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O— §!— 5<* 
 
 THE SEVEitT 
 
 ~&>o 8>I «<5~ 
 
 iATES OF ^BEAVEN, 
 
 cVai f fee) •. 
 
 OR, 
 
 The Teachings, Discipline, Customs, and Manners of 
 
 The Abyssinians, The Anglicans, The Armenians, The Baptists, The Catholics, 
 
 The Congregationalists, The Copts, The^ Episcopalians, The Greeks, 
 
 The Jacobites, The Lutherans, The MaroMttes^ The, Methodists, 
 
 The Nestorians, The Presbyterians, The Protestant^, > - ^ 
 
 The Syrians, Etc., Etc. 
 
 ^A/'ITH THE DIFFERENCES 
 
 / 
 
 (Between these Various Christian Oenorninations Clearly 
 and Simply Explained for the (People ; ^ 
 
 ■ THE BELIEF OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS, 
 
 THE CHANGES OF DISCIPLINE, AND THE ABUSES CONDEMNED 
 IN DIEEERENT CENTURIES : 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 dTrabitions of ^U (G;iiristian peoples BeiiUing to tl)ese J^olg Hites. 
 
 SUPERBLY ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 so AS TO SHOW 
 
 THE RULES AND CEREMONIES OF EACH CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Rev. J as. Li. Meagher, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "teaching TRUTH BY SIGNS AND CEREMONIES," " THE FESTAL YEAR," 
 "the GREAT CATHEDRALS OF THE WORLD," ETC. 
 
 OCT 29 le;:. ^ 
 
 NEW YORK: '" — 
 
 RUSSELL BROTHERS, 
 
 17, 19, 21 & 23 Rose Street. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 
 
 

 I- 
 
 0^ 
 
 Imprimatur, ^ y\ 
 
 ^ Francis, ^ 
 
 Bishop of Albany. 
 
 Imprimatur, 
 
 ^ John, Cardinal McCloskey, 
 
 Archbishop of New York. 
 
 Copyright, 1885, by R^. JAS. L. MEA GHEE. 
 
 ELBCTROTYPED BY 
 
 SMITH & McDOUGAL, 
 83 Be«kmftn St., N. Y. 
 
 PEIN'/ED BY 
 
 RUSSELL BROTHERS, 
 17 Rose St., N. Y. 
 
'HE children of Adam are born in a state of wonnded 
 nature, for the grace of God which made our first 
 parents perfect, and which would have been transmit- 
 ted to us, was lost by their sin in the Garden of Para- 
 dise. The sacraments pour that grace again into our 
 souls. They are so many channels through which we 
 draw the waters of life from the fountains of the cru- 
 cified Saviour. They are the means and the instru- 
 ments God uses in saving the members of the human race. Each 
 sacrament produces its own peculiar effect in the soul, raising the 
 receiver to a higher spiritual state, and drawing him nearer to God. 
 During Christ's life upon this earth he instituted these sacraments,, 
 as so many holy ordinances of salvation, by which his redemption is 
 applied to each member of the Christian Church. Christ, then, is 
 the only Eedeemer, and he made these sacraments, and appointed 
 these holy rites, as the seven golden gates of heaven, through w^hich 
 each must pass to that abode of endless bliss. 
 
 From the very days of the Apostles these seven sacraments were 
 believed and received by the whole people and clergy. Afterwards 
 political disturbances, wars, local discords, the pride and ambition 
 of designing men, tore asunder and divided the one holy Church of 
 Christ, into different sects, creeds. Churches. When the Catholic 
 Church, the Bride of the Lamb, was thus rent asunder, those relig- 
 ious denominations which came forth from her — the Mother of all 
 Churches— those sects and religious denominations of the East and 
 of the West, both Orientals and Protestants, still clung to these sac- 
 raments, or kept the form, at least, of these holy ordinances. Thus 
 baptism is still found among all Christians ; confirmation is seen in 
 every Church of the East, and its shadow among the Episcopalians. 
 The Eucharist is devoutly received in the East, and its figure and 
 type is the Communion services of the Protestant Churches. All 
 have either penance or some kind of repentance for sin. They anoint 
 the sick or pray at the bedside of the dying. By the imposition of 
 hands the clergy of every Christian Church is ordained. The mar- 
 
8 PREFACE. 
 
 riage ceremony is found in every nation of the eartli. Tliese holy 
 ordinances, instituted by Christ, which are only seen whole and en- 
 tire ill the Catholic Church, are proved to be of divine origin, not 
 only by tlie doctrines of that great Church, but also by the customs 
 and ceremonies of the sects and denominations which came forth 
 from her fruitful bosom, during the various ages which elapsed since 
 the time of Christ. These separated Churches, especially those of 
 the East, so old and venerable, show, in a striking way, the belief 
 of the early Church. From the earliest times, although having dif- 
 ferent rites, customs, and disciplines, from those of the Catholic 
 Church, still they have always held the same doctrine and belief 
 relating to the seven sacraments. 
 
 Various Christians have been trying to conform to what they be- 
 lieve to have been the doctrines and customs of the early Church. 
 In the following pages much light relating to the sacraments will 
 be thrown on this epoch. The writer will quote numberless texts 
 from the Fathers and writers following the days of the Apostles. 
 We are trying to follow the doctrines of Christ and his teachings, 
 delivered by word of mouth. The Apostles and disciples taught the 
 Christians of the first ages, and their doctrines were written down by 
 the great Fathers and Christian writers of the times following the 
 Apostles. The writings of the early Fathers thus give the key to 
 the teachings of Christ, and the meaning of the Bible. 
 
 The reader will find in the following pages complete and exhaust- 
 ive treatises relating to the important matters of which the work 
 treats. The author found great difficulty in condensing so as not 
 to make the work too large or technical for the laity. But we are 
 under the impression that the simple, easy style in w^hich it is 
 written, will make it interesting as well as valuable reading. 
 
 It is not easy to write a work of this kind. To find out the pecu- 
 liar and distinctive creeds and doctrines of each Church, to describe 
 the ceremonies of different religious denominations, to unite all to- 
 gether, to compare one with another, to show what they have in 
 common and in what they differ relating to the sacraments — this is a 
 difficult task. For that the writer often undertook long journeys ; 
 he interviewed the ministers and leading members, and read the 
 books of the various Protestant denominations. The work is now 
 laid before the public, hoping that it will draw all Christians nearer 
 and prepare the way for the union of Churches, that there may be 
 ^'one fold and one shepherd," according to the design of Christ. 
 Feast of 8. Matthew, Oneida, N. Y., Sept. 21, 18S5. 
 
^Q © H T EH T ^.^ 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Man, how born, naturally and spiritually. — What is a sacrament? — 
 Different classes of sacraments. — Ceremonies of the sacraments. — 
 Matter and form of the sacraments. — The minister of the sacraments. 
 — Intention in the minister. — Effects of the sacraments. — The char- 
 acter they impress on the soul. — Receiver of the sacraments. — 
 Apostolic Liturgies. — Liturgies of St. James. — Of the Copts. — Alex- 
 andrian. — Of St. John. — The Mozarabic. — The Gallican. — Of Sahs- 
 bury. — Of Egbert of York. — The Anglican. — The Episcopalian. — The 
 Latin or Roman. — The Abyssinians. — The Albigenses. — The Arme- 
 nians. — The Baptists. — The Congregational ists. — The Copts. — The 
 Episcopalians. — The Grreeks. — The Jacobites. — The Lutherans. — The 
 Maronites. — The Methodists. — The Nestorians. — The Presbyterians. 
 —The Syrians.— Councils 13-5S 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 Meaning of the word baptism. — Definitions of baptism. — The prophets 
 on baptism. — Figures of baptism. — Traditions of all nations relating 
 to baptism. — The wonders of water. — The baptism of Christ. — The 
 traditions of the Church. — The necessity of baptism. — The baptism 
 of desire, of blood and of water. — The effects of baptism. — Infant 
 baptism. — The matter of baptism of water. — The forms of baptism, 
 or the formulas. — Baptism by sprinkling, by pouring, and by immer- 
 sion. — Baptism among Catholics, Protestants, and Orientals. — The 
 minister of baptism. — Bishops, priests, ministers, laymen, and ladies 
 baptizing. — Early troubles regarding rebaptizing heretics. — The vest- 
 ments worn in all Churches when baptizing. — The receivers of bap- 
 tism. — The time and place of baptism. — Baptismal fonts. — Baptiste- 
 ries. — The godfather and godmother. — The origin and history of the 
 ceremonies of baptism. 53-120 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 Confirmation makes us perfect. — Figures of confirmation. — The Jewish 
 confirmation. — The Fathers of the Church on confirmation.— Con- 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 firmation instituted by Christ. — Testimony of the early Church. — 
 The im]X)sition of hands. — The anointings with chrism in the East 
 and West. — The words or formulas of confirmation in the East- 
 ern and Western Churches. — Confirmation among the Episcopali- 
 ans. — Clirisni among the Orientals. — Confirmation and baptism. — 
 The sponsors at confirmation, — In the Eastern Churches priests con- 
 firm, in the West only bishops. — The Episcopalians confirm only by 
 the im])()sition of hands. — The chrism. — The chrism among the Ori- 
 entals. — The essential parts of confirmation. — The time Christ insti- 
 tuted confirmation. — The minister of confirmation. — History, ancient 
 customs, and preparations. — The effects of confirmation. — The origin, 
 history, and meaning of the ceremonies of confirmation 123-163 
 
 EUCHARIST. 
 
 How named by all Christians. — Figures of the Eucharist in the Old Tes- 
 tament. — Definitions of the Eucharist. — Bodily and spiritual foods. — 
 Testimony of the Fathers. — St. Paul on the Eucharist. — Christ's 
 promise. — The last supper. — How the change takes place. —Com- 
 munion in the early Church. — The chalice once given the laity. — 
 Reasons for the change. — Way of giving Communion in the first 
 ages. — Customs among the Orientals. — The chalice. — Curious cus- 
 toms among the Greeks and Christians of the East. — The bread. — 
 The words, customs and ceremonies when giving Communion. — 
 Some condemned abuses. — The laity once gave Communion. — The 
 reasons for changing that discipline. — Communion of the sick. — 
 Where Communion is kept. — The tabernacle. — How Communion is 
 necessary for salvation. — First Communion. — The bread and wine. — 
 The holy vessels. — The words used in Protestant Churches. — The 
 minister and receiver of Communion. — Preparations for Communion. 
 — The effects of Communion. — The time and place of Communion. — 
 The laws relating to Communion 167-224 
 
 PENANCE. 
 
 Nature of penance. — Satisfying for sin. — Penance as a virtue. — Sin the 
 object of penance. — Contrition. — Perfect and imperfect contrition. — 
 Penance a sacrament. — Penance in the early ages. — The Fathers on 
 penance. — History of confession in the Eastern and Western 
 Churches. — Changes of discipline. — The power of the keys. — The 
 higher clergy only can exercise this power. Testimony of the 
 Fathers. — Public penances in the first and Middle Ages. — Penance 
 and baptism. — The material part of this sacrament. — The words of 
 absolution. — Contrition necessary for this sacrament. —Customs of 
 the early Christians. — Confession among the Copts, Greeks, and 
 other Eastern Christians. — The place where confessions are heard. — 
 Few clergymen heard confession in the early Church. — Changes of 
 discipline. — What is to be confessed. — Satisfaction for sin. — Severity 
 
CONTENTS. 11 
 
 of the early Churcli.— The different kinds of penitents in early times. 
 — Ancient penitential customs. — Public sinners.— Oriental confes- 
 sions. — End of the severe penitential discipline. — The receiver of 
 this sacrament. — Necessity of penance. — Its effects. — Examination of 
 conscience. — Way of confessing your sins. — Approbation and juris- 
 diction. — The confessor is a father, a physician, a teacher and a 
 judge. — The secrets of the confessional 227-287 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 Extreme unction. — How named by ancient writers. — When established. 
 — Proofs from the Fathers. — The material of. — Parts anointed. — The 
 form of extreme unction in all Churches. — The effects of extreme 
 unction. — The ministers of this sacrament. — The receiver of extreme 
 unction. — History of this sacrament in all ages. — Peculiar customs 
 of other Churches 291-312 
 
 HOLYORDERS. 
 
 Nature of orders. — Diverse ranks of clergymen in different ancient 
 Churches. — Holy orders a sacrament. — The Scriptures, the Fathers, 
 and the early traditions, prove orders a sacrament. — What orders 
 were established by Christ. — Holy orders propagated by external 
 rites. — The different ranks of orders. — The bishop. — The priest. — 
 The deacon. — The subdeacon. — The acolyte. — The exorcist. — The 
 reader. — The porter. — The tonsure. — The election of bishops in all 
 ages and countries. — The choice of priests, deacons, and lower min- 
 isters. — Bishops, by divine right, are superior to priests. — The Epis- 
 copalians. — Why Christ established different grades of orders. — Or- 
 dination rites in various Churches. — The imposition of hands found 
 among all Christians. — The subject of holy orders. — The minister of 
 ordination. — The hierarchy of orders and the hierarchy of jurisdic- 
 tion. — Christ the head and source of all spiritual authority. — The 
 character of orders. — The effects of holy orders. — The celibacy of the 
 clergy. — Some exceptions to the law of celibacy. — Rules of the An- 
 glican Church relating to candidates for orders. — The election, ordi- 
 nation, and mission of the clergy. — A vocation. — Customs of the 
 early Church. — Time and place of ordination. — Obstacles to ordina- 
 tion. — Origin and history of the lower orders. — The ceremonies of 
 ordination of deacons and priests. — The consecration of a bishop in 
 the Latin and in the Eastern Churches. — Origin and history of these 
 ceremonies 315-384 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 The generation of creatures a figure of the Trinity. — The marriage of 
 Adam and Eve. — Their wedding figured the union of Christ with 
 his Church. — Why woman was made from a rib. — Marriage isibr 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 the education of the children. — Marriage natural to man and wo- 
 man, — Courtship. — The engagement. — Rules relating to engage- 
 ments. — The bans. — The publication of the bans. — Time and place 
 of the publication. — The nature of marriage. — Marriage a sacra- 
 ment. — The nmtter and form of marriage. — Its unity. — The marriage 
 of widowers and widows. — VVliat marriages can be dissolved. — Rules 
 for the married people. — Time and place of marriage. — Who can re- 
 ceive this sacrament. — The nuptial mass and blessing. — Marriage 
 rites among the Orientals.— The crowning. — The impediments of 
 marriage. — The impediments forbidding marriage. — The impedi- 
 ments rendering marriage invalid. — Dispensations. — Reasons for ask- 
 ing a dispensation. — Radical dispensations 387-462 
 
 INDEX 463-470 
 
l/Ti 
 
 EAD this book through, my friend, 
 and we will have a long talk to- 
 gether. For both it is better to 
 become acquainted in the be- 
 ginning. The writer has studied 
 the way to get to heaven. He has 
 studied it deeply for many years, 
 and the result of his study 
 will be given you in the fol- 
 lowing pages. Ask God for 
 light that your mind may be opened to see 
 the wonderful ways which he has prepared 
 for your salvation. 
 
 Man sinned in the garden, and by that sin 
 
 our first father and mother lost f 6r us the right 
 
 to go to heaven. The grace and friendship of 
 
 God was driven far from us. We are then 
 
 born like reasonable animals, with strong 
 
 passions always fighting against our mind. 
 
 Original sin, then, is the absence of grace. 
 
 That sin in the garden is the cause of all the 
 
 sorrows and woes and miseries which fall upon 
 
 the human race. Thus it is called original sin 
 
 because it is the origin of all other sins. The 
 
 grace ^which vrould have made man perfect was 
 
 driven out, and we are therefore subject to temptation, to 
 
 sorrow, to sickness, to suffering, and to death. 
 
 The human race was being lost, God's fairest work was 
 blighted and withered. Heaven was closed against the 
 children of Adam, because Adam, as the representative of 
 the human race, sinned, not only for himself, but also for 
 them. No one could go to heaven till sin was wiped out. 
 For that reason, after years of preparation, the Son of God 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ''bowed the heavens and came down " to repair the evil 
 done by Adam's sin and to open again the gates of heaven. 
 Christ, then, is the great door of Paradise; no one can come 
 to God except through him. Your salvation, reader, can be 
 worked out only through Christ, when you do as he has 
 ordained. 
 
 Now let us see how Christ worked the salvation of the 
 human race. We expect that it will be found as a work 
 worthy of God's only begotten Son. We must also expect 
 that it will be like the other works of God, showing forth 
 the wonderful works, mercy, and goodness of God. We 
 will try and make it as easy as we can for you. 
 
 When God works he uses creatures to carry out his 
 designs. Thus the Son of God used his human nature, his 
 body and soul, as the instrument for the salvation of man- 
 kind. The Creator uses the parents as the means of bring- 
 ing forth the young. He uses the sun to bring life from the 
 earth, and we will expect that he will follow the same 
 course and use certain measures for the salvation of souls. 
 Thus there are certain forms and rites and ceremonies 
 which God uses in the sanctifying and the saving of men. 
 These are called the sacraments. 
 
 Let us understand the nature of these sacraments. The 
 material world is but an image of the unseen world around 
 us. Everything we see is but a material figure of the 
 spiritual world which we cannot see. We therefore must 
 conclude that the birth, growth, and nourishment of our 
 bodies must be so many figures of the birth, growth, and 
 nourishment of our souls in that spiritual life which ends 
 in heaven. 
 
 Man is born into this world according to the laws of 
 nature. By that he receives his life. The soul of man is 
 born into the Church when he is baptized. That is his 
 spiritual birth. By the natural birth a man is born of the 
 race of Adam ; by this spiritual birth a man is born of the 
 race of Christ. By one we become the sons of man, by the 
 other we become the '^Sons of God." In birth the life of 
 man upon this earth begins. In baptism the life of the 
 Christian begins. Of this spiritual birth our Lord spoke 
 when he said to Nicodemus : ''Amen, amen, I say to thee, 
 unless a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of 
 God, * * * * unless a man be born again of water and of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God " (John 
 iii. 4, 5). Baptism, then, is ''the law of regeneration " (Tit. 
 iii. 5), by which we are born into that spiritual life, which 
 begins here, and by which we live forever with God in 
 heaven. 
 
 But when a child is born it is weak. It has no strength. 
 Years are required before it will get its full growth. In the 
 same way, when we receive that spiritual life in baptism, 
 it is weak. It is like a tender child just born. Another 
 sacrament is required to give us strength. That is con- 
 firmation, in which the Holy Spirit gives us in a moment 
 that spiritual strength, to resist all temptations against our 
 faith. Of this our Lord spoke to his disciples, saying : " I 
 send the promise of my Father upon you, but stay you in 
 the city till you be endued with power from on high " (Luke 
 xxiv. 49). Confirmation, then, gives us the power of the 
 Holy Spirit to strengthen and make perfect our faith re- 
 ceived in baptism. 
 
 Yet a person after being born must eat or he will starve 
 to death. In the same way the spiritual life of our souls 
 must have some nourishment, some spiritual food to sus- 
 tain it. This Christ our Lord has provided for, and what is 
 the most stupendous work of God, this food is none other 
 than his own Body and Blood in tlie sacrament of the 
 Eucharist. Our Lord spoke of this sacrament when he said : 
 " Except you eat the flesh of the son of man and drink his 
 blood you shall not have life in you *' (John vi. 54). 
 
 With all these wondrous gifts of God it happens that we 
 still forget him, and by temptations we are led into sin. 
 What are we to do ? Are we to fall into despair ? No, 
 reader, God in his Goodness has provided for this in the 
 sacrament of penance, where, like the sick man, we are to 
 I unfold our spiritual diseases to the doctor of our souls, who 
 has received this power by the words of Christ, ''Whose 
 sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven ; and whose sins 
 you shall retain, they are retained" (John xx. 23). 
 
 Each sin makes a wound in the soul. Even when God 
 forgives the sin and the wound is healed there still remains 
 a scar. Now, in order that the soul of man, redeemed by 
 God's blood, may stand perfect before his throne for all 
 eternity, without a spot or stain to mar its beauty, Christ 
 has instituted another sacrament to wipe away the remains 
 
IG INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of sin. This is the sacrament of extreme unction, or the last 
 putting on of oil. As when the body is wounded and 
 weakened by sickness or injuries it is necessary to restore 
 it to its first strength, thus the sacrament of extreme unc- 
 tion restores our souls to their first strength. Of this St. 
 James speaks, when he says : ''Is any man sick among 
 you ? Let him bring in the priests of the Church, and let 
 them pray over him, anointing him with oil, * * * * and if he 
 be in sins they shall be forgiven him'' (James v. 14, 15). 
 
 Thus we have traced the spiritual life, which began at 
 our baptism, which by other sacraments has been fostered 
 and nourished till our death. Those five sacraments are 
 for the good of each one of us in particular. We come now 
 to the two last — two which are for the good of the com- 
 munity at large, as well as for the benefit of the persons 
 who receive them. They are holy orders and matrimony. 
 The sacrament of orders was instituted to give grace and 
 power to certain ones chosen to rule the Church, to preach 
 the Gospel, and to administer the sacraments. Of this 
 sacrament St. Paul speaks to his beloved disciple Timothy : 
 ''Neglect not the grace that is in thee, which was given 
 thee by prophecy, with the imposition of the hands of 
 the priesthood" (Tim. iv. 14). Marriage was instituted by 
 God as the means of propagating the race so as to replace 
 the loss caused by death. Our Lord, when he came on 
 earth, elevated it to the dignity of one of the seven sacra- 
 ments, that it might be a holy state, wherein persons may 
 sanctify their souls and bring up their children in the fear 
 of God, prepared for the duties of this life, knowing well 
 the means of attaining heaven. Of this St. Paul says r 
 "This is a great sacrament" (Eph. v. 32). Such are the 
 Seven Gates of Heaven opened by our Lord. Through these 
 gates all must pass who hope to attain that abode of end- 
 less glory. The seven gates of heaven, then, are the seven 
 sacraments. 
 
 The word sacrament comes from a Latin word which 
 means a holy thing — that is, something pure, venerable, and 
 separated from common use. Among the Pagans the word 
 sacrament meant the money pledged in a law suit, or a 
 military oath. Among the early Christian Greeks, the 
 word sacrament meant the same as the word mystery, and 
 signified the Christian religion, the secrets of which they 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 hid from the Pagans. It also meant a thing hidden, a secret 
 thing, a type, a sign or a symbol of a holy thing. But in 
 the works of the ancient fathers you will find that the word 
 sacrament among the Latins and mysterion among the 
 Greeks signifies a holy ceremony, belonging to man's salva- 
 tion, such as we understand the word at the present day. 
 
 Thus a sacrament is an external ceremony, instituted by 
 God to signify and produce the sanctification of souls. The 
 sacraments of the old law were sensible signs, ordained by 
 God as so many types of the graces to be given to the world 
 by Christ. They granted sanctity according to the law of 
 Moses and aided the internal sanctity of the Israelites. 
 Here we might say that as the Church of the Jews was 
 instituted by God as a figure of our Church founded by 
 Christ, thus- they had types and figures of our sacraments. 
 
 But the time before Christ can be divided into three 
 epochs. In the state of innocence, before the fall of Adam, 
 they had no sacraments, as man then did not want the aid of 
 sensible signs to draw him to God. In the state of nature, 
 after the fall and before the time of Moses, in the days of 
 the patriarchs, they had certain ceremonies, certain prayers, 
 and means of drawing down the blessings of heaven. At 
 this time we read that the ceremony of circumcision was 
 instituted by the command of God. During the law of 
 Moses in the tabernacle and temple, many were the symbols 
 and signs, which prefigured the sacraments of the Church 
 founded by Christ. Thus, in the old law, the sacraments 
 were prefigured by the seven pillars sustaining the house 
 built by Wisdom (Pro v. ix. 1), that is, the Church of God, 
 built by his only begotten Son, is sustained by the grace of 
 the seven sacraments (Heb. iii. 3, 6, etc.). The seven sacra- 
 ments were also typified by the seven-branched golden 
 candlestick, which lighted up the Holy of Holies in the 
 tabernacle built by Moses. Again we see that the number 
 seven was used so many times in the Old Testament, wherein 
 God showed his wondrous power or showered down his 
 blessings on his people. 
 
 The rite and ceremony of circumcision prefigured our 
 baptism ; the presentation in the temple our confirmation ; 
 the eating of the paschal lamb our communion ; the show- 
 ing of the leprosy to the priests our penance ; the prayers 
 at the bedside of the dying our extreme unction ; the con- 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 secration of Aaron and of the priests of the temple our sacra- 
 ment of orders ; and their marriage ceremonies the sacra- 
 ment of matrimony. But these rites of the old law were far 
 inferior to the sacraments of the new law. They prefigured 
 Christ to come; ours represent him as having already come. 
 They told of redemption at a future time to be bought by 
 his sufferings and passion ; our sacraments represent that 
 redemption as already gained by his death. Those 
 holy ceremonies of the tabernacle of Moses and of the 
 temple of Solomon were but simple shadows of the good 
 things to come, when the world would be redeemed by 
 Christ ; while our sacraments contain the grace bought by 
 his blood, a grace which is like the breath of God healing 
 our souls. They were saved by the belief in the Redeemer 
 to come ; w^e are saved by having the benefits of his coming 
 applied to our souls by these sacraments. 
 
 The sacraments of the new law, or of the Christian relig- 
 ion, may be called visible signs of unseen grace, instituted 
 for our salvation. A sacrament then is a sensible sign, 
 instituted by Christ, for our sanctification, so as to last till 
 the end of the world, which both gives and signifies the 
 grace of God. Ponder well on each of these words. A sign 
 is something which gives rise to a thought in the mind. 
 These words and the letters on this page are so many signs 
 of ideas in your mind. Thus water is always used to wash, 
 and it is an apt sign of the washing of the soul in baptism. 
 Bread is the food of the body, and certainly it is apt to 
 signify the food of the soul in communion. So in every sacra- 
 ment there is a material sign, which signifies and represents 
 the spiritual effect in the soul which we cannot see. It must 
 be besides a holy sign. Thus the stars and stripes or the eagle 
 are signs of the United States, as a white flag signifies peace; 
 as these words are signs of thoughts, in the same way the 
 sacraments typify grace they pour into the souls of men. 
 
 Those sacraments are holy signs because they were insti- 
 tuted by Christ, who is the most holy Son of God. They 
 are for the salvation of the race, which is a holy work. 
 Besides each sacrament contains three things. They repre- 
 sent in the past the passion and death of Christ, from which 
 they obtain all their powers of saving souls. In the present 
 they represent the unseen grace of God, which they produce 
 in the soul. In the future they foretell the glories and the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 happiness awaiting the receiver in the future life. A sacra- 
 ment is a visible sign — that is, something we can see or hear, 
 as pouring on water, pronouncing words, or something we 
 can perceive by the five senses. Because man is composed 
 of both soul and body, or of a sensible form and an invisi- 
 ble soul, thus sacraments are made by Christ to agree with 
 our state in this life. The sensible signs of the sacraments 
 are, as it were, their body and the unseen grace of Christ, 
 their soul. 
 
 Again the sacraments must be instituted by Christ, for as 
 he is the only " way, the truth, and the life " of all men born 
 into the world, so no one can go to heaven but through him, 
 and the way he has ordained. For that reason no one, not 
 even all the bishops and popes and saints, who ever lived, 
 not even the Church nor the Apostles, can institute a sacra- 
 ment ; Christ only is the author of them. They must also 
 be not for one place or for a time, but for the whole world, 
 and for as long as the world lasts. They were instituted for 
 every race and nation under the sun, for Christ came and 
 died, not for a part or for a nation, but for the whole 
 human race, and therefore these sacraments must be for 
 the whole human race. These sacraments must produce 
 grace. They are the instruments which God uses to save 
 our souls. They pour into our souls that sanctifying grace 
 which makes us pleasing in the sight of God. 
 
 If we ask whether God could have saved mankind with- 
 out these sacraments, we say that he could, for he was free 
 to choose any means he saw fit to save souls. But God 
 having taken this way to save us, we are obliged to receive 
 them, for they are the only way of salvation now for us. If 
 you will stop and think for a moment, good reader, you will 
 see that they are eminently proper, considering our condi- 
 tion, and considering the providence of God, who provides 
 for his creatures according to their state and condition. Man 
 raises his mind from corporal and material creatures to 
 spiritual things, for we are composed of body and soul. 
 We receive our first impressions from the five senses. 
 Therefore it is proper to give us spiritual things hidden 
 under corporal and material forms, as St. Chrysostom says : 
 *'If you were spiritual, he would have given you spiritual 
 gifts, but now, because your body is joined to your soul, he 
 has given you spiritual gifts hidden under corporal forms." 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Again, as sin is the rebellion of pride against God, these 
 sacraments are apt to humble human pride, when we see 
 that we are obliged to gain our salvation by means of 
 things, which in the rank of creation are below us. God 
 by these sacraments shows forth his wonderful power in 
 saving souls, and pouring grace into our hearts by means 
 of sensible and material things. God did this, that these 
 sacraments might be for us so many signs and bonds of 
 union, by which the members of the Church might be 
 united together, and by which they might be distinguished 
 one from another. He left us those sacraments in those 
 sensible forms, that they might be as so many documents 
 and testimonies of our faith. We see that these sacraments, 
 which save our souls, are like so many images of our Lord 
 himself, who took upon himself our nature and in a visible 
 and sensible body saved the race by dying on the cross for 
 our salvation. 
 
