^.'-^rrf** G^ .* ^-^. o». **7tv»* .0^ t^/''*,^ >^^ °o < fc"'*^ .''"■• .^ .t*#^ -^. .V ^h '*:*^o- ,c? '^^ *r^f'* ^^^ O: o V vi* . 9^. • • - • .^\^>Qik'X \y •:i>*ivV''«<-;;?i^':'\ .-^- vev .A.* V 'U ' • ■ • AV The Lake History Stories The Lake History Stories THE HARDING BOOKS GREEK GODS, HEROES, AND MEN, by Samuel B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 202 pages, 12 full page illustrations. Price $0.50 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, by Samuel B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 274 pages, 38 illustrations and maps. Price 50 THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES, by Samuel B. Harding. New edition, revised and enlarged. 256 pages, 79 illustrations and maps. Price 50 THE STORY OF ENGLAND, by Samuel B. Harding and William F. Harding. 384 pages, 7 maps, and 138 illustrations. Price 60 Teachers' Manual, 73 pages, price 25 cents. THE STORY OF EUROPE, from the Times of the Ancient Greeks to the Colonization of America. Based on the report of the Committee of Eight to the American His- torical Association. By Samuel B. Harding and Margaret Snodgrass. 384 pages, 128 illustrations and maps. Price. .60 THE EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, by Edwin E. Sparks, M.A., Ph.D., State College, Penn- sylvania. 472 pages, 184 illustrations and maps. Price. .60 THE STORY OF THE MAP OF EUROPE, by L. P. Benezet. 282 pages, 56 illustrations, 22 maps (6 in colors). Price 60 SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY Chicago New York THE STORY OF THE MAP OF EUROPE ITS MAKING AND ITS CHANGING BY L!^^P. BENEZET SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LA CROSSE, WISCONSIN SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK v^^ COPYRIGHT, 1916 By SCOTT. FORESMAN AND COMPANY FEB 28 1916 ©aA427041 PREFACE This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils, teachers, and the general pubhc in a series of talks on the causes of the great European war which were given by the author in the fall of 1914. The audiences were widely different in character. They included pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students in high school and normal school, teachers in the public schools, an association of business men, and a convention of boards of education. In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: ''If there were only some book which would give us these facts in simple language and illustrate them by maps and charts as you have done!" After searching the market for a book of this sort without success, the author deter- mined to put the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to write in a style which is. well within the comprehension of the children in the upper grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The book deals with the remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made the great war inevitable. Facts are revealed which, so far as the author knows, have not been pubhshed in any history to date; facts which had the strongest possible bearing on the outbreak of the war. The average American, whether child or adult, has little conception of conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of the Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second generations both peoples have become 2 Preface Americans. Bohemians intermarry with Irish, Scotch with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech and Teuton, Bulgar and Serb may Uve side by side for centuries without mixing or losing their distinct racial characteristics. In order that the American reader may understand the compli- cated problem of European peace, a study of races and languages is given in the text, showing the rela- tionship of Slav, Celt, Latin, and Teuton, and the various sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of these facts is very essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe. The author has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the natural cUvision of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the mass of the population. The chapter, entitled ''Europe as it Should Be," with its accompanying map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would look if the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to draw sharp lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into Skipetar and Serb on the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is one-third German in its population. There are large islands of Germans and Magyars in the midst of the Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a few examples out of many which could be cited. How^ever, the general aim of the chapter has been to divide the continent into nations, in each of which the leading race would vastly predominate in population. It is hoped that the study of this little work will Preface 3 not onl}^ throw light upon the causes of war in gen- eral, but will also reveal its cruelty and its needless- ness. It is shown that the history of Europe from the time of the great invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a continuous story of government without the consent of the governed. A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and phil- anthropists in many countries have urged, is out- lined in the closing chapter. It would seem as though after this terrible demonstration of the results of armed peace, the governments of the world would be ready to listen to some plan which would forever forbid the possibility of another war. Just as individuals in the majority of civilized countries discovered, a hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for them to carry weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy protection, so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable -to the fruits of brigandage and aggres- sion. The colonies of America, after years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tre- mendous war, at last learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will have to learn it. The stumbling blocks in the Avay are the remains of feudal government in Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of the common people in many countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with the advance of education, and we trust that feudalism will not long survive its last terrible crime, the world war of 1914. .In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many helpful suggestions from co- workers. His thanks are especially due to Professor A. G. Terry of Northwestern University and Pro- 4 Preface fessor A. H. Sanford of the Wisconsin State Normal School at La Crosse, who were kind enough to read through and correct the manuscript before its final revision. Acknowledgment is also made to Row, Peterson and Company for kind permission to use illustrations from History Stories of Other Lands; also to the International Film Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable copyright illustrations of scenes relating to the great war. L. P. BENEZET. La Crosse, Wisconsin, January 20, 1916. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Preface .1 List of Maps 6 List of Illustrations 7 I. The Great War 9 II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes 22 III. From Chiefs to Kings 37 IV. Master and Man 52 V. A Babel of Tongues 61 VI. "The Terrible Turk" 78 VII. The Rise of Modern Nations 87 VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms 101 IX. The Little Man from the Common People .112 X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs . 127 XI. Italy a Nation at Last 136 XII. The Man of Blood and Iron 144 XIII. The Balance of Power 162 XIV. The "Entente Cordiale" 178 XV. The Sowing of the Dragon's Teeth 191 XVI. Who Profits? 203 XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine ... 212 XVIII. Why England Came In 222 XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition 231 XX. Europe As It Should Be 243 XXI. The Cost of It All 251 XXII. The Causes of War and a Remedy 260 Pronouncing Glossary 269 Index 273 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship . . 65 Distribution of Languages 66 Southeastern Europe in 600 b.c 72 Southeastern Europe 975 a.d 74 Southeastern Europe 1690 82 The Empire of Charlemagne 90 Europe in 1540 (following) 91 The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806 99 Italy in 525 114 Italy in 650 115 Italy in 1175 116 Europe in 1796 (following) 118 Europe in 1810 (following) 120 Europe in 1815 (following) 129 Italy Made One Nation — 1914 — .... (following) 141 Formation of the German Empire 158 Southeastern and Central Europe 1796 168 Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century . . .169 Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It . . . 192 Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913 . . . 198 The Two Routes from Germany into France 220 Europe as It Should Be (following) 245 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Peace Palace at the Hague Frontispiece Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging 12 A Drill Ground in Modern Europe 20 The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago .... 26 The Last Combat of the Gladiators 28 Germans Going into Battle 31 A Hun Warrior . 32 Gaius Julius Caesar 34 A Prankish Chief 38 Movable Huts of Early Germans 39 Goths on the March 40 Franks Crossing the Rhine 41 Men of Normandy Landing in England 42 Alexander Defeating the Persians 44 A Knight in Armor 46 A Norman Castle in England 53 A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord 56 WiUiam the Conqueror 58 A Typical Bulgarian Family 76 Mohammed H Before Constantinople 79 A Scene in Salonika 85 Louis XIV 92 John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough 93 The Great Elector of Brandenburg 94 Frederick the Great 96 Catharine II 103 Courtier of Time of Louis XIV 105 The Taking of the Bastille 106 7 8 List of Illustrations The Palace of Versailles 107 The Reign of Terror 109 The First Singing of "The Marseillaise" 110 Charles the Fifth 117 The Emperor Napoleon in 1814 122 The Retreat from Moscow 124 Napoleon at Waterloo 126 The Congress of Vienna 128 Prince Metternich 134 The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel . 140 Bismarck 145 An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War . 154 The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany 156 Peter the Great 164 Entrance to the Mosque at St. Sophia 166 The Congress of BerUn 170 An Arab Sheik and His Staff 179 A Scene in Constantinople 184 Durazzo 196 A Modern Dreadnaught 202 Submarine 204 A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns 218 Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army . . 234 A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front ... 238 Polish Children 247 The Price of War 250 Rendered Homeless by War 253 Charles XII of Sweden 256 THE STORY OF THE MAP OF EUROPE Chapter I THE GREAT WAR The call from Europe. — Friend against friend. — Why? — Death and devastation. — No private quarrel. — Ordered by government. — What makes government? — The influence of the past. — Four causes of war. Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being erected in a great American Austrian . and City durmg the summer of 1914 were two men Russian who had not yet become citizens of the United States. Born abroad, they still owed allegiance, one to the Emperor of Austria, the other to the Czar of Russia. Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a chance to under- stand each other, they had become well acquainted. They were members of the same labor union, and had worked side by side on ^, several different jobs. In the course of time, a chums firm friendship had sprung up between them. Suddenly, on the same day, each was notified to call at the office of the agent of his govern- 9 The call from Europe A sad parting The great war 10 The Story of merit in the city. Next morning the Russian came to his boss to explain that he must quit work, that he had been called home to fight for the ''Little Father" of the Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian, there ahead of him, tell- ing that he had to go, for the Russians had declared war on Austria and the good Kaiser,* Franz Josef, had need of all his young men. The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The pitiless arm of the god of war had reached across the broad Atlantic, plucking them back from peace and security. With weapons put into their hands they would be ordered to kill each other on sight. A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful ''Good luck to you," and they parted. Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong enough to separate the two friends and drag them back five thousand miles for the purpose of killing each other? To answer these two questions is the purpose of this little volume. Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and Africa were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the world has ever seen. Millions of men were killed. Other milhons were maimed, blinded, or disfigured for life. Still other milhons were In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor. The Map of Europe 11 herded into prison camps or forced to work like convict laborers. Millions of homes were ^ . ^ _, Grief and filled with grief. Milhons of women were hardships forced to do hard work which before the war had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children were left fatherless. What had been the richest and most productive farm- ing land in Europe was made a barren waste. Thousands of villages and towns were utterly destroyed and their inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the sick, and the infants alike. In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and Serbia, the wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally starving, because all food had been seized for the use of ^ .^, Terrible fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which cannot suffering exist where people have the chance to bathe and keep themselves clean, once more appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of vic- tims. The strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations were shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable existence, sick or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in many factories which once turned out the comforts and luxuries of civilization. There were no men to make toys for the children, or to work for mankind's happiness. The only mills and factories which were running full time were those that turned out the tools of f^^Cl^ > ^^ ^R98h^ ^x ' lii ^gf^^M^^^y S ..l&f . _jjiii!i^P^^^^' i" i=^^l>m^ ■H^^^^£.i_Z^^^^3P^^ ' * (12) The Map of Europe 13 destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations poured out from fifty to sixty miUion dollars a day for the purpose of killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What was the reason for it all? In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in Germany freely and . safely. Germans were glad to trade with intercourse Russians, and happy to have Englishmen spend their money in Germany. France and Austria exchanged goods and their inhabitants traveled within each other's boundaries. A Frenchman might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed. There was nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman or Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could meet and find plenty of ground for friendship. We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred. One can imagine that ^^ ,...,,., , No private two men living side by side and seeing each quarrel other every day might have trouble and grow to hate each other, but in this great war soldiers were shooting down other soldiers whom they had never seen before, with whom they had never exchanged a word, and it would not profit them if they killed a whole army of their oppon- ents. In many cases, the soldiers did not see the men whom they were kiUing. An officer 14 The Story of War at long range Govern- ment ordered slaughter What makes a govern- ment with a telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling and telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a trifle for his next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed and fired the gun. Once in a while, a shell from the invisible enemy, two, three, or four miles away, fell among them, killing and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians were ordered to charge the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the Russians because they were told to do so by their officers, and the Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so ordered them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders received from their generals. The generals were only obeying orders from the government. In the end, then, we come back to the govern- ments, and we wonder what has caused these nations to fly at each other's throats. The question arises as to what makes up a govern- ment or why a government has the right to rule its people. In the United States, the government officials are simply the servants of the people. Practically every man in our country, unless he is a citizen of some foreign nation, has a right to vote, and in many of the states women, too, have a voice in the government. We, the people of the United States, can choose our own lawmakers, can The Map of Europe 15 instruct them how to vote and, in some states, Govern- ment by can vote out of existence any law that they the people have made which we do not Hke. In all states, we can show our disapproval of what our law- makers have done by voting against them at the next election. Such is the government of a republic, a ^^ government of the people, by the people, and for the people," as Abraham Lincoln called it. In December, 1914, and again in December, 1915, a bill was introduced into the United States Congress, which provided that our country may not declare war except by the direct vote of its people. Some such law will probably soon be passed. How is it in Europe? Have the people of Germany or Russia the right toi vote on war? Were they consulted before their governments called them to arms and sent them to fight each other? It is plain that in order to understand what this war is about, we must look into the story of how the different governments of Europe came to be and learn why their peoples obey them so unquestioningly. We must remember that government by the people is a very new thing. One hundred and popular thirty years ago, even in the United States only govern- about one-fourth of the men had the right to new vote. These were citizens of property and wealth. They did not think a poor man was 16 The Story of worth considering. In England, a country which allows its people more voice in the govern- ment than almost any other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty years that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like Russia, where the people have practically no power at all and others, like Aus- tria, where they have very little voice in how they shall be governed. For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without thinking when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up their weapons and go to war. In many instances they have known nothing of the causes of the conflict or of what they were fighting for. A famous English writer has written a poem which illustrates how little the average citizen has ever known concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in which one should regard it. The poem runs as follows: The Battle of Blenheim It was a summer evening, Old Kaspar's work was done. And he before his cottage door Was sitting in the sun, And by him sported on the green His little grandchild Wilhelmine. The Map of Europe 17 She saw her brother Peterkin Roll something large and round, Which he beside the rivulet In playing there had found, He came to ask what he had found That was so large and smooth and round. Old Kaspar took it from the boy, Who stood expectant by; And then the old man shook his head, And, with a natural sigh — '' 'Tis some poor fellow's skull," said he, ''Who fell in the great victory. ''I find them in the garden. For there's many hereabout; And often when I go to plow. The plowshare turns them out! For many a thousand men," said he, "Were slain in the great victory." ''Now tell us what 'twas all about," Young Peterkin he cries; And little Wilhelmine looks up With wonder-waiting eyes — "Now tell us all about^the war. And what they fought each other for." "It was the Enghsh," Kaspar cried, "W^ho put the French to rout; But what they fought each other for I could not well make out; But everybody said," quoth he, "That 'twas a famous victory. 18 The Story of ^'My father lived at Blenheim then, Yon little stream hard by; They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly; So with his wife and child he fled, Nor had he where to rest his head. ''They say it was a shocking sight After the field was won — For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun; But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory. ''Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won, And our good Prince Eugene." "Why, 'twas a very wicked thing!" Said little Wilhelmine. "Nay, nay, my little girl," quoth he, " It was a famous victory. "And everybody praised the duke Who this great fight did win." "But what good came of it at last?" Quoth little Peterkin. "Why, that I cannot tell," said he; "But 'twas a famous victory." — Robert Southey. Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things Cui bono? ^^^ ^i^ ^i^^j cannot feel the wickedness and horror thl^^oVd of ^^ ^^^ battle. The children, on the other hand, it?) have a different idea of war. They are not satisfied until they know what it was all about The Map of Europe 19 and what good came of it, and they feel that ''it was a very wicked thing." If the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why they were kilhng each other and had refused to fight until they knew the truth, the history of the world would have been very different. One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for themselves, because it is so J^^ tyranny of much easier to let their dead ancestors think the dead for them and to keep up customs which should have been changed ages ago. People in Europe have lived in the midst of wars or preparation for wars all their li\es. There never has been a time when Europe was not either a battlefield or a great drill-ground for armies. There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in Europe and not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong to take human life. Today it is not considered wrong to kill, provided a man is ordered to do so by his general or his king. When two kings go to war, each claiming his quarrel to be a just one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made by its government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help to bring about lasting peace among all the nations. (20) The Map of Europe 21 In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the wars of the past. We ^^^^ ^ ^ causes shall find, as we do so, that almost all wars can of wars be traced to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among barbarous tribes to fight with and plunder their neighbors; (2) the ambition of kings to enlarge their kingdoms; (3) the desire of the traders of one nation to increase their commerce at the expense of some other nation; (4) a people's wish to be free from the control of some other country and to become a nation by itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause for war, and this cause has been brought about only when kings have sent their armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other peoples who wished to govern themselves. Questions for Review (a) Why must foreigners in the United States return to their native lands when summoned by their governments? (6) How is it that war helps to breed diseases? (c) Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it? (d) Whom do we mean by the government in the United States? (e) Who controls the government in Russia? (/) Who in England? ig) Who in Germany? (h) Who in France? (i) In Southey's poem, how does the children's idea of the battle differ from that of their grandfather? Why? (-'') Are people less Ukely to protest against war if their forefathers have fought many wars? (k) What have been the four main causes of war? Chapter II ROME AND THE BARBARIAN TRIBES New governments in Europe. — Earliest times. — How civilization began. — The rise of Rome. — Roman civiliza- tion. — Roman cruelty. — The German tribes. — • The Slavic tribes. — The Celtic tribes. — The Huns and Moors. — The great Germanic invasions of the Roman world. To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe in 1914, we must go far back into history. It should be remembered that many of the governments of today have not Hved as long as that of our own country. This is, perhaps, a new thought to some of us, who rather think that, as America is a new country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one hundred and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed, there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know by that name was cut up among nine or ten little governments. There was no nation known as Germany; the land which is in the present German empire was then divided among some thirty or thirty-five different rulers. There was no Republic of France; instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the French people were cruelly oppressed. 