene- mies. When Seleucus became master of Syria, he built a city there, which he called Antioch, in honor of his father, and made it the capital of his dominions. He also made war against De- metrius and Lysimachus, though he had origi- nally married Stratonice, the daughter of the former, and had lived in the closest friendship with the latter. Seleucus was at last murdered by one of his servants called Ptolemy Ceraunus, a man on whom he had bestowed the greatest favors, and whom he had distinguished by acts of the most unbounded confidence. According to Arrian, Seleucus was the great- est and most powerful of the princes who in- herited the Macedonian empire after the death of Alexander. His benevolence has been com- SEL 518 SEM mended ; and it has been observed, that he con- quered not to enslave nations, but to make them more happy, lie founded no less than thirty- four cities in different parts of his empire, which he peopled with Greek colonies, whose national industry, learning, religion, and spirit, were communicated to the indolent and luxurious inhabitants of Asia. Seleucus was a great benefactor to the Greeks ; he restored to the Athenians the library and statues which Xerxes had carried away from their city when he invaded Greece, and among the latter were those of Harmodius and Aristogiton. Seleucus was murdered 280 years before the Christian era, in the 32d year of his reign, and the 78th, or according to others, the 73d year of his age, as he was going to conquer Macedo- nia, where he intended to finish his days in peace and tranquillity in that province where he was born. SELEUCUS II, surnamed Callinicus, suc- ceeded his father Antiochus Theus on the throne of Syria. He attempted to make war against Ptolemy, king of Egypt, but his fleet was ship- wrecked in a violent storm, and his armies soon after conquered by his enemy. He was at last taken prisoner by Arsaces, an officer who made himself powerful by the dissensions which reigned in the house of the Seleucidae, between the two brothers, Seleucus and Antiochus ; and after he had been a prisoner for some time in Parthia, he died of a fall from his horse, B. C. 226, after a reign of 20 years. Seleucus re- ceived the surname of Pogon, from his long beard, and that of Callinicus, ironically to ex- press his very unfortunate reign. He mar- ried Laodice, the sister of one of his generals, by whom he had two sons, Seleucus and Anti- ochus, and a daughter whom he gave in mar- riage to Mithridates, king of Pontus. SELEUCUS III, succeeded his father Seleu- cus II, on the throne of Syria, and received the surname of Ceraunus, by antiphrasis, as he was a very weak, timid, and irresolute monarch. He was murdered by two of his officers after a reign of three years, B. C. 223, and his brother Antiochus, though only 15 years old, ascended the throne, and rendered himself so celebrated that he acquired the name of the Great. SELEUCUS IV, succeeded his father Antio- chus the Great, on the throne of Syria. He was surnamed Philopater, or, according to Jo- sephus, Soter. His empire had been weakened by the Romans when he became monarch, and the yearly tribute of a thousand talents to those victorious enemies, concurred in lessening his power and consequence among nations. Seleu- cus was poisoned after a reign of 12 years, B. C. 175. His son Demetrius had been sent to Rom°, there to receive his education, and he became a prince of great abilities. SELEUCUS V, succeeded his father Deme- trius Nicator, on the throne of Syria, in the 20th year of his age. He was put to death in the first year of his reign by Cleopatra his mother, who had also sacrificed her husband to her am- bition. He is not reckoned by many historians in the number of the Syrian monarchs. SELEUCUS VI, one of the Seleucidas, son of Antiochus Gryphus, killed his uncle Antio- chus Cyzicenus, who wished to obtain the crown , of Syria. He was some time after banished from his kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son of Cyzicenus, and fled to Cilicia, where he was burnt in a palace by the inhabitants, B. C. 93. SELEUCUS, a prince of Syria, to whom the Egyptians offered the crown of which they had robbed Auletes. Seleucus accepted it, but he soon disgusted his subjects, and received the surname of Cybiosactes, or Scullion, for his meanness and avarice. He was at last murdered by Berenice, whom he had married. SELEUCIA, a city in Mesopotamia, upon the river Tigris, built by king Seleucus Nica- nor, supposed to be Bagdad. There is also another Seleucia surnamed Pieria, and called by the Turks Kepse, near the mouth of the river Orontes. Besides these, there is yet another Seleucia, a city of Pisidia, upon the borders of Pamphylia, situated between Antioch on the north, and the city of Pamphylia on the south. Also another city called Seleucia, or rather Seleucos, situated in Syria, upon the riv- er Belus, near Apamea, built also by the king Seleucus. SEMIRAMIS, a celebrated queen of Assyria. Semiramis, when grown up, married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accompanied him to the siege of Bactria, where by her advice and prudent directions, she hastened the king's operations and took the city. These eminent services, but chiefly her uncommon beauty, en- deared her to Ninus. The monarch asked her of her husband, and offered him instead his daughter Sosana ; but Menones, who tenderly loved Semiramis, refused, and when Ninus had added threats to intreaties, he hung himself. No sooner was Menones dead, than Semiramis, who was of an aspiring soul, married Ninus, by whom she had a son called Ninyas. Ninus was so fond of Semiramis, that at her request he resigned the crown to her, and com- SEN 519 SEN manded her to be proclaimed queen and sole empress of Assyria. Of this, however, he had cause to repent ; Semiramis put him to death, the better to establish herself on the throne, and when she had no enemies to fear at home, she began to repair the capital of her empire, and by her means Babylon became the most superb and magnificent city in the world. She visited every part of her dominions, and left every where immortal monuments of her greatness and benevolence. To render the roads passable and communi- cation easy, she hollowed mountains and filled up valleys ; and water was conveyed at a great expense, by large and convenient aqueducts, to barren deserts and unfruitful plains. She was not less distinguished as a warrior ; many of the neighboring nations were conquered ; and when Semiramis was once told, as she was dressing her hair, that Babylon had revolt- ed, she left her toilet with precipitation, and though only half dressed, she refused to have the rest of her head adorned before the sedition was quelled, and tranquillity re-established. Semiramis has been accused of licentiousness, and modern authors have drawn a parallel be- tween her and Catharine of Russia, there being a great resemblance between them in the princi- pal events of their lives, their masculine talents, and private immorality of conduct. The reign of Semiramis was at last terminated by a con- spiracy of her own son Ninyas, who is said to have put her to death with his own hand. Her fame was very great throughout the East. Af- ter her death she received immortal honors in Assyria. It is supposed that she lived about 1965 years before the Christian era, and that she died in the sixty-second year of her age, and the twenty-fifth of her reign. SENATE, (see Rome.) SENECA, M. Annaeus, a native of Corduba in Spain, who married Helvia, a woman of Spain, by whom he had three sons, Seneca the philosopher, Annaeus Novatus, and Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. Seneca made himself known by some declamations, of which he made a collection from the most cele- brated orators of the age ; and from that cir- cumstance, and for distinction, he obtained the appellation of declamator. He left Corduba, and went to Rome, where he became a Roman knight. His son L. Annaeus Seneca, who was born about six years after Christ, was early distin- guished by his extraordinary talents. He was taught eloquence by his father, and received lessons in philosophy from the best and most celebrated stoics of the age. As one of the followers of the Pythagorean doctrines, Seneca observed the utmost abstinence, and in his meals never ate the flesh of animals ; but this he aban- doned at the representation of his father, when Tiberius threatened to punish some Jews and Egyptians who abstained from certain meats. In the character of a pleader, Seneca appear- ed with great advantage ; but the fear of Cali- gula, who aspired to the name of an eloquent speaker, and who consequently was jealous of his fame, deterred him from pursuing his fa- vorite study, and he sought a safer employment in canvassing for the honors and offices of the state. He was made quaestor, but the asper- sions which were thrown upon him on account of a shameful amour with Julia Livilla, removed him from Rome, and the emperor banished him for some time into Corsica. During his banish- ment, the philosopher wrote some spirited epis- tles to his mother, remarkable for elegance of language and for sublimity ; but he soon forgot his philosophy, and disgraced himself by his flatteries to the emperor, and in wishing to be recalled, even at the expense of his innocence and character. The disgrace of Messalina at Rome, and the marriage of Agrippina with Claudius proved favorable to Seneca ; and after he had remained five years in Corsica, he was recalled by the empress to take care of the education of her son Nero, who was destined to succeed to the em- pire. In the honorable duty of preceptor, Sen- eca gained applause ; and as long as Nero fol- lowed his advice, Rome enjoyed tranquillity, and believed herself safe and happy under the administration of the son of Agrippina. In the corrupt age of Nero, the preceptor had to withstand the clamors of many wicked and profligate ministers ; and if he had been the fa- vorite of the emperor, and shared his pleasures, his debauchery, and extravagance, Nero would not perhaps have been so anxious to destroy a man whose example, from vicious inclinations, he could not follow, and whose salutary pre- cepts his licentious associates forbade him to obey. Seneca was too well acquainted with the natural disposition of Nero to think himself secure ; he had been accused of having amassed the most ample riches, and of having built sumptuous houses, and adorned beautiful gar- dens, during the four years in which he had attended Nero as a preceptor ; and therefore he desired his imperial pupil to accept of the rich- es, and the possessions which his attendance on SEN 520 SER his person had procured, and to permit him to retire to solitude and study. Nero refused, with artful duplicity, and Sen- eca, to avoid further suspicions, kept himself at home for some time, as if laboring under a disease. In the conspiracy of Piso, which hap- pened some time after, and in which some of the most noble of the Roman senators were con- cerned, Seneca's name was mentioned by Nata- lis ; and Nero, who was glad of an opportunity of sacrificing him to his secret jealousy, ordered him to destroy himself. Seneca, very probably, was not accessory to the conspiracy ; and the only thing which could be produced against him as a crimination, was trivial and unsatisfactory. Piso, as Natalis declared, had complained that he never saw Seneca, and the philosopher had observed in answer, that it was not proper or conducive to their common interest, to see one another often. He further pleaded indisposi- tion, and said that his own life depended upon the safety of Piso's person. Seneca was at ta- ble with his wife Paulina and two of his friends, when the messenger from Nero arrived. He heard the words which commanded him to de- stroy himself, with philosophical firmness, and even with joy ; and observed, that such a man- date might have long been expected from a man who had murdered his own mother, and assas- sinated all his friends. He wished to dispose of his possessions as he pleased, but this was re- fused ; and when he heard this, he turned to his friends, who were weeping at his melancholy fate, and told them, that since he could not leave them what he believed his own, he would leave them at least his own life for an example, — an innocent conduct which they might imitate, and by which they might acquire immortal fame. Against their tears and wailings he exclaimed with firmness, and asked them whether they had not learnt better to withstand the attacks of for- tune, and the violence of tyranny ? As for his wife, he attempted to calm her emotions ; and when she seemed resolved to die with him, he said he was glad to find his exam- ple followed with so much constancy. Their veins were opened at the same moment ; but the life of Paulina was preserved, and Nero, who was partial to her, ordered the blood to be stopped, and from that moment, according to some authors, the philosopher's wife seemed to rejoice that she could still enjoy the comforts of life. Seneca's veins bled but slowly ; and it has been observed, that the sensible and animated conversation of his dying moments was collect- ed by his friends, and that it has been preserved among his works. To hasten his death, he drank a dose of poison, but it had no effect ; and therefore he ordered himself to be carried into a hot bath, to accelerate the operation of the draught, and to make the blood flow more free- ly. This was attended with no better success ; and as the soldiers were clamorous, he was carried into a stove, and suffocated by the steam, in the G5th year of the Christian era. SERINGAPATAM, a celebrated city of the south of India. In the month of February, 1792, it was invested by the British and allied armies under Lord Cornwallis, amounting to 400,000 men. Terrified by such a host, Tippoo Sultan relinquished half his dominions, and paid three and a half millions sterling to the conquerors. Seringapatam was again invested in 1799, by the British and Nizam's forces, and was stormed on the 4th of May. By the conquest which was thus made, it became the property of the British, and is the residence of a judge, col- lector, &c. SERTORIUS, Quintus,aRoman general, son of Quintus and Rhea, born at Nursia. His first campaign was under the great Marius, against the Teutones and Cimbri. He visited the ene- my's camp as a spy, and had the misfortune to lose one eye in the first battle he fought. When Marius and Cinna entered Rome and slaugh- tered all their enemies, Sertorius accompanied them, but he expressed his sorrow and concern at the melancholy death of so many of his coun- trymen. He afterwards fled for safety into Spain, when Sylla had proscribed him, and in this distant province he behaved himself with so much address and valor that he was looked upon as the prince of the country. The Lusitanians universally revered and loved him, and the Roman general did not show him- self less attentive to their interest, by establish- ing public schools, and educating the children of the country in the polite arts, and the litera- ture of Greece and Rome. He had established a senate, over which he presided with consular authority and the Romans who followed his standard, paid equal reverence to his person. They were experimentally convinced of his va- lor and magnanimity as a general, and the art- ful manner in which he imposed upon the cre- dulity of his adherents in the garb of religion, did not diminish his reputation. The success of Sertorius in Spain, and his popularity among the natives, alarmed the Romans. They sent some troops to oppose him, but with little success. Four armies were found SER 521 SEV insufficient to crush or even hurt Sertorius ; and Pompey and Metellus, who never engaged an enemy without obtaining the victory, were driven with dishonor from the field. But the favorite of the Lusitanians was exposed to the dangers which usually attend greatness. Perpenna, one of his officers, who was jealous of his fame and tired of a superior, conspired against him. At a banquet the conspirators began to open their intentions by speaking with freedom and licentiousness in the presence of Sertorius, whose age and character had hith- erto claimed deference from others. Perpenna overturned a glass of wine, as a signal for the rest of the conspirators, and immediately Anto- nius. one of his officers, stabbed Sertorius, and the example was followed by all the rest, 73 years before Christ. Sertorius has been commended for his love of justice and moderation. The flattering de- scription which he heard of the Fortunate Is- lands when he passed into the west of Africa, almost tempted him to bid adieu to the world, and perhaps he would have retired from the noise of war, and the clamors of envy, to end his days in the bosom of a peaceful and solitary island, had not the stronger calls of ambition and the love of fame prevailed over the intruding reflections of a moment. It has been observed, that in his latter days Sertorius became indo- lent, and fond of luxury and wanton cruelty ; yet in affability, clemency, complaisance, gen- erosity, and military valor, he not only surpass- ed his contemporaries, but the rest of the Ro- mans. SERVIA, a province of European Turkey, containing 19,000 square miles, and 960,000 in- habitants. It was subjugated by the Turks in 1365. The implacable hatred which the Ser- vians entertained towards their rulers led to an insurrection in the year 1801. In December, 1806, Czerni Georges, the Servian chieftain, besieged Belgrade, took it after an obstinate re- sistance, and in a great measure expelled the Turks from the country, which he ruled with the authority of a sovereign. The forces which were brought against him, he resisted with va- rious success until 1814, when he withdrew into Russia, and by a convention concluded be- tween his country and the Porte in 1815, the Servians acknowledged the sovereignty of the Sultan. SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of Rome, was son of Ocrisia, a slave of Corniculum, by Tullius, a man slain in the defence of his country against the Romans. Ocrisia was given by Tarquin to Tanaquil his wife, and she brought up her son in the king's family, and added the name of Servius to that which he had inherited from his father, to denote his slavery. Young Servius was educated in the palace of the monarch with great care, and though orig- inally a slave, he raised himself to so much consequence, that Tarquin gave him his daugh- ter in marriage. His own private merit and virtues recommended him to notice not less than the royal favors, and Servius became the favorite of the people and the darling of the sol- diers, by his liberality and complaisance, and was easily raised to the throne on the death of his father-in-law. Rome had no reason to re- pent of her choice. Servius endeared himself still more as a war- rior and as a legislator. He defeated the Veien- tes and the Tuscans, and by a proper act of pol- icy he established the census, which told him that Rome contained about eighty-four thousand inhabitants. He increased the number of the tribes, he beautified and adorned the city, and enlarged its boundaries by taking within its walls the hills Quirinalis, Viminalis, and Esqui- linus. He also divided the Roman people into tribes, and that he might not seem to neglect the wor- ship of the gods, he built several temples to the goddess of Fortune, to whom he deemed him- self particularly indebted for obtaining the kingdom. He also built a temple to Diana on mount Aventine, and raised himself a palace on the hill Esquilinus. Servius married his two daughters to the grand-sons of his father- in-law ; the elder to Tarquin, and the younger to Aruns. This union, it might be supposed, tended to insure the peace of his family ; but if such were his expectations, he was unhappily deceived. The wife of Aruns, naturally fierce and im- petuous, murdered her own husband to unite herself to Tarquin, who had likewise assassina- ted his wife. These bloody measures were no sooner pursued, than Servius was murdered by his own son-in-law, and his daughter Tullia showed herself so destitute of filial gratitude and piety, that she ordered her chariot to be driven over the mangled body of her father, B. C. 534. SEVERUS, Lucius Septimius, a Roman emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, of a noble family. He gradually exercised all the offices of the state and recommended himself to the notice of the world by an ambitious mind and a restless activity, that could, for the gratification SEV 522 SEV of avarice, endure the most complicated hard- ships. After the murder of Pertinax, Severus resolved to remove Didius Julianus, who had bought the imperial purple when exposed to sale by the licentiousness of the praetorians, and therefore he proclaimed himself emperor on the borders of Ulyricum, where he was stationed against the barbarians. To support himself in this bold measure, he took, as his partner in the empire, Albinus, who was at the head of the Roman forces in Britain, and immediately marched towards Rome to crush Didius and all his partisans. He was received, as he advanced through the country, with universal acclamations, and Julianus himself was soon deserted by his favo- rites, and assassinated by his own soldiers. The reception of Severus at Rome, was sufficient to gratify his pride ; the streets were strewed with flowers, and the submissive senate were ever ready to grant whatever honors or titles the conqueror claimed. In professing that he had assumed the purple only to revenge the death of the virtuous Pertinax, Severus gained many adherents, and was enabled not only to disarm, but to banish the praetorians, whose insolence and avarice were become alarming, not only to the citizens but to the emperor. But while he was victorious at Rome, Seve- rus did not forget that there was another compe- titor for the imperial purple. Pescennius Niger was in the east at the head of a powerful army, and with the name and ensigns of Augustus. Many obstinate battles were fought between the troops and officers of the imperial rivals, till on the plains of Issus, which had been above five centuries before covered with the blood of the Persian soldiers of Darius, Niger was totally ruined by the loss of 20,000 men. The head of Niger was cut off" and sent to the conqueror, who punished in a most cruel manner, all the partisans of his unfortunate rival. Severus afterwards pillaged Byzantium, which had shut her gates against him ; and after he had con- quered several nations in the east, he returned to Rome, resolved to destroy Albinus, with whom he had hitherto reluctantly shared the imperial power. He attempted to assassinate him by his emissaries ; but when this had failed of success, Severus had recourse to arms, and the fate of the empire was again decided on the plains of Gaul. Albinus was defeated, and the conqueror was so elated with the recollection that he had now no longer a competitor for the purple, that he insulted the dead body of his rival, and ordered it to be thrown into the Rhone, after he had suffered it to putrefy before the door of his tent, and to be torn to pieces by his dogs. The family and the adherents of Albinus shared his fate ; and the return of Severus to the capital exhibited the bloody triumphs of Marius and Sylla. The richest of the citizens were sacri- ficed, and their money became the property of the emperor. The wicked Commodus received divine honors, and his murderers were punished in the most wanton mariner. Tired of the inactive life which he led in Rome, Severus marched into the east, with his two sons Caracalla and Geta, and with uncom- mon success made himself master of Seleucia, Babylon, and Ctesiphon ; and advanced without opposition, far into the Parthian territories. From Parthia, the emperor marched towards the more southern provinces of Asia ; he entered Alexandria, and after he had granted a senate to that celebrated city, viewed with the most criticising and inquisitive curiosity, the monu- ments and ruins of Egypt. The revolt of Bri- tain recalled him from the east. After he had reduced it under his power, he built a wall across the northern part of the island, to defend it against the frequent invasions of the Caledo- nians. Hitherto successful against his enemies, Severus now found the peace of his family dis- turbed. Caracalla attempted to murder his father as he was concluding a treaty of peace with the Britons ; and the emperor was so shock- ed at the undutifulness of his son, that on his return home he called him into his presence, and after he had upbraided him for his ingrati- tude and perfidy, he offered him a drawn sword, adding, " If you are so ambitious of reigning alone, now imbrue your hands in the blood of your father, and let not the eyes of the world be witnesses of your want of filial tenderness/' If these words checked Caracalla, yet he did not show himself concerned, and Severus, worn out with infirmities, which the gout and the uneasiness of his mind increased, soon after died, exclaiming he had been every thing man could wish, but that he was then nothing. Some say that he wished to poison himself, but that when this was denied, he eat to great excess, and soon after expired at York, in the 21 1th year of the Christian era, in the 06th year of his a,gc, after a reign of seventeen years, eight mouths, and three days. Severus has been so much admired for his military talents, that some have called him the most warlike of the Roman emperors. As a monarch, he was cruel, and it has been SEV 523 SFO observed that he never did an act of humanity, or forgave a fault. In his diet he was tempe- rate, and he always showed himself an open enemy to pomp and splendor. He loved the appellation of a man of letters, and he even composed a history of his own reign, which some have praised for its correctness and verac- ity. However cruel Severus may appear in his punishments and in his revenge, many have endeavored to exculpate him, and observed that there was need of severity in an empire whose morals were so corrupt. Of him, as of Augus- tus, some were found to say, that it would have been better for the world if he had never been born, or had never died. SEVERUS, Alexander Marcus Aurelius, a native of Phoenicia, adopted by Heliogabalus. His father's name was Genesius Marcianus, and his mother's Julia JYIammcea, and he receiv- ed the surname of Alexander, because he was born in a temple sacred to Alexander the Great. He was carefully educated, and his mother, by paying particular attention to his morals and the character of his preceptors, preserved him from the vices and licentiousness of youth. At the death of Heliogabalus, who had been jealous of his virtues, Alexander, though only in the 14th year of his age, was proclaimed emperor, and his nomination was approved by the uni- versal shouts of the army, and the congratula- tions of the senate. He had not long been on the throne before the peace of the empire was disturbed by the incursions of the Persians. Alexander marched into the east without delay, and soon obtained a decisive victory over the barbarians. At his return to Rome, he was honored with a triumph, but the revolt of the Germans soon after called him away from the indolence of the capital. His expedition in Germany was at- tended with some success, but the virtues and the amiable qualities of Alexander, were forgot- ten in the stern strictness of the disciplinarian. His soldiers, fond of repose, murmured against his severity ; their clamors were fomented by the artifice of Maximinus, and Alexander was murdered in his tent, in the midst of his camp, after a reign of thirteen years and nine days, on the 18th of March, A. D. 235. His mother Mammasa, shared his fate with all his friends ; but this was no sooner known than the soldiers punished with immediate death, all such as had been concerned in the murder, except Maxi- minus. SEVILLE, SEVILLA, anciently Hispalis, i a city of Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadal- quivir, capital of a province of the same name, containing 94,000 inhabitants. It is built in the Moorish style. It opened its gates to the Moors, in 711, and continued in their possession more than five centuries. It was taken by the Christians in 1247, after one of the most obsti- nate sieges mentioned in Spanish history. In 1729, a treaty was concluded here between Spain, England, France, and Holland. On the invasion of Spain by Bonaparte, in 1808, Sev- ille asserted the national independence, and re- ceived the junta when driven from Madrid. It surrendered, however, to the French, on the 1st February, 1810, and remained in their hands till 27th of August, 18J2, when they were com- pelled to leave it in consequence, not of insur- rection on the part of the inhabitants, but of the general evacuation of the south of Spain, con- sequent on their defeat at Salamanca. SEYMOUR Edward, duke of Somerset, was the eldest son of Sir John Seymour, by Eliza- beth, daughter of Sir Henry Wentworth. In 1533, he accompanied the duke of Suffolk to France, and was knighted the same year. In 1544, he was appointed lieutenant-general of the north, and commanded an expedition against the Scots. The same year he was at the siege of Boulogne, where he defeated the French, who lay encamped before the place. By the king's will, he was nominated one of his exec- utors and governor of his son ; but Seymour soon after was declared protector of the king- dom. In 1548 he was appointed lord treasurer, created duke of Somerset, and made earl mar- shal of England. The same year he marched into Scotland, and gained the victory of Mus- selburgh ; but though this raised his reputation, his fate was now fast approaching, to which the execution of his brother, the admiral, greatly contributed. His greatest enemy was the earl of Warwick, and though a marriage had been effected between their children, yet when that nobleman became duke of Northumberland, he accused Seymour of treason, and the latter was executed on Tower-hill, Jan. 22, 1552. SFORZA, James, called the Great, was bora of mean parents, at Cotignola, in 1369. He entered the army as a common soldier, and by his good conduct rose to the rank of general, and afterwards was made constable of the king- dom of Naples. Pope John XXI II also ap- pointed him gonfalineer of the church, and created him a count. He compelled Alphonso of Arragon to raise the siege of Naples; but in pursuing the flying enemy, he fell into the river near Pescara, and was drowned, in 1424. SHE 524 SHE His natural son, Francis Sforza, commanded with distinction in the service of Naples ; after which he married the daughter of the duke of Milan, on whose death he was chosen general of the duchy ; but abused that trust, and usurped the sovereignty. He also made himself master of Genoa, and died in 1466. SHAKSPEARE, William, the greatest dra- matic poet that ever lived, was born at Stratford- upon-Avon, a market-town of Warwickshire, England, in 1564. His father was a dealer in wool. He was the youngest of eight children, and received but a common school education. He knew little Latin and less Greek, but pos- sessed some acquaintance with French and Italian. In his eighteenth year he married Anne Hathaway, who bore him several children. He came to London and became an actor and author, and was patronised by the earl of South- ampton and queen Elizabeth, who properly ap- preciated his merits. He finally became pro- prietor and manager of the Globe Theatre in Southwark, and retired on a small fortune. The date of his death is unknown. Aubrey calls him " a handsome, well-shaped man, verie good company, and of a verie pleasant, reddie, and smooth witt." SHEFFIELD, John, duke of Buckingham- shire, was the son of Edward, earl of Mulgrave, and born in 1649. At the age of seventeen he served in the fleet, and afterwards had the com- mand of a troop of horse. In 1680, being then lord Mulgrave, he was sent to the relief of Tan- gier, which service he accomplished. He com- plied very much with the measures of James II, and yet concurred in the Revolution, for which he was created marquis of Normanby, and 'duke of Buckinghamshire. He died in 1720, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. SHELBY, Isaac, was born Dec. 11, 1750, near Hagerstown, Maryland. In 1776 he com- manded a company raised by the committee of safety of Virginia, and marched against the hostile Indians. After the conclusion of the revolutionary war, throughout which he be- haved with courage, he settled in Kentucky, of which he was chosen governer in 1792. In 1813 he emerged from private life and joined Gen. Harrison, on the frontier of Ohio with 4000 men. He died of apoplexy, July 18, 1826. SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, a celebrated wit, author, and statesman, was the son of Thomas Sheridan, and was born in Dublin, Oct 30, 1751. Having quitted the Dublin school, he was placed at Harrow, which he left in his eighteenth year. While yet at school his wit and humor began to appear. At an early age he married Miss Linley, a beautiful young lady, who, at the concerts and theatre of Bath, at- tracted universal admiration. He did not obtain her without difficulty, for he was forced to fight two duels with a Captain Matthews, which stand unequalled in the history of single com- bats for ferocity and determination. In 1775 his comedy of the Rivals was produced with success at Covent Garden Theatre. Although this comedy has not the wit of the School for Scandal, it always elicits rapturous applause. In 1780 Mr. Sheridan was returned to parlia- ment for Stafford, and soon became distinguish- ed as a powerful speaker on the side of the opposition. When the Rockingham party came into power, he was made one of the under sec- retaries ; and, in the coalition administration, was appointed to the Treasury. That post, however, he did not hold long, and during the whole of Mr. Pitt's ascendency, the talents of Sheridan were displayed in combatting that statesman. On the trial of Mr. Hastings he acted a prominent part, and his eloquence had an electrifying effect upon his auditors. On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech on the Begum charge, on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, the whole assembly, members, peers, and strangers, involuntarily joined in a tumult of applause, and adopted a mode of ex- pressing their approbation new and irregular in Westminster hall, by loudly and repeatedly clapping their hands. A motion was immedi- ately made and carried for an adjournment, that the members, who were in a state of delirious insensibility, from the talismanic influence of such powerful eloquence, might have time to collect their scattered senses for the exercise of a sober judgment. The motion was made by Mr. Pitt, who declared that this speech ' : sur- passed all the eloquence of ancient and modern times, and possessed every thing that genius or art could furnish, to agitate and control the human mind." " He has this day," said Mr. Burke, " sur- prised the thousands who hung with raptiire on his accents, by such an array of talents, such an exhibition of capacity, such a display of powers, as are unparalleled in the annals of oratory ! a display that reflects the highest honor upon himself — a lustre upon letters — renown upon parliament — glory upon the country. Of all species of rhetoric, of every kind of elo- quence that has been witnessed or recorded, either in ancient or modern times : whatever the acuteness of the bar, the dignity of the SHE 525 SHE senate, the solidity of the judgment seat, and the sacred morality of the pulpit, have hitherto furnished, nothing has surpassed, nothing has equalled what we have this day heard in West- minster-hall. No holy seer of religion, no statesman, no orator, no man of any literary description whatever, hag come up, in one in- stance, to the pure sentiments of morality ; or, in the other, to the variety of knowledge, force of imagination, propriety and vivacity of allu- sion, beauty and elegance of diction, strength and copiousness of style, pathos and sublimity of conception, to which we have this day list- ened with ardor and admiration. From poetry up to eloquence, there is not a species of com- position of which a complete and perfect speci- men might not from that single speech be culled and collected." A faint idea of the power of this speech may be formed from the following brief extract : " The Majesty of Justice, in the eyes of Mr. Hastings, is a being of terrific horror — a dread- ful idol, placed in the gloom of graves, accessible only to cringing supplication, and which must be approached with offerings, and worshipped by sacrifice. The Majesty of Mr. Hastings is a being, whose decrees are written with blood, and whose oracles are at once secure and terri- ble. From such an idol I turn mine eyes with horror — I turn them here to this dignified and high tribunal, where the Majesty of Justice really sits enthroned. Here I perceive the Majesty of Justice in her proper robes of truth and mercy — chaste and simple — accessible and patient — awful without severity, — inquisitive without meanness. I see here enthroned and sitting in judgment on a great and momentous cause, in which the happiness of millions is in- volved. — Pardon me, my lords, if I presume to say, that in the decision of this great cause, you are to be envied as well as venerated. You possess the highest distinction of the human character ; for when you render your ultimate voice on this cause, illustrating the dignity of the ancestors from whom you spring — justifying the solemn asseveration which you make — vin- dicating the people of whom you are a part — and manifesting the intelligence of the times in which you live — you will do an act of mercy, and blessing to man, as no men but yourselves are able to grant." In 1792 Mr. Sheridan had the misfortune to lose his wife, who left one son, Thomas Sheri- dan. Three years afterwards he married Miss Ogle, daughter of the dean of Winchester. But neither the large fortune which this lady brought him, nor the receiver generalship of Cornwall, nor his interest in Drury Lane theatre,were able to supply Sheridan's extravagances, and put him beyond the reach of pecuniary embarrass- ment. After the death of Mr. Fox, She' idan was deprived of office." His intemperate habits and indolence completed the ruin which the burning of Drury Lane theatre began. Yet this calamity was borne with equanimity. Some of his companions found Sheridan at a neigh- boring ale-house quietly surveying the raging flames which were rapidly consuming his pro- perty. On observing their astonishment, She- ridan coolly observed, " Why shouldn't a man enjoy his pot and pipe by his own fire-side." Intemperance had undermined his constitu- tion, and he died in miserable circumstances, July 7, 1816. His plays are the Rivals, Du- enna, School for Scandal, St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming Lieutenant, a Trip to Scarbo- rough, the Camp, the Critic, or Tragedy Re- hearsed, Robinson Crusoe, or Harlequin Friday, and Pizarro, a tragedy translated from the Ger- man. Byron's monody on Sheridan concludes thus : Ye orators ! whom yet our councils lead, Mourn for the veteran hero of your field ! The worthy rival of the wond'rous three ! Whose words were sparks of immortality ! Ye bards ! to whom the drama's muse is dear, He was your master — emulate him here .' Ye men of wit and social eloquence ! He was your brother — bear his ashes hence ! While powers of mind almost of boundless range, Complete in kind — as various in their change ; While eloquence — wit — poesy — and mirth, (That humbler harmonist of care on earth), Survive within our souls — while lives our sense Of pride in merit's proud preeminence, Long shall we seek his likeness — long in vain, And turn to all of him which may remain, Sighing that nature formed but one such man, And broke the die— in moulding Sheridan ! Some of Sheridan's Ion mots will be long re- membered for their uncommon brilliancy. He once remarked that the tax upon mile-stones was unconstitutional; "because," said he, "they are a race that cannot meet to remonstrate." Young Tom Sheridan once said to his father ; " If ever I get into parliament, I mean to set up a sign on my head — inscribed To let." ^ Ay," said Sheridan, " and add— unfurnished." Sheridan was fond of practical jokes — one of which he played off upon the duke of Devon- shire. Sheridan was in the habit of frequenting SHO 526 SIA Dolly's Chop-house, where he generally called for a devilled shin-bone of beef. One day, coming in rather later than usual, he was told that the only shin-bone in the larder was being cooked for his grace the duke of Devonshire. Sheridan, who was unacquainted with the duke, took a seat within ear-shot of him, and began a conversation with a friend in a loud tone of voice. " I always imagined," said he, " that Dolly's chop-house, was one of the neatest es- tablishments in London, but I made a discove- ry this morning which has convinced me that I was mistaken." Here the duke listened very attentively. " As I was passing the kitchen window," continued Sheridan, " I observed a turnspit-boy greedily gnawing a shin-bone of beef. Presently one of the cooks ran up to him, and giving, him a blow on the neck, compelled him to drop his prize. ' You dirty little rascal,' said the cook, ' could'nt you find nothing else to eat — here I ' ve got to cook this bone for the duke of Devonshire ! ' " Soon after the conclu- sion of this tale, a waiter entered the room, and advanced to his grace, with a covered dish. ''Your bone, sir ! " " Take it away ! " roared the duke, with a face of great disgust, " I can't touch a morsel of it." " Stay, waiter ! " said Sheridan ; " bring it to me. If his grace can 't eat it, I can. Fetch me a bottle of claret — I don't wish a better luncheon." Two young sprigs of nobility once accosted Sheridan in Bond-street. " Sherry," said one of them familiarly, " my friend and I have been discussing the question whether you are knave or fool." " Why," said the wit, taking an arm of each and smiling, " I believe I am between both." SHERMAN, Roger, a signer of the Declara- tion of Independence, was born at Newton, Massachusetts, April 19, 1721, and was appren- ticed to a shoemaker. In 1743 the family re- moved to N. Milford in Connecticut, where he entered upon trade as a country merchant. Having, however, always displayed a desire for knowledge, he studied with diligence, and in 1754 was admitted to the bar. In 1759 lie was appointed judge of the court of common pleas in Litchfield. Two years afterwards he remov- ed to New Haven, and in 17G5, was appointed judge of the court of common pleas and treasurer of Yale college. After holding a seat in the general assembly of Connecticut, he was sent to congress in 1774. After discharging several im- portant duties, and being made senator, he died July 23, 1793, in the se venty-t' .ird year of his age. SHORE, (Jane), mistress of Edward IV, a woman of exquisite beauty and good sense, but who had not virtue enough to resist the tempta- tions of a beautiful man and a monarch. She was fated to incur the indignation of the duke of Gloucester, who had been made protector of the realm on the death of Edward. This un- fortunate woman was an enemy too humble to excite the protector's jealousy ; yet as he had aceused her of witchcraft, of which she was innocent, he thought proper to make her an ex- ample for those faults of which she was really guilty. Jane Shore had been formerly deluded from her husband, who was a goldsmith in Lombard-street, and continued to live with Ed- ward, the most guiltless mistress in his aban- doned court. The charge against her was too notorious to be denied ; she pleaded guilty, and was accordingly condemned to walk bare-foot through the city, and do penance in St. Paul's church, in a white sheet, with a wax taper in her hand, before thousands of spectators. She lived above forty years after this sentence, and was reduced to the most extreme indigence. SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, an admiral, was born near Clay, in Norfolk, about 1G50. In 1674 he was a lieutenant under Sir John Nar- borough, who sent Mr. Shovel to the dey of Tripoli with a requisition, which the Moor treated with contempt. Sir John then despatch- ed the lieutenant on shore again, when the dey behaved much worse than before. On his re- turn, Shovel stated to the admiral the practica- bility of destroying the enemy's shipping, which service he performed the same night without the loss of a man. For this exploit he was ap- pointed to the command of a ship. After the Revolution he was knighted, and made a rear-admiral, in which capacity he had a share in the victory of La Hogue. In 1703 he commanded a fleet in the Mediterranean, and the year following partook in the victory off Malaga. In 1705 he sailed for England, and in the night of October 22, fell by mistake upon the rocks of Scilly, where his ship was totally lost, with some others, and all on board perished. His body being found by the fisher- men, was stripped and buried; but the fact becoming known, the remains were brought to London, and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. SIAM, a country in the peninsula of Chin- India containing 190,000 square miles, and 3,700,000 inhabitants. The country is moun- tainous but the soil fertile. The inhabitants are slothful, indolent, vain, and deceitful. Their religion is Buddhism. SIC 527 SIC SIBERIA, a vast territory of Asia, including the whole northern part of that continent. The exploration of Siberia may be dated from the period when Russia emancipated herself fi\om the yoke of the Tartar conquerors. At length the czars of Muscovy having acquired a knowledge of the country, began the system of colonizing it, by making it a place of banish- ment for public criminals, till the settlement being formed, the aversion to migrate thither was greatly abated. A body of wandering Russian troops having sought refuge from the Cossacks, whom they were sent to extirpate, in | the eastern regions of this country, they there i found established, a Tartar kingdom, of which Sibir was the capital. The khan or ruler having been totally defeat- ed, Germack, the conqueror, took possession of the kingdom but was afterwards surprised and cut off by an ambuscade of Tartars. In the , course of fifty years, a few Cossacks and hun- I ters had, by their intrepid exertions, added to ' Russia a territory larger in extent than all Eu- i rope. However, in extending their conquest, I they came in contact with the Chinese empire, the military force of which defeated the Rus- sians on the banks of the Amour, where they I were obliged to terminate their progress, and / which river forms the line of demarcation be- | tween the two empires. SICILY. This island, which is part of the kingdom of Naples, is separated from Italy by i the straits of Messina. It is GO leagues long, and 3G broad, and contains 1,787,771 inhabi- 1 tants. The principal cities are Palermo, Mazara, Syracuse, Messina, and Catania. The country is rich and fertile, and was formerly the granary of Italy ; but is no longer so well cultivated. It produces grain, silk, wines, excellent fruits, wax, and honey. The Sicilians are polished, and fond of the fine arts, but fickle and revenge- ful. They profess the Roman Catholic religion. This island was anciently known by the names of Sicania, Sicilia, and Trinacria, from its triangular form It is situated between Italy and Africa, lying between 3G° 30' and 38° 20' of north latitude, and extending from the 13th to the 16th degree of east longitude. ./Etna, now mount Gibello, emits "flames, throws up stones and ashes, and alarms the inhabitants by its roaring , and its convulsions have frequently overturned cities, and covered the island with ruins. In the Tuscan Sea, near Sicily, lie the iEolian and Vulcanian isles, in which Vulcan is fabled to have had his forges, and iEolus to have confined the winds subject to liis com- mand. Sicily was peopled by Greeks from Chalcia, Achaia, Doris, and from Crete, Rhodes, and other islands, and by some colonies from Italy. At length, Syracuse, which was found- ed by a Corinthian, usurped the chief power, and continued for a long tune the metropolis of Sicily. It was at first governed by kings ; and afterwards a democracy was established. It exhibits a perpetual alternation of slavery under tyrants, and of liberty under a popular government. Gelon is said to have introduced himself into Syracuse by his address, and to have gained the favor of the people, who in- vested him with absolute power, B. C. 483. He laid the foundation of that immense com- merce, which rendered Syracuse strong and opulent. He proposed to assist the Greeks against Xerxes, when the Carthaginians land- ed in Sicily an army of 300,000 men under the command of Hamilcar. However, Gelon, by means of an intercepted letter was enabled to send a body of cavalry, that put Hamilcar to death, dispersed the troops, and burnt the ships, while he attacked the other camp. An assembly of the Syracusans being convened, Gelon was invited to assume the title of king, and invested with supreme au- thority. The people also passed a decree, set- tling the crown, after his death, on his two brothers, Hiero and Thrasybulus. Gelon was succeeded by his elder brother, Hiero, B. C. 471, whom some represent as an excellent prince, and others as a covetous, obstinate, and cruel tyrant. Hiero was succeeded by his brother Thrasy- bulus, B. C. 459, a cruel and sanguinary tyrant, who massacred all those subjects who gave him the least cause of offence. Incensed at this oppressive conduct, the people took up arms, and expelled the tyrant, who retired to Italy. The Syracusans. attempting to subdue the neighboring cities, the latter requested the as- sistance of the Athenians, who had long wished to form an establishment in Sicily. Nicias, a prudent general, endeavored to dissuade the Athenians from such an undertaking ; but the senate and the people were hurried on by en- thusiasm, and determined to sell the Syracu- sans and their allies as slaves, and oblige the other cities of Sicily to pay an annual tribute to Athens. Accordingly, the Athenians set sail and arrived before Syracuse, which they be- sieged both by sea and land, B. C. 416. The Syracusans were about to surrender, when Gy- lippus, a Spartan general, arrived with assistance from Lacedeemon. SIC 528 SIC Nicias found himself under the necessity of demanding a reinforcement from Athens, which despatched another fleet, commanded by De- mosthenes ; that eterprising general, induced Nicias to make an assault, which was not suc- cessful. At length the Athenian and Syracusan armaments met, and an engagement ensued, when the Athenians were completely defeated. Finding no other resource left than to endeavor to reach some towns in alliance with them, they began their march. However, the dead and the dying retarded their progress ; and the enemy briskly pursued, and allowed them scarcely a moment of rest. Nicias and Demosthenes were made prisoners, and after being publicly scourg- ed, were thrown from a precipice. The soldiers were shut up in the quarries, where they received a scanty allowance of food, and were infected with the putrid bodies of their dead companions. Such was the issue of this war, after it had con- tinued nearly three years. Sicily was soon engaged in a new contest. The Egestines, who had invited the Athenians into Sicily, dreading the resentment of the Sy- racusans, offered to put their city into the hands of the Carthaginians, from whom they request- ed assistance against the inhabitants of Seli- nuntum. The Carthaginians committed the management of the war to Hannibal , the grand- son of Hamilcar, who landed in Sicily with an army of 300,000 men. The Selinuntines de- fended their walls, their streets, their public squares, and even their houses, but were every where overpowered by numbers. Two thou- sand six hundred of them escaped to Agrigen- tum, and the rest were cut to pieces by the Carthaginians, who committed dreadful cruel- ties and atrocities The conquerors then march- ed to Himera, before which Hamilcar had been killed by Gelon, and which shared the same fate as Selinuntum. Hannibal ordered 3000 Himerians to be barbarously massacred on the spot where his grandfather had been defeated and killed ; and after thus terminating the cam- paign, he embarked his troops, and set sail for Africa. The Carthaginians now returned to Sicily with 300,000 men, and attacked Agri- gentum. In the first sally, the besieged burnt the machines, and made a prodigious slaughter of the enemy. At length, Agrigentum being greatly distress- ed for want of provisions, the inhabitants resolv- ed to leave the city, which was taken possession of by the Carthaginians. The Agrigentines, who took refuge in Syracuse, filled that city with complaints against the Syracusan com- manders, as if they had betrayed Agrigentum into the hands of the enemy. This raised such dis- turbances in Syracuse, as afforded to Dionysius, a bold, eloquent, and aspiring man, an opportu- nity of seizing on the sovereign power. After procuring a guard of 1000 men, and being join- ed by part of the garrison in Gela, he possessed himself of the citadel, and publicly declared himself king of Syracuse, B. C. 404. But on the first defeat he experienced from the Cartha- ginians, the people revolted, and united with his enemies. Dionysius, however, found means not only to appease the revolt, but to conclude a peace with the Carthaginians. Dionysius again declared war with the Car- thaginians, from whom he took the most im- portant of the towns which they possessed in Sicily ; but who, nevertheless, appeared before Syracuse, to which they laid siege. The Car- thaginians being exhausted by a plague, were obliged to raise the siege, and Dionysius suffer- ed them to retire unmolested, on condition that they paid him a large sum of money. He then turned his arms against Italy, and took Rhegium, the inhabitants of which he treated with his usual inhumanity. He was succeeded by his son Dionysius, who was surnamed the younger, B. C. 30(5, and who was a weak and irresolute prince. Dion, the brother of Aristomache, the wife of Dionysius the elder, a friend and disciple of Plato, induced the young prince to banish the accomplices of his debaucheries and to recall Plato. Through a cabal of courtiers, Dion and Plato were disgraced, and obliged to retire to Athens. Dionysius not only refused to Dion the revenue arising from his property, but compelled his wife Arete, who was much beloved by her husband, to espouse Timocrates one of his cour- tiers. These provocations incensed Dion, who collected a small band, and arriving at Syracuse whilst Dionysius was engaged with the war in Italy, declared that he came not to avenge his own private wrongs, but to emancipate Syra- cuse and Sicily from the yoke of the tyrant. Under this standard of liberty, Dion obtained possession of the greater part of the city ; and having defeated Dionysius in an engagement, compelled the tyrant to flee into Italy. Dion, having murdered one of his generals, was as- sassinated in his own house by his guest and friend Calippus. The death of Dion, and the flight of Calip- pus, recalled Dionysius, B. C. 350, who again reinstated himself in the possession of his do- minions, which he retained until he was again expelled by an army under Timoleon. This SIC 529 Sic general overran Sicily as a conqueror, subdued the tyrants of several cities, whom he sent to Corinth to be companions of Dionysius, and de- feated the Carthaginians, who again appeared in the island. For the space of twenty years, the Syracu- sans enjoyed the fruits of Timoleon's services. About that time, Syracuse groaned under the tyranny of Agathocles, who exceeded all his predecessors in cruelty and other vices. He was soon expelled from that city by Sosistratus, who had usurped the supreme power. He then retired into Italy ; and during his abode in that country, Sosistratus was obliged to abdicate the sovereignty, and quit Syracuse. Sosistratus and the other exiles had recourse to the Car- thaginians, who readily espoused their cause. Upon this, the Syracusans recalled Agatho- cles, whom they appointed commander-in-chief, and he defeated the combined armies of Sosis- tratus and the Carthaginians. Agathocles, therefore, began to exercise a sovereign power over his fellow-citizens, and took such measures as plainly showed that he aimed at monarchy. On discovering his design, the people transfer- red the command of their forces to a Corinthi- an ; and Agathocles saved his life only by stratagem. Agathocles re-appeared under the walls of Syracuse, at the head of a strong army, and, under pretence of a war with Erbita, a neigh- boring city, he collected a great number of sol- diers, whom he induced to pillage Syracuse, and to massacre the whole body of the nobility. In a few hours more than four thousand per- sons fell a sacrifice ; and the streets were cov- ered with slain. He ordered the pillage and massacre to be continued two days longer, after which he was proclaimed king by the few sur- vivors. The success of Agathocles gave uneasiness to the Carthaginians, who sent against him an ar- my under the command of Hamilcar. This general gained over him a complete victory, which obliged Agathocles to confine himself within Syracuse. Whilst the Carthaginians besieged that city, Agathocles embarked some of his best troops, B. C. 307, and, landing in Africa, burned the vessels which had conveyed his army. An engagement took place between the Syracusans and the Carthaginians, the lat- ter of whom were defeated with the loss of Hanno, their general. Syracuse was now reduced to great extremi- ty ; but Agathocles having sent to the inhabit- ants of that city the head of Hanno, the sight 34 of it encouraged them to support with success a last assault. They afterwards attacked and en- tirely routed the Carthaginian army, took Ha- milcar prisoner, and sent his head to Agatho- cles. As the war was prolonged, Agathocles resolved to return to Sicily ; and having given the necessary orders during his absence, em- barked with him two thousand chosen men, and arrived at Syracuse. After restoring order to the government, and destroying a league which had been formed against him, he set out once more for Africa. But finding his affairs despe- rate in that country, he determined to abandon his troops, and making his escape put to sea. In the first transports of their fury, the soldiers massacred two of his sons whom he h,ad left be- hind, and, having elected chiefs for themselves, concluded with the Carthaginians a peace, by which they were to be transported to Sicily, and put in possession of the city of Selinuntum. At length, after a series of cruelties, Agatho- cles was burnt on the funeral pile, B. C. 289. The government was next assumed by Mce- non, who was expelled by Hycetas. The latter took the modest title of praetor, but was deprived of the sovereign power by Tcenion, who was op- posed by Sosistratus. But being attacked by the Carthaginians, these chiefs united and call- ed into their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who was then carrying on war against the Ro- mans. Pyrrhus re-conquered those cities w hich had thrown off the yoke. Hiero was appointed to command the Syracusan forces against the Carthaginians, B. C. 275, who had regained most of the places which they possessed before the arrival of the Epirots. He concluded a treaty with the Romans, the conditions of which were faithfully peiformed on both sides. The defeats which the Romans sustained at the lake Thrasymene and at Cannse, could not shake his constancy. He died at the age of ninety. Hiero appointed his grandson Hieronymus king, B. C, 211, with a council of fifteen per- sons, called tutors. His vices and cruelty were such, that a conspiracy was formed against him. He was assassinated while passing through a narrow street, in 208 B. C, and the people showed so little concern for his person, that they suffered the body to rot in the place where it had fallen. Hieronymus was no sooner dead, than two of the conspirators hastened to pre vent the attempts of Andranodorus, and of others of the king's faction. However, he soon after, in concert with Themistus, the husband of Hartnonia, sister of the deceased king, formed a plot to exterminate the chief citizens of Syra- SIC 530 SID cuse. This being disclosed to the senate, An- dranodorus and Themistus were condemned, though absent, and put to death as they were entering the senate-house. Soon after this the guardians and tutors of the late king, and all the royal family, were put to death. The Carthaginians now obtained an ascen- dency in Syracuse. Two of the generals, Hip- pocrates and Epysides, caused the number of the praetors to be reduced to two, and made the choice fall on themselves. Marcellus, the Ro- man consul, appeared at the gates of Syracuse, B. C. 202, and demanded that the authors of the late massacre should be delivered into his hands ; but finding his demand treated with ridicule, he commenced hostilities, and attempted a general assault on the city. However, by the genius of Archimedes, an able mathematician, without employing the sword, two Roman armies were repulsed on this occasion. Marcellus was, there ??, obliged to convert the siege into a blockade: and, at '~"0 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants. The pacha is only nominally dependent on the Porte, exer- TRI 576 TRI cising in himself a despotic authority. After the Vandals, Tripoli was under the dominion of kings, natives of the country, but afterwards fell into the hands of the Arabs, who came from Egypt, and who carried away a great number of slaves, both from the kingdom and the capital. The sceptre was then assumed by pirates or adventurers, from whom it was wrest- ed by the Spaniards. The latter resigned it to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who were obliged to yield it to three famous cor- sairs, Salha Rais, Sinan Dassat, and Dragut, who were assisted with troops furnished by the grand seignior, for this purpose, and who fully established the authority of the Turks. How- ever, the oppressive and intolerant conduct of the Turks, occasioned several revolts, which gave rise to the mixed form of government that still apparently exists ; for it is really absolute and despotic. Though the bey is chosen by the militia, and seems to be the chief of a body of republicans, he is entirely arbitrary, and never has recourse to the divan, except on difficult occasions. TRIUMPH. The triumphal military pro- cession of a victorious Roman general was a spectacle of great splendor and interest. When a general gained a considerable victory, he de- manded a triumph of the senate. It was the highest military honor which could be obtained in the Roman state ; and was reserved for those generals who, by hard-earned victories and glo- rious achievements, had added to the territories of the commonwealth, or delivered the state from threatened danger. The triumphal pro- cession began from the Campus Martius, with- out the city, and passed through the most public places of the city to the capitol ; the streets being strewed with flowers, and the altars smoking with incense. First went musicians of various kinds ; the oxen destined for the sacrifice next followed, having their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with garlands ; then in carriages were brought the spoils taken from the enemy, statues, pictures, plate, armor, &c. with the titles of the vanquished nations, and their im- ages or representation. The spoils were suc- ceeded by the captive kings or leaders, with their children and attendants ; after the captives came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers, dressed like satyrs, and wearing golden crowns ; and next came a long train of persons carrying perfumes. After these came the triumphant general, dressed in purple embroidered with gold, with a crown of laurel upon his head, a branch of laurel in his right hand, and in his left an ivory sceptre with an eagle on the top ; the general's face was painted with vermilion, and a gold ball hung from his neck on his breast. The chariot in which the triumphant general stood was gilt, adorned with ivory, and drawn by four white horses abreast, or sometimes by elephants; that he might not be too much elated, a slave stood behind him, who frequently whispered in his ear — Remember that thou art a man. The general was attended by his relations and a great crowd of citizens all in white ; after his car followed the consuls and senators; and last came the victorious army crowned with laurel, decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valor, and singing the general's praises, in which the citizens as they passed along also joined. TRIUMVIRI, were three magistrates ap- pointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. The first triumvirate, B. C. GO, was in the hands of Julius Cassar, Pompey, and Crassus, who, at the expiration of their office, kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvirate, B. C. 43, was under Au- gustus, M. Antony, and Lepidus, and through them the Romans totally lost their liberty. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for the space of about twelve years. There were also officers who were called triumviri capitales, created A. U. C. 4G4. They took cognizance of murders and robberies, and every thing in' which slaves were concerned. Criminals un- der sentence of death were entrusted to their care, and they had them executed according to the commands of the praetors. The triumviri nocturni watched over the safely of Rome in the night time, and in case of fire, were ever ready to take the most effectual measures to extinguish it. The triumviri agrarii, had the care of colonies, that were sent to settle in different parts of the empire. They made a fair division of the lands among the citizens, and exercised over the new colony, all the power which was placed in the hands of the consuls at Rome. The triumviri monetales, were masters of the mint, and had the care of the coin, hence their office was generally inti- mated by the following letters often seen on ancient coins and medals: — IIIVIR. A. A. A. F. F. i. e. Triumviri auro, argento, aere flando, feriendo. The triumviri valetudinis, were chosen when Rome was visited by a plague or some pestiferous distemper, and they took par- ticular care of the temples of health and virtue. The triumviri senatus legendi, were appointed TRO 577 TUN to name those that were most worthy to be made senators from among the plebeians. The triumviri mensarii, were chosen in the second Punic war, to take care of the coin and prices of exchange. TROMP, Martin Harpertzoon, a Dutch naval commander, was born at the Brill, in Holland, in 1579. He rose from the lowest station to the rank of admiral; and in 1030 defeated a large Spanish fleet. When the war broke out between England and the United Provinces, Van Tromp fought five desperate engagements, in the last of which, July 2'J, 1653, he was killed by a musket shot. The states-general struck medals to his honor ; but his biographers, in celebrating his modesty, have passed over the circumstance of his carrying a broom at the mast-head, to imply that he would sweep the seas of all opponents. TROY, a city, the capital of Troas, or ac- cording to others, a country of which lliurn was the capital. Of all the wars which have been carried on among the ancients, that of Troy is the most famous. The Trojan war was undertaken by the Greeks, to recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, had carried away from the house of Mene- laus. The armament of the Greeks amounted to 1000 ships. Agamemnon was chosen general of all the forces ; but the princes and kings of Greece were admitted among his counsellors, and by them all the operations of the war were directed. The Grecian army was opposed by a more numerous force. The king of Troy re- ceived assistance from the neighboring princes in Asia Minor, and reckoned among his most active generals, Rhesus, king of Thrace, and Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 Assyrians and ./Ethiopians. The army of the Greeks was visited by a plague, and the opera- tions were not less retarded by the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles. After the siege had been carried on for ten years, some of the Trojans, among whom were ./Eneas and Ante- nor, betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy, and Troy was reduced to ashes. The poets, however, maintain, that the Greeks made themselves masters of the place by artifice. The greatest part of the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the others carried away by the conquerors. This happened, according to the Arundelian marbles, about 1 184 years before the Christian era. Some time after, a new city was raised, about 30 stadia from the ruins of the old Troy : but though it bore the ancient name, and received ample donations from Alex- 37 ander the Great, when he visited it in his Asiatic expedition, yet it continued to be small, and in the age of Strabo it was nearly in ruins. TRUMBULL, John, was born in Water- town, Connecticut in 1750, and educated at Yale college of which he became a tutor in 1770. He subsequently studied law in the office of John Adams, in Boston, and became acquainted with the leading patriots of Massa- chusetts. In 1775 was published the first Part of Mc' Fingal, a political satirical poem in the style of Hudibras, which passed through thirty editions. For many years Mr. Trumbull was a member of the legislature of Connecticut, and was appointed a judge of the Superior Court in 1801, and afterwards of the Court of Errors. In 1825 he removed to Detroit, Michigan, where he died May 12, 1831. TRUXTON, Thomas, a captain in the United States' navy, was born on Long island, New York, Feb. 17, 1755. Being impressed, he served a short time on board the President, a British G4. In 1775 he brought some powder to the colonies, and was afterwards captured, but escaped. He was then appointed lieutenant on board the Congress, a private armed ship, and, sailing in company with another vessel in 177(3, took several valuable prizes. While in command of the St. James of 20 guns he beat off a British vessel of 32 guns. In the war with France he commanded the frigate Constellation, and captured the French frigate L' Insurgente of 54 guns. In 1800 he retired from the service. In 1816 he was elected high sheriff" of Phila- delphia. He died May 5, 1 822, in his 67th jear. TUNIS, one of the Barbary states, consists chiefly of a large peninsula, stretching into the Mediterranean in a north-easterly direction. It contains about 53,000 square miles, and a popu- lation of 1,500,000, of which 100,000 are said to be Jews. The eastern part of the country possesses the most luxuriant fertility, but the western part is less favored by nature and contains a scanty population. Rich in mines of silver, lead, and copper, the Tunisian mountain! have never been properly explored. The prin- cipal articles of export are grain, olive oil, wool, soap, sponge, orchilla weed ; gold dust, ivory, and ostrich feathers. Tunis, the capital, an irregularly built city, about 10 miles south-west of the site of ancient Carthage, contains from 100,000, to 150,000 inhabitants, of whom about 30,000 are Jews. It is strongly fortified. The city which the Romans erected on the site of ancient Carthage, was in a flourishing condition, when the Saracens conquered ana 2a TUR 578 TUS destroyed it ; and Tunis arose with considerable magnificence. The Normans of Sicily con- quered the Tunisians, but were forced to give way, in turn, to Abdalmamum of Morocco. In 1530 Charles V. invaded Africa, and defeated the Turks who, under Barbarossa had gained possession of Tunis. In 1574 the Algerine Turks seized upon it, and established a govern- ment at the head of which was a pacha, subject to the grand seignior. The head of the govern- ment is now styled bey, and pays an annual tribute to the grand seignior of whom he is otherwise independent. TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, viscomte de, a famous general, was the second son of Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in 1611. He first served under his uncles, the princes Mau- rice and Henry of Nassau; and in 1634 was made major-general. In 1644 he became mare- chal of France ; and though he lost the battle of Mariendal, in 1645, he soon after gained that of Nordlingen, which restored the elector of Treves to his dominions ; and the next year he formed a junction with the Swedish army, which compelled the duke of Bavaria t6 sue for peace. But the same prince soon afterwards broke the treaty, on which Turenne made him- self master of his territories. In the civil wars of France, he joined the discontented party ; but was shortly after brought over to the king's side. In 1654 he compelled the Spaniards to raise the siege of Arras; and in 1655, he took Conde, and gained the battle of the Downs, which produced the subjugation of Flanders. In 1667 Turenne renounced the Protestant reli- gion ; which measure is rather supposed to have proceeded from ambitious than pious motives. On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 1672, he took forty towns in less than a month ; drove the elector of Brandenburg to Berlin, and compelled the imperial army to re-cross the Rhine. In the midst of this career of victory, he was killed by a cannon ball, near Acheren, July 27, 1675. TURGOT, M. prime minister of Louis XVI., whose first measure was to re-establish the unrestrained commerce of corn in the inte- rior of France. This measure gave rise to vio- lent tumults, which obliged the king to hold a bed of justice at Versailles. Died 17dl, aged 49. TURKESTAN, or Turkistan answers to the Independent Tartary of geographers. It is divided into Turcomania, Turkistan, Osbek- istan, or Bucharia, and the country of the Kirg- hises. It is extremely fertile. TURKEY. Prior to its recent losses of ter- ritory this empire contained 900,000 square miles, and 22,800,000 inhabitants. Its history has been narrated under the head of Ottoman empire. The Turks themselves, masters of the richest portions of the globe despise agri- culture, and neglect mining. They are proud, indolent, brave, and sensual. TUSCANY, a grand duchy of central Italy, bounded north by Modena, and the States of the Church, east by the States of the Church, and south west bythe Tuscan Sea, a part of the Mediterranean. It includes Elba and a few smaller islands, and is divided into Florence. Pisa, and Sienna, containing 9,500 square miles, and 1,300,530 inhabitants. The face of the country is agreeably diversified, and the well- watered soil produces wheat, maize, beans, peas, clover, vines, mulberries, olives, oranges, lem- ons, figs, and rice. The minerals are copper, lead, quicksilver, marble, &c. The Tuscan dia- lect is considered the purest Italian. The great duchy of Tuscany belonged to the emperors of Germany, who governed it by deputies till the year 1240, when the famous distinctions of the Guelphs, who were the partisans of the pope, and the Ghibellines, who were in the emperor's interest, took place. The popes then persuaded the imperial governors in Tuscany, to put them- selves under the protection of the church ; but the Florentines, in a short time, formed them- selves into a free commonwealth, and bravely defended their liberties against both parties by turns. Faction at last shook their freedom ; and the family of Medici, long before they were de- clared either princes or dukes, in fact governed Florence, though the rights and privileges of the people seemed still to exist. The Medici, particularly Cosmo, who was deservedly called the Father of his Country, being in the secret, shared with the Venetians in the immense profits of the East India trade, before the dis- coveries made by the Portuguese. His reve- nue, in ready money, which exceeded that of any sovereign prince in Europe, enabled his successors to rise to sovereign power ; and pope Pius V gave one of his descendants, Cosmo, (the great patron of the arts), the title of great duke of Tuscany, in 1570, which continued in his family to the death of Gaston de Medicis, in 1737, without issue. The great duchy was then claimed by the emperor Charles VI as a fief of the empire, and given to his son-in-law, the duke of Lorrain, in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which was ceded to France by treaty. Leopold, his second son, became grand duke, TYR 579 TYR from whom the government of Tuscany de- scended to the grand duke Ferdinand, brother of Francis II, emperor of Austria. By the treaty of Luneville, (February, .1801), the grand duchy of Tuscany received the title of kingdom of Etruria, and was transferred to the hereditary prince of Parma. In the subsequent incorpora- tions of Bonaparte, it was declared an integral part of the French empire ; but on his dovvn- fal, in 1814, it was restored to the archduke Ferdinand, and resumed its proper designation of grand duchy. TYLER, Wat, a celebrated insurgent, by trade a blacksmith, who was the first to resist the imposition of the poll tax, in the commencement of the reign of Richard II. He led his men into Smithfield, where he was met by the king, who invited him to declare his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till he should give them a signal, boldly ventured to meet the king in the midst of his retinue, and accordingly began the conference. He required that all slaves should be set free ; that all com- monages should be open to the poor as well as rich ; and that a general pardon should be passed for the late outrages. Whilst he made these demands, he occasionally lifted up his sword in a menacing manner ; which insolence so raised the indignation of William Walworth, then mayor of London, attending on the king, tliat he stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, while one of the king's knights, riding up, des- patched him with his sword. TYRANTS, Thirty, an aristocratical coun- cil, who usurped and conquered the government of the Athenians, B. C. 404. Critias was at ' the head of this council, who condemned to i death Niceratus, the son of Nicias, Leon, and ', Antiphon, and banished Thrasybulus and Any- ', tus. After committing innumerable atrocities, they were deposed by the people, and ten de- cemvirs elected in their stead. TYRE, a city of Phoenicia, the site of which I is now occupied by the insignificant village of 1 Tour, 18 miles S. W. of Sidon. This city was | built in 1048, B. C. by the Sidonians, who fled I from the Edomiles when they conquered Sidon, after having been expelled from their own country by David. It was taken by Nebuchad- | nezzar in 572, after a siege of thirteen years. 1 In 538 it came under the power of the Persians. In 332 it was taken, after a siege of six months, I by Alexander the Great, and continued subject i to the Seleueidce, the Macedonian kings of Syria, till the Romans took possession of it in I the year 65, B. C. After this it underwent the revolutions of Syria till 1099, when it was taken by the Franks. In 1123, the sultan of Egypt took it from them, but they soon re- covered it, and kept it till 1259, when the Tar- tars, under llulaku, took it, together with the rest of Syria ; but not keeping it long, it re- turned to the dominion of Egypt, till it was re- covered by the Christians, in 1263 ; but in 1292 it was finally conquered by the sultans of Egypt, with the fate of which it has since been con- nected. TYROL or TIROL an Austrian province bordering on Bavaria, lllyria, Austria, the Lom- bardo- Venetian kingdom, Switzerland and lake Constance, containing 1,650 square miles, and 774,457 inhabitants. It is mountainous, and, in most respects, resembles Switzerland. The in- habitants have the same invincible attachment to their country, sterile as it is, and though many of them gain their little wealth in foreign countries, they return to get rid of it at home. They are hardy, brave, honest, and cheerful. This country was conquered by the Romans, from whose hands it passed into those of the Franks, and afterwards belonged to the dukes of Bavaria. In 1359 it was attached to Austria, and, with the exception of the period from 1805 to 1814, has remained in her possession. TYRONE, earl of, a celebrated leader in the Irish rebellion, who, in 1596 assumed the title of King of Ulster, and entered into a corres- pondence with Spain, whence he received a supply of arms and ammunition. During the violent contentions between Tyrone and the forces of the earl of Essex, then deputy of Ire- land, every enormity was committed by both parties; but at length, in 1603, Tyrone's fol- lowers being reduced, he surrendered himself to the royal power. Thus the rebellion closed; but the reduction of Ireland, through the gloomy tracks of famine, pestilence, and blood, cost England no less a sum than 1, 198,717 £. TYRREL, Walter, a French gentleman, who, when hunting in the New Forest with William Rufus, let fly an arrow, which, glanc- ing from a tree, struck the king in the breast, and instantly killed him. Tyrrel, fearful of suspicions, gained the sea shore, embarked for France and joined the crusade, as a penance for his involuntarv crime. TYRREL, Sir James, employed by Richard, duke of Gloucester, to murder his two nephews in the Tower. Tyrrel chose three associates, who, finding the young princes in bed, in a profound sleep, suffocated them with the bolster and pillows, and showed their naked bodies to UNI 580 UNI Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the foot of the stairs, under a heap of stones. In the reign of Charles II the bones of two per- sons were found in the place indicated, which corresponded, by their size, to the ages of Ed- ward V and his brother; and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy princes, were deposited in Westminster Abbey, under a marble tomb. U. UKRAINE, i. e. the Frontier of an extensive country in the southern part of Russia, now forming the governments of Kiev, Podolia, Charkow, and Poltava. The surface is level and it is extremely fertile. ULM, formerly a free imperial city, is situat- ed at the confluence of the Danube with the Iller and Blau, and contains 11,888 inhabitants. After the battle of Blenheim, (in 1704), it sus- tained a siege. In 1800, it was the scene of military manoeuvres, conducted, on the part of Moreau, with great skill ; and it was here that in 1805, the errors of Mack, and the combina- tions of Bonaparte, led to the surrender of an Austrian army. In 1810, it was transferred from Bavaria to Wirtemberg, to which govern- ment it continues subject. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AME- RICA, The, originally colonies of Great Bri- tain, declared themselves independent in 1776. Brief historical notices of the different states have been given under separate heads, but a more extended historical view is requisite in the present article. The following dates of the settlement of the colonies, are given for reference. Virginia, 1607. New York, by the Dutch, 1614 ; occupied by the English, 1664. Plymouth, 1620 ; incorporated with Massachu- setts in 1692. Massachusetts, 1628. New Hampshire, 1623. New Jersey, by the Dutch, 1624 ; occupied by the English in 1664. Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627, occupied by the English in 1664. Maine, 1630 .united with Massachusetts in 1677. Maryland, 1633. Connecticut, 1635. New Haven, 1637 ; united with Connecticut in 1662. Providence, 1635; > Rhode Island, 1638; $ united 1644. N. Carolina, 1650. S. Carolina, 1670. Pennsylvania, 1682. Georgia, 1733. The English settlers in the northern parts of America, were influenced by different motives from those which actuated the Spaniards who quitted their native country for the shores of the New World. The latter were urged on- ward by a reckless spirit of adventure, by the promptings of heated imaginations, and by the most insatiable cupidity. The former were im- pelled by far worthier motives. Many causes operated together in the mother country, to favor emigration among the resolute and hardy The people of England had been led to examine into the nature of the power to which they were subjected, and the monstrous doc- trines of prerogative and religious intolerance, were denounced by many who had courage to think and speak for themselves upon the sub- jects. The friends of republican institutions multiplied with great rapidity, the natural result of the progress of literature, and the increase of wealth with the commons. In 1628 the wealth of the house of commons far exceed- ed that of the house of lords. At the same time, the reformation which had been carried into effect by Henry VIII, while it had purged the country of the abuses of the Romish church, had established a form of worship which was regarded by many as little better than that which had given way before it. Those who refused to conform to the established form, contemptuously termed Puritans by their op- ponents, anxiously sought scope for the exercise of religious rights, and, since the immunities they demanded were not granted them at home, determined to seek refuge from persecution in a remote quarter of the globe. King James granted, in 1606, letters patent to two companies, called the London and Plymouth companies, by which possession was given them of the territories lying between the 34th and 45th degrees of N. latitude ; the S. part to the London, and the Northern part to the Plymouth company : the king himself having undertaken to frame for them a code of laws. Three ships were provided by the London com- pany, on board of which were 105 persons, who were expected to remain at Roanoke, which was the place of their destination. The com- mand of this squadron was given to captain Christopher Newport, who sailed from London on the 20th of December, 1606 ; and after a tedious and disastrous passage of four months, UNI 581 UNI by the circuitous route of the West Indies, on the 26th of April, discovered Cape Henry, the southern cape of the Chesapeake, a storm having driven him in a northerly direction from his place of destination. He soon after discovered cape Charles, and entered Chesapeake bay. Charmed with the appearance of the country, the company determined to commence a settle- ment, and soon explored the neighborhood. Passing above Old Point Comfort, a party pro- ceeded up a beautiful river, called by the Indians Powhatan, and by the colonists, in honor of James I, James river. They made a settlement on a peninsula, and called it Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement made by the English in Virginia. Shortly after, the company received supplies from England, and an accession to their num- bers, swelling the amount to 200. Two vessels were freighted for England ; one loaded with a yellow and brilliant sand, common in many places in the vicinity, but supposed by the colo- nists to contain a large proportion of gold : the other vessel was loaded with tobacco. The most efficient member of the council was cap- tain Smith (see Smith) who was taken by the Indians while on an exploring expedition. He was led to the place of execution, and his head placed upon a stone, while Powhatan, the In- dian chieftain, stood over him with uplifted club, regardless of the earnest solicitations of his daughter Pocahontas, then about 13 years of age. The princess, finding her entreaties unavailing, fell upon Smith, folded him in her arms, and laid her face upon his, determined to meet death with him she could not save. Moved by this touching devotion, Powhatan relented, and, two days afterwards, sent Smith to James- town. In 1009, the destruction of the whole colony was planned by the Indians, but their plans were defeated by the exertions of the princess Pocahontas, who, in a dark night, went to Jamestown, and put the president upon his guard. Pocahontas married an English gentle- man by the name of Rolfe, embraced the Chris- tian religion, and was baptized by the name of Rebecca. She died four years ailer at Graves- end, on her return with her husband from Kng- land. In 1619, 150 young women, " handsome and uncorrnpt," were sent to Virginia and sold to the planters for 100, and 150 pounds of tobacco each ; tobacco being then valued at about three shillings the pound. At the same time 20 negroes were brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel, and sold to the colonists, whence one may date the commencement of the slave- holding system. In 1614 captain Smith was sent from England to explore North Virginia. He ranged the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, making observa- tions on the shores, harbors, islands, and head- lands ; and made a map of the country, which orr his return to England, he showed to prince Charles (afterwards Charles I), who gave it the name of New England. The Rev. Mr. Robin- son with his flock, of the reformed church of the north of England, removed to Amsterdam in 1606, and soon after to Leyden. A variety of motives led his congregation to turn their atten- tion to the New World : the principal were, the enjoyment of perfect liberty of conscience ; " the preservation of ecclesiastical affairs distinct, from those of the state; " and a hope of laying the foundation of an extensive empire, that should be purged from all religious impurities. Having made an arrangement with the Virginia com- pany, they sailed from Plymouth, Eng., on the 6th of September 1620, and on the 10th of November, anchored in Cape Cod harbor. Perceiving that they were so far north as to be without the territory of the south Virginia com- pany, some hesitation arose : but the winter was at hand, and it was now too late to go in search of a settlement within the jurisdiction of that company. Previous to their landing, after prayer and thanksgiving, they formed themselves into a body politic, binding them- selves by a written covenant to be governed by the decisions of a majority. This instrument, was subscribed by 41 persons, who with their children and domestics, composed a company of 101 persons. Mr. John Carver was chosen, without one dissentient voice, governor for one year. Parties were sent on shore to make discove- ries. Some Indians were seen but could not be overtaken. A considerable quantity of corn was found in heaps of sand, secured in baskets, which served for seed the ensuing spring, and tended to save the adventurers from famine. On the 6th of December, Carver, Standish, Winslow, Bradford, and others, sailed to various places, to discover a suitable situation for a set- tlement. Monday, Dec. 1 1 , O. S. they landed at what was afterwards called Plymouth, and from the excellence of the harbour, and the favorable appearance of the land, resolved to commence a settlement here. In 1628 the council for New England, sold to Roswell Young and others, a patent for all that part of New England, lying between 3 miles N. of the UNI 582 UNI Merrimac, and 3 miles S. of Charles river. In 1629 king Charles incorporated " the governor and company of Massachusetts bay in New England." In 1637 the troops of Massachusetts and Connecticut had several engagements with the Pequot Indians, and finaliy subdued them. This year was made famous by a great theolo- gical disturbance caused by Ann Hutchinson, a woman of considerable talents, who was ac- cused of maintaining heresies, and supporting them by lectures frequently given to large audiences. The result was a synod of the ministers, elders, and messengers of the church- es, who, after three weeks deliberation, con- demned as heretical eighty -two opinions which had been disseminated in New England, and some banishments took place, among which was that of Mrs. Hutchinson, her husband and children, who removed to Rhode Island. In 1640, one hundred laws, entitled " The Body of Liberties " were established for the govern- ment of the colony. In 1750, a number of noblemen, merchants, and others of London, together with some in- fluential Virginia planters, formed a society under the name ef the Ohio company, and ob- tained from the crown a charter grant of six hundred thousand acres, on and near the river Ohio ; and soon after made preparations for commencing establishments on the Ohio, for the purpose of commerce with the Indians, as well as with a view to the settlement of the country. Information of their proceeding soon reached the French governor in Canada, who immediately apprehended that, if the company could not be interrupted in their plan, a great part of their valuable fur trade of the French would be destroyed, and all communication cut off between Canada and Louisiana. France laid claim, by right of discovering the Missis- sippi, to all the territory bordering on that river, and on its tributary streams. The possessions of the Ohio company were infringed upon by the French governor of Canada, and their trade menaced with annihilation. They therefore laid their grievances before Dinwiddie, lieutenant- governor of Virginia. Dinwiddie, laid the subject before the assem- bly, who determined to demand, in the name of the king, that the French should desist. George Washington, then in his 22d year, was despatched to the French commandant on the Ohio, who assured him that he had acted ac- cording to orders. After his return the British determined to attack Fort du Quesne (now Pittsburg), and Washington, now raised to the rank of colonel, commanded. The conduct, of the expedition, although it was unsuccessful re- flected great credit upon the commander. On the arrival of Braddock, in the spring of 1775. various military operations were planned. An expedition against Canada was successful, but the conquered territory was speedily relin- quished by the victors. General Braddock's expedition against Fort du Quesne was disas- trous in the extreme. Heedless of the advice of Washington, who cautioned him against an ambush, he pressed forward, and was surprised by the Indians. Instead of retreating or scour- ing the woods, Braddock vainly endeavored to form his men ; and continued with wanton bra- very on the spot where he was first attacked, till three horses were shot under him ; when he received a shot through the lungs and fell. The remains of the army immediately fled, bearing away the body of their rash and unfortunate com- mander. Every mounted officer except Wash- ington, was either killed or wounded, and he was providentially preserved, for an Indian had marked him as a victim, and fired at him several times with a rifle that had never before deceived him. 64 out of 85 officers, and half the privates were killed. But Washington bore off the wreck of the forces with consummate skill and undaunted courage. The war was continued until 1763, and, although the military operations were occasionally unsuccessful, the bravery of the British and provincial troops prevailed, and the fall of Quebec gave a death blow to the hopes of the French. We now come to the commencement of those acts which created that patriotic feeling in the colonies, which resulted in the Declaration of their Independence. In 1674 the parliament of Great Britain pass- ed an act, the preamble to which ran thus : "Whereas it is just and necessary that ^.revenue be raised in America, for defraying the ex- penses of defending, protecting, and securing the satne, «&c." The act then proceeds to lay a duty on clayed sugar, indigo, coffee, silk, mo- lasses, calicoes, &c, being the produce of a colony not under the dominion of his majesty. To this the colonists submitted ; though not with- out complaint and remonstrance. Before this the subject of taxing the American colonies had been in agitation. " There is something curi- ous," says Fox, " in discovering that even at this early period (1635) a question relative to North American liberty, and even to North American taxation, was considered as the teat UNI 583 UNI of principles friendly or adverse to arbitrary power at home. Rut the truth is, that, among the several controversies which have arisen, there is no other where the natural rights of man. on the one hand, and the authority of ar- tificial institutions, on the other, as applied res- pectively by the whigs and tories to the English constitution, are so fairly put in issue, nor by which the line of separation between the two parties is so strongly and distinctly marked." When a scheme for taxing the colonies was proposed to Sir Robert Walpole, he replied : " I will leave that for some of my successors who may have more courage than I have, and be less a friend to commerce than I am. It has been a maxim with me, during my administra- tion, to encourage the trade of the American colonies in the utmost latitude. Nay, it has been necessary to pass over some irregularities in their trade with Europe ; for, by encouraging them to an extensive, growing foreign com- merce, if they gain £500,000, I am convinced that, in two years afterwards, full £ 250,000 of their gains will be in his majesty's exchequer, by the labor and product of this kingdom. This is taxing . them more agreeably to their constitution and ours." Instead of a repeal of the act imposing the first tax, parliament, the next year, imposed a duty on stamps. Resolutions were passed by the popular branches of most of the colonial legislatures, against this duty. Massachusetts recommended a colonial congress, to consult for the general welfare. A congress from most of the colonies, consisting of twenty-eight mem- bers, met at New York ;. remonstrated against the act of parliament ; petitioned for its repeal ; and made a declaration of the rights of the colo- nies ; declaring that taxation and representation were inseparable ; and that parliament had no right to take their money without their consent. Disturbances arose throughout the country. Business was conducted without stamped paper, and the validity of obligations was established by the courts. Meanwhile the colonists enter- ed into associations, to prevent the importation of British goods, till the stamp act should be re- pealed. When information of the almost universal opposition of the Americans to the stamp act, reached the ears of parliament, great agitation arose. Mr. Pitt said, " You have no right to tax America. I rejoice that America has resist- ed. Three millions of our fellow subjects so lost to every sense of virtue, as tamely to give up their liberties, would be fit instruments to make slaves of the rest " The act was repealed, but the repealing act had this sweeping sen- tence, "that the parliament had, and of right ought to have power to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever."' In 1707, the chancellor of the exchequer brought into parliament a bill for imposing a duty to be collected in the colonies on glass, paper, painter's colors and tea. The bill having passed, was, the next year, sent to the colonies. A bill was also passed for establishing at Roston a board of commissioners, to manage the reve- nue arising from the duties. An act was also passed to compel the colonies to provide for the British troops and support them at their own expense. These various acts of parliament re- suscitated the flames of resentment and oppo- sition, which had been almost extinguished. The most spirited resolutions were passed by the colonies, among which the non-importation resolutions were the most important. On the 5th of March 1770, some Rritish sol- diers, being insulted and pressed upon by a mob in King's now State street, Boston, fired upon the populace, killed three, and wounded six. Captain Preston, who commanded the party, and his men, were tried and acquitted with the exception of two who were brought in guilty of manslaughter. In 1773, but little tea having been imported into America, parliament enjoyed her supposed right without benefit, and the Americans denied it without injury. Affairs therefore remained in the same state, till the East India company, who had on hand about seventeen million pounds of tea, were allowed by parliament to export their tea into any part of the world, free of duty : hence to the colo- nists, tea, though with a duty of three pence, would be cheaper than before. The colonists were again violently excited. The corresponding committees, which had been forming throughout the colonies for the last two years, excited resistance, declaring such as aided directly or indirectly in these violations of liber- ty, enemies to their country. The consequence was that the cargoes of tea. sent to New York and Philadelphia, were sent back : and those sent to Charleston, stored, but not offered for sale. The tea ships, intended for the supply of Roston, after the inhabitants had tried in vain to have them returned, they being consigned to the re- lations of governor Hutchinson, were entered by about 17 persons in the disguise of Indiana, and three hundred and forty-two chests of tea were thrown into the dock, no other damage being done. UNI 584 UNI In 1774, parliament, receiving information of the treatment of the East Indian company with respect to their tea, were much exasperated. Though the opposition was general, the pro- vince of Massachusetts, and especially the town of Boston, were considered the fomenters of dis- obedience to their authority. Boston was there- fore selected as the mark against which to direct their vengeance. Hence a bill was passed, by which the port of Boston was precluded from the privilege of landing and discharging, or of lading and shipping, wares and merchandise. Another bill was also passed, essentially alter- ing the charter of the province, making the appointment of the council, justices, judges, sheriffs, &c. dependent on the crown, or its immediate agent. Another act directed the governor to send to another colony or to Great Britain for trial, any person indicted for murder or any other capital offence. When these acts arrived in America, they were circulated with rapidity throughout the continent. But one sen- timent of indignation and opposition governed the people. The town of Boston recommended an universal association to stop importations. The house of burgesses in Virginia, which colony had ever been forward in seconding the spirit and measures of Massachusetts, ordered that the day on which the Boston port bill was to go into operation should be kept as a day of fasting and prayer. Pamphlets, news- paper discussions, addresses and essays, were multiplied without number, proving the wick- edness of the acts of parliament, and urging an union of the colonies for resistance. Massa- chusetts recommended a meeting of delegates from all the colonies, the assembly electing five for that purpose. On the fourth of September, the deputies of eleven colonies appeared at Philadelphia, organized themselves by choosing Peyton Randolph president, and Charles Thomp- son secretary, and agreed to vote by states. A non-importation, and non-consumption agree- ment were made ; an address to the king, a memorial to the inhabitants of British America, and an address to the people of Great Britain were also made. After a few weeks they dis- solved ; recommending the 10th of the succeed- ing May, if their grievances should remain un- redressed, for another session of congress. Oct. 5, general Gage, the governor of Massa- chusetts, as well as commander-in-chief of all the royal forces in North America, issued writs for holding a general assembly in Salem. He afterwards countermanded the writs. Ninety members met, formed themselves into a provin- cial congress, adjourned to Concord, and chose John Hancock president. They afterwards ad- journed to Cambridge, and drew up a plan for placing the province in a posture of defence, by enlisting men, choosing general officers, &c. In January, 1775, the earl of Chatham brought forward a conciliatory bill in the house of peers, which was rejected, two to one. Lord North, the prime minister, introduced a bill for restraining the trade of the New England colonies. Receiv- ing information of the general opposition in the southern colonies, he introduced another bill, equally restraining their trade, but excepting North Carolina, Delaware, and New York. The time had now come for testing the nerve of the colonists. An attempt was made by the British troops to seize the military stores at Concord, April 19, but they had to encounter the armed opposition of the militia at Concord and Lexington. Boston, was now blockaded. Ticonderogaand Crown Point were taken. The battle of Bunker's Hill followed, and an unsuc- cessful expedition against Canada preceded the Declaration of Independence. On May 10th, 1775, the continental congress met at Philadelphia, and on the 15th of June unanimously elected George Washington, then a member from Virginia, commander-in-chief of the forces raised, and to be raised, for the defence of the colonies. June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, made a motion in con- gress, for declaring the colonies free and inde- pendent. After much debate, on the Fourth of July, the thirteen colonies were declared Free and Independent, under the title of The United States of America. An attempt was made in June and July, with 3000 British troops, under the command of general Clinton and sir Peter Parker, to destroy the fort on Sullivan's island, near Charleston (S. C.) The fort was defended by col. Moultrie, with about 400 men. After an action of 10 hours, the British were forced to retire with a loss of about "200 men. 10 Americans were killed, and 20 wounded. Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the British troops (March 17), Washington made his head quarters at the city of New York, with the principal part of his army. British troops, to the amount of 24,000 men under lord Howe, and his brother, sir Win. Howe, landed (August 22) on Long Island, near the Narrows, about nine miles from the city. The American forces, at this time, amounted to upwards of 17,000 men, and those principally raw recruits. A battle was fought on Long Island (Aug. 27) in which the Americans were defeated. The bat- tle of White Plains took place on the 28th of UNI 585 UNI October. The retreat of the American forces through the Jerseys and across the Delaware followed ; the battles of Trenton (Dec. 26) and Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777) were also among the events of this period- The campaign of 1777 closed under better cir- cumstances. General Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, Oct. 17. In 177b a treaty of commerce and alliance was made between Louis XVI and the commissioners of the U. States, on the Gth of February. French troops soon after arrived. Various military operations ensued. In the southern states, where there was no regular American army, the partisan warfare kept up by Marion, Sumter, Morgan, and Greene, thinned the ranks of their enemies. On the 19th of Oc- tober, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered at York- town. The fall of this large British army may be considered as the closing of the war. Gen. Washington ordered divine service in the diffe- rent divisions and brigades. Congress went in solemn procession to the Dutch Lutheran church in Philadelphia, returned thanks to Almigh- ty God for the success of the combined armies, and recommended a day of general thanksgiv- ing and prayer throughout the United States. Savannah was evacuated in July (1782) and Charleston in December. Great Britain ac- knowledged our independence Nov. 30, 1782. Holland acknowledged the independence of the United States in April ; Sweden in February, 1783 ; Denmark in the same month ; Spain in March ; Russia in July. The debt of the U. States, at the close of the war, was about 40 millions of dollars. Congress had power to make war, and to create debts, but no power to carry on the war, nor ability to pay debts, but by appeals or recommendations to thirteen independent sovereignties, whose unanimity alone, seldom to be expected, could support public credit, or give efficacy to the proceedings of congress. For the payment of the public debt, a proposal was made by con- gress to the several states to lay a duty of five per cent., on all goods imported from foreign countries, till the national debt should be paid. This plan failed : some states adopting it alto- gether, some agreeing to it in part, and some totally rejecting it. Thus, no efficient funds being provided, the evidences of the public debt began to decrease in value, till they were sold at length for two shillings in the pound. The new Federal government was establish- in 1789. Washington was unanimously chosen the first president, and John Adams vice-presi- dent. Mr. Jefferson was selected for the de- partment of state ; col. Hamilton was appointed secretary of the treasury ; Gen. Knox secreta- ry of war, and Mr. Edmund Randolph attorney- general of the United States. John Jay was made chief justice of the supreme court of the U. Stales; John Rutledge, James Wilson, William Cushing, Robert Harrison and John Blair were named associate judges. The Indi- an war and an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylvania, on account of the tax on do- mestic spirits were favorably terminated. The insults and maritime depredations committed by the French, induced America to take up arms in defence of her rights, but a change of rulers in France prevented the effusion of blood. On the retirement of Washington, John Adams was elected to succeed him, and in 1801, Tho- mas Jefferson was chosen the third president of the U. States. The claim of searching Ameri- can vessels, and impressing from them British seamen, and the British orders in council prohi- biting the exportation of the U. States, together with other outrages committed by the British, produced a declaration of war against Great Britain in June, 1812. The successes of the British were but few and trifling, while the American navy triumphed in a series of bril- liant exploits, and the gallant defence of New Orleans by general Andrew Jackson, crowned the American arms with laurels. Peace was concluded at Ghent, December 24, 1814. Since this time, the states have continued to prosper, and but few untoward events have occurred to cast a gloom over their prospects. The names of our presidents are George Washington, John Adams, Thos Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Jackson. All the presidents, with the exception of the J. and J. Q,. Adams have been reelected. Population of the U. States in 1830. Whites. Under 5 years, Of 5 and under 10, 10 " 15, 15 " 20, 20 " 30, 30 " 40, 40 " 50, 50 " 60, 60 " 70, 70 " 80, 80 " 90, 90 " 100, upwards Males. 972,194 782,637 671,688 575,614 952.902 592,596 369,370 230,500 134,910 58,136 15,945 1,993 274 Females. 920,104 751,649 639,063 597,713 915,662 555,565 355,425 225,928 130,866 58,034 17,272 2,484 234 Total, 2a* 5,357,102 5,172,942 UNI 586 UNI Total whites, ...... 10,530,044 Total Free Colored Persons. . . 319,576 Total Slaves 2,009,050 Total population, .... 12,858,670 "I appeal to History !" says Philips. "Tell me, thou reverend chronicler of the grave, can all the illusions of ambition realized, can all the wealth of a universal commerce, can all the achievements of successful heroism, or all the establishments of this world's wisdom, secure to empire the permanency of its possessions ? Alas ! Troy thought so once ; yet the land of Priam lives only in song ! Thebes thought so once ; yet her hundred gates have crumbled, and her very tombs are but as the dust they were vainly intended to commemorate ! So thought Palmyra — where is she ? So thought the countries of Demosthenes and the Spartan ; yet Leonidas is trampled by the timid slave, and Athens insulted by the servile, mindless, and enervate Ottoman ! In his hurried inarch, time has but looked at their imagined immortality ; and all its vanities, from the palace to the tomb, have, with their ruins, prased the very impres- sion of his footsteps ! The days of their glory are as if they had never been ; and the island, that was then a speck, rude and neglected in the barren ocean, now rivals the ubiquity of their commerce, the glory of their arms, the fame of their philosophy, the eloquence of their senate, and the inspiration of their bards ! Who shall say, then, contemplating the past, that England, proud and potent as she appears, may not, one day, be what Athens is, and the young America yet soar to be what Athens was ! Who shall say, that, when the European column shall have mouldered, and the night of barbarism obscured its very ruins, that mighty continent may not emerge from the horizon, to rule, for its time, sovereign of the ascendant ! " There lives in the bosom a feeling sublime, Of all, ' tis the strongest tie ; Unvarying through every change of time, And only with life does it die. ui ' T is the love that is borne fur that lovely land, That smiled at the hour of our birth ; 'Tis the love, that is planted by nature's hand, For our sacred native earth. ' T was this that the patriot victor inspired, Was strong in the strength of his arm, With the holiest zeal his brave bosom fired, And to danger and death gave a charm. 'T was this that the dying hero blest, And hallowed the hour when he fell, That throbbed in the final throb of his breast, And heaved in his bosom's last swell. w hen a thousand swords, in a thousand hands, To the sunbeams of heaven shone bright ; When the glowing hearts of Columbia's bands, Were firm in Columbia's right : When the blood of the West in the battle was poured, In defence of the rights of the West ; When the blood of the East, stained the point of the sword, At the Eastern king's behest: Till the angel form of returning peace. O'er the plain and the mountain smiled — Bade the rude blast of war from its ravage to cease, And the sweet gale of plenty breathe mild. She smiled — and the nation's mighty woes Ceased to stream from the nation's eyes ; She smiled — and a fabric of wisdom arose, And exalted its fame to the skies. Then firm be its base as the giant rock ' Midst the ocean waves alone, That the beating rain and the tempest shock For numberless years has borne. And blasted the parricide arm that shall plan That glorious structure's fall, But still may it sanction the rights of man; And liberty, guardian to all. Then sweet be the song that the minstrel should raise, To the patriot victor's fame, And lively the tones of the heart-gendered praise, That should wake from the harp at his name. Then holy the dirge that the minstrel should pour, O'er the fallen hero's grave, Whose hand wields the sword for his country no more, Who has died the death of the brave." UNITED STATES, (or Provinces) of the Plata ; or the Argentine Republic. Buenos Ayres, or the Confederacy of the Plata, is bound- ed north by Bolivia, east by Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Atlantic ocean ; south by Patagonia, and west by Chili and Bolivia. It extends from 20° to 41° S. Lat, and from 57° to 70° W. Lon.. hav- ing an area of 900,000 square miles, with about 800,000 inhabitants, a large proportion of whom are Indians. The territories lying within the limits above described, formerly composed a part of the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, to which Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay also belonged. In 1810 the intendancy of Buenos Ayres broke out into an insurrection, and its example was followed by the other intendancies of the vice-royalty. In 1817, they declared themselves independent, under the name of the United States of South America, which was afterwards changed into that of the Ar- fentine Republic or United Provinces of the lata. This republic consisted of 14 states or provinces. (See Buenos J3i/res). UNITED STATES OF MEXICO, or United Mexican States. The Mexican confederacy, or, as it is generally called, Mexico, is bounded on the north by the United States ; east by the Uni- ted States and the Gulf of Mexico ; south by the Republic of Central America, and west by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from Lat. 16° to 42° UNI 587 UTR N. and from Lon. 87° to 124° W. being about 2,000 miles in length from N. to S., and from 150 to 1,200 in breadth, with an area estimated at about 1,600,000 square miles. This confed- eracy consists of 19 states 5 territories and the federal district which contains the capital. The states are subdivided into districts as follows : — States §• Territories, Pop. Capitals. Pop. Chiapas 93,750 Chiapas 3,000 Yucatan 500,000 Merida 10,000 Tabasco 75,000 Tabasco or Her- \ ^ ftn mosa \ ' Oaxaca 600,000 Oaxaca 40,000 Vera Cruz 233,700 Vera Cruz 30,000 Puebla 680,000 Puebla 70,000 Mexico 1,000,000 Tlalpan 6,000 Mechoacan 450,000 Valladolid 25,000 Queretaro 200,000 Queretaro 40,000 Guanaxuato 450,000 Guanaxuato 60,000 Xalisco 800,000 Guadalaxara 60,000 Zacatecas 272,900 Zacatecas 25,000 San Luis Potosi 250,000 San Luis Potosi 40,000 New Leon 100,000 Monterey 15,000 Tamaulipas 150,000 Aguayo 6,000 Cohahuila and Texas 125,000 Monclova 3,000 Chihuahua 112,694 Chihuahua 30,000 Durango 175,000 Durango 25,000 Sonora and ) Cinaloa \ 180,000 Villa Fuerte 4,000 Federal District Mexico 180,000 Territory of j Tlascala small town Tlascala \ of New Mex- ico of Colima ! 150,000 Santa Fe 3,500 150,000 Colima small town of Upper Cali- fornia | 25,000 Monterey 2,500 of Lower Cali- ! 15,000 Loreto fornia i ' This part of North America was discovered by Fernando Cortez, a Spaniard, in 1519. He soon conquered the Aztecs, who were ignorant of the use of fire-arms, and the country became a Spanish province under the name of New Spain. It continued to be governed by a Span- ish viceroy until 1810, when the revolution began ; in 1813 the Mexican provinces declared themselves independent. The war continued with some interruptions and various success, until 1819, when the insurgents were complete- ly reduced. The struggle was renewed a few years afterwards, and Iturbide, a Creole, who had been in the Spanish or royal interest, join- ing the patriots, the latter proved successful. In 1822 Iturbide caused himself to be proclaim- ed emperor, but he was soon after dethroned and banished, and in 1824, a constitution was adopted on the plan of that of the United States. The states of the confederacy, have each a separate government, which manages its in- ternal concerns. The general government is administered by a president, chosen for four years by the legislatures of the states, and a congress, which is composed of a senate and a house of deputies, the former elected by the state legislatures, and the latter by the people, as in the United States. The official style of the republic is the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos). (See Mexico and Cortez). United States of Central America. (See Cen- tral America). URUGUAY. The republic of the Uruguay is bounded on the north and east by Brazil ; south by the Atlantic, and west by the Uru- guay, which divides it from the states of Corri- entes and Entre Rios. It has an area of 80,000 square miles, and a population of 70,000 souls. This territory formerly belonged to the Spanish vice-royalty of the Plata, and was called the Banda Oriental (Eastern Frontier) from its geo- graphical position. It was afterwards claimed by Brazil, but in 1828, after a bloody war be- tween the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans. the two parties agreed to its being erected into an independent state. Monte Video, the capital of the republic, is situated on the Plata, and is regularly built, but the houses are low and the streets are not paved. It has a good harbor, and formerly enjoyed an extensive commerce. The prosperity of the city has been much affected by the wars be- tween the neighboring states, and its population has much diminished. It now contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Maldonado and Colonia, are small towns on the Plata, with good harbors. UTRECHT, a city of the Netherlands, capital of a province of the same name, con- taining 36,000 inhabitants. The treaty of Utrecht was concluded in 1713, between the allies and the French. The first stipulation of this famous treaty was, that Philip, acknow- ledged king of Spain, should renounce all right to the crown of France, the union of two such powerful kingdoms being thought dangerous to the liberties- of Europe. It was agreed that the duke of Berry, Philip's brother, and after him in succession, should also renounce his right to the crown of Spain, in case he became king of France. It was stipulated, that the duke of Savoy should possess the island of Sicily, with the title of king, together with Fenestrelles, and other places on the continent, which increase of dominion was in some measure made out of the spoils of the French monarchy. The VAL 588 VAL Dutch had that barrier granted them, which they so long sought after ; and if the crown of France was deprived of some dominions to en- rich the duke of Savoy, on the other hand the house of Austria was taxed to supply the wants of the Hollanders, who were put in possession of the strongest towns in Flanders. With regard to England, its glory and its interests were se- cured. The fortifications of Dunkirk, a harbor that might be dangerous to their trade in time of war, were ordered to be demolished, and its port destroyed. Spain gave up all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca. France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland : but was left in pos- session of Cape Breton, and the liberty of dry- ing fish upon the shore. Among these articles, glorious to the English nation, their setting free the French Protestants confined in the pri- sons and galleys for their religion, was not the least meritorious. For the emperor, it was stipulated, that he should possess the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands. The king of Prussia was to have Upper Guelders ; and a time was fixed for the emperor's acceding to those articles, as he had for some time obstinately refused to assist at the negotiation. V. VALENCIENNES, a fortified city of France, on the Scheldt, containing 16,918 inhabitants. In 1793, this town formed one of the first ob- jects of attack by the allies, after the defeat of Dumourier. The siege conducted under the command of the duke of York, was long and obstinate, and part of the town was laid in ashes before the capitulation. It was retaken by the French in 1794, escaped attack in the invasion by the allied powers in 1814 and 1815, and was definitively confirmed to France by the treaties of these years. VALENS, Flavius, a son of Gratian, born in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian, took him as his colleague on the throne, and ap- pointed him over the eastern parts of the Roman empire. By perseverance, Valens was enabled to distinguish himself in his wars against the northern barbarians. But his lenity to these savage intruders, proved fatal to the Roman power; and by permitting some of the Goths to settle in the provinces of Thrace, and to have free access to every part of the country, Valens encouraged them to make depredations on his subjects, and to disturb their tranquillity. His eyes were opened too late ; he attempted to repel them, but he failed in the attempt. A bloody battle was fought, in which the barbarians obtained some advantage, and Valens was hur- ried away into a lonely house, which the Goths set on fire. Valens, unable to make his escape, was burnt alive in the 50th year of his age, after a reign of 13 years, A. D. 378. VALENTINIAN I, a son of Gratian, raised to the imperial throne by his merit and valor. He kept the western part of the empire for himself, and appointed over the east, his brother Valens. He gave the most convincing proof of his military valor in the victories which he obtained over the barbarians in the provinces of Gaul, the deserts of Africa, and on the banks of the Rhine and Danube. The insolence of the Quadi he punished with great severity ; and when these desperate and indigent barbarians had deprecated the conqueror's vengeance, Va- lentinian treated them with contempt, and up- braided them with every mark of resentment. While he spoke with such warmth, he broke a blood-vessel, and fell lifeless on the ground. He was conveyed into his palace by his attendants, and soon after died, after suffering the greatest agonies, from violent fits and contortions of his limbs, on the 17th of November, A. D. 375. He was then in the 55th year of his age, and had reigned twelve years. VALENTINIAN II. About six days after the death of Valentinian, his second son, Valen- tinian II, was proclaimed emperor, though only five years old. He succeeded his brother, Gra- tian, A. D. 383, but his youth seemed to favor dissension, and the attempts and the usurpations of rebels. He was robbed of his throne by Max- imus, four years after the death of Gratian ; and in this helpless situation he had recourse to Theo- dosius, who was then emperor of the east. He was successful in his applications ; Maximus was conquered by Theodosius, and Valentinian entered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his benefactor. He was some time after strangled by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called Arbogastes. Valentinian reigned nine years. He was fond of imitating the virtues and exem- plary life of his friend and patron .Theodosius, and if he had lived longer, the Romans might have enjoyed peace and security. VALENTINIAN III, was son of Conslan- tius and Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius the Great, and therefore, as related to the impe- rial family, he was saluted emperor in his youth, and publicly acknowledged as such, at Rome, the 3d of October, A. D. 423, about the 6th year VAL 589 VAN of his age. He was at first governed by his mother, and the intrigues of his generals and courtiers ; and when he came to years of dis- cretion, he disgraced himself by violence, op- pression, and incontinence. He was murdered in the midst of Rome, A. D. 454, in the 3Gth year of his age, and thirty-first of his reign, by Petronius Maximus, to whose wife he had offered violence. VALERIANUS, Publius Licinius, a Roman, proclaimed emperor by the armies in Rheetia, A. D. 254. He took his son Gallienus, as his colleague in the empire, and showed the malevo- lence of his heart by persecuting the Christians whom he had for a while tolerated. He also made war against the Goths and Scythians ; but in an expedition which he undertook against Sapor, king of Persia, his arms were attended with ill success. He was conquered in Meso- potamia, and when he wished to have a private conference with Sapor, the conqueror seized his person, carried him in triumph to his capital, and exposed him in all the cities of his empire, to the ridicule and insolence of his subjects. When the Persian monarch mounted on horse- back, Valerian served as a footstool, and the many other insults which he suffered, excited indignation even among the courtiers of Sapor. The monarch, at last, ordered him to be flayed alive, and salt to be thrown over his mangled body, so that he died in the greatest torments. His skin was tanned, and painted in red ; and that the ignominy of the Roman empire might be lasting, it was nailed in one of the temples of Persia. V r alerian died in the 71st year of his age, A. I). 