 These seven sacraments are all holy, but the holiest of 
 them is the Eucharist. For while all of them give grace, 
 this Eucharist not only gives grace, but it contains the 
 very author of grace, our Lord Jesus Christ himself. 
 
 The way then that they are numbered, beginning with 
 baptism, is not according to their dignity, but according to 
 the way they are received. They are divided into different 
 classes. 
 
 Those which can be received in the state of mortal sin as 
 baptism and penance, and those which must be received in 
 the state of grace, as all the others. The second class con- 
 sists of those sacraments which imprint a character in the 
 soul as baptism, confirmation, and holy orders, and which, 
 therefore, cannot be received the second time, and those 
 which do not imprint a character on the soul, and therefore 
 can be received many times. The third class consists of 
 those which are absolutely necessary to be received in or- 
 der to go to heaven, as baptism for all and penance for 
 those in mortal sin, and those sacraments which are not 
 absolutely necessary for salvation, but which are com- 
 manded by the Church to be received. Thus, marriage is 
 not necessary for all, neither is holy orders ; but confirma- 
 tion is commanded by the Church, yet children, who are 
 baptized and who die young, go to heaven, although not 
 confirmed. The five first sacraments were instituted 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 directly for the good of the person who receives them, 
 while orders and matrimony are for the good, not only 
 of those who receive them, but also for the good of the 
 community in general. There is still a fourth class of 
 sacraments which are valid and fruitful in grace ; and 
 there is still a fifth class of sacraments valid, but not fruit- 
 ful in grace. As, for example, a couple get married in the 
 state of mortal sin ; they are validly married, but they de- 
 rive no grace, for sin is in the way of the grace of marriage. 
 There is still a sixth class of sacraments, which, when they 
 have been received in the state of mortal sin, when the sin 
 is wiped out, the graces of the sacraments are then re- 
 ceived, as in the case of the marriage just mentioned. 
 
 Each sacrament is made up of a certain material, and of 
 a certain form of words. This is the voice of the writers 
 of antiquity, of the fathers of the Church, and of all who 
 wrote on these subjects. They are not always as plainly 
 expressed in the ancient authors as in the modern writers, 
 but they are always there, if not in these exact terms, still 
 in words of the same meaning, as St. Augustine says : 
 '^The word is said over the element, and it becomes a sac- 
 rament." (St. Aug. Tract YIII. in Joan.) There is, there- 
 fore, in each sacrament a material element, as the water in 
 baptism, the bread and wine in the Eucharist, and at the 
 same time there are the words pronounced, as ^^I baptize 
 thee," etc. ; ^'This is my body," etc., and this formula is 
 found in all the sacraments. The words and the material 
 elements united make the sacrament. These words conse- 
 crate that material element, and raise it up to the dignity 
 of a holy action for the sanctification of souls, by the power 
 of Christ, who chose them as the instruments of man's sal- 
 vation. 
 
 The difference between us and those people who do not 
 belong to the Church, and who by tradition use some cere- 
 monies, is that they say these words are only said to signify 
 and represent faith, and that their sacraments are only so 
 many signs of faith already received in the soul. For that 
 reason many of them do not baptize their children till they 
 are grown up and profess their faith, when the ceremony 
 as a sign only of that faith is carried out. 
 
 The material element spoken of before, and the words 
 only are required in order that there be a valid sacrament, 
 
5i2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and at any time these are used there will be a sacrament- 
 But there are many ceremonies instituted by the Church to 
 give dignity to those holy sacraments. Thus Christ insti- 
 tuted the sacraments themselves, and the Church surrounded 
 them with rites and ceremonies. The pouring of the water 
 and the pronouncing of the words make the sacrament of 
 baptism ; the bread and wine and the words of consecration 
 make the Eucharist ; the words of consent is the marriage ; 
 the imposition of hands and the form of ordination consti- 
 tute the sacrament of orders. But we are not advised, ex- 
 cept in case of necessity, to confer the sacraments in this 
 way, and baptism is the only one so absolutely necessary 
 for salvation as to be given without any ceremony. 
 
 Christ himself used ceremonies when '^he spat on the 
 ground and made clay of the spittle, and spread the clay 
 on" the eyes of the blind man ; when *'he put his fingers" 
 into the "ears, and spitting, he touched his tongue, and 
 looking up to heaven, he groaned and said to him, Eph- 
 pheta, which is, Be thou opened," to the deaf man. Also, 
 when he prayed prostrated on the ground, when he laid 
 aside his vestments and washed the disciples' feet, when 
 he breathed on the Apostles in sending on them the Holy 
 Spirit (John xx. 22), and on many other occasions. 
 
 The ceremonies used in the administration of the sacra- 
 ments, then, are certain external rites, having a peculiar 
 dignity, solemnity, and meaning. These rites are either 
 substantial, as pouring on the water in baptism, pronoun- 
 cing the words of consecration in the mass, or they are 
 accidental, as signing the head with chrism in baptism, 
 genuflections during mass, and others of this kind. The 
 essential ceremonies of the sacraments were instituted by 
 Christ, and without them the sacrament is null and void. 
 The accidental rites and ceremonies were instituted by the 
 Church, and may be called a religions action, circum- 
 stance, or condition used by the Church in the administra- 
 tion of the sacraments, and in the sacrifice of the mass. 
 Such are lights, vestments, signs of the cross, prayers, 
 singing, and many other rites and ceremonies as are used 
 in the administration of the sacraments. We will explain 
 those different ceremonies further on. 
 
 These ceremonies of the sacraments are most venerable, 
 because of their great antiquity, the most of them having 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 been instituted by the Apostles, by command of Christ him- 
 self. They are so aptly formed as to signify and bring to 
 our minds the hidden graces and effects of the sacraments. 
 They dispose the mind to revere and venerate those holy 
 means of our salvation. They ornate and add dignity to 
 the sacraments. We are sure that such is the nature of 
 man, that if he did not see these rites around the sacraments, 
 he would soon lose all respect for them. They aid the 
 piety and devotion of the people, who are moved by visible 
 and sensible forms. They interest the people and instill 
 into their minds the knowledge of the great benefits re- 
 ceived from the sacraments. For the unlearned and uncul- 
 tivated they take the place of the Holy Bible. They help 
 the memory to remember the wonders of divine mercy in 
 saving our souls. These truths of salvation would soon be 
 forgotten if they were not frequently represented to our 
 eyes by signs and ceremonies. They are the way we have 
 of showing our faith in our holy religion. They are the 
 means of knowing our own people from those who do not 
 belong to the fold of Christ, who left the power of forming 
 rites and ceremonies to his Apostles and to their successors. 
 
 For reason tells us that he gave them power to arrange all 
 things required, in order that the worship of God and the 
 salvation of souls might be carried out in a perfect and 
 becoming manner. St. Paul speaks of this, where he says : 
 '^Let a man so account of us, as of the ministers of Christ, 
 and the dispensers of the mysteries of God " (I. Cor. iv. 1). 
 And again : " And the rest I will set in order when I come " 
 (I. Cor. xi. 34). This order he speaks about related to the 
 administration of the sacraments, for, in the words before 
 he speaks to them of the sacrament of the holy Eucharist. 
 This power of arranging the ceremonies of the sacraments 
 was always exercised by the Church, as can be seen by the 
 writings of the fathers of every age, who in their works 
 give the customs and the laws of their times. This doctrine 
 was stated most clearly in the councils, but especially in 
 the Council of Trent. Yet you must not believe, reader, 
 that these rites and ceremonies of the sacraments can be 
 changed at the will of men. They have substantially come 
 down to us from the times of the Apostles, and they will 
 ever remain as we have them to-day. 
 
 Christ himself made these sacraments the means of man's 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 salvation. That is the teaching of the Church as given in 
 the Council of Trent. That he himself directly instituted 
 them, is the common teaching of all writers on these sub- 
 jects, as will be shown when we treat of each sacrament 
 singly, farther on in this work. Christ is the author of 
 grace, and therefore he only has a right to say the way it 
 will be dispensed to mankind. This is what St. Ambrose 
 means, when he says: "Who is the author of the sacra- 
 ments unless the Lord Jesus ? " This is the idea of St. Paul 
 where he says, we are "the dispensers of the mysteries of 
 God" (I. Cor. iv. 1), and, "What then is Apollo? And 
 what is Paul ? The ministers of him whom you have 
 believed " (I. Cor. iii. 4, 5). Here St. Paul calls himself only 
 the minister of Christ, to dispense his mysteries, but not to 
 make sacraments. If the Church could make a sacrament, 
 she could also change it, but the Council of Trent expressly 
 says, that the Church cannot change the sacraments, but 
 accessory ceremonies. Therefore, only God himself can 
 make a sacrament, and the God-man Jesus Christ is the 
 author of these holy means by which salvation is obtained, 
 for he is the supreme ruler over all things. "All power is 
 given me in heaven and in earth. Going forth therefore, 
 teach all nations, baptizing them," etc. (Math, xxviii. 18, 19). 
 Here he sends them forth to preach and administer the 
 sacraments to all nations, at the same time saying: "He 
 that believeth and is baptized shall be saved. He that 
 believeth not shall be condemned" (Luke xv. 16). 
 
 Christ determined the materials and the words of all the 
 sacraments, perhaps the words used by the Western Church, 
 as the Greeks and other eastern Christians use other words, 
 but having the sense and meaning of the words. He stated 
 the exact words of the sacraments of baptism and of the 
 Eucharist, and all Christians use his exact words. He did 
 not state that only Latin or Greek would be used, as he fore- 
 saw that the sacraments would be administered according 
 to the nine different Liturgies of the Church, such as we 
 have them at the present day. (Seethe book, "Teaching- 
 Truth by Signs and Ceremonies," p. 103.) 
 
 The author of the grace given by the sacraments is God. 
 The source of that grace is the passion of Christ. The prin- 
 cipal instrument of that grace is the human nature of 
 Christ. The minister of grace is the person who adminis- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 ters the sacrament, and the instrument of that grace is the 
 sacrament itself. Our Lord then produces these wonders 
 of salvation, because he is God, the Supreme Being, who 
 alone can save souls. He alone as the God-man can give 
 power to the clergy and to these holy rites to save man- 
 kind. He then is the supreme administrator of holy things, 
 the author of the sacraments, and the clergy act as his 
 vicars. In his name and by his authority they administer 
 the sacraments. They represent Christ. They put on 
 Christ. Thus when the priest baptizes, he baptizes as the 
 minister of Christ, and it is Christ who is the Supreme 
 Minister who baptizes through him. As when Adam sinned 
 he was the representative of the whole human race, thus 
 when the priest administers the sacraments, he is some- 
 what as the representative of Christ, to bring the members 
 of the race back from the gulf and punishment of sin. 
 
 All this is beautifully expressed by St. Ambrose in these 
 words: '^Who is the author of the sacraments unless the 
 Lord Jesus ? These sacraments came from heaven. **** 
 But this is bread before the words of consecration ; but when 
 the consecration takes place, from bread it becomes the flesh 
 of Christ. This, therefore, we lay down : How can that which 
 is bread become the body of Christ ? By consecration. But 
 the consecration of whom are these words, and whose lan- 
 guage is it ? Of the Lord Jesus. * * * * When he comes to 
 consecrate the venerable sacraments, the priest does not 
 use his own words, but the words of Christ. Therefore, the 
 word of Christ consecrates this sacrament. How great is 
 the word of Christ ! For by it all things were made. The 
 Lord commanded and the heaven was made ; the Lord com- 
 manded and the earth was made ; the Lord commanded 
 and the sea was made ; the Lord commanded and every 
 creature was generated. You see, therefore, how powerful 
 is the word of Christ." Here the great Bishop of Milan 
 tells us that by the words of the priest are the sacraments 
 made the channels of grace for the salvation of souls, 
 and by the word of Christ, whom the priest represents. As 
 when a messenger or a servant in the name of his master 
 comes and offers a poor man a valuable gift in the name of 
 his master, he represents his master. Thus God, represent- 
 ed by the clergy, sends to us the priceless gift of grace 
 poured into our souls. Then Christ is the master, the 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 clergyman is his servant, the gift is salvation, and the 
 human race is the poor man. In the same way the minis- 
 ters of the sacraments represent Christ, and Christ is bound 
 by what they do, as they represent him. They have re- 
 ceived power at their ordination to save souls. As it were, 
 they put on Christ, and speak in his name and by his author- 
 ity. Then Christ is the supreme and eternal priest and 
 bishop. Christ says mass, Christ baptizes, Christ hears con- 
 fessions, Christ, as the eternal minister, administers all the 
 sacraments through men like unto himself, who act as his 
 representatives, '*as..the Father sent me so I send you. He 
 that heareth you, heareth me.'' 
 
 "He that despiseth you despiseth me," says Christ. As 
 Christ is the giver of the sacraments, through the hands of 
 the priest, in order that the salvation of the people may not 
 depend on the goodness or on the faith of the one who gives 
 the sacraments, neither faith nor sanctity are required in 
 the minister who gives the sacraments ; therefore an in- 
 fidel can baptize, and the baptism will be valid as long as 
 all other things required are there. This was defined many 
 ages ago in the third century against certain ones by Pope 
 Stephen, stating that when persons are baptized by heretics 
 they are not to be baptized over again. Some then claimed 
 that when a man without faith baptized he could not give 
 faith which he did not have himself, forgetting that it is 
 not the one who pours on the water who gives the sacra- 
 ment, but the sacrament is given by our Lord himself. 
 For the sacraments to produce grace, it is not necessary for 
 the one giving them to be in the state of grace, that is, to be 
 free from mortal sin, because it is Christ who gives the grace 
 of the sacraments, not the person who administers them. 
 But the one who administers the sacraments without a 
 reason, in the state of sin, by that commits a mortal sin, 
 for each one must, in as much as possible, approach the 
 sanctity and the holiness of Christ, whose person he takes 
 upon himself in performing these holy rites. 
 
 Christ made his Church in such a way that the salvation 
 of good, sincere souls will not depend on the good or the 
 bad life of the clergy, so that if it should happen — which 
 God forbid ! — that there would be a bad clergyman, like 
 Judas, the people under his charge would not be lost on 
 account of his sins, as the sacraments administered by him 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 are given by Christ. Let each one of us try and approach 
 nearer each day our divine model Jesus Christ, the great 
 high priest, by whose grace we are saved. 
 
 But although faith or holiness are not required that the 
 sacraments may be valid, yet the one who gives them must 
 have the intention of giving them, or of doing what the 
 Church does. If he intends the whole action as only a joke 
 or is only in fun, the sacrament is not valid, because the 
 giving and the receiving of a sacrament is a serious thing, 
 and is to be given as a serious ceremony. Who would for 
 a moment suppose that Christ would approve and ratify a 
 sacrament given only as a joke ? In the same way the 
 sacraments must be given by persons in their right mind, 
 and when given by a person insane, or drunk, or in a 
 theatrical show as a funny scene, they are invalid. It is 
 not necessary that they know all about the sacraments, or 
 that the person giving them is a good theologian, but they 
 must intend seriously to give what Christ instituted for 
 man's salvation. The reason is because they are holy 
 actions, and must be given with the intention of performing 
 a religious act. The words said, when giving the sacra- 
 ments, are not idle or useless words, but words of power, 
 Avhich elevate the material part to the dignity of a sacra- 
 ment, and therefore they must be said in a serious way and 
 with a serious intention. 
 
 The intention required to administer a sacrament, is an 
 intention of doing what the Church of God does. It is not 
 necessary to have the intention of doing what the Roman 
 Catholic Church does, but only a general intention of 
 seriously and sincerely doing what is done by the Church 
 in such actions. 
 
 From what we have written, the reader will understand 
 that the sacraments contain the grace which they signify, 
 and by their very nature they give grace to those who place 
 no obstacle in the way. They contain grace, not that grace 
 is in them, like water in a vessel, but as an effect is con- 
 tained in what caused it. They are then the cause of our 
 sanctification, for God uses them as the instruments of our 
 salvation as he uses food to feed us, as he makes use of all 
 natural things and causes to carry out his work in nature. 
 
 We said that by their very nature they produce grace; for 
 there are two ways of obtaining the grace of God, one by 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the works, the prayers, and the good dispositions of the one 
 who receives that grace, and these means have always been 
 opened to man. The other is by the sacraments, which 
 produce their effects independently of the person, whenever 
 there is no obstacle. For example, a child just born is bap- 
 tized. That child is incapable of making any act, which 
 will bring a larger abundance of grace into its soul. The 
 sacrament of baptism of itself, and independently of the 
 child, produces its effect. It produces, then, the grace of 
 God in the soul of the child by its very nature. If that 
 child were grown up, it might, by prayer, a long prepara- 
 tion, and good works, merit a larger abundance of grace in 
 baptism. That extra larger grace would come from the 
 good works of the person himself. 
 
 We said if there be no obstacle to the grace. An obstacle 
 is something which stands in our way and impedes us. 
 The obstacle spoken of here is something which stands in 
 the way, and impedes the grace of the sacraments. Thus 
 if a person going to be baptized, does not want to receive 
 that holy rite, there is an obstacle which renders that bap- 
 tism null and void. Therefore there are two kinds of 
 obstacles to the sacraments, one which stands so much in 
 the way that the sacraments cannot be received. The 
 other kind does not render the sacraments null, but impedes 
 all or some of the grace, which should be received. Thus 
 persons married with all the good dispositions required, get 
 all the grace of the sacrament of matrimony, but if married 
 in mortal sin they receive marriage, yet receive no grace at 
 all. It is the same in the other sacraments. 
 
 That the sacraments are the instruments used by God for 
 our salvation, we have only to cite the words of St. Paul : 
 " Not by works of justice, which we have done, but accord- 
 ing to his mercy, he saved us by the lavor of regeneration 
 and renovation of the Holy Ghost " (Tit. iii. o). Baptism 
 is here mentioned as the instrument of our salvation. 
 Again our Lord says to Nicodemus : "Unless a man be 
 born again of water and of the Holy Gost, he cannot enter 
 into the kingdom of God" (John iii. 5). Here baptism is 
 given as the cause of our spiritual birth, or of the grace 
 which makes us pleasing to God. The same may be said 
 of all the other sacraments. St. Augustine, giving the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 belief of his day, as coming down from the traditions of the 
 Apostles, says : '' Not by the faith of the parents, or of the 
 sponsors, or of the clergy, but by water and by the Holy 
 Spirit. Water, therefore, regenerates man." Again St. 
 Gregory of Nazianzen, says : ''But if any one were to ask 
 me, how does water regenerate, I would, with the best right, 
 say to him : ' Show me how birth takes place accordiug to 
 the flesh, and I will explain to you the way regeneration 
 takes place according to the spirit.'" We could give many 
 other passages from the great Fathers of the Church, prov- 
 ing the same thing, but we are in a hurry to give other 
 things more interesting to the reader. We are sure that 
 all well instructed Christians believe, according to the 
 Council of Florence, that these sacraments "contain grace 
 and give it to those who worthily receive them." 
 
 Each sacrament pours into the soul sanctifying grace, 
 which makes us pleasing and beautiful in the sight of God, 
 and thus they become for us the gates of heaven. There is 
 also added to this grace the sevenfold gifts of the Holy 
 Ghost, and an increase of every virtue. If the person be in 
 sin, this grace is used in destroying that sin. If the person 
 be not in the state of sin, the sanctifying grace in the soul 
 is increased. Besides, there is attached to each sacrament 
 a peculiar grace all its own, which is called the sacramental 
 grace. This is plainly shown by the words of the Council 
 of Florence : ''For by Baptism we are spiritually born, by 
 confirmation we increase in grace, and we are strengthened 
 in faith when born, and thus strengthened we are nour- 
 ished by the food of the Eucharist. Thus, if by sin we fall 
 into any sickness of the soul, by Penance we are spiritually 
 healed ; in the same way both spiritually and if it be well 
 bodily we are healed by Extreme Unction ; by Orders, the 
 Church is governed and spiritually multiplied ; by Marriage 
 it is corporally increased." To obtain the ends given 
 above, it is necessary that a special grace be attached to 
 each of the sacraments, otherwise it would not appear in 
 what way one sacrament differed from another. 
 
 Baptism gives grace to the soul, and plants the first germ 
 of spiritual life in man, by which the person is born again 
 into a higher sphere, capable of seeing and enjoying God 
 in heaven. Thus the baptized dies to sin and rises as the 
 adopted son of God, and as a member of Christ's Church. 
 
:30 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Baptism then takes away all sin, and all guilt of sin. The 
 grace of confirmation is the strength of the Holy Spirit to 
 continue to live a good life, resist temptation, and always 
 confess the faith received in baptism. The grace of the 
 Eucharist is in the nourishing of the soul united to God by 
 charity, and the aid to presevere in our spiritual life. The 
 grace of penance is the wiping out of sin, the resurrec- 
 tion of the soul from spiritual death caused by mortal sin, 
 and the strength of persevering for the future. Extreme 
 unction consists in healing the soul from the wounds of sin, 
 the destruction of the remains of sin, and the reconciling 
 of the soul to death. Orders give grace to the clergy to 
 sanctify themselves in that holy state, to rule the Church, 
 and save the souls of those committed to their charge. 
 Those who are married receive by that sacrament the grace 
 of mutual love, and tender affection, the sanctity of the 
 marriage state, and the grace for the Christian education 
 of their children. Thus baptism gives religion ; confirma- 
 tion, strength ; Communion, charity ; penance, sorrow for 
 sin ; extreme unction, faith ; orders, devotion and zeal, and 
 marriage, conjugal fidelity. One can get a part of these 
 graces without really receiving these sacraments, by mak- 
 ing strong acts of love and desire of receiving these sacra- 
 ments. But they will not receive as much fruit and grace 
 as though they really received these sacraments. 
 
 Besides the effects given above, baptism, confirmation, 
 and holy orders imprint a character on the soul, which is 
 never effaced either in this life or in the other world ; there- 
 fore, they cannot be received the second time. St. Paul, 
 speaking of this, says: ''In whom," that is Christ, ''also 
 believing, you were signed with the Holy Spirit of promise *' 
 (Eph. i. 13). That is the doctrine of the Church from the 
 very beginning, as can be seen by the writings of the 
 fathers. St. Cyril, of Jerusalem, calls baptism a "holy 
 sign, which is indelible." Others compared it to a military 
 sign, the impression on coins, the mark on the sheep of a 
 sheepfold, and to the sign of circumcision in the flesh. St. 
 Paul calls confirmation a spiritual sign by these words : 
 ' • Now he that confirmeth us with you in Christ, and that 
 hath anointed us is God : who also hath sealed us and given 
 the pledge of the Spirit in our hearts" (II. Cor. i. 21). The 
 fathers in many places speak plainly regarding the sacra- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 ment of orders ; but we will only cite St. Augustin, who says, 
 regarding those who return to the Church after receiving 
 orders from the schismatics of his time : '^ They are not to 
 be ordained again, like baptism, thus the ordination re- 
 mains entire in them." One of the councils of Toledo says : 
 ^'Neither Holy chrism once given, nor the honor of the 
 altar, can ever be taken away." All Christians believe in 
 this doctrine. 
 
 The character impressed on the soul by these three sacra- 
 ments may be called a certain spiritual sign indelibly im- 
 pressed on the soul, by which man is appointed to divine 
 things, becomes like unto Christ, and is known from others. 
 It is like an ornament of the soul, by which the other sacra- 
 ments may be received. The Christian, by these sacra- 
 mental characters, becomes like to Christ, his captain, and 
 before the eyes of God the soul is distinguished from others 
 not having it. Besides, it gives to the one who has it cer- 
 tain Christian rights and privileges. It lasts forever, and 
 is as immortal as the soul, according to the words of St. 
 Thomas, ^'That appears in things without life, for the con- 
 secration of a church, or of an altar, will remain always 
 unless they are destroyed, * * * * and, therefore, the char- 
 acter w^ill remain after this life — in the good unto their 
 glory, in the bad unto their shame." 
 
 Those sacraments which should be received in the state 
 of grace when, without the fault of the one who receives 
 them, they are received in the state of mortal sin, wipe out 
 the mortal sin when the person has sorrow for sin. For 
 example, when the Eucharist is received by a person in mor- 
 tal sin, when believing himself in the state of grace, the 
 mortal sin is wiped out. The same can be said of extreme 
 unction, and "of the other sacraments. We may also say 
 that as the Eucharist is the most holy of the sacraments, 
 it produces the greater abundance of grace. But the 
 amount of grace produced in the soul depends on the care 
 and the preparation we make for their reception. They 
 also produce their effect the instant they are received. 
 When any obstacle is placed in their way, when that ob- 
 stacle is removed, they then produce their effect. 
 
 We now ask who are capable of receiving the sacraments, 
 and we reply, only men on this earth, only the members of 
 the human race while living. Therefore no Angel, no 
 
32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 animal, no one in the other world can receive a sacrament, 
 for Christ made the sacraments to save the race on this 
 earth. Only one baptized can receive any of the other 
 sacraments, for baptism is the door of the Church. No 
 holiness is absolutely necessary to receive the sacraments 
 validly. Neither is faith required except for penance. 
 For children and for those who have lost their reason no 
 intention is wanted. But grown-up people must have the 
 intention of receiving the sacraments. This has been the 
 constant teaching and practice of the Church in all ages. 
 We cannot suppose for a moment that God would force 
 men into heaven. Therefore, unless a man wants to receive 
 a sacrament, he will not receive it. We must aid God in 
 our salvation according to the words of St. Augustine : 
 *' Who made thee without thee, will not save thee without 
 thee." The intention required is the desire of receiving 
 what is given by the Church. But something more is 
 required to receive the holy Eucharist, for while the other 
 sacraments pass away as soon as they produce their effects, 
 the Eucharist remains for some time. The same may be 
 said of penance, for there are certain things and prepara- 
 tions wanted for this sacrament, which will be explained 
 further on in this work. In order that the sacraments 
 which are received in innocence may be received with 
 fruit, the person must be in a state of innocence or grace. For 
 those which may be received in the state of sin — as baptism 
 and penance, faith, hope, sorrow, and hatred of sin, must be 
 there, and all must be absent which would be an obstacle 
 to grace then required to be in the soul. Where there 
 has been an obstacle to the grace of those sacraments which 
 can be received only once, the fruit of these sacraments 
 cannot be received till that obstacle is removed. We 
 speak now of those sacraments which can be received only 
 once — namely baptism, confirmation, and holy orders. But 
 we say that it is extremely probable that matrimony and 
 extreme unction act in the same way. 
 
 Such are the Seven Gates of Heaven instituted by Christ 
 for the salvation of souls, and which, by their very nature 
 and as the instruments of God in saving the race, 
 produce grace. They are the channels of grace, drawing it 
 forth from the fountains of the crucified Saviour, and are 
 ever pouring it into our souls. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 The Church has also instituted certain ceremonies, which 
 are somewhat like the sacraments, and which produce grace 
 only by the work of the one who receives them. They are 
 certain ceremonies which, when used, are of great utility 
 to the people. They are prayers, especially the public 
 prayers of the Church ; the sprinkling of holy water, 
 hallowed by the prayers said over them ; the eating of 
 bread and food blessed by the clergy ; the general con- 
 fession said at the beginning of mass ; the giving of alms 
 to the poor ; the blessings given by bishops, priests, abbots, 
 etc. ; and the blessing of candles, of ashes, palms, and many 
 others of this kind. They are called the sacramentals of the 
 Church. They wipe out our venal sins, not by any power 
 or virtue in themselves, but because of the sorrow in the 
 heart of the receiver, and by virtue of the prayers of the 
 Universal Church, at whose head is Christ, presiding when 
 these things are blessed and used. 
 
 We will speak of different churches and of diverse 
 Liturgies, so as to give the traditions of Christianity, in 
 the following pages. We will trace the peculiar rites and 
 ceremonies of the most ancient Christians, to show how 
 unanimous and wide-spread are the voices of antiquity 
 relating to the sacraments, and thus prove that they could 
 but come from the origin of our holy religion, and were 
 taught by the Apostles themselves. 
 