22 The Map of Europe 23 There was no kingdom of Belgium, no kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The years ago kingdom of Norway was part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now know it, dates back only to 1871 ; the Empire of Germany and the United Kingdom of Italy to about the same time. The kingdoms of Roumania, Ser- bia, and Bulgaria have been independent of Turkey only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not exist before 1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however, originated in the dim twilight of history. In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or kingdoms. Men gathered to- ^^^ savage gether in little bands, each of which had its fathers leader. This leader was generally chosen be- cause of his bodily strength and courage. He was the best fighter of the tribe. The people did not have any lasting homes. They moved around from place to place, wherever they could find the best hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting grounds, they fought, and the weaker party had to give way. Selfishness was supreme. If a man Club law wanted anything which belonged to his weaker neighbor, he simply beat this neighbor over the head with his club, and took it. The stronger 24 The Story of tribe attacked the weaker, without any thought of whether or not its quarrel was just. Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes began to be more civilized. Beginnings Xowns sprang up. Ships were built. Trade civilization came to be one of the occupations. The fight- ing men needed weapons and armor; so there grew up artisans who were skilled in working metals. In Egypt and Syria there were people who had reached quite a high degree of civil- ization, and gradually the Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the Greeks, then the Etruscans (E-trus'cans), a people who lived in Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern Italians ^ learned that it was possible to live in cities, Change of _ , ^ , ' occupations without hunting and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of animals) came to be the occupation of many. The owners of sheep or cattle drove their flocks from place to place, as grass and water failed them where they were. There was no separate ownership of land. At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as the stronghold of a Uttle gang of robbers, spread its rule gradually over all the surrounding country. By this time, the barbarians of northern Europe had gotten past the use of clubs as weapons. They, too, iron had learned to make tools and arms of bronze. The Map of Europe 25 and those living near civilized countries had obtained swords of iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign of authority. The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe as a sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right hand. It is interesting to think that this Meaning scepter, which the present king of England ^?*^f carries on state occasions to remind his people scepter of his power, is a relic of the old, old days when his grandfather, many times removed, broke the head of his rival for leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club for his awestruck people to worship. The city of Rome (at first a republic, after- wards an empire) spread its rule over all of Beginnings Italy, over all the shores of the Mediterranean ?! ^^® •^ ' Roman Sea, and finally over all the countries of Europe Empire south and west of the rivers Danube and Rhine. One of the emperors planted a colony north of the Danube near its mouth, and the descendants of these colonists are living in that same country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they still call themselves Romans (Roumani [Roo-ma'ni]), and talk a language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue spoken by the Romans of old. With the excep- tion of this country, which is now Roumania, 26 The Story of The Map of Europe 27 the part of Europe north and east of the Danube I^® Rhine- Danube and Rhine was practically free from the Romans, boundary In this territory, roving bands wandered around, driving their cattle with them and clearing the woods of game. In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had schools where their „ - Roman children were taught to read and write, to speak civilization Greek, and to work problems in geometry. They had magnificent pubhc buildings, fine temples and palaces. They built excellent paved roads all over the southern part of Europe, and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which supplied their cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away. Their dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass, and steel. On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people. Their favorite amusement „ Roman was to go to shows where gladiators fought, cruelty either with each other or with wild beasts. These gladiators were generally men from tribes which had fought against Rome. They had been captured and brought to that city, where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on holidays, with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these unfortu- nate captives were forced to fight with each other until one man of each pair was killed. ^'i ■nvMdi M "^ i IM M fFHi^';:! ^*. Jfe"*«* \ THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS The Map of Europe 29 It occasionally happened that one gladiator might be wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, gladiators The spectators would then shout to the victor- ious fighter to take his knife and finish what he had begun. In this way what would seem to us like cold-blooded murder was committed hun- dreds of times each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of Rome sat and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had all the outward appearance of being civil- ized, they were savages at heart, and had no sympathy for any people who were not of their own race. In the early days, the Romans prided them- selves on their honor. They scorned a lie and Hardy, honorable looked down on anyone who would cheat or fighters deceive. They lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves luxuries. They rather de- spised the Greeks, because the latter surrounded themselves with comforts in life. The early Romans were fighters by nature. They had a certain god named Janus (our month January is named after him) and his temple was open only when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of history that during the twelve hundred years from the first building of Rome to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on but three occasions and then only for a short time. 30 The Story of Decay of Roman morals The Germans About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came several disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her sturdy fighters. Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but she won them at tremendous cost to herself. With the killing off of her best and bravest men, a great deal of the old time honesty was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of Roman governors who, when put in charge of conquered states, used their offices only to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome after their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax, and in general the Roman civihzation showed signs of decay. To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were to become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were the free German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe bounded, roughly, by the rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, and the Carpathian Mountains. In many ways they were much less civilized than the Romans. They were clad in skins and furs instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in caves dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held human life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among them. As The Map of Europe 31 Hunting and a rule, the men scorned to work, leaving what ever labor there was, largely to the women, fTghting while they busied themselves in fighting and hunting, or, during their idle times, in gambUng. Nevertheless, these people, about the time that the Roman honesty began to disappear, had ^'irtues more like those of the early Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful husbands and kind fathers, and their (JEKMA^^ UUIAU lATO BATTLE family life was very happy. They were bar- barous and rough, but those of them who were taken to Rome and leai-ned the Roman civil- ization made finer, nobler men than Rome was producing about the time of which we speak. To the east of these German tribes were the The Slavs Slavs, a people no better civihzed, but not so warlike in their nature. As the Germans, in later years, mo\^ed on to the west, the Slavs, in turn, moved westward and occupied much 32 The Story of of the land which had been left vacant by the Germans. The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and the British Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could be said to be divided up among four great peoples: ff^'~^ A HUN WARRIOR There were the Latins in Italy, the Celts in western Europe, the Germans in central Europe, and the Slavs to the east. All of these four famihes were distantly related, as can be proved by the languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to any one of the The Map of Europe 33 four, were also distant cousins of both Germans and Latins. Probably all five peoples are descended from one big family of tribes. In addition to these, there were, from time ^^ Huns and to time invasions of Europe by other nations Moors which did not have any connection by blood with Celts, Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For instance, the ferocious Huns, a people of the yellow race, rushed into Europe about 400 a.d., but were beaten in a big battle by the Romans and Germans and finally went back to Asia. Two hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from Africa crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and at one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian nations. For several hundred years after this, they held the southern part of Spain, but were finally driven out. Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe after the Romans had con- quered all the country south and west of the Danube and Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were restlessly roaming through the ^^^ . central part of Europe. They were not at Germans peace with each other. In fact, constant war was going on. Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who conquered what is now France and added it to the Roman world, tells us that one great tribe of Germans, the Suevi (SweVi), GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR From IV bust in the British Museum The Map of Europe 35 made it their boast that they would let no other tribe live anywhere near them. About a hundred years B.C., two great German tribes, TheCimbri the Cimbri and the Teutones, broke across the Teutones Rhine and poured into the Roman lands in countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at last they were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman general, who was Caesar's uncle by marriage. After this time, the Romans tried to conquer the country of the Germans and they might have been successful but for a young German chief named Arminius. He had lived in Rome as a young man and had learned the Romans' method of war; so when an army came against his tribe, he taught the Germans how to defend f ^,"^^ ' ° halted themselves. As a result, the Roman army was at last trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man. This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of conquering all Ger- many. For the next one hundred and fifty years, Germans and Romans lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then came a time when the Germans again became the attacking party. Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like the Huns, were assailing them in the east and pushing them forward. They finally broke over the The great '^ ^ Germanic Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the invasions 36 The Story of Roman Empire in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals, Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went to pieces under their savage attacks. Questions for Review (a) Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need less land to live on? (6) Are barbarous tribes more hkely to engage in war than civilized peoples? (c) Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more civilized tribes were better armed than the bar- barians. (d) Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy bloodshed and are not moved by the sufferings of others? (e) What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic? (/) In what way were the Germans better men than the later Romans? (r/) What w;i,s the religion of the Moors and the Arabs? (h) Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire? Chapter III FROM CHIEFS TO KINGS The early chief a fighter.— The club the sign of power. — Free men led by a chief of their own choosing. — The first slaves. — Barbarians conquer civilized nations. — A ruling class among conquered people. — All men no longer free and equal. — The value of arms and armor. — The robber chiefs. — How kings first came. — Treaties between tribes follow con- stant wars.— Tribes unite for protection against enemies. — A king is chosen for the time being. — Some kings refuse to resign their office when the danger is past. — New generations grow up which never knew a kingless state. — The word "king" becomes sacred. The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of the sword. If they saw "^M ®"^ ^ . -^ of Roman anything which they wanted, they took it. law Rich cities were plundered at will. They did not admit any man's ownership of anything. In the old days when the tribes were roaming around, there was no private ownership of land. Everything belonged to the tribe in common. Each man had a vote in the council of the tribe. Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no such thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the greater part of his people considered him the best leader in war. Often, no doubt, when a chief had lost a battle and the majority of the tribe 37 38 The Story of Govern- ment among barbarians had lost confidence in him, he resigned and let them choose a new chief. (For the same reason we frequently hear today that the prime minister, or leader of the go\'ernment, of some European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact, then, that the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the ma- jority of his warriors had combined against him to put another man in his place he could not ha\'e with- stood them. Government, in its beginning, was based upon the consent of the governed. All men in the primitive tribe were ecjual in rank, except as one was a better fighter than another, and the chief held the leadership in war only because the members of his tribe allowed him to keep it. It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no fixed place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they could put up or tear down at very short notice; and so when they heard of more fertile lands or a A PRANKISH CHIEF The Map of Europe 39 warmer climate across the mountains to the south they used to pull up stakes and migrate in a body, never to return. It was always the more savage and uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The lands which they wished to seize they generally found already settled by other tribes, more civilized and MOVABLE HUT8 OF EARLY GERMANS hence more peaceful, occupied in trade and agriculture, having gradually turned to these pursuits from their former habits of hunting and fighting. Sometimes these more civilized and peace-loving people were able, by their better weapons and superior knowledge of the art of fortifying, to beat back the invasion of Barbarians the immigrating barbarians. Oftener, though, overcome the rougher, ruder tribes were the victors, and civilized 40 The Story of settled down among the people they had con- quered, to rule them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered ones to feed and clothe them. History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were taking place, no doubt, ages migrations before the times from which our earliest records date. The best examples, howe\'er, are to be found in the invasions of the Roman Empire GOTHS ON THE MARCH by the Germanic tribes to which we have referred above. The country between the Rhine River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been called Gaul when the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks conquered the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Bur- gundians came down from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name to their new home in the fertile valley of the Saone (Son); The Map of Europe 41 the Vandals came out of Germany to roam through Spain, finally founding a kingdom in Africa; while the Lombards crossed the Alps to become the masters of the Valley of the Po, whither the Gauls had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier. The island now known as Great Britain, , Invasions which was mhabited two thousand vears ago of Britain FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was overrun and conquered in part about 450 a.d. by the Saxons and Angles, Germanic tribes, after whom part of the island was called Angle- land. (The men from the south of England are of the same blood as the Saxons in the German army, against whom they had to fight in the great war.) Then came Danes, who partially 42 The Story of The Normans conquered the Angles and Saxons, and after them, m 1066 a.d., the country was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some Norsemen, who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from Norway and con- quered a large territory in the northwestern part of France. In some cases, the conquered tribes moved 4iip- - ^;-,^s^ MEN OF NORMANDY LANDING IN ENGLAND on to other lands, leaving their former homes to their conquerors. In this way the Britons and Gaels gave up the greater part of their land to the Angles and Saxons and withdrew to the hills and mountains of Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In other cases, the con- quered people and their conquerors inhabited the same lands side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the Anglo-Saxons. The Map of Europe 43 In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a raid upon another neighbor- . . ing tribe arid bring home with it some cap- of slavery tives who became slaves, working without pay for their conquerors and possessing no more rights than beasts of burden. (This custom exists today in the interior of Africa, and was responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black captives were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors, who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried off and sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.) When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors, their number was very small as compared with that of their masters. When, on the other hand, a tribe settled among a j^^^g people whom they had conquered, they often slaves found themselves fewer in numbers, and kept masters their leadership only by their greater strength and fighting ability. Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer equal, led by a chief of their ^^ longer are ail own choosing, but instead, the greater part of men equal them now had no voice in the government. They had become subjects, working to earn their own living and also, as has been said, to support in idleness their conquerors. This ability of the few to rule the many and The value of armor 44 The Story of force them to support their masters was in- creased as certain peoples learned better than others how to make strong armor and effective weapons. Nearly five hundred years before the time of Christ, at the battle of Marathon (Mar'a thon), the Greeks discovered that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a long spear, was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and arrows or a short ALEXANDER DEFEATING THE PERSIANS «sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a small army of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that wonderful general, Alex- ander the Great, defeated nearly forty times its number of Persians in a great battle in Asia and conquered a vast empire. In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question of wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the The Map of Europe 45 best arms for his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force him to pay money as to a ruler. Finally, in the so-called ''Middle Ages," before the invention of gunpowder, one knight, armed from crown to sole in steel, was worth in battle as much as one hundred poorly-armed farmers or ''peasants" as they are called in Europe. In the "Dark Ages,"* after all these bar- barians that we have named had swarmed over ^, The robber Europe, and before the governments of modern chiefs times were fully grown, there were hundreds of robber chiefs, who, scattered throughout a country, were in the habit of collecting tribute at the point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who lived near. This tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed amount each month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. The robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good weapons and armor to their men, who lived either in the chief's castle or in small houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any travelers who came by, unless their numbers and weapons made them look too dangerous to be attacked. But the *The "Dark Ages" came before the "Middle Ages." They were called "dark" because the barbarians had extinguished nearly all civilization and learning. 