260, after a reign of seven years. VALERIUS, Publius. a celebrated Roman, surnamed Poplicola, from his popularity. He was very active in assisting Brutus to expel the Tarquins, and he was the first that took an oath to support the liberty and independence of his country. He was honored with the consul- ship, on the expulsion of Collatinus, and he triumphed over the Etrurians, after he had gained the victory in the battle in which Brutus and the sons of Tarquin had fallen. Valerius died after he had been four times consul, and enjoyed the popularity, and received the thanks and the gratitude, which people redeemed from slavery and oppression usualty pay to their de- liverers. To do him honor, his body was buried at the public expense. The Roman matrons mourned his death a whole year. VALERIUS, Corvinus, a tribune of the sol- diers under Camillus. When the Roman army was challenged by one of the Senones, re- markable for his strength and stature, Valerius undertook to engage him, and obtained an easy victory, by means of a crow that assisted him, and attacked the face of the Gaul, — whence his surname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed over the Etrurians, and the neighboring states that made war against Rome, and was six times hon- ored with the consulship. He died in the 100th year of his age, admired and regretted for many public and private virtues. V ALETTE, John Parisot, the 48th grand Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem. During his reign the knight's galleys took above fifty Turkish ships in less than five years, which so enraged Soliman II, that he resolved to lay siege to Malta, and drive the knights thence. He appointed Mustapha Bassa, general of the land, and Piali Bassa, commander of the sea forces, which set out from Constantinople in April, 1565, and arrived at Navarin, the 11th of May. The fleet consisted of one hundred and fifty galleys, nine men of war, &c. On the 20th of May, the Turks built two forts at the mouth of the port of Malta, and placed fourteen pieces of cannon in them. After a few skir- mishes, they were forced to retire to la Marte, where they encamped the 27th of May ; the Bassa battered the fort of St. Elme, and after five assaults, took the castle on the 23d of June, but with the loss of 4000 of his best men. On the 28th, Mustapha laid siege to the isle of St. Michel, or city of Sengle, and the next day raised his batteries against the borough, which the grand Master had reinforced with 600 men. The Turks continued their batteries, and made a general assault the 21st of August, gained the waft's, and planted seven standards over the gate de Bonne Enseigne : but the knights defeated them with great slaughter. Mustapha made several other efforts, until the 13th of Septem- ber, when forty-nine Christian galleys arrived with succor, and he then embarked with great precipitation and escaped by night. During the sien-e, most of the fortifications were ruined. The Turks lost 20,000 men, and about 0000 Christians died of their wounds. Valette re- built the city, which he called by his own name. He died in 1568. VALMY, a village in the north-east of France, department of the Marne. An action was fought here in September, 1792, between the French and Prussians. Kellerman con- ducted it on the part of the French, and re- ceived from it, at a future date, the title of duke of Vnlmy. VANDALS, The, according to the most YEN 590 VEN credible historians, were originally a Gothic nation, who came out of Scandinavia with the other Goths, and settled in the countries now known by the names of Mecklenburg and Bran- denburg. Afterwards, another colony fixed their habitations in Pomerania; and, in process of time, they extended themselves into Dal- matia, Illyricum, and Dacia. They attacked Greece, whence they went even to Spain ; and from that country, under the famous Genseric, passed over into Africa, where, for some time, they fixed the throne of their power. This prince reduced Carthage, Sardinia, Sicily, and all the islands between Italy and Africa. In 475, Genseric concluded a peace with the em- peror Zeno, whom he compelled to renounce all claim to the provinces of Africa. Justinian afterwards gained a complete victory over the Vandals, and re-united the provinces of Africa to the Greek empire. VANE, Sir Henry, a statesman, was born in Kent, in 1589. In 1639, he was made treasurer of the house-hold, and soon after, principal secretary of state ; but, on joining in the prose- cution of the earl of Strafford, he was removed from all his places. He died in 1054. VANE, Sir Henry, eldest son of the preced- ing, was born in 1612. He became governor of Massachusetts, but his conduct was so fanatical, that the settlement would have been ruined had he not been compelled to quit the country. In 1640 he was elected into parliament, where he was the principal mover of the solemn league and covenant, and also of the self-denying ordi- nance ; but he took no part in the king's trial, and he resisted Cromwell to such a degree, that the usurper sent him to Carisbrooke castle. On the death of Oliver, he labored to institute a perfect commonwealth, but the nation had al- ready suffered too much by such speculations, and the ancient order being restored, he was brought to trial for treason, and condemned to be beheaded, which was put in execution on Tower-hill, June 14, 1662. VARUS, Quintilius, a Roman pro-consul, descended from an illustrious family. He was appointed governor of Syria, and afterwards made commander of the armies in Germany. He was surprised by the enemy, under Armi- nius, a crafty and dissimulating chief, and his army was cut to pieces. When he saw that every thing was lost, he killed himself, A. D. 10, and his example was followed by some of his officers. VENDEE, a department in the west of France. It will be for ever memorable in the history of the French revolution, for the re- sistance made to the republican army in 1793, 1794, and 1795. It was attended for a time with great success, though commenced without any concert with the other royalists of France, and carried on for a season with very limited support from England. La Vendee was also the scene of some sharp fighting in 1815. VENEZUELA, a new republic of South America, bounded north and east by the Carib- bean sea and the Atlantic ocean, south by Brazil, and west by New Granada. The northern part is mountainous, and the climate of the plains hot. The soil produces sugar, coffee, indigo, cotton and tobacco. It was formerly a part of Colombia. VENICE, capital of the government of Venice, in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, is built on small islands, intersected with canals, on which the long, black gondolas are propelled by an oar in the stern. Its public buildings are numerous and splendid, but decayed. The number of inhabitants is 110,000 ; but the former spirit of the place is gone. With respect to the first establishment of the Venetian govern- ment, A. D. 421, it is said, that this multitude of people might have been thought a numerous seminary of philosophers, cultivating the duties of religion and virtue, and enjoying a perfect tranquillity. At this period the government seems to have been consular. It was afterwards changed into the tribunitian form, in 697, in which it continued for nearly three hundred years ; but the tribunes, abusing their power, the ducal government was established. The first doge was Paulatis, who made the nation happy, powerful, and wealthy, and who was succeeded by Marcello, Hypato, Theodato, Galla, Domesco, Monegaria, and Mauritio Gal- baio. During the dogeship of Mauritio, the Venetians declared themselves a free and inde- pendent people, acknowledging neither the eastern nor the western empire. To him suc- ceeded Giovanni and Obelerio, the ninth doge, under whom Venice was besieged and attacked by Pepin, in 764, who, struck with the intrepid- ity of the Venetians, raised the siege, abandoned the enterprise, and concluded a peace with the republic. Under Pietro Tribuno, the seven- teenth doge, in 903, the Huns having defeated Berengarius, entered Italy, and, induced by the wealth of the Venetian republic, resolved to sack and pillage the city. However, the doge was so bravely seconded by his troops, that the barbarians were completely broken and defeated, and the reputation of Venice for arms became famous over the world. Under the government VEN 591 VEN of Ordelapho, the thirty-fourth doge, the Vene- tians subdued Croatia, in consequence of which, the republic assumed the title of lords of Croatia; but the Hungarians entering Dalmatia, in 1089, attacked and defeated the Venetians, and cruelly butchered their wounded and prisoners. Ziani, the thirty-ninth doge, was no sooner elected, than the republic was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from whose persecution the pope Alexander had retired to Venice. However, the doge engaged the enemy at sea, in L173, and took, sunk, and destroyed, forty- eight of their ships, and returned in triumph to Venice. Under the doge-ship of Pietro Grado- nico, the forty-ninth of the Venetian princes, a war took place with the Genoese, in 121)1, who defeated the Venetian fleet at sea, and took Dandolo, the commander, prisoner ; who, in the agony of despair, dashed out his brains against the side of the cabin where he was confined. After Bartolomeo Gradonico, the fifty-third Venetian prince, Andrea Dandolo next succeeded to the ducal chair, and war commenced with Genoa. The two hostile fleets met and engaged on the Sardinian coast, in 1347, and the whole Genoese armament was taken or destroyed, with the exception of the admiral's ship alone. This defeat caused the utmost consternation at Genoa ; and the Geno- ese, in their despair, requested that the duke of Milan would accept of the sovereignty of their dominions. Marino Faliero, the fifty-fifth doge, in 1353, formed the project of restoring the power to the people, through hatred of the nobles; but his design being discovered, he was tried in due form, and after acknowledging his crime, was beheaded in the hall of the great council. Thus the aristocracy of Venice was continued. During the sovereignty of Andrea Contarini, the sixtieth doge, war again occurred with Genoa, in 1378, and an obstinate naval engagement ensued, in which the Genoese were obliged to yield to the bravery of the Venetians, who captured the whole of their fleet. Andrea Contarini was succeeded by Michael Morosini, and, from this period, the meridian power and prosperity of Venice may be dated. During the government of Michael Steno, war was declared against Genoa, in 1403, and a dreadful battle took place between the hostile fleets, in which the Genoese lost seven ships, and nearly three thousand men. Under the government of Thomaso Moncenigo, the Venetians successfully exerted themselves against the Turks in the Morea, and against several petty sovereigns whose states they in- vaded in Dalmatia and Friuli. They also bought Corinth, in addition to Patras and Zara, which they had already purchased. Under Francisco Foscari, the sixty-fifth duke of Venice, in 1423, the Venetians waged war against Milan, Florence, Genoa, or rather against all Italy ; and their general, Carmag- nola, being convicted of a treasonable corres- pondence with the enemy, was beheaded. Foscari ruled the state in peace, and even with applause, during thirty-four years; but, at the expiration of that period, his son hap- pening to die in exile, he became extremely melancholy, and unfit for the discharge of busi- ness. It was therefore determined, by a giunta of twenty-seven senators, that he should vacate the ducal chair, that a new doge should be elected to succeed him, and that a pension and certain honors should be allowed him in his retreat. Foscari died soon after of a broken heart, in consequence of this ungrateful treat- ment. He was succeeded by Pasquil Malipiero, in 1462, and Christophoro Mora, under whose government hostilities were carried on against the Turks in the Morea; but, though the Vene- tians were assisted by an army of crusaders, the war proved unsuccessful. Mora was succeed- ed by Nicolao Trono, Nicola Marcello, Pietro Moncenigo, Andrea Vendramino, and Giovanni Moncenigo, during all of whose reigns a vigor- ous war was carried on with the Turks. After Marco Barbarico, his brother Agostino succeed- ed to the ducal chair, in 1486, during whose sovereignty, Cyprus was annexed to the repub- lic, and the wealth, grandeur, and power of Venice, continued to increase. A league was now formed between the emperor, Spain, the pope, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan, against the king of Fiance. Under the doge- ship of Leonardo Loretano, the league of Cam- bray was formed, in which the pope, king of France, as duke of Milan, the king of Arragon and Naples, the republic of Florence, and the dukes of Ferrara and Savoy, agreed to a parti- tion of the Venetian states. At length, war was declared by France against Venice, in 1508 ; the progress of the confederates was rapid, and the republic was plunged into the deepest distress. However, in 1511, the siege of Padua was raised ; and after some time, a treaty was entered into between the pope and the Venetians, and the league was broken. The next year, the Venetians also took Cremona, Bastia, and Brescia ; the emperor now secretly signed the treaty with them, and Louis offered terms of peace. Upon the death of Louis, in VEN 592 VER 1515, Francis I renewed the treaty with the Venetians ; and the emperor, the pope, Ferdi- nand king of Arragon, the Swiss, and Sforza, entered into another. However, after some advantages gained on each side, peace was re- established. Loretano was succeeded by An- tonio Grimani, Andrea Gritti, Pietro Lando, Francisco Donato, ^Marco Antonio Trevisiano, Francisco Veniero, Lorenzo Priuli, Jeronimo Priuli, and Pietro Loretano, during whose government, in 15G9, Selim, emperor of Con- stantinople, formed designs upon Cyprus. A treaty was soon after formed between Spain, the Pope, and the Venetians. On the death of Loretano, Ludovico Moncenigo, the eighty- fifth doge, succeeded to the government, in 1570. In the following August, the Turkish troops landed without resistance at Port Salina, in Cyprus, of which they at length made them- selves masters. A treaty was set on foot, host- ages were exchanged, and a capitulation was effected on honorable terms. Bragadino, the Venetian commander, after having his ears, nose, and lips cut off, was flayed alive, by order of Mustapha, the Turkish general. The republic of Venice had enjoyed but a short respite from the horrors of war, when it was visited by the pestilence, in 1576, which cut off twenty-two thousand men, thirty thousand women, and eleven thousand children. Mon- cenigo was succeeded by Sebastiano Veniero, Nicola da Ponti, Pasquali Cicogna, Marino Grimani, and Leonardo Denato, during whose government a rupture, and consequent paci- fication, with the pope took place. Leonardo Donato was succeeded by Marcantonio Munio, Giovanni Bembo, Nicolo Donato, and Antonio Priuli, the ninety-fourth doge. Antonio Priuli was succeeded by Francesco Contarino, Giovan- ni Cornaro, Francesco Erizzo, and Francesco Molino, the ninety-ninth doge, during whose government the first siege of Candia took place, and the Venetians gained several naval victories. This was likewise the case during the dogeships of Carlo Contarino, Francesco Cornaro, Bertuccio Valiero, Giovanni Pesaro, and Dominico Contarino, the hundred and fourth doge, during whose government the memorable siege and capture of Candia took place. His successors were Nicolo Secredo, Luigi Contarino, and Marconliniano Guistini- anio, the hundred and seventh doge, during whose government the Morea was subdued by the Venetians, in 1G87. Giustinianio was suc- ceeded by Francesco Morosino, and Sylvestro Valiero, the hundred and ninth doge, in 1098, during whose sovereignty the porte concluded peace with Venice, and left the republic in full possession of all her conquests. Under his suc- cessor, Giovanni Cornaro, war broke out be- tween the republic and the Turks, and was brought to a conclusion by Sebastiano Monce- nigo, who, after the death of Cornaro, in 1725, was rewarded with the ducal crown. He was succeeded by Carlo Razzini, whose successors were Luigi Pisani, Pietro Grimaldi, Francesco Loretano, Marco Foscarini, and Alvisio Monce- nigo. Under the government of Paulo Riniero, the republic engaged in an expensive and un- profitable war with the regency of Tunis, in 1789. Riniero was succeeded in the ducal chair by Luigo Manino, the last doge, during whose government nothing important occurred, till the invasion of Italy by the French. The Venetians, in order to check the progress of the republican forces, put Peschiera into the hands of the imperialists, in 17D6; but Bona- parte quickly becoming master of all Italy, they endeavored to conciliate the favor of France, by warning out of their territories the unfortunate brother of the late king, whom they treated with indignity and insult. At length, the hatred of the Venetians burst forth in the most outrageous manner. On the roads from Mantua to Legnano, and from Cassano to Verona, upwards ot two hundred French were assassinated ; and at Verona all the French in that city were murdered. These and other outrages, of a similar nature, induced Bona- parte to issue a proclamation, in consequence of which the French troops over-ran and sub- jugated, in a few days, all the Venetian domin- ions; and the senate formally submitted to the French commander, in 17i)7, and consented to deliver up those persons who had been instru- mental in the late atrocities. On the 10th of May, the French took possession of the city of Venice, and established a provincial govern- ment on the republican plan. By the treaty of Campo Formio, Venice, with most of its depen- dencies, was ceded to the emperor of Germany; and the treaty of Presburg united it to the king- dom of Italy. After the abdication by Bona- parte of the thrones of France and Italy, Venice was united by the congress of Vienna to the territories of the house of Austria. Thus the ancient republic of Venice, so long mistress of the Adriatic, finally terminated in a complete dependency of Austria, in 1814. VERA CRUZ, a state of the Mexican Con- federacy, bounded east by the Gulf of Mexico, north by the state of Tamaulipas, and west by Puebla, and Mexico. The soil is fertile, but the State is thinly peopled, containing but 233,000 VER 593 VER souls. The climate is unhealthy. The chief productions are tobacco, coffee, cotton, &c. VEllE, Francis, an English general, was the grandson of John Vere,earl of Oxford, and was born in J554. He served first in the Nether- lands, under the earl of Leicester, and next un- der lord Willoughby, who, for his conduct in the defence of Bergen-op-Zoom, conferred on him the honor of knighthood. After this he threw supplies into the town of Berg, on the Rhine, in which hazardous service he received many wounds. In 1591 he took a fort near Zutphen by stratagem, and was chiefly instru- mental in the capture of Deventer. In 1590 he was recalled from the Netherlands, and em- ployed in the expedition against Cadiz, with the title of lord marshal. The last great action of this gallant commander was the defence of Os- tend, where he succeeded in repelling, with a small garrison of twelve hundred men, an army of ten thousand. Sir Francis died Aug. 2d, 1608, and was buried in Westminster abbey. VERE, Sir Horace, Baron of Tilbury, young- er brother of the preceding, was born at Kirby- hall in Essex, in 1565. He served with his brother in the Netherlands, and had a consid- erable share in the victory near Nieuport ; as he afterwards had in the defence of Ostend. In the reign of James 1, he commanded the forces sent to the assistance of the elector Palatine ; on which occasion he effected a memorable re- treat from Spinola, the Spanish general. He was the first person raised to the peerage by Charles I. He died in 1635. VERGENNES, Charles Gravier. count de, an eminent statesman, was born at Dijon in 1717. On the accession of Louis XVI to the throne he was made secretary of state for for- eign affairs. In this situation, he distinguished himself by what he, no doubt, considered a mas- ter-stroke of policy, that of separating England and her colonies ; but in this he only accelera- ted a more fatal blow to his own country. He died at Versailles, Feb. 13, 1787. VERMONT, one of the United States of America, bounded N. by Lower Canada, E. by Connecticut river, separating it from New Hampshire, S. by Massachusetts, and W. by New York. It is 157 miles in length, and the greatest breadth is 90 miles. Pop. 280,657. Counties. Addison, Bennington, Caledo- nia, Chittenden, Essex, Franklin, Grand Isle, Orange, Orleans, Rutland, Washington, Wind- ham, Windsor. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, La- moile, Onion, Otter Creek, Missisque, Deerfield, 38 &c. The Green Mountains extend througli this state. The chief towns are Montpelier, the seat of government, Burlington, Windsor, Brattleuo- rough, Middlebury and Bennington. Vermont university at Burlington, the college at Middle- bury, and a literary, scientific, and military aca- demy at Norwich, are flourishing institutions. Fort Duinmer was built by Massachusetts on Connecticut river in 1724, and in 1731 a fort was built at Crown Point by the French from Canada, within the present limits of Vermont. In 1741 a boundary line was run between Mas- sachusetts and New Hampshire. In 1749, Ben- ning Wentworth, governor of New Hampshire, concluding that the boundary of that colony ex- tended as far west as that of Massachusetts, that is, to within 20 miles of the Hudson, made a grant of a township of land, six miles square, which from his own first name was called Ben- nington. Other grants were subsequently made, and several towns planted on the west side of Connecticut river. In the year 1764 the king annexed the territory west of the Connecticut river to the colony of New York ; the govern- ment of which demanded new grants from the settlers. This was refused : and the next year several of the officers in attempting to exe- cute the judgments of the courts of New York, were resisted and wounded. At the head of this opposition were Ethan Allen and Col. War- ner, men of coolness, and resolution. In 1774 the government of New York passed a law demanding the surrender of all offenders under severe penalties, and offering a bounty of £50 per head, on the apprehension of eight of the most obnoxious settlers. While prepar- ing for civil war, the revolution commenced, the importance of which absorbed all minor con- siderations. In 1777 the Declaration of Inde- pendence having left the settlers in a critical situation, a convention of representatives from the towns on both sides of the mountains, was held at Westminster, and the District was de- clared a free and independent state. It received its name from the French words Vcrd monl, or green mountain, which name had been conferred by Ethan Allen on the mountains, and was af- terwards transferred to the state. In 1790 the dispute between New York and Vermont was adjusted, the latter giving 20,000 dollars for the quit claim of the former. The next year Ver- mont was admitted into the union. The pres- ent constitution was adopted in 1793. VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, was born in Westminster, of a Staffordshire family, Nov. 12, 1684. His father was secretary of VER 594 VIE state to king William, and reluctantly suffered him to enter into the sea service under admiral Hopson. In 1704 he was with sir George Rooke, at the battle of Malaga. After a variety of service under different commanders, he was made vice-admiral of the blue in 1739, and sent with a squadron to Spanish America, where he took Porto Bello, and destroyed the fortifica- tions ; but in 1741, he proved unsuccessful in an attack upon Carthagena. On his return home, he was employed in guarding the coasts of Kent and Sussex during the rebellion ; but Boon after he was superseded, and even struck off the list of admirals for acting in opposition to the ministry. He died Oct. 29, 1757. VERONA, an ancient European city, former- ly belonging to Venice, now to the Austrian Lombardo Venetian kingdom, situated on the Adige, GO miles west of Venice. Population 55,000. Its splendid antique monuments ren- dered it attractive to every scholar. It was taken by Charlemagne in 774 ; became subse- quently a free town ; fell, in the course of time, under the sway of leading families ; and in 1405, was united to the territorial possessions of Ven- ice. It enjoyed peace and tranquillity till the year 170U, when Italy was invaded by the French. It was then added to the kingdom of Italy. In 1814, it again fell into the hands of Austria. VERR.ES, Caius Licinius, a Roman who gov- erned the province of Sicily as praetor. The op- pression and rapine of which he was guilty, while in office, so offended the Sicilians, that they brought an accusation against him before the Roman senate. Cicero undertook the cause of the Sicilians. Verres was defended by Hor- tensius, but as he despaired of the success of his defence, he left Rome without waiting for his sentence, and lived in great affluence in one of the provinces. He was at last killed by the soldiers of Antony the triumvir, about 26 years after his voluntary exile from the capital. VERULAM, an ancient Roman city and colony in Hertfordshire, the royal city of Cas- sibellanus. It was taken by Julius Cassar, 52 years, B. C. in his second expedition into Bri- tain, and under Dioclesian had one famous martyr called Albanus. In 429 a British synod was held here by St. German, bishop of A uxerre in France, against the Pelagians. Soon after it fell into the hands of the Saxons about 4G5, but was re-taken by Uther Pendragon, who be- gan his reign in 408, and reigned 18 years. It was re-taken by the Saxons, and entirely ruined. In 975, Offa, a king of the Mercians, built on the other side of the little river which washed the walls of it, a monastery in honor of St. Al- ban. It became a great town, and is now called St. Albans. King James I revived the memory of this place, when he made sir Francis Bacon, then lord chancellor of England, lord Verulam in 1620. The venerable abbey is esteemed by antiquarians as one of the finest in England. Part of it is, however, in a dilapidated stale, owing to the want of funds for repairs. VESPASIANUS, Titus Flavius, a Roman emperor, descended from an obscure family at Reate. He was honored with the consulship, not so much by the influence of the imperial courtiers, as by his own private merit, and his public services. He accompanied Nero into Greece, but he offended the prince by falling asleep while he repeated one of his poetical compositions. This momentary resentment of the emperor did not prevent Vespasian from being sent to carry on a war against the Jews. His operations were crowned with success; many of the cities of Palestine surrendered, and Vespasian began the siege of Jerusalem. This was, however, achieved by the hands of his son Titus. After the death of Otho, he was induced by his army to become emperor; and he easily overcame Vitellius. The choice of the army was approved by every province of the empire ; but Vespasian did not betray any signs of pride at so sudden and so unexpected an exaltation, and he behaved, when invested with the impe- rial purple, with all the dignity and greatness which became a successor of Augustus. In the beginning of his reign, Vespasian attempted to reform the manners of the Romans, and he took away an appointment which he had a few days before granted to a young nobleman who approached him to return him thanks, all smell- ing of perfumes, and covered with ointment; adding, I had rather you had smelt of garlic. After he had reigned with great popularity for ten years, Vespasian died of a complaint in his bowels, A. D. 79, in the 70th year of his age, to the great grief of all the empire. He was the first of the Roman emperors who was succeeded by his own son on the throne. Vespasian has been admired for his great virtues. VIENNA, one of the oldest cities of Germa- ny, the capital of the Austrian monarchy, situ- ated on the south bank of the Danube, and con- taining 300,000 inhabitants. Its palaces, church- es, charitable and literary institutions, as well as the gayety of its society make it one of the most noted of European cities. Vienna was captured in 1484, by the Hungarians, but after VIL 595 VIL the death of their lung was restored to Austria. In 1529, the Turks destroyed its suburbs. In 1619, the Bohemian insurgents, supported by a party in Austria, penetrated into the city. But the attack most generally known to the readers of history was that of 1683, made by a Turkish army, supported by disaffected chiefs in Hun- gary, but repulsed by Sobieski, king of I'oland. In the present age it was threatened by Bona- parte in 1797, and occupied by him in 1805 and 1809. On both occasions proper discipline was observed by the invaders, and little injury was done. VIENNA, Treaty of, between Austria and France, in 1809. The decisive battle of Wa- gram led to an armistice, which the emperor of Germany was compelled to sue for, and which, after a protracted negotiation, was followed by a treaty of peace. According to the terms of this treaty Austria ceded a great portion of her territory ; agreed to a contribution to indemnify France for the expenses of the war, and acknow- ledged Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. To the king of Bavaria she gave up Saltzburg, and a tract of country along the banks of the Danube, from Passau to Lintz. To the king of Saxony she yielded the whole of western Gallicia. To Russia so much of the eastern part of that pro- vince as contained a population of 40,000 souls. To France she ceded Fiume and Trieste, with the whole of the country south of the Saave, to where that river enters Bosnia. She also gave up the inhabitants of the Tyrol, on condition of their receiving from Bonaparte a full and free pardon. Such was the fatal effects of the battle of Wagram, of which the Austrians gave so fa- vorable an account, and which they claimed as a victory. VILLARS, Louis Hector, duke of, a French general, was born at Moulins, in 1653. Altera variety of services, he gained the battle of Frie- dlingen in 1762 ; for which he was made mar- shal of France. The following year he took the fortress of Kehl, and put an end to the in- surrection in the Cevennes, for which he was created duke of Villars. In 1707 he forced the lines at Stolhoffen ; but in 1709 he lost the bat- tle of Malplaquet, and was wounded. In 1712 he acquired glory by forcing the intrenchments of Denain on the Scheldt, which exploit was succeeded by the capture of Marchiennes, Douay, Bouchain, Landau, and Friburg. The peace of Rastadt followed ; after which marshal Villars was made president of the council of war, and minister of state. In 1733 he com- manded in Italy, with the title of marshal-gen- eral of the French camps and armies. He died at Turin, June 17,1734. V1LLIERS, George, duke of Buckingham, was the son of sir George Villiers, of Brookes- by in Leicestershire, and was born there in 1592. He attracted the notice of James I at the per- formance of the play of Ignoramus, in 1615; soon after which he was successively appointed cup-bearer to the king, gentleman of the bed- chamber, and knight of the garter. He also rose to the rank of marquis, and became lord ad- miral of England, warden of the Cinque Ports, and master of the horse. But in 1623 lie lost the royal favor, in a great degree, by persuading prince Charles to visit the court of Spain, for the purpose of paying his addresses in person to the Infanta. Though Buckingham was created a duke in his absence, it was supposed that if the king had lived, his fall would have been as rapid as his rise. The accession of Charles in 1625 increased the power of the favorite, but it also multiplied his enemies and injured his mas- ter. The nation hated Buckingham, and two parliaments, for impeachinghim , were dissolved. At this period the duke involved the kingdom in a disgraceful war with France, and went himself on an expedition to the Isle of Rhe, where he lost the flower of his army. He then returned to repair his fleet, and was about to sail for Rochelle, when he was assassinated, at Portsmouth, by Felton, a fanatical lieutenant, August 23, 1628. VILLIERS, George, the second duke of Buckingham, was the son of the preceding, and was born in 1627. After studying at Cambridge, he went abroad, and on his return entered into the royal army, for which he was deprived of his estate by the parliament, but recovered a great part of it in 1657, by marrying the daugh- ter of lord Fairfax. At the restoration he was made one of the lords of the bed-chamber, lord- lieutenant of Yorkshire, and master of the horse. Of these honors, however, he was deprived in 1666, for being concerned in a plot to effect a change of government. Notwithstanding this, he recovered the royal favor, and retained it, af- ter perpetrating some shocking crimes ; one of which was the killing lord Shrewsbury in a duel, and debauching his countess; and ano- ther, the hiring of Blood to seize the duke of Ormond in his coach. In 1676, the duke, with the earls of Shaftesbury and Salisbury, and lord Wharton, were sent to the Tower, by order of the house of peers, for contempt. On a petition to the king, however, they were all released. This profligate nobleman died at an obscure VIR 596 VIT house at Kirkby Moorside, of a fever, April 16, 1688. V1MEIRA, a village of Portuguese Estrema- dura, 3 miles from Torres Vedras, and 28 miles N.W. of Lisbon. It is remarkable for a battle be- tween the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French, under Junot, 21st August, 1808. The French commenced the attack on various points with their usual impetuosity, and met with a resistance to which they had long been unaccustomed. The flower of their troops made a charge against general Ferguson's division, who received them with a tremendous volley, which brought them to the bayonet, and in one moment their, front rank fell like grass before the mower's scythe. They gave way, and abandoned six pieces of cannon in their flight. Having failed in their other attacks, they com- menced a retreat, after sustaining a loss of 3000 men, and thirteen pieces of cannon. In this decisive victory not more than half the British army was engaged. VINCENT, Cape St., the south-west point of Portugal, noted for the naval victory gained off it, on the 14th February , 1797, by sir John Jervis. VIRGINIA, one of the U. States, bounded N. and N. E.by Pennsylvania, E. by Maryland and the Atlantic ocean, S. by North Carolina and Tennessee, and W. by Kentucky and Ohio. It contains 1,211,405 inhabitants, of whom 469,759 are slaves. The principal rivers are the Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, York, James, Appomattox, Elizabeth, Staunton, Ken- awha, Ohio, Sandy, and Monongahela. The Blue Ridge extends through the central part of the State from S. W. to N. E. There are other ranges of mountains in the State. Iron, lime- stone, lead, coal, and chalk are found in abun- dance. The chief towns are Richmond, Nor- folk, Petersburg, Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Winchester, Portsmouth, Williamsburg, and Sheperdstown. The university of Virginia is established at Charlottesville, besides which there are several other colleges. Of the earlier occurrences in the history of Virginia we have taken notice in the article United States. Though Charles the Second was highly gratified with a formal act of the Virginia assembly, declaring ; "that they were born under monarchy, and would never degen- erate from the condition of their births, by being subject to any other government;" and though he h id given the fullest assurance that their form of government should never be changed ; none of the colonies suffered more than Vir- ginia from the despotism of a royal government. In violation of chartered rights, the colony was divided into parts, and conveyed away by pro- prietary grants ; not grants of uncultivated woodlands, but of plantations that had long been cultivated according to the encouragement and laws of kings and charters. Col. Nathaniel Bacon, having procured forces under pretext of chastising the hostile Indians, commenced a civil war, in the course of which great outrages were committed and Jamestown was burned. This rebellion forms a remarka- ble era in the history of Virginia. The death of Bacon was followed by the dispersion of his followers. In 1712 Virginia was divided into 49 parishes, and an act was passed determining the salary of each clergyman. The next year, Col. Alexander Spottswood, lieutenant governor of Virginia, made the first discovery of the pas- sage over the Appalachian mountains. The constitution of Virginia was adopted the day after the Declaration of Independence, but was recently revised and amended. Four presidents of the United States have been Virginians. VIRGINIA, a Roman maiden, whom her •father, the centurion Virginius slew, when he found that he could in no other way, preserve her from the dishonorable designs of the decem- vir, Appius Claudius. The Roman people, rous- ed by the injustice of the decemvir, abolished the decemvirate and Appius put an end to his own life. VITELLIUS Aulus, a Roman raised by his vices to the throne. He was descended from one of the most illustrious families of Rome, and as such he gained an easy admission to the pal- ace of the emperors. He passed through all the offices of the state, and gained over the soldiery by donations and liberal promises. He was at the head of the Roman legions in Germany when Otho was proclaimed emperor, and the exaltation of his rival was no sooner heard in the camp, than he was likewise invested with the purple by his soldiers. He accepted with pleasure the dangerous office, and instantly marched against Otho. Three battles were fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. A fourth, however, in the plains between Mantua and Cremona, left him master of the field, and of the Roman empire. He feasted his. eyes in viewing the bodies of the slain and the ground covered with blood, and regardless of the insa- lubrity of the air, proceeding from so many car- casses, he told his attendants that the smell of a dead enemy was always sweet. His first care was not like that of a true conqueror, to allevi- ate the distresses of the conquered, or patronise VIT 597 VOR the friends of the dead, but it v.- as to insult their misfortunes, and to intoxicate himself with the companions of his debauchery in the field of battle. Each successive day exhibited a scene of greater extravagance, which, though it de- lighted his favorites, soon raised the indignation of the people. Vespasian was proclaimed em- peror by the army, and his minister Primus was sent to destroy the imperial glutton. Vitellius concealed himself under the bed of the porter of his palace, but this obscure retreat betrayed him, he was dragged naked through the streets, his hands were tied behind his back, and a drawn sword was placed under his chin to make him lift his head. After suffering the greatest insults from the populace, he was at last carried to the place of execution, and put to death with repeated blows. His head was cut off and fixed to a pole, and his mutilated body dragged with a hook and thrown into the Tiber, A. D. 69, af- ter a reign of one year, except twelve days. VITTORIA, battle of, was fought on the 21st of Juae, 1813, between the army of lord Well- ington, and that of the French generalJourdan, in which the latter was defeated. On the 19th, the French rear-guard was driven back toward Vittoria ; and on the 21st a general engagement took place, in which the French forces, com- manded by Joseph Bonaparte, having marshal Jourdan as his major-general, were so com- pletely defeated, that they were under the ne- cessity of abandoning all their artillery, ammu- nition, baggage, and cattle. One hundred and fifty-one pieces of cannon, and four hundred and fifteen ammunition wagons were taken on the field ; and among the trophies was the baton of marshal Jourdan. The loss of the allies was about seven hundred killed, and four thousand wounded, but that of the French was considera- bly greater. The operations commenced with a successful movement of sir Rowland Hill, to obtain the heights of Puebla, which the enemy had neglected to strengthen, and which they made strenuous but fruitless efforts to retake. Under cover of these heights, general Hill pass- ed the Zadora at La Puebla, and took a village in front of the enemy's line. The fourth and light division passed the Zadora immediately after general Hill had occupied the village Sa- bijana ; and almost as soon as these divisions had crossed, the earl of Dalhousie's column ar- rived at Mendonza ; and the third division, un- der sir Thomas Picton, crossed the bridge high- er up, followed by the 7th division. These four divisions, forming the centre of the army, were destined to attack the right of the enemy's cen- tre, while general Hill moved forward to attack the left. The enemy abandoned iiis position in the valley, and retreated in good order towards Vittoria, but was soon obliged to leave the whole artillery, ammunition, and baggage to the con- querors. VOLSCI,or Volci,a people of Latium, whose territories were bounded on the south by the Tyrrhene sea, north, by the country of the Her- nici and Marsi, west, by the Latins and llutu- lians, and east, by Campania. Their chief cities were Antium, Circeii, Anxur, Corioli, Fregellse, Arpinum, &c. Ancus, king of Rome, made war against them ; and in the time of the republic they became formidable enemies, till they were at last conquered with the rest of the Latins. VORTIGERN, the chief of Britain, upon the Romans quilting that island, about 447. The Britons being threatened with an invasion from the Scots and Picts, they addressed him from all parts for relief, and at last made him summoma general council of the nation, to pro- vide against their approaching ruin. King Vor- tigern, in the name of all the Britains, sent am- bassadors to the Saxons, who, having first con- sulted their gods, readily complied with his de- sire. All things being fairly agreed on, and the isle of Thanetin Kent bestowed upon them, for their encouragement, they landed in the island in 450, under the command of Hengist and Horsa, who shortly after encountered the Picts, then advanced as far as Stamford in Lin- colnshire, and put them to flight. Thus the Britons, under king Vortigern, defeated the Picts, by the help of the Saxons. They soon quarrelled with the Britons, and wars ensued, which ended at last in the total overthrow and ruin of the natives. Vortigern now retired into Wales, and built a strong castle in Radnorshire. His son Vortimer reigned in his stead, who bore a strong hand against the Saxons ; but lie dying before his father, Vortigern resumed the gov- ernment. He had two wives ; one of them daughter of Hengist. On being restored to the crown, he was disposed to conclude a new trea- ty with his father-in-law ; and both parties met without weapons. But Hengist's design being to murder, he ordered his men to be secretly armed, and gave them the watchword for execu- tion ; so that a quarrel being designedly raised, his men, upon the signal, stabbed each his next man ; and no less than 300 perished by this treachery. They spared the life of Vortigern, but they kept him in custody till he granted Hengist, for his ransom, those provinces which WAG 598 WAL were afterwards called Essex, Sussex, and Middlesex. W WAGRAM, battle of, fought between the French and Austrians, in 1809. By the 4th of July, the French had completed the new bridge from the Isle of Lobau across a branch of the Danube, in which they were much favor- ed both by the ground and by an immense number of artillery. The Austrian army was drawn up on the eminence behind the river Russ, extending its right wing beyond Susses- brunn and Kagrau, and its left beyond Mark- grafen Neusiedel. The centre was posted near Wagram. The French, in the night between the 4th and 5th, crossed over to the left bank of the Danube, and large masses appeared very early in the morning in the plain. Not long before noon they attacked the line of the Aus- trian army on all ito points ; but their greatest exertions were directed against the centre, pro- bably with a view of forcing it. These attacks, though repeated with the greatest impetuosity, and supported by an immense train of artil- lery, among which were many batteries of the heaviest calibre, proved this day abortive. The firing ceased at ten o'clock at night. The Aus- trian army had, on the whole of its line, main- tained its positions, and made a considerable number of prisoners, among whom were many Saxon, Badenese, Italian, and Portuguese sol- diers. On the (3th, in the morning, at four o'clock, the French renewed their attacks with still larger masses, and greater impetuosity than on the preceding day. Even thus their efforts against the centre and the right wing were at- tended with so little success, and the latter had even gained such advantages as to justify the expectation of the completest victory, when the French, with fresh divisions, and great superi- ority, suddenly penetrated the left wing, near Markgrafen Neusiedel, and succeeded, after an obstinate engagement, in compelling it to re- treat. One of the wings of the Austrian army being thereby exposed, the archduke Charles directed the army to retreat by the way of Siammersdorf and the Bisamhill ; in conse- quence of which, the army now occupied a new position, covering the communication with Bohemia. This retreat was made in good order, and without material loss. In the cen- tre, as well as in the right wing, the French suffered very considerably, 6000 prisoners were taken from them, among whom were three generals. They likewise lost twelve cannon, with ammunition, and were in every respect so much weakened, that they did not attempt to pursue the Austrian army any farther. Gen- eral Lasalle was amongst the dead. Though the preceding account of this battle, given offi- cially by the Austrians, may appear in some degree of a favorable nature, yet the results were very humiliating to Austria. WALCHEREN, an island of the Nether- lands. With a view to occasion a diversion on behalf of the Austrians, and also to attempt the capture or destruction of the French ves- sels lying in the Scheldt, a British army of fifty thousand men was landed in 180!', on the island of Walcheren ; but a considerable time having elapsed prior to the reduction of Flush- ing, the enemy collected a numerous force, raised several formidable batteries, and convey- ed their ships up the river, beyond fort Lillo. That part of the country also, where the Eng- lish might have landed, was completely inun- dated. Walcheren, the only fruit of this ex- pensive and unfortunate expedition, was to have been retained by the conquerors, for the purpose of shutting up the mouth of the Scheldt, and of facilitating the introduction of British manufac- tures into Holland. This design, however, was rendered abortive by the unhealthiness of the climate ; and after great numbers of the troops had fallen a sacrifice, the British army evacuated the island on the 9th of December, having previously destroyed the fortifications, arsenal, docks, and basin. Some old fhips filled with stores were also sunk at the entrance of the Scheldt, to preclude an escape of the French fleet, from the place of its retreat. WALES, a principality in the west of Great Britain from 130 to 180 miles long, and from 50 to 80 broad, with an area of 8125 square miles, and 805,236 inhabitants. It is very mountain- ous. The ancient history of Wales is uncer- tain, on account of the number of petty princes who governed it. It was formerly inhabited by three different tribes of the Britons; the Si- lures, the DimetBB, and the Ordo vices. These people do not appear ever to have been entirely subdued by the Romans; though part of their country, as appears from the ruins of castles, was bridled by garrisons. Though the Saxons conquered the counties of Monmouth and Here- ford, yet they never penetrated farther, and the Welsh remained an independent people, gov- erned by their own princes and their own laws. About the year 870, Roderic, king of Wales, divided his dominions among his three sons; WAL 599 WAL and the names of these divisions were, Demetia, or South Wales; Povesia, or Powis land ; and Venedotia, or North Wales. This division gave a mortal blow to the independency of Wales. About the year 1112, Henry I of Eng- land planted a colony of Flemings on the fron- tiers of Wales, to serve as a barrier to England, none of the Welsh princes being powerful enough to oppose them. They made, however, many vigorous and brave attempts against the Norman kings of England, to maintain their liberties. In 1237, the crown of England was first supplied with a handle for the future con- quest of Wales ; their old and infirm prince Llewellin, having put himself under subjection and homage to king Henry III. But no capitu- lation could satisfy the ambition of Edward I, who resolved to annex Wales to the crown of England ; and Llewellin, prince of Wales, dis- daining the subjection to which old Llewellin had submitted, was opposed by the army of Edward, which penetrated as far as Flint, and taking possession of the isle of Anglesey, drove the Welsh to the mountains of Snowdon, and obliged them to submit to pay a tribute. The Welsh, however, made several efforts under young Llewellin; but at last, in 1285, he was killed in battle. He was succeeded by his brother David, the last independent prince of Wales, who, falling into Edward's hands through treachery, was by him most barbarously and unjustly hanged ; and Edward, from that time, pretended that Wales was annexed to the crown of England. It was about this time, probably, that Edward perpetrated the inhuman massacre of the Welsh bards. Perceiving that his cru- elty was not sufficient to complete his conquest, he sent his queen to be delivered in Caernarvon castle, that the Welsh, having a prince born among themselves, might the more readily re- cognise his authority. This prince was the unhappy Edward II, and from him the title of prince of Wales has always since descended to the eldest sons of the English kings. WALL OF CHINA. One of the greatest curiosities of the artificial kind which China affords, and which may be reckoned one of the most astonishing remains of antiquity now in the world, is that prodigious wall which was built by the Chinese, to prevent the frequent incursions of the Tartars. This wall, Du Halde informs us, is higher and broader than the com- mon walls of the cities of China, being about 25 feet in height and broad enough for six hoise- men to ride abreast upon the top of it, and is fortified all along with strong square towers, at distances of about 200 paces, to the nuni!;,r of 3D00, which, in the time of the Chinese m an- archs, before the Tartars subdued the country. were guarded by a mil!. an of soldiers. It Ira- verses high mountains, deep valleys, and, by means of arches, wide rivers, from the province of Shen Si to Wanghay or the Yellow sea, a distance of 1500 miles. The foundation and corners are of granite, but the principal part is of blue bricks, cemented with pure white mor- tar, and although it has now stood above 2000 years, exposed to all winds and weathers, it is very little decayed, and the terrace on the top seems still as firm as ever. This amazing wall was built by the emperor Chiholamt, according to some authors, above 200 years before the birth of our Saviour ; and though of such stu- pendous length and bulk, and carried over moun- tains and valleys, it was completed in five years, if we may credit the Chinese tradition. WALLACE, Sir William, and BRUCE, Robert, were two distinguished heroes in Scot- tish history, who achieved the independence of their country in opposition to the unprincipled invasion of Edward I and II of England. Sir William Wallace was the son of a small land- holder, who possessed the estate of Ellerslie. near Paisley. It is probable that he had not greatly exceeded the age of opening manhood, at the time when his country was subdued by the English. Many of his first deeds of hero- ism, although imperfectly commemorated, in the rude and often doubtful tale of Henry, the blind minstrel, have unluckily been preserved by no records upon the evidence of which they might be received into the pages of authentic history. Within less than a year after the con- quest of Edward, when the whole country seemed to have acquiesced in his fate, he un- dertook the desperate enterprise of bteaking her fetters, and by the success of his enterprises, made himself known so advantageously to his countrymen, that he was joined by many who wore desirous to partake of his renown ; amongst the rest, by sir William Douglas, and some others of considerable rank. In May, 1207, he led his followers to attack Ormesby,the English justiciary, who was holding his court at Scone. Ormesby, with difficulty, made his escape into England, and the other officers followed his ex- ample. From the north-east, Wallace passed into the west, where his glory, and hatred of the English, procured him many adherents, amongst others, Robert Bruce, the grandson of him who had been competitor with Baliol for the crown. King Edward was then abroad, WAL 600 WAL carrying on war in Guienne: but Warrene, who had been left governor of Scotland, col- lecting an army of forty thousand men, and determined to re-establish his authority, sent i hem forward, under the command of sir Henry Piercy and sir Robert Clifford. When the English army came up, many of the adherents of Wallace made submissions; but he himself, with his chosen followers, retired into the north. Finding his forces increasing, he laid siege to Dundee, which he relinquished on hearing of the approach of the English army to the Forth, and hastened to oppose their passage, which they attempted at the bridge of Stirling. The English, under Cressingham, first crossed the river, when Wallace attacked them, and put them to the sword or drove them into the stream. Those on the other side, burning their tents and leaving their baggage, fled to Ber- wick. Wallace having gained this victory, hastened back to Dundee, which now surren- dered at his approach. He was then chosen regent by his followers, and all Scotland was cleared of the English. King Edward, return- ing from France, led a powerful army into Scotland, and advanced to Falkirk. Bruce was now serving in the Scottish army, and was not, as has been fabulously stated, in the army of Edward. Both armies engaged at Falkirk, July 22, 1298, and the English gained the vic- tory, from their superiority of numbers and mil- itary skill, and the dissensions of their oppo- nents. Wallace, seeing all hope lost, rallied the broken remnants of his forces, and retreated beyond the Forth. All Scotland submitted to Edward ; but the dauntless spirit of Wallace never would surrender his country's indepen- dence. Whether he went abroad for a short time to France, or wandered in the fastnesses of the Highlands, cannot be certainly known; but in 1304, he was in Scotland, and Edward could never believe he had secure possession till Wallace was in his power. This was ef- fected by the treachery of sir John Monteith ; and Wallace vvas conducted to London, ar- raigned, and tried as a traitor, and condemned, as guilty of high treason against Edward, al- though he had never acknowledged him as his king, nor owed him allegiance. Wallace, still undaunted, during and after his trial, asserted the rights of his country, and bore his fate, which was inflicted with every circumstance of ignominy and cruelty, with the magnanimity with which he had lived. His head was placed on London-bridge, and his mangled limbs were distributed over the kingdom. It was reserved for Robert Bruce to accomplish what Wallace had so nobly attempted. In his youth he had acted upon apparently no regular plan ; and although he had at times served against Ed- ward, when the Scottish forces were able to make a successful resistance, he soon made submissions after their defeat, and thus avoided drawing down upon himself the implacable re- sentment of Edward. He appeared to have stifled his pretensions to the crown ; but imme- diately after the death of Wallace he determin- ed at once to assert his own rights and his country's independence. Arriving at Dum- fries, from England, in February, 1306, he had a quarrel with Comyn, of Badenoch, and stabbed him in the church of the Minorites, because he opposed his views. He now claimed the crown ; and resentment of the treachery of Edward, and of the death of Wallace, procured him nu- merous followers. He was accordingly crowned king of Scotland, at Scone, on the 25th of March, the same year. An army, sent by king Edward, soon arrived at Perth; and in a battle fought on the 19th of June, Bruce was defeated. He took refuge at Aberdeen, and afterwards went towards Argyle, and was so hard pressed by the English and their adherents, that he re- tired to the island of Rachrin, in the north of Ireland, and was supposed to be dead ; but early in the next spring, he again displayed his ban- ner in the west of Scotland, anil gained many advantages over the English, of which, the vic- tory at Loudon-hill was the most remarkable ; whilst his brother, sir Edward, and sir James Douglas, were equally active and successful. Bruce came north in the end of the same year, and on account of the unfavorable state of his health, which had been injured by unceasing hardships and privations, he remained some time inactive. On the 22d of May, 1308, he gained the battle of Inverary, over the earl of Buchan and sir John Mowbray, which was the commencement of a career of success, which established him as king of Scotland. The whole of the fortresses of the kingdom were recovered, excepting Stirling, which was be- leagured by his brother Edward, who entered into a treaty with the governor, by which it was agreed that it should be surrendered if not relieved before the 24th of June, 1314. This led to the attempt of Edward II to relieve it by a powerful army, and brought on the battle of Bannockburn. Bruce 's army consisted of thirty thousand veterans, distinguished by their valor, the skill of their leaders, and animated by every motive which can promote heroic enterprise. WAL 601 WAR He drew them up with a hill on his right flank, and a morass on his left, to prevent being sur- rounded by the numerous army of Edward. Having a rivulet in front, he commanded deep pits to be dug along its banks, and sharp stakes to be planted in them, and caused the whole to be carefully covered with turf. The English arrived in the evening, when Bruce was riding in the front of his army. Sir Henry Bohun, who rode up to charge him with his spear, was brought to the ground by his battleaxe. Early next morning the action commenced. Sir Rob- ert Keith, at the head of the men-at-arms, de- stroyed the English archers. The English horse, under the earl of Gloucester, rushing on to the charge, fell into the pits Bruce had pre- pared for them. Sir James Douglas, who com- manded the Scottish cavalry, gave them no time to rally, but pushed them off* the field. Whilst the infantrj' continued the fight, dis- couraged by these unfavorable events, they were thrown into a panic by the appearance of what they supposed another army advancing to surround them. This was a number of wag- oners and sumpter boys, whom king Robert had collected and supplied with military stand- ards, which gave them the appearance of an army at a distance. The stratagem was decis- ive, and an universal rout and immense slaugh- ter ensued. This great and decisive battle se- cured the independence of Scotland, and fixed Bruce on the throne. He afterwards invaded England, and laid waste the northern counties. He also led an expedition into Ireland, in sup- port of his brother Edward, who had been crowned king of that country, in the course of which he gained several victories. Peace was at last concluded between England and Scot- land, at Northampton, in 1323, and on tin 1 7th of June, 1329, king Robert died, in the fifty- fifth year of his age, and was buried at Dum- fermline, where his tomb has lately been dis- covered. His heroic enterprises have been cel- ebrated by Barbour, who wrote his poetical his- tory in 1375, and have recently been the subject of one of the poems of sir Walter Sc6tt. His grand-daughter was the wife of Robert the sec- ond, the first king of the house of Stuart, and from the issue of that marriage the present roy- al family is descended. WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, was born in 1676. In 1700 he married the daughter of sir John Shorter, and soon after became member for Castle Rising ; but in 1702 he was chosen for King's Lynn, which he represented in several parliaments. In 1708 he was made secretary at war, and the year following trea- surer of the navy. He was one of the managers' of the trial of Sacheverel ; but on the change of ministry, was committed to the Tower, and expelled the house, for breach of trust and cor- ruption. The borough of Lynn, however, re- elected him, and he took an active part against ministers during the remainder of queen Ann's reign. Early in that of George I he became prime minister, but some difference arising be- tween him and his colleagues, he resigned, ana joined the opposition. In 1720, he accepted the paymastership of the forces, and not long after was appointed first lord of the treasury, and chancellor of the exchequer. In 1723, he was sworn sole secretary of state. In 1725, he received the Order of the Bath ; and the year following that of the Garter. He continued in power, though assailed by powerful enemies, till 1742, when he resigned, and was created eaxl of Orford. He died in 1745. His brother, Horatio Walpole, lord Walpole, was born in 1678. He filled several offices under govern- ment, and in 1756, was created a peer, but died the year following. WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, a statesman, was born in 1536, at Chiselhurst, in Kent. In 1573, he was appointed one of the secretaries of state, and knighted. In 1583 he went on an embassy to James, king of Scotland, and three years afterwards sat as one of the commissioners on the trial of that monarch's unfortunate mo- ther. Sir Francis was next made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster ; and he was also hon- ored with the Order of the Garter. But with all these distinctions and services he died poor, April 6, 1590, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. WALTON, George, a signer of the Decla- ration of Independence, was born in Frederic county, Virginia, about the year 1740. He re- moved to Georgia, studied law, and was admit- ted to the bar in 1774. He took a prominent part in the affairs of the revolution, and was wounded in the defence of Savannah. He was twice chosen governor of the state, held a seat in the senate of the United Slates, and filled a judicial station for several years. He died Feb. 2. 