 For fourteen years, tradition tells us, the Apostles lived 
 in Jerusalem after the ascension of our Lord. There 
 they drew up the different Liturgies, according to which 
 the Eucharistic Sacrifice was to be offered up, and the 
 sacraments administered to the people. At that time the 
 Apostles agreed to adopt the languages of the Gentile 
 nations, as they could speak all tongues since the descent 
 of the Holy Ghost on the first Pentecost. They did not 
 write these Liturgies in books, but they were handed down 
 by word of mouth till the Church was delivered from 
 persecution in the time of Constantino, when Sacramentaries 
 or Liturgical forms were published, especially in the 
 countries where the Church was free. 
 
 When the Apostles separated, James, called the brother 
 of our Lord, because he was his cousin, became the first 
 bishop of Jerusalem. He formed a system of prayers and 
 a form of celebrating the Eucharist and administering the 
 
3-i INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sacraments which is called " The Divine Liturgy of James.'' 
 The language appears to have been the Syro-Chaldaic, 
 spoken at that time by the people of Jerusalem. From the 
 latter city, it spread into various parts of Syria, to Antioch, 
 and even to Constantinople, after the latter city was 
 founded by Constantine. As Greek was the language of 
 Constantino's empire, St. James' Liturgy was soon trans- 
 lated into that language by the early saints, but we know 
 not by whom. This Greek version was corrected and 
 amplified in a few minor parts by SS. Chrysostom and 
 Bazil, who were friends from their youth ; one was the arch- 
 bishop of Constantinople, the other of Csesarea. In the sixth 
 century this form, as modified, was introduced into the 
 churches of Constantinople, and there it has been used till 
 our day. Towards the beginning of the ninth century, 
 SS. Cyril and Methodius, especially the former, converted 
 the people of southern Russia to the Christian faith, and 
 adapted the Liturgy of St. James to their Slavonic tongue. 
 What they did was approved by Pope Adrean II. From 
 that time till our day, it has been the Liturgy of the Russian 
 Church. 
 
 The same Liturgy of St. James, as adopted in Syria and 
 Antioch, was arranged to suit the doctrines of the heretics 
 of the early ages called the Jacobites, who claimed that the 
 human and divine in Christ made but one nature, a doctrine 
 taught by Jacobus Baradaeus of Edessa in the sixth century. 
 After his death in 578, they spread into Syria, Mesopotamia, 
 Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. Those in Egypt 
 separated from the others in the course of ages and founded 
 the Coptic Church. The Jacobites are ruled by a patriarch 
 now living in a monastery near Mardin. Their services are 
 carried out according to the modified Liturgy of St. James, 
 in the Syriac tongue, no longer understood by the people. 
 
 The Copts of Egypt not in union with Rome are ruled by 
 their patriarch at Alexandria, but since the eleventh cen- 
 tury he has lived at Cairo. They believe that Christ had 
 only one nature, a doctrine condemned by the Council of 
 Chalcedon in the year 451. They claim that their Liturgy 
 was composed by St. Mark, the author of the Gospel and 
 disciple of St. Peter, whom the latter established as first 
 bishop of Alexandria. They twice united with the Catholic 
 Church, but broke off again. At present, those in union 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 with US are ruled by a Vicar Apostolic, who resides at 
 Cairo. He also presides over the faithful of Abyssinia. 
 
 The Alexandrian Liturg-y was composed by St. Mark, the 
 Evangelist, and it received its complete form from St. Cyril 
 of Alexandria. The latter allowed it to be translated into 
 Coptic and Ethiopic, and it is used by the Abyssinian 
 churches along the banks of the Mle. 
 
 St. Matthew, after visiting many churches, came to Nu- 
 media, where he composed a Liturgy now used by the 
 Ethiopians, and which has been claimed by them to be the 
 foundation of their services. It never became very widely 
 spread. 
 
 St. John, the beloved Apostle, became the first bishop of 
 Ephesus, and there he established the Ephesian Liturgy, 
 which in the fourth century gave way to that of St. James. 
 St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was the disciple of St. John, 
 and had for his companion St. Irsenus, who was born near 
 Smyrna in the year 135, and became the bishop of Lyons, 
 France, where he introduced the Liturgy of St. John, which 
 he had learned of Polycarp. From Lyons, that Liturgy 
 spread into France, Spain, England, and Ireland. A little 
 modified, it gave rise to the Galilean, Mozarabic, Anglican, 
 and other liturgies. 
 
 The Mozarabic was carried into Spain, and was used by 
 the Goths and Arabs, from the sixth to the ninth century, 
 when it gave way to the Latin Liturgy. In the sixteenth 
 century, its use was limited to a single chapel of the Cathe- 
 dral of Toledo 
 
 The Galilean Liturgy was split up into many forms pre- 
 scribed by the different bishops of France, till in 1789 Pope 
 Pius Y. , to put an end to the changes which time was intro- 
 ducing into the Liturgies, forbade all those which did not go 
 back two hundred years and more, and thus brought unity 
 out of chaos. 
 
 When St. Augustine came to England to convert the na- 
 tion to the faith, he found that the Christian Saxons had for 
 many years followed the Galilean Liturgy, and by the ad- 
 vice of Pope Gregory he introduced the Roman or Latin 
 Liturgy. Still, for many centuries there was a diversity in 
 England of other rites, as we see the Salisbury Liturgy, 
 the Liturgy of Egbert of York, and others prevailed in 
 many places. Being a Roman himself, St. Augustine de- 
 
36 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sired to introduce the Latin Liturgy into every part of the 
 realm, but Pope Gregory allowed him to choose between the 
 Galilean and the Roman Liturgies. The latter was used in 
 all the monasteries and principal churches of the nation. 
 
 The Anglican Liturgy in a mutilated form is found in the 
 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church. It is 
 supposed to be founded on the Latin and on the Salisbury 
 Liturgy of Bishop Osmond. At the Reformation, the gov- 
 ernment of England and the royal family drove out the 
 clergy, and after many changes and revisings from year to 
 year, they at last published the Book of Common Prayer, 
 which was imposed on all by act of Parliament. For a 
 more complete history, the reader can consult the American 
 Cyclopedia, under the head of ^^ Common Prayer " 
 
 St. Barnabas, the Apostle, first preached the Gospel to the 
 people of Milan, Italy, and there established a Liturgy, 
 which in the year 374 was revised by the great St. Ambrose. 
 It is called the Mozarabic or Ambrosian Liturgy. In 1497, 
 Pope Alexander VI. solemnly confirmed this Liturgy, and it 
 is still followed by some of the churches of the Archdiocese 
 of Milan. 
 
 St. Peter fixed his See first at Antioch, where he remained 
 for seven years. We do not know what Liturgy he followed 
 while in that city. When he came to Rome and there fixed 
 his apostolic chair as first Pope, it was the capital of the 
 whole civilized world. The language was Latin, and for 
 that reason he chose the Latin language, and then estab- 
 lished the Latin Liturgy or Roman Rite. During the three 
 centuries of persecution, this Liturgy was handed down by 
 memory, till at length it was embodied in the Sacramenta- 
 ries of Popes SS. Leo the Great, Gelasius, and Gregory the 
 Great. These Sacramentaries will be often mentioned in the 
 following pages. 
 
 This Liturgy is called the Latin or Roman Rite or Liturgy. 
 It is the most wide-spread and best known of all the Litur- 
 gies of the Church, and has become almost universal. 
 
 Because but little known, we will only say a word about 
 the Liturgy of the Holy Apostles, which appears to be an 
 offshoot of the Alexandrian Liturgy of St. Mark. It is not 
 universally used in the Church. 
 
 In the following pages, the western part of Europe, where 
 the Latin Rite or Roman Liturgy is used, will be called the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 37 
 
 Western Church ; and the eastern part of Europe, with 
 parts of yisia and Africa, where these different Liturgies 
 are used, will be called the Eastern Church, or simply the 
 East. 
 
 In order that the reader may better understand the tradi- 
 tions of Christianity relating to the sacraments, we will 
 give the origin and history of the chief Christian denomina- 
 tions and sects, which spring from the Catholic Church, as 
 from their mother. All writers, without exception, of any 
 learning admit that Christ came down from heaven and 
 founded the Catholic Church. No one of any learning ever 
 doubted that. In the days almost of the Apostles it had 
 spread throughout the world by their preaching, and was 
 everywhere found, so that they called the early Christian 
 Church the Catholic Church, because catholic is the Greek 
 name for universal. 
 
 We will not give all the different heretics who, in the 
 early ages, separated from the Catholic Church, for, al- 
 though numerous, they lived and flourished only for a time. 
 They died out before the advance of truth. N'ow they only 
 live in history. We will give the chief sects of the present 
 day, who look up to and acknowledge the Catholic Church 
 as their mother. From her they received their Christian 
 doctrines, and she contains all truth which they have, and 
 more. If they love and admire the doctrines of their 
 churches, it is Catholic truth which they love. These 
 churches, without exception, are the product of religious 
 and political revolutions. The simple people were torn 
 from the sheltering arms of their mother by designing men, 
 by bad governments, by Christian rulers who wished to 
 control religion. We will give them in alphabetical order. 
 
 The Abyssinian Church was founded by a priest, Julianus, 
 in the sixth century, who believed that there was only one 
 nature in Jesus Christ. These heretics, who had in the 
 fifth and sixth centuries obtained possession of the patri- 
 archal See of Alexandria, then forced their peculiar doc- 
 trines on the Christians of Abyssinia. Aided by the gov- 
 ernment, their errors spread rapidly along the banks of the 
 Mle, where once flourished a large Christian church. In 
 1624 they united again with Rome, but the union was 
 broken up by intrigues. At present there are many mis- 
 sionaries among them. 
 
38 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Albigenses were a sect of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, which took their names from the territory of the 
 viscount of Albi. In 1208 they murdered the Pope's Legate, 
 Peter of Castelnau. They were upheld by the nobility of 
 southern France. King Louis VIII. , of France, took up 
 arms against them, and having no civil authority to uphold 
 them, they soon died out. They rejected the Trinity, be- 
 lieved the demon created the world ; that Jehovah of the 
 Old Testament was the devil, and, therefore, bad ; that 
 our souls are the fallen angels ; that Christ was an angel, 
 etc. 
 
 The Armenians were established by James Armenius in 
 Amsterdam, Holland, in the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century. He held peculiar views relating to predestination, 
 claimed that the Church should be subject to the State ; 
 advocated many doctrines held by the Calvanists, with 
 modified doctrines of the Trinity, as well as denied original 
 sin. Their teachings are now held extensively by many of 
 the Church of England people and by the Methodists. 
 
 The Baptists were founded in this country by Roger Wil- 
 liams, who had been a clergyman of the Church of Eng- 
 land, and came to this country in 1631. After a stormy 
 time in the Colony of Massachusetts, because of his Ana- 
 baptist doctrines he was banished from the colony ; be- 
 cause he would not agree that the king of England could 
 grant lands belonging to the Indians ; and that the civil 
 government could impose its own faith and worship as it 
 saw fit on the consciences of the people. After many hard- 
 ships, he settled in the wilderness and founded the city of 
 Providence, R. I. There he became the founder of the 
 Baptist Church. Their chief belief is that the immersion 
 of the whole body is necessary for baptism ; that each con- 
 gregation is independent, yet each church is united to all 
 the others. H-e taught that clergymen and laymen are the 
 same, the former not being superior to the latter, except by 
 the ofiice of preacher or deacon. The majority rules. They 
 often call councils, composed of ministers and laymen, to 
 ordain and settle various difficulties. There are about nine 
 different kinds of Baptists in this country, all divided re- 
 garding some points of doctrine or discipline. They, like 
 most Protestant churches, do not believe that baptism is 
 more than a simple ceremony, instituted by Christ as a sign 
 
INTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 of union with the Church, producing no grace, only carried 
 out by command of Christ. 
 
 The Congregational Church was established by Robert 
 Brown and John Robinson, towards the year 1586, in Eng- 
 land. It was the product of the repugnance of the English 
 people to believe that Queen Elizabeth could become the 
 head of the Church. In 1602, many people of the north of 
 England, revolting against the idea of the Church being 
 subject to the government, formed themselves into a Con- 
 gregational Church, with Robinson as pastor, who in 1608, 
 with its members, moved to Holland. Finding troubles 
 there, in 1620 they came to the shores of New England in 
 the Mayflower, where they formed themselves into *'a 
 Church without a bishop and a State without a king." This 
 was the first Church of the [N'ew England States, and for 
 the last two centuries they have become very numerous in 
 this country. Like the Baptists, each church is independ- 
 ent in itself. 
 
 The Copts are the descendants of the ancient Catholics of 
 Egypt, and their history would be the story of that mys- 
 terious land itself. During the strife of arms on the banks 
 of the Nile, during the reigns of the emperors Justin, Jus- 
 tinian, and Phocus, the early Church of Egypt, once so 
 flourishing, became divided from the centre of authority, 
 Rome, and the people fell into the error of supposing that 
 there was only one nature in Christ. The government 
 afflicted the people who did not believe these errors. Con- 
 troversy followed, hot and severe. They disagreed also 
 with the Greeks. Some claimed there were three Gods. 
 John the Almsgiver was appointed patriarch of Alexandria 
 by the government, in 611. He followed the dictates of the 
 government, of which he was only a tool. When they were 
 driven out by the Persians, the Romans again conquered 
 the country, and the Jacobite Bengeman was deposed. The 
 Christians of Egypt then believed that Christ had two 
 natures and but one will. But we will not linger longer 
 over the sad history of the remains of the early Christian 
 Church of Egypt. The Copts show us by their ritual and 
 customs the early Christian belief in the sacraments as we 
 hold to-day, still treasured up in the land of the Pharaohs. 
 They more than once united with the Catholic Church. 
 
 The Episcopal Church was founded in England by Henry 
 
40 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 VIII., and is known there by the name of the Established 
 Church of England, or the Anglican Church. They came to 
 this country with the colonies, and became very numerous 
 in Maryland and other places. They are known here by the 
 name of Episcopalians. From the time when St. Augustine, 
 about 597, came and converted England to the faith, the 
 people of that fair Isle were fervent Catholics. Many times 
 the government encroached on the liberty of the Church. 
 St. Thomas a Becket died a martyr in its defense. Still the 
 people were true to the faith. In the year 1509, Henry 
 VIII., the second king of the Tudor dynasty, ascended the 
 throne. His father, Henry VIL, had intended him to be- 
 come the Archbishop of Canterbury and primate of England, 
 and he was educated for that purpose. But the death of 
 his elder brother Arthur made him the heir of the throne. 
 He married Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 of Spain. Few men had a brighter prospect on ascending 
 the throne of England. For a book written by him against 
 Luther, in 1521, Henry received from Pope Leo X. the title 
 of " Defender of the Faith," yet seen on the English coins. 
 Having no heir but Mary to sit on his throne, Henry desired 
 to put away Catherine, and talked of a divorce, so he could 
 marry Anne Boleyn, to whom he was much attached, as 
 she would not become his mistress. The Pope would not, 
 or rather could not, give a divorce, as it is beyond the power 
 of the Church, and the decision of Cardinal Wolsey against 
 it was opposed. Henry was determined, and threatened 
 Rome. Queen Catherine appealed to the Pope, and her 
 rights as wife ^^ere upheld. 
 
 The English Parliament was called, and the enemies of 
 the Church formed the largest party. The opening speech 
 was made by Sir Thomas More, the Chancellor of England, 
 and the leader of those who remained faithful to the faith. 
 He died afterwards, executed by order of Henry. This Par- 
 liament began by denouncing the clergy of the Catholic 
 Church in the most bitter terms, and they then sowed those 
 lies and discords which live even to our days, dividing 
 Christian peoples. The divorce question was discussed, 
 hoping to thus frighten Rome. The gist of the discussion 
 was that Catherine had been married to Henry's brother 
 Arthur, and a dispensation had been granted by the Pope 
 for her to marry Henry, her husband's brother, because 
 
INTRODUCTION. 41 
 
 they claimed they had not consummated the marriage by 
 cohabitation before the death of Arthur. They now ques- 
 tioned the right of the Pope's authority to give this dispen- 
 sation, and therefore claimed that the marriage of Henry 
 and Catherine was invalid, because she had been married 
 to his brother before. This was suggested by Cranmer, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Spain upheld Catherine, the 
 daughter of their king and queen, who sent Columbus to 
 the new world. The excitement ran high. Cardinal Wol- 
 sey died in disgrace. The clergy who decided against the 
 king were persecuted. Thousands were carried to the scaf- 
 fold and died as martyrs. Archbishops, bishops, heads of 
 religious orders, priests, and nobles were put to death. The 
 churches were despoiled, shrines robbed, church property 
 confiscated ; the nobles who remained faithful to the Church 
 lost all their property, which was given to the friends of 
 Henry. Catherine would not withdraw her appeal to the 
 Pope, and the latter was immovable. 
 
 In 1532 Parliament proceeded to reform the clergy and 
 people of England, by withdrawing the obedience of the 
 king, clergy, and people from the Church of God. From 
 this dates the schism of England. On Jan. 25, 1533, Henry 
 married Anne Boleyn. They were both excommunicated 
 by the Pope. On April 12 of this year Parliament assem- 
 bled, and issued a decree against the Pope. Cranmer, Pri- 
 mate of England, decided that the dispensation given by 
 Pope Julius II., allowing Henry and Catherine to marry, 
 v\ras invalid, and therefore Anne Boleyn was his legitimate 
 wife. Henry was cited to appear at Rome, but he appealed 
 to a general council. Rome declared that Cranmer's de- 
 cision was illegal. The Catholic powers of Europe deserted 
 Henry, and he looked for support to Protestant Germany, 
 where the doctrines of Luther had rapidly spread. In Jan- 
 uary, 1534, Parliament again met, and passed measures for 
 the further separation of England from the Catholic Church. 
 All the spiritual authority of the Pope was abolished in 
 England, and the children of Anne were made the heirs to 
 the throne. Up to this time the Pope had not passed sen- 
 tence except relating to the divorce, hoping that these sad 
 times and troubles might pass away. He now declared 
 against Henry. The latter then became very energetic, 
 and declared himself the head of the Church. All who 
 
42 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 would not admit his spiritual authority were put to death, 
 persecuted, or driven from England. Parliament enacted 
 that England was independent, and that the civil power was 
 supreme in religious matters. It was declared treason to be 
 a Catholic. 
 
 In 1535 the monasteries and convents began to be plun- 
 dered. The religious orders were suppressed. The bishops 
 and priests, who would not acknowledge Henry as head of 
 the Church, were put to death or driven from the kingdom. 
 Rivers of blood flowed. The whole realm was in convulsions. 
 The old Catholic faith, which for a thousand years had 
 flourished in England and had civilized the nation, was torn 
 from the bosom of that noble people. The calumnies, lies, 
 and false stories about the Church were then sown among 
 the people, and they last among the unlearned even to our 
 day. The whole kingly power, the influence of court, the 
 authority of Parliament, the machinery of public offices, all 
 were used to poison the minds of the people against Rome 
 and against the Catholic Church. 
 
 Henry went from one excess to another. He ended by 
 marrying six wives, and the half of them were put to death. 
 
 The clergy thus persecuted stood firm in some cases and 
 died martyrs ; in other cases they gave in and retained 
 their places. The hierarchy of the English Church died out, 
 and laymen were appointed to the cathedrals by the govern- 
 ment. Thus the Apostolic succession, established by St. 
 Augustine, died out, and from that time till our day there 
 are no valid orders in the Episcopal Church. 
 
 Such was the origin of the English Church. It is a sad 
 history of human passion, adultery, ambition, and pride. 
 How sorrowful it is to think that we have to write such a 
 history, but as a true historian we must be truthful. If any 
 one doubts our words we refer them to any good English 
 history, or to the article, " Henry the VIII.," in the American 
 Cyclopedia. My heart goes out to those noble people, who 
 are good and kind, and are outside the bosom of their mother, 
 the Catholic Church, by the faults of their forefathers. Now 
 they try every way to excuse and defend their Church, which 
 is only a human invention. Such was the origin of the 
 English Anglican Church, of which the Episcopal Church 
 in this and other countries are the daughters. In England 
 the king or queen is the head ; in other countries they have 
 
INTRODUCTION. 43 
 
 no head, or the bishop in each diocese is the head. Still, as 
 the English reformation was civil rather than religious, 
 they are nearer like the Catholic Church than any of the 
 other Protestant denominations. Among them baptism and 
 marriage only are valid, as their ministers are only laymen 
 because the Apostolic succession was lost. We use in or- 
 daining them the absolute form, when their ministers take 
 orders in the Catholic Church. If there was any doubt on 
 the subject, we would use the conditional form as we do in 
 baptism, when there is a doubt of the validity of the bap- 
 tism. Some of them think that orders are required in order 
 to administer validly the sacrament of baptism. 
 
 The Apostle St. Matthew penetrated into Ethiopia and 
 along the banks of the upper Nile, where he made many 
 converts. For persuading the king's daughter to take a 
 vow of chastity, he was put to death. The good seed of the 
 Gospel fell on fruitful soil, and they became devout Catho- 
 lics. He left them a Liturgy, which, combined with the 
 one composed by St. Mark, the author of the Gospel and 
 archbishop of Alexandria, is known to-day by the name of 
 the Ethiopic Liturgy, which is very like the Coptic. Their 
 belief in the seven sacraments does not differ much from 
 that of the Catholic Church, from which they became 
 separated by the many political revolutions which con- 
 vulsed the valley of the upper Nile for many centuries. We 
 will speak here and there of their doctrine and ceremonies 
 in the following pages. 
 
 At the time of Christ, while Latin was the language of 
 the common people of the Roman Empire, Greek was the 
 tongue mostly used by the learned, and which, by the con- 
 quests of Alexander the Great, had become spread throughout 
 the larger part of the civilized world, especially in western 
 Asia. For this reason nearly all the New Testament was 
 written in Greek. When in 313 Constantino moved the 
 seat of the Roman Empire to the banks of the Bosphorus, 
 and founded Constantinople, the bishop of the latter place 
 became quite prominent. After Rome, Antioch was the 
 first see, and its bishop was the Patriarch of Asia, because 
 there St. Peter first fixed his papal chair. Alexandria be- 
 came the second see, and its bishop the Patriarch of Africa, 
 because there St. Mark, the disciple and follower of St. Peter, 
 was sent by the latter. Although this was confirmed by 
 
44 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the Council of Nice, yet Constantinople, the seat of the 
 government, became jealous of these two old centres of 
 Christianity, and desired the second place after Rome. At 
 the Council of Chalcedon, presided over by the Legates of 
 Pope Leo, where nearly G'30 bishops assembled on Oct. 8, 451, 
 when the papal legates were absent, they passed a decree 
 making Constantinople the first patriarchal see after Rome, 
 thus placing it before Antioch and Alexandria. Pope Leo 
 immediately annulled this decree, and placed the aforesaid 
 cities in dignity before Constantinople. At this time, and 
 for centuries before, all the people of the East and West w^ere 
 in union with Rome. The Church spread rapidly over the 
 plains of Russia, along the shores of northern Africa, among 
 the mountains of Asia, and through the different nations of 
 Europe. 
 
 In 857 a young man named Photius, related by marriage 
 to the archbishop and the imperial house of Constantinople, 
 was secretary to the emperor Michael III. Ignatius then 
 sat on the throne of St. Chrysostom in the great church of 
 St. Sophia. He was the youngest son .of the emperor 
 Michael I. The good bishop would not allow Berdas, 
 brother of the Empress Theodora, to receive Holy Commun- 
 ion, because of his immoral life, and for that the govern- 
 ment deposed Ignatius, and put Photius in his place. St. 
 Ignatius appealed against this decision to Rome. Photius 
 was then only a layman, but in six days he passed through 
 all the different orders, became a bishop, and took his seat, 
 upheld by the civil power. His election was confirmed by 
 a council of 318 bishops, held in 861 ; but Pope Nicholas I. 
 deposed him, and restored St. Ignatius. At the death of 
 the latter, Photius obtained the consent of both the Pope and 
 the emperor, and became the rightful patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 He now began to show his true spirit, and opposed the 
 Pope in restoring the Bulgarians to the unity and the au- 
 thority of the Latin Church. Being now patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, the seat of the Roman empire, he addressed 
 letters to all the archbishops, bishops, and chief church- 
 men, charging the Latin Church with shortening Lent ; 
 with refusing to allow married men to enter the clergy ; 
 with holding that bishops only, and not priests, could con- 
 secrate and administer chrism and confirmation : that the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 45 
 
 Holy Spirit proceeds from both Father and Son, besides 
 many other points of minor importance. He excommuni- 
 cated the Pope, and claimed that he was the Pope, the suc- 
 cessor of Peter. The vast power of the imperial govern- 
 ment was at his back, and they controlled and upheld him. 
 Thus began the fatal division between the Latin and Greek 
 Churches. Many times the division was healed, but they 
 fell away again. From this time the Greek schismatics 
 became stagnant. The branch, receiving no vital sap 
 from the trunk Rome, appears to have died and withered. 
 
 CATHEDRAL OP BUCHABEST, ROUHANIA. 
 
 They had always looked to the patriarch of Constantinople 
 for advice and authority. The scourge of God came with 
 the Turkish invasion in 1453, when the great St. Sophia 
 became a Mohammedan mosque, and the beautiful Greek 
 rite gave way to the abominations of the religion of Mo- 
 hammed. After a few years the civil power suppressed the 
 authority of the patriarch of Constantinople in Russia, and 
 established, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the 
 patriarchate of Moscow. Still further, as we come down in 
 history, we see that in 1721 Peter the Great suppressed this 
 
46 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 spiritual authority, and appointed the ''Holy Synod" of 
 St. Petersburg. The Russian government holds all church 
 property, and the ancient Catholic Church of Russia is but 
 a tool in the hands of the Czar, and the other laymen of the 
 government. 
 
 They have all the sacraments, and as they never lost the 
 apostolic succession, the sacraments are valid among them. 
 They build beautiful churches, half Oriental, half Roman, 
 as can be seen by the illustration on the preceding page. 
 
 In 1833, the Greeks revolted against the patriarch of 
 Constantinople, and formed the "Synod of Athens," with 
 the king of Greece as their head or Pope. In 1853, the 
 patriarch of Jerusalem acknowledged the Sultan of Turkey 
 as the head of his Church. For many centuries the sultan 
 had made a tool of the patriarch of Constantinople. Thus 
 in every case where they fell away from the centre of au- 
 thority, they became dependent on the government, and 
 lost their independence. 
 
 The Jacobites are a Christian sect formed by Jacobus 
 Baradseus, bishop of Edessa, who organized those who 
 believed the false doctrine that Christ had only one nature. 
 They are still, to the number of 34,000 families, scattered 
 throughout Syria, Armenia, Egypt, ISTubia, and Abyssinia. 
 Those in Egypt, in the course of ages, separated from their 
 brethren in Asia, and founded the Coptic Church. The 
 Jacobites are ruled by a patriarch, who resides in a monas- 
 tery near Mardin. In their services they use the Syriac 
 language, no longer understood by the people. Many of 
 them have united to the Catholic Church, and are ruled by 
 the patriarch of Antioch. 
 
 The Lutheran Church was established by Martin Luther, 
 who was born in Prussian Saxony in 1483, his father being 
 r» poor peasant. He attended the school of the Franciscan 
 priests in Mansfeld, begged his food from door to door, and 
 was so unruly when a boy that he was frequently flogged. 
 He was educated by a pious lady, Ursula Cotta. He intended 
 to become a lawyer, but the sudden death of a friend in a 
 duel, his escape from a severe illness and from lightning, 
 determined him to enter the Augustinian Convent in 1505. 
 Here he studied the Bible, the works of St. Augustin and 
 other writers. In 1507, he was ordained a priest. He 
 taught philosophy, lectured on theology, when he became 
 
INTRODUCTION. 47 
 
 noted for his remarkable views, yet he never intended to 
 break from the Church at this time. 
 
 For centuries the north of Europe had been educated in 
 the pure doctrines of the Church, established there by St. 
 Boniface, yet they had not understood it as clearly as the 
 Latin races of southern Europe. About this time printing 
 had been invented, and became a powerful lever in the 
 hands of bad men. St. Peter's Church was being constructed 
 in Rome. In order to raise money for the undertaking, 
 Leo X. appointed the Dominican priest, John Tetzel, to 
 preach the indulgence in Germany. That excited the jeal- 
 ousy of some of the Augustinians, especially of Luther. 
 Tetzel went beyond his authority and abused his privileges, 
 and Luther protested against him in ninety-five Latin 
 theses, which he wrote in 1517. In these he submitted him- 
 self to the Pope. By the new art of printing they spread 
 rapidly among the people. Great controversies followed, 
 and excitement ran high. Luther now came out in open 
 revolt against Rome. To gain the nobility, he addressed 
 them favorable letters. Acting on the vile passions of men, 
 he allowed divorces. Pampering the pride of the nobles, he 
 allowed them a voice in church government. To gain 
 every one over to his cause, he proclaimed that each one 
 could interpret the Bible as he saw fit. The passions of 
 men were now let loose. Princes, avaricious for money, 
 plundered the churches ; grasping nobles stole the property 
 of the monasteries and of the convents ; ignorant and vul- 
 gar men disputed with learned and educated priests. There 
 was no church, no authority in religious matters but the 
 sweet will of each one. Germany, held together for so 
 many centuries by the ghostly-appointed powers of Church 
 and State, was now in the throes of religious revolution. 
 