46 The Story of A KNIGHT IN ARMOR i The Map of Europe 47 regular tribute forced from the peaceful farm- ers was the chief source of their income. The robber chief and his men lived a life of idleness J^,^, fighters when they were not out upon some raid for as parasites plunder, and the honest, industrious peasants worked hard enough to support both their own families and those of the robbers. These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws, and lived either in a country which had no government and laws, or in one whose government was too weak to protect its people. They were no worse, however, than the so-called feudal barons who came after them, who oppressed the people even more, because they had on their side whatever law and govern- ment existed in those days. Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In the early days of the ?"}^^^ ° , ^ ^ indepen- human race and also in later days among dent tribes barbarous peoples, the land was very sparsely settled. The reason lay in the chief occupa- tions of the men. A small tribe might inhabit a great stretch of territory through which they wandered to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went on, however, the popu- lation increased, and, as agriculture took the place of hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves living in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to 48 The Story of their neighbors. In some cases, constant fight- ing went on, just as Caesar tells us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the Germans fought almost daily battles back and forth across the Rhine. In other cases, the tribes found it better for all concerned to make treaties of peace with their neighbors, and if they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms, at least they did not attack each other. Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had treaties with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by some horde of another race or nation. Common interest would drive them together for mutual protection, and the chief of some one of them would be chosen to lead their joint army. In this way, we find the fifteen tribes of the Bel- gians uniting against the Roman army led by Julius Caesar, and electing as king over them the chief of one of the tribes ''on account of his justice and wisdom." Five years later, in the year 52 b.c, we find practically all the inhabi- tants of what is now France united into a nation under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Ver sin- jet 'o riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five hundred years later, the Romans themselves were driven to join forces with two of the Germanic tribes to check the swift invasion of the terrible Huns. The Map of Europe 49 In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the kingships were merely tem- porary. In other cases, the wars that drove the tribes to unite under one great chief or king g^^^^ lasted for years or even centuries, so that new Kingships ^ _ outlive the generations grew up who had never lived under wars any other government than that of a king. Thus when the wars were ended, the tribes continued to be ruled by the one man, although the reason for the kingship had ceased to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to 100 B.C., when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders, appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator ruled like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then, like the famous Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired to private life. The first lasting kingships, then, began, as it were, by the refusal of some dictator to resign when the need for his rule was ended. By this time, the custom of choosing the son S®" succeeds of a chief or king to take his father's place was father fairly well settled, and it did not take long to have it understood as a regular thing that at a king's death he should be followed by his oldest son. Often there were quarrels and even civil wars caused by ambitious younger sons, who did not submit to their elder brothers without a struggle, but as people grew to be more civil- 50 The Story of ized and peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked upon as the right- ful heir to the kingship. As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be busied in agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in manufacture, the warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people began to forget that the king was originally only a war leader, and that the office was created through mihtary need. They came to regard the rule of the king as a matter of course and stopped thinking of themselves as having any right to say how they should be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling. For the purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the habit of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a divine institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was made by the gods, or in Christian nations, by God, and that it was the divine will that the people of the nations should be ruled by kings. The great Roman orator, Cicero (Cis'e ro), in a speech delivered in the year 66 B.C., referring to people who lived in king- doms, says that the name of king ^' seems to them a great and sacred thing." This same feeling has lasted through all the ages down to the present time, and the majority of the people in European kingdoms, even among the The Map of Europe 51 educated classes, still look upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if they ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort. Questions for Review (a) Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private ownership of land? (6) What is meant by saying that government was based upon the consent of the governed? (c) Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the German tribes to move southward? (d) Explain the beginnings of slavery. (c) Explain the value of armor in early times. (/) What is meant by the "Dark Ages"? ig) What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites? {h) When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they should be rulers for hfe? {i) Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power? ij) Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king? Chapter IV MASTER AND MAN The land is the king's. — He lends it to barons. — Barons lend it to knights and smaller barons. — Smaller barons collect rent for it from the peasants. — A father's lands are lent to his son. — Barons pay for the land by furnishing men for the king's wars. — No account is taken of the rights of the peasant. — The peasant, the only producer, is despised by the fighting men. — If a baron rebels, his men must rebel also.— Dukes against kings. — What killed the feudal system.— Feudal wrongs alive today. When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country, as the Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 a.d., or as the Nor- mans entered England in 1066, their king at once took it for granted that he owned all the conquered land. In some cases, he might divide the kingdom up among his chiefs, giving a county to each of forty or fifty leaders. These great leaders (dukes or barons, as they were called in the Norman-French language, or earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide up his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call lesser or little barons. Each little baron might have several knights and squires, who lived in or near his castle and had received from him tracts of The Map of Europe 53 A NORMAN CASTLE IN ENGLAND land corresponding in size, perhaps, to the American township and who, therefore, fought under his banner in war. Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men, ''men-at-arms," as they were x lie liicH" called, or ''retainers," who in return for their at-arms "keep," that is, their food and lodging, and a chance to share the plunder gained in war, swore to be faithful to him, became his men, and gave him the service called homage. 54 The Story of (This word comes from hdmo, the Latin for ^'man.") The lesser baron, in turn, swore homage to, and was the ''man" of the great baron or earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser chiefs to gather their fighting men and report to him, the}^ had to obey, serving him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed them. The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had received his land. This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word feudtim, which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which was given to a man in return for his services in war), a system which reversed the natural law^s of society, and stood it on its apex, like a cone balanced on its point. For instead of saying that the land was the property of the people of the tribe or nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the land, outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in return for their faithful support and service in war, the use of the land during their lifetime, or so long as they remained true to him. In Macbeth, we read how, for his treason, the lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were taken from him by the Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The lands thus lent were The Map of Europe 55 called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place, and he at once gave them to some other one of his followers upon the same terms. It often happened that a father's upon the death of an earl or baron his son was !^^?^.^^^^ ^ lent to the granted the lands which his father had held, oldest son Finally, in many counties, it grew into a custom, and the oldest son took possession of his father's fief, but not without first going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity to him. Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the system fully. In the first place, in the division of the lands among the barons of the conquering nation, no account was taken of the peasants. As they were of the defeated people, their rights to the land were r^^^ ^^^^ not once considered. In many countries, the pwners ^ ' have no victors thought of them as part and parcel rights of the conquered territory. They '^went with" the land and were considered by the lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned over a farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If any of them tried to run away, they were brought back and whipped. They tilled the land and raised live stock, giving a certain share of their yearly crop and a certain number of beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to (56) 11: The Map of Europe 57 the lord, as rent for the land, much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to the robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned their right to live, by pro- ducing wealth, were oppressed and robbed by all the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs existing today that are due to the fact that the feudal system is not wholly stamped out in some countries. In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the direct master of all the ^ curious people. Only the great lords had sworn homage scheme of to him. He was lord of the dukes, earls, and ment barons. The less important barons swore homage to the great barons, and the knights, squires, retainers, and yeomen swore homage to the lesser barons. If a lesser baron had sub- divided his fief among certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance, not to him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a ''man" rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers, etc., must rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to obey his king and broke his oath of allegiance, all his little barons and knights must turn dis- loyal too, or rather, must remain loyal, for their oaths had been taken to support the duke, and not the king. History is full of such cases. Dukes * -^ against In many instances, dukes became so powerful kings 58 The Story of that they were able to make war on even terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland in 1403 raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of England; the Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the throne of Eng- land and became king in his place. A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of Normandy had sworn homage to the king of France, became, tnrougn con- william the conqueror quest, king of England. His sons, great-grandsons, and great-great-grandsons continued for one hun- dred and fifty years to be obliged to swear allegiance to the French kings in order to keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the Governor of Texas had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become Emperor of that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up his American citizenship. The Map of Europe 59 Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring more power to the ^j^^^ common people were, first, the invention of J^^^^^, *^^ feudal gunpowder, and, second, the rise of towns. A system man with a musket could bring down a knight in armor as easily as he could the most poorly armored peasant. Kings, in fighting to control their great lords, gave more freedom to citizens of towns in return for their help. The king's armies came to be recruited largely from townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the feudal lords. The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain amount of military service to his ^ feudal rule alive ruler has lasted to the present day and is today responsible for much of the misery that now exists. Kings went to war with each other simply to increase their territories. The more land a king had under his control, the more people who owed him taxes, and the greater number he could get into his army, the greater became his ambition to spread his kingdom still farther. Questions for Review (a) How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all the land in the country which he had invaded? (6) Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to the welfare of the working classes? (c) Would the peasants have been better off if all the fight- ing men, lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed? 60 The Story of (d) Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns his Uving is looked down upon by the nobles? (e) What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society upside down? (/) Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men? (g) Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break up the feudal system. (h) How did the rise of cities also help to do away v/ith the feudal system? I Chapter V A BABEL OF TONGUES The great family of languages. — Few languages in Europe not belonging to the family. — The dying Celtic languages. — The three branches of the Germanic family. — The influence of the Latin tongue on the south of Europe. — - The many Slavic peoples. — The map as divided by kings without regard to peoples and languages. — The strange mixture in Austria-Hungary. — The southeast of Europe. — The Greeks and Dacians. — The Roman colonists. — The Slavs. — The Volgars. — The Skipetars. — A hopeless mixture. In Chapter II it was pointed out that almost all the peoples of Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Ger- mans, the Greeks, and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its home back in the high- lands of Central Asia. As a general rule, the relationship of peoples to each other can be told by the languages which they speak. If two tribes are related because their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it is almost Relation- certain that they will show this relationship in ship shown ^ ^ through their languages. language The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like the language of the Germans, for the English were originall}^ Ger- 61 62 The Story of man tribes. E\'en today, it is easy to see that English is a Germanic language. Take the English words house, father, mother, brother, water, here, is, etc. The German words which mean the same are haus, rater, mutter, hruder, English wasser, hier, ist. It is very plain that the two a Germanic tongue languages must have come from the same source. There are professors in European colleges who have spent their whole lives studying this relationship of languages. These men ha\'e proved not only that almost all the languages of Europe are related, but that the language of the Persians, and that of some of the old tribes in Hindustan also belong to one great family of tongues. Let us take the word for mother. The great ° ^ family In one of the ancient languages of Hindustan it was matr; in the Greek, it was matar: in the Latin mater (matar) ; in the Bohemian matka ; in the Gei-man mutter; in the Spanish mddre; in the Norwegian moder, etc. This great family of languages is called "the Indo-Euro- pean group," because the tribes which spoke them, originally inhabitants of Asia, have scat- tered all over India and Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do not belong to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques (Basks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies, and the Turks. The Map of Europe 63 The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the Celtic languages to any Jilfearance great extent. The reason for this is that first ^ f^^ " , Celtic the Romans and then the Germanic tribes con- tongues quered most of the lands where the Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal, France, and Belgium now talk languages that have grown from the Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts in the British Isles now all talk English, because the Enghsh, who were a Germanic people, conquered them and forced them" to use their language. Patriotic Irish- men and Welshmen (who are descendants of the Celtic tribes) are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh languages, but all of the young people in the British Isles learn English, and they are generally content to talk only one language. The other Celtic languages which have existed within the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the southwestern corner of England. The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in three parts of Europe I^® . Germanic today. The bcandmavian languages, Danish, languages Norwegian, and Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria and Germany form, with Holland and Western Belgium, a second group of German-speaking nations. (The people of Greek and Albanian 64 The Story of eastern Belgium are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The third part of Europe which uses a Germanic language is England. In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain, and Poitugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin. Latin languages today are found also in the southern and western parts of Switzerland, all over Italy, and in Roumania. We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the Germanic tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs followed them and occupied the lands which had just been left vacant. In this way, we find Slavic peoples talking Slavic (sometimes called Slav- onic) languages in the parts of Europe to the east and south of the Germans. More than half of the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to the Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins are Slavs. The Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak a Slavic language and have some Slavic blood in them, although, as will be pointed out later, originally they did not belong to the Slavic family. The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family of tribes, but their The Map of Europe 65 66 The Story of 1 The Map of Europe 67 languages are not closely related to any of the four great branches. The two maps on pages 65 and 66 are very much aUke and yet in some respects very different. The first shows how Europe is largely maps inhabited by peoples of the great Indo- European family. Those who are descended from the Celts are marked Celtic even though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have the Cornish in England and the inhab- itants of Spain, France, eastern Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians are marked as not belonging to the great family, although they speak a Slavic language. In the second map, the distribution of lan- guages is shown. You will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in small parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of France. The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their language belongs to that branch. One of the most curious things about the two maps is the presence of little spots like islands, particularly made up of German- speaking peoples. There are several of these little islands in Russia. They have been there for nearly two hundred years. A traveler crossing the southern part of Russia is aston- ished to find districts as large as an American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. 