1*04. WARBECK, Perkin, a renegado Jew of Tournay, who was persuaded to personate the duke of York, in the reign of Henry VII. His cause was warmly espoused by several men of rank, all of whom were arraigned and tried for high treason, and three were executed. His followers, at one period, amounted to 7000; but 2b AVAR 602 WAS after a series of disastrous adventures, he was induced by Henry to surrender himself, and confess the whole of the imposture, on promise of pardon. After attempting once or twice to escape from custody, he was hanged at Tyburn, and several of his adherents suffered the same ignominious death. WARD, Artemas, a major-general in the American army, who commanded at Cambridge when Washington arrived. In 1786 he was speaker of the house of representatives of Mas- sachusetts, and was afterwards elected to Con- gress. He died Oct. 28, 1800. WARREN, Joseph, a major-general in the American army, was born at Roxbury, Massa- chusetts, in 1740, and graduated at Harvard Uni- versity in 1759. Having studied medicine he commenced the practice of it in Boston with great success. Four days before the battle of Bunker-hill he received his military command, and on the retreat from the redoubt, was shot in the trenches, and expired at the age of thirty- five. WARSAW, capital of the kingdom of Po- land, on the west bank of the Vistula, contained, in 1830, 140,000 inhabitants, but owing to the siege of Warsaw in 1831, and the subsequent banishment of many of its patriotic citizens, its population is at present reduced to about 60,000. In the war with the Swedes, in the middle of the seventeenth century, Warsaw was occupied by these invaders, who made it the depot of their spoils. When Charles XII advanced, at a subsequent period, to Warsaw, it surrendered to him without opposition. It was defended by Kosciusko against the Prussians, in 1794, who were obliged to raise the siege. Warsaw at length submitted to Suwarrow and the Rus- sians. On the final paitition of Poland, in 1795, this part of the country fell to the share of Prus- sia, and Warsaw had no other rank than that of a capital of a province, until the end of 1806, when the overthrow of the power of Prussia led to the formation, by Bonaparte, of the inde- pendent state, called the Duchy of Warsaw. WARWICK, earl of, known by the appella- tion of the king-maker, was one of the most celebrated generals of his age. He put himself at the head of the Yorkists, and gave battle to the Lancasterians at St. Albans, in which he was defeated, in 1461 . He afterwards harangued the citizens of London, assembled in St. John's Fields, setting forth the title of Edward, the eldest son of the duke of York, and inveighing against the tyranny and usurpation of the house of Lancaster. After the decisive battle of Tou- ton, and Edward was safely fixed on the throne, Warwick advised him to marry, and with his consent went over to France, to procure Bona of Savoy as queen. But while the earl was hastening the negotiation in France, the king married Elizabeth Woodville. Having thus given Warwick real cause of offence, he widen- ed the breach, by driving him from the council. Warwick, whose prudence was equal to his bravery, soon made use of both to assist his re- venge ; and formed such a combination against Edward, that he was, in turn, obliged to fly the kingdom, and king Henry was released from prison, to be placed upon a dangerous throne. A parliament was called, which confirmed Hen- ry's title, with great solemnity, and Warwick was himself received among the people, under the title of the king-maker. Edward, how- ever, did not long remain abroad ; and, having made a descent at Ravenspur,in Yorkshire, he proceeded with an increasing army towards London. Nothing now, therefore, remained to Warwick, but to cut short a state of anxious suspense, by hazarding a battle. Edward's for- tune prevailed. They met at Barnet, and the Lancasterians were defeated, while Warwick himself, leading a chosen body of troops into the thickest of the fight, fell in the midst of his enemies, covered with wounds. WASHINGTON, capital of the United States, in the District of Columbia, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac, and contains 18,827 inhabitants. Its natural situation is plea- sant and healthy, and it is laid out on a plan, which, when completed, will render it one of the handsomest and most commodious cities in the world. Among the public edifices of the city are the Capitol, the President's House, the General Post Office, and four buildings for the executive departments of the national govern- ment. Columbian college is pleasantly situated a mile north of the President's house. The District of Columbia, in which Washington is situated, was ceded to the government by the states of Maryland and Virginia, and it became the seat of government in 1800. WASHINGTON, George, the third son of Augustine Washington, was born Feb. 22, 1732, on the banks of the Potomac, in the county of Westmoreland, Virginia. His father died when he was but 10 years old, and the care of his education devolved upon his mother. That a mother should love such a son as George proved himself to be, and that a son should love such a mother as Mrs. Washington certainly was, is not at all surprising. From his earliest days she had exerted her whole influence to imbue him with a love of" whatever was lovely and of good WAS 603 WAS report," and her exertions had not been in vain. How well he repaid her for her care, may be .seen in the following story. When about four- teen years of age he became strongly inclined to go to sea, with a view of enlisting in the service of the mother country, at that time en- gaged in a war with France and Spain. It was surprising that a youth so young, and who had been abroad so little, should have had the moral courage to quit country and friends on a purpose so full of danger. But so it was. He was resolved to go. Preparation had been made. A midshipman's birth had been pro- cured for him on board a British man-of-war, then lying in sight of his mother's house ; and even his trunk was on board. When the pre- cise time arrived that he was to go, he passed into the sitting-room of his mother, to take leave of her. She was sitting in tears. He approach- ed her, and putting his arms about her neck, affectionately kissed her. He was about to bid her " farewell;" but he hesitated. Her affec- tion and affliction unmanned him. He was young and ambitious ; and at that early day the spirit of patriotism, which so nobly characterised him in after life, in respect to his country, was stirring within him. Yet, the feelings of his heart were stronger than any other ties ; and here, nobly sacrificing his pride and ambition, he relinquished his purpose, and stayed to com- fort her who gave him birth. His elder brother having married a connexion of lord Fairfax, his lordship gave George Wash- ington, in his eighteenth year, the appointment of surveyor. In 1751 he was appointed one of the adjutant-generals of Virginia, with the rank of major. Soon afterwards he was sent by the governor of Virginia to carry a letter to the French commander on the Ohio, forbidding his encroachment on the lands belonging to Vir- ginia. The journey was about 400 miles, 200 of which lay through a trackless wilderness, inhabited by Indians. He left Williamsburg on the 31st of October, and delivered his letter on the 12th of December. Having received an answer he set out immediately on his return which proved dangerous and toilsome. The following is his own account of it : " As I was uneasy to get back, to make are- port of my proceeding to his honor the gov- ernor, I determined to prosecute my journey the nearest way, through the woods, and on foot. I took my necessary papers, pulled off my clothes, and tied myself up in a watch-coat. Then, with a gun in my hand, and pack on my back, in which were my papers and provisions, I set out with Mr. Gist, fitted in the same man- ner. We fell in with a party of Indians, who had lain in wait for us. One of them fired not fifteen steps off, but fortunately missed; we walked on the remaining part of the night, without making any stop, that we might get the start so far as to be out of the reach of their pur- suit the next day, as we were well assured that they would follow our track as soon as it was light. The next day we continued travelling until quite dark and got to the river. We ex- pected to have found the river frozen, but it was not more than fifty yards from each shore. The ice, I suppose, had been broken up, for it was ■driving in vast quantities. There was no way of getting over but on a raft, which we set about making with one poor hatchet, and fin- ished just after sun-setting: this was one day's work. We got it launched, then went on board of it, and set off ; but before we were half way over, we were jammed in the ice, in such a manner that we expected every moment our raft to sink and ourselves to perish. I put out my setting pole to endeavor to stop the raft, that the ice might pass by, when the rapidity of the stream threw it with so much violence against the pole, that it jerked me out into ten feet wa- ter." At length, on the 16th of January, he arrived at Williamsburg ; and delivered the im- portant letter to the governor. Having been appointed Colonel of a regiment raised to defend the rights of the colonists against the encroachments of the French, Wash- ington distinguished himself greatly by his de- fence of Fort Necessity, although he was finally forced to capitulate. Having resigned his com- mission, he retired in 175-1, to Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, a country-seat which had been bequeathed him by his brother. In 1755 he ac- cepted the invitation of general Braddock to enter his family as a volunteer aid-de-camp, and accompanied him in the memorable and unfor- tunate expedition to the Ohio, the result of which would probably have been very different from what it was, had Braddock followed the prudent advice of his aid. When the troops fell into the Indian ambuscade, the officers were singled out by their savage foes and deliberate- ly shot, Washington being the only aid that was unwounded, and on him devolved the whole duty of carrying the orders of the commander- in-chief. Though he had two horses killed under him, ana four balls through his coat, he escaped unhurt, while every other officer on horseback was either killed or wounded. Dr. Craik, the physician who attended him in his WAS 604 WAS last sickness, was present at this battle, and says, " I expected every moment to see him fall. Nothing but the superintending care of Providence could have saved him from the fate of all around him." After an action of three hours, the troops gave way in all directions, and Col. Washington and two others brought offBraddock who had been mortally wounded. Washington attempted to rally the retreating troops ; but, as he said him- self, it was like attempting to stop the wild bears of the mountains. The conduct of the regular troops was most cowardly. The enemy were few in numbers, and had no expectation of victory. The preservation of Washington during this battle was almost miraculous. He was exposed more than any other officer, and was particularly the object of savage attacks on account of his superior bravery. After the defeat, a famous Indian warrior, who acted a distinguished part in that bloody tragedy, was heard to say that Washington was never born to be killed by a bullet; " for," said he, " I had seventeen fair shots at him with my rifle, and yet I could not bring him to the ground." After the expulsion of the French from Ohio, and the cessation of hostilities on the part of the Indians, Washington retired to his farm, and soon after married Mrs. Custis, a lady of large fortune, and many accomplishments. He continued to be an active member of the gene- ral assembly, and on the approach of hostilities with Great Britain, was chosen to the first Con- gress. On the 14th of June, 1775, he was cho- sen commander-in-chief of the armies of the United Colonies. He repaired immediately to the head-quarters of the American army at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, and having forced the British to evacuate Boston, led his army to New York, where he was doomed to witness the de- feat of the Americans on Long Island, on the 27th of August, but the retreat of the army was conducted in a masterly manner. After the battle of White Plains, the prospects of the Americans appeared hopeless, but the successes of Trenton and Princeton inspired the army with fresh courage. By these, Philadelphia was saved and New Jersey regained. On the 25th of August 1777, the British forces under lord Howe, which had sailed from New York, dis- embarked at the ferry of Elk river, and on the lOth of September, the battle of Brandywine was fought and the Americans defeated. In this battle, the young marquis de la Fayette displayed great courage, and though severely wounded, continued many hours on foot and horseback, endeavoring to rally and encourage the troops. Major Ferguson, who commanded a rifle corps a day or two previous to this battle, was the hero of a very singular adventure which he thus describes in a letter to a friend. " We had not lain long, when a rebel officer, remarkable by a' hussar dress, pressed toward our army, within a hundred yards of my right flank, not perceiving us. He was followed by another, dressed in dark green and blue, mount- ed on a bay horse, with a remarkably high cocked hat. I ordered three good shots to stand near, and fire at them ; but the idea disgusting me, I recalled the order. The hussar, in re- turning, made a circuit, but he passed within a hundred yards of us ; upon which I advanced from the woods towards him. Upon my call- ing, he stopped ; but, after looking at me, again proceeded. I again drew his attention, and made signs to him to stop, levelling my piece at him; but he slowly cantered away. By quick firing, I could have lodged half a dozen balls in or about him, before he was out of my reach. I had only to determine ; but it was not pleasant to fire at the back of an unoffending individual, who was very coolly acquitting himself of his duty ; so I let it alone. The next day, the surgeon told me that the wounded rebel officers informed him that gen- eral Washington was all the morning with the light troops, and only attended by a French officer in the hussar dress, he himself dressed and mounted as I have before described. I am not sorry I did not know who it was at the time." The battle of Brandywine opened the way to Philadelphia for the British, who entered it on the 26th of September. After the unsatisfac- tory engagement at Germantown, the Ameri- can troops were quartered for the winter at Valley Forge, where their sufferings were ex- treme. One day , a quaker by the name of Potts had occasion to go to a certain place, which led him through a large grove at no great distance from head-quarters. As he was proceeding along, he thought he heard a noise. He stopped and listened. He did hear the sound of a human voice at some distance, but quite indistinctly. As it was in the direct, course he was pursuing, he went on, but with some caution. At length he came within sight of a man whose back was turned towards him on his knees, in the attitude of prayer. Potts now stopped, and soon saw Wash- ington himself, the commander of the American WAS 605 WAS armies, returning from bending before the God of hosts above. Potts himself was a pious man, and no sooner had he reached home, that in the fulness of his faith, he broke forth to his wife Sarah : "All's well! all's well! Yes, — George Washington is sure to beat the British — sure ! " " What's the matter with thee, Isaac? " replied the startled Sarah. " Thee seems to be much moved about something." " Well ! what if I am moved ? Who would not be moved at such a sight as I have seen to- day ? " " And what hast thou seen, Isaac ? " " Seen ! I ' ve seen a man at prayer ! — in the woods! — George Washington himself! And now I say, — just what I have said, — 'All's well ! George Washington is sure to beat the British ! — sure ! ' " In June, 1778, the British evacuated Phila- delphia, and retreated upon New York closely followed by Washington, who attacked them at Monmouth on the 24th, and fought them with advantage, although without gaining a decided victory. Washington having given his orders to La Fayette, was personally engaged inform- ing the line of the main body near the court house, and was speaking with col. Hartly of the Pennsylvania line, when a cannon ball struck just at his horse's feet, throwing the dirt in his face and over his clothes. The general contin- ued giving orders without noticing the derang- ment of his toilette. " Never," says La Fayette, " was general Washington greater in war than in this conflict : his presence stopped the retreat, his dispositions fixed the victory. His fine ap- pearance on horseback, his calm courage, roused by the animation produced by the vexation of the morning, gave him the air best calculated to excite enthusiasm." In 1781 Washington, in conjunction with count Rochambeau, planned an expedition against New York, which was abandoned with a view of directing their operations to the south. Demonstrations, however, were made against the city, and sir Henry Clinton was not aware of the change in his intentions. The siege of Yorktown commenced on the 28th of September, and lord Cornwallis was compelled to surrender after much hard fighting, on the 19th. If we are called upon to admire the con- duct and successes of Washington in action, our admiration is no less due to his behavior in those intervals of repose when the American forces had time to reflect upon their wants, and brood over their supposed grievances. He quelled mutiny, but he pitied the sufferings that produced it ; and while he was resolved to en- force subordination, he was no less determined to administer all the comfort which it was in his power to bestow. On the 25th of November, 1783, Washington made his public entry into the city of New York. On the 4th of December, the principal officers of the army assembled at Francis' tavern in New York, to take a final leave of their be- loved commander-in-chief. Soon after his ex- cellency entered the room. His emotions were too strong to be concealed. Filling a glass, and turning to them he said ; " with a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." Having drank, he added, " I cannot come to each of you, but shall be obliged to you if each of you will come and take me by the hand." General Knox, being nearest, turned to him. Incapable of utterance, Washington in tears grasped his hand, embraced and kissed him. In the same affectionate manner, he took leave of each succeeding officer. Leaving the room, he passed through the corps of light infantry, and walked to White Hall, where a barge waited to convey him to Paulus' Hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn procession, with dejected countenances, testifying feelings of melancholy which no pen can describe. Having entered the barge, he turned to the company, and wav- ing his hat, he bade them a silent adieu. They paid him the same affectionate compliment, and after the barge had left them they returned in the same solemn manner, to the place where they had assembled. On the 23d of December, 1783, general Wash- ington resigned his commission to congress, then sitting at Annapolis. On this interesting and solemn occasion he appeared in the hall of congress. As he rose to speak, every eye was fixed upon him. He began by expressing his humble joy at the accomplishment of his wish- es and exertions, in the independence of his country. Next, he recommended to congress and to the country the companions of his toils and trials, and concluded as follows : i: I consider it an indispensable duty to close the last solemn act of my official life, by com- mending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping. " Having now finished the work assigned WAS 606 WAS me, I retire from the great theatre of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have long acted, I here offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Upon accepting his commission, congress, through their president, expressed in glowing language to Washington their high sense of his wisdom and energy, in conducting the war to so happy a termination, and invoked the choicest blessings on his future life. President Mifflin concluded as follows : — " We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to Almighty God, beseech- ing him to dispose the hearts and minds of its citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of becoming a happy and respectable na- tion. And as for you, we address to Him our earnest prayers, that the life so beloved, may be fostered with all his care; that your days may be as happy as they have been illustrious ; and that he will finally give you that reward which the world cannot give." A profound stillness now pervaded the assem- bly. The grandeur of the scene, the recollec- tion of the past, the felicity of the present, the hopes of the future, crowded fast upon all, while they united in invoking blessings upon the man who, under God, had achieved so much, and who now, in the character of a mere citizen, was hastening to a long desired repose, at his seat at Mount Vernon in Virginia. Congress voted the victorious general an equestrian statue, and the legislature of Virginia decreed to him " a sta- tue of the finest marble and best workmanship." But Washington was not permitted to remain in his dignified retirement ; for the nation, aware of the importance of securing his wisdom and influence, chose him the first president, under the new constitution of 17d ( j. His feelings on this occasion are expressed in a letter to a friend, of which the following is an extract : " I am unwilling in the evening of a life almost consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful abode for an ocean of difficulties, without the competency of political skill, abilities and incli- nation, which are necessary to manage the helm. I am sensible that I am embarking on a hazardous voyage, but what returns will be made Heaven alone can foretell. Integrity and firmness are all I can promise ; these, be the voyage long or short, shall never forsake me, although I may be deserted by all men, for of all consolations which are to be derived from these, under any circumstances, the world cannot de- prive me." In the first presidency, the door of the presi- dent's house gathered but little rust on its hin- ges, while often was its latch lifted by the " broken soldier." Scarce a day passed that some veteran of the heroic time did not present himself at head quarters. The most battered of these types of the days of privation and trial was " kindly, bid to stay," was offered refresh- ment, and a glass of something to the old gene- ral's health, and then dismissed with lighter hearts and heavier pouches. So passed the many ; but not so with one of Erin's sons. It was about the hour of the Thuesday levee, when German John, the por- ter, opened to a hearty rap, expecting to admit at least a dignitary of the land, or foreign am- bassador, when who should march into the hall, but an old fellow, whose weather beaten coun- tenance, and well-worn apparel showed him to be no * : carpet knight." His introduction was short, but to the purpose. He had come to head- quarters to see his honor's excellence, God bless him ! He was an old soldier. In vain the por- ter assured him that it would be impossible to see the president at that time; a great company was momently expected ; the hall was not a fitting place ; would he not go to the stewards apartment and get something to drink ? To all which Pat replied he was in no hurry ; that he would wait his honor's leisure ; — and taking a chair composed and made himself comfortable. And now passed ministers of state, and foreign ministers, senators, judges, the great and the gay ; meanwhile poor Pat stoutly maintained his post, gazing on the crowd till the levee ended. The president, about to retire to his library, was informed that an obstinate Irish- man had taken possession of the hall, and would be satisfied with nothing short of an in- terview with the president himself. The chief good-naturedly turned into the hall. So soon as the old veteran saw his old commander, he roared out, " long life to your honor's excellency ! " at the same time hurling his hat to the ground, and erecting himself with military precision. ' : Your honor will not remember me ; though many is the day that I have marched under your orders, and many's the hard knock I ' ve had too. I belonged to Wayne's brigade — Mad Antony, the British called him, and, by the powers, he was always mad enough for them, I was wounded in the battle of Germantown. Hurrah for America ! and it does my heart good to see your honor, and how is the dear lady and the little ones ? " Here the usually grave temperament cf WAS 607 WAS Washington gave way, as with a smile he re- plied that he was well, as was Mrs. Washing- ton ; but they were unfortunate in having no children > then pressing a token into the soldier's hand, he ascended the staircase to his library. The Irishman followed with his eyes the retiring general, then looked again and again upon the token which he had received from his honor's oxen hand, pouched it, recovered his hat, which he placed with military exactness a little on one side, then took up his line of march, and as he passed the porter, he cried out, " there now, you Hessian fellow, you see his honor's excel- lence has not forgotten an old soldier." Throughout the eight years of his presiden- tial career, Washington did nothing to forfeit the esteem of his fellow citizens, who acknow- ledged him, " first in peace, first in war, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.'' An Englishman in Philadelphia, speaking of the presidency of Washington, was expressing a desire to see him. While this conversation passed, " there he goes," cried the American, pointing to a tall, erect, dignified personage, passing on the other side of the street. " That general Washington ! " exclaimed the English- man ; " where is his guard ? " " Here ! '" replied the American, striking on his breast with em- phasis. On Friday, the 13th of December, 1709. ex- posure to w r et produced an inflammatory disor- der of the throat, which terminated fatally on the night of Saturday. The deep and wide- spreading grief occasioned by this melancholy event, assembled a great concourse of people for the purpose of paying the last tribute of respect to the first of Americans. On Wednes- day, the 18th of December, attended by milita- ray honors and the ceremonies of religion, his body was deposited in the family vault at Mount Vernon. So short was his illness, that, at the seat of government, the intelligence of his death pre- ceded that of his indisposition. It was first communicated by a passenger in the stage to an acquaintance whom he met in the street, and the report quickly reached the house of repre- sentatives which was then in session. A solemn silence prevailed for several minutes; judge Marshal, then a member of the house, stated in his place the melancholy information which had been received. This informatian, he said, was not certain, but there was loo much reason to believe it true. " After receiving intelligence," he added, " of a national calamity so heavy and afflicting, the house of representatives can be but ill fitted for public business." He therefore moved an adjournment, and the house adjourned. The expression of Washington's countenance was serious, but very pleasing: his eyes were a mild blue ; and the flush of health gave a glow to his cheeks. His step was always firm ; but after the toils of the long war, his bod}' was a little bent as he walked, and his once smooth forehead and cheeks were marked with care-worn furrows. General Washington, in the prime of life, stood six feet two inches, and measured precisely six feet when attired for the grave. To a majestic height was added correspond- ing breadth and firmness ; and his whole per- son was so cast in nature's finest mould, as to resemble the classic remains of ancient statuary, where all the parts contribute to the purity and perfection of the whole. Bred in the vigorous school of the frontier warfare, " the earth his bed, his canopy the heavens," he ex- celled the hunter and the woodsman in their athletic habits, and in those trials of manhood which distinguished the hardy days of his early life : he was amazingly swift of foot, and could climb the mountain steep, and " not a sob his toil confess." -, It matters very little, says Phillips, what im- mediate spot may have been the birth-place of such a man as Washington. No people can claim, no country can appropriate him. The boon of Providence to the human race, his fame is eternity, and his residence creation. Though it was the defeat of our arms, and the disgrace of our policy, I almost bless the convulsion in which he had his origin. If the heavens thun- dered, and the earth rocked, yet, when the storm had passed, how pure was the climate that it cleared ! how bright, in the brow of the firmament, was the planet which it revealed to us ! In the production of Washington, it does really appear as if Nature was endeavoring to improve upon herself, and that all the virtues of the ancient world were but so many studies preparatory to the patriot of the new. Indi- vidual instances, no doubt, there were, splendid exemplifications of some singular qualification : Ca?sar was merciful, Scipio was continent, Hannibal was patient; but it was reserved for Washington to blend them all in one, and, like the lovely masterpiece of the Grecian artist, to exhibit, in one glow of associate <1 beauty, the pride of every model, and the perfection of every master. As a general, be marshalled the peasant into a veteran, and supplied by disci- WAT 608 WAT plinethe absence of experience ; as a statesman, he enlarged the policy of the cabinet into tlie most comprehensive system of general advan- tage ; and such was the wisdom of his views, and the philosophy of his councils, that, to the soldier and the statesman he almost added the character of the sage ! A conqueror, he was untainted with the crime of blood ; a revolu- tionist, he was free from every stain of treason ; for aggression commenced the contest, and his country called him to the command. Liberty unsheathed his sword, necessity stained, victory returned it. If he had paused here, history might have doubted what station to assign him ; whether at the head of her citizens, or "her sol- diers, her heroes, or her patriots. But the last glorious act crowns his career, and banishes all hesitation. Who like Washington, after havino- emancipated a hemisphere, resigned its crown 5 , and preferred the retirement of domestic life to the adoration of a land ho might be almost said to have created ! Happy, proud America! The lightnino- of heaven yielded to your philosophy fThe temp- tations of earth could not seduce your patriot- ism ! " _ WASHINGTON, William Augustine, a dis- tinguished cavalry officer in the American re- volution, was born in Virginia. He distinguish- ed himself particularly at Guilford, and Eutaw, where, however, he was made prisoner, and detained until the close of the war. Durincr the the presidency of Adams, general Washington attached his relative to his staff with the rank of brigadier-general. He died in 1810. WATERLOO, a Belgic village on the road from Charleroi to Brussels, 10 miles from the lat- ter city, at the entrance of the forest of Soio-nies WATERLOO, battle of, by French writers called Mont St. Jean, near which villas it was fought in the spring of 1815. The°Eu- ropean confederates having outlawed Napo- leon by a declaration at Vienna, assembled their forces to invade France by the east and north A I russian army of 60,000 was collected near lurlrroie, under Blucher, and an Eno-lish ™ n Zr nan ', Dutoh ' and Flemish array of 100,000, under Wellington, in advance of Brus- «f „n?^! lle 13th of Ja^, the French army "» 110,000 men, under Napoleon, debouched from Givette and Charleroi, attacked the Prus- sians at Ligny, and drove them back with crreat slaughter, making from ten to fifteen thousand prisoners I n lhe „„„,„„„„ lh( , ,„,-, win „. f)f •■■ French array on the 15th, attacked the £n ff - l»h pos.Uon atQuatre Bras, cut to pieces some Scotch regiments, and compelled the remainder of the allies to retreat on Brussels. Marshal Wellington now assembled all his forces in the strong position of Waterloo, the right of which was defended by the chateau of Hougomont ; the left and centre by acclivities of ground, and his rear protected by the immense forest of Soigny. After the affair of Ligny, Napoleon divided his force into two divisions," sending his right wing, of 30,000 men, under Grouchy, in pursuit of the Prussians, who made a stand at Wavre ; while with the left and centre lie fol- lowed the English in the direction of Waterloo and Brussels, and finding Wellington in posi- tion at Mont St. Jean, he bivouacked on the 17th on the grounds on the other side of the valley, while the English and allies were pre- paring for attack on the opposite side. At noon on the 18th, the French commenced their attack on the chateau of Hougomont, and endeavored by that position to gain the heights, and turn the right of the English army ; and here a scene of bloody contest was maintained for some hours, in which many thousands of the combatants lost their lives. Another attack was commenced ih the centre in the bottom, beneath which is situated a farm called La Hayc Sainte. Here likewise a dreadful slaughter took place, chiefly of Hanoverians, and the French carried the po- sition. In the right the French ascended the acclivity, and advanced on the plain, but were checked by a charge, in which Sir Thomas Pic- ton was killed. On their left they advanced from Hougomont, within half a mile of the vil- lage of Mont St. Jean, but were here arrested by other charges, in which the prince of Orange was wounded. The enthusiastic courage of the * rench was every where opposed by the cool resolution of the English regiments, who formed themselves into squares, and received and re- pelled the attacks of the French cavalry. In this position the two armies remained, with va- rious local success, till about four in the after- noon, when a body of Prussians under marshal Bulow approached from Wavre, and secured the English position on the left. At six in the evening the issue remained doubtful ; the t rench considered the victory as their own, and an Hanoverian regiment actually fled from the u i V?r iv passed thro "g l1 Brussels. But mar- shal Wellington, assured of the speedy approach of marshal Blucher with a body of Prussian cavalry on the French right flank, maintained ns principal position with inflexible determina- tion ; and about eight o'clock the Prussian cav- alry, under Blucher, debouched from the woods WES 609 WHI on the left, overthrew and captured the French right wing, and advanced along the valley, and passed the centre of the French position, carry- ing all before them. The French on the heights and on their left wing, perceiving themselves thus surrounded, were seized with a general panic, a cry of sauve qui petit ran through their ranks ; the confusion was increased by a gene- ral charge of the British, and they fled in com- plete rout towards the French frontiers, leaving all their cannon and baggage in the hands of the victors. The loss of killed and wounded on both sides has been variously computed, but it cannot have been less than 60,000. This battle was followed by the most important political consequences. The main French army was thus dispersed without cannon and without am- munition. Grouchy, who, with his division, re- mained immovable during the battle at Wavre, about nine miles distant, on hearing of its re- sult, retreated towards Paris, and Napoleon, to diminish the effects of his disaster, repaired in- stantly to the same city, where the intrigues and conflicts of parties determined him to re- sign the crown in favor of his son and embark for America. In the mean time, the Prussians advanced briskly in pursuit of the disordered French, and marshal Wellington having dis- posed of his wounded, followed without inter- ruption to the walls of Paris, where, after some negotiation, the Bourbons were restored. WAYNE, Anthony, a general in the Ameri- can revolution, born in Pennsylvania, Jan. 1, 1745. He was educated at a Philadelphia aca- demy. Having served his country in a civil capacity, he raised a company of volunteers in 1775, and was elected colonel. In the retreat from Canada he behaved with great prudence, and on Feb. 12, 1777 was made brigadier-gene- ral by the continental congress. He distin- guished himself at the battle of Brandywine, and succeeded in carrying Stony Point by as- sault. He was in continual service throughout the war, and, in 1792 was appointed by Wash- ington to succeed general St. Clair in the com- mand of the army employed against the Indians on the western frontier. Aug. 20, 1794, he gained a victory near Miami on the lakes, and successfully ended the war. He died in 179(5. WEST POINT, a village of New York, and military post on the West bank of the Hudson, 53 miles above New York. It is the scene of the" treachery of Arnold. Its military academy enjoys high repute. WEST INDIES, the great Archipelago which lies between North and South America, 39 commonly divided into The Bahamas, Great Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Caribbee islands, Vir- gin islands, Leeward islands, and Windward islands. Population of the West India Islands. Islands. Hayti, Cuba, Porto Rico, Antigua, Anguilla, Uarbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, &c. Jamaica, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Tortola, &c. Trinidad, Bahamas, Eermudas, Whites. Spanish Islands. 311,051 133,100 English Islands. 1,980 3C5 14,959 840 801 37,000 330 700 1,612 972 1,301 322 477 4,201 4,240 3,905 French Islands. 10,000 286,942 31,874 29,839 2,388 81,902 15,392 24,145 322,421 6,262 9,259 19,310 13,348 23,000 12,000 5,399 24,006 9,268 4,370 Total. 800,000 704,487 323,838 35,714 3,080 102,007 19,838 28,783 414,421 7,406 11,959 23,922 18,051 27,114 14,043 7,172 44,163 16,49'J 9,250 101,865 111,000 18,000 11,000 6,000 34,000 7,000 3,000 Martinique, 10,000 81,142 Guadeloupe, with Mari- ) egalante, Desirade, > 12,800 88,000 Saintes, &x. ) Dutch Islands. St. Eustatius, with Saba, ? 12,000 Curasao, ? 6,500 St. Martin, (in part to ) ? . nnn France), j ,,uuu Danish Islands. Santa Cruz or St. Croix, 2,500 29,500 St. Thomas, 800 5,500 St. John, 150 2,600 Swedish Islands. St. Bartholomew, ? 6,000 12,000 WHIPPLE, William, a signer of the De- claration of Independence, born in Maine, in 1730. Having followed the sea for sometime, he abandoned it in 1759, and commenced busi- ness in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, from which state he was sent to Congress, in 1776. He was placed at the head of one of the brigades of New Hampshire in the revolutionary war, after the close of which, he held several civil offices, and died in 1785. WHITFIELD, James, Archbishop of Balti- more, was born at Liverpool in England on the 3d of Nov. 1770. and died at Baltimore on the 19th of Oct. 1834. At the age of 17 he was be- reaved of his father and became the protector of his mother. To assuage her grief, and to restore her sinking health, he accompanied her to Italy. On his return from that country where he had been for some time engaged in mercantile pur- suits, he found himself in France at the time when Napoleon had decreed that every Eng- WIC 610 WIL lishman in France was a prisoner. He spent the greatest part of his exile in Lyons, where he hecame acquainted with Ambrose Marechal, the late archbishop of Baltimore, who was then pro- fessor of theology in the seminary in that city. The piety of his youth inclined his mind to the sacerdotal state, and he commenced the study of divinity under the direction of his learned and pious friend. He distinguished himself by his solid judgment and persevering industry. In the year 1809 he was ordained priest in the city of Lyons. After the death of his mother, he returned to England, and was employed in the discharge of parochial duties in the town of Crosby. When Dr. Marechal was elevated to the archi- episcopal see of Baltimore, he wrote to Mr. Whitfield, earnestly soliciting him to give his assistance to the flock which Providence had placed under his charge. He complied with the request of his former friend, and landed on our shores on the 8th of September, 1817. In 1825 he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity from the court of Rome. At the death of the Rev. Archbishop Marechal, his name was on the list which was first sent to Rome to receive the sanction of his Holiness, and he was soon after consecrated Archbishop of Baltimore in the Cathedral in that city. WHITFIELD, George, founder of the sect of Calvinistic Methodists, born 1714, and died at Newbury port, New England, 1770, where he lies interred. His eloquence in the pulpit was very remarkable. He was in early life associ- ated with the still more celebrated John Wes- ley, (born 1703, and died 1791,) but in afterlife they were separated by difference of opinion. WICKLIFFE,orWycliffe, John, the "Morn- ing Star of the Reformation." was born at a vil- lage of the same name, in Yorkshire, in 1324. He was nominated one of the king's commis- sioners, to require of the pope that he would not interfere in ecclesiastical benefices. This trea- ty was carried on at Bruges ; but nothing was concluded, upon which the parliament passed an act against the papal usurpations. This en- couraged Wickliffe to go on in exposing the tyranny of the pope, who, in 1377, denounced the reformer as a heretic, and required the arch- bishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, to proceed in judgment upon him. Wickliffe, however, was supported by the duke of Lan- caster and earl Percy, who appeared with him at St. Paul's, Feb. 19, 1378. High words en- sued on that occasion between the bishop of London and the temporal lords ; in consequence of which, the populace took the bishop's part ; and plundered the duke's house in the Savoy. Wickliffe, being thus countenanced at court, undertook a translation of the Scriptures into English, which work he accomplished, and thereby increased the number of his enemies. Of this version, which was made from the Vul- gate, several copies are extant; but only the New Testament has been yet printed. In 1381 Wickliffe ventured to attack the doctrine of transubstantiation, in apiece entitled " De Blas- phemia," which being condemned at Oxford, he went thither and made a declaration of his faith, and professing his resolution to defend it with his blood. The marriage of the king with Anne of Luxemburg, proved very advantageous to Wickliffe ; for she was a most exemplary princess, and a great friend to scriptural know- ledge. By her means, the writings of the Eng- lish reformer, were sent to Germany, where they afterwards produced an abundant harvest. Ori leaving Oxford, Wickliffe received a citation from the pope to appear at Rome ; but he an- swered, that " Christ had taught him to obey God rather than man." He died of the palsy, at Lutterworth, in 13S4. ^WILKES, John, a political character, was born in Clerkenwell, where his father was a dis- tiller, in 1727. He obtained the rank of colonel of the Buckinghamshire militia, and a seat in parliament for Aylesbury ; but, on publishing a virulent papercalled the " North Briton," he was expelled the House of Commons; and convict- ed in the court of King's Bench. Previous to this, however, he had gained a verdict in the Common Pleas against the secretary of state, for an illegal seizure of his papers by a general warrant. In the meantime, Wilkes incurred another prosecution for printing an obscene poem, called an " Essay on Woman ;" and for not appearing to receive judgment, was out- lawed. He then went to France, where he re- sided till 1768, when he was elected for Mid- dlesex ; but was prevented from taking his seat, and committed to the King's Bench prison, which occasioned dreadful riots in St. George's Fields. Upon this, Wilkes published another libel, for which he was again expelled the House of Commons ; but was rechosen, and the elec- tion as repeatedly declared void. His popular- ity was now at its height, and a large subscrip- tion was made for the payment of his debts. In 1770 he was chosen an alderman of London, and in 1774 lord mayor. The same year he was re- turned again for Middlesex, when he was per- mitted to take his seat without farther opposi- WIL 611 WOL tion. In 1779, -after three unsuccessful at- tempts, he was elected chamberlain of London. He died, Dec. 26, 1797. WILLIAM I, king of England, a descendant of Canute, was born 1027. In 1051 he paid a visit to Edward the Confessor, in England, and in 1058 he betrothed his daughter to Harold II. In 10G6 he made a claim to the crown of Eng- land, invaded England, landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, defeated the English troops at Hastings, October 14, when Harold was slain, and Wil- liam assumed the title of Conqueror. He was crowned at Westminster, December 29, 1066. In 1072 he repelled the attack of Malcolm, king of Scotland, in Northumberland. In 1079 he was wounded by his son Robert, at Gerberot, in Normandy, and in 1086 he invaded France. He soon after fell from his horse, and contracted a rupture : he died at Hermentrude, near Rou- en, in Normandy, 1087. He was buried at Caen, and was succeeded in Normandy by his eldest son, Robert, and in England by his sec- ond son. WILLIAM II, was born 1057, and crowned at Westminster, September 27, 1087. In 1090 he invaded Normandy with success. William was killed by accident, while hunting- in the New Forest, in 1100. WILLIAM III, originally prince of Orange, landed at Torbay, Nov. 4, 1688, the epoch of the English revolution. He was crowned with his consort Mary, Feb. 16, 1689. William, being a Presbyterian, began his reign by repeal- ing those laws that enjoined uniformity of wor- ship ; and though he could not entirely succeed, a tolerrtion was granted to such dissenters as should take the oaths of allegiance, and hold no private conventicles. In the mean time, James, whose authority was still acknowledged in Ireland, embarked at Brest for that country, and arrived at Kinsale. He soon made a pub- lic entry into Dublin, and was well received. After the unsuccessful siege of Londonderry, his army encountered the royal forces, com- manded by William in person, on the banks of the Boyne, in 1690, when the latter gained a splendid victory. At length, after a series of disasters, James died Sept. 16, 1700. William, in the mean time, became fatigued with oppo- sing the laws which parliament were every day laying round his authority, and thus gave up the contest. He admitted every restraint upon the perogative in England, upon condition of being properly supplied with the means of humbling the power of France. For the pro- secution of the war with France, the nation mortgaged the taxes, and involved themselves in what is now called the national debt. Eng- land received in return, the empty reward of military glory in Flanders, and the conscious- ness of having given their allies, particularly the Dutch, frequent opportunities of being un- grateful. The war with France continued during the greatest part of William's reign, but was at length concluded by the treaty of Rye- wick, in 1697. William was thrown from his horse, Feb. 21 , 1702, when his collar-bone was fractured; and this hastened his dissolution. He died in the following month, of an asthma and fever, in the 13th year of his reign. WILLIAMS Roger, was born in Wales in 1598, and having completed his collegiate edu- cation at Oxford, took orders in the established church, but soon embraced the doctrines of the Puritans in consequence of which he was obliged to come to America in 1631. His religious principles drew down upon him the indignation of the authorities of Massachusetts Bay, and he was banished. He settled at Providence, Rhode Island, where he founded a community in which intolerance was unknown. He died in April, 1683. WILLIAMS, William, a signer of the De- claration of Independence, was born at Lebanon in Connecticut, April 8, 1731, and died Aug, 2, 1811. He was educated at Harvard college. WILLIAMS, Otho Holland, a brigadier- general in the American army, born in Prince George's county Maryland, in 1748, and died in July, 1794. WILSON, James, a signer of the American Declaration of Independence, was born in Scot- land, in 1742, and came to Philadelphia in 1766. In 1789 he was appointed judge of the supreme court of the United States, and died in August, 1798. WOLCOTT, Oliver, a signer of the Decla- ration of Independence, was born in 1726, at Windsor, in Connecticut, and graduated at Yale college. He studied law, commenced its practice with success, and in 1776 was elected to the national congress. He served at the head of a volunteer corps in the army which forced Burgoyne to surrender. After serving ten years as lieutenant-governor, he was chosen governor of the state. He died Dec. 1, 1797. WOLFE, James, was the son of lieutenant- general Edward Wolfe, born at Weslerham, in Kent, in 1725. He entered early into the army, and before he was twenty, distinguished himself at the battle of Lafeldt. At that of Minden, he gained additional laurels as lieu WOL 612 WOT tenant-colonel of Kingsley's regiment, as he afterwards did at Louisbourg, from whence he had but just returned, when he was appointed to command the expedition against Quebec. The enterprise was hazardous, but general Wolfe surmounted all obstacles, and on the heights of Abraham encountered the enemy ; when, in the moment of victory, he received a ball in the wrist and another in the body , which obliged him to be carried into the rear. In his last agonies he was roused by the shout, " They run !" on which he eagerly asked, " Who run ?" and being told the French, he said, " I thank God: I die contented," and expired Sept. 13, 1759. WOLSEY, Thomas, a cardinal and states- man, was born in 1471 at Ipswich, where his father was a butcher. In 1508, being then chaplain to Henry VII, he was made dean of Lincoln ; and in the next reign he gained an absolute ascendency over the young monarch by flattering his passions and sharing in his amusements. He was accordingly made al- moner to the king, a privy councillor, canon of Windsor, registrar of the garter, and dean of York. Soon after this accumulation of honors, he was appointed chancellor of the garter, and rewarded with the grant of the revenues of the bishopric of Tournay in Flanders. In 1514 he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln, and within a few months afterwards was elevated to the see of York and the dignity of a cardinal. In 1516 he was appointed legate with the fullest powers, and at the same time was made lord chancellor. In 1519 he obtained the temporal- ities of the see of Bath and Wells, to which were added those of Worcester and Hereford, with the rich abbey of St. Alban's. Wolsey now aspired to the papacy, and on being disap- pointed of it, received, as a compensation from the emperor, a pension of nine thousand crowns of gold, while his own sovereign gave him the bishopric of Durham. On the death of Adrian VI he made another effort to gain the tiara, but without success. In 1528 he exchanged bur- ham for Winchester ; but a cloud now arose, occasioned by the king's dissatisfaction with his conduct in the business of the divorce. Ac- cordingly while the cardinal sat in the court of chancery, an indictment was preferred against him in the king's bench, on the statute of pro- visoes, in consequence of which the great seal was taken from him, all his goods were seized, and articles of impeachment were soon exhibited in parliament. The prosecution, however, was stayed, and he received" the king's pardon; but while he was endeavoring to reconcile himself to his fallen state at Cawood castle, his capri- cious master caused him to be arrested for high treason, and hurried from Yorkshire towards London. The agitation and fatigue brought on a disorder, of which he died at the abbey of Leicester, Nov. 23, 1530. All who know any tiling of his history, know that he was proud and ostentatious, and accus- tomed to the use of gorgeous costume, in which he piqued himself in outshining all the other courtiers of Henry VIII. One day, a prodigal nobleman, who was deeply in debt, and paid nobody, came into court in a dress, the splen- dor of which outshone that of Wolsey, who being piqued, addressed the nobleman, and said, " My lord, it would be more commendable in yflu to pay your debts, than to lavish so much money on your dress." " May it please your reverence," replied the nobleman, "you are perfectly right: 1 humbly thank you for the hint, and now make a beginning, to show how I value your kind admonition. My father owed your deceased father a groat for a calf's head : here is sixpence — let me have the change." WORCESTER, the chief town of Worces- tershire, England. It suffered much during the wars between the houses of York and Lancas- ter; but the most remarkable event here was the famous battle between the English army under Cromwell, and the Scotch in the cause of Charles II, in 1050; when the royalists had 2,000 killed and 8,000 taken prisoners, most of whom were sold as slaves to the American colonies. WORCESTER, a handsome town of Wor- cester county, Mass. The third permanent set- tlement was- commenced in 1713. The town was incorporated in 1722, and on the erection of Worcester count}', in 1732, became the cap- ital. Population in 1830, 4,271. WOTTON, sir Henry, a statesman, was born at Boughton-hall, in Kent, in 15G8. He be- came secretary to the earl of Essex, on whose fall he went abroad, and while at Florence was honored with the confidence of the grand duke ; who sent him on a secret mission to James VI of Scotland. He died in 1639. WOTTON, Nicholas, a statesman, was un- cle to the preceding, and born in Kent, about 1497. During the reign of Henry VIII he was employed on different embassies ; and in that of Edward he was made secretary of state. In 1551 , he went on a mission to the emperor of Germany ; after which he became resident at the court of France. He died in London, in 1566; and was buried at Canterbury. WYN 613 XEN WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismund, count, an Austrian general, was born in Alsace in 1724. In his youth he served in the French army, and next in that of the emperor, where he rose to the highest honors. In the revolu- tionary war he drove the republicans out of Alsace ; but at last was obliged to retreat before superior numbers. In 1794, however, he took Manheim ; and in 1796, defeated the French in Italy. At last being obliged to throw himself into Mantua, he was forced to capitulate. He died in Hungary in 1797. WURTEMBERG, or Wirtemberg, a king- dom in the western part of Germany, contain- ing 1 ,502,033 inhabitants. In the wars of the French revolution, Wirtemberg was repeatedly traversed by the hostile armies ; its territory was, in 1796, the ground chosen for conflicts in the advance, as well as in the celebrated re- treat of Moreau. In 1799, it was the scene of the defeat of the French under Jourdan ; in 1800, of their renewed success under Moreau. WY ATT, sir Thomas, a statesman, was born at Allington-castle, in Kent, in 1503. His fa- ther, sir Henry Wyatt, was imprisoned in the Tower in the reign of Richard III, where he is said to have been preserved by a cat that fed him daily, for which reason all the portraits of him are painted with that animal in his arms or by his side. On the accession of Henry VII he was knighted ; and in the next reign made master of the Jewel-office. He died in 1533. Thomas became a great favorite with Henry VIII, and by one of his jests hastened on the reformation. The king having complained of the delay of the court of Rome in granting the divorce, sir Thomas exclaimed, "Lord! that a man cannot repent him of his sin without the pope's leave !" This witticism hastened the king's resolution, and he soon afterwards acted upon it as a maxim of sound reason. Wyatt, however, fell into some trouble afterwards by his freedom of speech, and was twice tried for sedition, but acquitted. He died at Sherbourne, in Dorsetshire, in 1541. WYNDHAM, sir William, a statesman, was born at Orchard Wyndham, in Somersetshire, in I6r>7. In 1710, he was made secretary at war; and in 1713, chancellor of the exchequer. On the accession of George I he was dismissed from office ; and when the rebellion broke out in Scotland, he was sent to the Tower, but never brought to trial. He continued to act in opposition till his death, which happened at Wells, in 1740 ; when he was succeeded in his title and estate by his eldest son, Charles Wyndham, who became earl of Egremont, and died in 1763. WYTHE, George, a signer of the Declara- tion of Independence, was born in Elizabeth county, Virginia, in 1726. Until 30 he lived a life of continual dissipation, but at that age ap- plied himself assiduously to the study of the law, and commenced its practice with great dis- tinction. His labors in the cause of indepen- dence were strenuous and continued. He died, June 8, 1806, having filled the office of chan- cellor of the state of Virginia for several years. X. XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general who assisted the Carthaginians in the first Punic war. He defeated the Romans, 256, B. C. and took the celebrated Regulus prisoner. Such signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the Carthaginians looked with envious jealousy upon Xantippus, and he retired to Corinth after he had saved them from destruction. Some authors support that the Carthaginians ordered him to be assassinated, and his body to be thrown into the sea as he was returning home ; while others say that they had prepared a leaky ship to convey him to Corinth, which he artfully avoided. XENOPHON, an Athenian, son of Gryllus, celebrated as a general, an historian, and a phi- losopher. He was invited by Proxenus, one of his intimate friends, to accompany Cyrus the younger in an expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia ; but he refused to comply without previously consulting his ven- erable master, and inquiring into the propriety of such a measure. Socrates strongly opposed it, and observed, that it might raise the resent- ment of his countrymen, as Sparta had made an alliance with the Persian monarch ; but, however, before he proceeded further, he advis- ed him to consult the oracle of Apollo. Xeno- phon paid due deference to the injunctions of Socrates, but as he was ambitious of glory, and eager to engage in a distant expedition, he hastened with precipitation to Sardis, where he was introduced to the young prince, and treated with great attention. In the army of Cyrus, Xenophon showed that he was a true disciple of Socrates, and that he had been educated in the warlike city of Athens. After the decisive battle in the plains of Cunaxa, and the fall of young Cyrus, the prudence and vigor of his mind were called into action. The ten thou- sand Greeks who had .followed the standard of XER 614 XIM an ambitious prince, were now at the distance of above six hundred leagues from their native home, in a country surrounded on every side by a victorious enemy, without money, without provisions, and without a leader. Xenophon was selected from among the officers, to super- intend the retreat of his countrymen, and though he was often opposed by malevolence and envy, yet his persuasive eloquence and his activity, convinced the Greeks that no general could extricate them from every difficulty, better than the disciple of Socrates. He rose superior to danger, and though under continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was, at last, happily effected, the Greeks returned home after a march of two hundred and fifteen days, and an absence of fifteen months. Xeno- phon was no sooner returned from Cunaxa, than he sought new honors, in following the fortune of Agesilaus in Asia. He enjoyed his confidence, he fought under his standard, and conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, as well as at the battle of Corona;a. His fame, however, did not escape the aspersions of jeal- ousy, he was publicly banished from Athens for accompanying Cyrus against his brother, and being now without a home, he retired to Scillus, a small town in the neighborhood of Olympia. He died at Corinth in the 90th year of Ins age, 35!) years before the Christian era. XERXES I, succeeded his father Darius on the throne of Persia, and though but the second son of the monarch, he was preferred to his elder brother Artabazanes. Xerxes continued the warlike preparations of his father, and added the revolted kingdom of Egypt to his extensive possessions. He afterwards invaded Europe, and entered Greece with an army, the most numerous which had ever been collected together in one expedition; but badly armed and disciplined, and encumbered with an useless attendance of servants, women, and eunuchs, it was stopped at Thermopyhc, by the valor of three hundred Spartans, and their allies, under king Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such a handful of men should dare to oppose his pro- gress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three successive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were repeatedly defeated in attempting to execute the monarch's injunctions, and the couratre of the bpartans might perhaps have tr'tunn^lied longer, if a Trachinian had not led a detach- ment to the top of the mountain, which sudden- ly fell upon the devoted Leonidas. The king, himself, nearly perished on this occasion, and it has been reported, that in the night, the des- perate Spartans sought, for awhile, the royal tent, which they found deserted, and wandered through the Persian army, slaughtering thou- sands before them. The battle of Thermopylae was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes ; the more he advanced, it was to experience new disappointments ; his fleet was defeated at Ar- temisiutn and Saiamis, and though he burnt the deserted city of Athens, and trusted to the art- ful insinuations of Themistocles, yet he found his myriads unable to conquer a nation that was superior to him in the knowledge of war and maritime affairs. Mortified with the ill success of his expedition, and apprehensive of imminent danger in an enemy's country, Xerxes hastened to Persia, and in thirty days he marched over all that territory which before he had passed with much pomp and parade in the space of six months. Mardoniu3, the best of his generals, was left behind with an army of 300,000 men, and the rest that had survived the ravages of war, of famine, and pestilence, followed their timid monarch into Thrace, where his steps were marked by the numerous birds of prey that hovered round him, and fed upon the dead car- casses of the Persians. When he reached the Hellespont, Xerxes found the bridge of boats which he had erected there, totally destroyed by the storms, and he crossed the straits in a small fishing vessel. Restored to his kingdom and safety, he forgot his dangers, his losses and his defeats, and gave himself up to riot and de- bauchery. His indolence and luxurious volup- tuousness offended his subjects, and Artabanus, the captain of his guards, conspired against him, and murdered him in his bed, in the 121st year of his reign, about 404 years before the Chris- tian era. XIMENES, Francis, a Spanish cardinal, was born in 1437, at Torrelaguna, in Old Castille. In 1507, the pope gave him a cardinal's hat, and soon after the king appointed him prime minis- ter, which office he discharged with the great- est honor. He was very successful in the con- version of the Moors, three thousand of whom were baptized in one day at Grenada. On the death of Ferdinand, in 1516, the cardinal was appointed regent of the kingdom ; and one of his first acts was to introduce a reformation in the government. He died, Nov. 8, 1517. ZEN 615 ZEN YORK; a city of England. It is an ancient city , and was the seat of several of the Roman emperors. Th# cathedral is a splendid speci- men of Gothic architecture, and was a century and a half in building. York in 1831 contained 23,359 inhabitants, and is regarded as the capi- tal of the north of England. YORKTOWN; a post-town, capital of York county, Virginia, on the south side of York riv- er, 29 miles N. W. of Norfolk, memorable for the capture of Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781. YPRES, a city of Belgium. In 1793 and 1794, this town was exposed to bombardment, from both French and allies ; it fell eventually into the power of the former, and remained in their hands until the downfal of Napoleon, in 1814. YUCATAN, the most easterly state of the Mexican confederacy, very fertile and valuable, and containing 496,000 inhabitants. It is in the form of a peninsula, jutting out into the gulf of Mexico. The English have a small settlement there for procuring logwood, which is the prin- cipal article of commerce. YVERDUN, a town of Switzerland, popula- tion 4,000. Here is the school of the celebrated Pestalozzi, which was established in the year 1804. ZACATECAS,astate of Mexico, containing 2,353 square leagues, and 272,901 inhabitants. It is mountainous and arid, but famous for its rich silver mines. ZAMOSK, a strong fortress in the south-east of Poland. In 165G it was unsuccessfully be- sieged by the Swedes; in 1715 it was surprised by the Saxons ; and in the civil contests of 1771, the Poles were defeated in its vicinity, by the Prussians. In 1812 it was one of the few towns in which the French left a garrison, after their retreat from Russia. ZAMOSKI, John, great chancellorof Poland, and general of the army of that kingdom. He was sent ambassador into France for the duke of Anjou, whom the Polanders had chosen king. This prince being recalled to take possession of the kingdom of France, Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania, was chosen king of Poland, who had so great a consideration for Zamoski, that he gave his niece to him in marriage, made him chancellor of the kingdom, and first gave him the command of eight thousand men in the war of Muscovy, and afterwards of all the army of Poland. Zamoski acquitted himself in all these employments with much courage and great success. ZANGUEBAR, a large territory in the east- ern part of Africa. Its name means " the coast of the negroes," all the inhabitants being blacks. ZANTE, (anciently Zacynthus;) one of the seven Ionian islands in the Mediterranean Sea; population 40,000. Zante, the capital, has a population of 20,000. Its harbor is spacious, and its environs are pleasant and picturesque. In 1820, several hundred houses were overthrown by an earthquake. The island was in posses- sion of the Venetians from the end of the four- teenth to the end of the eighteenth century. In 1797, it was taken by the French, and in 1799, by the Russians. In 1815, it became one of the members of the Ionian Republic. ZEALAND, a province of the Netherlands. Population in 1829, 123.184. ZEALAND, the largest of the Danish islands, between the Cat- tegatand the Baltic. It contains the fortress of Elsinore, and its capital is Copenhagen. ZEALAND, NEW; two islands in the South Pacific Ocean, separated by Cook's Straits. They have recently become the theatre of an active commerce with the British colonies. ZENOBIA, Septimia, a celebrated princess of Palmyra, who married Odenatus, whom Gal- lienus acknowledged as his partner on the Ro- man throne. After the death of her husband, which, according to some authors, she is said to have hastened, Zenobia reigned in the east as regent of her infant children, who were hon- ored with the title of Csesars. She assumed the name of Augusta, and she appeared in imperial robes, and ordered herself to be styled the queen of the east. The troubles which at that time agitated the western parts of the empire, pre- vented the emperor from checking the inso- lence and ambition of this princess, who boasted to be sprung from the Ptolemies of Egypt. Au- relian was no sooner invested with the imperial purple, than he marched into the east, deter- mined to punish the pride of Zenobia. He well knew her valor, and he was not ignorant that in her wars against the Persians, she had dis- tinguished herself no less than Odenatus. She was the mistress of the east ; Egypt acknow- ledged her power, and all the provinces of Asia Minor were subject to her command. When Aurelian approached the plains of Syria, the Palmyrean queen appeared at the head of seven hundred thousand men. She bore the labors of the field like the meanest of her soldiers, and ZOP 616 ZUT walked on foot fearless of danger. Two battles were fought, the courage of the queen gained the superiority, but an imprudent evolution of the Palmyrean cavalry ruined her cause ; and while they pursued with spirit the flying ene- my, the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon the main body of Zenobia's army, and the defeat was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, determined to support a siege. Aurelian fol- lowed her, and after he had almost exhausted his stores, he proposed terms of accommoda- tion, which were rejected with disdain by the warlike princess. Her hopes of victory, how- ever, soon vanished, and though she harassed the Romans night and day by continual sallies from her walls, and the working of her military engines, she despaired of success when she heard that the armies which were marching to her relief from Armenia, Persia, and the east, had partly been defeated and partly bribed from her allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in the night ; but Aurelian, who was apprized of her escape, pursued her, and she was caught as she was crossing the river Euphrates. She was brought into the presence of Aurelian, and though the soldiers were clamorous for her death, she was reserved to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. She was treated with great hu- manity, and Aurelian gave her large possessions near Tibur, where she was permitted to live the rest of her days in peace, with all the grandeur and majesty which became a queen of f,he east, and a warlike princess. Her children were pa- tronized by the emperor, and married to per- sons of the first distinction at Rome. Zenobia has been admired not only for her military abil- ities, but also for her literary talents. She has been praised for her great chastity and con- stancy, though she betrayed too often her pro- pensities to cruelty and intoxication when in the midst of her officers. She fell into the hands of Aurelian about the two hundred and seventy- third year of the Christian era. Z1RTEN, John Joachim Van, a Prussian general, was bom in 1699. He distinguished himself greatly in the se-ven years' war, particu- larly at the battle of Prague, and the storming of the heights of Torgau. He died in 1785. ZIMISCES, John, a noble Armenian, who contributed to the elevation of Nicephorus, but who. instead of being rewarded for his services, was sent into disgraceful exile. He afterwards conspired with the empress, who in person opened the chamber-door of Nicephorus to the conspirators, who massacred him without op- position. Zimisces was then proclaimed empe- ror of the East, and afterwards signalized him- self in many engagements, but was at length taken off by poison, in the ninth year of his reign. ZIMMERMANN, John George, chevalier von, an eminent physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Brug, in the canton of Berne, in 1728. Having made choice of the medical profes- sion, he was appointed public physician to his native town, employing his leisure hours in writ- ing many pieces in prose and verse, the most popular of which is his work on Solitude. ZISCA, John, a courageous German general, who headed the Hussites, and obtained an im- portant victory, but being slain, his skin was made into a drum, to animate the Hussites with the remembrance of his valor. ZOPYRUS, a Persian, son of Megabyzus, who, to show his attachment to Darius, the son of Hystaspes, while he besieged Babylon, cut off his ears and nose, and fled to the enemy, telling them that he had received such a treat- ment from his royal master because he had ad- vised him to raise the siege, as the city was im- pregnable. This was credited by the Babylo- nians, and Zopyrus was appointed commander of all their forces. When he had totally gained their confidence, he betrayed the city into the hands of Darius, for which he was liberally re- warded. The regard of Darius for Zopyrus could never be more strongly expressed than in what he used often to say, " that he had rather have Zopyrus not mutilated than twenty Ba- by Ions." ZOROASTER, a king of Bactria, supposed to have lived in the age of Ninus, king of As- syria, some time before the Trojan war. He was respected by his subjects and contempora- ries for his abilities as a monarch, a lawgiver, and a philosopher, and though many of his doc- trines are puerile and ridiculous, yet his follow- ers are still found in numbers in the wilds of Persia, and the extensive provinces of India. ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland. ZU- RICH a city of Switzerland. Population 14,000. In recent times, Zurich has been the theatre of many interesting political events, and the scene of many conflicts. Massena defeated here the allied forces of Russia and Austria. ZUTPHEN, an inland town of the Nether- lands, province of Gelderland. In the wars of Philip II. Zutphen was besieged in 1572, by the Spaniards, who refusing the citizens a capitu- lation, entered the town by storm, and commit- ted frightful ravages. It was retaken in 1591. and in this siege sir Philip Sidney was killed. CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW. INCLUDING AMBASSADORS, ALLIANCES, ARCHITECTURE, BATTLES AND SIEGES, COM- MERCE, CONSPIRACIES, DISCOVERIES, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, EMINENT PERSONS, ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA, FAMINES, FIRES, FROSTS, LAWS, COURTS OF JUSTICE, LIVING CHARACTERS OF EMINENCE, LONGEVITY, MASSACRES, MILITARY AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS, MUSIC, REBELLIONS, RIOTS, SEA FIGHTS, SCULP- TURE, STORMS, TAXATION, TREATIES, &c. &c. AGR ABDICATIONS : of Sylla as perpetual dic- tator of Rome, ante C: 79; of the emperor Dioclesian, A. D. 304 ; of Chevaline king of the West Saxons, 593 ; Amurath II emperor of the Turks, 1447 ; of Charles V as emperor of Germany, and as Charles I of Spain, 1556 ; Christiana, queen of Sweden, 1654 ; Cassimer V, king of Poland, 1668 ; James II of England, but really dethroned, 1688 ; Philip V of Spain, 1724, January 15th, but resumed the sceptre in about fourteen months afterwards, on the death of his son Louis, in whose favor he had abdi- cated ; Victor Amadeus king of Sardinia, 1730 ; Francis II resigns his title as emperor of Ger- many, August 6th, 1806; Charles IV of Spain, March 19th, 1808; Gustavus Adolphus IV, king of Sweden, March 19th, 1809; Napoleon deposed, 1814, and again in 1815. AFFIRMATION of the Quakers first ac- cepted as an oath, 1702 — alteration made in it, December 13th, 1721. Made legally equal to an oath in most, if not all the states of the United States. AGRICULTURAL Societies formed in Great Britain, 1787. Many societies now exist in the United States. AGRICULTURE. The first mention of agriculture is found in the writings of Moses. From them we learn that Cain was a " tiller of the ground," and that Noah " began to be a husbandman and planted a vineyard." The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, Egyp- tians, and Phoenicians, appear to have held husbandry in high estimation, in the earliest ao-es. The Carthaginians were sensible of its blessings, and carried the art to a high degree of perfection. The implements of Grecian ar- chitecture were very few and simple ; the Ro- mans used a great many implements, but par- ticularly venerated the plough. AGR The agriculture of Great Britain was much improved after its conquest by the Normans, who were celebrated for their skill in agricul- ture. The implements then used were very similar to those of modern times. Many works on agriculture have been written in England at different periods, which have been of great importance both to the British nation and all the world. The establishment of a national board of agriculture, by Sir John Sinclair, has been of eminent service to British husbandry. French agriculture began to flourish early in the 17th century, under Henry IV. Many agricultural societies were established, and Bonaparte instituted professorships and gardens for the exhibition of the different modes of cul- ture and the dissemination of plants. He also enlarged and enriched the National Garden. The implements of agriculture in France are generally rude and unwieldy, and the opera- tions of husbandry unskilfully performed. No books on agriculture were written in Germany till the 17th century. The agricul- ture is there every where improving. Gov- ernment, as well as individuals, have formed institutions for the instruction of young people in the arts of husbandry. The culture of forests receives particular attention in Germany. Some of the implements of Great Britain have been introduced ; but generally speaking the agricul- tural tools are unwieldy and inefficient. In 1788, Arthur Young wrote a treatise upon rural economy in Italy. There is a great vari- ety in the culture of land, as the climate, soil, and surface of Italy are so varicis. Only one fifth of the surface is considered sterile. The im- plements and operations of agriculture in Lom- bardy are both imperfect. The irrigation of lands is a remarkable feature in Italian hus- bandry. ALL 618 ALM The agriculture of the United States em- braces all the products of European cultivation, together with some, such as sugar and indigo, which are rarely ever cultivated in any part of Europe. The agricultural implements and farming operations of the United States are very similar to those of Great Britain. AIRGUNS, invented 1646. AIRPUMPS, invented by Otto Gnirick, in 1654. A JAX, British ship of the line, burnt near the Island of Tenedos, and more than 350 men per- ished, Feb. 14th, 1807. ALIEN LAW of the United States, passed June 25th, 1798 ; repealed, 1800. ALIENS, British, ordered by the United States' Government, to report themselves to the marshals of the district where they respectively reside, July 10th, 1812. ALLIANCES, the most remarkable were — between the confederate Greeks, against Troy, B.C. 1194 — 84. Between the Romans and the Carthaginians B. C. 508. Between the Athe- nians, Thebans, Corinthians and Argives, against the Lacedemonians, B. C 395. It is not a little remarkable, that in the long course of Roman conquest, not one well arranged and conducted alliance was formed and contributed to restrain her power. In modern ages, alliances in the true sense of the term, are recent. The Crusades were really a species of alliance, but with very little of the system of modern allian- ces. The League of Cambray, formed Dec. 10th, 1508, between Louis XII, king of France, the emperor of Germany, Maximilian I, and the Pope, Julius II, against the Venetians, was the first of those coalitions so disastrous or benefi- cial, as the case may be, which have so deeply influenced modern European policy. Those of most importance after the league of Cham- bray, have been, a league between Henry VIII of England, and the emperor Charles V against Francis I, king of France. In 1523, by the Pope, the emperor and the Venetians, against the king of France. Of the present states of Germany, at Smalcalde, December 22d, 1530, to maintain the reformed religion ; between Francis I, king of France, and Sultan Solyman, against the emperor Charles V, 1536. The latter confederation renewed, 1542 ; be- tween the emperor Charles V, and Pope Paul III, against the Protestants, 1546; between Spain, Venice, and Pope Pius V, against Tur- key, 1570; between England, and the States General of Holland, 1578, against the Span- iards; union of Utrecht, 1579, which begins the republic of the Seven United Provinces; the Evangelical League, formed 1626, between the Protestant princes of Germany and Den- mark, to which Sweden afterwards acceded, against the emperor Ferdinand I. — this was a very important compact, which, in 1648, pro- duced the treaty of Westphalia ; triple alliance between Britain, Sweden, and the States Gen- eral, against France 1668 ; of the empire and Holland, against France, July 15, 1672; league of Augsburg against France, July 11, 1686; the grand alliance between the emperor Leo- pold I,. the States General of Holland, and William III, king of England, against France, May 12th, 1689 ; first treaty of partition, be- tween France, England and Holland, August 19, 1698, second treaty of partition, 1700, March 3d, at Landen, and 25th at the Hague ; alli- ance of Germany , England and Holland, on one side, and France, Spain and Portugal, on the other, 1701 ; barrier treaty of Antwerp, Nov. 15th, 1715, between Germany and Holland; quadruple alliance between Great Britain, France, Germany and Holland, August 2d, 1718 ; defensive alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, 1742; quadruple alliance of War- saw, January- 8, 1745, between Great Britain, Austria, Holland, Poland; defensive alliance of Stockholm, May 29th, 1747, between Prus- sia, Poland and Sweden ; between Great Brit- ain and Prussia, February 16, 1756; renewed April 11, 1758 — without any regular compact, France, Austria, Russia and Sweden, were at the epoch of the last mentioned alliance be- tween Great Britain and Prussia, actually in the field against Prussia. To the United States, if not the world, the most important of all alli- ances or confederations was that of the British North American colonies. This great union, not for war, but defence, after many incipient steps, was formed in 1775 ; announced to the world as free and independent, July 4th, 1776; received the general name of United States, by a resolution of Congress, Sept. 1776, and consummated by the adoption of a Federal con- stitution of government, March 3d, 1789. First coalition against France, by Great Britain, Prus- sia, Austria, Sardinia, &c. 1793 ; second coali- tion, April 8th, 1799 ; third, 1805. Holy Alli- ance between Francis I, emperor of Austria, Alexander emperor of Russia, and the king of Prussia, and to which Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands, afterwards acceded, formed 1815. ALMANACS, first published by Martin II- kus at Bnda 1470. AMB 619 ARC ALPHABETIC WRITING introduced into Europe by Cadmus, A. C. 1493. ALUM, first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, A. D. 1300; in Tuscany 1400; first made to perfection in England, 1608, discovered in Ireland, October 22d, 1757 ; in Anglesea, 1700. ALTAR, a place on which sacrifices were offered in ancient times, but in Christian churches the place where the communion is administered — first used in the latter A . D. 135 ; consecrated 271 ; first in Britain, 034. A Ro- man altar dug up near Carlisle, England, April, 1803. AMBASSADORS and ministers plenipo- tentiary, have been from time immemorial, considered in some measure, privileged char- acters. Those of king David, about 1030, B. C. being insulted by the king of the Ammonites, led to a war destructive to the aggressors. The Roman ambassadors at Clusium B. C. 390, mixing with the inhabitants in battle with the Gauls, Brennus, king of the latter, considered their conduct an act of hostility on the part of their country, raised the siege of Clusium, marched towards Rome, defeated the Romans at Allia, and took, plundered and burned Rome. In modern times the privileges of ambassadors have been more distinctly defined. In Eng- land during the protectorship of Oliver Crom- well, Don Pantaleon Sa, brother to the Portu- guese ambassador in London, committed a murder in open day, and sought refuge in his brother's house ; but the Protector refused to sanction such an asylum in a case of murder, and Sa was seized, confined, tried and hanged, 1653. About twenty years afterwards, the prince of Furstenburg was arrested at the diet of Ratisbon, for murder, by order of the emperor of Germany, and the case of Sa, given as a justification. In 1709, in England, the Russian ambassador was arrested for debt by a lace merchant, which led to an act of parliament exempting ambassadors, or their immediate suit, from arrest in civil cases. The following table shows the respective salaries paid to the British, and United States' ambassadors, at the principal states of Europe, amount reduced to dollars, and even numbers : En irlish Embassadors. U. States Embassadors. France . . $48,000 . . . $9,000 Spain . . . 52,000 .... 9,000 Holland . . 52,000 .... 4,500 Russia . . . 52,000 .... 9,000 British in U. S. 26,000 U.S. in Eng. 9,000 The first ambassador from Russia to England, arrived in London 1556. First from India to any part of Europe, was from Tippo Saib to France, 1778. First from the United States was Silas Deane to France, 1776. First from the Ottoman emperor to Great Britain, 1793. First from the new Spanish states of America, were received by the United States, and recipro- cated by ministers sent to Buenos Ayres, Mex- ico, &c. AMPHITHEATRE at Rome, built A. D. 69. Fourteen modern chapels erected within its walls — that of Verona next in size ; and that of Nismes next — at Fidonia fell, and killed 50,000 people. Its ruins still exist at Castel (jlimbelio. AMPHYCTIONIC COUNCIL, or General Assembly of Greece, established B. C. 1497. This is the first instance on record, of a free representation of independent states, meeting to deliberate and settle their concerns by the force of reason, in place of arms. ANATHEMA, first used by the Christians as a punishment, A. D. 387. ANATOMY as a science, restored about 1550 ; anatomy of plants observed 1680. ANIMAL MAGNETISM, an imposture that made its appearance in France, 1788, but soon disappeared there, and broke out in Eng- land, 1789. It has since been revived and has some believers in Europe. ANNUITIES or Pensions first granted in England, 1512, when 20/. was given to a lady of the court for services done ; and in 1536, til. 13s. Ad. thought sufficient to maintain a gentle- woman : again in 1554, 13L 6s. 8d. deemed a competent sum to support a student at law. Annuities for life were regulated by law, 1777. APOTHECARIES, first mentioned in pro- fane history, ate. C. 1345; by Solomon in Ec- clesiastes, ate. C. 977. Exempted from civil offices in England, 1702 ; act for better regulat- ing the practice of, passed 1815. APRICOTS first planted in England 1540. This fruit originally came from Epirus. ARCHITECTURE. The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, just suf- ficient to satisfy his simple wants, huts, grottos and tents. As civilization advanced, men began to build more durable and commodious habita- tions. They fitted the stones or bricks together more neatly, but at first without any cement. After they had learned how to build houses, they began to erect temples for their gods, which were much larger, and better made than their own habitations. Architecture appears to have been one of the earliest inventions, and its works have been ARC 620 ARU regulated by hereditary imitation. Whatever rude structure the climate or materials of any country had forced the earlier inhabitants to construct, the same form has been kept up in after years by their more refined posterity. Thus the Egyptian style of building derived its origin from the cavern and mound ; the Chinese from the tent; the Grecian from the wooden cabin, and the Gothic from the bower of trees. Architecture at length became a fine art, and much pains was bestowed upon temples and palaces. Colonnades, halls and courts soon appeared, the rough trunk was transformed into the lofty column, and the nat- tural vault of a cavern into the splendid Pan- theon. The first nations who paid attention to archi- tecture were the Babylonians, who built the temple of Belus and the hanging gardens ; the Assyrians, who filled Nineveh with splendid buildings; the Phoenicians, whose cities were adorned with magnificent structures, and the Israelites, whose temple was considered won- derful. Of the Persian and Egyptian architec- ture, we have some remains, and they are all in a style of prodigal splendor and gigantic height. The Greeks first introduced a more simple and dignified style of building, called the Doric order. The Ionic and Corinthian columns were soon added to the Doric. After the Pelo- ponnesian war, this noble simplicity had again given place to excess of ornament, and after the death of Alexander, 323, B. C, the art de- clined, and was afterwards but little cultivated in Greece. The Romans had paid some attention to architecture, but did not equal the Greeks, till the time of Augustus, who encouraged Greek artists to erect splendid buildings in Rome. But when the seat of government was removed to Constantinople, the art declined in Rome. About this time, the Roman or Composite col- umn originated, which was employed in tem- ples and splendid buildings. These beautiful works of art were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths and Vandals ; but Theodoric, a friend of the arts, endeavored to restore them and even erected several new ones. This is the era of the origin of modern art, and the style of building it introduced is called Gothic architecture. Architecture has experienced different desti- nies in different countries. It has risen and declined at different periods. In America, the Grecian architecture is prevailing, as it is better adapted than the Gothic to small buildings, and does not require splendid edifices to display its beauty. ARITHMETIC, by the Arabian figures, introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain, in the ninth and tenth centuries of the Christian era. ARMISTICE, or suspension of arms, be- tween two or more belligerent states, but with an agreement, that all things shall remain in statu quo, to the termination of the agreement. The first armistice or provisional articles of peace between the United States and Great Britain, was signed November 30th, 1782; between Naples and the French general Cham- pionet, January 7th, 1799 ; at Steyer in Austria, between the Austrian government and general Moreau, December 25th, 1800 ; of Treviso, January 16th, 1801 ; at Tilsit, June 21st, 1807, between France, Russia, and Prussia. ARMS, or armorial ensigns, were of great antiquity, and in some form very general, but as now understood, coats of arms originated with the northern nations who overturned the Roman empire. ARMY, standing, a body of men exclusively set apart and employed in the profession of arms, as distinguished from militia. (See militia). Philip II, king of Macedonia, formed the first regular standing army on record, and the effects were to change the political aspect of the world. The second standing army was that of Car- thage, from B. C. about 260—202, under Ham- ilear, Asdrubal and Hannibal. The Cartha- ginian army forced the more steady Romans to resist them by another standing army; the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, Oct. 19th, annihilated the former, and left the latter master of the world. There is nothing in history so remarkable, as that from the battle of Zama, except in the instance of Parthia, no regular force which deserved the name, was raised to resist the Roman arms. Those terrific legions, however, yielded to time, and were not followed by another attempt to form a system of organized armies, until under Charles VII, king of France, 1445. Since that epoch, the whole features of war have changed ; most nations have now a regular standing military force. The proportion between the troops in service and men able to bear arms in modern times, has been assumed as one to a hundred. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. These cele- brated chronological tables were brought from Greece to England, in 1627, by Thomas, earl of Arundel. They were composed of a large AST 621 AST number of marble slabs or blocks, which were, however, mutilated, and in part lost during the civil wars in England, in the middle of the 17th century. Fortunately they have been at different times, and partly whilst the collection was complete, edited by Seldon, Iredeaux, Mat- taire, Chandler, &c. and though by some, their genuineness has been doubted, they are now by the best critics, considered real and invalu- able remains of the literature of ancient Greece. They contain a connected chronology in Greek capital letters, from the reign of Cecrops, king of Athens, B. C. 1582, to the archonship of Astyanax in Poros, and of Diognetus at Ath- ens, B. C.264. What remains entire are in the possession of the university of Oxford. ASPARAGUS first introduced into Eng- land, 1C08. ASTRONOMY, the science of the Heavens, the history of which dates backward into the morning of time. Observations on the appa- rent and real revolutions of the stars must have been made, and a really great advance in the science, long before any form of record pre- served the fruits of discovery. Some of the principal constellations, as they are now named, are mentioned in the book of Job. The Chal- deans observed and recorded eclipses, both lunar and solar, B. C. 719 — 20, and then knew the Luni — Solar period of 223 lunations, or 6585 days 8 hours nearly. It is probable, as far backwards in time as eight or nine cen- turies before the Christian era, that the real length of the tropical or solar year, was known in China, Indostan, Chaldea, and Egypt ; and in China and Indostan, their authenticated records reach to B. C. 3102. The following brief tabular history of this noble science, was compiled from Rees' Cyclopedia, art. Astron- omy, and will save much reference. B. C. 721, March 19th, 8 h. 40 min. p. m. 1st lunar eclipse on record ; 720, March 5, 11 h. I m. p. m. 2d do.; September 1,7 h. 40 m. p.m. 3d do. ; C48 the Thoth of the era of Nabonassar, was on February 1st, having shifted 25 days in one hundred years; 621, April 22d, 3 hours after midnight ; the fourth eclipse of the moon on record ; 585, May 28th, an eclipse of the moon predicted by Thales, and brought the Lydian war to an end ; 502, November 19th, II h. 36 min. p. m. the sixth lunar eclipse on record, observed at Babylon ; 491, April 25th, seventh lunar eclipse on record observed at Babylon; 359, obliquity of the ecliptic, found, 23° 49' 10"; 310, August 15th, solar eclipse, 11 digits W, observed between Sicily and Africa, by the fleet of Agathocles. Comet seen in China same year ; 294, March 9th, conjunction of the moon with Spica Virginis, 8° VV. from the equinoctial point, observed by Timocharis ; 285, Dionysius of Alexandria, began his sera June 26th, being the first who determined the real length of the solar year to be 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes ; 282, Timocharis ob- served another conjunction of the moon with Spica Virginis, November 9th, 3£ hours after midnight ; 262, transit of Mercury over the Bull's Horn observed ; Mercury 23° in Taurus, and the Sun 29° 30' in Aries; 241, September 3d, Jupiter observed in 7° 33' Virgo; 230, Era- tosthenes, observed the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 51' 20"; 162, Hipparchus began his astronomical observations at Rhodes, and con- tinued them to 128, or 34 years; 146, this astronomer observed the vernal equinox, March 24th, at mid-day. A remarkable comet appeared in Greece ; 143, Hipparchus observed the au- tumnal equinox, September 20th, about sunset. From the new moon of September 28th, he began his new lunar cycle; 141, January 17th, 2 hours before midnight an eclipse of the moon at Alexandria; 128, Hipparchus observed the vernal equinox to be on Thursday, March 23d, about sunset ; and the star Cor Leonis, 29° 50' from the summer solstitial colune ; 127. May 2d, about sunrise, Hipparchus observed the sun 7° 35' in Taurus, the moon 21° 40' in Pisces, and their mean distance, to be 312° 32'; and Spica Virginis 6° W. of the autumnal equinoc- tial point; 49, comet appeared in China; 44, great comet, supposed the same which appeared again A. D. 531, 1106, and in 1680; 25, the Egyptians adopt the Julian year, and fix their Thoth, or New Year day, August 29th. A. D. 13, a comet appeared in China; 39, conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars; 55, comet appeared in China ; 92, Agrippa observes in Armenia, a conjunction of the moon with the pleiades, November 29th, 5 hours before midnight; 130, Ptolemy observed Mars in op- position, December I4lh, 3 hours p. m. ; 132, September 25th, 2h. p. m. Ptolemy observed the autumnal equinox ; 133, May 0th, 11 h. 45 m. p. m. Ptolemy at Alexandria, observed an eclipse of the moon. May 17th 11 h. p. m. he observed Jupiter in 13° 15' Taurus ; and Saturn in 9° 40 7 Sagitarius on June 4th, 4 h. p. m. ; 134, February 1(>, in the morning, Ptolemy ob- served Venus, 21° 05' in Capricorn, and on Oct. 3d in the morning. Mercury in 20° 12 7 of Virgo ; 138, Ptolemy observed Cor Leonis 2° 30' of this sign, and 32° W from the summer solstice ; AST 622 AST 140, Ptolemy observed Venus on July 18th, to be in 18° 30' of Gemini, and 47° 15' from the mean place of the sun. Observed the vernal equinox at Alexandria, March 22, 1° p. m. ; 212, a comet appeared in China; 222, August 29th, a conjunction of some of the planets observed at Alexandria ; 373, a comet appeared in China ; 400, a comet appeared in China ; 729, 2 comets appeared, one before sunrise, the other after sunset. This was no doubt a deception ; it was one comet apparently in different parts of the Heavens; 807, January 31st, 3 h. after mid- night, Jupiter was eclipsed by the moon. March 17th, a spot observed on the sun ; 816, astron- omy revived under the Caliph Almamun, and the obliquity of the ecliptic found 23° 34' ; 819, degree of the meridian measured on the plains of Sinjar, near Babylon, and found to be 50| Arabian miles ; 825, Benimula observed the obliquity of the ecliptic, to be 23° 35'; 837, a comet appeared in China and in Europe, which moved in 25 days through n 25 bus in his second voy- Jage. 1497. Cape of Good Hope — doubled by Vasco di Gama, and the passage to India discovered. 1497. Newfoundland — discovered by John Ca- bot, who first called it Prima Vista and Bac- calaos. The title of Prima Vista still belongs to one of its capes, and an adjacent island is still called Baccalao. 1498. Continent of America — discovered by Co- lumbus. Malabar, Coast of — discovered by Vasco di Gama. Mozambique, Island of — discovered by Vas- co di Gama. 1499. America, Eastern Coasts of — discovered by Ojede and Amerigo Vespucci. (It is con- tended by some that this preceded by a year the discovery of the American Continent by Columbus.) 1500. Brazil — discovered 24th April by Alva- rez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven on its coast by a tempest. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross. It was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its red wood ; and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, from 1500 to 1504. 1501. Labrador and River St. Lawrence — dis- covered by Cortereal, who sailed from Lis- Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, ] 1493. Jamaica St. Christopher's Dominica DIS 636 DIS bon on a voyage of discovery for the Portu- guese. 1502. Gulf of Mexico. — Some of the shores of this Gulf explored by Columbus on his last voyage. St. Helena, the Island of — discovered by Jean de Nova, a Portuguese. 1506. Ceylon — discovered by the Portuguese. Ceylon was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius. 1506. Madagascar, Island of — discovered by Tristan da Cunha, and revisited by the Por- tuguese navigator Fernandez Pereira, in 1508. This island was first called St. Lawrence, having been discovered on the day of that saint. 1508. Canada — visited by Thomas Aubert. Known before to fishermen who 'had been thrown there by a tempest. Ascension Isle — discovered by Tristan da Cunha. Sumatra, Island of — discovered by Siquey- ra, a Portuguese. 1511. Sumatra — more accurately examined by the Portuguese. Molucca Isles — discovered by the Portu- guese. Sunda Isles — discovered by Abreu, a Por- tuguese. 1512. Maldives.-~A Portuguese navigator, who was wrecked on these islands, found them in occasional possession of the Arabians. Florida — discovered by Ponce de Leon, a Spanish navigator. 1513. Borneo and Java. — The Portuguese be- came acquainted with these islands. 1513. South Sea. — The Great Ocean was discov- ered this year from the mountains of Darien, by Nunez de Balboa, and subsequently navi- gated by Magellan. The supposition of the New World being part of India now ceased. 1515. Peru — discovered by Perez de la Rua. 1516. Rio Janeiro — discovered by Dias de Solis. 1516. Rio de la Plata — discovered by the same. 1517. China, discovery of — by sea, by Fernand Perez d'Andrada. 1517. Bengal — discovered by some Portuguese thrown on the coast by a tempest. 1518. Mexico — discovered by the Spaniards. Conquered by Cortes, in 1519. 1519. Magellan, Straits of — passed by Magellan with a fleet of discovery, fitted out by the Emperor Charles V. The first voyage round the world was undertaken by this navigator; and his vessel performed the enterprise, al- though the commander perished. 1520. Terra del Fuego — discovered by Magellan. 1521. Ladrune Islands — discovered by Magellan. 1521. Philippines. — This archipelago discovered by Magellan, who lost his life here in a skirmish. 1524. New France. — The first voyage of discov- ery made by the French under Francis the First, one of whose ships, after reaching Flor- ida, coasted along as far as 50 degrees north latitude, and gave to this part the name of New France. 1524. North America — travelled over from Flor- ida to Newfoundland by Verazzani, a Floren- tine, in the service of France. 1525. New Holland — discovered by the Portu- guese about this time : this immense tract was for some time neglected by Europeans, but was visited by the Dutch, at various peri- ods, from 1619 to 1644. This fine country is now colonized by the English, and every year adds something to our knowledge of its ex- tent and its peculiarities. 1527. New Guinea — discovered by Saavedra, a Spaniard, sent from Mexico, by Cortez. 1530. Guinea, the first voyage to — made by an English ship for elephants' teeth. 1534. Canada — visited by Cartier, of St. Malo ; a settlement having previously been made in 1523, by Verazzani, who took possession in the name of Francis I of France. 1535. California — discovered by Cortez. 1537. Chile — discovered by Diego de Alrnagro, one of the conquerors of Peru. 1541. Labrador — discovered by a French engi- neer, Alphonze. 1541. India — the first English ship sailed to, for the purpose of attacking the Portuguese. 1542. Japan — discovered by the Portuguese, Antonio de Meta and Antonio de Peyxoto, who were cast by a tempest on its coasts. 1545. Potosi, Mines of — discovered by the Span- iards. 1552. Spitzbergen — observed by the English, but mistaken for part of Greenland. Visited by Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in search of a northeast passage, in 1596. 1553. White Sea. — This sea, which had not been visited since the time of Alfred, was now sup- posed to be discovered by Chancellor, the English navigator. Nova Zembla — discovered by Willoughby, an English seaman. 1575. Salomons Isles — discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, sent by the Governor of Peru. 1576. Frobisher's Strait — discovered by the En- glish navigator whose name it bears. DI9 637 DIS Greenland— further explored by Frobisher, who also penetrated further between this country and Labrador. 1577. JYew Albion— discovered by Drake, who was the second to attempt a voyage round the world, which he performed in three years 1580. Siberia— discovered by Yermak Timophe- ievitch, Chief of Cossacks. ... 1587. Davis's Strait— discovered by the English navigator whose name it bears, m his voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage. 1594. Falkland Islands— discovered by tlie En- glish navigator, Hawkins. 1595. Marquesas-discovered by Mendana a Spaniard, on his voyage from Peru to found a colony in the Solomon Isles. Solitary Island— discovered by Mendana on the above-named voyage. 1606. Archipelago del Espiritu Santo— discover- ed by Quires, a Portuguese, sent from Peru. These islands are the Cyclades of Bougain- ville, and the New Hebrides of Cook. Ota heite— supposed to be discovered by Quires, who named it Sagittaria. 1607. > Hudson's Bay— discovered by the eel- 1610. 5 ebrated English navigator, Hudson, on his third voyage. Venturing to pass the win- ter in this Bay on his fourth voyage, he was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. 1607. Chesapeake Bay — discovered by John 1615. Straits of Le Maire— discovered, with the island of Staten on the east, by Le Maire, a merchant of Amsterdam, and Schouten, a merchant of Horn. . 1616. Cape Horn-doubled by Le Maire and Schouten, Dutch navigators, who called it after the town of which Schouten was a na- tive These enterprising men performed a voyage round the world in about two years. 1616. Van Dieman's hand— discovered by the 1616. Baffin's Bay— discovered by William Baf- fin, an Englishman. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted, till the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- ment. _ 1636. Frozen Ocean— In this year the Russians discovered that this ocean washed and bound- ed the north of Asia. The first Russian ship sailed down the Lena into this sea. 1642. New Zealand— with the southern part ot Van Dieman's Land, discovered by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. 1654. Bourbon, Isle of— occupied by the French. 1673. Louisiana — discovered by the 1 rencn. This country received its name from La taalle, a Frenchman, who explored the Mississippi, in lti82 - ^ x> 1686. Easter Island— discovered by Roggewem, a Dutch navigator. 1690 Kamschatka— the principal settlement ot the Russians on the coast of Asia, discovered by a Cossack chief, Morosko. This country was taken possession of by the Russians in 1692. Japan.— Carefully visited by Kampfer, a German. , . .. 1699 New Britain.— This island, and the straits which separate it from New Guinea, discov- ered by Dampier. This enterprising seaman made a voyage round the world at the period of this discovery. 1711 Kurile Isles— occupied by the Russians. The people of these islands, which are 21 in number, still pay tribute to Russia, lhey are principally volcanic. 1728 Behring's Strait-explored and designated by a Danish navigator in the service ot Rus- sia, whose name it bears. Behnng thus es- tablished that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant irom each other about 39 miles. 1728. Kamschatka— ascertained by Behung to be a peninsula. ivt^-iv, 1741 Aleutian Isles— on the coast of North America, discovered by Behnng. A more accurate survey of these islands was made under the Russian Government, by Captains Billing and Sarytchef, from 1781 to 1798 1765. Duke of York's Island — discovered by Byron. _ 'Isles of Danger— discovered by Byron. 1767. Otaheite— discovered by Walhs. 1768 Cook's Strait— discovered by Ca.pt Cook on his first voyage round the world, which occupied from 1768 to 1771. _ . 1770. New South Wales— discovered by Captain 1772° Island of Desolation-4he first land south of India, discovered by Kergue en and called by his name. Subsequently called the Island of Desolation by Captain Cook. 1774. New Caledonia— discovered by Cook in his second voyage, 1772-1775. 1778. Icy Cape— discovered by Captain Coot. 1778. Sandwich Islands-discovered by Cook in his third voyage, which commenced in 177b. He lost his life in 1779. 1797. Bass's Straits.— Mr. Bass, Surgeon ot H. DUE 638 EAR B. M. S. Reliance, penetrated as far as West- ern Port, in a small open boat, from Port Jackson, and was of opinion that a Strait ex- isted between New South Wales and Van Dieman s Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land, and named the Strait after Mr. Bass. 1804,5, 6. Missouri — explored to its sources by Captains Lewis and Clarke, and the origin and source of the Columbia ascertained. 1819. Barroro's Straits — discovered by Lieut. Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 74°26'N., and long. 113° 47' W. The Strait was entered on the 3d of August. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55 degrees below zero of Fahrenheit. 1819. New South Shetland — discovered by Mr. Smith, of the brig William, bound to Valpa- raiso. 1819. ) North America, The northern limits of — 1822. 5 determined by Capt. Franklin, from the mouth of the Coppermine river to Cape Turn- again. 1821 . Asia, The northern limits of — determined by Baron Wrangel. 1825-0. North America — Franklin's second ex- pedition, in which the coast between the mouths of the Coppermine and M'Kenzie's rivers, and the coast from the mouth of the latter to 149.J W. Long, were discovered. 1827. North America. — In August of this year, Captain Beechey, in H. B. M. S. Blossom, discovered the coast from Icy Cape to Point Barrow, leaving about 140 miles of coast unexplored between this Point and Point Beechey. Point Barrow is in 156^ degrees West longitude. 1830. Africa — Lander descends the Quorra or Niger from Boussa, to the Gulf of Guinea, determining the long agitated question of the termination of that river. 1830-32. North America — Capt. Ross examines the northeastern coast, and proves that the continent reaches to Lancaster Sound. DISTAFF spinning, first introduced into England by Bonavera, an Italian, 1505. DISTILLATION of spirituous liquors began in the 12th century. In Ireland in 1590. DISTILLING 'first practised in Spain by the Moors, 1150. DRURY LANE THEATRE built 1662; destroyed by fire 1672 ; rebuilt 1674; pulled down 1791 ; rebuilt 1794; burnt 1809; rebuilt and opened to the public, November 10, 1812. DUELLING introduced into Europe as a public mode of trial, A. D. 1096; became com- mon as a manner of settling points of honor, about 1520. E. EARTHQUAKES and VOLCANIC ERUP- TIONS. B. C. 427 Eruption of Etna and Earthquake ravaged environs of Catania. 373 Helice and Bura destroyed by an earth- quake, attended by a frightful inundation. 144 Isle of Hiera rose from the jEgean Sea during an earthquake. A. D. 79 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Her- culaneum and Pompeii. 115 Antioch destroyed by an earthquake. 1137 Catania swallowed up by an earthquake. 1138 Ninth eruption of Vesuvius, after which it is quiescent for 168 years. 1302 Ischia ravaged by a volcanic eruption pre- ceded by violent earthquakes. 1538 Monte Nuovo, a hill 440 feet high, form- ed near Naples. 1573 Island of little Kameni rises near Hiera. 1631 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Torre del Greco with 3,000 persons. 1666 New eruption of Vesuvius after a pause of 35 years ; since this period in constant ac- tivity with rarely an interval exceeding ten years. 1669 Eruption of Etna ; Mount Rossi, 450 feet high, formed; 14 villages and towns, and part of Catania destroyed. 1692 Jamaica ravaged by an earthquake, and many of the inhabitants swallowed up by rents in the ground ; three quarters of the houses of Port Royal with the ground they occupied sank with their tenants under water. 1693 Shocks of earthquake in Sicily, which levelled Catania, and 49 other places to the ground, and destroyed 100,000 persons. 1699 Earthquakes in Java, when no less than 208 severe shocks were counted ; the fish kill- ed in the rivers by the mud which filled them, and great numbers of wild animals destroyed. 1706 Eruption of Teneriffe, attended by shocks which caused many springs to disappear and hills to rise up from the plains. 1725 Eruption of the volcano Leirhnukur, in Iceland, during which a tract of high land sank down and formed a lake, and a hill rose from the bed of a lake. 1730-36 Five years' convulsion of Lancerote ; the earth was rent, and discharged pestilen- tial vapors ; smoke and flames rose from the sea with loud explosions; fiery streams of lava of great extent devastated the land, chok- EAR 639 ECL *d up rivers, and running into the sea, killed great numbers of fish ; 30 volcanic cones from 300 to 600 ft. high from their base were formed 1737 Earthquake in Kamschatka, which caused an inundation of the sea, formed new hills, lakes, and bays. 1746 Earthquake in Peru ; 200 shocks expe- rienced in the first 24 hours ; Lima destroyed } several new bays formed; nineteen ships sunk and four carried a great distance up the country by the rise of the sea; several volca- noes burst forth in the vicinity, and poured forth torrents of water, which overflowed ex- tensive tracts. , 1750 Conception or Fenco in Chili destroyed by an earthquake, and overwhelmed by the 1755 Earthquake destroyed Lisbon (Nov. 1), and 60,000 persons perished in six minutes. The sea first retired, and then rolled in, rising 50 ft above its usual level ; the largest moun- tains in Portugal rocked and split asunder, and sent forth flames and clouds of dust. 1 he shock was felt nearly all over Europe, in the north part of Africa, in the Atlantic, and even in the West Indies; a vast wave swept over the coast of Spain, in some places 60 feet in heio-ht, and near Morocco the earth opened, swallowed up about 10,000 persons with their herds, and then closed over them. 1759 The volcano of Jorullo in Mexico rose durino- an earthquake from the plain of Mal- pais, Forming a hill 1600 feet high. 1766 Violent shocks agitate Venezuela occurring hourly for above a year. 1772 Eruption of the volcano Papandayang in Java : a tract of country 15 miles long by six broad was engulfed, 40 villages swallowed up or overwhelmed, and the cone of the volcano was reduced in height 4,000 feet. 1777 During the eruption of the volcano on the side of which the city of Guatimala was built, the ground gaped open and swallowed the whole city with its 8,000 families. 1783 Earthquake in Calabria destroyed all the towns and villages, 20 miles round Oppido, and 40,000 persons were swallowed up or overwhelmed ; the shocks continued for four years. 1783 Eruption of the volcano Asamayama in Niphon, preceded by an earthquake, during which the earth yawned and swallowed many towns. 1797 Earthquake in Quito destroyed many towns and villages. 1806 An island 60 miles in circuit with several low conical hills upon it rose from the sea amono- the Aleutian islands. 1811 Earthquake in South Carolina, and in the valley of the Mississippi; the latter was con- vulsed to such a degree between the mouths of the Ohio and the St. Francis as to create lakes and islands; and deep chasms were formed in the ground, from which vast vol- umes of water, sand, and coal were thrown up to the height of 60 or 70 feet. 181'> The city of Caraccas destroyed by an earthquake, and 10,000 persons buried under its ruins. . a 1815 Eruption of the volcano Tomboro in bum- bava, attended by whirlwinds, which com- mitted great ravages, and by a sudden rising of the sea, which submerged towns and con- siderable tracts. Of 12,000 inhabitants of the island only 26 survived. 1819 An earthquake in Cutch destroyed many towns and villages ; deepened the eastern arm of the Indus from one to eighteen feet ; sub- merged some tracts and elevated others. 1822 Aleppo destroyed by an earthquake. 18 2 Chili ravao-ed by an earthquake, the shocfc of which waslelt for a distance of 1200 miles ; the coast in the neighborhood of Valparaiso for a distance of 100 miles was raised above its former level from two to four, and even six or eight feet: the whole tract thus raised had an area of about 100,000 square miles. 1827 Earthquake commits great ravages arouna Bogota. ,, 1831 The island of Sciacca rose from the sea near the southern coast of Sicily : the depth of the sea at this spot was 600 feet, and the island was 100 feet above the surface : circuit 3 240 feet • in the winter of 1831, the island w'as swept away by the waves, leaving only ECLIPSES, the most remarkable, of the sun, observed at Sardis, and predicted by Thales, 585 B. C. At Athens, 424 B. C. At Rome, caused a total darkness at noon-day, A D. <2J1. At Constantinople, 968. In France, June 29, 1033 dark at noon-day. In England March 21 1140 occasioned a total darkness. Another June 22 1191, entire darkness, and the stars very visible at ten in the morning. In the same year the true sun, and the appearance of anoth- er so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by their glasses. Another, IdSl. A total eclipse of the sun in England when the darkness was so great, that the stars faintly appeared, and the birds went to roost in the morning about ten, April 22d, 1715. Great EMI 640 EMI Eclipse in the United States 1806; another 1811- another 1831. One occurred in 1834, and three more will take place in the course of five years. During the present century about 25 more will occur. Eclipses of the moon, total, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon, 721 B. C. At Syracuse, 413 B. C In Asia Minor, 219 B. C. At Rome predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus, 168 B C Another, which terrified the Roman troops, and prevented their revolt, A. D. 14. Eclipses of the moon are of frequent occurrence EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE,' near Ply- mouth, England, first built, 1696; blown down November 26, 1703 ; rebuilt 1700 ; burnt down December, 1755; rebuilt October, 1759: again burnt down 1770 ; rebuilt 1774 ELECTRICITY, first idea of, given by two globes of brimstone, 1467; electric spark dis- covered at Leyden, 1746 ; first known it would hre spirits, 1756 ; that of the aurora borealis and of lightning in 1769. ELGIN MARBLES purchased by the Eng- n • .government at £ 35,000, and added to the British Museum, 1815. EMINENT PERSONS. Aben, Ezra, learn- j- ^ W £ h rabbi > °f Toledo in Spain, born 1099, died 1174. ' Abernethy, John, eminent Irish Protestant divine, born 1680, died 1740, aged 60. Ainsworth, Robert, eminent English lexicog- rapher, born 1660, died 1743. Alberoni, cardinal, celebrated statesman, born at Placentia, in Italy, 1664, died 1752, aged 86. tie was the son of a gardener. Alcibiades, Athenian general, born B, C. 443 died 403. ' Alcuin, or Albinus Flaccus, philosopher, flourished in the eighth century. He was a light in the dark ages, and famous for encour- aging learning and science ; a native of Eng- land. He founded the university of Paris, by order of Charlemagne. Aldrovandi, Ulysses, eminent naturalist, born at Bologna, 1522, died 1605, aged 83. Alfred, son of Ethelred II king of England had his eyes put out by earl Godwin, and 600 of his train murdered at Guilford : he died soon after at Ely. Allen, Rev. Moses, born Sept. 14, 1748. He zealously joined the cause of his country ; was taken prisoner at Savannah, December, 1778 • and was drowned Feb. 8, 1779, in an attempt to escape from a British prison ship. Allen, Paul, American poet, historian and editor, born at Rhode Island, and died in Balti- more, August 19th, 1826, in the 55th year of his age. Allen, William Henry, born iii Rhode Island 1784 ; a gallant officer of the United Stales navy' killed in battle on board the Argus, Aug. 1813.' Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher who re- sided most part of his life in Greece, where he flourished, B. C. 600. Anderson, Jas. writer on commerce, died 1764. Andrews, John, D. D. provost of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, born in Cecil county Maryland, 1746, died in Philadelphia. Anthony ,Mark, Roman general and triumviri, born B. C. 86, killed himself in Egypt after the' battle of Actium, 30 B. C. Anthony, Francis, English physician, born looO, died 1623 ; he was the inventor, and made a fortune by vending a panacea, called Jiurum potahile. Arbaces, founder of the Median monarchy B. C. 820. J ' Arc, Joan of, a much celebrated French woman, born in Lorraine about A. D. 1400 ruined the English cause in France, was finally taken prisoner by them, and burned to death by the English at Rowen, 1431. Arius, founder of the Arian sect,died A.D. 336. Armstrong, John, Scots physician and poet born at Castleton, Scotland, 1709, died 1779. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musician, flourished from about 1736, to his death, 1778. Arnold, Samuel, musical composer of emi- nence, born 1739, died 1802. Arundel, earl of, who brought the Arundelian marbles, from Greece to England ; died 1645. Asaph, St. bishop of Llan-Elvy, in North Wales, to which he gave his own name, flour- ished A. D. 590. Aspasia, a Greek courtezan, one of those very rare examples of mental power and moral weak- ness, became the wife of Pericles, flourished at Athens, B. C. 430. Aspasia of Phocaea, successively wife to Cy- rus the younger, and of his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon.has been confounded with Aspasia of Athens, though different in country and char- acter. Athanasius, St. a very celebrated Christian bishop, born it is supposed, about 296. He was the Catholic champion in the Arian controver- sy ; ordained bishop of Alexandria, A. D. 327 which he held 46 years to his death, 373. Atticus, Pomponius, the friend of Cicero, and an example amid blood and violence, of the best effects of stoical philosophy, born B. C. 100 died 33. EMI 641 EMI Atterbury, Francis, eminent English prelate, born 1662, made bishop of Rochester, 1713 ; but in 1722 deprived and banished by act of parlia- ment ; died at Paris, 1731. Bainbridge, Commodore William, a distin- guished commander in the American navy. He was born at Princeton, N. J. on the 7th of May, 1774 ; died at Philadelphia, July 27, 1833, in his 60th year. Banks, sir Joseph, English philosopher, a most distinguished man in science and litera- ture, and president of the royal society, born 1740. Baranzano Redemptus, deserves a place in history, as one of the founders of inductive science, was contemporary and correspondent of chancellor Bacon ; born in Piedmont, 1590, died at Montargis, 1C22. Barberac, John, eminent jurisconsult, and writer on the laws of nations, born at Beziers, 1674, died 1747. Barclay, Robert, apologist for the quakers, born 1648, died 1690, aged only 42. Baretti, Italian lexicographer, author of an esteemed English and Italian Dictionary, was born at Turin, 1716; came to England and be- came one of the companions of Johnson, Burke, &c. died 1789, aged 73. Barneveldt, John Olden, grand pensionary of Holland, born 1547, became one of the greatest diplomatists of his age, but by adopting the opinions of Arminius, was involved in the relig- ious controversies which then distracted his country. By his influence in great part, Spain, in 1609, acknowledged the independence of the seven united provinces ; under frivolous charg- es he was beheaded, 1619, aged 72. Barrow, Isaac, eminent English divine and mathematician, born in London 1630, died 1677. Barthelemy, John James, eminent French writer, author of " the travels of the younger Anacharsis," born at Cassis in Provence 1716, died April 30th, 1795, in his 80th year. Basil, St. bishop of Ancyra, died 378, aged 51. Bass, Edward, first bishop of Massachusetts, born 1726, died 1803, aged 77. Bassi, Laura, an Italian lady of great literary acquirements, flourished 1732, to her death at Bologna, 1778. Baxter, Richard, eminent English non-con- formist divine, and religious writer, born 1615, died 1691, aged 76. Bayard, John, eminent patriot in our revolu- tion, born in Maryland, 1738, died 1807, aged 68 years. Beatty, William, captain in the Maryland line under colonel Howard ; was particularly dis- tinguished in the battle of the Cowpens, and in other battles of the revolution, and fell in battle. Beccaria, Cassar, marquis of Bonesana, author of the "treatise on crimes and punishments," born 1720, died November, 1794, aged 74. Behmen, Jacob, called by his followers " the German Theosophist;" born 1577, died 1624, aged 49. Bentham, Jeremy, a celebrated jurist, died, in London, June 6, 1832, aged 85. He was born February 15, (old style) 1747-8, in Lon- don, was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, attained the degree of A. M. in 1767, attended the lectures of Sir William Blackstone, after- wards entered at Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar, but soon abandoned the profession, and devoted himself to the composition of his voluminous writings on jurisprudence, govern- ment, and various branches of political and moral science. Mr. Bentham had a high repu- tation for talents, and held a correspondence with many of the most distinguished statesmen of Europe. As a writer, he was very obscure, but he had able friends who attempted to render some of his numerous works intelligible. A part of them have been arranged and translated into French, by his friend and admirer M. Etienne Dumont, of Geneva, and printed partly in Paris, and partly in London. This eccentric man, who made utility the basis of his philosophy, bequeathed his body to the dissectors, in order to benefit the science of anatomy. Bernard, of Menthon, founder of two monas- teries in the Alps on Mountjoux, since called from him, Great and Little St. Bernard. These mountain monasteries are hospitals, in which poor travellers are received, fed, lodged, and if sick or wounded, treated with the utmost care. Though subjected to the changes of nine hun- dred years, these hospitable institutions still subsist; their illustrious founder was born in the Genevois, A. D. 903, and died at Novara, 988, aged 85. Bernoulli, Daniel, a great mathematician, born at Groningen, February 9, 1700, and died at Basil, March 17, 1782, aged 82 years. Bertholdus, to whom the discovery of gun- powder has been ascribed, died A. D. 1340. Biddle, Nicholas, captain in the U. States' navy, during the revolutionary war, born in Philadelphia, in 1750. On the night of March 7lh, 1778, he was blown up with his ship, the U. States frigate Randolph, of 36 guns, and 315 men, in an action off Barbadoes, with the Brit- ish ship Yarmouth, of 64 guns, Capt. Vincent. EMI 642 EMI Black, Joseph, Scots chemist and physician, died 1799, aged 71. BJackmore, sir Richard, English poet and physician, born 1650, and died October 8, 1729, aged 79. Blair, James, a Scots Episcopalian divine, founder of the college of William and Mary, Virginia. Mr. Blair was born in Scotland, about 1660; in 1683, he was sent out to America, as a missionary, by Dr. Compton, bishop of Lon- don ; and by the same prelate, was appointed in 1685, his commissary in Virginia. It was at the latter epoch, that he conceived the plan, and by unwearied exertions, succeeded in founding a college at Williamsburg. The pa- tent for the college was granted by William and Mary, about 1693, and from its founders named " William and Mary College," of which Mr. Blair was first president; and having filled the ministry sixty, and the presidency of the col- lege fifty years, died 1743, aged about 83 years. Bland, Theodoric, M. D. served as colonel in the revolutionary army, in the Virginia line, with much reputation ; died a member of Con- gress, from Virginia, June 1st, 1790, in his 49th year. Blount, sir Charles, born 1654, died 1693, aged 39. Bodmer, "the Father of German Literature," was born at Zurich, 1698, died 1783, aged 85. Bonaparte, Madame Letitia, mother of the emperor Napoleon, died at Rome, October, 1832, aged 82. Her maiden name was Letitia Ram- olini. She was born at Ajaccio, Aug. 24, 1750 ; was one of the most beautiful young women of Corsica, was married in the midst of civil dis- cord and contention to Charles Bonaparte, an officer who fought with Paoli ; was possessed of great firmness of character ; and was left a widow in 1785, having borne 13 children, of whom five sons and three daughters survived their father ; all of whom became celebrated. Botzaris, Mark, one of the gallant defenders of liberty in modern Greece, was born in Alba- nia, in 1780, and is said to have been, at an early period of his life, in the French service. When the Greeks rose to throw off the Ottoman yoke, he ardently espoused the cause of his country, and was chosen stratarch of Western Greece. The Turks having invaded Etolia with a large army, he, at the head of two hundred and fifty volunteers, made a nocturnal attack on the en- emy's camp, and put great numbers of them to the sword ; but towards the close of the contest he received a mortal wound. His companions in arms, by a desperate effort succeeded in bearing him from the field, and he expired at Missolonghi on the following day, August 23, 1823. Boy dell, John, patron of the arts and engraver by profession ; born at Donington, England, January 19, 1719; came to London on foot, bound himself an apprentice to an engraver ; began to publish 1745-6, and in 1790, had ex- pended in the promotion of the arts in general, and the Shakespeare Gallery in particular, £350,000 sterling, or 1,554,000 dollars. Died in London, December 7, 1804, having nearly reached the age of eighty-six years. Boyle, Charles, fourth earl of Orrery, gene- rally supposed the inventor of the noble astro- logical instrument, which bears his title, born 1676, died 1731, aged 55. He patronised Row- ley, the real inventor of the Planetarium, called the Orrery. Bracton, Henry, eminent English law writer, flourished 1244. Bradford, William, eminent lawyer of Penn- sylvania; born in Philadelphia, September 14, 1755, died August 23, 1795, aged 40. Bradford, William, one of the first printers in English America, born 1658, died 1752, aged 94. Bradford, William, printer and editor of one of the first public papers in Philadelphia, called the Pennsylvania Journal, died 1791, aged 73. Bradley, James, eminent English astronomer, born 1692; succeeded Dr. John Keil, as Savil- lian professor of astronomy, at Oxford, in 1721 ; discovered the aberration of the fixed stars, and mutation of the earth's axis ; was appointed as- tronomer royal, February, 1741-2, died July 13. 1762, aged 70. Braho, Tycho, eminent astronomer, born in Sweden, December 19th, 1646, died at Prague, October 22d, 1601, aged 55. Braxter, Carter, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, born in Virginia, Sept. 10, 1736, died in Richmond, Oct. 10, 1797. Briggs, Henry, English mathematician, in- ventor of Logarithmic numbers, born 1556, died 1630, aged 74. Briggs, Isaac, eminent mathematician, died at Sandy Spring, Maryland, January, 1825, aged 62 years. Brindley, James, self taught English mecha- nician, and the very able coadjutor of the duke of Bridgewater, in the construction of canals, locks, bridges, aqueducts, &c. born 1716, died September"27th, 1772, aged 55. Brooke, eminent English law writer, flourish- ed 1550-58. Brooke, Henry, author of " The Fool of Qual- EMI 643 EMI ity," an excellent novel, born in Ireland, 1700, died October, 1803, aged 77. Brooke, Robert, born at London, June 3d, 1602; an early emigrant to Maryland, arrived June 29th-, 1050; "he was the first who did seat Patuxent, about 20 miles up the river, at Delia Brooke." He died, July 20th, 1655. Battel creek, in Calvert county, Maryland, is so named from the town of Battel, in Sussex, whence Mr. Brooke removed, when he set out for America. Browne, John, Scots M. D. author of the " Elements of Medicine," born 1735, died 1768, aged 53. Bruno, founder of the Carthusians, died A. D. 1101, aged 71. Buchan, Dr. William, author of " Domestic Medicine," &c. died Feb. 25th, 1805, aged 76. Buchanan, George, Scots poet and historian, born 1506, died 1582, aged 76. Buchanan, George, M. D. one of the founders and first commissioners engaged in 1729, to set- tle and purchase the land of the city of Balti- more, died 1745. Buchanan, Claudius, eminent missionary to the East Indies, died Feb. 9th, 1815. Burgh, James, author of " The dignity of Human Nature," died 1775, aged 61. Burrows, William, born October 6, 1785; a gallant officer in the United States navy, who fell a victim in the moment of his glory, 6th Sept. 1813, commanding the Enterprize, which engaged the Boxer ; he received a mortal wound early in the action, and when the sword of the enemy was presented to him, he exclaimed, "I am satisfied — I die content;" and soon after expired. Action forty-five min- utes. Burkitt, William, English divine, and author of " A Commentary on the New Testament," born in England 1650, died 1703, aged 53. Burlamaqui, John James, author of principles of Natural Laws; born at Geneva, 1694, died there 1750, aged 56. Burleigh, lord Exeter, made minister of state to queen Elizabeth, 1560, died 1598. Burnet, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, and author of" the History of the Reformation of the Church of England;" " History of his own Times," &c. born in Scotland 1643 ; died March 17th, 1715, aged 72. Burton, Robert, author of" the Anatomy of Melancholy," died 1639, aged 63. Butler, Joseph, bishop of Durham, and author of " the Analogy of Religion," &c. born in England 1692, died 1753, aged 60. Butler, Samuel, English poet, author of Hu- dibras, born in 1600, died 1680, aged 80. Butler, Richard, officer of the revolutionary war, colonel of Morgan's rifle corps, and shared at Saratoga, and many other places, the renown of that admirable body. After a life of honor, colonel Butler fell, in the defeat of St. Clair'a army, by the Indians, November 4, 1791. Butler, Thomas, brother of Richard, and a brave United States' officer, joined the army in 1776 ; was at Brandywine battle on the 11th of September of that year ; served through the war, and was very severely wounded in the war with the Indians, at the battle where his brother fell. His latter years were imbittered by disputes with general Wilkinson, which was closed by death, Sept. 7th, 1805, aged 51. He would not yield to the general order, which re- quired officers and soldiers to cut the hair close to the head. Butler, Zebulon, was born at Lyme in Mas- sachusetts, 1731 ; entered into military service early in life, and served through the French war, from 1755 to 1763. When the revolution- ary war commenced, he was appointed colonel in the Connecticut line. Died July 28th, 1795, in his 64th year. Cadwallader, John, an early patriot of the American revolution, was born in Philadelphia, 1743 ; appointed brigadier general and had a share in the operations at Trenton and Prince- ton in the winter of 1776 — 7 ; died February 10th, 1786 in his 44th year. Calmet, a learned Benedictine, died in France October 25, 1757, aged 86. Calvert, George, baron of Baltimore, founder of Maryland, was of Flemish descent, born at Kipling, in Yorkshire, England, 1582, and edu- cated at Oxford ; in 1619, he was made by Charles I, king of England, one of the principal secretaries of state ; resigned that office, 1624, made baron of Baltimore, 1625, obtained a pa- tent for Maryland, June 20th 1632, and died at London the same year. Camper, Adrian Gilles, revived Craniology, and was eminent as a comparative anatomist, flourished 1789. Canning, George, eminent English states- man, and late premier of England, died August 8th, 1827, aged 57. Carey, Wm., D.D. of the English Baptist mis- sion at Serampore, was born Aug. 17, 1761. He was the son of a poor man, and commenced bu- siness in life as a shoemaker. By industry and application he acquainted himself with Hebrew and various other languages. In 1793, he left EMI 644 EMI England for India. He translated the Scriptures into Bengalee, and into all the principal langua- ges of Northern Hindostan, and compiled also a voluminous Bengalee Dictionary ; died 1834. Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, the last sur- viving signer of the Declaration of Indepen- dence. He was born at Annapolis, on the 20th of September, 1737 ; was descended from a re- spectable Irish family ; was of the Catholic reli- gion, and inherited a very large estate ; died Nov. 14, 1832 Cassini de Thury, Cseser Francois, 2nd son of James, director of the royal observatory after his father, born at Paris, June 17, 1714, died September 4th, 1784, aged 70. The family hav- ing been at the head of the royal observatory, at Paris, 113 years. Cato, the Censor, born B. C. 235, died 149, aged 86. Catullus, Latin poet, died B. C. 16, aged 71. Cave, Edward, editor of the first periodical Magazine in England, born 1691, died 1754, aged 63. Caverly, sir Hugh, the first who used gun- powder in the service of England, died 1389. Caxton, William, the first who introduced printing into England, born 1412, died 1491, aged 79. Chaise, Francis de la, French Jesuit, and con- fessor to Louis XIV, king of France, from 1675, to his death, 1709. It is supposed with every rational probability that Father de la Chaise, in- stigated the revocation of the edict of Nantz. Chambers, Ephraim, the first person, who in England, undertook a work in the form now known as a Cyclopaedia, or Encyelopoedia ; his dictionary was the origin of what is now term- ed Rees' Cyclopaedia. He was born about 1680, died May 15th, 1740. Chastellux, marquis of, French general in the revolutionary war, and who published travels in America, born 1734, Chew, Benjamin, born in Maryland, Novem- ber 29, 1722; eminent lawyer, member of con- gress, 1776, who preferred reform rather than revolution, and retired from public concerns; died 20th January, 1810. Churchill, John, duke of Marlborough, cele- brated English general, born in Devonshire, 1750, died at Windsor Lodge, 1722, aged 72. Clark, Rev. Adam, LL. D., F. S. A., &c, a distinguished Methodist preacher and divine, a man of great talents and extensive learning, particularly in the oriental languages and bibli- cal literature, and author of a well known and learned commentary on the Scriptures, and va- rious other publications. He was born in 1763, in the county of Londonderry, in Ireland, his father being of an English family, and his mo- ther a Scotchwoman. By invitation of Mr. John Wesley he became a pupil in Kingswood school then recently established, and was sent out by Mr. Wesley, an itinerant preacher, in 1782, at the early age of 19. He was greatly admired as a preacher : at first his youth attracted great numbers of hearers ; but afterwards the extent of his resources, from the gifts of nature and the fruits of study, commanded attention wher- ever he went ; and hardly any man ever drew so large congregations, or of so mixed a charac- ter. He continued to travel in various circuits, till 1805, when he took up his residence in Lon- don, where he passed a considerable part of his subsequent life. To his great talents and learn- ing he united the virtues of the humble Chris- tian ; was greatly respected by all denomina- tions; and though catholic in his feelings, he was strongly attached to the body of Christians with which he was connected ; died, August 26, 1834, at Bays water, near London, of the cholera, aged 72. Clark, Abraham, one of the signers of the de- claration of independence, born in New Jersey, 15th February, 1726; died by a stroke of the sun, 1794, in the 69th year of his age. Clayton, John, an eminent English botanist, author of " The Flora Virginica," was born in England, about 1685 ; came an infant with his father to America, and in 1722, became clerk of the county of Gloucester, Virginia, which office he held 51 years, to his death, 1773, aged 88. Clerke, Charles, able English naval comman- der, the companion, friend and successor of cap- tain James Cook, died on the coast of Kams- chatka, August 22d, 1779, aged 39. Clinton, Charles, was born in the county of Longford, Ireland, 1690 ; came to America, 1729 ; died 1773, aged nearly 83. Cloriviere, Joseph Peter Picot, director of the monastery of the Visitation in George-Town, D. C. born at Broons, in Brittany, France, 4th No- vember, 1768. In the French Revolution, he sided with the royal party; reputed inventor of the famous infernal machine, and in conse- quence was compelled to leave his country ; be- came subsequently a priest in Baltimore and Charleston, South Carolina, in the former of which places he took orders from aichbishop Carroll, in 1812; and in 1819 was appointed over the monastery in George-Town, where he closed his life, on September 30th, 1826, aged 57 ; a distinguished and respectable man. EMI 645 EMI Clum, Mrs. near Litchfield, England, died Jan. 28th, 1772, aged 138, and had lived 103 years in one house. Colden, Cad wallader, mathematician and phi- losopher, born at Demse, in Scotland, February 17th, 1688; came to America, 1708, and to which he removed his family 1710, settled in New- York. He died, September 28th, 1776, on the day of the conflagration of New-York, aged 88. Cole, William, a great botanist, born in Eng- land, 1626, died 1662, aged 36 Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, French meta- physician, died 1780. Confucius, Chinese philosopher, born, B. C. 555. Copernicus, Nicholas, restorer of the Pytha- gorean, or true system of the Universe, born at Thorn, in Prussia, February 19, 1473 ; he com- pleted his astronomical system, in 1530 ; not published until 1543, and then only under the authority, and at the expense of cardinal Ni- cholas Schoenburg. A copy of this treatise, the " Jlstronomia Instaurata, sive de Revolutionibus Orbium Celestrum," reached the hand of its il- lustrious author, only a few hours before his death, May 22d, 1543, in his 71st year. Corneille, Thomas, brother to the more fa- mous Peter Corneille, French dramatist and his- torian, died 1709. Correa, de Serra Abbe, eminent Portuguese naturalist and statesman, was born at Serpa, in Portugal, 1754, several years ambassador from Portugal to the United States, returned to his native country, about 1818, and died. Correlli, signora, received the triumph of a coronation at Rome, July 1776. Cosmo de Medicis, died 1464, aged 75. Crabbe, Rev. George, LL. B., a distinguished poet. He was born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, December 24, 1754 ; and, after having received a very limited classical education, he was ap- prenticed to the business of a surgeon and apo- thecary; but he had little fondness for his pro- fession ; and having cultivated a taste for poetry, he repaired to London, at about the age of 24, as a literary adventurer. After having attempt- ed in vain to gain the favorable notice of the public, the " youth to fortune and to fame un- known" ventured, without an introduction, to make application to the celebrated Edmund Burke, and committed to him a large quantity of miscellaneous composition. Mr. Burke received him with kindness; selected from among other poems " The Library" and " The Village," (the former of which was scon afterwards published, and the latter in 1783); and introduced him to the acquaintance of Mr. Fox, and Sir Joshua Rey- nolds. Sir Joshua submitted to Dr. Johnson the manuscript of <; The Village," " which," said the famous critic, in his letter on returning the poem, " I read with great delight; it is ori- ginal, vigorous, and elegant." After a short preparation, in which he was assisted by Mr. Burke, Mr. Crabbe was ordained a deacon in 1781. " The Newspaper" was published in 1785 ; " The Parish Register" in 1807 ; " The Borough" in 1810; "Tales in Verse" in 1812; and " Tales of the Hall" in 1819. Mr. Crabbe has been characterized by the Edinburgh Re- view as " the satirist of low life." " He is a writer," says Mr. Hazlitt, " of great power, but of a perverse and morbid taste. — His poems are a sort of funeral dirge over human life, but without pity, without hope. He has neither smiles nor tears for his readers." He died at Trowbridge, in Wiltshire, Feb. 8th, 1832, aged 77. Crebillon, the elder, French tragic poet, died 1762, aged 88. Cropper, John, a gallant officer in the revolu- tionary war, and personally distinguished by general Washington, died January 15th, 1822, aged 66. Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible, born in Scotland, 1701, died in London, 1770, aged 69. Ctebius, supposed inventor of the pump, flourished B. C. 120. Cudworth, Ralph, author of " The Intellec- tual System," died 1688, aged 71. Cullen, Dr. William, of Edinburgh, died February 5, 1790, aged 80. Cuvier, Baron, a Peer of France, Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Profes- sor of Natural History in the College of France, and the greatest naturalist of the age ; be was born at Montbelliard, in Upper Rhine, in Au- gust, 1769, and died at Paris, May 13, 1832. Dacier, Andrew, French, classical translator, died 1722, aged 71. Dalton, John, English M. D. who adapted Milton's Mask of Comus to the stage, and gave the benefit to the grandaughter of the poet; died 1763, aged 54. Darke, William, usually called major Darke, a brave veteran officer, born in Philadelphia county, 1736, served in the war of 1755-63; again in the revolutionary war, and finally in the Indian war, under general St. Clair, on No- vember 4th, 1791, died November 26th, 1801, aged 66. EMI 646 EMI Darnley,lord, king of Scotland, and father of James VI, murdered February 10, 1567. Davenant, Charles, English statistical writer, and amongst the first of that class in that king- dom, died 1714, aged 58. Davidson, William, a native of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, born 174G, and in 1750, removed by his parents to Mecklenburg, North Carolina. At the opening of the revolutionary war, he entered the army, in which he rose to the rank of general, and fell defending the pas- sage of Catawba River against Lord Corn- wallis, February 1st, 1781. Daun, Leopold count, marshal of the German empire, and during the seven years' war, the most successful opponent of Frederic the great, died 1766, aged 61. Day, John, printer, the first who introduced the Greek and Saxon characters into England, died 1584. Deane, Silas, member of congress, died in extreme poverty in England, 1781. Defoe, Daniel, author of Robinson Crusoe, died 1731. De l'lsle, Joseph Nicholas, French astrono- mer, died 1772. De l'Isle,Wm., French geographer, died 1726. De Lima, John Taverra, a native of Portugal, died 1738, aged 198. Denham, Sir John, poet, born in Dublin 1615, died 1668, aged 53. Derham, William, English divine and ma- thematician, died in 1735, aged 78. Dickenson, John, distinguished American statesman and patriot, entered public office 1764, died in 1808. Didot, Francis Ambrose, eminent French printer, died July 10, 1804, aged 74. Digges, Dudley, English statesman, died 1639, aged 56. Doddridge, Philips, eminent English divine, died 1751, aged 49. Domat, John, eminent French judge and ju- rist, born 1625, died at Paris 1696, aged 71. Dow, Rev. Lorenzo, a celebrated but eccen- tric Methodist preacher. He was a native of Connecticut; and in his course of 30 years' preaching, he travelled over England and Ire- land, and visited almost every part of the United States. He is supposed to have preached to more persons than any other man of his time. He died at Georgetown, D. C. Feb. 2d, 1834. Draco, the lawgiver, flourished B. C. 624. Drake, sir Francis, born 1545 ; set sail on his voyage round the world 1577; died 1595, aged 50. Drayton, Michael, English poet, died 1631, aged 58. Drayton, William Henry, an American pat- riot and political writer, author of " Freeman" born 1742, died a member of Congress, 1779, aged 37. Drelincourt, Charles, French Protestant di- vine, died 1669, aged 74. Drummond, William, poet, died 1649, aged 63. Dry den, John, eminent English poet, died 1700, aged 69. Dlucos, Charles Dineau, French historian and didactic writer, died 1772, aged 57. Duncan, king of Scotland, murdered by Mac- beth, A. D. 1054. Duncan, William, author of " Logic," died 1760 aged 43. Dunstan, St. archbishop of Canterbury, from 959 to 988, was one of the violent apostles of clerical celibacy. Dyer, John, English poet, born 1700, died 1758, aged 58. Edward, the black prince, English hero, son of Edward III, died in France, 1376. aged 46. Ellwood, Thomas, an eminent member of the society of Friends; at 21 he joined the society, and became as a preacher and writer, one of their most efficient members to his death, 1713, in his 74th year. Elstol, William, a Saxon scholar, died 1714. Epicurus, founder of the sect which bore his name; born at Athens, B. C. 342, died 271, aged 71 . Epimenides, a Cretan philosopher, contem- porary with Solon, said to have lived 157 years. Erastothenes, one of the greatest mathema- ticians, of antiquity ; the first in Europe who measured a degree of the meridian, and the first who accurately determined the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic, died B. C. 195, aged 80. Eumenes of Pergamos, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, put to death B. C. 315. Euripides, one of the most ancient and great- est Greek tragic poets, died B. C. 405, aged 75. Eusebius, Pamphylus bishop Csssarea, flour- ished A. D. 270-340. Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, an Arian, flourished 338-41. Eusebius, bishop of Emessa, theological wri- ter, flourished 340-60. Eusebius, bishop of Verceil, theological wri- ter, flourished 354-70. These bishops of the same name and age are almost invariably confounded. EMI 647 EMI Evelyn, John, English historian and poet, died 1698, aged 44. Evelyn, John, English natural philosopher, died 170(5, aged 77. Evremont, Saint, died September 9th, 1703, aged i)0. Farenheit, Gabriel Daniel, inventor of the Thermometer which bears his name, born at Hamburg, flourished 1720. Fancoutt, Samuel, the first who opened a circulating library in London ; he came to that city about 1740, and set up his library ; died in poverty 1768, aged 90. Farinello, eminent Italian opera singer, died in England, about 1780. Farquhar, George, dramatic writer, died 1707, aged 29. Falstolf, Sir John, celebrated English general, flourished under the Henries IV, V and VI, and died about 1460. Fayette, Mary Magdalen Proche de la Vergne, countess of, dramatic, historical and biographi- cal writer, flourished at the court of Louis XIV 1670-93. Ferdinando, Marc de Paleotti, hanged in England for murder, February 28th, 1718; he was brother to the duchess of Shrewsbury. Ferarr, Lawrence, Earl, committed to the tower of London for murdering his steward, Feb. 13, 1760; tried, found guilty April 18, and hanged at Tyburn May 5, 1760. Fletcher, Andrew, commonly called Fletcher of Salton, Scots political writer, died 1716, aged 63. Fleury, Claude, French ecclesiastical writer, and coadjutor of Fenelon, as preceptors, died 1723, aged 83. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, author of Plurality of Worlds, born 1657, and lived to Jan. 1757, or to nearly 100 years. Fordyce, James, brother of David, eminent Scots divine, and author of Sermons to Young Women, died 1796, aged 76. Forrest, Uriah, a brave officer of the Mary- land line, in the American revolutionary war, born in St. Mary's county, 1756; losing a leg in the battle of Germantown, was forced to re- tire from service. Forster, John Reinhold, -author of Northern Voyages, born in Polish Prussia 1729 ; circum- navigated the earth with captain Cook; died January 9, 1779, aged 70. Fortescue, sir John, English law writer, flour- ished about 1460. Foster, sir Michael, eminent English crown lawyer, died 1763, aged 74. Fothergill, Dr. John, born in Yorkshire. Eng- land, 1712, in 1748, published his treatise on putrid sore throat ; died 1780, aged 68. Fox, Richard, bishop of Exeter, eminent English statesman, died 1528, aged 68. Freneau, Philip, a poet of the American rev- olution ; died at Freehold, N. J., Dec. 18th, 1832, aged about 80. Frith, John, an early martyr to the reforma- tion in England, was burned about 1533; Frith's work on the Eucharist; is supposed to have been the first English treatise on the side of the reformed doctrines. Froisart, John, early French historian, died 1402, aged 69. Fromage, Peter, eminent French Catholic mis- sionary, born at Laon, 1678, died 1740, aged 62. Fuller, Rev. Dr. Thomas, eminent English divine and ecclesiastical writer, born 1608, died 1661, aged 53. Fust, or Faustus of Mentz, one of the earliest printers in Europe, died about 1466. Gallilei, Gallileo,one of the greatest revivers of modern science, born at Pisa, 1564 ; made professor of mathematics in the university of Pisa, 1590; removed to Venice 1592, where he exercised the duties of a similar office, till 1611 ; in 1609, he had made the first Telescope, died 1642, in his 78th year. Ganesvoort, Gen. Peter, was born in Albany, N. Y. July 16th, 1749; joined the American army as a major, 1775, but raised to the rank of colonel the ensuing year; on August 2d, 1777, he was besieged with his command in fort Stan- wix, where Rome in Oneida county now stands, by Colonel St. Leger, with a body of British tories and Indians, who after a most gallant de- fence, were repelled and forced to retreat, on August 22d. He continued in the army to the close of the war, though from March 1782 in the immediate service of New York ;' he was appointed by president Madison, a brigadier general, in which service he continued to his death, July 2d, 1812, aged 63. Garden, Alexander, eminent botanist, born in Scotland, 1730, removed to Charleston, S. Carolina, 1752, died in London 1791, aged 61. Garth, Dr. Samuel, English poet, flourished 1691-1719. Gascoigne, sir William, eminent English lawyer and judge, born 1350, died 1413, aged 63. Gassendi, Peter, eminent French astrono- mer and philosopher, one of the great restorers of inductive philosophy, died 1655, aged 63. Gay, John, eminent English poet, died 1732. aged 44. EMI 648 EMI Gebhard, Rev. John G. born Feb. 2d, 1750, at Waldorf, in Germany ; educated at the uni- versity of Heidelberg, emigrated to America, 1771, died in the state of New York, August 17th, 1826, in the 77th year of his age, and the 55th of his ministry. Gebee, Claude, usually called Claude de Lor- raine, eminent landscape painter, died 1682, aged 82. Gerard, French nobleman, and first grand master of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, flourished A. D. 1100. Gessner, John Mathias, eminent German philologist, died 1761, aged 70. Gessner, Solomon, German philologist, died 1605, aged 46. Gibson, Col. John, an officer of the revolu- tionary war, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, May 23d, 1740, served under Gen. Forbes when that officer took Fort du Quesne ; entered the army as a colonel early in the war, and contin- ued through it; died at Braddock's Field, near Pittsburg, April 10th, 1822, aged nearly 82. Gibson, Col. George, an officer of the revo- lutionary army, a native of Lancaster, Pennsyl- vania, settled early in life at Pittsburg, joined the army as a colonel, and served to the end of 1778. In the war with the Indian tribes, Col. Gibson again commanded a regiment, and shar- ed the fatal dangers of St. Clair's campaign and defeat, in the latter of which he received a mor- tal wound, which terminated an honorable and eventful life at Fort Jefferson, Dec. 11th, 1794. Gilbert, sir Humphrey, half brother to sir Walter Raleigh, and one of the earliest English adventurers, who attempted to form a colony in America, born 1539 ; in 1576, published " A treatise to prove a passage by the north-west to the East Indies." In 1578, he obtained a patent to make a settlement in North America, and in that year made a voyage to Newfoundland, re- turned to Europe, and in 1583, on his homeward bound voyage, from another trip to America, was lost with all his crew. Gill, Dr. John, eminent scriptural commen- tator, died 1771, aged 74. Glanvil, Joseph, eminent English philosopher, died 1680, aged 44. Glauber, John Rodolph, from whom the well known salt takes its name, flourished 1640-60. Glisson, Francis, eminent English M. D. President of the College of Physicians, London, died 1677, aged 80. The man who was one of the founders of the Royal Society, and eulo- gized by Boerhaave and Haller. Glover, Richard, Eng. poet, died 1785, aged 73. Gluck, le Chevalier Christopher, eminent German musical composer, died at Vienna, 1787, aged 71 . Godfrey, Thomas, inventor of the Quadrant commonly called Hadley's. By the latter he was cheated out of the credit of the invention; bom in Philadelphia, where he died in Decem- ber, 1749. Godeau, eminent French ecclesiastical histo- rian, died 1672, aged 67. Goethe, John Wolfgang von, died at Weimar, Germany, March 22, 1832, aged 82. He was an eminent author and a romantic poet, held in great repute by his countrymen and admirers ; and styled " the patriarch of German litera- ture ;" according to a writer in " The Foreign Quarterly Review," " the first man of his na- tion and time ; " and according to Prince Puck- ler Muskau, " the third in the great triumvi- rate with Homer and Shakspeare." He was born on the 28th of August, 1749, at Frankfort on the Maine. At the age of 15, he went to the University of Leipsic ; and after passing four years there, he resided awhile in Alsace, and then returned to his native city. About the year 1776, on the invitation of the Grand Duke, he went to Weimar, where he passed the remainder of his life, loaded by his patron with honors, ennobled, made a privy counsellor, and for many years prime minister. Owing in part to the liberal patronage of the Grand Duke, the little court of Weimar was a distinguished focus of German literature ; and in the early years of the present century, this place reckoned among its residents more than twenty writers of note, at the head of whom were Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, Herder, and for a time, Kotzebue. Some of the most cele- brated of the productions of Goethe are the "Sorrows of Werther," "Faust," and " Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship." The edition of his works published at Stuttgard and Tubingen, in 1830, comprises 40 volumes. He left his MSS. to the care of Dr. Eckermann, whom he ap- pointed editor of his posthumous productions; and an edition of his whole works now publish- ing, will comprise fifty-five volumes. — He main- tained for many years a tranquil empire over the literature of his country, which was implic- itly acquiesced in by the candidates for literary fame ; yet his works have been much complain- ed of as characterized by unintelligible mysti- cism, and as of irreligious and immoral ten- dency. Gordon, Lord George, died in Newgate, Nov. 1, 1793. EMI 649 EMI Gore, Capl. John, the friend and companion of Capt. Cook, was born in Virginia, 1735; early in life he entered the British navy, and made his first voyage round the world with Commo- dore Byron. In 176S, he was appointed second lieutenant of the Endeavour, under Captain Cook, and again circumnavigated the earth. In 177G, he was appointed first lieutenant of the Resolution, and by the successive deaths of Captains Cook and Clerke, returned to Europe, October, 1730, commander of the squadron. Ended his days as one of the captains of Green- wich Hospital, Aug. 10th, 1790, aged 55. Granville, Geo., Eng. poet, died 1735, aged 63. Greene, Col. Christopher, a relation of Gen. Nathaniel Greene, and a native of Warwick, Rhode Island, was born 1737, and in May, 1775, entered the service as a lieutenant. He was with Montgomery at Quebec, where he became a prisoner. Soon after his exchange, he joined his regiment, to the command of which he rose in 1777. He fell May 22d, 1781, in an action with some tories near New York. Greenville, Sir Richard, commander of the first English colony sent to North America, was born 1540; in June, 1558, landed on the shores of the Roanoke, and left a small colony which was subsequently, it is probable, destroyed by the savages, as no trace of them could be ever afterwards discovered. Greenville shared with Howard, Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins and Frobi- gher, the renown of defeating the Spanish Ar- mada. In 1591, he was made Vice Admiral of a squadron sent out to the West Indies. In this expedition he fell in with a superior force, and in the action his ship was taken and him- self mortally wounded. Greenville, Sir Bevil, grandson of Admiral Greenville, was born 1596, and slain in the bat- tle of Lansdown, near Bath, 1643. Grenville, Lord William Wyndham, was a distinguished statesman and powerful debater, born Oct. 25, 1759. the third son of George Grenville, Prime Minister of England in 176'3- 5. The secret of the authorship of " Junius " is said to have been entrusted to Lord Gren- ville, and that it would be disclosed after his death ; and the office of making the disclosure, some have supposed, has been confided to his nephew, Lord Nugent. He died at his seat, Dropmore, in Buckinghamshire, on the 12th of January, 1834, aged 74. Grimston, sir Harbottle, English law writer, died 1683. Guido of Arezzo, musical composer, of the 11th century. Guise, Francis de Lorraine, duke of, celebrat- ed French general, murdered at Orleans, 15C3, aged 44. Guise, Henry de Lorraine, duke of, son of Francis, who with his brother Cardinal de Lor- raine, was murdered 1588, at the instigation of Henry III king of France. Gunter, Edmund, eminent English mathe- matician, author of the scale and chain which bears his name, died 1626, aged 45. Hale, sir Matthew, eminent English Judge, died 1676, aged G7. Hammond, James, eminent English elegiac poet, died 1740, aged 30. Harris, John, the first compiler of a dictionary of arts and sciences in England, died a beggar, 1719, aged 49. Hartley, David, eminent English metaphysi- cian, died 1757, aged 53. Harvey, Dr. William, who discovered the circulation of the blood, died June 3d, 1658, aged 80. Hauser, Caspar, a personage whose history is enveloped in mystery, died at Anspach, Bavaria, of wounds inflicted by an unknown assassin, Dec. 17th, 1833. On the 26th of May, 1828, a youth, apparently about 16 or 17 years of age, was found at one of the gates of N urem- berg ; but he was unable to give any account of himself, nor could it be discovered who brought him there, whence he came, or who he was. He was 4 feet and 9 inches in height ; was very pale ; had a short delicate beard on his chin and upper lip ; his limbs were slender ; his feet bore no marks of having been confined in shoes; he scarcely knew how to use his fingers or hands ; and his attempts to walk re- s' mbled the first efforts of a child. When sp ken to he understood nothing that was said to him, and only replied in a few words of un- intelligible gibberish ; and his countenance was expressive of gross stupidity. He held in his hand a letter addressed to the captain of one of the cavalry companies of Nuremberg, dated "Bavarian Frontiers; place nameless." Its purport was that the bearer had been left with the writer, who was a poor laborer, in October, 1812, and who, not knowing his parents, had brought him up in his house, without allowing him to stir out of it. A note accompanying the letter contained these words : — " His father was one of the light cavalry : send him, when he is 17 years old, to Nuremberg, for his father was stationed there. He was born April 30, 1812. I am a poor girl, and cannot support him : his father is dead," A pen being put into his EMI 650 EMI hands, he wrote in plain letters Caspar Hauscr. He appeared to be hungry and thirsty, but man- ifested great aversion to eating or drinking any thing that was offered to him except bread and water. He fell into the hands of persons who treated him kindly, and taught him the use of language ; and he manifested the most amiable and grate- ful disposition. But he could give no account of himself, except that, as far back as he could remember, he had always inhabited a small cell, continually seated on the ground, with his feet naked, and having no covering except a shirt and trousers, and he had never seen the sky. When he awoke from sleep he was accustomed to find near him some bread and a pitcher of water ; but he never saw the face of the person who brought them; and it was at Nuremberg that he first learnt there were other living crea- tures besides himself and the man with whom he had always been. — Preyious to his death Hauser resided at Anspach, where he had a little employment in the registrar-office, and Lord Stanhope had also provided for his sup- port. Some time before his assassination, an ineffectual attempt had been made upon his life by the same assassin, as is supposed, that finally inflicted the fatal blow with a dagger. Heath, Gen. William, born at Roxbury, Mas- sachusetts, in 1737, and died in his native place, Jan. 24th, 1814, aged 77. Amongst the first to take up arms in favor of his insulted country, was appointed by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, in 1775, a brigadier general; was by the continental congress, in 1776, raised to the rank of major general, and served through the war. Hedwig, John, eminent botanist, died 1797, aged 67. Herodotus, the father of history, born at Hal- icarnassus in Caria, B. C. 484, flourished B. C. 440 ; time of his death unknown. His history includes a period of 234 years, from B. C. 713 to 47!). Hervey, James, English divine and poet, au- thor of" Meditations," &c. died 1758, aged 44. Hay ward, Thomas, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, born in South Carolina, 1746; died March, 1809. Hill, Aaron, dramatic English poet, died 1750, aged 65. Hillhouse, James, a man very highly respect- ed for his private virtues and his great and long continued public services ; was born at Mont- ville, Conn., Oct. 21, 1754, and died at New Haven, Dec. 29, 1832, in his 79th year. Hoadley, Benjamin, eminent English divine and bishop of Winchester, died 1761, aged 85. Hobbes, Thomas, celebrated English writer, died 1679, aged 91. Hogarth, William, eminent English painter, died 1764, aged 67. Holbein, Hans, eminent Swiss painter, died 1554, aged 56. Holt, sir John, eminent English lawyer and judge, died 1709, aged 67. Holwell, John Zephaniah, commander, and one of the few survivors of a party of 146 En- glish, who were confined by the Nabob of Ben- gal in 1756, in what was called, " The Black Hole" at Calcutta. Mr. Holwell wrote an ac- count of this dreadful affair, which he survived 42 years, dying in 1798, aged 89. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, eminent critic,, born in Scotland, 1696, died 1782, aged 86. _ Hooker, Rev. Richard, author of Ecclesias- tical Polity, died 1600, aged 47. Hoole, John, English poet, translator of the Orlando Furioso,and Jerusalem Delivered, died 1803, aged .76. Hudson, Henry, eminent naval commander and discoverer in North America, flourished from 1607 to 1610. In the latter year, whilst navigating the bay which now bears his name, his crew mutinied, and put him, his son, and seven others on shore, where they no doubt perished. Hume, David, philosopher and historian, died August 25th, 1776, aged 65. Humphrey, Col. David, patriot of the Ameri- can revolution, born in Connecticut, 1752; in 1780 was appointed one of the aids to Gen. Washington, with whom he remained through the residue of the war, and at its termination accompanied him to Virginia. Col. Humphrey was distinguished for his gallantry and military skill at the siege of York. He remained with Gen. Washington, until 1790, with the excep- tion of two years residence in France. In 1790, he was appointed minister to Portugal, and for the residue of his life was alternately in public and private life. He died, Feb. 21st, 1818, aged 66. Hunter, John, eminent surgeon, died very suddenly in St. George's hospital, 1793, aged 65. Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon, grand- father to Queens Mary II and Anne, and author of a history of the grand rebellion, died at Rouen, 1674, aged 66. Jane, the insane, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, became mother of the emperors Charles V and Ferdinand I. The death of her husband EMI 651 EMI affected her reason ; she became insane in 150G, and remained so to her death, 1555, 49 years. Jasper, sergeant, distinguished for gallantry in the revolutionary war; June 28th, 1776, in the celebrated attack of sir Peter Parker, on Fort Moultrie, he replaced the American flag after it was shot away by a cannon ball. He with the aid of sergeant Newton, waylaid, sur- prised and captured, a British guard of ten men, releasing an American of the name of Jones, whom they were conducting to certain death at Savannah. This extraordinary exploit was performed within about two miles from the British lines ; killed in the attack on Savannah Oct. 9, 1779. Je-rome, St. died A. D. 420, aged 80. John, eminent Swiss naturalist, born at Zu- rich, 1709, died 1790, aged 81. Jones, sir William, English poet, statesman, and oriental scholar, born in London, 1746, died in Indostan, April 27th, 1794, aged 47. Julius Csesar, much celebrated Roman gen- eral, born B. C. July 10th, 100; murdered March 15th, 44, aged 56. Justin, a Latin historian, flourished it is sup- posed under Antoninus Pius. Kaufman, Angelica, eminent female painter; died 1807, aged 67. Kenrick, William, dramatic writer, died 1777. Klopstock, Frederick Theophilus, eminent German poet, born 1724, died 1803, aged 79. Kneller, sir Godfrey Theophilus, eminent German poet, aged 75. Laud, Archbishop, beheaded, 1645, aged 71. La Place, marquis, Peter Simon, author of the " Mechanique Celiste," born 1749, died 1827. Lavater, the physiognomist, died in his native city, Zurich. Lawrence, sir Henry, a celebrated portrait painter, born at Bristol, England, 1769, died Jan. 9, 1830. Lee, Francis Lightfoot, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, born Oct. 14, 1734. Lenox, Earl of, Regent of Scotland, murder- ed 1571. Leo IX, the first Pope who kept an army, 1054. Lever, sir Ashton, collector of a museum, died 1788. L'Enclos, Ninon de, died 1706, aged 80. Linnasus, Charles Von, eminent botanist, died at Upsal in Sweden, January 10, 1778, aged 71. Liverpool, Lord, distinguished premier of England, born June 17th, 1769, died December 18th, 1828. Livius, Titus, eminent Roman historian, died A. D. 18, aged 76. Long, Gabriel, the last of Gen. Morgan's captains, died at his residence in Culpepper county, Virginia, Feb. 3d, 1827. It is said that this intrepid soldier fought in eighteen battles. Longinus, eminent critic, put to death by the Roman emperor Aurelian, A. D. 273. Loyala, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits, died 1556, aged 65. Lucan, Latin epic poet, born at Corduba, in Spain, A. D. 37; put to death by Nero, 64, aged 27. Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, reigned 77 years, founded the first church in London, which was made the see of an arch- bishop, alterwards removed to Canterbury, A. D. 179. Lucretius, Latin poet, born at Rome, B. C. 95, died 52, aged 43. Lyttleton, Lord,Eng. poet, died 1773, aged 73. Mackintosh, sir James, Kt, M. P., D. L. C, &c, was born October, 24, 1765, at Alldowrie in the county of Inverness, Scotland, and was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, where he had for a fellow-student the celebrated Rob- ert Hall. He died in London, May 30th, 1832. Macklin, Charles, famous comedian, died July 11th, 1797, aged 97. Magellan, Ferdinand, whose ship was the first which was navigated round the world ; killed on the voyage, 1520. Malbone, Edward G., an eminent miniature painter, died 1807. Malebranche, Nicholas, philosopher, born at Paris 1638, died 1715, aged 77. Malherbe, Francis, French poet and critic, died 1628, aged 72. Malthus, celebrated English writer on politi- cal statistics, died Dec. 30, 1834. Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of king Henry VII, died June 29, 1509. Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, daughter of the duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV ; beheaded May 27th, 1541, aged 70. Marechal, Ambrose, Catholic archbishop of Baltimore, born at Orleans, France, 1768; died in Baltimore January 29th, 1828, aged 60. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany, mother of the unfortunate Maria Antoinette, queen of France, born 1717 ; married the duke of Lor- raine, 1736; succeeded her father, 1740; died 1780, aged 63. Marion, Gen. Francis, a brave and active officer in the southern war of the revolution, died in South Carolina, 1795, EMI 652 EMI Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, cele- brated English general, born at Ashe, in Dev- onshire, 1650; died 1723, aged 73. Martial, Marcus Valerius, Latin satiric poet, died A. D. 104, aged 75. Martin, Luther, eminent lawyer, first attor- ney general of Maryland, which office he held during the war, and nearly forty years ; became a chief justice of the city court of Baltimore ; died July 10th, 1826, in his 82d year. He was one of the Convention that formed the Consti- tution of the United States. Mary I, Queen of England, daughter of Hen- ry VIII and Catharine of Arragon, born 1516; succeeded her brother Edward VI, 1553; died November, 1558, aged 42, leaving the dreadful character of " The Bloody Mary." Mary, of Medicis, queen of Henry IV, of France, died 1642, aged 69. Mason, George, member of the Convention which framed the Constitution, which he refus- ed to sign ; member of Congress from Virginia, died 1792, aged 67. Massinger, Philip, English dramatic writer, died 1640, aged 56. Mather, Increase, eminent American divine, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, 1635; died 1723, aged 84. Mather, Cotton, son of Increase Mather, also eminent divine and writer, born 1662; died 1727, aged 65. Maurice, elector of Saxony, and successful supporter of the Protestant cause in Germany, killed in the battle of Sievenhausen, 1553, aged 32 years. Maurice, of Nassau, prince of Orange, and grandson by his mother, to Maurice of Saxony, pre-eminent Dutch general, died 1625, aged 58. McKean, Thomas, one of the signers of the Declaration of American Independence ; colonel in the army of the revolution; he prepared the constitution of the state of Delaware, which was adopted unanimously, July 28th, 1777; he re- ceived from the executive council of Pennsyl- vania his commission as chief justice, which office he held twenty-two years, and at the time of this appointment, lie was speaker of the house of assembly in Pennsylvania, president of Delaware, and a member of the congress, and soon after was elected president of that dis- tinguished body ; October 23d, 1781 , he address- ed a letter to congress resigning his office of president ; congress next day unanimously re- solved that Thomas McKean be requested to resume the chair, and act as president. To this he acceded. He was governor of Pennsyl- vania nine years; born March 19th, 1734, died June 24th, 1817, in his 84th year, being one of four survivors of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Medici, John de, Pope Leo X, born at Flor- ence 1475, died 1521, a lover and patron of learned men. Medici, Lorenzo, grandson of Cosmo, and the most eminent of his family, born 1448, died 1492, aged 44. Melancthon, Philip, illustrious reformer, and coadjutor of Luther, born 1495; died 1560, aged 65. Melmoth, William, eminent English lawyer and religious writer, died 1743, aged 77. Melmoth, William, son of the preceding, ele- gant English writer, born 1710, died 1799, aged 89 years. Menasseh, Ben Israel, a very learned and eminent Jewish rabbi, and writer, flourished 1720-59. Mercator, Gerard, improver of a method of projecting maps which bears his name, died 1594, aged 82. Mercer, Gen. Hugh, a most respectable and valuable officer in the revolutionary war ; killed in the battle of Princeton, January, 1777. He was a native of Scotland. Metastasio, l'Abate Pietro, eminent Italian poet, born 1698, died at Vienna, 1782. Metius, James, died 1612, inventor of tele- scopes. Meton, astronomer of Athens, inventor of the Cycle which bears his name, flourished B. C. 432-10. Mickle, William Julius, Scotch poet, and translator of the Lusiad, born 1734, died 1789, aged 55. Mifflin, Thomas, major general in the revo- lutionary war ; president of congress; and in that character received the resignation of Wash- ington in a public audience at Annapolis; was nine years governor of Pennsylvania, died Jan. 20, 1800, in the 57th year of his age. Milton, John, was born in London, Dec. 9th, 1608, died November 8th, 1674. Moliere, John Baptist, much celebrated French dramatic writer, born at Paris, 1620, died 1673, aged 53. Monro, Dr. Alexander, entitled the father of the medical school of Edinburgh, died 1787, aged 70. Montague, Michael de, French essayist, died 1592, aged 59. Montague, lady Mary Wortley, writer, born 1690, died 1762, aged 72. EMI 653 EMI Montcalm, Louis Joseph D. killed on the plains of Abraham 1759 ; he was commander ot the French army. Montecuculi, Raymond de ; great Italian gen- eral died 1681, aged 73i Montesquieu, author of the Spirit of Laws, born 1689, died 1755. . Montgolfier, inventor of air balloons, born 1747, died 1799. , Mooie, Dr. John, author, born 1730, died More, Hannah, a deservedly celebrated lady, who was born at Stapleton, in Gloucestershire in 1744 She was one of the five daughters ot a village schoolmaster, whose means were not sufficient to give his children many of the ad- vantages of education ; but this deficiency was supplied by their own talents and perseverance The literary abilities of Hannah early attracted notice, and a subscription was formed for estab- lishing her and her sisters in a school of their Her first literary production, " The Search after Happiness, a pastoral drama," was written when she was only 18 years of age, though not published till 1773. By the encouragement ot Mr Garrick, she tried her strength in tragic composition, and wrote "The Inflexible Cap- tive, a Tragedy," which was printed in 1704. Her tragedy of " Percy," the most popular ot her dramatic compositions, was brought out in 1778 and ran 14 nights successively ; and her "last tragedy, " The Fatal Falsehood," was pro- duced in 1779. Shortly after, her opinions on public theatres underwent a change, and, as she has stated in the preface to the third vol- ume of her works, " she did not consider the stage, in its present state, as becoming the appearance or countenance of a Christian. " Early in life she attracted general notice by a brilliant display of literary talent, and was honored by the intimate acquaintance ot John- son and Burke, of Reynolds and Garrick, and of many other highly eminent individuals, who equally appreciated her amiable qualities, and her superior intellect. But, under a deep con- viction, that to live to the glory of God, and to the good of our fellow creatures, is the great object of human existence, and the only one which can bring peace at the last, she quitted in the prime of her days, the bright circles of fashion and literature, and, retiring into the neighborhood of Bristol, devoted herself to a life^of active Christian benevolence, and to the composition of various works, having for their object the religious improvement of mankind. Her practical conduct beautifully exemplified the moral energy of her Christian principles Her first prose publication was " 1 noughts on the Manners of the Great," printed in l/u8 ; followed in 1791, by her " Estimate of the > Re- ligion of the Fashionable World. In 1795, she commenced at Bath, in monthly numbers, " The Cheap Repository," a series ot admirable tales for the common people, one ot which is the well-known " Shepherd of Salisbury Plain " The success of this seasonable publi- cation was extraordinary ; and within a year the sale reached the number of 1,000,000 cop- ies. Her " Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education" appeared in 1799 ; "Hints towards Forming the Character cf a Young Princess," in lb05 ; " Coslebs in search of a Wife " in 1809, (which passed through at least six editions in less than a year ;) « Practical Piety " in 1811 ; " Christian Morals, in iai wh0 was the cruar- dian to Rando P l, during his minority. Mr Randolph s early life was spent at different pla! ces under different instructers,of most of whom iie said he "never learned any thing. " He passed a short time at Princeton CoFlege, at Columbia College, and at William and Mary College and was a little while a student at law under Edmund Randolph. Of himself he re- marks, "With a superficial and defective edu- cation 1 commenced politician." He was elected a member of Congress in 1799 and continued a member of the House of Represen- tatives, with the exception of three intervals of two years each, (during one of these intervals he was ,n the U. S. Senate) till 1829; and he was afterwards appointed minister plenipoten- tiary to Russia. Mr. Randolph was never mar- ried. He was possessed of a large and valua- ble estate on the Roanoke, and had, at the time I/, 1 9n h ' 318 Kt V J S ' a " d 18 ° h0 ™s> of which about 120 were blood horses. He died at Phi- ladelphia, May 24, 1833, aged 60. Raphael Sanzio, an illustrious painter, often fy ]%™ hG dmne Ra P h ael," born in 1483, died in 1520. Rapin an eminent historian, born in Lan— A sovereignty founded by Thierry, first count of Holland, A. D. 86S; continued till 1417, when it pnssed by surrender to the duke of Burgundy, A. D. 1534 ; being oppressed by the bishop of Utrecht, the people ceded the country to Spain. The Spanish tyranny being insupportable, they revolted and formed the republic, now called the United Provinces, by the union of Utrecht, 1579. The office of stadtholder, or captain general of the United Provinces, made hereditary in the Prince of Orange's family, not excepting fe- males, 1747. — A revolt formed, but prevented by the Prussians, 1787.— Invaded by the French in 1793, who took possession of it, Jan. 1795, and expelled the stadtholder. — Erected into a kingdom by the command of Bonaparte, and the title of king given to his brother Louis, June 5, 1806. The throne abdicated by Louis, July 1, 1810. United to France by a decree of Bonaparte, July 9, 1810. Holliston, post town, Middlesex county, Massachusetts. Settled in 1710. Incorporated 1724. Visited in 1753 by a malignant fever, which carried off fifty-three persons out of a population of 400. Hull founded, 1296; incorporated by the lame of Kingston, 1299. Ilium built, 1359 B. C. Ionian islands ceded to Britain, as a free and ndependent state, by the allied sovereigns in ongress, Nov. 5, 1815. Ipswich, post town, and port of entry, Essex :ounty, Massachusetts. Settled 1634. Ireland ; the original inhabitants of this coun- ry are supposed to have been of the Celtic tock ; it was divided formerly among a num- er of petty sovereigns. Italy, kingdom of, began, 476; ended, 964; egan again, 1805 ; and Bonaparte the Corsican .-owned king, May 26. Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, and Alderney, were opendages of the duchy of Normandy, and nited to the crown of England, by the first -ince of the Norman line. Jerusalem built 1800 B. C. ; destroyed by 'itus, 70; rebuilt by Adrian, 130; again de- royed, 136 ; taken by the Saracens, 637 ; taken by the Crusaders, July 14, 1099, when 70,000 infidels are said to have been massacred ; taken from the Christians by Saladin, 1190, Kent, kingdom of, began, 455 ; ended, 823. Liverpool was incorporated, 1299; London fortified by the Romans, 50 ; walled, and a palace built, 294 ; made a bishopric, 653; repaired by Alfred, 885; greatly damaged by a fire, 982, 1027, and 1130"; not paved, 1090; houses of timber thatched with straw, but to prevent fire, ordered to be built with stone, and covered with slates, 1192, but the order not ob- served ; a charter by king John to the London- ers to choose a mayor out of their own body, annually (this office formerly was for life,) to elect and remove their sheriffs at pleasure, and their common-councilmen annually, 1208; a common hunt first appointed, 1226 ; aldermen first appointed, 1242; the houses still thatched with straw, Cheapside lay out of the city, 1246; all built of wood, 1300 ; their privileges taken away, but restored on submission, 1366; the first lord mayor sworn at Westminster that went by water,1433 ; the lord mayor's show instituted, 1453; a sheriff fined £50 for kneeling too near the lord mayor, when at prayers in St. Paul's cathedral, 1486; the Thames water first con- veyed into the city, 1582 ; the city chiefly built of wood, and in every respect very irregular, 1600 ; the New River brought to London, 1613 ; the lord mayor and sheriffs arrested at the suit of two pretended sheriffs, April 24, 1652 ; the greatest part of the city destroyed by fire, 1666 ; Pilkington and Shute, the city sheriffs, sent prisoners to the Tower, for continuing a poll after the lord mayor had adjourned it, 1682; the charter of the city declared forfeited to the crown, June 12, 1682; privileges taken away, but restored, 1688; builtamansion house, 1737; furnished and inhabited the same, 1752; repair- ed London bridge, 1758, when government granted them £ 15,000 and permitted them to pull down the gates, 1760; began Blackfriars bridge, Oct. 31, 1760 ; the common council or dered to wear blue mazarine gowns, Sept. 14, 1761 ; lost their cause against the dissenters serving sheriffs, July 5, 1762; the city remon- strated on the king's paying no attention to their petition for a redress of grievances, and was censured, March, 1770; Brass Crosby, Esq. lord mayor, and alderman Oliver, sent to the Tower by the house of commons, for committing their messenger, March, 1771 ; trade greatly injured by bankruptcies, 1772; regulation of admitting the livery at Guildhall, by Mr. Stone'a scheme, 1774 ; the common councilmen discon FOU 668 FOU tinued the wearing of their mazarine gowns in court, in 1775 ; the city abandoned to the mercy of an ungoverned mob, July 3, 1780; rebuilt the compters near Newgate, 1789; from the year 1768 to the year 177(5, the corporation of London expended the following sums for public uses, which show the opulence of the city : in new paving, repairing old pavements, lighting, cleansing, and purchasing old houses to widen streets, £200,000 ; £200,000 for the new bridge at Blackfriars ; several large sums for new roads, embanking the river, and other contingencies ; £200,000 for repairing the royal exchange ; the jail of Newgate cost £100,000. London is now supposed to contain 160,000 houses, 7000 streets, to cover 3000 acres, and to be in circumference 23 miles, and its population 1 ,200,000. Londonderry, post town, Rockingham coun- ty, New Hampshire. Settled by one hundred Scotch families, (who came from Londonderry, Ireland, their temporary residence,) in 1719. Lubec was founded, 1140. Lucca republic founded, 100. Lyons, in France, founded 43 B. C; opposed the national convention, by whom it was be- sieged, 1793. Macedon, kingdom of, began, 814 B. C. Madrid built, 936 B. C., but remained an ob- scure village in 1515. Man, isle of, formerly subject to Norway ; then to John and Henry III of England, and afterwards to Scotland ; governed by its lords, from 1043 ; conquered by Henry IV 1341. Medford, post town, Middlesex county, Mas- sachusetts. Settled in 1630. A ship of thirty tons built here in 1633. Michilimackinack. A fort built here by the French in 1673. Middletown, city, port of entry, and capital of Middlesex county, Connecticut, commenced 1651. Milan, the capital of this celebrated dukedom is reputed to have been built by the Gauls, about 408 B. C. Modena made a duchy, 1451. Mogul empire — The first conqueror was Jen- ghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died, 1236. Morocco, empire of, anciently Mauritania, first known, 1008. — Possessed by the Romans, 25 B. C, and reduced by them to a province, 50. — From this time it underwent various revo- lutions, till the establishment of the Almova- rides. — The second emperor of this family built the capital, Morocco. — About 1 116, Abdallah, the leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded the dynasty of Almahides, which ended in the last sovereign's total defeat in Spain, 1312. — At this period Fez and Tremecen, then provinces of the empire, shook off their dependence. — Mo- rocco was afterwards seized by the king of Fez; but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1550, subdued and united again the three kingdoms, and formed what is at present the empire of Morocco. Moscow founded, 1156. Munich, in Bavaria, founded, 962; walled. 1157. Nantucket, island of, Massachusetts: First settlement commenced at Madakit harbor, 1659. Naples founded, 323 B. C. Naples, anciently Capua and Campania, kingdom of, began, 1020. — Great part of the country was inhabited, in ancient times, by the Etruscans, who built Nola and Capua. Netherlands declared themselves a free state, 1565 and 1789 ; became a province to France in 1794 ; placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange, 1814. Newcastle-upon-Tyne built, 1079; incorpo- rated by king John, 1213. New Haven, city, seaport, and semi-metrop- olis of Connecticut. Built 1638. Its college was projected in 1654. Plundered by the Brit- ish, July 5, 1779. Made a city 1784. New London, city and port of entry, New London county, Connecticut. Settled in 1648. Burnt by Benedict Arnold, after his treason, Sept. 6, 1781. Made a city 1784. New Orleans, city, port of entry and capital of Louisiana. Founded in 1717. Dreadful hurricane occurred in 1722. Newtown, Massachusetts, originally intended as a fortified place, and commenced in 1631. (See Cambridge .) Normandy erected into a dukedom, 876. Northumberland kingdom began, 547 ; ended, 828. Norwalk, post town, Fairfield county, Con- necticut. Settled in 1651. Burnt by the Brit- ish, July 12,1779. Norway attached to Sweden, and Charles XIII of Sweden proclaimed king of, November 4,1814. Norwich, city, New London county, Connec- ticut. Settled in 1660. Made a city in 1784. Nottingham built, 924. Ottoman empire begun, 1293. Oxford university, founded by Alfred, 886; its castle built, 1071 ; archdeaconry erected, 1092; Beaumont place finished, about 1128; chancellor's court established, 1244; bishoprick taken from Lincoln, and founded, 1541 ; first FOU 669 FOU public lecture in Arabic read there, 1G36; new theatre built, 1669 ; a terrible fire at, 1644 ; again, 1C71; library built, 1745; hospital begun, May 1 , 1772 ; observatory built, 1772 ; visited by Geo. Ill, &c. Oct. 12, 1785. Padua built, 1269 B. C; surrounded with a wall, &c. by the Venetians, 1019. Paris founded, 357; made the capital of France, 510 ; the city of, consumed by fire, 588 ; first paved with stones, 1186; barricadoes of, 1588, to oppose the entry of the duke of Guise ; again, Aug. 27, 1748, in opposition to the re- gency ; first parliament there, 1302. Persian empire founded, 536 B. C. Petersburgh, in Muscovy, built by the czar, Peter 1, 1703. Pisa republic founded, 1403. Plymouth, seaport and capital of Plymouth county, Massachusetts. First company of Pil- grims landed Dec. 23, 1620. First house built Dec. 25, of the same year. Poland, once the country of the Vandals, who left it to invade the Roman empire ; it was made a duchy, 694 ; kingdom of, began, by the favor of Otho III, emperor of Germany, under Boleslaus, 999. Portland, city and port of entry, Cumberland county, Maine. Incorporated 1786. Portugal, kingdom of. began, 1139 ; united to Spain in 1580, and continued so till 1640, when they shook off the Spanish yoke. Providence, city and port of entry, Provi- dence county, Rhode Island. Settled by Roger Williams in 1636. Thirty houses destroyed by the Indians, March 29, 1676. Prussia, anciently possessed by the Venedi, wljose kings were descended from Athirius, first king of the Heruli, on the Baltic, 320 B. C. Ratisbon built, 1187 B. C. Riga, founded in 1128,by a colony of Bre- meners. Roman empire began, 44 B. C; ended, 63 A. D.; began in the west, 74 ; ended, 92 ; began in the east. 364 ; ended, 1553 ; it was 2000 miles broad, and 3000 in length. Rome, its foundation laid by Romulus, its first king, 753 B. C. according to most chronol- ogers; by sir Isaac Newton's chronology, 627, B.C. Rostock founded, 1169. Roxbury, town, Norfolk county, Massachu- setts. Settled in 1630. Russia, or Muscovy, anciently Sarmatia, and inhabited by the Scythians ; not renowned till the natives attempted to take Constantinople, A. D. 864. Salem, seaport and capital of Essex county, Massachusetts In 1678 contained but eighty- five houses. The first pavement finished, 1773. Sardinia conquered by the Spaniards. 1303, in whose possession it was till 1708, when it was taken by an English fleet, and given to the duke of Savoy, with the title of king. Savoy, part of Gallia Narbonensis, which submitted to the Romans, 118 B. C. Saybrook, post town, Middlesex county, Connecticut. Fort erected in 1635. An eccle- siastical constitution, called the " Saybrook Platform," adopted by the Synod, Sept. 1708. Scotland, anciently Caledonia, history of, be- gan, 328 B. C, when Fergus I was sent over by the people of Ireland ; received the Christian faith, A. D. 203. Sicily first peopled from Italy, 1262 B. C. Southwark annexed to London, 1550. Spain, New, established, 1520. Spain was first civilized by the Phcenicians, who possessed great part of it ; these called in the Carthaginians; it was afterwards invaded by the Rhodians ; the Carthaginians however made new conquests, 209 ; and after the de- struction of ancient Tyre, became the most pow- erful in this country. — Conquered by the Ro- mans, 216 B. C. Springfield, post town and capital of Hamp- den county, Massachusetts. Settled in 1636. Burnt by the Indians in 1675. Stockholm built, 1253. Sweden, anciently Scandinavia, kingdom of, began, 481. Switzerland inhabited formerly by the Hel- vettii, who were subdued by Csesar, 57 B. C. Syracuse, in the isle of Sicily, founded, 709 B.C. Thebes built by Cadmus, 493 B. C. Trenton, the metropolis of New Jersey. Founded by William Trent in 1724. Troy built, 1480 ; the kingdom of, began 1446 B. C. Vandals began their kingdom in Spain, 412; ended, 534. Venice. — The first inhabitants of this country, were the Veneti ; conquered by the Gauls, and made a kingdom, about 356; conquered for the Romans, by Maicellus, 221 B. C. Vienna was very obscure till 1151 ; it was walled and enlarged by Henry I,, of Austria, 1122, with the ransom of king Richard I, of England. Wallachia, incorporated with Russia, 1810. Wales first inhabited by Britons, on their being expelled England by the Saxons, 685; FRO 670 GAR divided into North Wales, South Wales, and Powis Land, 970 ; conquered and divided by William I, among the conquerors, 1091 ; Grif- fith the last king died, 1137; the sovereign, from that time, was a prince only. Washington city, in America, founded, 1791. Waterford, in Ireland, built 1162. Wirtemberg erected into a county in 1078 ; into a duchy, at the diet of Worms, 1495; into a kingdom, 1803. Woburn, post town, Middlesex county, Mas- sachusetts. Settled in 1642. York built, 1223 B. C. FROST, in Britain, lasted five months, 220. The Pontus sea was entirely frozen over for the space of 20 days, and the sea between Constan- tinople and the Scutari, 401 ; so severe a frost all over Britain, that the rivers were frozen up for above two months, 508 ; one so great that the Danube was quite frozen over, 558 ; the Thames frozen for six weeks, when booths were built on it, 695; one that continued from Oct. 1, to February 26, 760; one in England which lasted nine weeks, 827; carriages were used on the Adriatic sea, 859; the Mediterranean sea was frozen over, and passable in carts, 860 ; most of the rivers in England frozen for two months, 908; the Thames frozen thirteen weeks, 923 ; one that lasted 120 days, which began December 22, 987 ; the Thames frozen five weeks, 998 ; a frost on midsummerdav, so vehement, that the corn and fruits were destroy- ed, 1035 ; the Thames frozen fourteen weeks, 1063 ; a frost in England from November to April, 1076; several bridges in England being then of timber, broken down by a frost. 1114; a frost from January 14 to March 22, 1205 ; one of fifteen weeks, 1207 ; the Mediterranean sea was frozen over, and the merchants passed with their merchandise in carts, in 1234 ; the Cattegatt, or sea between Norway and Den- mark, was frozen, and that from Oxslo, in Nor- way, they travelled on the ice to Jutland, in 1294 ; the sea between Norway and the prom- ontory of Scagernit frozen over, and from Swe- den to Gothland, 1296; the Baltic was covered with ice fourteen weeks, between the Danish and Swedish islands, in 1306 ; the Baltic was passable for foot passengers and horsemen, for six weeks, in 1323 ; the sea was frozen over, and passable from Stralsund to Denmark, in 1349 ; the Baltic was quite frozen over from Pomerania to Denmark, in 1402; the whole sea between Gothland and Geland was frozen, and from Restock to Gezoer, in 1408; the ice bore riding on from Lubec to Prussia, and the Bal- tic was covered with ice from Mecklenburgh to Denmark, in 1423, 1426, and in 1459; the sea between Constantinople and Iskodar, waa passable on ice in 1420; in 1709, the Adriatic sea was frozen and the olive trees killed in the south of Europe ; in 1779-80, the ice was driven out of the mouth of the Mississippi into the Mexican gulf — a circumstance never known before or since ; in 1788, which lasted only from November to January, 1789, when the Thames was crossed opposite the custom house, the tower Execution dock, Putney, Brentford, &c. ; it was general throughout Europe, partic- ularly in Holland, at the same time ; the most severe on Dec. 25th, 1796, that had been felt in the memory of man ; severe one in January, 1814, when booths were erected on various parts of the Thames, and the antiquarian soci- ety of Newcastle recorded, that the rapid river Tyne was frozen to the depth of twenty inches; severe frost at Quebec, Aug. 7, 1815. In the United States, lat. 42, January, 1835, thermom- eter 30 degrees below zero. In Maine, 40 de- grees below. FRUITS of foreign countries first brought into Italy, 70 B. C, and flowers, sundry sorts before unknown, were brought into England in the reigns of Henry VII, and VIII, from about 1500 to 1578. Among others of less note, the musk and damask roses, of great use in medi- cine, and tulips. Several sorts of plum trees and currant plants; also saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, attempted to be culti- vated, but without success. G. GAMUT in music invented by Guy L'Are- tin, 1025. GANSEVOORT FORT, built 1812. GARDENING introduced into England from the Netherlands, from whence vegetables were imported, till l5()9; the pale gooseberry, with salads, garden roots, cabbages, &c. 'brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois 1520; rye and wheat, from Tartary and Siberia, where they are yet indigenous; barley and oats un- known, but certainly not indigenous in Eng- land ; rice from Ethiopia; buckwheat, Asia; borage, Syria ; cresses, Crete ; cauliflower, Cy- prus ; asparagus, Asia ; chervil, Italy ; fennel, Cnnary Islands; annise and parsley, Egypt; garlic, the East; shallots, Siberia; horserad- ish, China; kidney beans, East Indies ; gourds, Astracan; lentils, France; potatoes, Brazil; tobacco, America; cabbage, lettuce, &c. Hoi- GRI 671 HAN land. Jassamine comes from the East Indies ; the elder tree from Persia ; the tulip from Cappadocia ; the daffodil, from Italy ; the lily, from Syria ; the tube rose from Java and Cey- lon ; the carnation and pink, from Italy, &c. ; rananculus, from the Alps ; apples, from Syria ; apricots, from Epirus ; artichokes, from Hol- land ; celery, from Flanders; cherries, from Pontus ; currants, from Zante ; damask and musk roses, from Damascus, as well as plums ; hops, from Artois and France ; gooseberries from Flanders ; gilliflowers, carnations, the Provence rose, &c. from Thoulouse, in France ; oranges and lemons from Spain ; beans and peas from Spain. GAS, use of, introduced in London, for lighting shops and streets, 1814 ; first into the United States, at Baltimore, 1821. GAUZE, lawn, and thread manufactures, began at Paisley, in Scotland, in 1759, which in 1784 yielded £575,185, and employed 26,664 hands. In gauze alone, £350,900. GAZETTES, of Venetian origin, and so called from the price being gazetta, a small piece of money ; the first published in England, was at Oxford, Nov. 7, 1665. GEORGIUM SIDUS discovered by Hersch- el, 1781. GILDING with leaf gold on bole ammoniac, art of, invented by Margaritone, 1273 ; on wood, 1680. GIPSIES quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks in 1515, and wandered over almost all Europe. GLASS, the art of making it, known to the Romans at least before 79 ; known to the Chi- nese about 200 ; introduced into England by Benedict, a monk, 674 ; glass windows began to be used in private houses in England, 1180 ; glass first made in England into bottles and vessels, 1557 ; the first plate glass for looking glasses and coach windows, made at Lambeth, 1673 ; in Lancashire, 1773 ; window glass first made in England, 1557. GLOBE of the earth, the first voyage round it was by sir Francis Drake, 1580 ; the second by Magellan, 1591 ; the third by sir Thomas Cavendish, 1586; by lord Anson in 1740; by captain Cook in 1768 ; and by Peyrouse in 1793-4. GRAPES brought to England and planted first at Blaxhall,in Suffolk, 1552; cultivated in Flanders 1276. GREEN DYE for cotton, invented by Dr. R. Williams, 1777. GRISTMILLS invented in Ireland, 214. GUINEAS were first coined, 1673, from gold brought from the coast of Guinea. GUNPOWDER invented, 1330; first made in England, 1418; first used in Spain, 1344. GUNS, great, invented, 1330; used by the Moors at the siege of Algesiras, in Spain, in 1344 ; used at the battle of Cressy, in 1346; when Edward had 4 pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle ; they were used at the siege of Calais, in 1347; in Denmark, 1354; at sea by Venice against Genoa, 1377; first used in Spain 1406; first made in England of brass, 1635 of iron, 1547 ; invented to shoot whales, 1731 first used in England, at the siege of Berwick, 1405 ; bombs and mortars invented, 1634. H. HABEAS CORPUS ACT in England, pass- ed, 1641, and May 27, 1679; attempt made in the senate of the United States to suspend it, but rejected by the house of representatives, 1806. HACKNEY COACHES first used, 20 in number, in London, 1625. HAIR POWDER in use, 1590; a guinea per year tax on those who wear it, 1795. HANDKERCHIEFS first manufactured at Paisley, in Scotland, 1748, when £15,886 worth were made ; in 1784 the manufacture yielded above £164,385. HANSEATIC LEAGUE. In the middle of the thirteenth century, the sea and land were infested with pirates and robbers. The German trade being exposed to accidents by land and sea, Hamburg and Lubeck in the year 1241, en- tered into a confederacy, in which they agreed to defend each other from all attacks and from every act of violence. This league was soon after joined by Brunswick ; it was named by way of eminence, the Hanse, meaning a league for mutual defence. Many other towns joined and in a short time, became so numerous that in 1260, a meeting of the members was held at Lubeck, and continued to meet there every three years. In the fourteenth century, this league attain- ed every where a high political importance, and enjoyed extensive and uncommon privileges, till at last it became the mistress of lands and seas and crowns. So it continued for a length of time, till the travelling becoming more se- cure, and the circumstances that gave it rise being changed, the Hanseatic League began to fall, and in 1630, the last diet was held at Lu- beck. The largest number of the Hanse towns was eighty-five. HIE 672 HIE HATS invented at Paris, 1404 ; first made in London, 1510. HEMP and flax first planted in England, 1533. There are 180,0001b. of rough hemp used in the cordage and sails of a first rate man of war. HERALDRY had its rise, 1100. HERRING FISHERY, first practised by the Hollanders, 1164 ; herring pickling first invented 1397. HIEROGLYPHICS : Or sacred engraving, was the name given first to the sculptures and inscriptions on the monuments of Egypt — it is now often used to denote simply picture writ- ing, which is seen in its rudest state, upon the buffalo skins of our North American Indians, &c. But a new charm has been given to sim- ilar sculptures, and indeed to the study of anti- quity in general by Champollion's discovery of the key to these so long inexplicable mysteries. This indefatigable scholar, after many years of toil has at last succeeded in deciphering every inscription presented to him ! He discov- ers that these hieroglyphics were usually em- ployed as mere alphabetic letters; that when thus read, they give us regular composition in the Coptic or old Egyptian language. As the Coptic is understood by many learned men, we are in a fair way of knowing all that the Egyp- tian records so formed can teach. These monu- mental records of the earliest ages are of two kinds. A. The com- fdemotic.a and demode by Herodotus and mon, I Diodorus. called < enchoria by the Rosetta inscription. I epistulugraphica by Clement of Alexan- [ dria. i. Hieratic, or sacerdotal writing, which may be called hierographic. B. The sacred, divided by Clement of Alexandria into b. Hiero- glyphic, compos- ed of a. Cyriologic, by means of the first letters of the al- phabet. 