 The government of Frederick the Wise upheld the re- 
 formers, and the printing press scattered their ideas faster 
 than the truth. The vast structure of Christian truth, built 
 up during so many centuries in the north of Europe, 
 crumbled in a generation. The lie was believed before the 
 truth. That is always the way in fallen human nature. 
 Luther preached in favor of law, order, and moderation, 
 but it was too late. The firebrand had been hurled, and the 
 fire of religious revolt, of civil discords, of fanatic hatred, 
 of popular demonstrations, and of religious bigotry swept 
 
48 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 like a vast deluge over the north of Europe, and the ground- 
 swell disturbed and shook all Christendom to its very cen- 
 tre. In 1525, Luther married Catherine von Bora, an ex- 
 nun, as he said, "to please his father, to tease the Pope, 
 and to vex the devil." He translated the Bible, which had 
 been so venerated by all Catholic ages. He held services in 
 the common tongue, and discarded the venerable services 
 of the Church for his own peculiar rites. Claiming the 
 right of private interpretation of the Bible, he would not 
 listen to the ideas of Calvin, Melanchton, or Zwingle. He 
 spent the last years of his life cursing the Pope, and drink- 
 ing beer in a neighboring tavern. 
 
 The church he established was soon broken up into many 
 different sects. To-day, Lutheranism, the State Church of 
 Prussia, is only a tool in the hands of the Emperor of Ger- 
 many. In 1529, the diet of Spiers, in union with the Ger- 
 man emperor, passed a resolution prohibiting the reforma- 
 tion or any interference in church matters, till the meeting 
 of an ecumenical council. The representatives of the fol- 
 loAvers of Luther refused to be dictated to by the State in 
 these matters, and entered a solemn protest. From that 
 time the reformers were called Protestants. 
 
 The Maronites are a body of Christians inhabiting Syria. 
 They are the descendants of the early Christians, who 
 always remained faithful to the Church, and never sepa- 
 rated from Rome during the religious and political revolu- 
 tions, which so many times swept over that part of Asia. 
 They derive their name from St. Maron, who lived in the 
 mountains near Tyre. Another Maron was a bishop of the 
 seventh century, and believed that Christ had only one will. 
 He induced many of the Syrians to embrace his doctrines. 
 
 The Methodists were established by John and Charles 
 Wesley, brothers, and students of Oxford University, Eng- 
 land, in 1729. The government having driven the Church 
 from England, the moral and religious condition of the people 
 became deplorable towards the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. Unbelief was spreading with an alarming rapid- 
 ity. The morals of the English people became very unclean, 
 for, deprived of the graces and aids of the sacraments, they 
 could not live good lives. John Wesley began to live a reg- 
 ular and methodical life in Oxford, and he was joined by 
 many students. For this reason, through derision, they 
 
INTRODUCTION. 49 
 
 were called Methodists. John Wesley received orders in 
 the Church of England, but they discarded him. Then 
 they established themselves in this country, in Georgia, 
 preaching in the open air here as well as in England. 
 Many flocked to hear them. It was but the natural Chris- 
 tian instinct of souls looking for salvation, yet knowing not 
 where to seek, for the rightful priests and bishops had long 
 since been driven from England by Henry VIII. and his 
 daughter Elizabeth. 
 
 They have a peculiar way of acting on the feelings, get- 
 ting up a great excitement, like the Mohammedans. This 
 takes well among the common people, who are not able to 
 tell the difference between true religion, which consists in 
 the enlightened mind and reason convinced by truth, and 
 not in the feelings common with us and animals, strongly 
 excited by shouting. This only appeals to our sensibilities 
 and passions. Their doctrines are about the same as those 
 of the followers of Arminius. 
 
 The Nestorians derive their origin from Nestorius, Patri- 
 arch of Constantinople, in the fifth century, who taught 
 that there was a great difference between Christ as Son of 
 God and Christ as Son of Mary ; that there were two persons 
 in Christ ; and that, therefore, Mary was not the Mother of 
 God, but of the man Christ, born of her. He was con- 
 demned by a council called by Pope Celestin, and which 
 assembled at Alexandria in 430. He was also condemned 
 by the Council of Ephesus, held in the year 431. At these 
 two councils the true doctrine was defined, that in Christ 
 there is only one Person of the Son of God, uniting the 
 nature of God with the nature of man, both natures being 
 distinct. His followers divided up among themselves on 
 various points of doctrine. They were, in a great measure, 
 swept away by the onward march of Mohammedanism in 
 the sixth century. A remnant of them is still found in Syria, 
 Persia, and in various parts of the Turkish empire. Some 
 of them have united with the Holy See, and follow their 
 own rites and ceremonies, carried out in the ancient Syrian 
 language, since long dead, and not understood by the peo- 
 ple. They have preserved with great tenacity the old 
 Catholic belief in the seven sacraments. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church was founded by John Knox, 
 who was born in Scotland in 1505, and who was educated 
 
50 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 at the University of St. Andrews. His study of the fathers, 
 especially of SS. Augustin and Jerome, together with his 
 want of sound religious training, upset his opinions, and he 
 wanted to become a reformer. He was declared a heretic, 
 and retired to the south of Scotland, where he preached to 
 the surrounding inhabitants. He took refuge in the Castle 
 of St. Andrews, during the stormy political times of 1517, 
 where he began preaching against the Catholic Church, 
 which for nearly a thousand years had been the faith of 
 Scotland. He led a wandering life, was carried to France, 
 imprisoned, returned, and on the accession of Queen Mary 
 he again fled to Geneva, where he studied the doctrines of 
 Calvin, Beza, and other reformers, the teachings of whom 
 he introduced on his return into Scotland, and which have 
 since been the belief of the Presbyterian Church. These 
 were stormy times, when passions ran high, religious dis- 
 cussions were bitter, and the excited people followed any 
 leader, because their own priests and bishops had been 
 driven out. The people, roused to the highest point by the 
 preaching of the reformers, destroyed altars, churches, 
 shrines. They drove out the Dominicans, Franciscans, 
 Carthusians, and other religious orders. They burned the 
 monasteries and convents. They scattered the lies against 
 the Catholics, which for more than three hundred years 
 have rankled in the hearts of the children of those people, 
 torn from the Church without their own fault. By an act 
 of Parliament Presbyterianism became the State religion of 
 Scotland, where it still continues, and from which it passed 
 into this country. 
 
 The Syrians are the Christian descendants of the early 
 converts the Apostles made in Syria and Palestine. Some 
 belong to and acknowledge the Pope, while others, few in 
 number, are independent, belonging mostly to the Jacobites, 
 and dwelling to the north and east of Damascus. 
 
 Such was the origin of the principal Christian denomina- 
 tions of the world, both in the East and in the West. We 
 cannot give all the Protestant denominations, as they are 
 so numerous ; but we have given the chief sects which 
 sprang from the Catholic Church, that powerful mother of 
 all churches believing in Christ. In the East, the clergy, 
 both bishops and priests, never having lost the apostolic suc- 
 cession, are validly ordained. Therefore, their sacraments 
 
INTRODUCTION. 51 
 
 are valid. But among the Protestants, the link having 
 been broken, their ministers are only laymen, and, therefore, 
 they have only the sacraments of baptism and marriage. 
 
 There are three things to be considered in the Church — 
 faith, morals, and discipline. In faith and morals there is, 
 nor can be, no change, because God revealed these truths 
 to mankind contained in the Bible, and it is beyond the 
 power of man to change truths revealed by God. In 
 discipline, or in the way of carrying on the Church and 
 administering the sacraments, there have been many 
 changes, for the Church accommodates herself to the 
 different countries, nations, governments, and peoples 
 throughout the world. In the same way as the customs of 
 the people change from age to age, the discipline of the 
 Church has been changed to acconunodate herself to their 
 changed conditions. In this way the doctrines relating to 
 the sacraments have always remained the same, yet the 
 ceremonies may become more solemn, or shorter, according 
 to the different rites in the East or in the West. Thus the 
 Church is rigid and unchangeable in her teachings, and 
 changing in her discipline, and with the utmost elasticity 
 accommodates herself to all nations and peoples of the 
 earth. 
 
 Thus many customs will come up and become established 
 in various countries and ages, and by the lapse of time they 
 will have the force of law, till confirmed or condemned by 
 councils. The object of councils is to define the truths be- 
 lieved from the beginning, to confirm or condemn customs 
 and abuses, and to accommodate the discipline of the 
 Church to the customs and manners of the people. But no 
 council or Pope can make new doctrines, as all revelation 
 to the human race was finished and completed at the 
 coming of Christ. 
 
 Councils are of various kinds. An Ecumenical Council 
 takes place when all the bishops of the world meet. It is 
 presided over by the Pope, or by his delegate. Its definitions 
 and laws bind the whole world, as the world is represented 
 by its bishops, and its decisions are confirmed by the Pope. 
 A General Council is made up of a large part of the bishops 
 of the world. A Plenary or N^ational Council is where all 
 the bishops of any nation meet, and is presided over by the 
 primate of the country. At this writing, the Prelates of 
 
52 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the United States are in session at Baltimore, in the third 
 Plenary Council held in this country, with Archbishop 
 Gibbons, as the primate of this country, by papal delega- 
 tion, at its head. A Provincial Council is where the bishops 
 of the province meet, with the archbishop at its head. For 
 example, a year ago, the fourth Provincial Council of this 
 province, consisting of all the bishops of New York and 
 New Jersey, met in the Cathedral, New York, and passed 
 laws for the clergy and people of the province over which 
 their authority extends. All decrees and regulations of 
 councils must be approved by the Pope, or by one 
 delegated by him, before they are published. When the 
 clergy of a diocese meet in council, with the bishop at their 
 head, it is called a Diocesan Synod, but as they only pass 
 decrees relating to discipline, their statutes are not sent 
 for revision to Rome. We will speak frequently in the 
 following pages of various councils, customs, and rites 
 relating to the sacraments held during the ages which have 
 elapsed since the time of Christ. 
 
-«>-t2^^C 
 
 [*mi?i 
 
 'S V^-V -O-i 
 
 ^tt(^\\i of ^aitfertt^. 
 
 *->-l — g) --1 » ...o^o,.~ ^»-— p^ ce — I- 
 
 T^^ 
 
 ^! 
 
 •^^^ (2^ 
 
 ^/- 
 
 /<r- 
 
 an,a- - M^f^ea in 
 
 ^o^ /yeo^C'K^ icAad wi^'^txea 't^y^ ^yiet^. ^ 
 
 . ionMiC'n---- -on '/^ne aay. o. 
 
 /cf- 
 
 ta- - 'Uet^na ^oa^a^Aei. ana '^oe/mo'/^ei., 
 
 I 
 
 - w>in a^^ ^/T-- 
 
 <^n«^ea 1^ 
 
 ta- 
 
 ^O'^ /Pe</wc^^ 'laad 'tAa/t</tr,e(X 'tA'U' .yte'V;--- - ^ 
 
 ^nMic^.- on "/Ae aa^ oj/-- /S^. 
 
 --- ana. 'tAetna '^oc^a^Aei ana '~yoc/^no'/^e't. 
 
 * win aau c><.. /(S^. 
 
 ana. (^nt'^ea -e^ 
 
 u>c^y laad 'tAa/i'^i.^ea 't^u iJtev ^ 
 
 ^'nulcn on i/Ae^ —.0(0^ o-/^.- /S^.. 
 
 ----ana. 'uetna '^oc//-a%Aei ana ^^oar^no'i-nei., 
 
 ' — ^ o5=@=to -Ss^-J-^—- — • 
 
 ■iMyln e/a^u. ojf..... /S'. 
 
 ana. tc^t^ea tn 
 
 yeoC-ioc^, 'loaa 'ua/i^t^.ea 'uu u/le'V: ^ 
 
 . laAMicn..- on ^Ae - --aa'U oj^- /S'- 
 
 — ana. /uetna ''yoa^a^Aei ana juoa^not^ei^ 
 
 -^>5-^§" oJ=@=5o ^>-H«^ — • 
 
 Win -c/ay. o<.. /(^. — 
 
 ana. unt^ea «n 
 
 ^o^ /re(/MCK^ ■z<jiaa wiA'/txea 'i^ ^C'l^. - tn 
 
 ^naic-n.- - on ^Ae - aay. oi^. - /^T. 
 
 ana. wtng. ^oa/a'/Aei an</ ^oo(^no'/Aei. 
 
1^ 
 
 
 BAPTISM 
 
APTISM comes from the Greek, 
 and signifies to plunge, im- 
 merse, submerge in water, or 
 to wash, clean, purify, or wet 
 with water. A hundred times 
 the New Testament, and 
 four times in the Old, the word 
 means to purify. It is said that 
 Nebuchodonosor was baptized 
 with the dew of heaven ; that 
 the Jews were baptized in their 
 ceremonies of washing them- 
 selves ; that the world was bap- 
 tized at the flood ; that the Jews were bap- 
 tized at the passage of the Red Sea ; and that 
 it is a figure of the grace of God, or it signifies 
 sorrow. Such are some of the meanings of 
 the Tvord. 
 
 The ancient authors who have treasured up 
 the traditions of the Apostles considering the 
 effects of baptism, call it '^the forgiveness of 
 sin," "the gift of a new life," "the light which 
 stamps in the soul an indelible character," 
 "the graces produced in us," " the agreement we 
 contract with God," "the door of Christian so- 
 ciety," and "the salvation of man." 
 
 St. Augustin calls baptism "washing with 
 water in the Word;" Hugues de S. Victor, "water made 
 holy by the word of God unto the forgiveness of sins." St. 
 Thomas says it is "the outward washing of the body made 
 with prescribed form of words." Robert Paululus calls it 
 "the immersion of man in water done in the name of the 
 Trinity." The sixth Council of Benevent defines it "the 
 spiritual rebirth with certain words and washing with 
 
54 BAPTISM. 
 
 water." The Council of Trent proclaims it *^the sacrament 
 of regeneration by ineans of water and the word." Suarez 
 describes it as " the sacrament ordained for the spiritual re- 
 generation of the faithful. " Gusset writes that it is "a sacra- 
 ment of the new Law, ordained to wipe out original sin, and 
 to regenerate us in Jesus Christ." The last does not differ 
 much in words from that given by the Russian Church. 
 
 The propliets predicted the wonders of this sacrament. 
 Eleseus said : " Thus saith the Lord, I have healed these 
 waters, and there shall be no more in them death or bar- 
 renness" (IV. Kings, ii. 21). King David says : *^ Wash me 
 yet more from my iniquity. * * * * Thou shalt wash me 
 and I shall be made whiter than snow" (Ps. 1. 4, 9). Isaias, 
 the Evangelist of the Old Testament, cries out: ^^Wash 
 yourselves, be clean ; take away the evil of your devices 
 from my eyes" (Is. i. 16). ^'You shall draw water with 
 joy out of the Saviour's fountains" (Is. xii. 3). '*A11 you 
 that thirst, come to the waters" (Is. Iv. 1). "He shall 
 sprinkle many nations " (Is. lii. 15). The great Ezechial 
 prophesied, "And I washed thee with water and cleansed 
 away the blood : and I anointed thee with oil " (Ezech. 
 xvi. 9). " And I will pour upon thee clean water, and you 
 shall be cleansed from all your filthiness " (Ezech. xxxvi. 26). 
 Again, he says : "And he brought me again to the gate of 
 the house, and behold, waters issued from under the thresh- 
 old of the house toward the east, * * ^^^ * and every living 
 creature that creepeth whithersoever the torrent shall come 
 shall live, * * * * and they shall be healed, and all things 
 shall live to which the torrent shall come " (Ezech. xlvii. 1, 9). 
 Zacharias, the prophet, says : " In that day there shall be 
 a fountain open to the house of David and to the inhabit- 
 ants of Jerusalem for the washing of the sinner" (Zach. 
 xiii. 1). 
 
 The old law was filled with figures, not only of Christ, but 
 of all who would believe in him, and of the sacraments he 
 instituted for our salvation. That vast assemblage of fig- 
 urative signs, symbols, and types contains many shadows 
 of baptism. When the new-made world rose from the 
 bosom of the waters of creation, "the Spirit of God moved 
 over the waters" (Gen. i. 2), to figure the wonders he 
 would afterwards work by the waters of baptism. This is 
 beautifully expressed in the ceremonies of the blessing of 
 
BAPTISM. 55 
 
 the baptismal font on Holy Saturday. When the whole 
 world fell into sin, God baptized the earth by the waters 
 of the flood. "In the days of Noe," says St. Peter, "when 
 the ark was building, * * * * whereunto baptism being of 
 like form, now saveth you also" (I. Peter, iii. 20, 21). The 
 different ceremonies of washing and of purification among 
 the Jews figured our baptism. "For if the blood of goats 
 and of oxen, and the ashes of an heifer being sprinkled 
 sanctify such as are defiled, * * * * how much more shall 
 the blood of Christ " (Heb. ix. 13, 14). The rite of circum- 
 cision, ordained by God against original sin, figured our 
 baptism against the same sin. The passage of the Israelites 
 through the Red Sea, and their passage again through the 
 waters of the Jordan, were types of the Christian passing 
 through the waters of baptism. The healing of Naaman in 
 the waters of the Jordan ; the brazen sea standing before the 
 temple in which the priests washed ; the waters flowing 
 from the rock struck by Moses ; the sea of crystal under 
 the feet of Jesus, as revealed to St. John in the Apocalypse ; 
 the pool, the waters of which were moved by the angel ; 
 the pool, where Jesus told the blind man to bathe ; the puri- 
 fication of the leper, all these figured the Christian baptism. 
 All nations since the flood appear to believe that sin is 
 wiped out by washing the body. We will not speak of the 
 legal purifications carried out by command of God, as seen 
 in the Bible, in the books of Numbers and Liviticus. The 
 Scribes and the Pharisees initiated their members into their 
 higher grades by a kind of baptism. A sect of the Jews 
 were called " man-baptizers " because of their washings. 
 The Jews performed a kind of purifying or washing at the 
 beginning of the year, and to-day in a kind of a way they 
 baptize their converts. The ancients said certain prayers 
 before entering their temples, before consulting their oracles, 
 or before performing some of their religious ceremonies, 
 and these they were accustomed to carry out, either by 
 sprinkling or washing with water. The same may be said 
 regarding the religions of India and the grand incarnation 
 of Yichnou, whom the legend says was baptized after his 
 fabled birth. The Euphrates, the Indus, the Ganges, and 
 the rivers of India are held sacred, and countless numbers 
 come to bathe in their waters. The Mohammedans practice 
 three kinds of washings, which they claim was revealed to 
 
56 BAPTISM. 
 
 their founder, Mohammed, by Gabriel the Archangel, when he 
 gave him the Koran. The Greeks believed that v^ashing the 
 body purified the soul, and near Athens flov^ed a little river, 
 the Illessus, dedicated to the Muses, the v^ater of which was 
 used in their religious purifications. Homer makes his 
 great heroes wash their hands before their religious exer- 
 cises. The priests of Thrace were called baptes, because 
 they washed their hands before their ceremonies. These 
 religious rites of the Greeks were adopted by the Romans, 
 but they also had their religious washings to wipe out their 
 sins before their sacrifices. Virgil's characters had great 
 faith in their ceremonies of washing with water. The same 
 can be said of the Etruscans, and of all the nations of Asia, 
 Africa, and of southern Europe. 
 
 Before the preaching of the Gospel, the pagans of Eng- 
 land, of Norway, of Denmark, and of Russia, dedicated 
 their children by religious washing, when they gave them 
 their name. The Phoenicians did the same. The Persian^ 
 followed like customs. The inhabitants of China, of Thibet, 
 and of Japan have their religious washings. The priests of 
 Isis washed themselves in cold water three times each day, 
 and the same each night. The ancient Aztecs of Mexico 
 practiced these rites. The lost nations of Yucatan, of Peru, 
 of Patagonia, and of the islands of the Pacific ocean had 
 their religious ablutions. Thus all nations, tribes, and 
 peoples practiced these religious rites, showing that the fall 
 of man had come down by tradition, and that they were to be 
 washed from that original sin by the washing of the body. 
 The Freemasons, that Anti-Christ of modern times, practice 
 a peculiar kind of baptism. The Mormons, those Moham- 
 medans of America, have their baptismal rites. The 
 Carbonarii, those revolutionists who would destroy all 
 governments and religions, have their forms of baptism. 
 
 We see the wisdom of Christ in choosing the washing of 
 the body as the means of cleansing the soul from sin, and of 
 raising to the dignity of a sacrament those religious cere- 
 monies spread already throughout all nations. The spiritual 
 birth of man is beautifully represented by water, which in 
 natural things is the principle of life, fecundity, and of 
 growth. Water washes, and that washing of the body aptly 
 figures the washing of the soul. Water temperates the 
 heat of the body, and baptism tempers the bad passions in 
 
BAPTISM. 57 
 
 US. Water is transparent to the light, and it aptly signifies 
 the light of faith in the soul. We are justified by the death 
 of Christ, and ''the Christian says St. Chrysostom, when 
 baptism is buried with Christ in the tomb." Baptism is 
 necessary for salvation, and it is given with water, which 
 of all things is the most widely spread and easiest found of 
 anything on the face of the earth. 
 
 Are we surprised that Christ chose water ? The two 
 gases, hydrogen and nitrogen, are the foundations of the 
 universe. The spectroscope tells us that streams of hydro- 
 gen shoot forth from the surface of the sun, and that the 
 orb of day is surrounded by an ocean of that wonderful 
 gas in the highest state of heat. As far as we are able to 
 penetrate the depths of space, we find hydrogen in the 
 stars and suns which people the immensity of God's crea- 
 tion. On the other hand, the larger part of the solid earth 
 on which we live, the mass of the stars and planets are 
 composed of nitrogen, as well as hydrogen. These two 
 gases, which compose water, are the most widespread of 
 all other materials, and appear to be the foundations of all 
 material things. Do you see here the wisdom of God in 
 choosing water composed of them as the material of the 
 sacrament of baptism, which is the foundation of the Chris- 
 tian religion ? Religion and science perfectly agree. It i& 
 only the small minds, who cannot grasp the wonders of God,, 
 who say that science and religion contradict each other. 
 St. Augustin, with the other great fathers of the Church, 
 considers water as the fundamental element of all living 
 things, as its two composing gases are the foundations 
 of all non living or material things. Tertullian praises 
 water, when, in eloquent words, he speaks of it as the ele- 
 ment from which God, on the morning of creation, brought 
 forth this world we inhabit ; when the Holy Spirit moved 
 over it, and gave it that mysterious power by which plants 
 and animals generate their kind. 
 
 There are, then, the deep reasons why our God prepared 
 slowly and carefully before the coming of his Son, for the 
 great graces of our religion. From the ablutions of the 
 Jews, he, by secret inspiration, led John the Baptist to the 
 banks of the Jordan, and there, on the very spot where the 
 Israelites had centuries before crossed the river by a mira- 
 cle, where they raised the monument of the twelve stones 
 
58 BAPTISM. 
 
 in memory of their passage ; where the cloak of Elias di- 
 vided the water, there St. John the Baptist baptized Our 
 Lord. The Lord did this to show us an example, for John's 
 baptism was not a sacrament. They only came to him, 
 confessed their sins, went down into the waters, and the 
 holy Forerunner poured the waters on their heads. The 
 holy baptizer was inspired by God, for ''The word of the 
 Lord was made unto John, the son of Zachary, in the desert. 
 And he came into all the country about the Jordan, preach- 
 ing the baptism of penance, for the remission of sins" 
 (Luke iii. 2, 3). 
 
 Our Lord was baptized by St. John, his cousin, that he 
 might sanctify this sacrament ; that by touching his sacred 
 body, the waters of the earth might receive power unto the 
 salvation of souls in baptism. He came that he might 
 show himself to John's disciples, by the words of the Father 
 in heaven, and by the descent of the Holy Spirit in the 
 form of a dove. He was baptized that, by his example, 
 men might be led to receive this sacrament. He received 
 this baptism of penance that men might be led to do pen- 
 ance for their sins. Thus the baptism of John did not give 
 grace, for ''grace and truth came by Jesus Christ" (John 
 i. 17), and John's baptism was only a preparation for Christ, 
 and therefore all those who received this holy rite from 
 John were to be baptized over again, when Christ had in- 
 stituted the Christian baptism. 
 
 The descent of the Holy Spirit on Christ was a figure of 
 the Christian confirmation. Besides, at the descent of the 
 same Holy Ghost on the Apostles, on Pentecost Sunday, 
 they were confirmed. 
 
 Christ was not a sinner, but he came in the likeness of 
 sin, with a body and soul born of a fallen and corrupt race. 
 Therefore it was well for him to be baptized, that the na- 
 ture of Adam in him might be immersed in the waters ; 
 that he might give us an example, and that he might fulfill 
 all justice. It was not meet for him to be baptized with 
 his own baptism in the Holy Ghost, as we are now baptized, 
 for he was, from his conception, filled with the Holy Spirit. 
 But he was baptized by John, that he might sanction and 
 approve the latter s baptism. 
 
 He was baptized in his thirtieth year, which is the age 
 of perfect bodily growth, for baptism brings forth perfect 
 
BAPTISM. 61 
 
 men, as we read that Joseph was thirty years old when he 
 ruled the kingdom of Egypt ; that David was the same age 
 when he began to reign, and Ezechial was thirty years old 
 when he began to prophesy. Thus Christ, at that age, be- 
 gan his public life. This took place in the Jordan, through 
 which the Israelites passed to the promised land, because 
 their passage was a figure of the Christian baptism, by 
 which we pass to heaven, figured by the promised land of 
 the Israelites. 
 
 The moment he was baptized, the heavens opened, for by 
 this sacrament heaven is opened to us, and because by the 
 faith we receive in baptism we look forward to that heaven 
 toward which we are traveling. At this moment, says an 
 ancient father, a heavenly light shone out from the sacred 
 person of Christ, so that all eyes were turned on him, and 
 John's disciples knew that he was the expected Messiah. 
 
 All who are baptized receive the Holy Spirit. For that 
 reason the same Holy Ghost came down in the visible form 
 of a dove on Christ at his baptism, for Christ now baptizes 
 all Christians " in water and in the Holy Ghost." The dove 
 which descended on Christ was only a material form, which 
 the old scholastic writers say signified the seven gifts of the 
 Spirit of God. At the time of the Flood, the same Holy 
 Ghost appeared to Noe in the figure of a dove, and as at the 
 time of Moses the same Third Person of the Trinity ap- 
 peared to him in a fiery bush. He appeared in the form of 
 a dove over Christ, to signify the simplicity and goodness 
 of our Lord. He appeared afterwards on the Apostles, in 
 the form of tongues of fire, to signify the ardor of their 
 hearts, their love of God, and the fire of their eloquence, 
 which was to convert the world. As God cannot deceive, 
 this dove was not a deception, or an appearance only, but a 
 true dove, created for the moment for that purpose. 
 
 As the baptism of Christ was a figure of ours, at that mo- 
 ment the voice of the Father in heaven was heard, '^This 
 is my beloved Son," telling the disciples of John that Christ 
 was the expected Messiah, telling us that at our baptism 
 we become the sons of God by adoption. Here we have the 
 Father in the voice, the Son just baptized, and the Holy 
 Ghost in the form of a dove. Is it not a revelation of what 
 our Lord said to his disciples, to baptize " in the name of the 
 Pather, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost?" (Math. 
 
fJ2 BAPTISM. 
 
 xxviii. 19), the words pronounced when we administer this 
 sacrament. 
 
 Christ instituted this sacrament only after his death, and 
 all that went before were but so many figures and prepara- 
 tions for the sacrament. The sacraments obtain all their 
 effects and draw their graces from the sufferings and the 
 death of Christ, and therefore it was proper to institute this 
 sacrament only after his death. 
 
 The whole tradition of the Church proves that Christ in- 
 stituted this sacrament. On the spot where he was baptized, 
 a large wooden cross was erected in the days of the Apos- 
 tles. Afterwards, St. Helena there built a chapel. Near by 
 was a monastery of monks, who took charge of the count- 
 less numbers of pilgrims who came to bathe or be baptized 
 in the holy waters of the Jordan, in the very spot sanctified 
 by the Saviour's baptism. In the early days of the Chris- 
 tian Church, such was the veneration for the Jordan and 
 the desire to be baptized in it, that St. Ambrose, Bishop of 
 Milan, had to tell the people that baptism given by water at 
 home was as valid as that received in the waters of the 
 Jordan. 
 