68 The Story of (c) Celtic branch THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES (a) Hindu branch (h) Persian branch Gae'hc (northern Scotland) \A'elsh Cornish (dead) Erse (Irish) Bre'ton (western France) ' Portuguese Spanish French Romansh (southeastern Switzerland) Italian Roumanian Norwegian Danish Swedish Dutch Flemish (Belgium) Low German High German English ((/) Latin branch (c) Germanic branch (/) Slavonic ^ branch > Baltic Stat Russian Pohsh Lettish /Baltic states of Russia Lithuanian/ Old Prussian (dead) Czech (Bohemian [pronounced Check] ) Slo'vak (northern Hungary) Serbian Bulgarian Slove'nian (southw^estern Austria) Croa'tian (southern Austria) Ruthe'nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern Russia) (g) Greek (h) Alba'nian The Map of Europe 69 The people are all of Germanic blood, although they live under the government of Russia. In the same way, there is a large German island isolated in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania speaking and another between the Slovaks and Poles at nities the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania also, entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on the opposite page shows the main branches of the Indo-Euro- pean family that are found in Europe. The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings and their ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the feudal lords, never considered the wishes of the people when they changed the boundaries of kingdoms, ^^"f" made Austria-Hungary is a good example. The maps Austrians and Hungarians were two very different peoples. They had nothing in com- mon and did not wish to be joined under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no son to succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the Tjie case of Austria- counts of Hapsburg) was also emperor of Ger- Hungary many and king of Bohemia, although the Bohemian people had not chosen him as their ruler. The Hungarians, before their union with Austria, had conquered certain Slavic 70 The Story of tribes and part of the Roumanians. Later Austria annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire became a jumble of lan- guages and nationalities. When its congress is called together, the official announcement is read in eleven different languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not as large as that of the state of Texas. We must remember that besides the literary or written languages of each country there are several spoken dialects. A man from Devon- shire, England, meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of the same country, has difficulty in understanding many words in his speech. The language of the south of Scotland also is English, although it is very different from the English that we in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees Mountains was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is talked by the country people around him, that can not be understood by the peasants from the north of France near the Flemish border. The man who lives in the east of France can understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of Italy much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic coast. In America, with people moving around The Map of Europe 71 from place to place by means -of stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no great chance to develop dialects, although we can instantly tell the New Englander, the south- erner, or the westerner by his speech. It should be remembered that in Europe, for centuries, the people were kept on their own farms or in their own towns. The result of this was that each lit- ^^^^ tie village or city has its own peculiar language, tillage I13.S liS It is said that persons who liave studied such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from Europe, can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in the old country. There are no sharply marked boundaries of languages. The dialects of France shade oE into those of Spain on the one hand and into those of the Flemish and the Italian on the other. The British Isles furnish us with four or five different nationalities. The people of the north peoples of Ireland are really lowland Scotch of Germanic 9^ }}^^- ^ British descent, while the other three-fourths of Ireland Isles is inhabited by Celts. To make the difTerence all the greater, the Celts are almost universally Catholics, while the Scotch-Irish are Protes- tants. The people of the north of Scotland are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The Welsh are a Celtic people, and have little sympathy 72 The Story of The Map of Europe 73 with the Enghsh, who are a Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of Cornwall and the people of highland Scotland are the descend- EngnST' ants of the ancient Britons and Gaels who conquer Celtic inhabited the island when Julius Caesar and the British Romans first landed there. Then five hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the Britons to the west and north, and settled the country now known as England. After these, you will recall, came a number of Danes, another Germanic people, who settled the east coast of England. Two hun- dred years later, the Normans came from France. These Normans had been living in France for a century or two, but had come origi- nally from Norway. Normans, Danes, Angles, and Saxons all mixed to make the modern Eng- lish. Together, they fought the Scotch, the Welsh, and the Irish, and having conquered them, oppressed them cruelly for many centuries. But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the worst jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ, the Greeks and their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians, and Dacians inhabited this dis- '^^®, . seething trict. When one of the Roman Emperors Balkans conquered the Dacians about 100 a.d., (see page 25) he planted a large Roman colony 74 The Story of The Map of Europe 75 north of the Danube River. Then came the West Goths, who swept into this country, but soon left it for the west of Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not belong to the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to the Finns and the Turks. These people were called the The people ^ ^ from the Volgars, for they came from the country around Volga the River Volga. Before long, we find them called the Bulgars. (The letters B and V are often interchanged in the languages of south- eastern Europe. The people of western Europe used to call the country of the Serbs Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word servio, in Latin, means ^Ho be a slave," and that as they were not slaves, they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia. The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though it were V.) A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They completely gave up their A curious Asiatic language and adopted a new one, which language became in time the purest of the Slavic tongues. They intermarried with the Slavs around them and adopted Slavic names. They founded a flourishing nation which lay between the king- dom of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Con- stantinople. 76 The Story of A Latin island among the Slavs North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (roo ma'ni) . These people claimed to be descended from the Roman Emperor's colonists, as was previously told, but the reason their language is so much like the Italian is A TYPICAL BULGARIAN FAMILY that a large number of people from the north of Italy moved into the country nearly a thou- sand years after the first Roman colonists settled there. From 900 to 1300 a.d., south- eastern Europe was inhabited by Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks. A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians. (See map, p. 74.) This tribe is descended from the lUyrians, who inhab- ited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the time of the Roman Empire. Their The Map of Europe 77 language, like the Greek, is a branch of the Indo- European family which is neither Latin, Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic. They are distant cousins r^^ie of the Italians and are also slightly related to ^?^t^"^®^ ^ -^ Skipetars the Greeks. They are a wild, fierce, uncivil- of Albania ized people, and have never known the meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring towns. The Albanians, or Skipetars (skip'e tars) as they call themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the Turks about 1460. Since that time, the great majority of them have been staunch believers in the Mohammedan relig- ion. Questions for Review (a) Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have its beginning? (6) Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out? (c) What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France? {d) What are the* three parts of Europe where Germanic languages are spoken? (e) In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are descended from the Latin? (/) Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different peoples? {g) Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people? The division Chapter VI ''THE TERRIBLE TURK" The Greek Empire at Constantinople. — The invading Mohammedans. — The Ottoman Turks. — The fall of Con- stantinople. — The enslaving of the Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians. — One little part of Serbia unconquered. — The further conquests of the Turks.— The attack on Vienna. — John Sobieski to the rescue. — The waning of the Turkish empire. — The Spanish Jews. — The jumble of languages and peoples in southeastern Eiirope. In the last chapter, we referred briefly to the Greek empire at Constantinople. This city of the ^yas oriainally called Byzantium, and was a Roman o .; ^ • i i Empire flourishing Greek commercial center eight hun- dred years before Christ. Ele\'en hundred years after this, a Roman emperor named Constantine decided that he liked Byzantium better than Rome. Accordingly, he moved the capital of the empire to the Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis (the word polis means ''city" in Greek). Before long, we find the Roman empire divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the other at Con- stantinople. This eastern government was continued by the Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the western The Map of Europe 79 MOHAMMED II BEFORE CONSTANTINOPLE empire had been seized by the invading Ger- manic tribes. For years, this Greek empire at Constanti- nople had been obhged to fight hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across ^^^^ ^^*^^ ° wave of the fertile plains of Mesopotamia (mes'o po ta'- Turks mi a) and Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the Tigris (tfgris) and 80 The Story of Euphrates (u fra'tez) Rivers. Its name in Greek means ''between the rivers.") The fiercest of the Mohammedan tribes, the warUke Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople, while the Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler. At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls, and the Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the past, and all of southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the invading Moslems (another name for ''Mohammedans"). The Turks did not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Albanians, but settled down among them as the ruling, military class. They strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity and turn Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Roumanians remained where they had been, but were oppressed by the newcomers. For more than two hundred years after the capture of Constantinople, the Turks pushed their conquests farther and farther into Europe. The entire coast of the Black Sea fell into their hands. All of Greece, all of Bulgaria, and all of Roumania became part of their empire. Of the kingdom of Serbia, one small province remained The Map of Europe 81 unconquered. Up in the mountains near the coast of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the Serbian kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and higher q^^ ^g^^^ ^^ up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones Serbia ^ ^ uncon- down upon the invaders. Finally, the Turks quered became disgusted, and concluded that ^'the game was not worth the candle." Thus the little nation of Montenegro was formed, com- posed of Serbians who never submitted to the Ottoman rule. (The inhabitants of this small country call it Tzernagorah (tzer na go'ra) ; the Italians call it Montenegro. Both of these names mean ''Dark Mountain.") Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining control of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About 1682, they were pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic king of Poland, John Sobieski (so bi es'ki), Pojfnd ^ ' _ ' tothe came to the rescue of the Austrian emperor with rescue an army of Poles and Germans and completely defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any further advance of the Turkish rule into Europe. (The map on page 82 shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.) It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the conquered lands were still living where they always had lived. The Turks were very few in number compared with the 82 The Story of The Map of Europe 83 millions of people who inhabited their empire and paid them tribute. Many wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two hundred J^®. ^^^^ begins to and thirty years before the Christian peoples ebb won back their territory. By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of their kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania was free from Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain Count of Hapsburg had become Emperor of Germany, and when we say Ger- many, we include Austria, which had become the home of the Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that the Hapsburg family came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage of one of their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that country. In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory known as the Banat, just Jr^wing north of the Danube and west of what is now Empire of the Roumania, were reconquered from the Turks, Hapsburgs it was the joint kingdom to which they were attached. (Bukowina has never been a part of Hungary. It is still a crown land, or county subject to the emperor of Austria personally.) During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to be inhabited by a still different people. Not long after Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had 84 The Stonj of conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada (see Chapter II) that used to stretch across the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards decided to drive out of their country all '' unbelievers/' that is, all who were not Christians of the Catholic faith. (This happened in 1492, the same year that they sent Columbus to America.) The Moors retreated into Africa, which was their former home, but the millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to return. In the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them to be prosperous and well- behaved citizens, invited them to enter his land. They did so by hundreds of thousands. The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout the Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are so numerous in Constantinople that four news- papers are published there in the Spanish language, but printed in Hebrew characters. The city of Salonika, a prosperous seaport of 140,000 people, which used to belong to Turkey but now is part of Greece, has over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn other tongues, and many of them can talk in four or five lan- guages besides their native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle. Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city, that is, a place of many The Map of Europe 85 A SCENE IN SALONIKA languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, Italians are all found mingled together. The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the races and nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost impossible to say which land should belong to Ainbitions which nation. Take the case of Macedonia conflict (the district just northwest of the Aegean Sea). It is inhabited largely by Bulgarians, and yet there are so many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the former that at the close of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia both claimed it as belonging to them because of the ''prevailing nationality of its inhabi- tants!" In other words, the Serbians claimed that the inhabitants of Macedonia were largely 86 The Story of Serbs, the Greeks were positive that its people were largel}^ Greeks, while Bulgaria is very resentful today because the land was not given to her, on the ground that almost all its inhabi- tants are Bulgarians! Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with making the Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right in the center of Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same language, dressing exactly alike, doing business wuth each other on an equal footing, are to be found the nati\'e Bulgarian and the descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one goes to the Greek Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the Mohannnedan Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise each other with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan states, with their seething pot of racial and religious hatred, and turn to other causes of European wars. Questions for Review {a) \Miat became of the Greeks when the Turks captured Constantinople? (6) Why coukl one county of Serbia resist the Turks? (c) How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks threatening Vienna? {(I) Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different nationalities. {e) Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly? i Chapter VII THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS How the peasants looked upon war. — War the opportunity of the fighting men. — The decreasing power of barons. — The growth- of royal power. — How four little kingdoms became Spain. — Other kingdoms of Europe. — The rise of Russia.— The Holy Roman Empire.— The electors. — The rise of Brandenburg. — The elector of Brandenburg becomes King of Prussia. — Frederick the Great. — The seizure of Silesia and the consequent wars. You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal system, the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men made up a class of the population whose only trade was war, and how the poor peasants were compelled to raise crops and live stock enough to feed both themselves and the fighting men. These peas- '^^^ ants had no love for war, as war resulted only pay in their losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do unless war was going on, and as those who were not killed returned from a war with rich plunder in case they were victorious, they were always looking for a chance to start trouble with some neighboring country. 87 88 Thf^^S^oryygf } \\ In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long as the nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war. As a result, one county in a certain kingdom would often be at war with a neighboring county. The fighting man either was killed in battle or he came out of it with increased glory and plunder, but the peasants and the common people had nothing to gain by war and everything to lose. As we have seen, force ruled the world, and the common people had no voice in their government. The workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting class, who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered honest toil as degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the only respectable trade in Europe in those days was what we today would call highway robbery. France and England in the 15th Century Gradually in most of the European countries Down with ^]^g kme[^ was able to put down the power of barons ; up ° ^ ^ his nobles and make himself master over the whole nation. In this way a strong central power grew up in France. After the death of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1477, no noble dared to question the leadership of the king of France. The same thing was true in The Map of Europe 89 England after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King Richard III and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne. Spain and Other Kingdoms Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Gra- ?P^"^ o ^ becomes a nada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon joined the three Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492, when the Moors were defeated and Granada annexed to the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became one kingdom. About this time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of Hun- gary, a kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark. Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom. In Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible ^^ . The rise (1533-84) had built up a strong power which was of Russia still further strengthened by Czar Peter the Great (1690-1725). The Holy Roman Empire The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the Turkish Empire, formed what ^^^le Holy was called the Holy Roman Empire, a rule Ro^^p ^ *^ r- ' Empire of which had been founded by Charlemagne Germany 90 The Story of The Map of Europe 91 (a.d. 800), the great Frankish monarch, who had been crowned in Rome by the pope as ruler of the western world. (The name '^Holy Roman Empire" was not used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it under Otto I, the Saxon emperor, who was crowned in 962.) This Holy Roman Empire included all of ^ . ^ Extent of what IS now Germany (except the eastern the empire third of Prussia), all of what is now Bohemia, Austria (but not Hungary), and all of Italy except the part south of Naples. There were times when part of France and all of the low countries (now Belgium and Holland) also belonged to the Empire. (The mountain- eers of Switzerland won their independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and formed a little republic.) See map ''Europe in 1540." In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not necessarily succeed his father as ^^ The ruler. There were seven (afterwards nine) electors ''electors" who, at the death of the ruling mon- arch, met to elect his successor. Three of these electors were archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the others were counts of large counties in Germany hke Hanover and Branden- burg. It frequently happened that the candi- date chosen was a member of the family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four 92 The Story of LOUIS XIV A weak state families which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most famous of these families was that of the Counts of Haps- burg, from whom the present emperor of Aus- tria is descended. This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the kingdoms of England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, Sb 19 r^' c^-^-- . ■' Boundaries of the Hoiy Roman Empire ^^mm^^ Lands of the Hapsburg Family in Red 1. Spain 2. Kingdom of Sardinia 3. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 4. The Netherlands 5. The Free County of Burgundy 6. Bohemia 7. Austria 8. Silesia 9. Part of Hungary never conquered by the Turks 10. The Duchy of Milan 11. The Kingdom of France 12. The Kingdom of England 13. The Kingdom of Scotland 14. The Kingdom of Denmark 15. The Kingdom of Norway 16. The Kingdom of Sweden. 17. The Grand-Duchy of Finland (Controlled by Sweden) 18. Lands of the German Knights of Livonia 19. Russia 20. The Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania 21. Empire of the Ottoman Turks 22. Montenegro 23. Republic of Venice 24. Lands of Genoa 25. States of the Church 26. Little German States 27. Switzerland 28. Portugal The Map of Europe 93 Saxony, and Bavaria all were subjects of the emperor, as were many powerful counts. These men were jealous of the emperor's power, and he did not dare govern them as strictly as the king of France ruled his nobles. France in the 18th Century During the 18th century, there were many France wars in Europe caused by the ambition of var- ^^^^j. ious kings to make q^^®^ their domains larger Monarch" and to increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and Lux- emburg, and an- nexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vozh) Mountains. Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle of Blenheim (1704), the Enghsh Duke of Marl- JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH 94 The Story of ^4^^.,fil THE GREAT ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG The Map of Europe 95 borough, aided by the emperor's army, put an end to the further expansion of the French. Prussia The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this county Hohen- was Berlin. It so happened that a number of zollernsof ^ Branden- Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of burg Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little county had grown by adding small territories around it, as shown on the map on page 99. One of these counts, called ''the Great Elector," had added to Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man. He happened to visit King William III ^^ of England, and was very much offended interview because during the interview, the king occupied results a comfortable arm chair, while the elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself 96 The Story of FREDERICK TUE GREAT ''King of Brandenburg," for Brandenburg was part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had happened some one hun- dred years before, that, through his marriage The Map of Europe 97 with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea. Between this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the district known as West Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of Poland, However, Prussia lay outside the boundaries of the Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say about what went on there. Therefore, the elector sent . nil- -^ ^®^ notice to all the kmgs and princes of Europe kingdom that after this he was to be known as the ''King of Prussia." It was a situation some- what like the one we have already referred to, when the kings of England were independent monarchs and yet subjects of the kings of France because they were also dukes of Normandy. The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in his famous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of the Prussian kingdom. ^j^^ ^^^^_ His son was the famous Frederick the Great, lL^- map Russians. If they were to receive justice, they would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and Russia proper. The Downfall of the French Monarchy In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There, for hundreds of years, , the power of the king had been growing greater. The kmg's ^ will is law until by the eighteenth century, there was no The Map of Europe 105 one in the country who could oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons where he sent those who had offended him, shutting them up without a trial and not even letting their families know where they had been taken. The peasants and working classes had been ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier. The king spent mil- lions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his courts. Money ,„ ^ '^ Waste and was stolen by court misery officials. Paris was the gayest capital in the world, the home of fashion, art, and fri- volity — and the poor peasants paid the bills. For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a revolt, but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead them. At last, came a time when there was no money in the royal treasury. After all the waste and corruption, nothing was left to pay the army and keep up the expenses COURTIER OF TIME OF LOUIS XIV 106 The Story of THE TAKING OF THE BASTILLE A bankrupt nation At last — a leader of the people of the government. One minister of finance after another tried to devise some scheme whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success. The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred years were at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king summoned a meeting of representa- tive men from all over the kingdom. There were three classes represented, the nobles, the clergy, and what was called ''the third estate," which meant merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A great statesman appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the third estate defied the king, and the temper The Map of Europe 107 of the people was such that the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst of these ^, , „ , The fall of exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris the Bastille prison, the Bastille. They took it by storm, and tore it to the ground. This happened on the fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the French still celebrate as the birthday of their nation's THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES liberty. All over France the common people ^, ^ ^ The signal rose in revolt. The soldiers in the army would for revolt no longer obey their officers. The king was closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in terror, fled from the country. Thus began what is known as the French Revolution. As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of France took charge of their government, a panic arose throughout the courts of Europe. Other kings, alarmed over 108 The Story of the fate of the king of France, began to fear for themselves. They, too, had taxed and oppressed their subjects. They felt that this revolt of the French people must be put down, and the king of France set back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt might Kings must ^^^^ place in their countries as well. Accord- unite in ingly, the king of Prussia, the king of England, defense and the emperor of Austria all made war on the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the French by force of arms and compel them to put back their king upon his throne. Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these Ignorance kings had known what the object of this war the servant ^ of tyranny was, they would have had very little sympathy with it, but for years they had been trained to obey their officers, who in turn obeyed their generals, who in turn obeyed the orders of the kings. The common soldiers were like sheep, in that they did not think for themselves, but followed their leaders. They were not allowed to know the truth concerning this attack on France. They did not know the French lan- guage, and had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were no pubhc schools in these countries, and very few people knew how to read the newspapers. The newspapers, A snacKieQ press moreover, were controlled by the governments. The Map of Europe 109 and were allowed to print only what favored the cause of the kings. The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French poet from Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song which was first sung in Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus has come to be called ''La Marseillaise." It is the cry of a crushed THE REIGN OF TERROR and oppressed people against foreign tyrants , 1 1 1 • 1 1 "■ People who would agam enslave them. It fired the at bay French army with a wonderful enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back the invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French Repubhc. The period known as ''the reign of terror' ' now began in earnest. A faction of the extreme (110) m The Map of Europe HI republican party got control of the government, and kept it by terrorizing the more peaceable citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles had put upon the lower classes for so many hundred years were brutally avenged. The king was executed, as were most of the nobles who had Wrongs are ' washed out not fled from the country. For three or four by blood years, the gutters of the principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the nation came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly good government was organized, and the executions ceased. Still the kings of Europe would not recognize the new republic. There was war against France for the next twenty years on the part of England, and gen- erally two or three other countries as well. Questions for Review (a) Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors? ih) Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent the partition of Poland? (c) How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland? {d) What things could the king of France do which would not be tolerated in the United States today? (e) Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king? (/) Why did the king call together the three "estates"? {g) Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July? Qi) Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of France? {i) What was the cause of the reign of terror? Chapter IX THE LITTLE MAN FROM THE COMMON PEOPLE The young Corsican, — The war in Italy. — Italy a battle- field for centuries. — The victories of Bonaparte. — The first consul. — The empire. — The French sweep over Europe. — Kings and emperors beaten and deposed. — The fatal Russian campaign. — The fu-st abdication. — The return from Elba. — The battle of Waterloo. — The feudal lords once more tri- umphant. And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable characters in all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little man from the island of Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a French citizen, for the island had been forcibly annexed to France shortly before his birth. As a young lieutenant in the army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later on, being in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament, he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this period. A Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they had the castle of the king. As a reward, he had been put in charge of the French army in Italy, which was engaged in fighting the Austrians. 112 The Map of Europe 113 In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this point to devote some attention to the past history of the ItaUan peninsula. Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman Empire. The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with Sicily, Italy a small nation called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The northern part had belonged to the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in turn. The Itahan people wanted to become one nation, but they were divided up among many little princes, each with his separate dominions. The cities of Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was strong on the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople, Egypt, and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the control of The northern Italy except the lands around the city in Italy of Venice and the county of Piedmont. The latter formed a separate kingdom with the island of Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined with the southern end of the peninsula. Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns, Lombards, Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought their battles for the control of the civilized world. (See the following maps.) At one time, the Austrian 114 The Story of k\ The Map of Europe 115 ITALY IN 650 A.D. 1 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Lands of the Lombards 2 | I Lands of ttie Eastern Empire (Tfie Greeit Empire at Constantinople) "^ XZ/yA Country of tfie Serbs and Croats "^YILlZH Country of the Avars Kingdom of the Franlisma,rck induced Italy to dec^lare war on Austria, by promising h(U" V(Miet,ia a,nd the other j)r<)vinces in retui'n for \wr aid. Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover were fiiendly to Austria, hut Bismarck did not fear them, lie knew that, his army, undc^r the lead(^rship of its celebrated j!;(^ner-al, von Moltke, was mon^ than a match for the Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined. When Bismai'ck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians were successful at first against- the Italians, but at Sadowa in Bohemia, their armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the Prussians. Austria was put down The Map of PJuropc 149 from her place as the leader of the (German Confederation, and Prussia took the leadersliip. Hanover, whose kinj»; had sided with the Aus- trians, was annexed to Prussia. The king of ^^ ^j^^ Prussia and scleral of his generals were anxious y^c^ors _ belong the to rob Austria of some of lu^r territory, as had spoils been the custom in tlu^ j)ast whenever one nation d(»feat(Ml another in war. liismarck, h()W(n^(^r, n^straiiHMl them. In his program of making Prussia thc^ heading military state in Europe, he saw that his next opi^orient would b(^ France, and he (hd not propose, on attack- ing Frances, in find his army assailed in the rear by the nn'engeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck compelled (he king to let Austria off without any loss of territory exc^ept V(Mi(^tia, which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to rc^tain Tn^ntino and Istria, and was not HHiuired to pay a large ind(;nmity to IVussia. (A custom which had come down . . . A nation's from i\\('. middle ag(^s, when citi(\s whicrh wciv ransom captured had be(in obliged to pay great sums of money, in order to get rid of the concpiering armies, was the payment of a war indenmity by the defeated nation. This was a sum of money as larger as the conquerors thought they could safely forces their victiins to pay.) The Austrians, although they wow, angry over the manner in which Bismarck had provoked 150 The Story of the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact that he was generous in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he could have done had he wanted to. The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle between Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible for two men like Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in power very long with- out coming to blows. It was Bismarck's ambition, as was previously said, to make Prussia the leading military nation of Europe, and he knew that this meant a struggle with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a united Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was extremely jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had won over Austria. He had been proud of the French army, and wanted it to remain the greatest fighting force in Europe. He was just as anxious for an excuse to attack Prussia as Bismarck was for a pretext to attack him. It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no ill-feehng between the French people and the Germans. In fact, the Germans of the Rhine country were very friendly to France, and during Napoleon's time had been The Map of Europe 151 given more liberties and had been governed better than under the rule of their former feudal lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between the military chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no feehng hostility is toward them at all. It was part of his program °^^y ,^ ^ jr o among the that their military power should be crushed and chiefs his program must be carried through. Europe, to his mind, was too small to contain more than one master military power. The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to gain friends for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to make enemies for France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg), which had sided with Austria during the late war, were friendly to France and hostile to Prussia. Napoleon III, however, made a pro- posal in writing to Bismarck that France should be given a slice of this south German territory in return for some other land which France was to allow Prussia to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal, but was careful to keep the original copy, in the French ambassador's own handwriting. (Each nation sends a man diplomatic maneuver- to represent her at the capital of each other ing nation. These men are called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements for their governments.) By showing this to the 152 The Story of Preparing enemies for France rulers of the little south German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon and to make secret treaties with these states by which they bound themselves to fight on the side of Prussia in case a war broke out with France. In similar fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians angry against the French by letting it be known that Napoleon was trying to annex their country also. Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (ron), Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in Prussia had been trained a certain number of years in the army and was ready at a moment's notice to join his regiment. The whole cam- paign against France had been planned months in advance. In France on the other hand, the illness and advanced age of Napoleon III had resulted in poor organization. Men who did not wish to serve their time in the army were allowed to pay money to the government instead. Yet their names were carried on the rolls. In this way, the French army had not Efficiency ^^^^ ^^^ strength in actual numbers that it had ys- . on paper. What is more, certain government memciency ^ ^ ? c and "graft" officials had taken advantage of the emperor's weakness and lack of system and had put into their own pockets money that should have been spent in buying guns and ammunition. «i The Map of Europe 153 When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard to find an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven from her throne, and the Spanish army under General Prim offered the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king of Prussia. This alarmed Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia attacked him on the east, this Prussian prince, as king of Spain, would lead the Spanish |^^ . army over the Pyrenees against him on the question south. France made so vigorous a protest that the prince asked the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was not enough for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent his ambassa- dor to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter to assure France that never again should Prince Leopold be considered for the position of king of Spain. The king answered that he could not guarantee this, for he was merely the head of the Hohenzollern family. Prince Leo- pold, whose lands lay outside of Prussia, was not even one of his subjects. The interview between the king and the French ambassador had been a friendly one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king, and the king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on good terms. (154) The Map of Europe 155 In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war would come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von Moltke and Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the king, telling of his interview with the French ambassador. In the story of his life written by himself, Bismarck tells how, as he read the telegram both Roon and Moltke groaned in disappointment. He says that Moltke seemed to ha\'e grown older in a minute. Both had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took the dispatch, '^^^^ ^ ' shortened sat down at a table, and began striking out the message polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had been a friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two hundred words to one of twenty. When he had finished, the message sounded as if the French ambassa- dor had bullied and threatened the king of Prussia, while the latter had snubbed and insulted the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered telegram to Roon and Moltke. In- , ,^ " _ An altered stantly, they brightened up and felt better, meaning "How is that?" he asked. "That will do it," they answered. "War is assured." The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four hours, the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. Napo- J^® P^^^^ taKes leon III hesitated, but he finally gave in to his a hand 156 The Story of The Map of Europe 157 jj;enerals and his wife who urged him to ''avenge the insult to the French nation." We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 just to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck did was no worse than what the FnMichman, Talleyrand, would have done, or the Austrian, Metternich, or several of the English or Russian diplomats. It simply proves how helpless the Js^pup^p^Jis^ })e()ple of European countries are, when the of kings military class which rules them has decided, for diplomats its own power and glory, on war with some other nation. The war was short. The forces of France were miserably unprepared. The first great defeat of the T'rench army resulted in the capture of the emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing of th(» government in Paris, where Revolution ^ ^ ' and a third republic was startcMJ. One of the French treason generals turiKHJ traitor, thinking that if he surrendered his army and cut short the war the Prussians would force the French to take Napoleon III Inick as emperor. Paris was besi(^ged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at last they weri^ starved out, and peace was made. In the meantime, another of Bismarck's plans , ♦ had been successful. In .lamiaiy, 1871, while 158 The Story of |i U. o a Addet the C Vienn Schle 1 >ii f E s 2 i = 1 1 The Map of Europe 159 the siege of Paris was yet going on, he induced the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and all the other little German states to join Prussia in forming a new empire of Germany. The The new king of Prussia was to be '^German Emperor," Germany and the people of Germany were to elect rep- resentatives to the Reichstag or Imperial Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was signed by the republic of France and the empire of Ger- many. Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was condemned to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one billion dollars) and certain parts of France were to be occupied by the German troops until this money was fully paid. Two counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine, were to be annexed to Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of German descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the whole province had belonged to France so long that its people felt themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few Germans, and was taken, contrary to Bismarck's best judgment, ^."^*^®^ because it contained the important city of blunder Metz, which was strongly fortified. Here the 160 The Story of military chiefs overruled Bismarck. The desire among the French for revenge on Germany for taking this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck was right. It was a blunder of the worst kind. The policy of ''blood and iron" had been successful. From a second rate power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck's leadership, to become the strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been torn from Danish, Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had been forcibly annexed, and Alsace and Lorraine wrested from France. The greater part of the inhabitants of these countries were bitterly unhappy at being placed under the Prussian military rule. Moreover, it must be remem- bered that a great deal of this growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech, free newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to a congress or parliament, and while some of these rights had been granted, still the whole country was under the control of the war department. The emperor, as commander-in-chief of the army, could suppress any newspaper and dismiss the congress whenever he might think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it has been called, a big debating society, whose members The Map of Europe 161 had the right to talk, but were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the wishes of the military leaders. Questions for Review (a) What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe? (6) What was the object of the "Holy AUiance"? (c) What was Bismarck's purpose in building up a strong army? (d) How did Bismarck defeat Austria? (e) W^hat is a war indemnity? (/) Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon HI. (g) W^hy were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern? (h) What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France? (i^i Was Prussia's victory a good thing for her people? Chapter XIII THE BALANCE OF POWER The recovery of France. — The jealousy of the powers. — The pohcy of uniting against the strongest. — The dream of Russia. — A war of Hberation. — The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.— The Congress of Berhn. — Bismarck's Triple Alliance.— France and Russia are driven together. — The race for war preparation. — The growth of big navies. Under the third republic,* France recovered very rapidly from the terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her people worked hard and saved their money. In less than two years, they had paid off the last cent of the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops were obliged to go home. France had adopted the same military system that Germany had, and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army and be ready at a moment's notice to rush to arms. She began also to build up a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed Bismarck, who thought that never again, after rises again the war of 1870, would she become a strong power. He had tried to renew the old ^'Holy *Thc first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was beheaded, the second in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the " citizen king," was driven out. 162 The Map of Europe 163 Alliance" between Germany, Russia, and Aus- tria with the idea of preventing the spread of republics. These were the three nations which gave their people very few rights, and which stood for the '' divine right of kings" and for the crushing of all republics. Bismarck called this new combination the " Drei-kaiser-bund" or three-emperor-bond. He himself says that ^i^.