1. A. Symbol- ical, com- prising the Cyriologic, by imita- 1 tion. ] 2. Tropical or metaphor- ical. (^.Enigmatical. The hieroglyphic, writing is eminently monu- mental. It is from the nature of the signs which it employs a species .of painting, and it presents a various and picturesque aspect, which distin- guishes it essentially from every other method of writing. The hieroglyphic characters do in fact exhibit images of almost every material object in creation. But the whole number of those used alphabetically, observed by Cham- pollion, after more than 20 years' study, was only 864, viz. celestial bodies, 10; human fig- gures in various positions 120; human limbs, taken separately, 60 ; wild quadrupeds, 24 ; do- mestic quadrupeds, 10; limbs of animals, 22; birds, whole or in parts, 50 ; fishes, 10 ; reptiles, whole or in parts, 30; insects, 14; vegetables, plants, flowers and fruits, 60; buildings, 24; furniture, 100 ; coverings for feet and legs, head-dresses, weapons, ornaments and sceptres, 80 ; tools and instruments of various sorts, 150 ; vases, cups and the like, 30 ; geometrical figures, 20 ; fantastic forms, 50. The figures are ar- ranged in columns, vertical or horizontal, and grouped together, as circumstances requiied, so as to leave no spaces unnecessarily vacant. We cannot go into a larger detail of the other methods of Egyptian writing, which may be understood by an attentive examination of the table above, but give a familiar specimen of the phonetic and alphabetic. To write the name Boston, (See cut fig. A.) for B. the Egyptians would look for some familiar object, the name of which began with B. say a censer, which is called in Egyptian Berhe, and the engraving would be the more appropriate to use, from the church-going character of the inhabitants of Boston, &c. ; in looking round for an object whose name begins with O. the literary char- acter of the city would suggest the reed, an instrument of writing, anciently, and now so used in the East ; this, in Egyptian, is Oke ; for " S. take a star ; Sion, for T. a hand, tot, for O, again, to have a variety, instead of the Egyptian tufted reed, as above, they might take an abbre- viation of it, the curled line ; forN. we have the vulture, noure, or, better, the sign for inunda- tion, neph. Fig. 6. gives a periectly Egyptian specimen of the symbolical style, in what is generally called an anaglyph. It is a female winged sphinx found upon a block of black gran- ite. The sphynx was an emblem of strength, and wisdom, the body being that of a lion, and the head human. The name Tmauhmot, (daugh- ter of Horus, a king of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt,) is read in the oval. This then is a symbolical image of the queen herself; and the flowers of lotus, uuderneath, are evidently, though emblematically, taken for the Nile, and for the whole country of Egypt. The sphynx instead of a paw, has a hand, raised in the atti- tude of protection. The whole then seems to be in ptaise of a monarch, and to signify " a monument raised to the memory of queen Tmauhmot, styled the Guardian and Protec- tress of the land of Egypt, by her wisdom and strength." Hieroglyphics. See p. 672. Sesostris. See p. 657. JUD 673 LAB HOUR GLASSES were invented in Alex- andria, 240, and introduced at Rome, 158 years B. C. y HUDSON'S BAY discovered by captain Hudson, 1(507. HUGUENOTS murdered at Paris, Aud. a day, without meat and diink, or with meat and drink 4d. from Michaelmas to Easter to abate aid.; a master, having under him six men, was allowed a Id. a day extra. By the 6th of Henry VIII, 1515, the wages of shipwrights were fixed as follows : a master ship carpenter, taking charge of the work, having men under him, 5d. a day in the summer season, with meat and drink ; other ship carpenter, called an hewer, Ad.; an able clincher, 3d.; holder 2d.; master caulker Ad.; a mean caulker 3d.; a day laborer, by the tide, Ad. LACK, Flanders, more valuable than gold — one ounce of fine Flanders thread has been sold in London for £4. Such an ounee made into lace may be sold for £40, which is ten times the price of standard gold, weight for weight. LACTEALS, the, discovered by chance, in opening a dog, by Asellius, July 23, 1662; in birds, fish, &c. by Mr. Hewson, surgeon, of Lond in-, 1770. LAKE OF HARANTOREEN,in the coun- ty of Kerry, Ireland, a mile in circuit, sunk into the ground with all its fish, March 25, 1792. LAMP for preventing explosion by fire-damp in coal mines, invented by sir Humphrey Davy, 1815. LAND CARRIAGE, fish first brought to London by, 1761. LAND, piece of, in Findland, 4000 square ells in extent, sunk fifteen fathoms, but most of the inhabitants escaped, February, 1793. A tract of, amounting to 120 English acres, and of the depth of sixty feet, slid, with a tremend- ous crash, into the river Nid, near Drontheim in Norway, March 7, 1816. LANCASTRIAN SCHOOLS of education established in most of the principal towns of England, 1810. LANTERNS invented by king Alfred, 890. LAWNS AND THREAD GAUZE were in Y7M, manufactured at Paisley to the value of £164,385 16*. 6.5d. LA VVS. COURTS OF JUSTICE, OATHS, TAXES, &c. Abjuration oath, first required, 1701. Admiralty, court of, erected, 1357 ; incorpo- rated June 22, 1768. Adultery punished by cutting off the nose and ears, 1031 ; made capital, 1650. Affirmation of the Quakers first accepted ag an oath, 1702; alteration made in it, December 13, 1721. African bill, to supply that trade with cali- coes, 1765. Agrarian law introduced at Rome, 486 B. C. By this law the public lands were divided be- tween all the citizens. Ale and ale-houses in England made mention of in the laws of lira, king of Wessex ; first licensed, 1551. Aliens forbidden to hold church livings, and juries for their trials to be half foreigners, 1430; prevented from exercising any trade or handi- craft by retail, 1483. Allegiance, oath of, first administered, 1606. Almanack stamps increased, 1781. Ambassadors first protected by a law, 1709; their protection restrained, 1773. American duties, act passed, 1764 ; on tea,. 1767. Arbitration act passed in England, 1698. Armorial bearings introduced into England, to distinguish nobles, 1100; taxed, 1798, 1808. Arrest, vexatious ones, prevented by an act, May 17, 1733; for less than £10 forbidden, 1779; for less than £20, or on a bill of ex- change for £15, June 14, 1810. Artificers' bill, to prevent their seduction, 1787. Assaying of gold and silver, legally establish- ed, 1354. Assize of bread and ale in England establish- ed, 1266; again, legally, 1710. Auction and sales tax began, t779. Bachelors' tax, 1695 and 1796. Bankrupts in England first regulated by law, 1543. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. Birth of children taxed, 1695, 1783. Boston port bill, for its removal, 1775. Bread ordered not to be sold, till 24 hours old, to lessen its consumption, March, 1800. Brokers regulated in London, by law, 1697. Buckingham house bought for the queen of England, 1775. Bonaparte, bill for detaining him in custody in the island of St. Helena, passed April 9, 1816. Burials taxed in England, 1695, 1783. Buttons and button holes of cloth prohibited by law, 1721. Canon law first introduced into England, 1140. LAW 675 LAW Caps. — A law enacted that every person above seven years of age, should wear on Sun- days and holidays, a cap of wool, knit made, thickened and dressed in England, by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, except- ing maids, ladies and gentlewomen, and every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as have borne office of worship in any city, town, or place and the wardens of the London companies 1571. ^ ' Chancery, court of, in England, established 605. The first person qualified for chancellor by education, was sir Thomas More, 1530, the office before being rather that of a secretary of state, than the president of a court of justice. Christenings taxed in England, 1783. Circuits, justiciary, established, 1176 ; in Scotland. 1712. Clergy forbidden drunkenness by law, in En- gland, 741. Clocks and watches taxed, 1797; repealed 1798. V ' Common pleas in England, court of, estab- lished 1215. Copy-right secured, by an act passed 1710; farther secured, in England, by an act passed in 1814. Corn, bill to permit the exportation of, passed 1814, to permit the importation when British wheat shall be at 80*. per quarter, 1815. Courts of justice instituted at Athens, 1272 B. C. Criminals ordered for transportation instead of execution, 1590 ; Henry VIII executed 72 000 during his reign. Curfew bell established by William the con- queror, 1068; abolished in 1100. East-India company's act in England, passed, 171 8. Exchequer chamber, court of, erected by Ed- ward III, 1359 ; improved by Elizabeth, 1584. Feodal or feudal laws, the tenure of land by suit and service to the lord or owner of it in- troduced into England by the Saxo.is about 600 The slavery of this tenure increased under William I, 1068. This was dividing the king- dom into baronies, giving them to certain per- sons, and requiring those persons to furnish the king with money, and a stated number of sol- diers. It was discountenanced in France by Louis XI, about 1470; restored, and limited bv Henry VII, 1495; abolished by statute, 12 Charles II, 1662. ' Fiery ordeal enforced in England, 1042. Forgery first punished with death in England 1634. s ' French tongue abolished in the English courts of justice, 1362. Game acts passed in England, 1496, 1670 1753, 1784, 1785, and 1808. Gipsies expelled out of England, 1563. Gladiators, the combats of. abolished, 325. Hackney coaches established by act of parlia- ment, June 24, 1694 ; regulated 1784 1786 1800, 1815. ' ' Hanover succession established by law, 1701. Harlots obliged to wear striped hoods of party colors, and their garments the wrong side out- wards, 27 Edward III, 1355. Hat tax commenced, October 1, 1784 ; stamps for ditto, 1796; repealed, 1811. Juries first instituted, 970; trial by, in civil causes, in Scotland, passed into a law, March, Justices of the peace first appointed in Eng- land, 1076. s Justinian published his codex of the civil law, 529 ; and four years after, his work of the same kind, called the Digest. Land tax, the first in England, 991 , amount- ed annually to £ 82,000, in 1018; every hide of land taxed 3s. in 1109. Laws primitive.— The laws of Moses were given, B. C. 1452; those of Minos in Crete, 1406; of Lycurgus, at Sparta, 884; those of Draco, and Solon at Athens, the former 623, the latter 580 ; of the Twelve Tables at Rome, 451 ; of Locri by Dalericus,450 ; and of Thurium,in Italy, by Charondas, 446. Latin tongue abolished in courts of law, 1731. Laws of the land first translated into Saxon 590; published, 610. ' Laws of Edward the confessor composed 1065. V ' Legacies taxed, 1780; advanced, 1796, 1808. Licenses for public houses first granted, 155]- for brewers and exciseable articles enforced' 1784. ' Longitude, a reward promised by parliament for the discovery of, 1714. Lords lieutenants of counties instituted, Julv 24,1549. ' y Luxury restricted by an English law, where- in the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on great festivals; it also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free es- tate of £100 per annum, from wearing furs skins or silk ; and the use of foreign cloth was' confined to the royal family alone, to all others LAW 676 LEA it was prohibited, 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI, of France, which says, " Let no one presume to treat with more than a soup and two dishes," 1340. Magna charta granted by king John, June 12, 1215. Mail coaches first established to Bristol, 1784 ; to other parts of England, and an act to regu- late and encourage them, 1785, and exempt them from tolls. Maiming and wounding made capital, 1C70. Marriages taxed, 1695, 1784. Marriage act passed, June, 1753; amended 1781. . . . Marriages of the royal family restrained by an act passed 1772. Mortmain act passed, in 1279; and another, May 21), 1736. Mutiny act first passed, in 1689. Nantz, edict of, passed by Henry IV, by which Protestants enjoyed toleration in France, 1598; revoked by Louis XIV, 1685; by this infamous policy 50,000 French Protestants left France, and came to England, and other parts of Europe. Naturalization, first law for in England, 1437 and 1709. Naturalization of Jews, bill passed 17o3; re- pealed December following. Navigation act first passed, 1381 ; again 1541 ; again for the colonies, 1646, 1651 ; which secur- ed the trade of the British colonies, 1660 and 1778. New style act passed 1752. Notes and bills first stamped, 1782 ; advanced 1796, 1808, 1815. Ordeal by fire and water, abolished 1261. Papal authority abolished by law, 1391. Papists excluded the throne of England, 1689 ; their estates valued at £375,284 15s. 3£°°0 were sk l ' a g reat number of protestantsat Tlmm' ,"?"" »"««""uuiis 01 ine island of who were put to death under a pretended S K n V?^ Whlch was > h °wever, most severe- sentence of the chancellor of Poland £ befnJ rfodv of^r IT the T Urks in ■ few 4* a concerned in a tumult occasioned by apl X t f u r tr °° pS ,andin £ and putting the procession, 1724; at Batavia, where KS it fi tT" rk, , h J orce to the sword; April g 23d* Chinese were killed by the natives, Oct 1740 nn h lnhab,tantS and S arriso " of Missi-' in England, 300 English nobles, bv Fwl / !°" gh '' , w f r « ™<-dered under circumstances of 2W *S SKS"""* "• at Lonti^ accumulated horror's " ^^umstances of SATTHE W, ST. wrote his gospel, 44 was the most bloody, the churches beino- '„" tion of h, . 77^ J^, extraordinar 3' eA-hibi- sanctuary; amongst the rest Gunilda, sister of i„ A™, ese '£ alled 1 Falhn S Stars > ? ' took place Swe.n.k.ngofDenmar k, left in hostage for the descrXTh' November "th, 1833. It is thus performance of a treaty but newly concluded des " lhed ^ an eyewitness : of the Jews, (some few pressing into Westinin f on T'lifTf'™ rniles southwest of Boa- ster Hall, at Richard I's cornatL, were put o lookin a /"'r b , ef ° re five in the ™™*g, «» death by the people, and a false alarm be nj hoc ?f Z ° f the ™ d ™ *™ several % ars given, Uwt the king had ordered a general mas? S downward, leaving behind a long sacre -of them, the people in man/parts of En- £fi£?£?i Th ' s / Xci t fd our attention and gland from an aversion to them; slew all thev m " P f ed f " end who was slee P in g « inet ; ,n York, 500, who had taken die er in a *r2$ acent ™om, we sallied forth, he castle, killed themselves, rather than f.H r r, SC « e T, aS ■ lndeed beautiful, and almost into the hands of the people,)'l 89 of he En Sf „° n a " S,des ° f as > "early without ces. ghsh, by the Dutch atAmb^na,i;o4. of the" the?' ^ ^^ Wer» and, for not surrendering in time according if, and S00n dlsa PPeared ; others were king William's proclamation thoiMi witlfout ZTr h »»™\™* had a longer and more glori! the king's knowledge, 1(392;' se vera 1 dreadful r I '"i W « ^re standing among some massacres in France during the revolution * rees > th e strong shadows of which werl often from 1789 to 1794 ; massacreV 600 . egroe bv bv "P™ ^ gr ° Und ' aS the mete0rs hurried the French at St. Mark's, 1802; massacre It Th Algiers, March 10, 180U; insnrrecS and „. p There Was a bo ^ w th us whose exclamations dreadful massacre at Madrid, Mav 2 1808 Z "ft™* & , nd descri Ptive. « See there, dreadful massacre of the Mamelukes' in the f^.Th' ?*"* h e, " there goes a whole hand-' citadel of Cairo, March 1 1811 ' ! , there s one > cracked all to pieces ! Look MASSACRES IN THE TJ STATFS „p vP™ er ?' that one 's made a mark on the sky -ie first settlers of Vi„ri„£ V- Zl^IR 8 ' * h K e a P le <* °f chalk !" Chicago, on their retreat from The place by the above it ' T U ' M the ^ tterin g ™* savages August 15th, 1812; of the American ThL »h! * VeStUfe ' be fina11 ^ r ° 1]ed U P' wounded prisoners at Frenchtown, on the r ve" whole of * "T 7°" ^ M See , n , nearI - y over th e Raisin, January 22d, 1813, by the indiais with of . America, and far out to sea. the privity of the British Int " a ns, with Other similar phenomena have been observed from tune to time, in different countries MET 681 MIL METEORIC STONES.— A shower of them fell in Connecticut, December 14th, 1807. It was observed about a quarter past six. The day had just dawned, and there was little light ex- cept from the moon, which was just setting. It seemed to be half the diameter of the full moon ; and passed, like a globe of fire, across the north- ern margin of the sky. It passed behind some clouds, and when it came out it flashed like heat lightning. It had a train of light, and ap- peared like a burning firebrand carried against the wind. It continued in sight about half a minute, and, in about an equal space after it faded, three loud and distinct reports, like those of a four pounder near at hand, were heard. Then followed a quick succession of smaller re- ports, seeming like what soldiers call a running fire. The appearance of the meteor was as if it took three successive throes, or leaps, and at each explosion a rushing of stones was heard through the air, some of which struck the ground with a heavy fall. The first fall was in the town of Huntington, near the house of Mr. Merwin Burr. He was standing in the road, in front of his house, when the stone fell, and struck a rock of granite about fifty feet from him, with a loud noise. The rock was stained a dark lead color, and the stone was principally shivered into very small fragments, which were thrown around to a distance of twenty feet. The largest piece was about the size of a goose egg, and was still warm. The stones of the second explosion fell about five miles distant, near Mr William Prince's residence, in Weston. He and his family were in bed, when they heard the explosion, and also heard a heavy body fall to the earth. They afterwards found a hole in the earth, about twenty-five feet from the house, like a newly dug post-hole, about one foot in diameter, and two feet deep, in which they found a meteoric stone buried, which weighed thirty-five pounds. Another mass fell half a mile distant, upon a rock, which it split in two, and was itself shiv- ered to pieces. Another piece, weighing thir- teen pounds, fell half a mile to the northeast, into a ploughed field. At the last explosion, a mass of stone fell in a field belonging to Mr. Elijah Seely, about thirty rods from his house. This stone falling on a ledge, was shivered to pieces. It ploughed up a large portion of the ground, and scattered the earth and stones to the distance of fifty or a hundred feet. Some cattle that were near, were very much frightened, and jumped into an en- closure. It was concluded that this last stone, before being broken, must have weighed about two hundred weight. These stones were all of a similar nature, and different from any com- monly found on this globe. When first found, they were easily reduced to powder by the fin- gers, but by exposure to the air they gradually hardened. Other showers of meteoric stones have been known, but this is one of the most remarkable. It is supposed that the meteor was more than a mile in diameter. MICROSCOPES first used, 1621 ; the double ones, 1624; solar microscopes invented, 1740. MILITARY and RELIGIOUS KNIGHTS, and TITLES OF HONOR. Admiral, the first in England, 1297. iEdiles first created at Rome, 971 B. C. Alexander, St. knighthood began in Russia, 1700. Aldermen of London first appointed, 1242. Andrew, St. order of knighthood instituted in Scotland, 80); renewed in Scotland, 1452, 1605 ; in Russia, 1698. Baron,the title first by patent in England,1388. Baronets first created in England, Kill. Bath, order of knighthood, instituted in Eng- land at the coronation of Henry IV, 1399; re- newed, 1725. Cincinnatus order began in America, 1783. Common council of London first appointed, 1208. Consuls first made at Rome, 307 B. C. Creation by patents to titles first used by Ed- ward III, 1344. Decemviri, first creation of, 450 B. C. Defender of the Faith, the title of, given to the king of England, 1520. Dennis, St. order began in France, 1267. Dey of Tunis first appointed, 1570. Dictators began at Rome, 498 B. C. Duke, title of, first given in England to Ed- ward, son of Edward III, March 17, 1336. Earl first used by king Alfred in 920, as a substitute for that of king. Earl, the first created in England, October 14, 1066. Electors of Germany began, 1298. Eminence, the title of, first given to cardinals, 1644. Esquire, first used to persons of fortune, not attendants on knights, 1345. Garter, order began, April 23, 1349; altera- tion in, 1557, and 1788. It is remaikable, that this is the only order which has been granted to foreign princes. MOU 682 MUS Golden Fleece, order of knighthood, began in Flanders, 1492. King of England, the title first used, 820 ; of Ireland, 1542; of Great Britain, 1605. King of France, the title assumed by the king of England, and his arms quartered with the English, and the motto "Dieu et mon Droit," first used, Feb. 21, 1340; relinquished Jan. 1, 1801. King of the French began, 1791 ; abolished, 1792. Knighthood first used in England, 897. Legion of Honor, instituted by Bonaparte, confirmed by Louis XVIII, 1814. Lord mayors of London first appointed annu- ally, 1208. Louis, St. order of knighthood, began May 10, 1698; abolished, 1791. Majesty, the title used to Henry VIII, of England. Poet Laureat, the first in England, 1487. Pope, the title first assumed, 154. MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE, in France, ceased June 27, 1720, when its amount was one hun- dred million pounds sterling. MONASTERY, the first founded, where the sister of St. Anthony retired, 270 ; the first founded in France, near Poictiers, by St. Mar- tin, 360; Constantine IV sends for a great number of friars and nuns to Ephesus, orders them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images; on their refusal, he orders their eyes to be put out, banishes them, and sells several monasteries, appropriat- ing the produce, 770 ; they were totally sup- pressed by act of parliament in 1539. MONEY, first mentioned as a medium of commerce in the twenty-third chapter of Gen- esis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sep- ulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world, 2139; first made at Argos, 894 B. C; has in- creased eighteen times its value from 1290 to 1640; and twelve times its value from 1530 to 1800. MOUNT AUBURN. A retired and orna- mented place of sepulture, about four miles from Boston, was publicly dedicated, as a cem- etery, Sept. 24, 1831. There are upwards of fifty acres enclosed, and the whole is under the direction of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, which was incorporated for the pur- pose by the Massachusetts Legislature, June, 1831. The lots however are purchased by in- dividuals and are permanently secured to them, and their legal representatives. The grounds are planted with shrubbery, flowers and trees, and are laid out in walks. Various monuments, tombs and cenotaphs have been erected, and it is probably as a " city of the dead " destined to rival the far famed Pere la Chaise of Paris. MULBERRY TREES first planted in Eng- land, 4609; in the English provinces of North America, about 1750, for cultivating silk. MUSIC. According to Mosaic records, Jubal the son of Lamech, played on musical instru- ments even before the deluge. At a later period, we find mention made of the harp, the trumpet and the drum. The oldest song, is that which Meriam sang after the passage of the Red Sea. Music reached its highest perfection among the Hebrews, at the time of David and Solomon. The Greeks are said to have received the art of music from Lydia and Arcadia. But it was not till the 6th century that much of the science of music was understood. Labus, a Greek, who lived about 546 B. C, wrote something on the theory of music. In the time of Pericles, Da- mon is said to have been a distinguished teacher of music. In the time of Plato and Aristotle, many im- provements in music were made; these philos- ophers considering music useful as a means of education. At the time of Alexander, Aristox- enus distinguished himself as a writer on music. He composed many treatises, and made many great changes and improvements. He intro- duced the chromatic scale. We have on the whole but little light on the subject of the mu- sic of the ancients, as the existing writings are very obscure and unintelligible. The Romans seem to have received their sa- cred music from the Etruscans, and their war- like music from the Greeks. Stringed instru- ments were introduced into Rome, 186 B. C. Under Nero, music was cultivated as a luxury. After his death, five hundred singers and musi- cians were dismissed. In the middle ages, the progress of music was promoted by its being consecrated to the service of religion, and education was not thought com- plete without some knowledge of music. Guido, of Arezzo, made great improvements in the manner of writing the notes in music, and in the fifteenth century still farther improvement was made by Johannes de Muris. At the same period, music was treated scien- tifically in the Netherlands, France and Spain. The invention of the opera in the sixteenth century, has chiefly contributed to the splendor and variety of modern vocal music, and in the eighteenth century, there were immense im- provements made in musical instruments. NIA 683 NIA The merit of the advancement of vocal music is claimed by the Italians; that of instrumental music by the Germans and French. MUSICAL NOTES as now used, 1330. MUSKETS first used in France at the siege of Arras, 1414; in general use, 1521. MUSLINS from India, first in England, 1670 ; first manufactured there, 1781. N. NATIONAL DEBT in England, first con- tracted in Henry VII's reign, £14,301. NEEDLES were first made in England by a native of India, 1545, the art lost at his death ; recovered by Christopher Greening, in 1560, who was settled with his three children, Eliza- beth, John, and Thomas, by Mr. Darner, ances- tor of the present earl of Dorchester, at Long Gredon, in Bucks, where the manufactory has been carried on from that time to the present day. NEW STYLE first introduced into Europe, 1582 ; into Holland and the Protestant states, 1700; in England, 1752. NEWSPAPER, first published in England, entitled the " English Mercury," July 28, 1588 ; after the revolution, first daily paper was called the "Orange Intelligencer," and from that time to 1692, there were twenty-six newspapers ; in 1709, there were eighteen weekly and one daily paper, the " London Courant; " in 17D5, there were published in London, Scotland, and Ire- land, one hundred and fifty-eight papers; in 1809, there were two hundred and seventeen newspapers in the United Kingdom ; the num- ber conveyed by post in England, in 1794, amounted to near 12,000,000 per annum. The first printing press in North America, opened at Cambridge, 1639. Among the first books printed were an Indian version of the Bible, and Sandy's translation of Ovid. Two licensers were appointed in Massachusetts, 1662; presses were forbidden in Virginia, 1683; the first printer in Connecticut, 1709. NIAGARA FALLS. It is said that the best station for viewing this magnificent natu- ral curiosity is on the Canada side of the river, though a greater variety of interest is said to be on the American side. The surface of the country about the Falls is fiat and uninteresting, and from one side gives little indication of the approach to any remarkable scene ; the noise of the fall of waters, gradually increases, and the mist rises in dense volumes, forming clouds in the air. The illustrative engraving was drawn upon the spot by Mr. Bakewell, to whom we are indebted for the description ; a strict regard to pictorial proportion has been dispensed with, in order to present all the leading features in one view. From the hotel (A) there is a gra- dual descent to a very steep bank (B) about 140 feet high, which caps the limestone rock ; having descended, you walk over planks laid on the marshy ground, to the extent of 200 yards, which leads to the brink of the pre- cipice (c), where the whole scene bursts at once on the sight. You are here on a level with the river immediately before it rushes down the dreadful abyss. The loud, solemn, all-pervading roar of the waters is indescribably awful. The water from violent agitation is per- fectly white for some distance below the Falls, producing a thick cream colored foam which is seen floating down the stream in large apparent masses. The sublimity of the scene cannot be exceeded. We find ourselves suddenly in the presence of a Superior Power, and feel an im- pressive consciousness of our own nothingness. This Fall (from its concave form called the Horse-shoe Fall) is 600 yards wide, and 158 feet perpendicular. The descent of the rapids im- mediately above the P'alls ( d ) is 58 feet, making the whole 216 feet. Goat's Island (e) which divides the American and Canada Falls, pre- sents a bare face of perpendicular rock ( h ), which extends about 500 yards north and south. The American Falls are about 200 yards in width, and 164 feet in height. A spiral stair- case (f) is erected, by which a descent can be made nearly to the bottom of the Falls. The ferry ( g ) is rather more than a quarter of a mile from the Falls, in a direct line. The small town of Manchester ( i ) is situated about half a mile above the Falls, and several large mills give a cheerful appearance to this part of the picture. Such is the comparative tranquillity of the water at the ferry, that you may be taken across by a boy to the landing place on the side immediately below the American Falls. The waters which expand to form the Ameri- can and Canada Falls, after uniting, are here contracted into a stream not more than 160 yards broad. The river is confined between perpen- dicular rocks, and the quantity of water that falls is estimated to be 100,000,000 tons in an hour ! A railed platform ( m ) has been con- structed on the rocks extending over the water from the island to the commencement of the curve, which forms the concave central part of the Horse-shoe. In regard to the History of the Falls, we copy the following from an eloquent PAI 684 PAI article by the Rev. Mr. Greenwood, of Boston, written upon visiting the Falls in 1831. " These Falls are not without their history ; but like their depths, it is enveloped with clouds. Geolo- gists suppose, and with good apparent reason, that time was when the Niagara fell over the abrupt bank at Queenstown, between six and seven miles below the place of the present Falls, and that it has, in the lapse of unknown and incalculable years, been wearing away the gulf in the intermediate distance, and toiling and travelling through the rock, back to its parent lake." NINEVEH destroyed by the Medes, 612 B.C. NON-IMPORTATION law, March, 18U. NON-INTERCOURSE law conditionally repealing the embargo, March, 1809; against England and France, passed by congress, May ], 1810 ; repealed as to France, Nov. 1810. NOOTKA,in the northwest of America, dis- covered, 1778; settled by the English, 1789 ; captured by the Spaniards, 1790, but afterwards confirmed to the English by treaty. NORTHEAST PASSAGE to Russia dis- covered, 1553. NOTARY PUBLIC, began in the first cen- tury. NOTES and bills first stamped, 1782. NOVA ZEMBLA discovered, 1553. O OPERA, first in London, 1692; by Handel, 1735; opera house burnt, 1789; new one built, 1790 ; another in the strand, 1816 ; opera house in Rome, roof fell in, January 18, 1762. ORATORIO, the first in London, was per- formed in Lincoln's-inn play-house, Portugal street, in 1732. ORGANS brought to Europe from the Greek empire, were first invented and applied to relig- ious devotion in churches, 758. ORRERY invented, 1670. OTAHEITE, or George Ill's island, discov- ered June 18, 1765. OWHYHE island discovered, 1778, where captain Cooke was killed. OXFORD UNIVERSITY, founded by Al- fred, 886. PADLOCKS invented at Nuremburg, 1540. PAINTING. The earliest account we have of the existence of painting is in the reign of Ninus, about 2000 B. C. Egypt was decidedly the birthplace of the arts and sciences, though but few of its paintings remain, and their date is uncertain. The Greeks were very little ad- vanced in the art of painting at the time of the Trojan war. The first important fact in the history of painting is, that 700 years B. C, a king of Lydia purchased a picture of a Greek artist, and paid him its weight in gold. In the year 400, Zeu- xis introduced a new style of painting into Greece, and at this period much progress was made in the art. About the year 328 B. C. Apelles commenced a new era in painting, and many distinguished painters were his con- temporaries. Before Greece was taken by the Romans, the art of painting had arrived at a high degree of perfection, but at that time the spirit which had animated her arts had departed, and with her liberty, her arts perished. The first name worthy of record in the annals of Italian painting is Cimabue, a native of Florence, who painted in fresco 1300 A. D. In 1445, Leonardo de Vinci was born at Flor- ence. Many subsequent painters nre indebted to this great artist for his improvements in the art. During his time, the use of oil in painting was discovered. Michael Angelo Buonarotti was born in the year 1474. He erected an academy of painting and sculpture at Florence, and is considered as the founder of the Florentine School. Raph- ael, born 1483, was the founder of the Roman School. Titian, born 1477, was the founder of the Venetian School. Corregio, born 1494, founded the Lombard School. The establish- ment of these four schools embraces the golden age of painting. Of the German schools there are three dis- tinct ones, the German, Flemish and Dutch. The Gothic style of painting originated in Ger- many, and terminated at the beginning of the 15th century. Albert Durer, born in 1471, was the prince of German artists, and the De Vinci of his country. The head of the Flemish School was sir Peter Paul Reubens, born at Antwerp in 1577. What Reubens did for the Flemish School, Rembrandt did for the Dutch, he gave it a character. He died in 1674. There seems to have been no regular Span- ish school of painting, although many Spanish artists have distinguished themselves, particu- larly Velasquez and Murillo. The Spanish style holds an intermediate rank between the Venetian and Flemish. fa Pi fa PAI 685 PED It is difficult to assign a decided era to the beginning of painting in Fiance. The first name worthy of particular mention, is Jaques Blanchard, who was born in Paris, A. D. 1600. His paintings were very popular, and one of them is still preserved in the church of Notre Dame. Poussin flourished about the same time, and painted many pictures for the Gallery of the Louvre. Louis XIII founded the first school of France. Of this, the great master is Le Brun, born in 1690. His best performances, are five large pictures from the life of Alexander. At this period. Claude Lorraine flourished. In the 18th century, French painters were numerous, but the art gradually sunk into me- diocrity. The name of Vernet, however, de- serves to be mentioned. He excelled in marine pieces. The founder of the modern school of paint- ing in France was David, who was born in 1750. He remedied many of the defects of his contemporaries, and produced many fine pic- tures. Painting did not begin to flourish in England till (he reign of Henry VIII. Before that pe- riod, nothing like genius was observable in the rude productions of the artists. During this reign, Hans Holbein, under the patronage of the monarch, settled in England as a portrait painter. , During the reign of Charles I, a gallery of pictures by the great masters, was established at White Hall. Vandyke and Jamesone flour- ished at this time. In 1697, Win. Hogarth was born. His style was one in which he acquired lasting celebrity, and was wholly his own. A royal academy was planned in England in 1768, of which sir Joshua Reynolds was made president. He was born in 172:3, and very early in life gave proofs of his future genius. His influence on the taste of Great Britain was great, and will be lasting. Gainsborough and Wilson laid the founda- tion of the English school of landscapes. Barry was an historical painter of great eminence. The close of the 18th century produced many names worthy of record. Fuseli was made keeper of the Royal Academy. Among other pictures, he painted 47 pictures from Milton's works, in the year 1790. Sir Thomas Lawrence was considered the first portrait painter in Eu- rope. He was presidentof the Royal Academy at the time of his death in 1830. The celebrated living artist John Martin, was born in 1789. All his pictures have been engraved by himself. The United States has produced many artists of reputation ; among others, Benjamin West, who died 1820, aged 82 ; also Gilbert C. Stuart, born 1755, who was one of the first portrait painters of his time. Among living artists, Allston approaches the old masters in his style ; Leslie has great fame ; Newton has executed several clever things. There are several others of some note. PALMYRA , ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered 1678. PAPER CURRENCY established in Amer- ica, May 15, 1775. PAPER MONEY first used in America, 1740. PAPER made of cotton was in use in 1000; that of linen rags, in 1319 ; the manufacture of, introduced into England at Dartford, in Kent, 1588; scarcely any but brown paper made in England, till 1690; white paper first made in England, 1690. PARCHMENT invented by king Attalus, 887. PARROT, an extraordinary one belonging to Colonel Kelly, died at the age of 30, at his house in Piccadilly, October 9th, 1802. This bird appeared to possess in some degree the faculty of reason, for when it made a mistake in either woids or tune of the numberless songs it was master of, it would correct itself and beo-in the song again. PATENT granted for titles, first used 1344 ; first granted for the exclusive privilege of pub- lishing books, 1591. PEARL ASHES manufactory first set up in Ireland, 1783. PEARLS, artificial, were invented, 1686. PEDESTRIANS— Powell, a lawyer, walked from London to York and back again in six days, being a distance of above 402 miles, Nov. 27, 1773 ; walked it again when of the age of 57 years, June 20th, 1788; Captain Barcley finished at Newmarket, the task of walking a thousand miles in a thousand successive hours, walking one mile in each hour, April 1809; Thomas Standen, near Silver Hill barracks, completed a similar, but more arduous task, by walking eleven hundred miles in as many suc- cessive hours, July 14, 1811 ; Aiken, Mr. started from Westminster to go to a spot near Ashford in Kent, and return, the distance being 108 miles, which he performed in nine minutes less than 24 hours, July 31st, 1813; Baker, of Rochester, a thousand and one miles and three quarters in twenty days, November 20, 1815; Eaton completed the task of walking eleven PLA 686 POM hundred miles in eleven hundred successive hours, walking a mile in each hour, upon Black- heath, December 27, 1815. PENDULUMS for clocks invented, 1(556. PENN\ POST set up in London and sub- urbs, by one Murray, an upholsterer, 1681, who afterwards assigned the same to one Dockwra ; afterwards claimed by the government, who allowed the latter a pension of £200 a year, in 1711 ; first set up in Dublin, 1774 ; it was im- proved considerably in and round London, July, 1794 ; made a two-penny post in 1801. PENS for writing were first made from quills in 635. PERGAMOS (now Bergamo) a city of My- sia, in Asia Minor, and referred to in Rev. ii. 12, is situated on a river, which was formerly called Caycus, now Gremakli, with a harbor, about fifteen miles from the sea. Pergamos was anciently a kingdom, which began in the year 470 from the building of Rome, and con- tinued 153 years, when the last king, Attalus III, dying without children, made the Roman people his heir. In this city was a celebrated library, by Plutarch, said to contain 200,000 volumes. It was transported to Alexandria by Anthony and Cleopatra. In 1820, the popula- tion of Bergamo was estimated at 15,000. The streets are wider and cleaner than in most other cities of Natolia. PERSIA, king of, Feeth Ali Schah, died 1834 ; succeeded by Abbas Mirza. PETER, St., wrote his first epistle, GO; his second epistle, 66. PHYSIC, the practice of, was confined to ec- clesiastics, from about 1206 to about 1500. PIAZZA PLANET, discovered 1801. PISTOLS first used by the cavalry, 1544. PITCH and tar made from pit-coal, discov- ered at Bristol, 1779. PLAGUE— the whole world visited by one, 767 B. C. ; in Rome, when 10,000 persons died in a day, 78; in Chichester, when 34,000 died, 1772; in Scotland, which swept away 40,000 inhabitants, 954 ; in England, 1025, 1247, and 1347, when 50,000 died in London, 1500 in Lei- cester, &c. ; in Germany, which cut off 90,000 people, 1348; in Paris and London very dread- ful, 1367; again 1379 ; in London, which killed 30,000 persons, 14(17; again, when more were destroyed than in fifteen years war before, 1477 ; again, when 30,000 died in London, 1499 ; again, 1548 ; airain, 15!!4 ; which carried off in London, a fourth part of its inhabitants, 1604 ; at Con- stantinople, when 2110,000 persons died, 1611; at London, when 35,417 died, 1625, and 1631 ; at Lyons, in France, died 60,000, 1632; again at London, which destroyed 68,000 persons, in 1665; at Messina, February, 1743 ; at Algiers, 1755; in Persia, when 80,000 persons perished at Bassorah, 1773; at Smyrna, that carried off about 20,000 inhabitants, 1784 ; and at Tunis, 32,000, 1784 ; in the Levant, 1786 ; at Alexan- dria, Smyrna, &c. 1791 ; in Egypt, in 1792, where nearly 800,000 died ; the yellow fever destroyed 2,000 at Philadelphia, in 1793; on the coast of Africa, particularly at Barbary, 3,000 died daily ; at Fez, 247,000 died in June, 1799; 1,800 died at Morocco, in 1800, in one day ; in Spain and at Gibraltar, where great numbers died in 1804 and 1805 ; at Malta, where it committed great ravages, 1813; in lesser Asia, Syria, and the adjacent islands, by which Smyrna is computed to have lost 30,000 persons, 1814 ; in the kingdom of Naples, where it committed considerable ravages, 1816. (See Cholera.) PLASTER OF PARIS, the way first found out for taking a likeness in, 1470. PLATE GLASS MANUFACTORY estab- lished at Lancashire, in 1773; first in France, 1688. PLAYS first performed in England, 1378; that by the parish clerks, in 1390. Suppressed by parliament, in 1647; restored 1659. POET LAUREAT, the first was Bernard Andrews, 1486; John Kay, 1490; Rev. John Skelton, died June 21st, 1529; Edmund Spen- cer died, 1598; Samuel Daniel, died 1619; Ben Johnson, 1619, died August 6th, 1637; sir Willian Davenant, died April 7th, 1668 ; John Dryden, esq. 1668, dismissed as a papist, 1688; Thomas Shadwell, died December 1692; Na- hum Tate died August 12th, 1715 ; Nicholas Rowe, died December 6, 1718 ; Rev. Laurence Eusden, died December 27th, 1757; William Whitehead, died April 14th, 1785; Reverend Thomas Wharton, K. D. died May 21st, 1790; Henry James Pye, Esq. his successor. POLICY of insurance in writing first used at Florence, 1569. POLIGAMY forbid by the Romans in 393. POMPEII, ruins of. — By recent accounts from Naples it appears that the excavations are still carried on at Pompeii with activity. Dur- ing the last month, (November. 1834) the whole of the street leading from the Temple of For- tune to the gate of I sis, and which crosses the centre of the city, has been discovered. Great progress has also been made in the traverse streets, one of which leads to the theatre, and the other to the temple of Augustin. At the POP 687 PYR extremity of the first, an altar has been found, richly decorated with the protecting genius, represented in the form of a serpent. Two houses in the street of Fortune have, at length, been entirely excavated, and a great many very curious articles in bronze, iron, and ivory have been discovered. POPE, the title of, formerly given to all bish- ops. The emperor, in GOG, confined it to the bishops of Rome ; Hygenus was the first bishop of Rome that took the title, 154 ; the pope's supremacy over the Christian church established by Boniface III, G07 ; custom of kissing the pope's toe began 708; pope Stephen 111, was the first who was carried to the Lateran on men's shoulders, 752 ; the pope's temporal gran- deur commenced, 755; Sergius II, was the first pope that changed his name on his elec- tion, 844 ; John XIX, a layman, made pope by dint of money, 1024 ; the first pope that kept an army was Leo IX, 1054. Their assumed au- thority carried to such excesses as to excom- municate and depose sovereigns, and to claim the presentation of all church benefices, by Gregory VII, and his successors, from 1073 to 1500; pope Gregory obliged Henry IV, empe- ror of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, barefooted at his castle-gate, to implore his pardon, 1077; pope Celestine III, kicked the emperor Henry IV's crown off his head, while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmaking kings, 1191 ; the pope's authority first introduced into England, 1079 ; the pope demanded an annual sum for every cathedral and monastery in Christendom, but refused, 1226 ; collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of England, 122G ; residence of the pope removed to Avignon, where it con- tinued 70 years, 1308 ; their demand on Eng- land refused by parliament, 13G3; three at one time in 1414 ; Leo X made a cardinal at four- teen years old; elected pope, March 11, 1513, aged 3 firo-it vu n n . *u„ d J ■ CAa '" 1 f l turnpiKe . quelled atter a smart en^a^ement £Lh J. j*v he Roman empire estab- with the posse comitatus, 1735. Of the Soital from whom it is also called the monarchy of the Birmingham and obK « 1 £** ^^ l ° 1808': Persia, in 74S.„d "7I& Rus.ia TiW ?™!l'""» l "'« d '"" e »» »f P'»vi 5 io„ s , I7C0 ;„ d 740 '»d 1703, Sweden i„ 1772™d'lS wftoVt^EnST * ?* *° ".JS' Vrnerica, in ,775; France, ,„ 1789; HoILnd! ESj » £* »£»%£ %£)£& RIO 690 ROS and private buildings in London, June G, 1780, for winch many were hanged. At Glasgow, among the cotton manufacturers, when several were killed by the soldiers, September 4, 17e7. A riot at Maidstone, at the trial of A. O'Connor and others, May 22, 1793, at which the earl of Thanet, Mr. Ferguson and others, were active in endeavoring to rescue O'Connor, and for which they were tried and convicted, April 25, 1799. In different parts of England, owing to the high price of bread, September, 1800. Of weavers, near Manchester, May 24, 1808. At Liverpool, occasioned by a paity of the 19th regiment of light dragoons having quarrelled with a press-gang, June 27, 1809. O. P. riot at Covent Garden Theatre, September, 1809, for old prices; terminated January 4, 1810. In Piccadilly, in consequence of the warrant of the speaker of the house of commons to commit sir Francis Burdett to the Tower, April 6-9, 1810. At the Liverpool theatre, in imitation of the O. P. at Covent Garden, July, 1810. At Bridport, on account of the price of bread, which was quelled by the exertions of the principal in- habitants, May 6, 1816. At Biddeford, to pre- vent the exportation of a cargo of potatoes, May 20, 1816. At Bury, to destroy a machine called a spinning jenny, in which the rioters were de- feated by the magistrates and principal inhabi- tants, May 22, 1816. At Littleton and Ely, by a body of insurgent fenmen,on the same day — quelled by the military, after bloodshed, May 24. At Halstead, Essex, to liberate four per- sons who had been taken up for destroying ma- chinery, May 28, 1816. At Preston, on account of a diminution of wages, August 17, 1816. Among the convicts in Newgate, which was quelled by threats of withholding from them their allowance of food, August 26, 1816. At Nottingham, by the Luddites, who destroyed more than thirty frames, October 12, 1816. At Merthys-Tydvil, in Glamorganshire, by the workmen in the iron works, on account of a reduction of wages, October 18, 1816. By the colliers, at Calder iron works, near Glasgow, on account of a suspension of wages, in conse- quence of arrests for debt, which continued for several days, October 19, 1816. In the town of Birmingham, October 28, 1816. In London, in consequence of a popular meeting in Spa fields, for the purpose of presenting a petition to the prince regent, from the distressed manufactur- ers and mechanics ; the shops of several gun- smiths were attacked for arms, and in that of Mr. Beckwith on Snowhill, a Mr. Piatt, who happened to be in the shop, was shot in the body by one of the rioters, December 2, 1816*. Several of the rioters were apprehended, and one of the name of Watson was tried for high treason and acquitted, June 16, 1817. At Dun- dee, on account of the sudden rise in the price of meal ; upwards of one hundred shops of va- rious descriptions were plundered, and the house of Mr. Lindsey, an extensive corn dealer, set on fire, December 7, 1816. At Preston, by the unemployed and distressed workmen, Sep- tember, 1816. At Almwick in Wales, to pre- vent a vessel laden with flour from leaving the wharf, March, 1817. ROADS in the Highlands of Scotland were begun by Gen. Wade, in 1726, and finished in 1737 ; in England first repaired by act of parliament, 1524. ROSARY, or beads, first used in Romish prayers, 1093. ROSBACH, in the upper circle of Saxony, totally disappeared, in October, 17G2, supposed by an earthquake. ROSS'S EXPEDITION.— The following account of this expedition is condensed from an excellent article upon the subject, which ap- peared in the People's Magazine in 1834. The news of the safe return of Captain Ross has been received both in Great Britain and the United States with unfeigned sensations of joy. The hardy navigator with his nephew, Com- mander Ross, and the whole of his party except three, two of whom died on the passage out, and one at a later period, arrived at Hull on Friday morning, the 18th of October, 1833. It was in 1829 that Captain Ross fitted out his expedition to determine the practicability of a new passage, which had been confidently stated to exist, particularly by Prince Regent's Inlet, but in consequence of the loss of the fore- mast of his vessel, the Victory, he was obliged to refit at Wideford, in Greenland. The ac- counts of his departure from thence on the 27th July, 1829, formed the last authentic intelli- gence received of the expedition By the sub- sequent details it will be perceived that he was picked up by the Isabelle of Hull, — the very ship — by a singular coincidence, in which he made his first voyage to the Arctic regions. By Captain Ross's account it appears, that the first season (that of 1829,) was the mildest that had ever been recorded, and the sea was more clear of ice than had been experienced during any preceding voyages. On the 13th of August, Captain Ross reached the spot where the stores of his majesty's late ship, the Fury, were landed. SAP 691 scu On the 1st of September, 1832, he visited Leopold South Island, now established to be the north-east point of America, in latitude 73, 56, and longitude 90 west. From the summit of the lofty mountain on the promontory he could see Prince Regent"s Inlet, Barrow's Strait, and Lancaster Sound, which presented one impenetrable mass of ice, just as it had ap- peared in 1818. The circumstance that Captain Ross was res- cued by the ship he commanded in 1818, is a curious and happy conclusion of the voyage, the result of which has established that there is no new north-west passage south of seventy- four degrees. The true position of the magnetic pole has been discovered, and much valuable informa- tion obtained for the improvement of geograph- ical and philosophical knowledge. Captain Ross had a good opportunity of verifying his former survey of the coast of Baffin's Bay, which every master of a Greenland ship can testify to be most correct. On the whole it may be said that this expedi- tion has done more than any that preceded it ; and let it be remembered that Captain Ross and his nephew were volunteers, serving without pay, for the attainment of a great national ob- ject, in prosecuting which they have lost their all. RUM imported into England in 1789, was 3,300,000 gallons ; in 1796 there were import- ed 4,190,198 gallons. SAILCLOTH first made in England, 1590; cotton sailcloth made at Baltimore and at Pat- terson, N. J. and brought into use in the United States, 1824. SAINT HELENA first possessed by the English, 1G00. SAINT LAWRENCE river discovered and explored by the French, 1508. SALT MINES in Staffordshire discovered, 1670; rock salt was discovered about 950; in Poland, in 1289. SALTPETRE first made in England, 1625. SANCTUARIES, or cities of refuge, were instituted by the Jews immediately after their establishment in Palestine about 1400 B. C. ; such use, or rather abuse, was made of the heathen temples, particularly those of Hercules; Christian churches commenced to be used as such, A. O. 617; abolished in England, 1534. SAPPHO, a Greek poetess, who after the death of her husband, is said to have become enamoured of Phaon,and, in consequence of his neglect, to have thrown herself into the sea. SATELLITE, moon or secondary planets; of which there is known to exist, attending the Earth one, Jupiter four, Saturn nine, if his two rings are included, and the Herschel six, mak- ing twenty in all — eighteen globular, and the two rings of Saturn circular. Of these bodies, except the moon of the earth, the attendants of Jupiter were first discovered. Simon Marius, astronomer to the elector of Brandenburg, in November, 1609, observed three little stars moving round the body of Jupiter, and in 1610 discovered a fourth ; similar observations were made at the same time in Italy by Galileo. Satellite of Saturn, the fourth, was first dis- covered by Huygens, March 25th, 1655; four more were discovered by Cassini, between 1671- 84; and Dr. Herschel, 1787-89, discovered two more, and completed the list of the attendants of Saturn. Satellite of the Herschel, or Georgian planets, six in number, were all discovered by Dr. Her- schel, from January 11th, 1787, to March 26th, 1794. The existence of these satellites of the Georgian planet, rests upon the authority of Dr. Herschel alone. SAXON GREEN, in dying, invented 1744. SCARCITY-ROOT, a kind of parsnep, in- troduced and propagated in England, 1787. SCENES first introduced into theatres, 1533. SCULPTURE. The antiquity of sculpture is proved by referring to the Bible. In the book of Exodus, we read of Laban's images, of the golden calf made by Aaron, and of the stat- ues of the cherubim. Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians first carved figures of animals in stone. Almost all the sculpture of Egypt was employed for sacred purposes ; it was of stu- pendous magnitude. The pyramids, colossal statues, and sphynx are gigantic works of art, and strike those who behold them with aston- ishment. The eras of Egyptian sculpture ex- tend through the dominion of the Greeks and Romans. Under the latter, much improvement was made in the art. Hindoo sculpture strongly resembles that of Egypt, but is generally very inferior. Chinese sculpture also slightly resembles the Egyptian. Daedalus may be considered the first sculptor in Greece, as before his time, the attempts at the art were rude and imperfect, though there were schools established at Sicyon, Egina, Corinth and Athens. Dosdalus was born 1234 B. C. He formed something like a school of sculpture scu 692 scu at Athens. The first statues were formed of wood, and metal was also used in various parts for sculpture. About G4G B. C. statues in marble were exe- cuted, and a school called the Chian School, was founded by Malas. The marble was pro- cured from the Ionian islands, where a school was also established called the Ionian School. In 517 B. C, great improvements were intro- duced in the art of sculpture in marble. After the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., sculp- ture flourished and the schools produced many eminent artists, among whom was Phidias. He executed statues in bronze, marble, and a com- position mostly of ivory. His works were nu- merous and splendid, and he stands without a rival among the ancient masters. From this period till the fall of Greece, many eminent sculptors appeared, but after the death of Alex- ander, the arts began to decline, and continued in this state for nearly two hundred years, when Greece became a Roman province. Italian sculpture may be divided into two distinct classes, the Etruscan and the Roman. The sculptors were mostly Greeks, as the Ro- mans possessed only sufficient knowledge to value the genius of others. After Constantine, the annals of ancient art may be considered as closed. Schools for sculpture were formed in Italy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and before the close of the thirteenth, a school was founded by Nicolas Pisano, a native of Pisa. Before the close of the next century, sculpture was successfully practised throughout Italy. Donatello, born in 1383, was a very eminent sculptor, and executed many magnificent stat- ues. His pupils were the chief masters of the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, Michael Angelo commenced his career. Many eminent sculptors were his contemporaries, among whom was Torrigiani. After Bernini in 1610, the art rapidly declined in Italy, till it was again revived by Canova. This distin- guished artist was born in Possagno, in the Venetian territory in 1757. His statues, mon- umental works, and tablets in relievo, are emi- nently beautiful. He died in 1823, lamented by all who knew him. Thorwaldsen, the Dane, is the chief master of the modern school of sculpture. He was born at Copenhagen, in 1772. His designs are very original, and his taste and execution verv fine. y The first eminent French sculptor appears to have been Jean Goujon. At the conclusion of the sixteenth century, John of Bologna established a school for sculpture in France. At the head of this school stood Girardon and Puget. The former was an artist of great merit, but the lat- ter was a favorite with his countrymen, who compared him with Michael Angelo. He was born at Marseilles, in 1062. The succeeding artists imitated his style. The French sculptors of the present day are more distinguished for science, than for feeling or invention. Their statues have correct pro- portions, but no sentiment nor expression. Berruguete, a pupil of Michael Angelo, found- ed the first regular school in Spain, of which Paul de Cespides was the chief ornament. He was very eminent. In the seventeenth century, Hernandez executed many noble works. Pujol and Montaguez, were also celebrated artists. In the eighteenth century, Salvador and Philip di Castro contributed greatly to the improvement of sculpture in Spain. Before the seventeenth century, we find little said of German sculpture, and even subsequent- ly to that period, there are not many distin- guished artists. The art in Germany rather languishes, though there were some artists of great eminence at the commencement of the last century. When the Romans conquered Great Britain, the natives learned the art of sculpture from their conquerors, and for two hundred years after, continued to cast great works in bronze. In 1242, many statues of kings, queens and saints were executed for the adornment of a cathedral at Wells, but they are ill designed, and rude. Edward III encouraged sculpture and archi- tecture, and the cathedrals were filled with splendid monuments and statues. Westminster Abbey has many specimens of English art at this period. The first name of eminence in British art, is that of Gibbons about 1652. Charles I, em- ployed him in ornamenting his palaces, and his chapel at Windsor. His chief excellence lay in ornamental carving, of which there are exqui- site specimens at Chatsworth, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire. Cibber, born in 1G30, at Holstein, rose to great eminence. Roubilliac, though a Frenchman, is ranked among British sculptors, as all his celebrated works weie exe- cuted in England. Thomas Banks was born in 1735. He studi- ed the art at Rome, and after practising there SEA 693 SEA seven years, he returned to fill his own coun- try with his noble works. Joseph Nollekins flourished at the same time. He was famous "for his busts, of which he executed great num- "bers, from distinguished persons. John Bacon, tiorn in ] 740, was another eminent sculptor; his works are very numerous. Mrs. Darner born in 1748 deserves mention among the artists of the eighteenth century. Flaxman, born in 1755, is distinguished as a sculptor in modern days. He successfully awoke the dormant energies of sculpture, and restored the simple and grand style of antiquity. The school of sculpture now in England, headed by the celebrated Chantrey, is based upon sound principles, and will soon attain a high degree of excellence. Greenough, an American artist now in Ttaly, promises to add the name of an American, to those of other countries, renowned in the annals of sculpture. SEA FIGHTS IN MODERN TIMES. 898 Fight between England and the Danes, when Alfred defeated 120 ships of Dorsetshire. 1389 Eighty French ships taken by the English. 1416 The Duke of Bedford took 500 French and 3 Genoese vessels. 1449 The French fleet taken by the Earl of Warwick. 1571 Oct. 7, between the Christian powers and the Turks, in which the latter lost 25,000, with 4000 prisoners and 335 vessels. 1588 Between the English fleet and Spanish Armada. 1653 July 29th, the Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and Admiral Tromp was killed. 1664 Dec. 4th, the Duke of York took 130 of the Bourdeaux fleet. 1692 May 19th, the French fleet entirely de- feated, and 21 large men of war destroyed. 1702 Oct. 12, the Vigo fleet taken by the Dutch and English. 1704 Aug 24th, the French are beaten by the English and entirely relinquish to them the dominion of the sea. 1775 A British vessel captured by the Ameri- cans ; the first capture in the war of the rev- olution. 1779 Sept. 23, Paul Jones captured the British frigate Serapis. 17S2 April 12, Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to attack Jamaica. 1794 June 1, Lord Howe totally defeated the French fleet. 1797 Oct. 1 1 , the Dutch fleet defeated by Ad- miral Duncan on the coast of Holland. 1798 Aug. 1, the famous battle of the Nile. The French fleet of 17 ships totally defeated by Nelson. 1801 April 2, the Danish fleet of 28 sail taken by Lord Nelson off* Copenhagen. 1804 Stephen Decatur succeeded in obtaining possession of the frigate Philadelphia from the harbor of Tripoli. He then set fire to her, and 20 of the enemy were destroyed. Lieutenant Decatur did not lose a man. The same year in August and September, Com- modore Preble made several famous attacks upon the town, fortress and naval forces of Tripoli. 