 Every old church had its baptistery, as can be seen by the 
 remains of the old ecclesiastical buildings erected after the 
 days of the Apostles in Egypt, Palestine, and wherever the 
 faith had spread. They used at that time, after long prep- 
 arations, to baptize their converts on Holy Saturday, or on 
 the Saturday before Pentecost. The Greeks, the Copts, the 
 Romans, the Anglicans, the Episcopalians, the Baptists — in 
 fact, every sect which separated from us, and who still keep 
 the semblance of religion, all still practice the rite of bap- 
 tism, showing that it has come down from the days of the 
 Apostles. 
 
 The Fathers of the Church, those master minds who give 
 the religious practices of their times, all speak of baptism 
 in their works. The venerable rituals, where are the 
 ancient prayers and the practices used in the administra- 
 tion of the sacraments, all give as the first of these the 
 Christian baptism. The Liturgical works, both of the Greek 
 and of the Latin churches, speak of baptism. The histories 
 of nations converted to the faith speak of the baptism of 
 peoples, of statesmen, of members of royal families, of 
 princes, of kings, and of emperors. The ceremony of their 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 63 
 
 baptisms live in history, and are landmarks as we go back 
 to the time of Christ. We give here a picture of the baptism 
 of the Prince Imperial of Brazil, at Rio Janeiro, South 
 America. History is filled with incidents of this kind in all 
 ages, showing how sacred this sacrament has been held in 
 all ages. 
 
 BAPTISM OP THE PBINCE IMPERIAL OF BRAZIL. 
 
 The lives of the Saints, giving their deeds for the conver- 
 sion of souls, speak of how they baptized their converts. 
 The most ancient records of churches, wherein are preserved 
 the records of families, are filled with the documents of the 
 baptism of their children. The Catacombs near Rome are 
 covered with pictures and inscriptions relating to the bap- 
 tism of our Lord, and to the baptism of the people of the 
 first ages of the Church. The old manuscripts, treasured 
 up in ancient monastic institutions, or found in libraries and 
 religious houses, all speak of this sacrament. We could 
 cite proofs without end relating to this sacrament. But 
 as no people calling themselves Christians ever denied it or 
 its necessity, we will let many proofs pass. 
 
64 BAPTISM. 
 
 The words of our Lord are enough. Speaking to Nicode- 
 mus, he says, '' Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be 
 born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." Nicode- 
 mus could not understand him, and asked, ''How can a 
 man be born when he is old ? Can he enter a second time 
 into his mother's womb and be born again ? " Jesus an- 
 swered, ''Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be born 
 again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the 
 kingdom of God. That which is born of the flesh is flesh, 
 and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit " (John iii. 3, 
 4, 5, 6). How clear are these words of our Lord, saying how 
 necessary it is for all to be baptized of water and of the 
 Holy Ghost in order to enter into the kingdom of heaven ? 
 Again we read, " After these things Jesus and his disciples 
 came into the land of Judea, and there he abode with them 
 and baptized," showing that either with his own hands or 
 by his disciples he baptized his converts. St. John the Bap- 
 tist himself gives testimony of the Christian baptism in 
 these words, when speaking of Christ: "I indeed baptize 
 you in water unto penance^ but he that shall come after me 
 * * * * he shall baptize you in the Holy Ghost" (Math, 
 iii. 11). 
 
 The necessity of baptism unto salvation our Lord shows 
 by these words: "Going forth, therefore, teach ye all 
 nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost" (Math, xxxiii. 19). "He 
 that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, but he that 
 believeth not shall be condemned" (Math. xvi. 16). Even 
 the Jews expected Christ to baptize when he came. For 
 that reason, when John the Baptist told them he was not 
 the expected Christ, they said to him, " Why then dost thou 
 baptize, if thou be not Christ ?" (John i. 25). Thus we see 
 the necessity of baptism from the example and from the 
 words of Christ. But we find the same to have been the 
 doctrine and the practice of the Apostles. 
 
 In the first sermons delivered by their head and leader, 
 Peter, after the coming of the Holy Spirit, he said to the 
 Jews, "Do penance and be baptized, every one of you" 
 (Acts ii. 38). " They therefore that received his word were 
 baptized" (Acts ii. 41.) Philip the Apostle converted the 
 Samaritans, and " in the name of Jesus Christ they were 
 baptized, both men and women " (Acts viii. 12). St. Paul, 
 
BAPTISM. 65 
 
 when he came blind into Damascus, "rising up, he was 
 baptized " (Acts ix. 18). Writing to the Romans afterwards, 
 he says : ' ' Know you not that all we who are baptized in 
 Christ Jesus are baptized in his death. For we are buried 
 together with him by baptism into death '' (Rom. vi. 3, 4). 
 He speaks thirteen times in his Epistles of the sacrament 
 of baptism, which I will not stop now to mention. Thus 
 you see from this doctrine that Christ our Lord is the author 
 and the founder of the sacrament of baptism, and that 
 without it we cannot enter into the kingdom of God. 
 
 There are three kinds of baptism : the baptism of desire, 
 the baptism of blood, and the baptism of water. The bap- 
 tism of desire takes place where a person who never received 
 baptism loves God above all and desires the sacrament 
 most ardently, at the same time feeling a strong sorrow for 
 sin, and resolving to be baptized as soon as he can. This 
 condition of the soul comes from the Holy Spirit, and the 
 person thus disposed does all he can to fulfill God's com- 
 mands regarding baptism. As God receives the sinner at 
 every moment, so he receives him now ; and if this person 
 should die at this moment, he would go straight to heaven, 
 because he is animated by charity or the love of God above 
 all, which has from the origin of the race always saved 
 souls. The baptism of blood takes place when persons, not 
 yet baptized, are martyred for their faith, so that they give 
 their life for the love of God, rather than deny the Christian 
 religion. This is martyrdom, and the one thus suffering for 
 Christ goes to heaven. These kinds of baptism do not im- 
 press a character on the soul, nor are they properly called 
 baptism, but only by the goodness of God they supply the 
 effects of baptism. The baptism of water is the true bap- 
 tism, and of this only are we writing. 
 
 Many peculiar traditions come down to us relating to bap- 
 tism during the life of our Lord and of his Mother and the 
 Apostles. Some of the Fathers say that our Lord baptized 
 St. John the Baptist, his Mother, and St. Peter. The writers 
 of the Middle Ages sometimes say that Mary was baptized 
 either by Christ, by St. Peter, or by St. John the Baptist. 
 This was not to wash her from sin, for she had none, but 
 that she might obey the law of baptism, which allows no 
 exception. St. Evodius immediately succeeded St. Peter as 
 Bishop of Antioch, when the Prince of the Apostles left that 
 
66 BAPTISM. 
 
 city and fixed his See in Rome. This Saint says that Christ 
 only baptized St. Peter, the latter then baptized SS. James 
 and John, then these all the other Apostles. St. Augustin 
 appears to see a proof of that in the words of our Lord to 
 Peter, " He that is washed needeth not but to wash his feet, 
 but is clean wholly" (John xiii. 10). Tertullian says that 
 all the Apostles, except St. Paul, were baptized by St. John 
 the Baptist. Nicephorus states that all the seventy-two dis- 
 ciples of our Lord were baptized by St. Peter. The Scrip- 
 tures are silent on these subjects, and they are only con- 
 jectures. 
 
 The sin of Adam, transmitted by the father, affects all the 
 children of men. This sin, called original sin, consists in 
 being born without grace, in a state of injured or wounded 
 nature. The grace of God which would render the soul 
 perfect is not there, because Adam as our representative 
 sinned for us as well as for himself. It is not properly a 
 sin for us, but is as if a man had a million dollars, and should 
 he squander it, his children are born poor and have to suffer 
 in poverty ; while should he keep his fortune and transmit 
 it to his children, they will be born rich and comfortable. 
 Our father Adam lost for us the riches of God's grace, and 
 therefore we are born miserable. If you study human 
 nature, you will find it a mixture of grandeur and of base- 
 ness, of beauty and of deformity, of power and of weakness, 
 of joy and of suffering. No other creature is like man. All 
 other beings which come into this world are perfect in their 
 own way. Man is the only exception. Notwithstanding 
 the progress of mankind since his coming on this earth, we 
 are still weak. No other creature has to be covered. No 
 animal feels the continual confiict between passion and rea- 
 son. No animal is ashamed of its nakedness. And St» 
 Augustin, with all the Fathers, says that original sin in 
 man is the concupiscence of the flesh. 
 
 Against original sin baptism was instituted, to infuse into 
 the soul the grace which would have been there if it had 
 not been for Adam's sin. This sacrament wipes out all sins — 
 original, the sin of our first parents, actual sins, the sins we 
 commit ourselves, mortal, big sins, and venal or little sins. 
 This is the teaching of the Church, according to the words 
 of St. Paul, " For we are buried together with him by bap- 
 tism into death — that is, dead unto sin — that as Christ is 
 
BAPTISM. 67 
 
 risen from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also 
 may walk in newness of life " (Rom. vi. 4). That is, we rise 
 from baptism like new creatures, free from sin. Again, 
 this is shown by the words of the prophet foretelling the 
 effects of this sacrament : ''I will pour upon you clear 
 water, and you shall be cleansed from all your filthiness. 
 And I will give you a new heart, and put a new spirit within 
 you*' (Ezech. xxxvi. 25). Baptism takes away all pain and 
 sufferings due to sin. For in the Scriptures we are told 
 that by it we are born again, and therefore begin a new life, 
 like new-born children. This plainly means that all sin 
 and the punishment due to sin are taken away. This is 
 seen by the practice of the Church from its foundation by 
 Christ, for it never imposed any penance on its converts. 
 The sufferings due for sin were expiated by Christ on the 
 Cross, and these are applied to our souls by this sacrament. 
 He came to save the human race which was being lost. 
 He took upon himself all sufferings due to sin and opened for 
 them heaven. But he by this sacrament gives only the 
 sanctifying grace which is required in order to enter 
 heaven. Therefore baptism does not take away the suffer- 
 ings of this life. That state of happiness is put off till the 
 great day of the last resurrection, when '^ this mortal must 
 put on immortality " (I. Cor. xv. 54). The reason of this is 
 because by baptism we are united to Christ, and then 
 become the branches of him, for he is the vine. By this 
 sacrament we become the members of that mystic body of 
 which he is the head. From the beginning he was ^^ full of 
 grace and truth," like unto the first man before his fall, 
 innocent like to the child after its baptism. But he suf- 
 fered and tasted the sorrows of this life. He drained the 
 €up of human sufferings to hallow and to sanctify the 
 miseries of his followers. ^' The disciple is not greater than 
 the master," and therefore we are to suffer for a time in this 
 life, like unto our model Christ. Those who approach unto 
 him must pass through the shadows of Calvary. They 
 must taste of the chalice of Gethsemene. Again by con- 
 tinually resisting our corrupt nature we gain a greater 
 reward in heaven, and the more we fight the greater is our 
 merit. Therefore, leaving us in the miseries and the suffer- 
 ings of this life is to give us an occasion of gaining a higher 
 place in heaven. If this was not so, if baptism would take 
 
08 BAPTISM. 
 
 away the miseries and the trials of this life, men would be 
 allured to receive it. not with the hope of gaining heaven, 
 which is the very object of the sacrament, but they would 
 be baptized in order to escape the troubles of this life, and 
 therefore they would not be sincere in their conversion. 
 
 The effect, then, of baptism is the destruction of all sin, 
 both regarding its guilt and its pain, or the penalty of suf- 
 fering for it. It pours into the soul sanctifying grace, 
 which makes us pleasing to God and gives us the right to 
 enter heaven. It plants in the soul faith, which makes us see 
 and believe the truths of the Christian religion. It gives hope, 
 which makes us hope for eternal life and strive to obtain it. 
 It imprints in us charity, which makes us love God above 
 all for his own sake, and our neighbor for the sake of God. 
 Not only are these three divine virtues planted in the soul, 
 but all the virtues natural to a man are increased, 
 strengthened, and aided by the seven gifts of the Holy 
 Spirit. Not alone are these wonders produced, but the body 
 and soul of man become a temple, wherein the Holy Spirit 
 takes up his residence, and there remains till the first 
 mortal sin drives him away. 
 
 As it is utterly impossible to go to heaven without bap- 
 tism, you will understand why the Church has been so 
 careful from the beginning to baptize children. The words 
 of our Lord — "Unless a man be born of water and of the 
 Holy Ghost " — is given in such a way in the ancient lan- 
 guages, that it includes every member of the human race. 
 One-half of the human race die while young. Certainly, if 
 Christ did not want these children saved, he would have 
 lost half the race he came to redeem. 
 
 We read that the Apostles baptized whole families (Acts 
 xvi. 15, 33), among which were certainly children. This 
 was the custom among the Apostles and their successors, 
 as Origin says : "The Church received from the Apostolic 
 traditions the custom of baptizing children." As a child 
 may be made the heir of a property, in the same way 
 there is nothing to prevent it from becoming the heir of 
 heaven by baptism. In grown-up people, faith, sorrow for 
 sin, and intention of receiving this sacrament are required, 
 but in children no sorrow is wanted, for they never com- 
 mitted sin. They receive the habit of faith by this holy 
 rite, and their sponsors speak in their name. 
 
BAPTISM. 69 
 
 In the first ages they made many converts, and the 
 baptism of adults was very common. Towards the first 
 century, they baptized all children when they were six or 
 seven months old, for then they would have strength 
 enough to brave the danger of being immersed in the font. 
 From the eighth to the tenth century, they baptized them 
 when a year old. St. Augustin gives many reasons why 
 children should be baptized, because some at that time used 
 to put off their baptism for many years, and even till when 
 on their death-bed, so as to escape the pains of purgatory 
 due their sins committed after baptism. St. Augustin and 
 Origin claim that the doctrine of the baptism of children 
 comes from the Apostles, and SS. Ireneus, Clement of 
 Alexandria, Cyprian, and many of the fathers speak of the 
 duty of baptizing them. The inscriptions on the Catacombs 
 and in the Lateran museum, the old councils of the Church, 
 and all monuments of antiquity, show us that children were 
 baptized in all ages up to the times of the Apostles. 
 
 St. Thomas makes an ingenious comparison between the 
 natural and the supernatural life of man. The child rests 
 nine months within its mother, living on and being nour- 
 ished with her blood. There it is purely passive to all im- 
 pressions she makes on its life. In the same way the child 
 receives from our mother, the Church, the sacrament of 
 baptism, and God gives it the life of grace and faith, which 
 is implanted in its soul by the Holy Spirit. St. Clement of 
 Alexandria tells us that, in his time, children ^^ere bap- 
 tized in Egypt, and from his words we conclude that the 
 Apostles baptized children. The Constitutions of the Egyp- 
 tian Church, recently discovered in the Coptic language, 
 commands children to be baptized, thus showing the prac- 
 tice of the early Egyptians converted by the Apostles. The 
 ancient Apostolic Constitution of the Greek Church com- 
 mands the same. St. Cyprian taught the doctrine, as well 
 as the sixty-six bishops assembled under him at a council 
 held in ancient Carthage. "We baptize even children," 
 says St. Chrysostom, "so as to wipe out of them sin, and 
 grant them holiness, justice, adoption, and the brotherhood 
 of Jesus Christ. " In many places in his writings he com- 
 mands them to be baptized. We are told that Julian, the 
 Apostate, having been born of good Christian parents, was 
 baptized in his childhood, " according to the custom." That 
 
70 BAPTISM. 
 
 custom we find to have been spread through Spain soon 
 after the Apostles. In the year 385, Hemerus, bishop of 
 Tarragon, asked Pope Siricius about it, who replied that 
 *' children should be baptized when presented by their par- 
 ents." St. Augustin, in his work against the Pelageans, 
 says: ''The Universal Church practices the baptism of 
 children." We are certain that in the earlier times the 
 fathers of the Church proclaimed the necessity of baptism, 
 not even excepting children. 
 
 Luther taught the new doctrine that man's justification 
 depends not on the sacraments, but on the merits of Christ 
 applied by faith. Stork concluded that, as children could not 
 make an act of faith, they could not be baptized. Many of 
 Luther's followers held the same opinion, and their teach- 
 ings spread throughout the north of Europe. The Dutch 
 Baptists reject infant baptism. A sect of Baptists who pour 
 on the water are called Tunkers. Calvin, while admitting 
 the necessity of infant baptism, said it was not required 
 for children born of baptized parents, a doctrine con- 
 demned by the Council of Trent. Some of the reformers 
 rejected, but many preserved child baptism. The Book of 
 Common Prayer has some instructions relating to the pri- 
 vate baptism of children, and gives the forms and cere- 
 monies used. On the opposite page is seen the ceremony 
 of the baptism of the infant son of the Duke and Duchess 
 of Edinburgh, according to the rites laid down in the Book 
 of Common Prayer. The people of England preserved 
 these traditions from the teachings of the Catholic Church, 
 from the times when all England was Catholic, before the 
 Reformation. Many of the Protestant churches require a 
 profession of faith before baptism, and, therefore, do not 
 baptize their children. But they are so divided, and have 
 so many changing and fleeting opinions, that we will not 
 stop to give them. In the earliest ages of the Church, chil- 
 dren were obliged to fast before baptism, because they re- 
 ceived communion directly after. That custom is still 
 found among the Copts, the Maronites, the Jacobites, the 
 Nestorians, and in many countries of the East. 
 
 Any child in danger of death should be baptized. But 
 Pius VI., in 1775, directed the missionaries not to baptize 
 children offered by the parents, except in cases where it 
 was almost certain that these children would be brought 
 
BAPTISM, ACCORDING TO THE EPISCOPALIAN RITE.— 
 THE QUEEN OF ENGLAND AS GODMOTHER. 
 
BAPTISM. 73 
 
 up in the Christian religion. Julius II. and Benedict XIY. 
 decided that children of infidels should not be baptized 
 against the wishes of their parents. The Church requires 
 that all children, the fruit of mixed marriages, are baptized 
 and brought up in the Church. If the consent be not given, 
 no priest can assist at such a marriage. In the year 589 
 the Council of Toledo decided that a child baptized against 
 the wishes of its parents should be brought up a Christian. 
 The Council of Baltimore decreed that a child of non-Cath- 
 olics, when presented by its parents with Christian spon- 
 sors, could be baptized, when there is hope that it will 
 be brought up in the Catholic religion. 
 
 Plato supposed the soul entered the body at the moment 
 of birth. Aristotle taught that it was created the 40th day 
 after conception in the case of males, and the 90th day after 
 in the case of females. This opinion was followed by the 
 scholastic writers. St. Basil held the soul was created at 
 the moment of conception, and the researches of modern 
 science confirms his idea. Children should be baptized, 
 when possible, whenever they are in danger of death after 
 the moment of conception, for conception is the true birth, 
 not their coming forth into the world. The Cesserean opera- 
 tion may be performed by a skillful physician, and more 
 than half the mothers will live. The practice is to baptize 
 all beings born of woman. 
 
 As baptism, either of desire, of martyrdom, or of water, 
 is absolutely necessary for salvation, you will naturally 
 ask what becomes of children who die without baptism. 
 They are born in original sin — that is, the grace of God is 
 not in their souls, and the faith of their parents will not 
 save them. The Bible and the Church are completely silent 
 on this subject, and we may say all is surrounded with 
 mystery. Writers appear to divide into four opinions. 
 Caron, a French writer, claimed that by the aid of the 
 Holy Spirit these children were baptized by the love of God, 
 but as children, without reason, cannot make these acts of 
 love, his doctrine was condemned by the Church, and he 
 burned his books himself. This is the most favorable 
 opinion. Perrone considers children in this state like the 
 nations of the earth before the Gospel is preached to them. 
 St. Augustin varies his opinions. In one place he says 
 that they are neither rewarded nor punished ; and in 
 
74 BAPTISM. 
 
 another place in his works, he retracts this. St. Anselm, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, with SS. Augustin and some 
 others, including some councils, say they go to hell, but 
 hell here means being deprived of God, outside the heaven 
 ctf glory, a state to which all are doomed who are not re- 
 generated by this sacrament. Many of the fathers, with 
 the most of the modern writers, say that these children do 
 not see God face to face, like the saints and angels in 
 heaven, but that they go to a place called the children's Lim- 
 bo, where they see God through nature, or see him in his 
 works, and are blessed with a natural happiness. St. 
 Thomas says, that the punishment spoken of by the fathers 
 of the Church is to be considered only in a wide sense. 
 These little souls, therefore, are extremely happy, like ani- 
 mals in their state of life. They have no regrets for having 
 lost heaven, for they know nothing of the bliss of that 
 happy state where we see God. This also appears to be the 
 belief of the Greeks. The Christians of Abyssinia are di- 
 vided on the question. Some say those children are con- 
 demned, others that they are saved, others that they are 
 saved by the Archangel Michael. The Armenians claim 
 that only the children of the faithful are saved. The 
 Church will not allow a child dying without baptism to be 
 buried in consecrated ground. 
 
 The material element of this sacrament is either remote, 
 which is water, or proximate, which is the washing of the 
 body with water. That the remote element of baptism is 
 water, there is no doubt. That is the material which Christ 
 chose. '' Unless a man be born of water." etc. (John iii. 5), 
 said our Lord to ISTicodemus. When Philip, the Apostle, was 
 instructing the eunuch, "and as they went on their way, they 
 came to a certain water, and the eunuch said : See, here is 
 water, what doth hinder me from being baptized?'' (Acts viii. 
 36). The continued practice of the Christian religion, the 
 writings of the fathers, the universal tradition of the Church, 
 all proclaim that water is the material element of this 
 sacrament. St. Augustin says: "What is the baptism of 
 Christ ? The laver of water with the word. Take away 
 the water, and there is no baptism : take away the word, 
 and there is no baptism." This is to be found in all rituals 
 and religious books of the Eastern and Western Churches. 
 The same can be seen in the old councils of the Church, as 
 
BAPTISM. 75 
 
 well as in the decrees of the Council of Trent. As no writer 
 of any weight ever denied it, we will not stop to prove a 
 truth which is admitted by the whole Christian world. 
 
 The water to be used is natural water, from a spring, a 
 well, a river, a cistern, a brook, or from the sea. It makes 
 no difference whether it be warm or cold, yet sometimes 
 very cold water might hurt an extremely weak child. In 
 France, in 1831, the minister of religious affairs addressed a 
 letter relating to this matter to the French Episcopacy. 
 The ritual and many synods allow warm water to be used 
 in these cases. All through the East, where they baptize 
 by immersion, they warm the water. In Russia they place 
 the water in a warm place till it is warmed. The priest 
 of the Maronites takes warm water in his right and cold 
 water in his left hand, and mixes them. In 1770, the Holy 
 See allowed the missionaries of Africa to mix the water 
 with perfumes, so the parents would think it was a med- 
 icine, and thus they baptized the children. 
 
 Any natural water is sufficient that the sacrament may 
 be valid, but according to the laws of the Church we must 
 first bless this water, ^^ because the creatures of God are 
 turned into an abomination, and a temptation to the souls 
 of men" (Wisdom xiv. 11). These prayers of the Church 
 are to deliver that water from the power of the demon, 
 who, in the garden, by conquering the king of the world, 
 Adam, captured his kingdom, this world. In the prayers 
 of the Church, says Cardinal Wiseman, we are struck with 
 their grandeur. With what wonder the Church penetrates 
 the nature of things, and draws from them lessons unto our 
 edification. There are three kinds of water blessed by the 
 Church. The ordinary holy water used at the door of the 
 Church, the Gregorian water blessed by the bishop at the 
 consecration of a Church, and the baptismal water blessed 
 on Holy Saturday. The rite of blessed water comes from 
 the Old Testament, for in many parts of Numbers (xix) and 
 many parts of Kings (TV. ii. iii.) we see they used holy water. 
 
 The words of the blessing of the baptismal font come, 
 according to the Apostolic Constitution, from the Apostle 
 Mathias, elected in place of Judas. Others say Alexander 
 I. is their author ; others attribute them to some writer of 
 the early ages. The most ancient fathers mention the oils 
 used in blessing the water of baptism, stating that it comes 
 
76 BAPTISM. 
 
 from Apostolic traditions. In the first ages, during the per- 
 secutions, the blessing of the water was a very simple rite, 
 consisting of only the sign of the cross ; but towards the 
 sixth and seventh centuries, it became longer, such as we 
 have it now. The different sects of Christians in the East 
 bless the holy water used in baptizing their members. The 
 Greeks, the Armenians, and the Russians do the same. 
 
 Baptism in order to be valid must be given so as to wash 
 the body, and that washing can take place either by immer- 
 sion, by pouring, or by sprinkling. Any of these three ways 
 will do. The Bible gives us hints of the way baptism was 
 administered in the days of the Apostles. From the writ- 
 ings of the earliest of the Greek fathers and from the 
 customs of the East at the present day, we conclude that 
 they practiced the complete immersion of the body, either 
 in the lakes and rivers, or in their baptisteries when built. 
 Among the people who followed the Latin Rite, complete 
 immersion was extremely rare, and they baptized by pour- 
 ing water on the head. We may resume in a few words 
 the voice of all monuments, writings, baptismal fonts, and 
 traditions of antiquity. In the first ages, total immersion 
 of the body in rivers, and lakes, and probably also in 
 baptismal fonts, was practiced, with at the same time 
 partial immersion of the body, with pouring water on the 
 head. This rite is practiced even to our day among the 
 Christians of the East. In the West, that is to say in 
 Europe, from the fourth to the eighth centuries, they 
 practiced partial immersion of the body, and at the same 
 time they poured the waters on the head. During the ninth 
 century, infants were virtually immersed in the baptismal 
 fonts, and at that time they had different ways of baptizing 
 adults. From the eleventh to the thirteenth century 
 they immersed all completely in the water. In the two 
 following centuries, sometimes they baptized by immersion, 
 sometimes by pouring water on the head. In the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries, they rarely baptized by immersion, 
 generally pouring on the water, and from that time till 
 our day, they baptized by pouring only. During the 
 nineteenth century, many members of Protestant Churches 
 in America and in England, baptized by immersion. This 
 matter relates only to discipline, which may change from 
 age to age, and there was never any doubt about the 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 77 
 
 validity of the sacrament, whether administered by immer- 
 sion, by pouring on the water, or by sprinkling, for if the 
 body is really washed, the soul is washed from sin. 
 
 BAPTISM BY IMMERSION IN AMERICA. 
 
 There are many reasons given why baptism by immersion 
 is abandoned almost entirely in our times. In the days of 
 the Apostles, many adults were converted and baptized, 
 but from that time deaconesses baptized, or held the ladies 
 while being baptized by the clergy. The office of deaconess 
 disappeared from the fifth to the eighth century, and a 
 sense of delicacy prevented the clergy from baptizing ladies 
 by immersion, as the baptized were immersed when entirely 
 nude. The danger of the cold water hurting children or 
 delicate ladies, also had its influence, especially in cold 
 weather and in northern countries. The danger of disease 
 being communicated and contracted from the water in 
 which many have been baptized, also had its effects. 
 
 The custom of baptizing by pouring water on the head, 
 comes down from the times of the Apostles, as we see it 
 
78 BAPTISM. 
 
 was always used in the Church. The Bible is silent on the 
 way the Apostles administered this sacrament, consequently 
 we can only draw conjecture from the writers of the early 
 ages, from ancient inscriptions, frescoes, pictures in 
 churches, records, medals, and monuments of this kind. 
 This shows that baptism by pouring on water was practiced 
 in all ages. In the early times the quantity of water poured 
 was more than at present. 
 
 The custom of baptizing by sprinkling water on the 
 person, appears to have been allowed in cases of necessity, 
 and that was the way the Apostles baptized some of their 
 converts, either in prison, or when they could not get 
 sufficient water. When persons were confined to their bed 
 by sickness, they were baptized by sprinkling, and it was 
 called "clinical baptism," from the Greek word meaning a 
 bed. Many writers suppose that this was the way St. Peter 
 once baptized 3,000, and 5,000 at another time. St. Firmin, 
 bishop of Amiens, converted and baptized 3,000 persons. 
 St. Saturnin, in seven days, baptized at Pampelune, 40,000 
 catechumens. In one day we read that St. Taurin baptized 
 2,000 ; St. Chrysostom, 3,000 ; St. Augustin of Canterbury, 
 10,000 ; St. Faustin, 12,000 ; St. Martial, bishop of Limoges, 
 22,000 ; and St. Gregory, 15,000, on the banks of the 
 Euphrates. We must conclude that no one could baptize 
 such large numbers of people in one day, except by sprink- 
 ling water on them. Cardinal Ximes, archbishop of 
 Toledo, Spain, baptized by sprinkling, 4,000 Moors. In the 
 same way St. Francis Xavier baptized the Japanese. In our 
 times, the Presbyterians, Methodists, and other sects bap- 
 tize by sprinkling. But we doubt very much the validity 
 of such baptisms, as they do not always wet the skin, but 
 sprinkle the hair or clothes. 
 