^^^JJ^ the proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the emperors lies and treachery of Prince Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs. An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany from Russia. As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and alarmed when he saw how quickly France was getting over the effects of the war. In 1875, some trouble came up again between France and Germany, and Bismarck a second time planned to make war on the republic and complete the task that he had left unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of a second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time, however, England and Russia growled ominously. They notified Bis- marck that they would not stand by and see of ^he^^^ France crushed — not from any love of France, growing •^ ' strength of but because they were jealous of Prussia and Prussia afraid that the Germans might become too powerful in Europe. Accordingly, Bismarck 164 The Story of PETER THE GREAT The balance of power had to give up his idea of war. Prussia was strong, but she could not fight England, Russia, and France combined. However, he remem- bered that England and Russia had spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge. The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what they called ''the balance of power." By this they meant that no one The Map of Europe 165 country was to be allowed to grow so strong that she could defy the rest of Europe. When- ever one nation grew too powerful, the others combined to pull her down. In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan nations, which were still sub- ject to the Turks. Revolts had broken out among the Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and Bulgaria. As has already been told, Russia . . ^ ' champion these nations are Slavic, cousins of the Russians, of the Slavs and they have always looked upon Russia as their big brother and protector. Any keen- eared, intelligent Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so much like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word ^'grad" means ''city" in both languages.) Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were oppressing the little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for wanting to see Turkey overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had had her eye upon Constantinople. Peter had con- quered the district east of the Gulf of Finland, and had founded St. Petersburg* there, just to Toward warmer give Russia a port which was free of ice. In the seas same way, other czars who followed him had fought their way southward to the Black Sea, seeking for a chance to trade with the Mediter- *Now called Petrograd. 166 The titory of ENTRANCE TO THE MO^gUK OF ST. SOPHIA The mosque of St. Sophia ranean world. But the Black Sea was like a bottle, and the Turks at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade at any time they might wish to do so. Russia is an agri- cultural country, and must ship her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange it for their manufactures. Therefore, it has been the dream of ever}' Russian czar that one day Russia might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient days, was the home of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital of the western Catholic church. The Russians are all Greek Catholics, and every Russian looks forward to the da}- The Map of Europe 167 when the great church of St. Sophia, which is now a Mohammedan mosque, shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With this plan in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up trouble for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at the two following; maps of ^, , ° ^ The losses southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey had of Turkey l^een reduced in size during the two hundred years which followed the Turkish defeat at the gates of Vienna by John Sobieski and the Aus- trians (page 81). The state of Bessarabia had changed hands two or three times, remaining finally in the hands of Russia. The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed with joy among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg lost no Russia wins time in rushing to the aid of the Balkan states ^f^^J®"? ^^^ the Balkan and declaring war on Turkey. After a short Slavs but stubbornly contested conflict, Russia and the little countries were victors. A treaty of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as independent states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from her county of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, The Story of The Map of Europe 169 i >- 06 3 D H Q Z w >> u u X (K }^ D U] H U. Ul z tf^ z u 0) u CO T O H — >, w C /' Luxemburg PARIS C^-^-^/iV-J^-^^ F R A N C E ^^^^.^.^.^___^_^ ^;:^^^^^ITZERLAND^. AUSTRIA > \ T N H v. .^• MAP SHOWING THE TWO ROUTES FROM GERMANY TO PARIS Force rules how Germany would regard them if they were to permit a French army to cross Belgian terri- tory to take Germany by surprise. The Germans again said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium refused permission to their army to cross, the army would go through without permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make, but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist by all means the passage of the German troops. The great war had begun. The Map of Europe 221 Questions for Review (a) Why were the people of Ulster unhappy at the thought of home rule for Ireland? (b) What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina? (c) W^hy did Russia interfere, between Austria and Serbia? (d) Why did Russia mobilize her troops? (e) What was the cause of the German attack upon France? (/) Why did the Germans choose the road through Belgium? Chapter XVIII WHY ENGLAND CAME IN The "line-up" of nations The power of the workers in Italy The question of Italy and England. — Italj-'s position. — The war with Turkey. — Italy decUnes to join her allies. — England is aware of the German plans. — The treaty with Belgium. — Germany's rage at England's declaration of war. — • The result of militarism vs. navahsm. — The working classes protest, feebly. — Race hatred kept ahve by descendants of the feudal lords. France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria and Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her neigh- bor and kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy and England do. Italy, like Russia and Germany, had been having trouble in holding down her people. A revolution had been threatened which would overthrow the king and set up a republic. The Sociahst Party, representing the working class, had been growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles was that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple AlUance made by the Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people. Throughout the entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated. You will remember that France had aroused the Italians' anger in 1881 by seizing Tunis. 222 The Map of Europe 223 Italy had hoped to snap up this province for herself, for the Italian peninsula was crowded with people, and as the population increased, it was thought necessary that colonies be estab- lished to which the people could migrate to have more room. Finally in 1911, in order to divert the minds of the people from revolutionary thoughts, the government organized an expedi- tion to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was supposed to belong to Turkey. This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany and Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attack- ji^ 'j. i^ _ ing Turkey, with which the Austrians and Ger- Italian war mans were trying to estabhsh a firm friendship. However, '^ self-preservation is the first law of nature," and the Italian king and nobles valued their leadership in the nation much more than they dreaded the dislike of Germany and Austria. The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia and France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feehngs of their people too well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been growing up a friendship between the people The of Italy and those of France, and the Italian f^endship generals knew that it would be a difficult task ?^^*,^®^", ^ Italy and to induce their men to fire upon their kinsmen France from across the Alps. Therefore, when Austria 224 The Story of and Germany demanded their support in the war, they rephed by pointing out that the terms of the Triple Alhance bound Italy to go to their help only if they were attached. ^^In this case," said the Italians, '^you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind us to support you in ^t^^y , any war of conquest. What is more, we were abandons "^ ^ Germany not consulted before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands. Expect no help from us." Now the great question arose as to England. The EngHsh statesmen were not blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany in- tended to crush France first, capturing Paris and dealing the French army such an over- whelming blow that it would take it a long time to recover. Then the German armies were to be The well- planned rushed back over their marvelous system of gov- the^'^^"^ ° ernment-owned railroads to meet the on-coming German tide of Russians, military chiefs The Germans knew that they were well pro- vided with ammunition and all war supplies. They knew that they had invented some won- derful guns which were large enough to batter down the strongest forts in the world. They did not have very much respect for the abilit}^ of the Russian generals. They had watched them bungle badly in the Japanese war, ten years before. If once France were brought to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then The Map of Europe 225 after France and Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later on, to settle with Great Britain. The Enghsh statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan. They saw that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal time. However, Great Britain, having a gov- ernment which is more in the hands of the people than even that of republican France, ^^ did not have the system of forcing her youns; "Military .... . ^ » compulsion men to do mihtary service. Her little army in England was made up entirely of men who enhsted in it because they wished to, and because they received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so. Otherwise, her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would never enlist to fight against them. The question was, would anything happen to make the English people feel that they were justified in entering the war on the side of France and Russia. You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised each other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, France and Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops upon Belgian soil. Now, however, with the German army invading Belgium, the Enghsh statesmen had to decide England decides Where the German leaders miscal- culated 226 The Story of their course. As heads of one of the nations to guarantee Belgium's freedom, they called on Germany to explain this unprovoked invasion. The Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city of Liege. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to withdraw her troops from Belgium. At the end of this time, with Germany paying no attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her stand alongside of Russia and France. The Germans were furious. They had no bit- ter feeling against the French. They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of her alliance, to stand by Russia, but they had con- fidently counted on keeping England out of the war. In fact, the German ambassador to England had assured the German emperor that England had so many troubles, with her upris- ing in Ireland and threatened rebellions in India and South Africa that she would never dare fight at this time. It seemed to the Germans that the English had deliberately misled them, drawing them into a trap and then attacking them when they were already engaged in a Hfe and death struggle with two other strong antagonists. As a matter of fact, it was a case of '^pot and kettle," — the pot was calhng the kettle black. England was doing to Germany The Map of Europe 227 exactly what Germany would have liked to do to England if the circumstances had been the other w^ay. England and Germany were two proud, headstrong nations, each thinking herself the greatest power in the world. With this un- ^j^^j^^^ Christian sentiment in the hearts of their with pride leaders, they were bound to clash sooner or later, as long as the military classes in each country held control of the government. In England, there was some protest against the war on the part of the Labor Party. They felt that both they and the German working- men had everything to lose and nothing to gain l^^^^^^^^^ by fighting, and that if the laboring men in both workers countries refused to fight there would be no war. Two of the representatives of the Labor Party in parhament, Mr. Hardie and Mr. MacDonald, opposed the military program. They were promptly denounced as ''traitors" by the war-chiefs, and the majority of average citizens took up the same cry, which was echoed in the newspapers. One sincere lover of peace and of his fellow men, Lord Morley, had the courage to resign his place in the English cabinet rather than support war. John Burns, the Labor leader, did the same. These were rare exceptions. The great mass of the British people believed, as their newspapers told them, 228 The Story of What the Germans believe The common people not to blame that war was necessary and that the hfe of the British Empire was at stake. Could the common people in the two countries have gotten together and come to understand each other, the situation might have been different. But in Germany, the protests against war were still more feeble. The newspapers, with few exceptions, as was previously pointed out, were under the control of the mihtary leaders and the manufacturers of war materials. These papers persuaded the German people that England, through her jealousy of Ger- many's great growth in trade, had egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext. The entire German nation believes this. They think, as their war chiefs tell them, that the war was thrust upon Ger- many by her enemies, just as the English people believe that Germany forced the war upon them. As a matter of fact, the people in each country who really would profit by the war, and who were not sorry to see it start, comprised a mere handful in comparison to the people who had nothing to gain from the war. The average German and the average Frenchman could meet, and, after talking to each other as best they could, owing to their differences in language, The Map of Europe 229 could part company, each agreeing that the other was a very good fellow. The Italian and the Austrian can meet in America and find things to admire and respect in each other's qualities. Even the Serb and the Bulgar, transplanted to this country, as they learn to know each other, have become warm friends. The spirit of race hatred has been kept alive in the first place by ignorance. The common people of Russia do not know the people of the j^^^^ same class in Germany, but each believes the hatred kept other to be brutal and unlovely. It was the ignorance same thing in the United States before the Civil War. The Yankee and the Southerner did not know each other, but each beheved the other capable of the meanest acts, and not worth knowing. Since the war, as northern people Yankee have gone to live among the southerners and Southerner vice versa, each section has come to appreciate and admire the virtues of the other. As Senator Lamar of Mississippi said, in the United States Senate, at the time of the death of Charles Sumner, the great opponent of slavery, ''My countrymen, learn to know one another, and you will love one another." So again we find mihtary leaders and descend- ants of the old feudal nobles able to set whole nations to hating each other whose people should have been friends. 230 The Stonj of Questions for Review (a) Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911? (6) Why did not Italy join in the attack on France? (c) What was Germany's plan? (d) How is the English army different from those of the continental nations? (e) What reason had England for declaring war on Germany? (/) Had the Germans expected England to attack them? Give reasons for your answer. (g) W^as the war to the interest of the common people in any of the countries? (h) Why could diplomats and kings set men to fighting each other? Chapter XIX DIPLOMACY AND KINGLY AMBITION Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires. — The demands of Italy. — She joins the Triple Entente. — The retreat of the Russians. — The Balkans again. — Bulgaria's bargaining. — German princes on Balkan thrones. — The central empires bid the highest for Bulgarian support. — The attitude of Greece. — Roumanians hopes. To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all haste to put pressure upon j^ie effort the governments of the countries which were not to involve " , ^ other engaged in the struggle, in order to win them nations over. Germany and Austria worked hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with Bulgaria. The Turks were the first to plunge in. The party headed by Enver Bey (the young minister of war) saw that a victory for Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of the Turks from Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of October (1914) when Turkish warships, without any provocation, sailed into some Russian ports on plunges in the Black Sea and blazed away with their big guns. Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their best to get the govern- 231 232 The Story of ment at Constantinople to disclaim all respon- sibility for this act of their naval commanders. The ''Young Turks," however, were all for war on the side of Germany. What is more, Russia, always anxious for an excuse to seize Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize for their act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was quickly followed by France and England. Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the sympathies of the ItaUan I^^.,. ,.. people were with France and England. The six Garibaldi ^ ^ ^ in France grandsons of Garibaldi formed an Italian regi- ment and volunteered for fighting on the French lines. Two of them were killed, and at their funerals in Rome, nearly all the inhabitants of the city turned out and showed plainly that they too would like to be fighting on the side of France. You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the provinces of Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent, Trieste (tri es'te) , Pola (po'la), and Fiume (fe u'me), all inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and cities by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between the two Who will ° bid highest nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the price of her keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her this land The Map of Europe 233 inhabited by Italians. Germany urged Aus- tria to do this, and sent as her special ambassa- dor, to keep Italy from joining her enemies. Prince von Bulow, whose wife was an Italian __ _ , ' Von Bulow lady, and who was very popular with the in Italy Italian statesmen. For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce Italy to accept a small part of the disputed territory and then, when he found this impossible, doing his best to induce Austria to give it all. Austria was stubborn. She did not take kindly to the plan of giving away her cities. She offered to cede some territory if Italy should wait until the end of the war. This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that Austria and Germany were ^ ^^^ .^ going to win the war and was even less sure that the hand- Austria would be wiUing, in case of her victory, to give up a foot of territory. It seemed to the Italian statesmen that it was '^now or never" if Italy wished to get within her kingdom all of her own people. In the month of May 1915 Italy threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria and entering an alliance with Russia, France, and Eng- land. Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficul- ties. They had millions and millions of men, (234) The Map of Europe 235 but not enough rifles to equip them all. They had plenty of food but very little ammunition for their cannon. Austria and Germany, on the other hand, had been manufacturing shot and shells in enormous quantities, and from the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the Carpathian Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of The great Russian October, forcing them to retreat nearly three retreat hundred miles. In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble. You will recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her victory over Turkey in the war of 1912, was too. grasping when it came to a division of the con- quered territory. Thus she brought on a second war, in the course of which Greece and Serbia defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of her territory and the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of Russia had „ , . , *^. ^ . Bulgaria's done his best to prevent this second Balkan grievances war, even sending a personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgari'a and to King Peter of Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race, not to let their quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of her abihty to defeat Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the Rus- sians' pleadings, and as a result Russia did not 236 The Story of Czar Ferdinand offers his sword to the highest bidder interfere to save her when her neighbors were robbing her of part of the land which she had taken from Turkey. It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had felt most sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in their blood, although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore, just as Italy strove by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her nation, so Bulgaria now saw her chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia. Accordingly, she asked the four great powers what they would give her in case she entered the war on their side, and attacked Turkey by way of Constan- tinople, while the French and English were hammering at the forts along the Dardanelles. * The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally induced Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to Bulgaria. They further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of Adrianople and the territory around it which Turkey had reconquered. But Bulgaria was not easily satisfied. She wanted more than Serbia was willing to give ; she wanted, too, the port of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the allies could not promise. In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining •England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great quantities at her ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and England, by supplying Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike a.hard blow at Germany. The Map of Europe 237 with Austria, Germany, and Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back Serbia for the loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and Herzegovina in case they won the war from Austria. In like fashion, Austria Diplomats and the and Germany promised Bulgaria some Turkish map again territory and also the southern part of the present kingdom of Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side. Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call himself, is a German. (As these little countries won their independence from Turkey, they almost always called in foreign princes to be their kings. In this way it had come about that the king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the king of Roumania was a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar of Bulgaria was a German of the Germanic Coburg family, the same family which has £^^^®® ®^ furnished England and Belgium with their thrones kings.) The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic Church, and they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia, as the head of that church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling, however. He wanted to be the most powerful ruler in the Balkan states, and it made no difference to him which side helped him to gain his object. 238 The Story of A BOMB-PROOP^ TRENCH IN THE WESTERN WAR FRONT The Map of Europe 239 About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a hne running south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern boundary of Roumania. The French and Enghsh had been pounding at the Dardanelles for some months, but the stubborn resistance of the Turks seemed hkely to hold them out of Con- The Allies are stantmople tor a long time to come. The checked Italians had not been able to make much headway against the Austrians through the mountainous Alpine country where the fighting was taking place. In the west, the Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that the German- Austrian-Turkish alhance could win with their 1 1 a 1 • • . Bulgaria help, tlung their nation into its third war plunges in within four years. This happened in Octo- ber, 1915. Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece defeated Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to come to the help of the other in case either was j^^ie attacked by Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was ^^^^5°" friendly to Greece and Serbia, rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the Roumanians knew that Bul- garia was very anxious to get back the territory of which Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way, the Quadruple 240 The Story of The Queen of the Greeks The woes of Serbia Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped that the entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany and Turkey, would bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side. The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia's aid and so was the Greek prime minis- ter. The queen of Greece, however, is a sister of the German emperor, and through her influ- ence with her husband she was able to defeat the plans of Venizelos (ven i zel'os), the prime min- ister, who was notified by the king that Greece would not enter the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned, but not until he had given permission to the French and English to land troops at Salonika, for the purpose of rushing to the help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that German and Austrian armies might lay waste her terri- tory, as they had Serbia's, before England and France could come to the rescue.) Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan wars had drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the Austrians had invaded her kingdom in this war, and twice they had been driven out. Then came a dread- ful epidemic of typhus fever which was the result of unhealthful conditions caused by the war. Now the httle kingdom, attacked by the Ger- mans and Austrians on two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was literally fighting The Map of Europe 241 with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria, but we have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to prevent this. Serbia hoped that Roumania, No help too, would come to her help. However, as you neighbors have been told, the king of Roumania is a German of the Hohenzollern family, a cousin of the emperor, and in spite of the sympathy of his people for Italy, France, and Serbia, he was able to keep them from joining in the defense of the Serbs. Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes a ra'bi a) , which is the near- ^^^ est county of Russia, and also the greater part of question Transylvania and Bukowina (boo ko vfna), Roumania which are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for a great part of the inhabi- tants of these three counties are Roumanians by blood and language. They would like to be parts of the kingdom of Roumania, and Rou- mania would like to possess them. The Quad- ruple Entente would promise Roumania parts of Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on their side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her Bessarabia. Rou- mania, as was said before, was originally settled by colonists sent out from Rome, and in the eleventh century a large number of people from 242 The Story of the north of Italy settled there. On this account, Roumania looks upon Italy as her mother country, and it was thought that Italy's attack upon Austria would influence her to support the Entente. Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order to share in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the Quad- ruple Entente did not need her help Roumania was eager to offer it, at a price which seemed to the allies too high. When, however, the tide turned the other way, she lost her enthusiasm for the cause of her friends, fearing what the central empires might do to her. Questions for Review (a) What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war? (6) Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on them? (c) What were the feeUngs of the Itahan jjeople? {d) What were the Itahan diplomats anxious to gain? (e) What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the Entente powers? (/) Why did Bulgaria join the central empires? {g) Why did Greece keep out of the conflict? {h) What were Roumania's hopes? Natural Chapter XX EUROPE AS IT SHOULD BE Natural boundaries of natioiiS in Europe. — Peoples outside of the nations with whom they belong. — The mixture of peoples in Austria-Hungary, and Russia. — The British Isles. — The Balkan states. — Recent changes in the map. — The wrongs done by mighty nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness. We have several times shown you, in the course of this httle history, maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and through blood-shed. Let us now examine a map of boundaries Europe divided according to the race and lan- guage of its various peoples. It often happens that the boundaries set by nature, like seas, high mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people from another. It is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed in by the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language. In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by nature. On this account, it is not surprising that the map of '^ Europe as it should be" which unites people of the same blood under the same 243 244 The Story of France a unit Walloons and Flemish government, agrees rather closely in some places with the map of Europe as it is. . The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom of Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish and Portuguese peoples. There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and Flemish. Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French people are found in Switzerland and others in that part of the German Empire which was taken away from France after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them inhabit the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were torn away from Denmark by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula sep- arate the Norwegians from the Swedes about as well as they divide the countries geographically. The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the northwestern corner of the German Empire is also peopled by Dutch. The territory around Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the German Empire, is inhabited by Wal- loons, a Celtic people who speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it is, ought properly to be divided into two little countries, one made up of Walloons, the other of the Flemish. The Map of Europe 245 The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great many of these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria (sty'ria) , and the northern Tyrol (ty'rol) (western counties of the Germans Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern Germany half of Switzerland and the edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be found in parts of Hun- gary; and in the Baltic provinces of Russia there are over two million of them. All of the ItaUans are not in the kingdom of ^, ,. ^ Italians not Italy. The Island of Corsica, which belongs to in Italy France, is inhabited by Italians. The province of Trentino (tren ti'no) (the southern half of the Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is also Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. Certain islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely Italian in their population. The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and Germans. Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth tongue J^® Romansn is spoken there. In the valleys of the south- people eastern corner of Switzerland are found people who talk a corruption of the old Latin, which they call Romaunsch or Romansh. Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of languages and nationalities. This empire includes nearly a million Italians in its southwestern corner, and three million The mixture in Austria Discon- tented French and Danes Russia's many peoples 246 The Story of Roumanians in Transylvania. It has as its subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina several million Serbians. In Slavonia (slavo'nia), Croatia (cro a'tia), and Dalmatia (dalmatia), it has two or three miUion Slavs, who are closely related to the Serbians. In the north, its government rules over several miUion Czechs (checks) (Bohemians and Moravians) . who strongly desire to have a country of their own. It controls also two milhon Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their inde- pendence. In the county of Carniola (car ni o'- la), there are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people belonging either by them- selves or with their cousins, the Croatians and Serbs. The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen, who want to get back under French control, a million or two Danes, who want once more to belong to Denmark, and several million Poles, who desire to see their country again united. Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as those composing Austria- Hungary. The Russians themselves are not one people. The Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different from the people of Little Russia, and they in turn are different from the people of Great Russia, to the north. The COUNTRY OF THE — 1. Slovenes 2. Romansh 3. Germans 4. Walloons 5. Flemish 6. Dutch 7. Danes 8. Gaels 9. English 10. Irish 11. Welsh 12. French 13. Basques 14. PortuQuese 15. Spanish 16. Italians 17. Albanians 18. Greeks 19. Turks 20. Buloars 21. Roumanians 22. Serbs and Croats 23. Magyars ( Hunoarians ) 24. Czechs ( Bohemians ) 25. Slovaks 26. Poles 27. Letts and Lithuanians 28. Russians 29. Finns and Esthonians 30. Lapps 31. Swedes 32. Norweoiant The Map of Europe 247 POLISH CHILDREN Baltic provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two million Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number of Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians, cousins of the Finns. North- west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose people, with the Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European family, and who would dearly love to have a separate government of their own. You have already been told in Chapter V that the country of the English, if limited by S^*^°^^^" race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or the British isles north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north- 248 The Story of eastern part of Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish kingdom. Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the reason that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly mixed and jumbled. However, the kingdom of Bulgaria ought to include the territory now held by Roumania south of the Danube River. Parts of eastern and southern Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia also are largely Bulgarian ^^® in their makeup. Transylvania, with the excep- mixture tion of the two little islands mentioned before (Chapter V) is inhabited by Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of Buko- wina also ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater part of the Russian state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has a population of 7,000,000, there are between five and six million of her people who live outside her present boundaries. The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece. Greek people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The Albanians are a separate people, while Monte- negro and Bosnia should be joined to Serbia. Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this ^^® . volume and you will see that most of the changes changing ^ ^ ° map that have been made of late years are bring- ing boundaries nearer where they should be. The Map of Europe 249 You will also note that wherever there have been recent changes contrary to this plan, they have always resulted in more bloodshed. The par- tition of Poland, the annexation of Schleswig, Alsace, and Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and Herze- govina by Austria are good examples. Questions for Review (a) What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural boundaries? (6) Who are the Walloons? (c) Who are the Romansh people? (d) To what other people are the Esthonians related? (250) Chapter XXI THE COST OF IT ALL What war debts mean. — The devastation of farms and villages. — Diseases which travel with war. — The men picked to die first. — The survivors and their children. — The effect on France of Napoleon's wars. — What Hannibal did to Rome. — What happened to the Franks. — Sweden before and after the wars of Charles XII. — Europe at the close of the Great War. — War's effect on the finer feelings of men. — Arbitration and an international court. — An opportunity for some nation. In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly rushing toward bankruptcy. Eng- land spent $10,000,000 a day; France, Germany, and Austria nearly as much apiece. Thus in the course of a year, a debt of $100 was piled upon every man, woman, and child in the British kingdom. The average family consists debt of five persons, so that this means a debt of $500 per family for each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of money that they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the British people are obhged to add this tremendous debt to the already very large amount that they owe, and will have to go on paying interest on it for hundreds of years. 251 A colossal 252 The Story of In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France, Germany, Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In spite of what we have said above of the average income of English families, Great Britain is rich when compared with Austria and Russia. What is more, Great Britain is practically unscarred, _ . , while on the continent great tracts of land which Ruin and ^ " devastation used to be well cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless abandon. East Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, GaUcia, part of Hungary, Alsace, Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south- western Austria-Hungar}^ and all of Belgium, a territory amounting to one-fifth of the whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and devas- tated. It will be years and years before these countries recover from the effects of war's Death invasion. For every man killed on the field of among battle, it is estimated that two people die among the non- ' j- r- o combatants the noncombatants. Children whose fathers are at the front, frail women trying to do the work of men, aged inhabitants of destroyed villages die by the thousands from want of food and shelter. In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to look after their health or even to keep clean. As a result, diseases like the plagues of olden times, which civilization (253) 254 The SUyry of Plagues and fevers The survival of the unfit thought it had killed, come to life again and destroy whole cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off one-fifth of the population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera raged among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die from disease or wounds or lack of proper care. In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the country, the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of men who ought to be carefully saved as the fathers of the people to come. As these are killed or disabled, governments draw on the older men who are still vigorous and hardy. Then finally they call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the aged, and the young boys. As a general rule, the members of this last class make up the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of the strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of children. In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on the coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like Rome, owned lands far and near. Carthage would have been satisfied to "live and let live," but Rome would not have it so. As a result, the two cities engaged in three terrible wars which ended in the destruction of Carthage. But The Map of Europe 255 before Carthage was finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal, dealt Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near destroying her completely. Five Roman beginning armies, averaging 30,000 men apiece, he trapped ^[^^^^^^y and slaughtered. The death of these 150,000 of Rome men was a loss from which Rome never recov- ered. From this time on, her citizens were made of poorer stuff, and the old Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free government began to decline. The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who swarmed into the Roman Empire about the year 400 a.d., although they were barbarians, nevertheless had many excel- lent qualities. They were brave, hardy men and stood for freedom from tyrants. How- The ever, they fought so many wars that they were fielders of gradually killed ofT. Take the Franks, for f^l.^""^^ example; the three grandsons of Charlemagne, the sword who had divided up his great empire, fought a disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle that almost wiped out the ^^^^^^^ Frankish nation. This happened about 840 a.d. Franks Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about 1700 a.d., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer Russia and Poland. He was finally defeated at a httle town in the southern part of Russia 256 The Story of The downfall of Sweden The cost of wars of the past to France nearly a thousand miles away from home, and his great army was Aviped out. After his time, Sweden sank to the level of a second class nation. The bodies of her best men had been strewn on batt lef iel d s reaching from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Black Sea. For eighty years after the time of Napo- leon, the French nation showed a lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men than it had one hundred years previously. The reason for this is easily found. During the twenty-three years of terrible fighting which followed the execution of the king, France left her finest young men dead all over the face of Europe. They died by the thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in Germany, and above all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Onlv CHARLES XII OF SWEDEN The Map of Europe 257 within the last twenty years have the French, through their new interest in out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a hardy, vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war to set France back where she was one hundred years ago. Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her young manhood gone ; the sur- vivors laden with debts which will keep them in poverty for years to come ; trade and agriculture The fruits of the at a standstill; but worst of all, the feeling of great war friendship between nations, of world brother- hood, postponed one hundred years. Hatred of nation for nation is stronger than ever. One of the worst features of war is that it blots out many of the finer feelings. The different armies are taught that it is right and proper to kill their opponents and that God approves of this slaughter. ''God is with us," says the German kaiser, ''and He will punish England." "With the help of God," says the czar of Russia, "we are fighting a holy cam- paign against our enemies." This is the result of militarism, working upon ignorance. War breeds maUce; war breeds hate; war brutalizes those who take part in it. They become callous, and have less pity for their fellow men. Death and suffering are on all sides of them, and they lose their sense of mercy. 