1805 Oct. 21 , French and Spanish fleets totally defeated off Cape Trafalgar, and Lord Nelson was killed in the action. 1808 June 14, French squadron in the harbor of Cadiz surrendered to the Spanish patriots. 1811 May 16, rencontre between the British sloop of war Little Belt, and the United States frigate President, Commodore Rodgers. 1812 August 13, the British sloop of war Alert, taken by the United States frigate Essex, Captain Porter. Aug. 19, the British frigate Guerriere taken by the United States frigate Constitution, Captain Hull. Oct. 18, the British brig Frolic, by the United States sloop Wasp, Captain Jones; same day, the Wasp and Frolic were captured by the British 74 Poictiers, Capt. Beresford. Oct. 25, British frigate Macedonian, cap- tured by the frigate United States, Commo- dore Decatur. Dec. 29, British frigate Java, captured by the United States ship Constitution, Captain Bainbridge. 1813 Feb. 25, Peacock, British sloop of war, captured by the United States ship of war Hornet, of inferior force. The Peacock sunk with a great part of her crew. June 1, United States frigate Chesapeake, captured by the British ship Shannon; a most distinguished action in the naval history of the United States, in which the gallant commander, James Lawrence, fell. June 3, United States armed vessels Growl- er and Eagle, taken after a smart action, by the British gun-boats. Aug. 14, United States sloop of war Argus, taken by the sloop of war Pelican. Sept. 4, British ship Boxer taken by the Enterprize. Sept. 13, Commodore Oliver Perry, in a gallant action of the United States squadron, SIG 694 SOU under his command, captured the British fleet on Lake Erie. 1814 March SO, the United States frigate Essex, taken by the British frigate Phoebe, and sloop of war Cherub, after a desperate and sanguin- ary defence. April 21, United States ship Frolic, taken by a British squadron. April 29, British ship Epervier, taken by the United States ship Wasp. Sept. 1, British ship Avon, taken by the Wasp. 1815 Jan. 15, United States frigate President, Decatur commander, captured by a British squadron, consisting of the Endymion, Tene- dos and Pomone frigates, and the Majestic razee — a distinguished and gallant action on the part of Decatur, who, after being captur- ed, refused indignantly to deliver his sword to any other than the commander of the squad- ron. Feb. 20, the British ships Cyane and Le- vant, taken by the United States frigate Constitution. Marcli 23, the United States ship Hornet captures the British ship Penguin. 1827 Famous battle of Navarina ; the Turkish navy annihilated, by the combined English, French, and Russian fleets, under command of Admiral Sir E. Codrington. SEXTANT invented by Tycho Brahe, in 1550. SHIP. — The first seen in Greece arrived at Rhodes from Egypt, 1485 B. C; the first double decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burden, by order of Henry VII, 1509; it was called the Great Harry, and cost £ 14,000 ; be- fore this, twenty-four gun ships were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns beinir on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented by De- charges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII, 1500: there were not above four merchant ships of 120 tons burden, before 1551. SHIP BUILDING, the art of, attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inventors, the first ship being brought from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 B. C. The first, ship of the bur- den of 800 tons was built in England in 1597. SHOEING OF HORSES introduced, 481 SHOES of the present fashion first worn in England, 1033; but the buckle was not intro- duced till lf>70. SIDE-SADDLES first used in England, 13S0. SIGNALS at sea first devised by James II, 1GG5. SIERRA LEONE coast discovered, 1460; nearly destroyed by a French frigate in 1795. SILK, wrought, brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B. C. From India, A. D. 274; known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women; Heliogabulus first wore a garment all of silk, 220 ; silkworms were brought to Europe 300 years later ; in 1130, Greek manufacturers of silk brought by Roger, king of Sicily, to Europe, settled at Pa- lermo, where they taught the Sicilians, not only to breed up the silk-worms, but to spin and to weave silk ; which art was carried afterwards to Italy and to the south of France ; Venice in- veigled silk weavers from Greece and Palermo, in Sicily, 1207; silk mantles worn by some no- blemen's ladies at a ball, at Kennelworth castle, in 1286; silk manufactured in England, 1604; first silk manufacture in France, 1521 ; silk worms and mulberry trees propagated by Henry IV through all France, 1559; broad silk manu- factuie from raw silk introduced into England, 1620 ; Lombe's famous silk throwing machine, erected at Derby, in 1719. SILVER first coined at Rome, 269 B. C. SILVER PLATE, or vessels, first made use of in England, by Welfred, a Northumbrian bishop, 709 ; silver knives and forks, spoons and cups, 1300. SINCAPORE is an island with a town of the same name, near the south coast of Malacca, which gives name to the narrow sea called the Siraits of Sincapoura.long. 103, 30 east, lat. ], 12 noith. This town which a few years since had only about 200 inhabitants, was stated in 1820 to have about 10,000, and to have become a place of considerable commerce. It belongs to the English. SLAVE TRADE from Congo and Angola, begun by the Portuguese in 1482: begun with England, 1563 ; in South America, 1550 ; abol- ished by the Quakers, 1784 ; by the French convention, 1794; by the British parliament, 1807; by the Prince of the United Netherlands, 1814 ; in France by Bonaparte, Marcli 29, 1815 ; abolished in Pennsylvania, 1784 ; in 1768, there were 104,000 brought in the West Indies, at £15 each, amounting to £ 1 ,582,000, sterling, chiefly by barter ; by the French convention, February 4, 1794. SOAP first made at London and Bristol, 1524. SOUTH SEA ACT passed, May 6, 1716; its bubble, 1720, by which many thousands were ruined. sov 695 sov SOVEREIGNS OF FRANCE. Charlemagne began a d. 768 Louisl... 814 Charles the Bald 843 Louis II, the Stammerer 877 Louis 1.1, Carloman 879 Charles the Fat 884 Hugh 888 Charles the Simple 898 Robert 922 Ralph 923 Louis IV 926 Lotharius 954 Louis V 986 Hugh Capet 987 Robert the Pious 997 Henry I 1031 Philip 1 1060 Louis Vf, the Gross 1108 Louis VII 1137 Philip H (Augustus) 1180 Louis VIII 1223 Louis IX (St. Louis) 1226 Philip I II, the Bold 1270 Philip IV, the Fair 1285 Louis X, King of Navarre .... 1314 Philip, King of Navarre 1316 Charles IV, the Fair, King of Navarre 1322 Philip VI, the Fortunate 1328 John I, the Good 1350 Charles V, the Wise 1364 Charles VI 1380 Charles VII, the Victor 1422 Louis XI, the Prudent 1461 Charles VIII, the Affable 1483 Louis XII 1498 Francis I 1515 Henry II 1547 Francis II 1559 Charles IX 1560 Henry III 1574 Henry IV, the Great 1589 Louis XIII 1610 Louis XIV, the Great 1643 Louis XV 1715 Louis XVI 1774 Republick 1792 Napoleon, Emperor of the French 1804 Louis XVIII 1814 Charles X 1824 Louis Philippe I, King of the French 1830 OF GERMANY. Charlemagne began a. d. 800 Louis I 814 Louis II 843 Carloman 876 Louis III, the Younger 876 Charles the Fat . 876 Arnold 887 Louis IV, the Infant 899 Conrad I 911 Henry I, the Fowler 919 Otho the Great 933 Otho II . 973 Otho III 983 Henry II, I he Saint 1009 Conrad II, the Salick 1024 Henry III began a. d. Henry IV Henry V Lotharius II, the Saxon Con rad III Frederick I (Barbarossa) Henry VI Philip and Otho IV Frederick II Conrad IV William of Holland Richard, D. of Cornwall Rodolph of Hapsburgh Adolphus of Nassau Albert I, of Austria Henry VII Louis of Bavaria, and Fred- erick of Austria Charles IV Winceslaus Robert Sigismund Albert II, of Austria Frederick III Maximilian I Charles V Ferdinand I Maximilian II Rodolph II Matthias Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Leopold I Joseph I Chailes VI Charles VII, of Bavaria Francis I, of Lorrain Maria Theresa Joseph II Leopold II Francis II * Confederation of the Rhine .. Germanic Confederation OF PAPAL STATES. Adrian I beaan t. Leo III Stephen V Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marrin I Adrian III Stephen VI Fnnnnsiis Stephen VII Romanua Formosus John IX Benedict IV . 772 795 816 817 820 824 827 843 847 855 858 868 873 883 884 885 891 897 9T1 901 905 Leo V 4 began a. r>. 906 Christopher ° 906 SergiusIII 907 Anastatius 910 Lando 912 John X 912 Leo VI 928 Stephen VIII 929 John XI 931 Leo VII 936 Stephen IX 940 Martin II 943 Apapet II 946 John XII 956 Bened ict V 965 John XIII 966 Domne II 973 Benedict VI 973 Benedict VII 974 John XIV 984 JohnJXV 985 John XVI 986 Gregory V 996 Silvester II 999 John XVII 1003 John XVIII 1003 Sergius IV 1009 Benedict VIII 1012 John XIX 1024 Benedict IX 1033 Gregory VI 1044 Clement II 1047 Damasia II 1048 Leo IX 1049 Victor II 1055 Stephen X 1057 Nicholas II 1058 Alexander II 1061 Gregory VII 1073 Victor III 1085 Urban II 1087 Pascal II 1099 Gelasius II 1118 Calixtus II 1119 Honorius II 1125 Innocent II 1130 Celestine II 1143 Lucius II 1144 Eugene III 1145 Anastasitis IV 1154 Adrian IV 1155 Alexander III 1459 Lucius III 1181 Urban III 1185 Gregory VIII 1187 Clement III 1187 Celestine III 1190 Innocent III 1196 Honorius III 1217 Gregory IX 1227 Celestine IV 1241 Innocent IV 1243 Alexander IV 1254 Urban IV I2r,2 Gregory X 1264 Clement IV 1265 Innocent V 1276 Adrian V 1276 John XX 1276 Nicholas III 1277 Martin IV 1281 sov 696 sov Honorius IV began a. d. 1285 Nicholas IV 1288 Celestine V J294 Boniface VIII 1295 Benedict X 1303 Clement V 1305 John XXI 1316 Alexander II 1327 Benedict XI 1334 Clement VI 1342 Innocent VI 1353 Urban V 13ti3 Gregory XI 1371 Urban VI 1378 Boniface IX 1390 Innocent VII 1404 Gregory XII 1406 Alexander V 1409 John XXII 1410 Martin V 1417 Eugene IV 1431 Nicholas V ft47 Calixtus III 1455 Piusll 1458 Paul II 1464 SixtuslV 1471 Innocent VIII 1484 Alexander VI 1492 PiusIII 1503 Julius II 1503 LeoX 1513 Adrian VI 1522 Clement VII 1523 Paul III 1534 Julius III 1550 Marcellinus II 1555 Paul IV 1556 Pius IV 1559 Pius V 1566 Gregory XIII 1572 Sixtus V 1585 Urban VII 1590 Gregory XIV 1590 Innocent IX 1591 Clement VIII 1592 Leo XI 1605 Paul V 1605 Gregory XV 1621 Urban VIII 1623 Innocent, X 1644 Alexander VII 1655 Clement IX 1667 Clement X 1670 Innocent XI 1676 Alexander VIII 1689 Innocent XII 1691 Clement XI 1700 Innocent XIII 1721 Benedict XIII 1724 Clement XII 1730 Benedict XIV 1740 Clement XIII 1758 ClementXIV 17f9 Pius VI 1775 Pius VII 1800 Leo XII 1823 Pius VIII 1829 OF RUSSIA. Rivick began a. d. 862 Oleg 879 Ighor I began a. d. 913 Swatoslaw I 945 Jaropolk I 972 Waldimir the Great 980 Swatopolk 1015 Jaroslaw I, of Kiew 1018 Isaslaw 1 1051 Swatoslaw II 1073 Wsewolod I 1078 Swatopolk II 1093 Waldimir II 1113 Mistislaw 1125 Jaropolk II 1132 Wsewolod II 1138 Isaslaw II 1146 Jurje I, Duke 1149 Andrej 1157 Michel I 1175 Wsewolod HI 1177 Jurje II.... 1213 Constantine 1217 Jaroslaw II 1238 Alexander Newskoi 1245 Jaroslaw III 1262 Wasilej 1 1270 Dimitrej 1275 Andrej II 1281 ■ Danilo 1294 Micbailow 1305 Jurje III 1317 Iwan I, of Moscow 1328 Semen 1340 Iwan II 1353 Dimitrej II 1359 Dimitrej III 1363 Wasilej II 1389 Wasilej III 1425 Iwan Wasilej I 1462 Wasilej IV 1505 Iwan Wasilejevitch 1533 Feodore I 1584 Boris Godunow 1598 Wasilej Schuiskoi 1606 Michel Fediowitsch 1613 Alexej Michel 1645 Feodore II 1676 Iwan Alexander 1682 Peter the Great 1685 Catharine I 1725 Peter II 1727 Anne 1730 Iwan III 1740 El izabeth 1741 Peter III 1762 Catharine II 1762 Paul I 1796 Alexander 1801 Nicholas 1825 OF SWEDEN. Regnard Lobrock .. began a.d. 825 Eric the Victor 9^6 OlafSckotkong 994 Edmund JflCObSOtl 1026 Edmund III 1051 Stenkill 1056 Eric VII 1066 Eric VIIT 1066 Hncnn I?n>dR 1067 In so and Haldstan 1080 Philip and Ingo II 1H2 Swerker began a.d. 1133 Eric IX 1155 Charles Swerkerson 1161 Canute Erickson 1167 Swerker II 1199 EricX 1210 John I 1216 Eric XI 1222 Waldamar I 1250 Magnus Ladulos 1275 Birger 1290 Magnus II 1319 Albert of Mecklen 1363 Margaret 1389 Eric XIII 1412 Christopher III 1440 Chailes VIII 1448 John II 1483 Christian II 1520 Gustavus Vasa 1523 Eric XIV 1560 John III 1569 Sigismund 1592 Charles IX 1604 Gustavus Adolphus 1611 Christiana 1632 Charles X 1654 Charles XI 1660 Charles XII 1697 Ulrica Eleanora 1719 Frederick 1720 Adolphus Frederick 1758 Gustavus III 1771 Gustavus IV, Adolphus 1792 Charles XIII 1809 Charles John XIV(Bernadotte) 1818 OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Othman I began a. d. 1300 Orcan I 1326 Amurath I 1359 Bajazet 1 1390 Mohammed I 1413 Amurath II 1421 Mohammed II* 1451 Bajazet II 1481 Selim I 1512 Solvman I 1520 Selim II 1566 Amurath III 1574 Mohammed III 1595 Achmet 1 1604 Mustapha 1 1617 Othman II 1618 Amurath IV 1623 Ibrahim I 1640 Mohammed IV 1648 Solvman II 1687 Achmet II 1691 Mustapha II 1695 Achmet III 1703 Mahmoud I 1730 Othman III 1754 Mustapha III 1757 Abdul Hamed 1774 Selim III 1789 Mustapha IV 1807 Mahmoud II 1808 • Mohammed II the first Turkish Kmperor of Cnnstnutinuple, which city he couquereil iu A. D. 1453. STO 697 STO OF PRUSSIA. Frederick I began a. d 1701 Frederick William I 1713 Frederick II, the Great 17 10 Frederick William II 1786 Frederick William III 1797 OF SARDINIA. Victor Am. II .... began a. d. 1730 Charles Emanuel III 1730 Victor Amadeus III 1773 Charles Emanuel IV 1790 ' Victor Emanuel 1802 Charles Felix 1821 Charles Amadeus 1831 OF PORTUGAL. John V began a. d. 1705 Joseph Emanuel 1750 Maria 1777 John VI 1799 Pedro IV 1826 Donna Maria 1828 Don Miguel 1828 Donna Maria 1834 OF DENMARK. Frederick IV began a. d. 1699 Christian VI 1730 Frederick V began a. d. 1746 Christian VII 1766 Frederick VI 1808 OF NAPLES. Charles II began a. d. 1713 ChailesIIl 1735 Ferdinand IV 1759 Joseph Napoleon 1808 Joachim I, (Murat) 180S Ferdinand I* 1815 Francis I 1825 • Ol die United Kingdom of the Two .Sici- lies, formerly Ferdinand IV, of Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand III of Sicily. OF BELGIUM. Leopold I began a. d. 1S31 OF POLAND. a. d. Stanislaus (Lescinsky) began 1704 Augustus II 1709 Augustus III 1733 Stanislaus (Poniatovvski) 1784 1st Partition . ..< 1772 2d Partition 1793 3d Partition 1795 Dutchy of Warsaw formed by Napoleon, and the King of Saxony made Grand Duke 1807 Alexander began a. d. 1815 Nicholas 1825 OF BAVARIA. Maximilian Joseph began a. d. 1805 Louis 1825 OF WIRTEMBURG. Frederick bean a.d. 1806 William 1816 OF HOLLAND. Louis Napoleon .. began a. d. 1806 United to France 1810 William I, (lately King of the Netherlands) 1815 OF SAXONY. Frederick Augustus began a. d. 1806 Anthony 1827 Frederick, Regent 1831 OF GREECE. Otho I began a.d. 1832 OF HANOVER. George I (George III of Great Britain) began a.d. 1814 George II (George IV) 1820 William I (William IV) 1830 SPEAKER of the House of Commons first chosen, 1340. SPEAKING TRUMPETS invented by Kir- cher, a Jesuit, 1052. SPECTACLES invented by Spina, a monk of Pisa, 1299. SPHERE invented by Archimedes, of Syra- cuse, 209 B. C. SPINNING WHEEL invented at Bruns- wick, 1530 ; another invented by Mr. Swindell, at Stockport in Yorkshire, which finishes, on each spindle, three lays of thirty hanks to the pound in an hour, 1785. SPURS in use before 1400. STEAM ENGINE invented by Savary, for taking ballast or gravel out of rivers, and for raising great quantities of water, and patents granted for, 1018. STEAMBOAT, Rumsey's, succeeded in North River, New York, October, 1807. STEAM applied to the purpose of inland navigation in America, 1810. STEREOTYPE PRINTING invented by William Ged, a goldsmith, of Edinburgh, 1725. STIRRUPS first used in the sixth century. STOCKINGS, silk, first worn by Henry II, of France, 1547; Howell says, that in 1500 queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black silk knit stockings by her silk woman, and she never wore cloth ones any more ; he adds that Henry VIII wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came from Spain by great chance a pair of silk stockings, for Spain very early abounded in silk ; his son, Edward VI, was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stock- ings by sir Thomas Gresham, and the present was then much taken notice of— consequently the invention of knit silk stockings came from Spain; the weaving of them was invented by the Rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambrido-e, 1589. STONE BUILDINGS firs" introduced into England, 074. STONE BULLETS in use in England so late as 1514. STONE, artificial, for statutes, &c. discover- ed by a Neapolitan, 1770; introduced into Eng- land by Mrs. Coade, near London. STOPS in literature, introduced 1520; the colon 1580 ; semicolon 1599. STORMS. 234 A storm in Canterbury threw down 200 houses and killed several families. 344 Hailstones fell that were larger than hen's eggs. 701 Storm at Lincoln, which threw down 100 houses. 944 1500 houses blown down at London. 1194 A violent storm almost desolated a great part of Germany and Denmark. 1359 When Edward III was on his march with- in two leagues of Chartres, a storm of pierc- ing wind, rain, and hail killed 0000 of his horses, and 1000 of his best troops. 1479 A storm of hail, when the hailstones measured eighteen inches round. STO 698 TAV 1510 A violent hailstorm in Italy is said to have destroyed nearly all the beasts, birds and fishes in the country. 1515 A hurricane in Denmark rooted up whole forests, and blew down the steeple of the great church, at Copenhagen. 1658 Sept. 3, the day that Cromwell died, a violent and terrible storm extended all over Europe. 1697 April 29, a storm of hail in Cheshire and Lancashire did great damage ; some of the hailstones weighing half a pound. 1703 Nov. 27, the most terrible hurricane that ever happened in England, attended with lightning. Whole groves of trees were torn up by the roots, many houses and churches were unroofed, many ships were cast away and 1500 seamen lost their lives. 1737 Oct. 11, a storm took place in India, when 20,000 vessels were cast away, 300,000 people were lost, and the water rose 40 feet higher than usual. 1751 Aug. 10, a storm at Jamaica occasioned £300,000 damage. 1772 July 16, a hailstorm at St. Jago, where the hailstones were as large as oranges. 1773 A most terrible storm near Boston. 1782 April 22, a storm in the East Indies, which destroyed 7000 inhabitants. 1784 Great damage done by a storm in New England. 1786 July 17, a hurricane in Devonshire, Eng- land, removed 13 elm trees 200 yards, where they remained and took root. 1791 A storm of thunder and lightning, which melted the bells of a church in Kent and did great damage. 1798 Sept. 25, £100,000 damage done by a storm at Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1810 Nov. 10, a tremendous storm at Boston, which deluged the country all around. 1814 Dec. 17, a violent gale prevailed through Great Britain and Ireland, by which great damage was done. 1815 September, a tremendous gale from the southeast swept the Atlantic coast of North America, and did great damage, particularly in New England. The sea water was carried in the form of spray 25 miles inland. It is called the Great September Gale. 1816 A tremendous gale of wind which did much damage to the shipping on the English coast. 1818 A most destructive storm raged at Hin- dostan. 1820 A severe gale in September from the southeast, in New England, and the middle states, along the coast. STUCCO WORK revived by D'Udine, about 1500. STYLE altered by pope Gregory, who took twelve days off the calendar in 1582; the Gre- gorian style received at Paris, by taking off ten days, December 15, 1582; received at London, by taking eleven days off the calendar, Sept. 2, 1752. See article Dominical Letter. SUGAR first mentioned by Paul Eginetta, a physician, 625; produced in Sicily, 1148; first produced in Madeira, 1419; in the Canary islands, 1503 ; carried to the West Indies, by the Poituguese and Spaniards, 1510 ; cultivated at Barbados, 1041 ; sugar refining first discov- ered by a Venetian, 1503; practised first in England, in 1569. SUN, spots seen in, for the first time, 1611; spot observed in 1779; several spots observed that in the centre of the apparent size of the earth's diameter. June, 1816. SUNDAY SCHOOLS first established in Yorkshire, 1784 ; became general in England and Scotland, in 1789. SUNDIALS invented 558 B. C.; the first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 308 B. C; first set up against churches, 613. SUPREMACY OF THE POPE above the emperor introduced, 607 ; the first prince that shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself, was Henry VIII, 1533. SURNAMES first introduced into England by the Normans, 1102; became common, 1200. SURVEY OF ENGLA'ND made, at first, by order of Alfred, 900 ; by William the Con- queror. 1080 ; by Charles II, 1068. 'SWEARING on the holy gospel first used A. D. 528. SYDNEY. The principal town in New Hol- land, founded in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay. It is well built and is a flour- ishing town. T. TANNING LEATHER, a new and expe- ditious method invented, 1795. TAPESTRY invented by sir Francis Crane, 1619; for the encouragement of which king James I gave £2000 to build a house at Mort- lake, in Surrey, 1619. TAVERNS restrained by an act of Edward VI, 1552, to forty in London. TAX 699 TOA TAXATION of England from William I, to William III. Reigns. Taxation. Reigns. Taxation. William I £40 1,000 Edward IV \ William II 350,0 10 Edward V > £100,000 Henry 1 30 1,0 10 Richard [II ) Stephen 250,000 Henry VII 400,000 Henry II 200,0 i 1 Henry VIII 800,000 Richard 150,000 Edward VI 400,000 John 100,000 Mary 450,000 Henry III 80,000 Elizabeth 500,000 Edward I 150,000 James 600 ,000 Edward II 100,000 Charles 895,819 Edward III 154,139 Commonwealth 1,517,247 Richard II 130,000 Charles II 1,800,000 Henrv IV 100,000 James II 2,000,000 Henrv V 76,643 William III 3,895,205 Henry VI 64,976- Anne 4,691,803 OO QO 00 00 OC 30 OQ 00 X - 1 o -j oi oi : . -j: — ■"/- o ■*. o o = O co l o o o o o o o ►> 00 00 GO 31 C* Ja- ^* — .£- £*. CO Ji. en O JOjjOjX — coj- 1 & "CO "CO J < CO "— OS p CO to X — ' >u j- -u co _^. en !Sfe!5?r,'f* ! a; co to co — c -JOj-JJO CD ao "co ►— o "to •^i o o ~ - — ^- CO CO (-■ GO o -J t '0 ? i <0 iv^lOOQCHOC, to ~. zn cr. to to o o o GGJi-JOCGC.i-OOO — I 31 Cl CO -J CH u -o .o x co — > r; ^ ~ 7. -O ~ O GO p O 'co'OQ o "tO*C£> 00 — °o j* x ?- "■ :•■ .o-o. o o o to or. >: -l. x en X* — « 3 5 O 22. » 5-' a OtOOOJ^.CO-'IC^Jk 00 G*l •— .^ ~J 00 — 'Q waocoo-*.o CO*J*-J^J>— 00 31 Cn 2* Q O ?3 2. * — ' E. N P ^* CD CS 31 3j C- 31 31 O GO — -1 .ft. CO O* CO to J* CO CO J- ._ OC71-UOlC7iCOCO^JOMJ — CnCOtOGOGOtOtOtOCOl o it u ft o qo u h ti >- ^. cc r. ti o o tfl g a h| (0 CO Cn O O t _ _ ^cojnj- o o oijo jo oo to^co — 00 (O CO Cn -k! i— ^^*CB*K)C0*aa CDtnCOGwiJiOCiiU3iO oooooooooooo CI CO -J 0^ >— to co co co'V-'j^'io'Vc-' to o — -o> 'O x- to to to Cn *OJO CT. X K> CO Cn OO —"co colo 3i*en to "en "31 (0 'O — _i- — CO — ~ -U 000000000 ! — — O CO N> 0> CO X -J > OjOO tsgo ■!* 3 ooooooooooo frg TAXES were raised arbitrarily in England, 1100; amounted to £7,513.340 in 1751 ; and to £16,500,000 in 1797. TEA first brought into Europe by the Dutch East India. Company, early in 1501 ; destroyed at Boston by the inhabitants, 1773. TELEGRAPHS invented, 1687; put into practice by the French, in 1794 ; by the Eng- lish, Jan. 28, 1796. TELESCOPES invented by Z. Jansen, a spectacle maker at Middleburgh, 1590 ; the first reflecting one made on the principles of sir Isaac Newton, 1692. THEATRE ; that of Bacchus at Athens, the first ever erected, built by Philos, 420 B. C. ; the ruins still exist ; first introduced into Eng- land, 1566 ; the first royal license for one in England was in 1574, to James Burbage and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe Bankside, or in any part of England ; plays were opposed by the Puritans, 1633, and suspended till 1660, when Charles II licensed two companies, Killigrew's and Da- venant's ; till this time boys performed wo- men's parts; Italian opera first introduced in the United States, at the Park Theatre in New York, with great success, 1825. THERMOMETERS first invented by Dre- bel.a Dutchman, 1620 ; improved by Reaumur, 1730, and Fahrenheit, 1749. THREAD first made at Paisley, in Scotland, in 1722. THU1LLERIES in Paris, built, 1677. TIDES, the first theory of, by Kepler, 1598. TILES first used in England, 1246. TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS instituted in Germany, 919. TIME-MEASURE BAROMETER intro- duced by Scipio Nasica, 159; king Alfred's time-keeper, was six large wax tapers, each 12 inches long; as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he invented a lantern made of wood and thin scraped plates of ox horns, glass being a great rarity, 887. The ancients had three sorts of time measures, hour glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. TIN found in Germany, 1241 ; in no place before but in Devonshire and Cornwall, in Bar- bary, 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. TOAD, a live one found in a block of stone, at Newark, April 1 5th , 1806; another found alive in the heart of an oak tree, about thirty inches in diameter, at Rainfurd, Lancashire, January 1S10. TRE 700 TRE TOBACCO first discovered in St. Domingo, in 1496; afterwards by the Spaniards in Yuca- tan, 1520; first brought into England, 1583 ; allowed to be cultivated in Ireland, 1779. TOURNAMENTS began in 170; instituted by Henry, emperor of Germany, 919. TOWERS, high, first erected to churches, in 1000. TRAGEDY, the first acted at Athens, on a wagon, by Thespis, 585 B. C. TREATIES. Abo, peace of, 1743. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 1668. do. 1748. Akermann, peace of, 1826. Alt Ranstadt, peace of, 1706. Amiens, peace of, 1802. Armed, neutrality, treaty of, 1800. Arras, treatv of, 1435. do^ 1482. Augsburg, league of, 1686. JBaden, peace of, 1714. Barrier Treaty, 1715. Basle, peace of, 1795. Bayonne, treaty of, 1808. Belgrade, peace of, 1739. Berlin, peace of, 1742. decree, 1806. convention of, 1808. Breda, peace of 1667. Cambray, league of, 1508. peace of, 1529. Campo Formio, treaty of, 1797. Carlowitz, peace of, 1699. Carlsbad, congress of, 1319. Cateau Cambresis, peace of, 1559. Chambord, treaty of, 1552. Chaumont, treaty of, 1814. Chierasco, treaty of, 1631. Cintra, convention of, 1808. Closterseven, convention of, 1757. Coalition, first, against France, 1792. second do. 1799. third do. 1805. fourth do. 1806. fifth do. 1809. sixth do. 1813. Concordat 1801. Conflans, treaty of, 1465. Constantinople, peace of, 1712. Copenhagen, peace of, 1660. Definitive treaty of peace between Great Brit- tain and America, 1783. Definitive treaty of peace between Great Brit- ain and Holland 1784. Dresden, peace of, 1745. Family Compact, 1761. Falczi, peace of, 1711. Fontainbleau, peace of, 1679. treaty of, 1 785. concordat at, 1813. Friedwald, treaty of, 1551. Fuessen, peace of, 1745. Ghent, pacification of, 1576. peace of, 1814. Golden Bull, 1356. Grand Alliance, 1689. Hague, treaty of the, 1659. do. 1669. Halle, treaty of, 1610. Hamburg, peace of 1762. Hanover treaty, 1725. Heilbron, treaty of, 1633. Holy Alliance, 1815. Hubertsberg, peace of, 1763. Interim, 1548. Kiel, treaty of, 1814. Kutchuk Kainarji, peace of 1774. Laybach, congress of, 1821. League, 1676. Leipsick, alliance of, 1631. Leoben, peace of, 1797. Liebau, treaty of, 1656. Lisbon, peace of, 1668. London, treaty of, 1829. Lubeck, peace of, 1629. Luneville, peace of, 1801. Methuen treaty, 1703. Milan decree, 1807. Minister, peace of, 1648. Naumberg, treaty of, 1554. Nice, treaty of, 1518. Nimeguen, peace of, 1678. Nipchoo, treaty of, 1727. Noyou, treaty of, 1516. Nuremburg, treaty of, 1532. Nystett, peace of, 1721. Oliva, peace of, 1660. Pacquigni, peace of, 1475. Paris, peace of, 1763. do. treaty of, 1796. Paris, peace of, 1810. do. capitulation of, 1814. Parisj treaty of, 1814. do. peace of, 1814. Paris, peace of, 1815. do. treaty of, 1815. Paris, treaty of, 1817. Partition, first treaty of, 1698. second treatv of, 1700. Passarowitz, peace of, 1718. Passau, treaty of, 1552. Petersburg, peace of, 1762. treaty of 1772. do. 1805. Peterswalden, convention of, 1813. Pilnitz, convention of, 1791. Poland, partition of, 1795. Pragmatick Sanction, 1439. do. 1713. Prague, peace of, 1653. Presburg, peace of 1805. Public Good, league for the, 1464. TUR 701 WAN Pyrenees, treaty of the, 1659. Quadruple Alliance, 1718. Radstadt, peace of, 1714. do. congress of, 1797. Ratisbon, peace of, 1G30. Religion, peace of, 1555. Rhine, confederation of, 1806. Ryswick, peace of, 1697. St. Germain, peace of, 1570. St. Germain en Laye, peace of, 1679. St. Ildefonso, alliance of, 1796. Seville, peace of, 1792. Siorod, peace of, 1613. Smalcald, league of, 1529. Stettin, peace of, 1570 Stockholm, peace of, 1719. treaty of, 1724. do. 18L3. Temeswar, truce of, 1664. Teschen, peace of, 1779. Teusin, peace of, 1595. Tilsit, peace of, 1807. Tolentino, treaty of, 1793. Toplitz, treaty of, 1817. Tripple Alliance, 1717. of the Hague, 1668. Troppau, congress of, 1820. Troyes, treaty of, 1420. Turkmauchay, peace of, 1828. Ulm, peace of, 1620. Utrecht, union of, 1579, do. peace of, 1713. Valencay, treaty of, 1813. Verona, congress of, 1822. Versailles, peace of, 1783. Vienna treaty, 1725. treaty of alliance of, 1731. definitive peace of, 1737. peace of, 1809. treaty of March 23d, 1815. May 31st, 1815. June 4th, 1815. Vossem, peace of, 1673. Warsaw, treaty of, 1768. alliance of, 1683. Westminster, peace of, 1674. Westphalia, peace of, 1648. Wilna, treaty of, 1561. Worms, edict of, 1521. Wurzbourg, treaty of, 1610. TRUMPETS first sounded before the kings of England, by order of Offa, king of Mercia, 790. B TULIPS first brought into England, 1578. TURKEYS came into England, 1523. TURNPIKES first legally erected in Eng- land, 1663 ; yielded in 1783 about £508,000. U. UNION of the crowns of England and Scot- land, 1603; of the two kingdoms attempted, 1604, but failed ; again ditto, 1670 ; carried into effect, May 1st, 1707, and thence the island is called Great Britain; union of Britain and Ireland took place, January 1, 1801. V. VACCINE inoculation, introduced 1799, by Dr. Jenner, who received £10,000 for the dis- covery, from parliament, 1802. VATICAN LIBRARY founded, 1448. VENEREAL DISEASE was brought into Europe in the first voyage of Columbus, and broke out in the French army at Naples, 1494; whence the French term, mal de Naples; in the Netherlands and England it obtained the appellation of mal de France, though in the latter country it was known so early as the 12th century ; about the same period, too, at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. VESUVIUS, Mount, threw out such a quan- tity of flame and smoke, that the air was dark- ened, and the cities of Pompeii and Hercula- neum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, with 250,000 people A. D. 79. Herculaneum was discovered in 1737, and several curiosities have been dug out of it ever since ; but every thing combustible had the marks of being burnt by fire. VINES planted in Germany and North Gaul, 276. VIOLINS invented about 1477; and intro- duced here by Charles II. VCLCANO, in the isle of Ferro, broke out September 13th, 1777, which threw out an im- mense quantity of red water, that discolored the sea for several leagues ; a new volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1st, 1808; volcano in the sea, near St Michaels, broke out February, 1811; Volcano at Albay, in Manilla, burst forth February 1st, 1814, the eruption lasted ten days ; five populous towns, and the greater part of Albay, were destroyed, 1200 persons killed, and many more dreadlully burnt; Tomboro mountain, in the island of Sambaron, burst forth, by which much ship- ping and many lives were lost, May, 1815. W. WANDERING JEW. This poetical per- sonage owes his existence to the story of our WAR 702 WAR Saviour's resting upon a stone before the house of a Jew, when bearing his cross. Upon this Jew's driving our Saviour away, Jesus turned to him and said, " Thou shalt wander on the earth till I return." Driven by fear and re- morse, the Jew has since wandered from place to place, and has never yet found a grave. This story has furnished materials for many writers. WARS of England, France, Spain, &c, from 1068. With Scotland, 1068; peace with Scot- land, 1091 ; peace with France, 1113 ; war with France, 1116; peace with France, 1118; peace with Scotland, 1139; war with France, 1161 ; peace with France, 1186; war with France, with success, 1194; peace with France, 11!!5; war with France, 1201; war, civil, renewed, 1215 ; war ended, 1216 ; war with France, 1224 ; war ended, 1243 ; war, civil, 1262; war, civil, ended, 1267 ; war with France, 1294 ; war with Scotland, 1296 ; peace with France, 1299 ; peace with Scotland, March 30, 1323; war again with Scotland,1327 ; war ended, 1328 ; war again with Scotland, 1333 ; war with France, 1339 ; peace with France, May 8th, 1360; war with France, 1368 ; war, civil, 1400 ; war with Scotland, 1400; peace with France, May 31st, 1420 ; war with France, 1422 ; civil war between York and Lan- caster, 1452; peace with France, October, 1471; war, civil, 1486 ; war with France October 6lh, 1492; peace with France, November 3d, follow- ing ; peace with Scotland, 1502; war with France, February 4th, 1512 ; war with Scotland, 1513; peace with France, August 7th, 1514; war with France, 1522; war with Scotland, 1522; peace with France, 1527; peace with Scotland, 1542; war with Scotland directly after ; peace with France and Scotland, June 7,1546; war with Scotland, 1547; war with France, 1549; peace with both, March 6th, 1550; war, civil, 1553; war with Scotland, June, 1557; war with France, 1557; peace with France, 1559; peace with Scotland, 1560; war with France, 1562 ; peace with France, 1564 ; war with Scotland, 1570 ; war with Spain, 1588; peace with Spain, August 18, 1604 ; war with Spain, 1624 ; war with France, 1627 ; peace with Spain and France, April 14, 1629; war, civil, 1642; war with the Dutch, 1651; peach with the Dutch, April 5th, 1654 ; war with Spain, 1655; peace with Spain, Septem- ber 10th, 1660; war with France, January 26th, 1666 ; war with Denmark, 19th October follow- ing ; peace with the French, Danes and Dutch, August 24th, 1667 ; peace with Spain, Feb. 13, 1668 ; war with the Algerines, September 6th, 1669; peace with the Algerines, November 19, 1671 ; war with the Dutch, March, 1672 ; peace with the Dutch, February 28, 1674 ; war with France, May 7, 1679; peace, general, Septem- ber 20, 1689; war with France, May 4th, 1702; peace of Utrecht, July 13th, 1713; war with Spain, Dec. 1718 ; peace with Spain, 1721 ; war with Spain, October 19, 1739 ; war with France, March 31, 1744 ; peace with France, &c. Octo- ber 18th, 1748; war with France, 1756; war with Spain, January 4, 1762 ; peace with France and Spain, February 10, 1763; peace between Russia and the Turks, 1773; war, civil, in America, commenced June 14, 1774 ; war with France, February 6, 1778; war with Spain, April 17th, 1780 ; war with Holland, December 21st, 1780 ; peace with France, Spain, Holland and America, 1783 ; war with France, 1793, by the English, Prussians, Austrians, Sardinians, and Italian states ; peace between Prussia and France, 1795 ; peace between France and Spain, 1795; peace between France and Naples, 1796 ; peace between the French and Sardinians, 1796; war between England and Spain, Nov. 11, 1796; war between France, Naples and Sardinia, November, 1798 ; peace between Aus- tria and France, February 9, 1801 ; war between Spain and Portugal, February 28th, 1801 ; peace between Naples and France, March, 1801 ; peace between Portugal and Spain, June 10th, 1801; peace between France and Portugal, September 29, 1801 ; peace between France and the Porte, October 17th, 1801 ; peace between England, France, Spain and Holland, March 27th, 1802; war between England and France, April 29th, 1803; war between England and Spain, Dec. 14th, 1804; war between France, Russia and Austria, Sept., 1805 ; peace between France and Austria, December 27th, 1805; war between Sweden and France, October 31st, 1805; war between England and Prussia, April. 1806; war between Prussia and France, October, 1806; peace between France and the elector of Sax- ony, December 11, 1806; peace between Eng- land and Prussia, January 28, 1807 ; peace be- tween France and Russia, July 19th, 1807 ; war between England and Denmark, November 4, 1807; war between Russia and Sweden, Feb. 10, 1808; war between Denmark and Sweden, Feb. 29, 1808 ; war between Prussia and Swe- den, March 6th, 1808; war between Spain and France, June 6, 1808; peace between England and Spain, June 6,1808; peace between Swe- den and Russia, Sep., I7th, 1809; peace be- tween France and Austria, October 15th, 1809; peace between France and Sweden, January WAV 703 WAV 6,1810; peace between England and Russia, August 1, 1812; peace between England and Sweden, August 4-17th, 1812; war between England and America, June 18th, 1812; war between Sweden and Denmark, September 13, 1813 ; peace between Sweden and Denmark, January 14, 1814 ; peace between France and the allies (England, Russia and Prussia) May 30th, 1814; peace between France and Spain, July 20th, 1814; peace between England and America, December 24th, 1814; peace between Saxony and Prussia, May 18th, 1815; wars with Spain, between 1589 and 1593, cost queen Eliz- abeth £ 1 ,300,000, besides the double subsidy of £280,000 granted by parliament. In the Irish rebellion, she spent £3,400,000 in ten years; the expenses of the war of 1756, cost England £90,000,000. The following is a list of wars between Eng- land and France, with the terms, of their dura- tion, since the one which commenced in 1116 : lllti, lasted twenty-five years; 1141, one year; 1201, fifteen ; 1224, nineteen ; 1294, five ; 1339, twenty -one ; 1368, fifty-two; 1422, forty-nine ; 1492, one month ; 1512, two years ; 1521, six; 1549, one ; 1557, two ; 1562, two ; 1627, two ; 1666, one ; 1689, ten ; 1702, eleven ; 1744, four ; 1756, seven; 1778, five; 1793, which termi- nated March 27, 1802 ; 1803, which terminated May, 1814. WATCHES invented at Nuremberg, in Germany, 1477 ; first used in astronomical ob- servations, 1500. The emperor Charles V, was the first who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small table-clock, 1530. Watches first brought to England from Germany, 1577. Spring pocket ones invented by Hooke, 1658. WATER first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21st Henry III, 1237 ; it took nearly fifty years to complete it. WATERMILLS for grinding corn were in- vented by Behsarius, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars; afterwards mills were invented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. WAVERLEY, Author of In a former part of this work we have given the life of Sir Walter Scott. We now add the chronology of his vari- ous works, showing the date of their publication. 1799. Goetz de Berlichigen, a tragedy, trans- lated from Goethe, 1 volume. 1802. Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 3 volumes, 8vo. 1804. Sir Tristam, 1 volume, 8vo. 1805. The Lay of the Last Minstrel, 1 vol- ume, 8vo. 1806. Ballads and Lyrical Poetry, 1 volume, 8vo. 1807. Marmion, 1 volume, 8vo. The Works of Dryden, 18 volumes, 8vo. 1809. Papers and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler, 2 volumes, 8vo. Collection of Papers of Lord Somers, 13 volumes, 8vo. 1810. The Poetical Works of Miss Seaward, 3 volumes, 8vo. The Lady of the Lake, 1 vol- ume, 8vo. 181 1. The Vision of Don Roderick, 1 volume, 8vo. 1813. Rokeby, 1 volume, 8 vo. 1814. The Works of Swift, 19 volumes, 8vo. The Bridal of Triermain, 1 volume, 8vo. Mon- umental Antiquities on the Frontier of England and Scotland, 2 volumes 4to. Waverley, 3 vol- umes, 12mo. 1815. Letters of Paul, 1 volume, 8vo. The Battle of Waterloo, 2 volumes, 8vo. Guy Man- nering, 8 volumes, 12mo. 1816. The Antiquary, 5 volumes, 12mo. Tales of My Landlord, 1st series. The Black Dwarf and Old Mortality, 4 volumes, 12 mo. 1817. Rob Roy, 3 volumes, 12mo. 1818. Tales of My Landlord, 2d series. The Heart of Mid Lothian, 4 volumes, 8vo. 1S19. Tales of My Landlord, 3d series. The Bride of Lamermuir, and the Legend of Mon- trose, 4 volumes. Provincial Antiquitfes and Picturesque Views of Scotland, 4 volumes, 12mo. Poems, &c. of P. Corey, 1 volume, 8vo. 1820. Ivanhoe, 2 volumes, 12mo. The Mo- nastery, 3 volumes, 12mo. The Abbot, 3 vol- umes, 12 ino. 1821. Kenilworlh, 3 volumes, 12mo. 1822. The Pirate, 3 volumes, 12mo. Nigel, 3 volumes, 12mo. Halidown Hill, 1 volume, 8vo. 1823. Peverel of the Peak, 4 volumes, 12mo. Quentin Durward, 3 volumes, 12mo. 1824. St. Ronan's Well, 3 volumes, 12mo. Redgauntlet, 3 volumes, l2mo. 1825. Tales of the Crusaders; the Betrothed and Talisman, 4 volumes, 12mo. 1826. Woodstock, 3 volumes, 12mo. 1827. Chronicles of the Canongate, 1st series, 2 volumes, 12ino. Life of Napoleon, 3 volumes, 8vo. 1828. Anne of Geirstein. Third series of the Chronicles of the Canongate, translated under the title of Charles the Bold, 3 volumes, 12mo. Memoirs of Madame la Rochejacquelin, 1 vol- ume, 8vo. Letters from Malchi Malgrowther woo 704 ZOD on Public Funds, 1 volume, 8vo. Tales of a Grandfather, on the History of Scotland, 1st series, 3 volumes, 18mo. 1829. Tales of a Grandfather, on the History of Scotland, 2d series, 3 volumes, 18mo. Ser- mon by a Layman, &c. 3 volumes, 8vo. 1830. The Airshyre Tragedy, 1 volume, 8vo. Tales of a~Grandfather, 3d series, 3 volumes, 8vo. 1831. Tales of a Grandfather, 4th series, 3 volumes, 8vo. Letters on Demonology, 1 vol- ume, 8vo. Last series of the Chronicles of the Canongate, 4 volumes, 8vo. To these may be added about four volumes in prose, comprising biographical notices, essays, &c. inserted originally in the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britanica. The articles fur- nished also by Sir Walter Scott to the different Reviews, &c. would besides make up not less than 4 volumes, 8vo. ; and during the last four years he has a revision of his works, added to the amount of 6 volumes, 8vo. in notes and prefaces. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES invented, 869 B. C.j fixed to a standard in England, 1257 ; regulated, 1492. See art. money, weights and measures. WHALE FISHERY, the first by the Dutch, 1596; by the Eno-fish at Spitzbergen, 1598. WHALEBONE found by the English ships at Cape Breton, 1521; first mentioned brought home with oil, 1617. WHALES killed at Newfoundland and Ice- land for their oil only, 1578; the use of their bones and fins not then known, consequently no stays worn by ladies. WHIG AND TORY factions took their rise about 1 649, and were at their greatest height about 1704. WIGS, full bottom, were first worn by the judges, in 1674. WINDMILLS invented 1299. WINES sold by apothecaries as a cordial, 1300 ; in England, sold at 20s. per ton ; and the second sort at 13s. Ad., 1389. In 1790 there were 140,000 pipes of wine made in Portugal. WINE from raisins first made in England, in 1635. WOOD CUTS invented, 1460. WOOLLEN CLOTH, manufacturers of, in all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Diodorus Sicilus, who wrote in Augustus Cassar's time, 21 B. C. relates that in the isle of Malta, several mercan- tile wares were made, particularly very fine cloth. Strabo, speaking of Turtetania, in Lusi- tania, says, in 34, that cloths were formerly the exports of that country, but that they have now another woollen manufacture of most excellent beauty, such as that of the Corai, a people of Asia, from whence the rams were brought at a talent each, or £100. Woollen cloth manufactories commenced at Sedan in France, 1646 ; the first made in Eng- land in 1331 i medley cloths first, made, 1614; greatly improved by the Walloons, 1688 ; first dyed and dressed in England, in 1667. Its ex- port from Great Britain in 1787 was £3,687,795 12s. 2d. value. In 1779, 272,755 pieces of broad cloth, containing 8,806,688 yards, and 180,168 pieces of narrow cloth, containing 6,377,277 yards, were manufactured in the West Riding of Yorkshire, being an increase on the year 1778, a produce of 48,596 pieces, or 1,672,574 yards of broad cloth, and 315,602 pieces, or 1,196,964 yards of narrow cloth. WORSHIPPING IMAGES introduced into England, 763; forbidden in Hungary, 1785. Y. YEAR, the Julian, regulated by Julius Caesar, 45 B. C. The Solar Year, found to consist of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, 285; intro- duced by Caesar, 45 B. C. YORK, Upper Canada, capitulated to the Americans, April 27, 1813. YORK, Cathedral of, set on fire and greatly damaged, by Martin a maniac in 1829. It has since been repaired. YORK, NEW, City and State; chronol- ogy of, Discovery of Cabot 1497 Hudson's discovery of the bay and ) jgQ~ river 5 First buildings in the city 1621 First Dutch governor 1629 City taken by the English 1664 Retaken by the Dutch 1673 Fell into the hands of the English 1674 First Colonial legislature 1683 Seventeen chests of tea thrown into ) 1773 the river by the citizens ) City taken by the British 1776, ) 1783 evacuated 25th November ) First congress under the constitu- ) 1789 tion met at the city ) Population of the city 200,000) 1835 probably Z. ZODIAC, sign of the, invented by Anaxi- mander, 547 B. C. 705 REVIEW OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. la France, at the commencement of the cen- mry, there existed a consular government — Bo- naparte being first consul— a government raised upon the ruins of a sad and memorable revolu- tion ; in 1802, Bonaparte became consul for life ; in 1304, Emperor ; in 1S08, he deprived the Pope, who crowned him, of his territories; in 1S09. he divorced his wife ; in 1810, he married Marie Louise. Between the commencement of his career and its close, he created three king- doms, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg. He made his brother Joseph, King of Spain ; his jrother Louis, King of Holland ; his brother Je- rome, King of Westphalia; his brother-in-law Murat, King of Naples; and his son-in-law Eu- rrene Viceroy of Italy. Facts astounding in themselves, not more strongly illustrative of the revolutions of the present century as connected with France and its Emperor, than as exhibiting the generality of revolutions as to the other na- tions in which those family promotions were made. Keeping our eye then upon France, we see in 1814 the exiled and denounced Bourbons re- stored to their throne— Russian cossacks bivouac in the Champs Elysees, and English soldiers mount guard at the Tuileries — Bonaparte is banished to Elba — his family are dethroned and degraded — from Elba he escapes, returns to Paris, is again in the ascendant; reigns for his Hundred Days, and then, by a series of victories crowned and consummated by that of Waterloo, is beaten down never to rise again : unable to es- cape, he makes a merit of surrendering to Eng- land, and for the sake of peace in Europe, is sent to St. Helena, where he dies. On his de- parture, the Bourbons again succeed; Louis XVIII, dies at a good old age in his palace ; and is succeeded by Charles X. The son of the Due de Berri, murdered before his infant's birth, is heir presumptive to the throne — a new revolu- tion breaks out — Charles X. abdicates — his mi- nisters are tried and imprisoned for life — the throne is occupied by his nephew, as Citizen King of the French — the son of Bonaparte dies ■ — the widow of the Due de Berri is imprisoned — marries a second husband — has another child, — and France, altogether in the strictest alliance ' with England, her oldest and most inveterate en- emy, is only kept from a revolution, by the un- I flinching severity of the" liberal" king, who was I forced upon the throne by the last one. All these events have occurred during this century In Portugal, after the measures of the French had driven the prince Regent and his family to the Brazils, the English rescued that country from French tyranny. In 1821, the King (as he had then become by the death of his fatiier) re- turned to his throne ; in 1820, his eldest son, Don Pedro, having formally dissolved the union be- tween Brazil and Portugal, caused himself to be proclaimed Emperor of Brazil ; Don John VI, died in 1826, when Don Pedro claimed the crown of Portugal for his daughter, Donna Maria ; Don Miguel, "second son of Don John, claimed the throne, as the law of the land and the decree of Lamego warranted. In the meantime, a revolu- tion occurred in Brazil, and the emperor took to flight — his son, a child, is now the emperor. The struggle between the brothers is too familiar to need a word of remark ; the claim of Don Pedro for his daughter is at present successful, and Donna Marfa, a child, occupies the Portuguese throne. Spain, on the renewal of the war in 1 803, was compelled by France to take active measures against England; in 1804, she declared war against England ; in 1805, Nelson, with his hearts-blood, bought the glorious victory of Tra- falgar, in which the Spanish fleet, combined with that of France, was destroyed ; in 1808, Bona- parte threw off" the mask as to Spanish affairs ; Charles IV, abdicated, and Ferdinand VII, was proclaimed. At this period, Charles IV, having been induced to declare his abdication a com- pulsory act, was also induced to throw himself for safety on Bonaparte's kindness. Then it was that Bonaparte invited Ferdinand to come and meet him on his road to Madrid— the king was deceived and went — he arrived at Vittoria, where he was surrounded by French troops, and where he received a letter from Bonaparte, ad. dressed him, not as King but as Prince of Aus- trias, assuring him that he, Bonaparte, not only as his friend, but as the general protector and benefactor of Europe, was visiting Spain merely with a view to make such reforms as might be most agreeable to the popular feeling, and best tend to the pacification of the country. Upon the receipt of this friendly communica- tion Ferdinand continued his journey to Bay- onne where he dined with his illustrious friend and patron; and, after dinner, heard from his imperial host, tint he thought it good to fill the throne of Spain by placing one of his own bro- thers on it. Ferdinand found himself in fact a prisoner, and was shortly after compelled to re- nounce his crown at the desire of his father, ex- pressed in the presence of Bonaparte himself, to whom that father had the day before sold hi3 706 kingdom and his birth-right for a stipulated sum. This compulsory step caused the patriotic re- volution in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte arrived at Madrid to assume the legal power; but the inherent force of the nation was irresistible, and he was driven from his precarious dignity. Then came the Peninsular war with all its glories, and its expenditure of blood and treasure. In 1814, Ferdinand returned to his country. He married four times ; and by his last wife had one daugh- ter, which daughter he proclaimed heir to the throne, to the exclusion of his brother Don Car- los. This declaration he subsequently annulled, but, eventually, confirmed. Don Carlos, at his brother's death, asserted his claims to the sov- reignty, with, as it is said, the support and con- currence of a great majority of the people. Fo- reign interference has hitherto thwarted the views of Don Carlos, whose consort, harassed by misfortunes, privations, and anxieties, has fallen a victim to persecution, and died in the parsonage house of a village near Gosport. The success of the widow of Don Ferdinand, has enabled her to proclaim her daughter as Queen of Spain, she herself assuming the title and character of Regent. By this revolution, for such it is, the Spanish throne is occupied by a child. Belgium and Holland have been separated; Antwerp has been besieged by the French ; the Prince of Saxe Coburg, widower of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, has been made King of the Belgians, and married a daughter of the occupier of the French throne. The affairs of Greece, which have been so long unsettled, are as unset- tled still, with this difference, that England has furnished her with a King, in the person of Prince Otho of Bavaria, whose revenue is de- rived from that country, but whose period of domination is fortunately not to be calculated upon with any degree of certainty. In Russia, after the murder of Paul, Alexander succeeded, and did not die without some suspi- cion of foul play. He was succeeded by his brother, Nicholas the First, whose elder brother, Constantine, with a most remarkable diffidence, or indifference to imperial sway, declined the throne in his favor. It must be evident that, if the extent, or pre- tensions of this article would admit of our taking a review of the public affairs of all the nations in the world during thp period to which it refers, it would exhibit a series of mutations calculated equally to justify our opinion of the eventful- ness of the last thirty-four years, with those we have hastily touched. Let us, however, be par- ticular hi looking at results relating to England. In England the circumstances connected with the succession have been complicated and ex- traordinary. In 1820, George the Third died, having survived his fifth son, the Duke of Kent, six days. The Princess Charlotte died, with hei infant, in 1818; Queen Charlotte in 1818; the Duchess of York in 1820; in 1821, Queen Caro- line ; in 1827, the lamented Duke of York ; in 1828, the Queen of Wirtemberg, princess royal of England ; and in 1830, his late majesty. The present king has no surviving issue ; and the crown hereafter devolves upon the daughter of his late majesty's fifth son — a child. In 1814, the electorate of Hanover was erect- ed into a kingdom, the crown of which belongs to the King of England, but is separated from it whenever a queen governs that empire ; con- sequently upon the accession of the princess Victoria to the British throne, the Duke of Cum- berland, as next heir to the crown, becomes King of Hanover — the Salic law in that king- dom excluding females. There are peculiarities of circumstance in the mortality of the royal family of England (which it would neither be right, nor indeed have we space to enter into them,) which render the cause and order of these events more remark- able. Not less so have been the casualties by which the ministers of the crown and many eminent men have been removed from their sta- tions during the period to which these observa- tions refer. After the death of Pitt, avowedly accelerated, if not actually caused, by his devo- tion to his country, how soon died his great op- ponent, Fox? Lord Granville is dead: Percival was murdered ; Lord Liverpool stricken by a calamity which left his body living after the mind was dead ; Windham and Huskisson, both victims of accidents: Canning prematurely lost; and Lord Londonderry fallen by his own hand ; Nelson, and Moore, and Abercrombie in battle; with a host of heroes equally deserving the tears and praises of their countrymen. Remember that such men as Thurlow, Ersk- ine, Gilford, Law, Kenyon, Grattan, Curran, have lived and died within this century. In lite- rature, and wit, and poetry, can we forget She- ridan, Murphy, Cumberland, Cowper, Byron, and Scott ! in science, Banks and Davy ; in art, West and Lawrence ; or the stage, Siddons and Kemble. — All these are gone, — faded from the scenes which they exalted and adorned. We mention but the very leaders, but taking every branch of art and science into calculation, the aggregate amount of loss within the last thirty- 707 four years will, hereafter, when time and reflec- tion shall have overcome jealousy and envy, be found vastly to exceed that which England has sustained during any other period of equal du- ration. But now let us look at things less questionable. In the present century, the bright career of the Duke of Wellington may be said to have been ;-un ; for although his services before and up to the capture of Seringapatam, in 1799, had raised his character and spread his fame, it was in this century that his celebrated battle of Assaye was fought. From his arrival in Europe, until the pear 181">, he gained that series of victories which have immortalized him. But that is not ill that we have to illustrate our point ; besides the splendid days of Oporto, Vimiera, Talavera, Buzaco, Salamanca, Badajos, Vittoria, Nice, Toulouse, St. Jean de Luz, the Pyrenees, and Waterloo, we are able to show that more Teneral actions were fought, and more lives lost jy the fortune of war from 1800 to 1815 than ;ver were fought in a period of ten times the same extent ; — among them, Marengo, Alexan- Iria, Austerlitz, Corunna, Aspen and Essling, Wagram, Borossa, Elbuera, Borodino, Lutzen, Poplitz, Leipzic, Orthes, Ligny, besides others, imounting to nearly two hundred general act/mis. But, then, let us see what has taken place in jivil life. England has been united with Ireland; .he test and corporation acts have been repealed; hirty millions of taxes have been removed; the Roman Catholics have been emancipated ; sla- very has been abolished ; parliament has been reformed ; the poor-laws have been changed ; the •.onstitution of the church of Ireland has been tltered ; several bishops have been reduced ; the Sast India Company's privileges have been ab- rogated ; the bank has resumed cash payments ; >ank notes are now a legal tender ; the game aws have been repealed, since which time )oaching has increased in a ten-fold degree; beer mouses have been permitted in order to better he morals of the lower classes, which are said o have produced drunkenness to an unparal- eled extent; for humanity's sake, forgery has ur limits, as we have already said, to enter into ninute details of the wonderful alterations •/hich have been worked during the century ; ve shall, therefore, select a few of those which trikes the senses most forcibly, and which, from ircurnstances and localities, are most familiar. Well then, say we, this introduction of steam, or rather its adaptation to vessels and locomo- tive carriages, has been — and it is in its infancy yet — one of the greatest strides ever made in so short a space of time. Next comes gas. Let any body read Mr. Davies Giddy's, now Mr. Davies Gilbert's, formal denunciation in the House of Commons of the bare idea of obtaining light and profit from gas, and the case will be made as strong as we can wish it. Not only is the use of gas as a light universal, but if any body will take the trouble, or rather give them- selves the pleasure, of visiting the gallery of national sciences, in the Lowther arcade, they will find cookery performed by gas in the most perfect and satisfactory manner. During this century England has acquired the Cape, Ceylon, Curacoa, Demarara, St. Eusta- tius, Mauritius, Bourbon, Maderia, Malta, Mar- tinique, Senegal, and Surinam — several of which have been ceded, but what are these? — what are her conquests in Egypt ? — what her successful warfare at Nepaul or in the Burmese country ? — what her wonderful extension of ter- ritory in India ? — what her sovereignty of the Ionian Islands ? — what the recollections of the share she has borne in the actions of the world, under Providence, compared with the strides she has made in art, science, and mechanism since 1800? In 1800 would any man have believed — and in 1800 men fancied they travelled at a most ex- traordinary pace — would any man have believed that he could leave London in a stage-coach in the morning and eat his supper by eleven o'clock at night in Manchester ? or if his credulity could have been stretched so as to admit of such a possibility, would he have suffered himself to be told with impunity that if he chose, instead of supping at Manchester, he might proceed to Liverpool in one hour and three-quarters — a distance of upwards of thirty miles — that he might steam himself over to Dublin in time for breakfast the next morning, all of which he may now do, supposing the conveyance ready ? but, as it is, and without any hurry or trouble, a man breakfasts at the Bull and Mouth in London on the Monday, and breakfasts in Dublin on the Wednesday, accoiding to the ordinary and es- tablished rules of stage coach, rail-road, and steam travelling. Within the present century, vaccination has superseded, nay, annihilated, that tremendous affliction the small-pox — an event to which the wonderful decrease in the mortality of all classes, proportionably to the general increase of the 708 population, may , in a great degree, be attributed , despite the evidence to the contrary afforded in the report of the parliamentary committee. Again, reducing as we must, our sphere of ob- servation, for want of room, let us look at the metropolis within the present century ; hovels and alleys have disappeared, and palaces and ter- races risen in their places. Look at those splen- did bridges, Waterloo and London — the vast iron bridge across the Thames in the city, and the extremely useful one at Vauxhall — see those stupendous works, the West India Docks, East India Docks, St. Catherine Docks, Surry Canal Docks, all erected within this century — the mag- nificent Custom-house, the healthy and spacious Bedlam, the London University, the Kir 's Col- lege. — Within this century Ranelagh has van- ished from the earth, the Pantheon has become a bazaar, every theatre in London, except the opera house, which had just risen from a confla- gration, has been either burned or pulled down — Covent garden, Drury lane, the English Opera House, the Surry theatre once, and Astley's twice, been burned and rebuilt — the Haymarket pulled down, the Royalty pulled down, both re- built, and the latter, under the title of the Bruns- wick, destroyed in the twinkling of an eye. Carlton House, with all its splendor and gaieties, and all the associations of wit and mirth has, with the noble and joyous company which made its walls ring with festivity, van- ished. The Prince ! Fox, Sheridan, Fitzpatrick, Hanger, Erskine, the Duke of Norfolk, and fifty others, are in their graves, the scene of their revels exists no more, splendid terraces and magnificent squares occupy its site. The wretched streets between Pall Mall and Oxford street have given place to grand and commodi- ous drives and promenades. The interior of St. James's Park, which was a swampy meadow for the dull diversion of smoke dried cows, has become a beautiful gar- den ; and Buckingham House, built in the full uniform of bad taste — " red with white facings" — has given place to a palace much censured originally, and lately much disfigured; but which still is a palace worthy of the country. In the Regent's Park, groves, canals, villas, par- ades, dioramas, (what did we know of dioramas in 1801).') crescents, and terraces, ranges of splendid buildings, occupy a space previously monopolized by grazing cattle; while a naviga- ble can;i I which circumvents London, nd forms a unlit litch round her assail hie parts, in case of rebellion, brings all the commodities of the world floating to the very doors of ware- houses in the most inland part of the me- tropolis. Of greater things, look at the Breakwater at Plymouth, at the Tunnel under the Thames, — even unfinished as it is, and unprofitable as it ever will be, it is a triumph of science and per- severance — look at those bridges hanging, as it were, in air, spanning arms of the sea, which, in 1800, no man would have thought possible by such means. That pretty toy, the chain pier at Brighton, is a toy that no man would have im- agined in 1800. Who, in 1800, would have ex- pected to find water without digging for it ? — Who would have engraved upon stone ? Who would have thought of calculating sums by ma- chinery ? Who would have thought of stuffing cushions with iron for softness ? Who would have worn a caoutchouc cloak or Indian rubber shoes to keep them from the wet ? We pass by the revolution in Greece, the war in Poland ; we omit the discoveries in Africa, which have let in the light to the very heart of that vast peninsula, and displayed the entire course of the mysterious Niger ; we omit the changes and discoveries in Asia, and pause for a moment to contemplate the great strides of revolution in this Western Hemisphere. The peninsula of South America, within this present century has passed from colonial vas- salage, to a state of independence, with the ex- ception of Brazil, and the small possessions of two European powers in Guiana. Mexico and Guatimala have also thrown off the yoke ; and thus the continental portions of the new world, have become separated forever from that kingdom to which they owed their discovery, and under whose sway they existed for three entire centuries. If we look to the United States, the revolu- tions have been even greater and more aston- ishing than in any other country. It is true tha' our form of government is the same ; but ou. territory is more than doubled ; our population is almost tripled, and our station among nations has risen to that of the most commanding eleva- tion. Steam navigation, canals, and railroads, ', have their entire history within the present cen- ■, j tury ; our large cities are doubled in their pop- \ j ulation ; and thousands of towns and villages have sprung up, studding to a vast extent what I was before a wilderness, and seeming to the dis- tant spectator to come into existence as the stars V emerge from the grey mist of twilight, and sparkle in the sky. /ii O ' o l ■; U Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ApR ^ PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111