 The material parts of the sacraments were called by the 
 ancient fathers the things, the signs, or the elements ; 
 but since the time of the scholastic writers, especially since 
 William of Auxerre, they were called the matters, a term 
 taken from Aristotle's philosophy. In the same way, the 
 words pronounced by one conferring the sacraments were 
 called by the fathers the words, the prayers, or the invoca- 
 tions, and by the scholastics they were known as the forms 
 of the sacraments. 
 
 The words or the form of baptism were given by our 
 
BAPTISM. 79 
 
 Lord, when he told his Apostles to baptize " in the name of 
 the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost (Math, 
 xxviii. 19). The words then used are : "I baptize thee in 
 the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holv 
 Ghost." These words must be pronounced at the moment 
 the water touches the person. The Arians used to pro- 
 nounce the words only after the person was washed. In 
 the different Rites the words are in the language of the rite. 
 Thus, we of the Latin Rite say the words in Latin, the 
 Greeks in Greek, the Russians in Sclavonic, the Armenians 
 in the Armenian tongue. In England and America, the 
 separated brethren use English. 
 
 Not one of the fathers of the Rve first centuries gives the 
 words of baptism, because they concealed the mysteries of 
 religion from the profanations of the pagans during these 
 times of persecution. The Greeks use the words : " This 
 servant of God," pronouncing his name, " is baptized in the 
 name of the Father," etc. In the Latin form of baptism, 
 the word '^ thee " is used, and in solemn baptism the clergy- 
 man pronounces the name of the one baptized, John, 
 Mary, or whatever it may be. The catechumens used to be 
 baptized by saying, " I baptize thee, believing in the name," 
 etc. The Maronites of Syria say, ''I baptize thee, N., a 
 lamb of the flock of Jesus Christ, in the name," etc. The 
 Armenians have various ways of changing these words. 
 In nearly all the Rituals of the East we find the word 
 • ■ amen " after the words of baptism, which the people pro- 
 nounce, but it is not in the words we use. Many different 
 words are added to the true form by the Socinians, the Cal- 
 vinists, the Mormons, and others ; but as they use the 
 words : "I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," their baptism is valid, 
 when they have the intention of baptizing or doing what 
 the Church does. 
 
 When there is a reasonable doubt that, either through a 
 defect of matter, of words, or of the intention of the bap- 
 tizer, the baptism is not valid, we conditionally baptize 
 again. The most ancient account we find of conditional 
 baptism is found in the Council of Cambreses (in the year 
 743), in the Statutes of S. Boniface (in 745), in the Capitules 
 of Charlemagne and of Louis the Good, and some other 
 monuments of that time. If we are sure that the whole 
 
80 BAPTISM. 
 
 ceremony has been performed, so that nothing substantial 
 is omitted, we never baptize conditionally. Thus, we do 
 not rebaptize any one coming to us from the Greeks, for 
 they are as particular as we are in these matters. Some 
 Councils and Synods recommend to express the condition, 
 '^ If you are not baptized," in the language of the people, so 
 as not to scandalize those present by making them suppose 
 we baptize without any condition. 
 
 The one who ministers the sacraments to the people is 
 called the minister of the sacraments. According to the 
 constant teachings of the Church, the writings of the 
 fathers, and the traditions of all ages, it is Jesus Christ him- 
 self who administers the sacraments, and the persons who 
 in this world give them are but the ministers or the repre- 
 sentatives of our Lord. Therefore the Popes, the bishops, 
 the priests, and the laity who baptize, only do so as holding 
 the place and acting in the name of Jesus Christ. 
 
 There are three kinds of ministers of this sacrament — the 
 bishop and the parties having charge of souls, the minister 
 who confers the sacraments when delegated by those 
 having the cure of souls, and the lay man or woman who in 
 case of necessity baptizes privately. Among the latter are 
 to be included not only the Catholic laity, but also people 
 who do not belong to the Christian religion, members and 
 ministers of other religious denominations, even Jews and 
 infidels, when they have the intention of giving the Chris- 
 tian baptism. 
 
 All the fathers agree in saying that the ordinary minister 
 of baptism is the bishop, the successor of the Apostles, and 
 the priest, the successor of the seventy-two disciples of our 
 Lord. As baptism was administered in the Apostolic times 
 generally on Holy Saturday and on the eve of Pentecost, 
 with great ceremony, at which the bishop presided, we are 
 not surprised that S. Ignatius, the third bishop of Antioch 
 after S. Peter, says that '^it is reserved to the bishops to 
 baptize." At that time there was a bishop in nearly every 
 little city. Towards the seventh century the bishops, taken 
 up with other matters, delegated their priests to baptize. 
 Among the Greeks the bishop baptizes members of royal 
 families and persons of great importance ; and among the 
 Anglicans some believe that baptism given by any one but 
 
BAPTISM. 81 
 
 a bishop is null and void. Besides, they believe that only 
 the clergy can validly baptize. 
 
 The priest at his ordination receives the power from God 
 to administer the sacraments, so thai they will be valid. 
 But he cannot use this power, except he is delegated by the 
 bishop, who can reserve this to himself. We will see after- 
 wards that without this delegation of the bishop the sacra- 
 ment of penance only is totally invalid. The bishops are 
 the Church ; to them Christ left the authority of preaching, 
 as S. Paul says : " For Christ sent me not to baptize, but to 
 preach the Gospel " (I. Cor. i. 17). The man who baptizes 
 does not produce grace in the soul, but Christ does it through 
 him, while the one who preaches really by his words acts on 
 the minds of his hearers. TertuUian says : '^Priests cannot 
 baptize without the authority of the bishop." Again, the 
 same writer says : '* The power of baptizing belongs to the 
 supreme priest, who is the bishop, then to the priests and 
 deacons, but not without the consent of the bishop." The 
 same doctrine can be seen in the writings of Pope Siricius, 
 in the words of S. Ignatius, in the decrees of the Council of 
 Seville, and in all monuments of ancient times. Yet the 
 baptism is always valid as long as all things necessary are 
 used. Here we are only speaking of the legality of the act, 
 as the one baptizing would sin by doing it without permis- 
 sion of the superiors of the Church. 
 
 When the countries were converted, and a great many 
 children were to be baptized, it became impossible for the 
 bishops to baptize these great crowds with their own hands, 
 and they delegated this power to the priests. This may 
 be concluded from the words of Theodulphus, bishop of 
 Orleans, in the ninth century. Parishes were then erected, 
 their limits defined, and from that time till our day the 
 baptism of all persons belongs to the parish priest within 
 whose parish they live. The monks of the Middle Ages, 
 who preached the Gospel and converted the people of Eu- 
 rope to the Church, baptized their own converts. But 
 when the parishes were established, they ceded these rights 
 to the pastors of the churches. 
 
 The deacon is also the minister of this sacrament, as the 
 rite of ordination says he has received that power. But he 
 can exercise it only with the permission of his bishop. The 
 Acts of the Apostles tells us that Philip, a deacon, baptized 
 
82 BAPTISM. 
 
 not only Simon, the magician, the eunuch of the queen of 
 Ethiopia, but also a great number of persons at Samaria. 
 At that time the Apostles were so taken up with preaching 
 the Gospel, that they could not find time to baptize. In 
 after ages, when those special buildings were erected called 
 baptisteries, the bishops, especially on Holy Saturday and 
 the Saturday before Pentecost, aided by the priests and 
 deacons, administered this sacred rite in a most solemn 
 manner. We do not find that the privilege of solemnly 
 baptizing was ever granted to the clergy below the deacons. 
 
 As baptism is absolutely required for salvation, we find 
 that in exceptional cases, when it cannot be conferred by a 
 clergyman, it is given by laymen, and even by ladies. In 
 the first ages of the Church, the converts, filled with zeal 
 and fervor, all preached and baptized. Many historical 
 events come down to us proving this assertion. This took 
 place when the Apostles had founded numerous churches, 
 before they could train and ordain the clergy to administer 
 the sacraments to the people. Soon afterwards, these diffi- 
 culties having passed away, the laity were forbidden to 
 baptize when the clergy were present. That may be seen 
 in many passages of the Apostolic Constitution. Soon after 
 this, many of the people used to suppose that baptism given 
 by any one but a clergyman was invalid, and some died 
 during the persecutions without having ever received this 
 sacrament, as no priest could be found to baptize them. 
 The people then were not well instructed till, towards the 
 middle of the ninth century, Pope Nicholas I. issued a 
 decree stating that baptism given by the laity Avas valid. 
 To-day, in missionary countries, the laity administer this 
 sacrament to the heathens, and to children in danger of 
 death. 
 
 Luther taught the new idea that every one baptized be- 
 came by that a priest. For that reason his followers recog- 
 nized the validity of all baptism given by the laity. Calvin 
 taught that in no case can a lay person baptize. The 
 Anglican Church, of which the Episcopal Church of this 
 country is the daughter, admits the validity of lay baptism, 
 and the Anglican Liturgy of the time of Queen Elizabeth 
 has a form for private baptism by the laity. Anglican 
 divines have hotly discussed the validity of lay baptism, 
 and King James, at Hampton Court, decreed that they 
 
BAPTISM. 83 
 
 were not allowed, and that the person in this case should 
 be rebaptized. Again, we read that, after the Reformation, 
 many Christians of Germany and of England believed that 
 the baptism administered by lay persons was better than 
 that given by the clergy. 
 
 Regarding baptism administered by ladies, the fourth 
 Council of Carthage directed that they should not baptize, 
 and all writers on this subject say that this regulation 
 regarded only cases where it was not necessary. Still, 
 when done, the baptism was always valid. We find the 
 same in many of the writings of the early saints. S. 
 Thomas says, that it meant that no woman should baptize 
 when a man was present. The reason was that the minis- 
 ter of the sacraments is Jesus Christ himself, who is per- 
 sonified better and more perfectly by a man than by a 
 woman. Among the Greeks the discipline does not entirely 
 exclude women from administering this sacrament, but 
 that happens rarely among the Eastern Christians. The 
 Lutherans sustained against the Calvinists the validity of 
 baptism administered by a woman. 
 
 It has been a custom for many ages for midwives to bap- 
 tize children in danger of death at their birth, and some 
 provincial councils and Rituals require them to be rebap- 
 tized conditionally, lest any necessary thing may have been 
 omitted. In many parishes of Europe midwives, who at- 
 tend ladies at childbirth, are specially instructed by the 
 parish priest relating to these duties. It is forbidden for 
 parents to baptize their own children, because it is not 
 proper for them to be both the natural and the spiritual 
 parents of their offspring. As the one who baptizes be- 
 comes the spiritual parent of the child, and cannot marry 
 either the child or the child's parents, yet the parents who 
 baptize their own children, do not contract any affinity to- 
 wards each other so as to lose their matrimonial rights. 
 This was decided by Pope John YIII. History tells us that, 
 during the twelfth century, in Ireland, many parents bap- 
 tized their own children. In many parts of the East, among 
 the different Rites, the parents are forbidden to baptize their 
 own children, or even the children of their relatives. These 
 matters, in both the Eastern and Western Churches, relate 
 only to the legalness of the act, and not in any way to the 
 validity of the sacrament. 
 
84 BAPTISM. 
 
 The Council of Trent has anathematized those who claim 
 that baptism is null and void when given by heretics and 
 infidels, when they have the intention of doing what the 
 Church does, and use everything necessary. The virtue of 
 the sacrament does not depend on the person who gives it, 
 but on Christ himself, as S. Jerome says: '^ Man gives the 
 water, but God gives the grace." During the first two cen- 
 turies they never rebaptized any one baptized outside the 
 Church. When they were converted, they were received 
 by a simple imposition of the hands, and the ceremonies 
 supplied. After the Arian heresy, they were anointed, and 
 in the times of Nestorianism, they made a simple profes- 
 sion of faith. Agrippinus, the bishop of Carthage, was the 
 first who claimed that those baptized by heretics outside 
 the Church should be rebaptized. That happened towards 
 the year 230. Tertullian, inclined to be rigorous, thought 
 the same. In 231 a council met at Icona, and rejected the 
 baptism of heretics. S. Cyprian sat on the episcopal throne 
 of Carthage in the year 248. Being a disciple of Tertullian, 
 he naturally followed his opinions. At that epoch, the dis- 
 cipline varied in Africa and Asia Minor. Eighteen bishops 
 of Numedia asked S. Cyprian if these converts should be 
 rebaptized, and he called a council of thirty-one bishops, 
 who decided against the validity of such baptisms. Many 
 murmured against this decision, and he called another 
 council, where assembled seventy-one bishops from the 
 various provinces of Numedia, of Mauritania, and of Africa. 
 They confirmed the preceding council. Soon after Pope 
 S. Stephen, before whom the decrees were laid, gave his 
 decision against all these bishops and councils, stating that, 
 according to the Apostolic traditions, no one should be re- 
 baptized. According to the ancient customs, two bishops 
 were appointed to carry the decrees of these councils to 
 Pope Stephen, who refused to receive them, and besides 
 threatened to excommunicate any one who would rebaptize. 
 In 383, the Council of Constantinople directed that the con- 
 verts from the Arians, the Macedonians, the ISTovatians, and 
 others, who used valid matter and form in baptizing, should 
 be received into the Church by being only anointed with 
 chrism ; while other heretics, who did not use a valid form, 
 should be rebaptized. 
 
 Pope Innocent III. decided that a person who baptized 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 85 
 
 himself, should be baptized again, because as no one can be 
 his own father, so no one can regenerate himself. The 
 second Council of Mechlin decreed that baptism given by 
 two ministers, one pronouncing the words, the other pour- 
 ing the water, was invalid, because one did not do what he 
 said, or wash, the meaning of the word baptize. The Con- 
 gregation of Rites decided that the priest who baptized 
 should carry out all the ceremonies himself. The same 
 congregation also directed that the Vicar General could 
 baptize independently of the pastor, provided his authority 
 was not restricted by the bishop. Egbert, archbishop of 
 York, in England, in his Penitential, threatens with sus- 
 pension any priest who will let a child die without baptism, 
 when traveling or away from his diocese. A decision 
 approved by Gregory XIII. commands pastors to adminis- 
 ter baptism and penance to persons suffering from conta- 
 gious diseases. 
 
 THE BAPTISM OF THE HEIR OF THE THRONE OF BELGIUM. 
 
 In the early ages the ministers were clothed in white when 
 administering this sacrament. Constantino, the emperor, 
 gave Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, a vestment of cloth of 
 gold, to wear when baptizing. A ceremonial of the Ambrosian 
 
86 BAPTISM. 
 
 Eite tells us that the archbishop of Milan, in the twelfth 
 century, used to put off his chasuble and stole, and vest in 
 sandals, cincture, and a large garment when baptizing. In 
 our days when the bishop baptizes, he is vested in rochet, 
 alb, cincture, violet stole, a violet cope, with a white mitre 
 on his head, as shown in the engraving of '^ The Baptism 
 of the Heir of the Throne of Belgium." After the anoint- 
 ments he takes the white stole, white cope, and the golden 
 mitre. Towards the thirteenth century the cope was 
 replaced by the surplice, and from the sixteenth century it 
 has been commanded by all synods, as well as by the 
 Council of Rouen, held in 1072. 
 
 The violet color of the vestments used in the beginning 
 of the ceremony, represents the sorrow of the Church in 
 seeing her child born in sin, or without grace. The white, 
 taken soon after, typifies the joy of the Church in regener- 
 ating the person baptized. In many places a stole is used, 
 one side white and the other violet, which is turned at the 
 proper time. The Ritual requires two stoles, when con- 
 venient, but the Congregation of Rites decided that one of 
 the two colors would do. The priest may put on his baretta 
 during the exorcism, and while asking the questions of 
 the sponsors, to show his authority over the demons, but 
 when he baptizes he uncovers, because he does not give the 
 sacraments, but Christ. Out of respect, he also uncovers 
 when he offers the prayers to God. 
 
 Among the Greeks, even when they baptize in private 
 houses, they wear their vestments, using as we do violet 
 stoles in asking the questions, and white ones when bap- 
 tizing. They also cover and uncover the head as we do. 
 The Armenian priests when baptizing use a long chasuble 
 and a Greek mitre. 
 
 The custom of making an offering to the priest at baptism 
 comes down from the Apostolic times. In these early days 
 the gifts of the people were divided into four parts, for the 
 bishop, for the clergy, for the Church, and for the poor. 
 The people are not obliged to give, because the sacraments 
 are not sold. But they are obliged to support their clergy, 
 and the offerings at baptism belong to the pastor. Many 
 councils in different ages have forbidden the clergy to de- 
 mand anything for baptizing, lest scandal might be given. 
 Many synods of Europe have made laws regarding the 
 
BAPTISM. 87 yfjf 
 
 amount to be paid, where extraordinary ceremony and 
 splendor were carried out at baptisms. 
 
 It is customary to make an offering to the minister who 
 baptizes among other denominations. The Episcopalians 
 baptize at all ages ; the Baptists only those who can make 
 a profession of faith, and therefore only adults. The Meth- 
 odists baptize both infants and adults. In the beginning, 
 when the Anglican Church rose in England, from which 
 sprung the Episcopal Church of this country, they believed 
 in the absolute necessity of baptism as we do, and that it 
 is the instrument of regeneration ; but they have so 
 changed that it is hard to keep track of them. Each ap- 
 pears to believe as he sees fit, without any guide but the 
 Bible, which can be twisted to suit any doctrine under the 
 sun. 
 
 To receive baptism with fruit, a grown person should 
 know the fundamental truths of Religion, have sorrow for 
 sin, and be disposed to live a good, Christian life. As all 
 sins are wiped out, no confession is required, and no abso- 
 lution can be given, because no other sacrament can be 
 received before baptism. The Church never forces any 
 one, and therefore they should be free in receiving baptism. 
 History tells us of governments and rulers forcing Jews and 
 Gentiles into the Church, but that is not tolerated ; on the 
 contrary, it is condemned by the Church. 
 
 The emperor of Rome tried to convert the Jews by perse- 
 cution. Justinian, the Roman emperor, confiscated the 
 properties of the Gentiles who would not become Christians. 
 Chilperic imprisoned those who would not be baptized. 
 The Jews of Italy complained to Pope Gregory the Great 
 because they were thus persecuted, and the Pope con- 
 demned the civil authorities for such acts, and praised the 
 bishops of Aries and of Marseilles for their advocacy of 
 religious freedom. Sisebut, the king of the Goths, was 
 condemned by a council held at Toledo in 633, for forcing 
 Jews to become Christians. Thus we could cite many 
 edicts of Popes, councils, and bishops against religious per- 
 secutions. The Church will not allow any one to be con- 
 verted, except with their own free will. When slavery 
 existed in Europe, bondsmen could not be baptized without 
 the consent of their masters. 
 
 When we are sure that a person has been validly bap- 
 
88 BAPTISM. 
 
 tized, no matter by whom, we never baptize him again ; 
 on the contrary, it would be a sin to do so. When we bap- 
 tize it is only when we are in doubt about the validity of 
 the sacrament. 
 
 In ancient times those who rebaptized were condemned 
 by the Church, and they are known in history by the names 
 of Rebaptizers, Deabaptists, and Anabaptists. S. Leo 
 considered it so great a sin to rebaptize that he called it a 
 sacrilege, which could not be forgiven. The fifth Council 
 of Carthage directed those who were redeemed from the 
 barbarians to be baptized, if it was certain they had not 
 been regenerated, but not otherwise. Pope Leo decreed 
 that conscientious examinations should be made to see if 
 children captured by pagans had been baptized in their 
 infancy. All this was to prevent any one being rebaptized. 
 
 The followers of Lucifer, the bishop of Cagliari, taught 
 that persons of other denominations should be baptized, but 
 his teachings were condemned. The Donatists, towards 
 the end of the fourth century, supposed that the validity of 
 baptism depended on the faith and morals of the person 
 who conferred the sacrament, and, therefore, they rebap- 
 tized the Catholics who embraced their false doctrines. 
 The same discipline was followed by the Arians and the 
 Eunomians of these early ages. During the persecutions of 
 the Vandals, the Arian bishops forced Catholics to be re- 
 baptized. Towards the end of the eleventh century, the 
 Bogomites rebaptized the Catholics who joined them. The 
 Wicklif s, the Hussites, the Vandites, and the Anabaptists 
 rebaptized their converts. The Presbyterians, in their gen- 
 eral session at Cincinnati in 1845, by a vote of 169 against 
 10, proclaimed the nullity of Catholic baptism ; but they are 
 divided regarding that point, at the present writing, some 
 claiming that we are a part of the Church of Christ, a 
 smaller part holding that we are idolaters. The Greeks 
 hold the same doctrine as we do, that persons once bap- 
 tized should never be baptized again when they are certain 
 of the validity of the sacrament. The same may be said of 
 many religious sects of Asia and of Africa. Yet the Geor- 
 gians rebaptize those who return to them after having 
 apostatized. The Levonians secretly rebaptize their chil- 
 dren, when they get sick. Some of the negroes of this 
 country baptize their members when they return to, their 
 
BAPTISM. 89 
 
 superstitious practices, brought from their forefathers of 
 Africa. 
 
 The Apostolic constitutions depose priests who would 
 rebaptize any one. The Council of Rome, held in 487, 
 under Pope Felix III., condemned to a life-long penance 
 any clergymen who would be willingly rebaptized by the 
 Arians, during the persecutions of the Vandals. In the 
 year 373 Vanentinian I., in 405 Honorius II., and later, 
 Theodosius II. passed laws against heretics who rebaptized 
 Catholics joining their sects. 
 
 No one but a living person can be baptized. In the early 
 ages, the Marcossians, the Montanists, and some other 
 heretics used to baptize corpses, and some Catholics of the 
 fourth century, by ignorance or simplicity, followed the 
 same practice, till they were condemned by the Church. 
 In the same way we read that some baptized animals, not 
 knowing that only the children of Adam were redeemed 
 by the blood of Christ. These customs were severely con- 
 demned by Popes and councils. 
 
 In former times when many converts were made, while 
 they were preparing for baptism, they were called Catechu- 
 mens, and many laws were made relating to the way they 
 were to be instructed and received into the Church. As, at 
 that time, the pagans used to mock the Catholic cere- 
 monies, the most of the mysteries of our religion were kept 
 secret. That explains the silence of many of the fathers 
 and writers of that time on certain religious subjects now 
 so well known. The customs relating to the catechumens 
 ceased towards the fourteenth century. 
 
 At the present time no adult is baptized without sufficient 
 instruction, and for that, three months or more are re- 
 quired by councils and Church ordinances. Formerly there 
 were houses where they could pass the time of preparation, 
 but now they generally pass that time in a retreat in some 
 convent or monastery. In Rome and many other places, 
 the converts are baptized on Holy Saturday, or the vigil of 
 Pentecost, and the ceremony is long. The ceremony for 
 the baptism of adults is longer than that for the christening 
 of infants. In Russia, and among the Greeks, when the 
 convert is a Jew or Mohammedan, he is received with great 
 ceremony at the door of the church some days before his 
 baptism. The catechumens among the Anglicans must fast 
 
90 BAPTISM. 
 
 and pray before their christening, according to the ancient 
 discipline of the English Church. 
 
 Holy Saturday, the eve of Easter, is the day of solemn 
 baptism, because, from the death of Christ, this sacrament 
 draws all its graces ; because it signifies the resurrection of 
 souls in Christ ; because the triple pouring on of water 
 typifies the three days our Lord lay dead in the grave ; and 
 because the Christian Easter tells of the deliverance of the 
 Israelites from the Egyptian bondage. It is given on Holy 
 Saturday, the ancient day of rest among the Jews, because 
 it will lead us all to the everlasting rest of the just in the 
 splendors of the skies. For these reasons. Popes Siricius, 
 Leo the Great, Gelasius, Gregory II., and many others 
 condemned certain abuses, according to which baptism was 
 administered at other times than from Easter to Pentecost. 
 During the third century in Africa, the time solemn bap- 
 tism was administered was at Easter, and during the fifty 
 days following. That was decreed in the fifth Council of 
 Constantinople, and many other councils prescribed the 
 same laws. In Syria, in ancient times, they were christened 
 on the Mondays following Easter and Pentecost. Tradi- 
 tions gathered from the earliest ages tell us that S. Peter 
 baptized great numbers of converts at Pentecost. Perhaps 
 that determined the epoch of the year, which was always 
 followed afterwards. From the earliest times, at Constan- 
 tinople, at Thessaly, and in Asia Minor, the converts were 
 baptized at Easter, the great feast of our Lord, and at 
 Pentecost, the great feast of the Holy Spirit. Towards the 
 eleventh century, among the Latins, as well as among the 
 Greeks, the custom of baptizing at Easter and Pentecost 
 began to cease, as we learn from the writings of Theophil- 
 actes, who wrote about the year 1100, because children 
 used often to die before Easter came around. The Council of 
 Rouen, in 1072, renewed the ancient discipline, and it was 
 also directed by many rituals of the Roman Rite. The cere- 
 monial of bishops directs that all children born the pre- 
 ceding week be baptized on the eves of Easter and of Pen- 
 tecost. The Copts of Egypt follow still these old customs. 
 Some of the Greeks baptize on Epiphany, the day of our 
 Lord's baptism, a custom tolerated by Rome. 
 
 During the first three centuries, the Greeks celebrated 
 their feast of Theophania, the birth of Christ, the adora- 
 
BAPTISM. 91 
 
 tion of the Magi, and the baptism of our Lord, all on the 
 same day (Epiphany) ; and it was not till the fourth cen- 
 tury that they began to baptize on Easter and Pentecost. 
 That can be seen in the writings of S. Gregory, of Mazianzen, 
 in the works of S. Chrysostom, and in the works of many 
 other writers. In Syria, in the beginning of the fifth cen- 
 tury, they baptized on Epiphany. To-day the Nestorians, 
 except in case of necessity, baptize only on these days. 
 The Armenians on Christmas and Epiphany baptize their 
 children born during the two preceding months. In ancient 
 Carthage they used to baptize on Epiphany. S. Augustine 
 baptized 10,000 persons on Christmas, when he came from 
 Rome to convert the British Isles. But that was in mission- 
 ary times, and many councils, held in England afterwards, 
 decreed that Easter and Christmas were the times for ad- 
 ministering this sacrament. In Germany, the Councils of 
 Mayence, of Worms, and of Tribur forbade baptism on 
 Epiphany. Clovis, the first Christian king of France, was 
 baptized on Christmas, in the Cathedral, Rheims. In Italy 
 and in Sicily they followed the Apostolic customs, and bap- 
 tized at Easter, or at Pentecost. Pope S. Leo accused 
 some Sicilian bishops of sordid motives in solemnly bap- 
 tizing outside the ordinary times. 
 
 When adults were baptized at any time besides at 
 Easter and at Pentecost, it was on Sunday in every age of 
 the Christian religion. That is the custom of the Armen- 
 ians, the Lutherans, the Calvinists, the Episcopalians of 
 England, and the Mennonites, because on that day Christ 
 rose from the dead ; because it signifies the rising of the 
 Christian from sin to a new life ; and because then the peo- 
 ple assemble in the Church. 
 
 In ancient times the people gathered in the churches to- 
 wards midnight before Easter, when the services recalled 
 the darkness of Egypt and the passage of the Israelites 
 through the Red Sea. These grand ceremonies tired out 
 the people, and towards the fourth century they began to 
 be held on Holy Saturday. That custom continued till the 
 eleventh century. At that time, as many children died be- 
 fore the great solemnity of Easter came around, they used 
 to baptize infants at any time during the year, a custom in 
 vogue in our day. In many churches the day and the hour 
 of the baptism of children is named by the pastor, or by 
 
92 BAPTISM. 
 
 the custom of the place ; but we think that they should be 
 christened during daylight on Sunday 
 
 In ancient times baptism was sometimes put off till an 
 advanced age, and we read that S. Monica did not baptize 
 her son S. Augustin till he was in danger of death. The 
 reason of this was that in those early ages of great faith, 
 many severe laws were made against sin, and public pen- 
 ance was commanded by the discipline of the Church. For 
 these reasons they did not want to subject themselves to 
 fall after their baptism. Thus it happened that many, in- 
 cluding the emperor Constantine, were only baptized on 
 their death-beds. 
 