258 The Story of Brutality bred by war War growing more terrible In April, 1912, a great English steamship went down in the Atlantic Ocean. A thrill of horror went through the world. Germany and Austria mourned with the rest of the nations over England's loss. Three years later, another English ocean liner was sunk, drowning hundreds of innocent women and children. Thousands of the same Germans who had mourned in 1912, now threw up their caps and shouted for joy. German shells set on fire a French church used as a hospital, and many wounded German soldiers were burned to death. Thousands of EngUsh and French, who, under ordinary cir- cumstances would be merciful and kind, exulted and said, ''It served them right." War turns the thoughts of the best brains df a nation away from plans for the betterment of their fellow men and sets them to devising more fiendish methods for kiUing. The time was when only the men in the armies were in danger of losing their lives. Today, no child is sure that a death bomb from the sky will not drop upon him or a deadly torpedo sink the boat in which he is traveling. It was said ten years ago that there would never be another great war, because war with all of the improved methods of kiUing had become so terrible that no nation would dare engage in it. The Map of Europe 259 It is probable that if Austria and Germany had known that England would enter the war they would never have pressed their impossible demands on Serbia. The German generals expected the French to take refuge in forts, as they had in the war of 1870, and they knew that no fort ever built could withstand their wonder- ful new guns, the existence of which had been kept a profound secret. Germany had con- fidently counted on crushing the French army with one quick drive, and then on returning with all forces to overwhelm the slow-moving masses of Russia. The Kaiser expected the war to be short, like those of 1866 and 1870. So did the Russians, who confidently expected to crush Austria easily, and then help France finish off Germany later on. The authors of the war are like those who kindle a small fire ^arfg^ to burn off some weeds, only to have it get away j* cannot ^ ^ becon- from their control, and consume forests, fields, trolled and towns. Questions for Review (a) How does a nation at war increase its debts? (h) Why do diseases thrive in war time? (c) What became of the Goths and Franks? (d) Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden? (e) What was the effect of Napoleon's many wars upon the strength of the French nation? (/) Is war growing more humane? Chapter XXII THE CAUSES OF WAR AND A REMEDY The four causes of wars. — The barbarian instinct. — The ambition of kings. — Trade rivalry and expansion of colonies. — Wars which have made or preserved a nation. — A plan for popular vote on war. — American wealth and Mexican invest- ments. — William Kent's attitude. — Intelligent voters a safeguard against war. It will be recalled that in the first chapter, it ^^^^ was stated that almost all wars could be traced causes of wars to one of the following four causes: (1) The fighting and plundering instinct among bar- barous tribes; (2) the ambition of kings to enlarge their domains; (3) the greed of traders I shown in trying to increase their commerce at j the expense of the merchants of some other ' nation; (4) a people's desire for freedom from I foreign rulers and for national unity. The wars which followed the great Germanic The wars invasions are to be classed under the first head- of barbarism ing. The invaders themselves in the end did not profit by their fighting. As long as they stayed in their native country, they were hardy, healthy peoples. Transplanted to the south- land, they either lost their courage and valor and disappeared, like the Vandals, or they were 260 The Map of Europe 261 killed off fighting with each other, as happened to the Franks. The Finns used to attack and plunder the coast of Sweden until the Swedes, in self-defense, organized an expedition and conquered Fin- land, whose people never again became inde- pendent. In this way, they brought their slavery upon themselves by their own bar- barous attacks on their neighbors, who otherwise would have been content to leave them in peace. The ambition of kings has been responsible for by far the greatest number of wars. Roman ^^ . . The wars emperors were ambitious to include the whole of ambition world in their empire. Wilham, Duke of Normandy, was ambitious to become king of England. His descendant Edward III was ambitious to become king of France as well as of the British Isles. The Hundred Years War was the result. Successive sultans of the Ottoman Turks were ambitious to spread their empire over all southern Europe. As a result, their subject^, as well as the peoples whom they attacked, have been shedding their blood for 500 years. King Philip II of Spain was ambitious to conquer England. As a result, thousands of Spaniards perished in the defeat of the great Armada (ar ma'da) as his fleet was called. King Louis XIV of France was ambitious 262 The Story of to rule all of western Europe. Untold suffering followed among the inhabitants of the valley of the Rhine. King Charles XII of Sweden wished to be lord of both Poland and Russia. Sweden never recovered from the terrible defeats given its army. Frederick the Great of Prussia was ambitious to enlarge his kingdom. He seized a province from Austria and after- wards helped to tear apart the unhappy king- dom of Poland. Wars and revolts caused by these two acts lasted for nearly one hundred years. Numerous czars of Russia have been am- bitious to extend the boundaries of their empire to include Finland, Poland, the Balkan states, and Turkey. This ambition is still alive, and may be responsible for as much suffering in the future as it has been for the past three hundred years. Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria was ambitious to be the most powerful ruler in southeastern Europe. The result of this was the second Balkan war of 1913 and Bul- garia's entry into the great war two years later. Under the third heading, we find wars like those fought between Great Britain and Hol- of trade land two hundred and fifty years ago for the trade of the far east, and the wars brought on one hundred and fifty years ago in India between France and England. In like manner. The wars The Map of Europe 263 Spain and England fought for the gold of America, and Turkey and Italy, only recently, for the opportunity to colonize Tripoli. Another war of this type was that in 1904 between Russia and Japan, both of whom were anxious for the trade of Manchuria and Korea. It is sometimes said that nations have to fight in order to get more territory for their crowded The alleged populations. It was claimed that the Japanese expansion needed to control Korea and Manchuria in order to have more room for their 40,000,000 people, who were crowded into a few tiny islands. In the same way, it was said that Germany's population was getting so numerous that she needed to fight in 1914 in order to get room to expand. The foolishness of this argument can readily be seen. Belgium has nearly six hundred people to the square mile, while Germany averages three hundred. No one ever suggested that Belgium needed to fight in order to get more territory for her inhabi- tants. Nor was it necessary for Japan to fight Russia in order to colonize her people in Man- churia. Japanese could have emigrated to the mainland whether Japan controlled that country or not. There remains the fourth reason, a desire on the part of a people for freedom from oppression J^^ ^^^^ and for national unity. Of this type was our freedom 264 The Story of own war of 1776 against England. The wars between Italy and Austria in 1859 and 1866 were of this kind also. The war of the four Balkan states against Turkey in 1912 is another example. This fourth class of wars would never have been necessary had it not been for the wrongs previously done by the ambition of kings. If the second cause were removed, the fourth would not exist. The greatest remedy for war is intelligent government by the people. Let all govern- for war ments, before declaring war, state the reason why they think war necessary and then allow their peoples to vote on the matter. Let a record be kept of each man's ballot, with the understanding that those who vote for war shall be the first to be drafted for the army when war breaks out. Let it be understood that no one who has voted for peace shall be forced to ser\'e in the army until all those who voted for war are already in arms. There are plenty of people who for their own selfish reasons would vote for war, if they knew that they themselves would never have to take their places in the trenches. In the early part of 1914 many American speculators who had money invested in mines and plantations in Mexico were doing their best to involve us in a war with that country. Their idea was that the value of their property would The Map of Europe 265 be increased because of the security they would ^ ^ ^ Americans enjoy under the government of the United in Mexico States. At that time, Congressman WilHam Kent of Cahfornia, who is a very wealthy man and has large amounts of money invested in Mexico, made a statement which ought to go down in history. After explaining that he had a great deal of money at stake and that he was likely to lose it because of internal troubles in Mexico, he added that he did not care enough for his Mexican investments to run the risk of being killed in the defense of the property ; nor would he send his son or brother to defend it. ''And ^ A noble SO," he concluded, ''I would be a coward and a sentiment murderer if I voted to send another man's son or brother to be shot in defense of my property." When people have learned the folly of most wars and have realized that no happiness ever came to them through wars of conquest, it will be impossible for kings and czars to force their subjects to fight. Popular government is neces- sary, but popular government is dangerous unless the people who have it are intelligent. The South American republics are supposed to be ruled by their people, but throughout the nineteenth century, when the ignorance of South Americans was even greater than that of '^^® ^®®^ Europeans, these countries were constantly education 266 The Story of An inter- national court of arbitration Force not necessity Be honorable and fear not embroiled in wars or revolutions. The great antidote, then, for war is education. The only solution of the problem is that nations disband their armies and cease building ships of war. An agreement will have to be signed by all countries to refer any disputes to a court composed of men from many nations. In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which might well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however, they laid their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an Italian, a Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court, by a vote of four to one decided against England, and England accepted the decision as final, although it cost her many millions of dollars. A small fleet of vessels and a small army of police should be put at the service of the court to enforce its decisions, if necessary. In the meantime, in order that wars shall cease, some one nation or group of nations must take the lead in disbanding armies and ceasing to build warships. As long as a country has an army and a navy, it will also have a military class. Their trade is war, and they are not happy to remain idle. There is a fine old poem written nearly 2000 years ago by the Roman poet, Horace, which begins The Map of Europe 267 Integer vitae scelerisque purus Non eget Mauris jaculis nee areu Nee venenatis gravida sagittis Fusee, pharetra. The lesson of the poem is that any man who is pure of heart and at peace with his fellow men may wander unarmed through the world's wild- est places, for no evil will befall him. May we not hope that some nation or group of nations will have the courage and the confidence in the force of public opinion to put this ideal into practice. The nation (or group of nations) that does this, that first appeals to the justice and fairness Who will set the of her sister nations will be remembered in example history as greater than Persia, greater than Macedonia, greater than Rome, greater than all the conquerors of the world. Some time, nations will learn that other nations have the right to Uve, and that no country can wrong another through force of arms without suffering for it in the end. In a The rights of the blunted conscience, in the loss of the sympathy people of the rest of the world, in a lessening of the Christ-spirit of doing good to others, the nation which resorts to force to gratify its own selfish ends, like the individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds. It was a great American who said, ''The world is my country and mankind are my brothers." 268 The Story of Questions for Review (a) What became of the barbarians who invaded the Roman empire? (6) Has the increase in size of kingdoms brought any happi- ness to their people? (c) Why did Japan and Russia fight in 1904? (d) Is there any nation where the people have the sole power of declaring war? (e) Why have the South American republics fought so many wars? (/) Suggest some solution for the problem of war, (q) What is meant by arbitration? (h) Why does not some one nation throw down its arms? PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the EngUsh pronunciation is given for names that have become at all famihar in history or geography. Thus the English Cra'cow is given instead of the Polish Kra'koof or the German Krii'kau. On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given as the natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no recognized English pronunciation. In certain cases where there are several current pronun- ciations, the author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus a seaport in Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no less than five names. Its Greek name is pronounced Thgssalonyi'ki, while other nations term it variously Saloni'ka, S61amk', So'lon, Saloni'ki, or Salo'nica. Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking people to reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables which approximate them as nearly as possible. Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found pronounced in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as Austria, Bismarck, etc., can hardly be mispro- nounced. Aegean (e ge'an) Arminius (ar min'i us) Agadir (a ga dir') Avlona (av lo'na) Aix-la-Chapelle (aks la sha- Baden (ba'dSn) pgr) Balkan (bal kan') or (bol'kan) Albania (al ba'n'i a) Banat (ban'at) Algeciras (al j6 si'ras) or (al- Basques (basks) j6 si'ras) Bastille (ba sfil') Alsace (al sas') Bavaria (ba va'ri a) Andrassy (an dra^'sy) Belfort (b^rfor) Aragon (a'ra g6n) Bernadotte (ber'na dot) Armada (ar ma'da) Bessarabia (b6s sa ra'bi a) or Armenians (ar me'ni tins) (b6s sa rJi'bi a) 269 270 Pronouncing Glossary Bismarck-Sehonhauson (shon- how'z6n) Blenheim (blen'gm) or (blen'- him) Bohemia (bo he'mi a) Bonaparte (bo'na part) Bosnia (boz'ni a) Bom'bon (boor'bun) Brandenburg (bran'den biirg) Breton (bre'ton) or (brSffin) Bukowina (boo ko vi'na) Bulgaria (bul ga'ri a) Burgundians (bur giin'di lins) Burgundy (bur'gun dy) Byzantium (by zan'ti um) Caesar (sez'er) Carniola (cjir ni o'la) Carpathian (car pa'thi an) Carthage (ear'thag) Castile (eas til') Castlereagh (cas'l ra) Cavour (ca voor') Charlemagne (shar 16 man') Chauvinists (sho'vin Ists) Cicero (sts'e ro) Cimbri (sim'bri) Cincinnatus (sin sin nat'iis) Constantine (con'stSn tin) Cracow (cra'co) Crimea (cri me'a) Croatia (cro ii'ti a) or (cro- a' sha) Czech (ch6k) Dacians (da'shtins) Dalmatia (dal ma'shi a) Theophile Delcassc (ta'o fil d6l ca sa') Devonshire (dev'on shir) Disraeli (diz ra'll) Dobrudja (do brood'ja) Dreibund (drl'boond) Durazzo (du rat'zo) Emmanuel (em man'u 61) Entente Cordiale (an tjint'- cor dyal') Enver Bey (6n'ver ba') Epinal (ep'i nal) Epirus (ep I'riis) Erse (ers) Esthonians (6s tho'ni ans) Etruscans (e triis'cans) Euphrates (u fra'tez) P^ashoda (fa sho'da) Fiume (fi ii'me) Gaehc (ga'lic) Clalicia (gal I'sha) Gallipoli (gal i'po li) Garibaldi (gar i bal'di) Germanic (jer man'ic) Glamis (glSm'Is) Gortchakoff (gor'cha kof) Goths (goths) Granada (gra na'da) Hannibal (han'ni bl) Hanover (han'o ver) Hertzegovina (hart's6 go vi'- na) Hesse-Darmstadt (hes se- darm'stat) Hindustan (hin dob stan') Hohenzollern (ho 6n tsol'ern) Holstein (hol'stin) Illyrians (i lyr'I ans) Istria (Is'tri a) Janina (ya ni'na) Janus (ja'niis) Jutes (jilts) Kaiser (ki'zer) Kaspar (kas'par) Kavala (ka v:i'la) Pronou ncing Glossary 271 Khartoom (kiir tooin') Korea (ko re'a) Koiimanova (koo niil'iio va) Lamar (la miir') Leon (le'6n) Liege (li 6zh') Lithuania (llth oo a'ni a) Longwy (long'vy) Lorraine (lor ra!n') Macedonia (ma se do'ni a) Magyar (m6d'yar) Manchuria (man chu'ri a) Marathon (mar 'a thon) Marchand (mar shan') Maria Theresa (mil ri'ii ter- es'a) Marlborough (milrrbo ro) Marsala (mar sa'la) Marseillaise (mar s61 yaz') Mazzini (mat si'ni) Mesopotamia (mes o po ta'- mi a) Metternich (met'ter nikh) Mirabeau (mir'a bo) Modena (mo de'nji) or (mo'- da na) Mohammedan (mo ham'mod- an) Moltke (molt'ka) Monastir (mo na stir') Montenegrin (mon te ne'grin) Montenegro (mon te ne'gro) Moslems (moz'lfimz) Murat (niii'ra) Napoleon (na po'le on) Nice (nis) Northumberland (north lim'- ber land) Novibazar (no'vl ba ziir') Ostrogoths (6s'tro goths) Ottoman (ot'to man) Parma (par'ma) Piedmont (ped'mont) Pola (po'la) Poland (po'land) Pomerania (pom er a'ni a) Pyrenees (pir'en eez) Reichstag (rikhs'tagh) Riga (ri'ga) Romansh (ro mansh') Roon (ron) Roumani (roo ma'ni) Roumania (roo ma'ni a) Ruthenian (roo the'ni an) Sadowa (sa'do va) Salonika (sa'lo ni'ka) Sanjak (san jak') San Stephano (san ste fa'no) Saone (son) Sarajevo (sa ra ye'vo) Sardinia (sar din'i a) Savoy (sa voy') Saxony (sax'on y) Sazanof (sa'za noff) Scandinavian (scan dl na'vi- an) S(;hleswig (shles'vig) Scutari (skoo'ta ri) Serbia (ser'bl a) Silesia (sll e'sha) Skipetars (skip'e tars) Slavic (sla'vic) Slavonia (sla vo'ni a) Slavonic (sla von'Ic) Slavs (slavs) Slovak (slo viik') Slovenes (slo venz') . Slovenian (slo ve'ni an) Sobieski (so h\ es'ki) Strasbourg (stras'boorg) 272 Pronounciny Glossary Styria (sty'ri a) Suevi (swe'vl) Syria (syr'i a) Talleyrand (tal'la ran) Teutones (tu to'nez) Teutonic (tu ton'ic) Thessaly (thes'sa ly) Thracians (thra'shtins) Tigris (tl'grls) Toul (tool) Transylvania (trSn syl ^"^'■ ni a) Trentino (tren fi'no) Trieste (tri est') or (tri 6s'ta) Tripoli (trip' o II) Tuscany (ttis'ca ny) Tyrol (ty'rol) Tzernagorah (tzer na' go' ra; Vandals (van' dls) Venetia (ven e' sha) Venizelos (ven I zel'os) Vercingetorix (ver sin jet'6- riks) Verdun (vor dtin') Volgars (vol'garz) Vosges (vozh) Walloon (wal loon') Westphalia (west fa'li a) Wied (weed) Wilhelmine (wll'hel min) Yorkshire (york'shir) INDEX Adriatic Sea, question of the control of, 196. Agadir incident, 189. Albania, formation of the kingdom of, 197. Albanians, language of, 64-7; habits of, 77. Alexander the Great, 44. Algeciras incident, 185-6. Alliance, the Holy, 145, 163. Alliance, the Triple, 173, 197. Alliance, the Dual, 174, 197. AUiance, the Balkan, 194, 199. Alsace, 159, 181, 211. Ambassador, 151. Angles, the, invade Britain, 41. Arbitration of national dis- putes, 267. Arminius, 35. Armor, value of, 44. Austria-Hungary, origin of, 69-70; helps to divide Poland, 102; at war with France, 108 ff; at war with Sardinia and France, 137 ff. ; at war with Prussia and Italy, 148; refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble, 215. Austrians in Italy, 118. Balance of Power, 164, 171, 188. Balkan problem, 73-7, 132, 165, 167, 191, 195, 199, 235. Barons, 52-59. BastiUe, fall of the, 107. Belgium, joined to Holland to form the Netherlands, 130; independent, 133; guaranteed its freedom by three powers, 217. Bernadotte, 121, 123. Bismarck-Schonhausen , 1 45- 176. Blenheim, battle of (poem 16ff.),93. Bohemia, part of the Holy Roman Empire, 91; part of the Hapsburg domains, 69, 98. Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, 135. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 112- 126. Bosnian problem, 172, 186. Bourbon family, 131, 133. Brandenburg, 91; rise of, 95. Britons, 41, 73. Bulgaria, freed by Russia, 167; left partially under the control of Turkey, 171; independent, 193; at war with five nations, 200; plunges into world war, 239. Bulgars, origin of, 75; in Macedonia, 85. 273 274 Index Bulow, Prince von, 233. Burgundians, 36, 40. Byzantium becomes Con- stantinople, 78. Caesar, Julius, 33, 48. Cape to Cairo Railroad, 179. Catharine II of Russia, 102. Cavour, Count, prime minis- ter of Sardinia, 137-139. Celtic languages, disappear- ance of, 63, 67. Celts, 32, 63. Charlemagne, 89-91, 138. Charles V, 117. Charles XII of Sweden, 255, 262. Chauvinists, 207. Cincinnatus, 49. Constantinople, 78, 84. Cracow, Repubhc of, 132-3. Czechs, 246. Danes, 41, in Schleswig, 244. Dark Ages, 45. Delcassc, 181, 186. Denmark, loses Norway, 131; defeated by Prussia and Austria, 148. Dialects, 70. Dictator, Roman, 49. Divine right of kings, 50, 120, 163. Dukes vs. Kings, 57-8, 88. Duma, the Russian, 207. Edward VII, 182. Elba, Napoleon's return from, 125. Elector, the Great, 95. Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, 91. England, power of the king of, 89; in Egypt, 178; troubles of, in 1914, 212-3. Entente Cordiale, 183. Entente, the Triple, 188. Esthonians, 247. Etruscans, 24. Fashoda incident, 180-182. Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 237; enters war on side of Ger- many and Austria, 239; attacks Serbia, 240; ambi- tions of, 262. Feudal system, 54-59. Finland annexed to Russia, 131. Finns, 62; conquered by the Swedes, 261. Flemish, 130, 244. France, power of king of, 88, 105; execution of king of. 111; in Africa, 179; wars of, 256. Franks, 36, 40, 113, 255. Franz Ferdinand, 213. Frederick the Great, 97-104. French Revolution, 107-111. Gaehc language, 63. Gaels, 71, 73. Garibaldi, 136, 138, 141. Gauls, 40, 41. German Confederation, 131, 146, 149. German tribes, 30. Germanic languages, 63-4. Germany, the Holy Roman Empire of, 89. Index 275 Germany, the modern Em- pire of, 159; encourages France to declare war on England, 180; makes friends with Turkey, 185; poUcy toward Balkan nations, 191; warns Russia, 215; attacks France through Belgium, 217-9. Goths, 36, 113, 255. Government, by the people, 14-6; based on the consent of the governed, 38; Umited to the ruling class, 43. Governments, newness of European, 22. Great Britain offers to judge Serbian trouble, 215; de- clares war on Germany, 226. Greece, treaty of, with Ser- bia, 240; Greek Empire, origin of, 78; fall of, 80. Greeks, 24, 64. Italy, a battle ground of nations, 113-8; becomes a nation, 141; makes war on Turkey, 223; declines to support Austria and Ger- many, 224; declares war on Austria, 233. Kavala, 194, 200, 236. Kent, William, on Mexican intervention, 265. Kings, origin of, 47-51. Koumanova, battle of, 200. Labor troubles, in England, 213; in Russia, 208. Language, relationship shown by, 61-2. Latin tongues, 64. Lithuania, 104, 131. Lombards, 36, 41, 74, 113, 115, 255. Lorraine, 159, 181, 211. Louis XIV of France, 93, 261. Hague, court of the, 215. Hannibal's war against Rome, 255, Hapsburgs, the, 69, 83, 92, 113, 130. Hohenzollern family, 95, 153. Holstein, 147, 160. Homage, 53ff . Hungarians, 62. Huns, 33, 35, 48, 113. Indemnity, 149, 159, 211. Indo-Em-opean family of languages, 62, 68. Istria, 142, 149, 232, 245. Macedonia, 44, 85. Magyars, 65. Marathon, battle of, 44. Marchand, Major, 180-2. Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 100; helps to divide Poland, 102. Marlborough, Duke of, 18, 93. Mazzini, 136, 138. Metternich, 134, 144, 157. Middle Ages, 45. Military service, owed to rulers, 59; in Prussia, 147, in France, 162, 205. 276 Index Mirabeau, 106. Moltke, 148, 152 ff. Montenegi'o, origin of, 81; declares war on Austria, 222. Moors, 33, 84. Murat, 121. Napoleon III, 137, 148, 150-7. Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of, 130. Newspapers, control of, 108, 209, 227, 228. Normans, 42, 52. Norway, joined to Sweden, 131. Novibazar, the Sanjak of, 195. Ostrogoths, 52, 113, 114. Paris, seige of, 157. Peasants, attached to the land, 55; support fighting classes, 87-8. Peter the Great, 89, 165. Poland, kingdom of, 97; partition of, 101-4; given largely to Russia, 131; revolutions in, 132. Preparation for war, 175, 203, 208. Prussia, origin of kingdom of, 97; crushed by Napoleon, 120-1; dominated by Bis- marck, 146-176. Reichstag, 159, 160, 205, 209. Reign of Terror, 109. Repubhc, first French, 108 ff. ; second French, 135; third French, 162. Robber chiefs, 45. Roman Empire, beginnings of, 25. Romansh people, 245. Rome, wars of, with Carth- age, 254. Roon, 152, 155. Rothschild, the banking house of, 210. Roumani, 25, 73, 76. Roumania, 25, 200; hopes of, 241; population of, 248. Russia, rise of, 89; attacks Turkey, 136; poHcy of, 165 ff.; relations with Bul- garia, 167, 194, 201; de- fends Serbia, 215. Ruthenians, 246. Saxons, 41. Saxony, annexed in part to Prussia, 130; aUied to Austria, 148. Salonika, Spanish Jews in, 84, 194. Sardinia, kingdom of, 113, 136. Schleswig, 147, 160. Scutari, 194, 197. Serbia, trade with Austria, 194; relations with Bul- garia, 191, 201; trouble with Austria, 214-6; at- tacked on three sides, 240. Serbs, origin of, 75; lands of. 115; language of, 165. Index 277 Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two, 113, 120, 139. Silesia, seizure of, 100. Slavic tribes, 31. Slovaks, 246. Slovenes, 246. Sobieski, John, king of Poland, 81. Sociahsts, in Germany, 205; in Italy, 222. Spain, origin of, 89; drives out "unbelievers," 84; be- comes a republic, 134. Suevi, 33. Sweden, decline of, 256. Talleyrand, 129, 157. Trentino, 142, 149, 232, 245. Tunis, seized by France, 173, 222. Turkey, defended by France and England, 136; attacks Russia, 231. Turks, 62; capture Constanti- nople, 80; driven back from Vienna, 81; the young Turks, 186. Ulster trouble, the, 212. Vandals, 36, 41, 114. Venice, Republic of, 119. Vercingetorix, 48. Victor Emmanuel, 141. Vienna, Congress of, 127-132. Walloons, 130, 244. War, four causes of, 21, 261-4; cost of, 251; diseases caused by, 254; increasing horror of, 258; a remedy for, 265. Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of, 121. Waterloo, battle of, 125. Wilhani of Normandy, 58, 262. W 82 .,<« "oi^ .■^ .... 0* • • • ,* .. 'o « j k * .'^^ "'^p^^ J"^^ ^ ^ \ !>" » Or « / 'J.^ ^ o^ ^< & JUNE v'^. .^.•^:j!*.^ •>* .^^