 For a long time the Church made no laws relating to 
 infant baptism, leaving the people entirely free in this 
 matter. Some baptized on the day of birth, others on the 
 eighth day, in memory of the circumcision of our Lord, 
 others at the age of reason. From the fifth to the eighth 
 centuries they baptized children, when they could speak 
 and answer the questions ; from the eighth to the tenth cen- 
 turies they baptized them when about a month or a year old, 
 and from the eleventh to the twelfth centuries they began to 
 christen them when infants. During these early ages there 
 was a great diversity regarding the ages of infant baptism. 
 
 To-day, as for many centuries, children should be bap- 
 tized as soon as possible. That is the command of the 
 Council of Trent, and of many other councils. The best 
 writers say that it is a grievous sin to, without a suffi- 
 cient cause, postpone their christening for more than a week. 
 
 Following the example of our Lord, who was baptized in 
 the Jordan, all Christians were first baptized in the rivers, 
 lakes, or waters of their native countries. Thus, we read 
 of S. Gregory baptizing in the waiters of the Euphrates, of 
 S. Paulinus, bishop of York, in the seventh century, bap- 
 tizing great crowds in the waters of the rivers Glen, Trent, 
 and in the Swale, and of S. Patrick baptizing the Irish in 
 the rivers and loughs of Ireland. For these reasons many 
 springs, rivers, and lakes, where the Apostles and the great 
 saints of old baptized, became celebrated. Thus the 
 Jordan, the wells of Palestine, the banks of the Tigres and 
 of the Euphrates, the fountains of Normandy, the hoh^ 
 wells of Ireland, the spring in the Mamertine prison where 
 S. Peter baptized, and many waters of different countries, 
 
BAPTISM. 93 
 
 became celebrated in the ages of faith. History tells us 
 that remarkable miracles were worked by God in these 
 days as wonders, to draw the people to the Christian relig- 
 ion. Many churches have preserved that custom of bap- 
 tizing in the natural waters. Thus the Christians of S. 
 John baptize, the Socenians of Poland, the Rhinsbourgeons 
 of Holland, the Russians, the Baptists, and many religious 
 sects of this country administer the sacrament. The 
 Mormons baptize by immersion in a fountain of warm 
 water, which flows near Great Salt Lake City. 
 
 The places where, in the Christian Church, the sacrament 
 is administered, are called baptisteries, a word which, among 
 the ancient Romans, meant a bathing place, or a bath-tub. 
 Again, churches where the people were baptized were called 
 baptisteries, or baptismal churches. The Armenians call 
 their baptistery the font of Epiphany, for then they baptize 
 their children and converts. The early Greek and Roman 
 Christians called the edifices in which they baptized, their 
 bathing places, or some other names which signified the 
 effects of this sacrament. They often called the baptismal 
 font by a name which now means the place under the 
 sacristy into where the water flows after baptism. 
 
 When solemn baptism began to be administered at Easter 
 and at Pentecost, they commenced to erect baptisteries. 
 This is shown by the remains of ecclesiastical buildings 
 raised soon after the Apostolic times, by the ruins of the 
 houses of the rich Christians, and by the baptisteries 
 attached to the ancient basilicas. This took place soon 
 after Constantino gave liberty to the Christians. From the 
 fourth to the sixth centuries, special buildings were 
 erected in which to administer this sacrament, but as they 
 were rare and far apart, and only bishops baptized, towards 
 the beginning of the seventh century they began to erect 
 fonts in the churches, which from that were called bap- 
 tismal churches. When from the ninth to the twelfth 
 centuries the chapters of canons were established and the 
 cathedrals were enlarged, many old baptisteries dis- 
 appeared, but still some of these old buildings remain. The 
 most celebrated are the baptistery built by Constantino at 
 S. John Lateran at Rome, and the baptistery of the 
 Cathedral, Pisa. During the Byzantine empire, the Greek 
 Christians built their baptisteries opposite the entrance to 
 
94 BAPTISM. 
 
 the church, but at the fall of Constantinople they ceased to 
 erect these buildings. 
 
 The baptisteries were generally built of stone or marble, 
 and by the early Christians they were compared to the 
 stone struck by Moses in the desert, or to Christ himself, 
 the corner-stone of the Church. The most costly stones 
 and marbles decorated them. In poorer places they were 
 built of wood, and many of them were burned by the 
 Arians. They were round, square, in the form of a Greek 
 Cross, copied after the Pantheon at Rome, or after the 
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre, at Jerusalem. Those of 
 the East were often eight-sided, copied after the baths of 
 the ancients, or they thus signified the eight beatitudes of 
 the Gospel. In nearly all cases they were small buildings 
 annexed to the churches ; but those of Constantinople, of 
 Carthage, of Chalcedony, of Florence, and of Rome were 
 large and celebrated buildings. 
 
 In the picture on the opposite page you will see the old 
 baptistery, near the Cathedral, Florence. It is one of the 
 oldest and most celebrated baptisteries of the world. 
 
 The interior was round, and was entered by a vestibule, 
 while some had chapels, where the bishop confirmed, bap- 
 tized, and gave them communion. In the centre was the 
 baptismal font, about four feet deep sometimes, nine or ten 
 feet in diameter. Often the baptistery was divided by 
 tapestries, or by wooden partitions, into two parts, one for 
 males, the other for females. The chief altar was always 
 dedicated to S. John the Baptist, as well as the baptistery 
 itself. A statue of the holy Forerunner ornamented the 
 font, as well as many symbolic figures and types of bap- 
 tism taken from the Old Testament, besides the emblems of 
 the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, were seen in many bap- 
 tisteries. 
 
 Only by episcopal authority could baptisteries be built, 
 and when completed they were dedicated by the bishop with 
 great ceremony, and at the same time they blessed the 
 baptismal water. In ancient times baptism was conferred 
 only at the cathedrals, or at certain privileged churches. 
 But the people multiplying, the cathedrals became too small, 
 or the distance too great, so that the custom of having bap- 
 tisteries attached to parish churches became established. 
 Thus we read that in the year 789 Charlemagne, fearing that 
 
96 BAPTISM. 
 
 many infants would die without baptism, with the consent 
 of the bishops, ordered them to be baptized before one year 
 of age ; and that for this purpose baptismal fonts should 
 be erected in the churches. Later, country churches also 
 'established fonts. These churches with fonts were called 
 Matrons, Titles, or Plebes. As the people always gave 
 some offering to the clergyman who performed the cere- 
 mony, certain i)riests were ordained for these churches, 
 with the understanding of living on the offerings of the 
 people. From that came the titles, according to which 
 each clergyman is ordained. Pope Evarest, elected in the 
 year 112, created the first titles for the churches of Rome. 
 In the seventh century, in France, the right of baptizing 
 was conceded to certain country churches, and the fullness 
 of episcopal right over the baptized was granted by the 
 laws of the Lombards. In 1685, the Holy See decided that 
 the pastors have the right to baptize adults, as well as in- 
 fants, and that right cannot be restricted by their ordinary, 
 yet the Ritual reserves to the bishops the right of volun- 
 tarily baptizing adults. Since the pontificate of Leo XII., 
 in all the parish churches of Rome they have the right of 
 baptizing. In 1860, the congregation of the Council decreed 
 that the right of baptizing is not inherent in the office of 
 pastor. 
 
 The spirit of the Church is, that baptism should be con- 
 ferred only in the church, except in case of necessity. 
 Therefore this sacrament should be given only within the 
 church, in a chapel destined for that purpose. Conse- 
 quently the custom of baptizing in the sacristy, in the 
 priest's house, or in any other place but in the church, is 
 an abuse which should be corrected. 
 
 Towards the end of the eighth century, in France and in 
 other countries, they ceased to build baptisteries separated 
 from the church ; but in the chief cities of Italy, they con- 
 tinued to build them during the Middle Ages. In places of 
 small importance, they had movable fonts, which they car- 
 ried from place to place. During the seventeenth and the 
 eighteenth centuries small urns took the place of large fonts, 
 which are now often found as curiosities in museums of an- 
 tiquity. The word used by the French, the Spaniards, the 
 Portuguese, the Italians, and nearly all the Latin nations 
 to signify the font, is about the same as our English font. 
 
BAPTISM. 97 
 
 Baptismal fonts are made of almost every kind of material. 
 Before the eleventh century those of country churches were 
 mostly of wood, but they were ordered by Councils and 
 Rituals to be made of stone or metal ; but, especially in 
 the north of Europe, they were of bronze. In the thirteenth 
 century, S. Edmond, archbishop of Canterbury, com- 
 manded them to be made of stone. The foundries from the 
 eleventh to the sixteenth centuries often made them of tin, 
 lead, or pewter. Pure silver was rarely used, except in the 
 one built by Constantino. They were of diverse forms and 
 sizes, according as they baptized by sprinkling, by pouring, 
 or by immersion. Where they baptized by pouring water on 
 the head, they had the font separated into two compartments, 
 one to hold the water, and the other to catch and carry off 
 the water used in baptizing. The fonts were made long, 
 square, oval, hexagonal, eight-sided, in the form of a 
 cross, and of many other shapes. In rich churches, they 
 were ornamented with every variety of sculpture and 
 beauty of decoration. Towards the eighteenth century 
 they began to surmount the fonts with a cover, somewhat 
 like those over the tabernacle on our altars ; and in Eng- 
 land and Brittany we find many curious examples of these 
 sculptures. These covers were sometimes from six to ten 
 feet high, and beautifully ornamented. 
 
 In ancient times the font was placed in the porch of the 
 church, at the left of the western door ; but after the 
 eleventh century they were, especially in Italy, erected on 
 the north side, which contributed to the adoption of lateral 
 chapels in large churches. Among the early writers the 
 north signifies the bad passions of man, the kingdom of 
 sin, the powers of hell. From those bad spirits the Chris- 
 tian was rescued by baptism. Thus many Councils and 
 ancient Rituals ordained that the font should be placed on 
 the left of the church. Among the Nestorians it is placed 
 on the south side of the church. The font in the Cathedral, 
 New York, is found in a little chapel on the north side, near 
 the entrance, correctly placed according to the traditions of 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 The following illustration shows the shape of a baptismal 
 font, such as are generally used in churches in this country. 
 Still, some are more ornamental. The one in the great 
 Church of Notre Dame, Montreal, is in white marble. 
 
98 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 The font should be locked and well guarded, and many 
 councils passed laws condemning those who would neglect 
 
 this precaution. In 
 the same way the font 
 should be inspected 
 by the bishop in his 
 pastoral visit. The 
 Constitutions of Ed- 
 mond of Canterbury 
 forbid to keep more 
 than seven days the 
 water in which a 
 child was baptized, 
 and a great number of 
 decrees commanded 
 the font to be sealed 
 with wax, or locked. 
 Many superstitious 
 ideas got into the 
 minds of the people 
 regarding the bap- 
 tismal fonts, and the 
 Nestorians believe 
 that the water or oil 
 should be reconse- 
 crated, if touched by 
 a lay person or priest 
 not fasting. In the 
 fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries, they 
 were ordered by coun- 
 cils to paint the in- 
 terior of the large 
 cover red or white, 
 cover the whole font 
 with a white cloth 
 against the dust, and 
 place in the chapel a receptacle for the oils, salt, and things 
 used in baptism. These chapels were ornamented with 
 Scriptural subjects relating to the Holy Spirit, to the bap- 
 tism of our Lord, or to the sacrament. 
 
 In every part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, where the 
 
 BAPTISMAL FONT. 
 
BAPTISM. 99 
 
 Christian religion has spread, we find some remarkable 
 remains of ancient fonts, bearing inscriptions in Greek, 
 Latin, or in the language of the country. They are of 
 different kinds, of stone or other materials, adorned with 
 various kinds of inscriptions, and offer to the antiquarian 
 and to the student of the Christian religion interesting 
 studies. Some of them were used by the Apostles and their 
 followers in baptizing their converts. In others the 
 immediate followers and disciples baptized those whom 
 they converted to the faith. Before the conversion of the 
 Roman Empire, the early Christians were persecuted, the 
 persecuted fled to the Catacombs, and there are found their 
 fonts, pictures, and frescoes. The walls of these under- 
 ground historic places show us the way the early Christians 
 baptized. In the celebrated Mamertine prison is shown the 
 spring wherein St. Peter baptized his jailer, with fifty-seven 
 prisoners whom he had converted. During the four first 
 centuries, baptism was administered very often in private 
 houses ; for they had no churches. In rich houses it was 
 easy to turn the baths into fonts, and baptize therein all the 
 converts of the neighborhood. When the Christians were 
 delivered by the edict of Constantino, laws were made 
 obliging the people to be baptized only in the newly erected 
 churches, but they allowed sick people to be baptized in 
 their beds by sprinkling. 
 
 In all ages of Christianity, baptism could be given any- 
 where in cases of necessity, and the ceremonies supplied 
 afterwards at the church, if the person lived. Many 
 councils condemned the practice of baptizing solemnly in 
 any other place but in the church. In the Middle Ages 
 clergymen were threatened with suspension who would 
 thus solemnly baptize in private houses. Pope Benedict 
 XIV. granted bishops the power of dispensing from the 
 obligation of baptizing in churches, but in 1674 the Congre- 
 gation decided that, except in cases of necessity, the bishop 
 cannot give that permission. The abuse of baptizing 
 solemnly in houses has been tolerated where there is 
 a church, but where there is no church it should be given in 
 the house or in any convenient place. In 1828 the Bavarian 
 government asked Rome to allow the bishop of Passau to 
 grant permission to baptize in houses, and it was granted. 
 A Synod held in Poland in 1720, allowed them to baptize in 
 
100 BAPTISM. 
 
 their houses in winter. Missionaries baptize everywhere 
 they can. When the parents refuse to have their children 
 brought to the church, the congregation under the pon- 
 tificate of Pius VI. allowed them to baptize in houses, but 
 without ceremony. 
 
 The various Protestant churches appear to have no rules 
 relating to these matters. The Lutherans of Germany 
 baptize in houses when asked, and one of the ordinances of 
 the Salzbourg Consistory, held in 1802, commands their 
 ministers to baptize in houses from the 1st of November to 
 April 15. The ordinances of the Calvinists held at Geneva 
 in 1561, order baptism to be received in the church, before 
 the people, as it is their ceremony of joining the church. 
 They will not baptize except during the daytime on Sun- 
 day, and a pastor in Switzerland, who baptized a child in 
 danger of death, was accused of rebellion, of heresy, and 
 deposed. This custom may be also seen in the Synod of 
 Breda, held in 1692, by the Calvinists. Many bitter con- 
 troversies arose relating to this question in Germany, in 
 France, in England, and in many other countries among 
 the Protestants during the last century. The Presbyterians 
 do not administer baptism in private houses, and they con- 
 demn them as practiced by the established Church of 
 England. Still the Protestant churches are lax in many 
 points, and the ministers will do anything so as not to turn 
 their congregation against them, for then they would have 
 to leave. The Greeks often baptize in their houses, yet in 
 Russia the rule is to christen in the churches, when the 
 child is weak. When it is far from the church, they will 
 go to the house for that purpose. The Copts of Egypt never 
 baptize except in the church, and if the child is in danger 
 of death, the priest goes and recites some prayers at the 
 house, anoints the child's head six times with holy oil, 
 receives the profession of faith from the sponsors with 
 which they think the child is saved. 
 
 During the first centuries, when the Catholic religion was 
 persecuted, the faithful used to meet in the large halls of 
 the princely houses of the rich converts, and there they 
 held their services. That was the origin of the chapel. 
 Often the fountain of limpid water in the centre of the 
 court became the baptismal font in the early ages. Two 
 centuries after the conversion of Constantine, the Council 
 
BAPTISM. 101 
 
 of Constantinople forbade holding services in private 
 houses, and Justinian, the emperor, enacted laws against 
 the abuse. During the Middle Ages the bishops accorded 
 certain noble families the privilege of having chapels in 
 their houses. There they also erected baptismal fonts, and 
 there nobles, princes, kings, and emperors were baptized, 
 till the Council of Vienna, held in 1311, under Pope Clement 
 v., forbade the baptism of these persons in private chapels, 
 excepting kings and members of royal families. 
 
 The custom of having a godfather and a godmother 
 appears to come from the times of the Apostles. In the 
 first ages, among the Jewish converts, they were witnesses 
 of the circumcision of the child. In the first ages they had 
 only one sponsor, and that will do where two cannot be 
 conveniently found. But for many ages the custom is to 
 have two, a godfather and a godmother. They must be 
 themselves good Christians, for they are to teach the 
 Christian religion to the child, in case the parents die, or 
 neglect to bring up their children according to the laws of 
 the Church. More than two are not allowed, nor can the 
 name of an absent one be put down without the consent of 
 the latter, as then no obligation would be contracted. The 
 parents, a nun, or a monk, a bad Christian, or a non- 
 Catholic, cannot be a sponsor. A sponsor cannot marry his 
 or her godchild, nor the parents or children of the child, 
 nor can a person be the sponsor of his or her wife or hus- 
 band. 
 
 All the oldest writers and fathers of the Church speak of 
 sponsors, and history traces its records up to the days of the 
 Apostles. The deacons used to disrobe the men and the 
 deaconesses the women in Apostolic times, and that gave 
 rise to the man and woman as godfather and godmother of 
 our days. As they used to hold them in the font while 
 baptism was administered, we now have them touch the 
 child. It appears that, in these remote ages, the children 
 were presented at the church by their parents. From the 
 constitutions of the Egyptian Church in the Coptic lan- 
 guage recently found, it appears that the parents or rela- 
 tives of the child should speak for it. As the slaves and 
 orphans had no one to speak for them, good Christians were 
 chosen for godparents, and the same became the case with 
 the newly converted. As a general thing, a man was 
 
102 BAPTISM. 
 
 chosen in the early times. Thus the godmother appears to 
 be much later than the godfather. As the laws of Justinian 
 forbade the godfather to marry the child he stood for, and as 
 nothing is said of a godmother, we may conclude the latter 
 was unknown in his days. Writers of the early times up 
 to the seventh century, while often mentioning the god- 
 father, say nothing of the godmother, and we may consider 
 that women began to be chosen as godmothers towards the 
 beginning of the eighth century. 
 
 The words godfather and godmother come from the old 
 Saxon, meaning the spiritual parents of the child. The 
 words in Latin appear to have been derived from the names 
 of those who among the Romans accompanied or gave 
 away the bride at the marriage ceremony. Many different 
 terms are used to signify the godparents in Latin, Greek, 
 French, Spanish, and in different languages of modern 
 Europe. 
 
 In our day the Jews have some one like a godfather for 
 their sons at circumcision. He holds the child on his knees 
 during the operation. In some monasteries sponsors stand 
 for those who are going to enter the community. 
 
 Although the sponsors are not necessary for the validity 
 of the sacrament, yet, according to the laws of the Church, 
 there should be some one who will answer for the child, 
 even for an adult when baptized, so as to carry out the 
 ancient customs. In the ancient Sacramentary of Pope 
 Gelasius, on the third Sunday of Lent, the bishop prayed 
 for them, and he interrupted the canon of the mass to read 
 publicly their names. Among the Greeks and other 
 Churches of the East, sponsors are commanded by severe 
 laws. When the custom had fallen into disuse among the 
 Nestorians, the Synod of Dramper complained. Although 
 some Protestant churches have ceased to have them, still 
 the most of them tolerate the ancient custom without com- 
 manding it. The Book of Common Prayer says that there 
 shall be two godfathers and one godmother for boys, and 
 two godmothers and one godfather for girls, and that the 
 parents can be sponsors for their own children. In the 
 same way they have sponsors for adults, and they are not 
 accustomed to baptize but on Sundays and holidays, except 
 in case of necessity. The Baptists, who baptize by immer- 
 sion, have no sponsors. 
 
BAPTISM. 103 
 
 Many synods forbid pastors to interfere in the choice of 
 sponsors, and the Ritual of Gregory XIII. states that it is 
 better not to choose relatives. Often pride and ambition 
 rule the choice of sponsors. James, king of England, 
 refused to stand as godfather for the Princess Elizabeth of 
 France with Isabella of Spain, because the latter was not a 
 queen. Before the French revolution the nobles of Brittany 
 gave a good example of humility by choosing as sponsors 
 for their children the poor, simple people of the country, 
 who had faith and piety. In Italy they sometimes chose 
 the first two poor persons they met, until many Rituals 
 condemned the custom of choosing strangers for such an 
 important office, for they, being often tramps, could not 
 fulfill their obligations. The Church also condemned many 
 superstitious customs relating to sponsors. The Greeks of 
 Syria, believing that any kind of baptism except by im- 
 mersion is invalid, rebaptize all ^who come to them from 
 other sects, and the one who gives the largest amount of 
 money or gifts becomes the sponsor. 
 
 In the primitive church, the sponsors presented the per- 
 sons to be baptized to the bishop, led them outside the 
 church when that part of the mass began which was se- 
 cret, and taught them the chief doctrines of the Christian 
 religion. The day of baptism, they took part in the whole 
 ceremony, helped them to disrobe, led them to the font, put 
 their hands on their shoulders at the moment of baptism, 
 received them from the hands of the bishop, and helped 
 them to dress. All that is now symbolized by the sponsors 
 putting their hands on the breast of the child at the moment 
 of pouring on the water, and by replying to the questions. 
 Many councils have often insisted on the obligations on 
 the part of the sponsors of continuing by instruction the 
 good work begun by God at the moment of baptism. They 
 should teach and instruct the child, like the parents, if the 
 latter die or neglect the Christian education of their spirit- 
 ual children, they are then obliged to take the parents' 
 place. According to St. Thomas, they are exempt only 
 when the parents fulfill their duties. In England the 
 spiritual parentage of the child was considered so close, 
 that the laws of Henry I. made the murderer of a sponsor 
 pay a certain sum to the child for whom the dead had stood. 
 In Brittany the sponsors were considered as members of the 
 
104 BAPTISM. 
 
 child's family. They were consulted relating to the mar- 
 riage of the child, and they led their godchild to the altar, 
 and gave her away at the marriage ceremony. In some 
 comitries it was such an honor to be a sponsor, that at 
 death they crossed their arms. In Greece they take special 
 care of the spiritual instruction of the children they stand 
 for, and before consecrating the baptismal water, they in- 
 cense the sponsors. 
 
 In the engraving on the opposite page, you see the young 
 clergyman holding the thurible of smoking incense during 
 the ceremony of baptism. 
 
 In Armenia, the sponsors go to confession just before 
 standing for children. In Georgia, the godfather disrobes 
 the child, immerses it in the font, and hands it to the god- 
 mother. Among the Maronites the godfather does not 
 hold the child, but the priest, who, after taking it from the 
 font, covers it with a cloth. Among the Protestant churches 
 the godfather only asks the baptism of the child. In many 
 churches of Germany, the sponsors simply touch the 
 white garments of the baptized and afterward wash their 
 hands. The liturgy of the Reformed Church of France 
 supposes sponsors at baptism. 
 
 In the primitive church we read that they could not be- 
 come sponsors except they were of age ; but by the lapse of 
 time younger persons were accepted, till almost children be- 
 came sponsors before they could realize the obligations. The 
 authorities of the Church often spoke against that abuse. 
 According to canon law, the sponsors themselves must be 
 baptized, and some Rituals require that they be themselves 
 confirmed. Some councils enact that they should have 
 made their first communion. Again, Synods forbid those 
 who have not made their Easter communion. Many gov- 
 ernments have mixed up these affairs, which in no way 
 belong to them. Those who were excommunicated have 
 never been received as sponsors. 
 
 In the times immediately following the Apostles, only one 
 of the same sex was allowed for adults. That appears to 
 have ceased at the time of St. Augustin, and many examples 
 of the Middle Ages show us that it was not then carried out. 
 Theodore of Canterbury tells us that a man could be sponsor 
 for a girl, or a woman for a boy. The Council of Trent 
 requires at least one sponsor, either a man or a woman. 
 
lOG BAPTISM. 
 
 As the sponsors speak for the faith of the baptized, it is 
 necessary that they have the faith themselves, and there- 
 fore they must be Catholics. Infidels, therefore, and non- 
 Catholics are excluded by the councils of the Church, nor 
 can a Catholic stand as sponsor for a person baptized in a 
 Protestant church, according to the decrees of the Congre- 
 gation. In the same way the councils have forbidden to 
 receive as sponsors persons ignorant of their religion, of 
 corrupted morals, or notorious sinners. Thus bad women, 
 drunkards, divorced persons, or those who contract civil 
 marriages cannot be sponsors for children. The carrying 
 out of these laws have often caused disturbances. Some 
 Rituals exclude persons who take immodest parts on the 
 stage. Sometimes monks and nuns were excluded, because 
 their secluded lives would not allow them to fulfill the 
 duties of sponsors. Still the Congregation of Bishops per- 
 mitted many religious to stand for persons baptized. In 
 Syria, the Greek schismatics always chose monks as god- 
 fathers for their children. In the Middle Ages many priests, 
 bishops, archbishops, and even Popes acted as sponsors. 
 The husband and wife can both stand for the same child 
 without contracting any affinity. 
 
 It appears that for the first five centuries only a godfather 
 stood for both boys and girls. In the sixth century, god- 
 mothers stood for girls. Towards the seventh and the eighth 
 centuries, both godfathers and godmothers became custom- 
 ary. The councils of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
 turies required two godfathers and one godmother for a 
 male, and two godmothers and one godfather for females, a 
 custom still practiced by the Established Church of Eng- 
 land and the Episcopalians of this country. These three 
 were chosen in honor of the three Persons of the Trinity, 
 and thus the custom remained till the Council of Trent. 
 Often many sponsors stood for the same person ; and we 
 read that when St. Augustine, first Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, baptized St. Livinus, the king, queen, and the whole 
 court stood as sponsors. Joan of Arc had three godfathers 
 and three godmothers, and at Venice children sometimes 
 had as many as one hundred sponsors. That abuse became 
 general, till stopped by the Council of Trent, because of the 
 affinity contracted by the sponsors with the baptized. This 
 great council ordered one, or at the most two sponsors, a 
 
BAPTISM. 107 
 
 man and woman. Among the Christians of the East there 
 are a godfather and godmother for males and godmother for 
 females. The affinity between the sponsors and the bap- 
 tized, not being recognized in Protestant churches, they 
 have in general a godfather and godmother, one or many or 
 no sponsors at all, or the parents stand for their own chil- 
 dren. 
 
 The sponsors become the spiritual parents of those for 
 whom they stand. For that reason the Church has forbid- 
 den marriage between persons united by this mystic tie. 
 Some writers say this was forbidden in the Apostolic times. 
 It was certainly forbidden by the Council of Nice, by the 
 laws of the Emperor Justinian, by the laws of the Lombards, 
 by the Capitularies of Charlemagne, and by nearly all the 
 Christian nations of the Middle Ages. The decrees of many 
 councils forbid marriage between the person baptized, the 
 person who baptizes, the sponsors, the person for whom they 
 stand, and between them and the parents of the person for 
 whom they stand sponsors. These laws oblige not only the 
 people, but also royal families, without exception. In cases 
 of necessity, dispensation for marriage between these per- 
 sons can be obtained. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans used to send presents to their 
 friends on the birth of children, and that was continued 
 among the early Christians on the baptism of their relatives. 
 Besides, the sponsors gave presents to their spiritual chil- 
 dren. That is seen in all its splendor at the baptism of the 
 children of kings and of nobles. Adults at their baptism 
 give presents to the Church or to the clergy. The custom 
 of making a present to the priest at baptism appears to be 
 very old. It belongs to the pastor, no matter who baptizes, 
 except it be expressly given to the minister of the sacra- 
 ment. In some countries, abuses arose relating to these 
 matters, which were condemned by the Church. 
 
 The clergyman who baptizes can be the godfather also, if 
 he has some one to answer to the questions in his place. 
 Although in ancient times the parents could be also the 
 godparents of their own child, they are forbidden now by 
 the laws of the Church, yet they are admitted as such by 
 the Calvinists, the Presbyterians, and many Protestant 
 churches. The congregation decided twice that sponsors at 
 private baptism contract with the child an affinity as in 
 
108 BAPTISM. 
 
 solemn baptism. They also decided that when one stands 
 in place of another, with his consent, the absent one con- 
 tracts the affinity. 
 
 At baptism, the name of some saint is added to the family 
 name. To give the baptized any name not borne by a saint 
 is not according to the spirit of the Church. The custom of 
 giving the new name at baptism comes from Abraham at 
 his circumcision, from St. Paul at his baptism, and from the 
 new birth of the Christian, who from the reception of this 
 sacrament is to become a new man, and therefore a new 
 name is added to that of his family. The given names of 
 the early Christians were derived from many sources. They 
 took them generally from the Bible, or they retained their 
 pagan names after their conversion. After the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries, the custom of adding a given name 
 besides that of the family became general among royal 
 houses and the nobles, and from that it spread among the 
 people. The Protestants seldom take the name of a saint, 
 because of the saint, yet they often bear saints' names, be- 
 cause of the custom coming down from the times when 
 their forefathers were Catholic. In the Middle Ages, more 
 than one name was seldom given, but through pride, or in 
 order to have many patron saints, a number of names were 
 given at baptism, although the priest pronounces only one 
 at the ceremony. Here the parents, but in Greece the god- 
 father chooses the name. 
 
 The ceremonies of baptism are to sanctify the baptized, to 
 give dignity to the sacrament, to typify the wonders of 
 grace worked in the soul, and to excite the faith and devo- 
 tion of the people. The ceremonies are not required in 
 order that the sacrament may be valid. Hence, in cases of 
 necessity, we baptize without any ceremony. During the 
 sixteenth century, the missionaries of India, of China, and 
 of Japan desired to omit the ceremonies, as the people of 
 those countries were opposed, but the Church would not 
 allow the change. 
 
 Some writers, hostile to religion, claim that these cere- 
 monies came from the Jews or from the ceremonies of the 
 Gentiles, but we must remember that the Gentiles, as well 
 as the Jews, at first adored the true God, and ceremonies, 
 barren in themselves, may be adopted and sanctified by the 
 Church wherein God alone is worshiped. The origin of 
 
BAPTISM. 109 
 
 many of these ceremonies is obscure. They are found only 
 in the traditions of Christianity, gathered up by the great 
 writers of the first centuries. Not one of the fathers gives 
 a complete treatise on the ceremony of baptism. The secret 
 way in which the mysteries of religion were taught pre- 
 vented that. The Apostolic Constitutions give the most 
 detailed account, and as Pope Clement, the successor of 
 St. Peter, is most probably the author of these Constitutions, 
 these ceremonies came from Apostolic times. Otherwise it 
 is very difficult to say how these ceremonies could have 
 spread into the whole world so soon after the death of the 
 Apostles. Not having made a deep study of the writings 
 and ecclesiastical monuments of antiquity, writers, follow- 
 ing the teachings of Luther, reject these ceremonies. The 
 ceremonies of baptism may be divided into three classes : 
 the preparation, the accompanying ceremonies, and the 
 rites and ceremonies which follow baptism. 
 
 The Copts and the Abyssinians, claiming to derive their 
 customs from Ismail, circumcise their children some days 
 before baptism, and only since they were forbidden to do 
 that by the Holy See in 1637, have the Nestorians and the 
 Chaldeans abandoned that Jewish rite. The Greeks and 
 Russians have peculiar ceremonies at the house the eighth 
 day before baptism. In some parts of Greece, and in the 
 Grecian Archipelago, they have remarkable superstitious 
 ceremonies derived from the pagans. 
 
 The Rituals of the Church direct that the holy oil and 
 all things used in the ceremony be prepared beforehand. 
 The directions for the ceremonies, and the words and 
 prayers used in administering all the sacraments, are found 
 in the Ritual. The priest should, when solemnly baptizing, 
 be vested in cassock, surplice, and violet stole. Some an- 
 cient rituals recommended to him to wash his hands and 
 pray, that he may well fulfill the duty required of him. 
 
 Since the times of the catechumens, in the early ages, the 
 child is stopped at the door of the church and asked what 
 he wants, recalling Adam driven from the gate of Paradise, 
 or man from heaven, till regenerated by baptism. From 
 the seventh century, when baptism began to be admin- 
 istered in parish churches, a place was set apart in the 
 parish for this purpose. That remained till the sixteenth 
 century, when those places were destroyed at the Reforma- 
 
110 BAPTISM. 
 
 tion. Ever since, on account of the weather, the child is 
 brought into the church, but the ceremonies have not 
 changed. This station is not continued among the Greeks, 
 but is by the Armenians, the Russians, and in many coun- 
 tries of the East. 
 
 We cannot, on account of space, give all the words of the 
 Ritual. The questions asked by the priest, relating to 
 faith, come from the customs of the olden times, and are 
 found in the works and Pontificals of the fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth centuries, and were used in Rome, Constantinople, 
 France, etc., in the earliest times. They are found also in 
 the Ambrosian and in the Galilean Rites. We use the Latin, 
 and in southern Europe, where it is understood by the peo- 
 ple, Latin questions and answers are always used. In 
 many countries, from the eighth century, following the 
 customs of St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, they re- 
 peat the same in the language of the people. Some Ameri- 
 can writers claim that our baptism is not valid, because we 
 do not use the language of the people. Questions of the 
 same nature are found in the Ethiopian rite of the tenth 
 century, among the Mennonites, in the Armenian, and in 
 the Liturgies of the reformed churches. Many ancient 
 Rituals have short exhortations addressed to the sponsors. 
 That is seen in the Book of Common Prayer, while the 
 minister, among the Calvinists, often preaches a sermon to 
 the whole people. 
 
 The priest breathes three times on the child, following 
 the example of our Lord, who breathed on his Apostles, 
 when promising to send them the Holy Spirit, which means, 
 in the ancient languages, a breath, and who moved as a 
 wind over the waters at creation. By this Spirit of God, 
 the devil with his evil works is driven from the person bap- 
 tized. St. Augustin says that this ceremony implies con- 
 tempt for the demon, and that it comes from the custom of 
 the ancients, who mocked persons by breathing on them : 
 and he speaks of the antiquity of this rite, which is proved 
 by all the ancient writers. 
 
 St. Ireneus and Tertullian tell us that the custom of breath- 
 ing on each other was customary among the early Chris- 
 tians, in their practices of piety. On that account, they 
 were sometimes accused of practicing magic. All Protest- 
 ant churches have suppressed that ceremony. 
 
BAPTISM. Ill 
 
 The priest now makes the sign of the cross on the head 
 and breast of the person. The sign of the cross has been 
 used from the very beginning of the world, both among the 
 Jews and the Gentiles, a truth which we will not stop now 
 to prove. The early Christians, knowing that they had 
 been redeemed by Christ on the cross, used to make that 
 sign on each other at all times, and in that way every cere- 
 mony of the Church is carried out with that sign of salva- 
 tion. Many suppose the cross signed here is taken from 
 the Hebrew letter, Thau, which the Lord commanded the 
 prophet Ezechial to mark on the foreheads of the Jews, or 
 from the sign marked on those who were seen to be saved 
 by St. John in the Revelations (Apoc. vii.). Still others 
 think that this cross was in the beginning the letter X, 
 with which the narae of Christ begins in Greek, and that it 
 was the origin of the Greek cross. Thus the baptized is 
 marked by the name of Christ, and by the cross of Christ. 
 The ancient fathers speak of this ceremony, and they say 
 that it means, that baptism draws its power from the suf- 
 ferings of Christ on the cross, and that the Christian must 
 hereafter bear as his cross the trials of this life. 
 
 In other Liturgies there are many crosses made on the 
 five senses. In some churches the sponsors made the sign 
 of the cross on the child. The sign of the cross is used by 
 the Copts, the Christians of Syria, the Ethiopians, the 
 Nestorians, the Maronites, and by many others. Among 
 the Greeks, that ceremony takes place on the day of birth, 
 and is not repeated at baptism. The sign of the cross, 
 although suppressed by the Calvinists, is, or was used by 
 the Lutherans. The Book of Common Prayer used by the 
 Episcopalians says the cross is to be made except the 
 parents object. 
 
 The priest then touches and extends his right hand over 
 the head of the child and prays. In the Greek, as well as 
 in the Latin Church, only one hand is held over the child's 
 head. That is done in memory of our Lord, who, when 
 healing the sick, touched them with his hand. That comes 
 from the Jews, for in that way Moses gave some of his 
 authority to Josue, and by that ceremony he brought down 
 on them the blessings of heaven. In this way also the 
 priests consecrated the victims of the Mosaic law and sent 
 away the scape-goat. This ceremony is found among all 
 
112 BAPTISM. 
 
 the ancient Christians, both of the East and the West, among 
 the Lutherans, the Baptists, the Socinians, and by the Anti- 
 trinitarians and others, it is more or less used. 
 
 The priest then puts a little salt into the mouth of the one 
 to be baptized. Th at comes from the Jews, who used to purify 
 the new-born with salt, according to Ezechiel (Ezech. xvi. 4). 
 St. Jerome says midwives used to rub the skin of new-born 
 infants with salt as a matter of health, recommended by 
 Galien and Avecin. The poet Homer calls salt divine, 
 because of its preserving nature. It was used by the 
 ancients in their baths. It was also a sign of hospitality, 
 and the one among the ancients who took salt at the table 
 with his host was ever considered a friend. Our Lord 
 called his followers "the salt of the earth."' The conquerors 
 of cities sprinkled salt under the foundations of the walls 
 as a sign of total destruction. Thus to signify that the 
 baptized is a follower of our Lord, " the salt of the earth ;" 
 that by baptism he is to be saved from the corruption of sin; 
 that sin is to be forever destroyed in him, for these symbolic 
 reasons, the salt is given. St. Augustin and the great 
 fathers of the Church speak of this ceremony, which is 
 mentioned by all writers of the Middle Ages writing on 
 these subjects. The salt is blessed because it was used 
 in the superstitious practices of the pagans. In some 
 countries, as in Belgium, the parents bring the salt and 
 present it to the Church. When that occurs, the priest 
 blesses only the few grains used. The ceremony of giving 
 the salt is not seen in the East, nor is it mentioned by the 
 Greek Fathers, but it is used by the Mohammedans, by some 
 Christians of Asia Minor, and by the Romans, but perhaps 
 not as a religious ceremony. Among the Protestants, the 
 Moravians alone have preserved this ceremony as a symbol 
 of wisdom. Calvin said that the devil invented salt. 
 
 The exorcism is now addressed to the devil by the priest, 
 commanding him, in the name and by the power of the 
 Holy Trinity, to leave the child, whom God has called into 
 his Church. These prayers in the Greek and Gallican 
 Rituals are much longer than in ours. By the sin of Adam 
 the race was conquered by the demon, who from that mo- 
 ment wields a powerful influence for evil, not only on man, 
 but on man's kingdom, the world, as St. John says, '^the 
 whole world is seated in wickedness " (I. John x. 14), and 
 
BAPTISM. IIJ 
 
 as our Lord says, "he is the prince of the world whom he 
 came to draw out" (John xii. 31). The fall of man and the 
 empire of Satan is taught, not only by the Bible, but by all 
 the philosophers of ancient and of modern times. The 
 Jews trace their ceremonies of exorcisms back to Solomon, 
 and every nation have, or have had their exorcisms against 
 the spirits of darkness. 
 
 This baptismal ceremony certainly came from the Apos- 
 tolic times, and can be seen in nearly all the writers of 
 antiquity. They tell us that sometimes the catechumens 
 held candles in their hands in sight of the whole congrega- 
 tion. Sometimes they had one kind of prayers for males 
 and another for females. All knelt with their faces turned 
 towards the east, as a sign that they were to put off the old 
 man, who was corrupted, and put on Jesus Christ, who is 
 perfect. In ancient times, the bishop alone exorcised the 
 newly baptized, but now it is done by the one who baptizes. 
 This ceremony is practiced by all the Christian Churches of 
 the East, the Armenians and Nestorians alone excepted. 
 Luther retained it, not as driving away the devil, but as a 
 symbol of the delivery from original sin, while Calvin, 
 Zwingle, and their followers reject it. Christian I. of Sax- 
 ony prohibited it in his States, which gave rise to a great 
 controversy ; while the Elector of Brandenburg gave liberty 
 to carry it out or not, as the people saw fit. In our days, it 
 is not found among any Protestant sects. 
 
 The priest now, after signing the forehead with the sign 
 of the cross, places his hand on the child's head, and gives 
 the blessing. In the Greek Ritual, as well as in some others, 
 Ood is asked to send an angel guardian to the child at this 
 place. 
 
 The priest now leads the child into the church by putting 
 the stole on its head. The stole, marked with the cross, 
 signifies the power of the Church over those baptized, and 
 the church building tells of heaven, of which it is an image. 
 In Armenia the lady, who holds the child, makes a genu- 
 flection for each day since the child was born. All should 
 turn towards the altar — that is, towards the east. Many 
 clergymen are present when the children of the Greeks are 
 baptized. Among the Maronites, the deacon receives the 
 child at the door. 
 
 The Ethiopic Ritual says the minister should be aided by 
 
U-t BAPTISM. 
 
 an assisting priest, with deacon and subdeacon. The child 
 should be clothed in white robes. Many councils have con- 
 demned the custom of dressing children in a rich manner, 
 above the means of the people. St. Elizabeth, queen of 
 Hungary, as well as the children of the royal families of 
 Germany, were carried to the church under a dais. Gen- 
 erally the godmother carries the child, yet in some countries 
 it is the midwife, who carried it to the church. The daugh- 
 ter of Anna of Brittany and of Charles VIII. was carried 
 by the Prince of Orange. The godfather on the right, and 
 the godmother should stand on the left, the latter holding 
 the child. This is the custom coming from antiquity. Yet 
 in the Middle Ages, as now in the East, as well as in some 
 parts of the West, the godfather holds the child. It is not 
 necessary for the parents to be present at the baptism of 
 their children, but it is recommended in England, France, 
 and Spain. In Greece the parents are not generally present. 
 Among the Copts, the Syrians, and the Nestorians, the 
 mother presents her babe, while among the Puritans the 
 father presents his child. 
 
 When the cortege draws near the font, those present, 
 with the sponsors, recite the Apostles' Creed, as a profession 
 of faith. Some Rituals prescribe it to be said kneeling. 
 The Roman Ritual says it should be said while walking to 
 the font, and in many places it is said in the language of the 
 people. The custom of reciting the Creed evidently comes 
 from the profession of the faith of the adults baptized in 
 the times of the Apostles. Sometimes the Creed formulated 
 by the Councils of Mce and of Constantinople were said in 
 place of the Apostles' Creed. The Nicene Creed is recited 
 by the Greek priests. 
 
 In the primitive times the Lord's Prayer was explained to 
 those about to be baptized, and they recited it after the 
 Creed, much as is done now. In the Ethiopian Ritual of the 
 tenth century, the persons to be baptized turn towards the 
 east, and raising their right hand and using the plural, say : 
 '^ We believe," etc., reciting the Apostles' Creed. 
 
 The priest again exorcises the unclean spirits and drives 
 them from the one to be baptized by invoking the power of 
 the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. Then taking the 
 saliva from his mouth, he touches the ears of the child, say- 
 ing, ^^Ephpheta," which is the Hebrew for "be thou 
 
BAPTISM. 115 
 
 opened," then the nostrals continuing, "in an odor of 
 sweetness." This conies from the customs of the ancients, 
 who believed that saliva had great power against all kinds 
 of enchantment. Thus, we read that when Jesus passing 
 by saw the man blind from his birth, "he spat on the 
 ground, and made clay of the spittle, and spread the clay 
 upon his eyes, and said to him : "Go wash in the pool of 
 Sileo. * * * * He went therefore and washed and came 
 seeing" (John ix. 6, 7). This certainly was a sign of bap- 
 tism, wherein the eyes of the soul are opened to the truths 
 of our religion. Again, we see that when they brought the 
 man deaf and dumb to our Lord, " he put his finger into his 
 ears, and spitting, he touched his tongue, * * * * and said 
 to him, Ephpheta, which is, be thou opened, and imme- 
 diately his ears were opened and the string of his tongue 
 was loosed, and he spoke right" (Mark vii. 33, 34, 35). 
 Thus we see that Christ himself is the author of these cere- 
 monies of baptism. St. Ambrose, explaining them, says : 
 "The priest touches the ears to open them to the teachings 
 of the Church, and the nostrils, that we may say with the 
 Apostle that we are the good odor of Jesus Christ " (II. Cor. 
 ii. 15). In some places they mixed earth or oil with saliva, 
 in imitation of Christ. Clement VII. dispensed the cere- 
 mony for the missionaries to pagan countries, to whom it 
 was very repugnant. Benedict XIV. dispensed it for only 
 ten years. Queen Catherine de Medicis, in 1561, wrote 
 Pius IV., asking him to dispense many ceremonies of 
 baptism, but he only saw that they were carried out more 
 carefully. The ceremony of insalivation was never used 
 by the Eastern churches, but the ears and nostrils are 
 anointed with oil. All Protestant churches reject the cere- 
 mony. 
 
 In ancient times, it appears that they were entirely nude 
 during the immersion, or that it was performed during the 
 night, or in the darkness of the baptisteries, which were 
 only partly lighted with windows. At that time, people 
 were not so sensitive on these points as now. They had the 
 font surrounded with curtains, behind which were the ones 
 to be baptized, and the priest reaching in, immersed them, 
 or poured the water on their heads. Besides, ladies, called 
 deaconesses, till the beginning of the fifth century, aided 
 those of their own sex, or they had a font for men and 
 
116 BAPTISM. 
 
 another for women, or the males came at one time for bap< 
 tism and the females at another. 
 
 In the Latin Rite, the breast and shoulders only are 
 anointed, and not the whole body, as among the Greeks, 
 where the whole body is stripped. The custom of stripping 
 infants ceased from the sixteenth to the eighteenth cen- 
 turies in the West, while in the East the custom is still con- 
 tinued. It is also found among the Ethiopians, the Copts, 
 the Syrians, and is still followed by some of the Russians. 
 
 The person to be baptized is now asked if he renounces 
 the devil, with all his works and pomps. According to the 
 Greek Ritual, followed by the Russians, at this moment 
 the priest strips the child, asks of the sponsors the questions, 
 and breathes on the candidate for baptism. 
 
 St. Basil says that the renunciation of the demon comes 
 from the Apostles. Many writers think that St. Peter 
 alludes to it in these words, '^the examination of a good 
 conscience towards God" (I. Peter iii. 21). St. Paul, when 
 speaking of widows, says, "because they have made void 
 their first faith." These words of the Ritual evidently go 
 back to the age of the Apostles, when many of their con- 
 verts were obliged to renounce the sacrifices offered to 
 demons under the figure of pagan ceremonies. The Jews 
 were obliged to renounce the religion of Moses and the 
 ceremonies of the temple at their baptism. That is still 
 seen in the Rituals used by the Greeks. The Saxons 
 abjured the false religion of Odin and of the Druids. These 
 were made at the door, and sometimes ashes was sprinkled 
 on them. They had also to pay all their debts, become 
 reconciled with their enemies, and renounce all works of 
 the flesh. SS. Jerome and Cyril beautifully explain the 
 meanings of these ceremonies. This renunciation is found 
 in all ancient Rituals of the different churches, going back 
 to the Apostolic times, varying somewhat in different Rites. 
 The form found in the Apostolic Constitutions is still pre- 
 served in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, 
 and in many other places. The Lutherans, the Anglicans, 
 and Episcopalians retain it. Among the Copts the deacon 
 reads and the sponsors pronounce the renunciations. The 
 ceremony is also found among many Protestant churches, 
 where they promise to renounce all sin. In the Greek 
 churches they now, after renouncing the demon, promise 
 
BAPTISM. 117 
 
 to adhere to Christ. All the Greek Fathers speak of that 
 promise, which among the Latins is called the baptismal 
 vows. 
 
 After the renunciation of the devil, the child is anointed 
 on the breast and shoulders with the Oil of the Catechumens. 
 In the Greek Kite the priest blesses the oil, which is not 
 blessed by their bishops on Holy Saturday. Then they 
 make with it the sign of the cross on the forehead, the 
 breast, and the loins of the child. Among some of the 
 Christians of the East, the whole body is anointed. That 
 is mentioned by many of the ancient fathers, and is 
 Apostolic in its origin. In the Latin Rite we do not find 
 that they ever anointed the whole body with the Oil of 
 Catechumens, although in the early Church they un- 
 doubtedly anointed the whole body with chrism. As the 
 athletes and gladiators before combat anointed their bodies 
 with oil to give them strength for the combat, so this 
 anointing signifies the strength God gives us in our fight 
 against temptation and the power of the demons. Those 
 reasons and meanings are found in many of the writings 
 of the fathers. Ives of Chartres says they are anointed on 
 their breast, that wisdom may burn in their hearts, and on 
 their shoulders, that they may work for God. Pope Inno- 
 cent III. says the anointing of the breast typifies the faith 
 which should dwell in the heart of the Christian, and that 
 between the shoulders signifies our good works for Christ. 
 In times of pests they used an instrument, so as not to 
 contract the disease. The anointing with oil is prescribed 
 in different ways by the Rituals of the Greeks, the Syrians, 
 the Maronites, the Armenians, the Copts, the Nestorians, 
 and by the Anglicans. A custom so widely spread could 
 come only from the Apostles. 
 
 The priest now takes off the violet stole and puts on the 
 white stole. He then asks the child, through the sponsors, 
 its belief in the Persons of the Holy Trinity. In the Greek 
 Rite the questions relating to these matters are found in 
 the words by which adhesion to Christ is promised. The 
 questions relating to faith in the Trinity, appear to have 
 been given in the questions asked by Philip, the eunuch of 
 Ethiopia (Acts viii. 24). This was the time when the 
 Catechumens in a formal and public manner proclaimed 
 their belief in the Trinity. St. Ambrose says that in his 
 
118 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 time they were immersed once when asked if they believed 
 in the Father, again when they professed a belief in the 
 Son, and the third time when they said they believed in the 
 Holy Spirit. That was according to the Ambrosian Rite 
 followed at Milan. The way given in our Rite, which is the 
 Latin or Roman Rite, is the same as that given in the 
 Gregorian and Galesian Sacramentaries, and was used at 
 Rome from the most ancient times. St. Augustine speaks of 
 this ceremony. A special question is asked here of conver : 
 
 THE BAPTISM OF THE ROYAL PRINCESS OF SPAIN. 
 
 adults relating to any particular heresy in the country. A: 
 Jerusalem only one question is asked, and St. Ambrose says 
 it is thus, so as not to imitate St. Peter in his triple denial 
 of Christ. The whole ceremony should be in Latin. These 
 questions regarding faith, while suppressed by many 
 Protestant churches, are still preserved by the Lutherans, 
 the Anglicans, and the Episcopalians. In this country a 
 profession of faith is required before baptism in nearly all 
 the Protestant churches, but it is rather vague. 
 
BAPTISM. 119 
 
 Then the priest, calling the name, asks if the child wishes 
 to be baptized, to which the sponsor replies that it so 
 wishes. Then taking the baptismal water in a little vase, 
 the priest pours it three times on the head of the child, 
 
 calling it by name, " N , I baptize thee in the name 
 
 of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." 
 In the engraving of *' The Baptism of the Royal Princess of 
 Spain," the bishop is just pouring the water on her head, 
 according to the ceremony of the Latin Rite. Each time he 
 names a Person of the Holy Trinity, he pours the water. 
 Where it is the custom to baptize by immersion, he im- 
 merses the person three times, while pronouncing the 
 names of the Persons of the Trinity. The Greeks immerse 
 in the same way three times, after which they sing Psalms. 
 According to some of the fathers, our Lord himself ordered 
 the triple washing, while others say that it was commanded 
 by the Apostles. Still it is believed everywhere that it is 
 not necessary for the sacrament, being only a ceremony. 
 It represents the three days Christ lay dead in the grave, or 
 the three Persons of the Trinity. The heretics, who denied 
 the Trinity, baptized by only one washing or immersion. 
 Many Christians of the East believe that the triple wash- 
 ing is essential to the sacrament. But when the Arians of 
 the fourth century baptized once, the Catholics of Spain 
 they used only one washing, so as to be distinct from the 
 latter, and this was practiced in many countries. The 
 sponsors must touch the child while the water is being 
 poured, and here in the East the godmother often holds the 
 infant. Many ways were used in the Middle Ages to typify 
 the passion of Christ. On Holy Saturday, the people sang 
 Psalms while the sacrament was being administered. 
 
 After wiping the water from the head of the child, the 
 priest now, dipping his thumb into the holy chrism, anoints 
 the head with the oil in the form of a cross. In the Greek 
 Rite, the child is anointed in the form of a cross on the 
 forehead, eyes, ears, breast, hands, and feet. This way of 
 anointing is mentioned by the fathers of the fifth century, 
 but we do not find it universally spread in these early 
 times. Writers say it makes us partake in the royalty of 
 Jesus Christ, who is the anointed of the Lord. Protestants 
 do not anoint. But the Episcopalians make the sign of the 
 cross on the forehead of the baptized. The Mormons are 
 
120 BAPTISM. 
 
 anointed witli oil on their heads, eyes, nose, ears, mouth, 
 hair, and on all parts of the body. 
 
 According to the Latin Rite, the priest now covers the 
 head of the child with a white cloth, which replaces the 
 white robes used in former times. For this reason, the 
 parents should bring a white cap, as they do in Europe, so 
 as to put it on the head at this moment. The Greeks do 
 this just after baptism, and before anointing the child. 
 The white robe signifies the innocence of the regenerated. 
 According to the best authors, it appears to be derived from 
 the white habits worn by the converts for some days after 
 baptism ; from the w^hite robes worn by the Jewish priests 
 during the sacrifices of the temple ; or from these words of 
 St. Paul : '^ For many of you as have been baptized in Christ, 
 have put on Christ " (Gal. iii. 27). In some places they used 
 to crown the baptized with a chaplet of flowers. That was 
 practiced at Jerusalem, and in Ethiopia, as it is spoken of 
 by some of the fathers. It is still practiced by the Syrians, 
 the Jacobites, the Maronites, the Armenians, and others. 
 The Copts tie a girdle around the baptismal robe. Many 
 Christians of antiquity used to put a ring on the finger of 
 the baptized. The Ethiopians place on the neck of the 
 child a cord of three colors, in honor of the Trinity ; and in 
 Russia they hang a golden cross around the neck of the 
 child. ■ 
 
 In the Latin Rite, the priest hands to the sponsors the 
 lighted candle. Some think the candle came from the 
 East, where the Brahmans worship the sun, as the source of 
 life and heat, with many candles lighting in their services. 
 Others say the candle came from the customs of the Cata- 
 combs, which the early Christians lighted up with candles ; 
 while others suppose, and with more reason, that the can- 
 dle came from the words of Christ : ^' I am the light of the 
 world." The Jews light a candle at the ceremony of the 
 circumcision of their children. The best authors say that 
 the baptismal candle comes from the Apostles, as it is 
 spoken of by many authors and fathers of the early ages. 
 St. Anselm says the wax signifies the body of our Lord, 
 the wick his soul, and the flame his divinity. We put a 
 candle into the hands of the newly baptized, '*that their 
 light may shine before men, and that men may see their 
 good works and glorify their Father who is in heaven." 
 
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 CONFIRMATION 
 
^GOXTiriMATIOrvl: 
 
 ^PIKITUAL life which we receive in 
 baptism is like the life of the child 
 when born, weak and very liable 
 to die. As the child needs its full 
 growth and strength before it be- 
 comes a perfectly developed per- 
 son, so the spiritual life received 
 at the birth of the Christian in 
 baptism wants another sacrament 
 to make him a strong and perfect 
 Christian. That sacrament is confirma- 
 tion. Thus the perfection and strength 
 which requires years of growth in the life 
 of the person in the slowly developing 
 growth of the body is done in a moment, 
 by the work of the Holy Spirit in our souls 
 by confirmation. This sacrament then 
 makes strong and perfect the religious life 
 planted in us by baptism. 
 According to St. Thomas, as it is the sacra- 
 ment of the fullness of grace, the Old Testament 
 has no perfect figure of confirmation, for the law 
 given to the Jews was not perfect. It only re- 
 lated to and prepared for the perfection of Christ 
 and of the Church (Heb. vii). Yet some of the 
 fathers and writers of the early ages see in the ceremonies 
 of the Jews many types and figures of confirmation. Ter- 
 tullion says it was prefigured by the horn of oil with which 
 the priests of the old law were anointed. Isidore thinks it 
 was typified by the anointing of the kings of Israel, because 
 by baptism and confirmation the Christian becomes a king. 
 Thus when the Jews were washed, they were anointed on 
 their heads with oil, and remaining seven days (Exod. xxx. 
 19, 20, 30), they prefigured this sacrament with its sevenfold 
 gifts of the Holy Spirit. Again, the eyes of the Jews were 
 
124 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 anointed in the form of the letter X, which signified the 
 sign of the cross, with which we are anointed in confirma- 
 tion. This oil among the Jews was made of many per- 
 
 THB JEWISH IMPOSITION OP HANDS, OB CONFIRMATION. 
 
 fumes, which prefigured the chrism used by us in confirma- 
 tion, made of oil and balsam. When, as used by the East- 
 ern Christians, it is made up of thirty sweetly smelling per- 
 fumes. These ideas may be seen in the writings of St. 
 Cyprian, the bishop of Ancient Carthage. 
 
CONFIRMATION. 125 
 
 The Jews also had the ceremony of the imposition of 
 hands, as we read that when Jacob blessed his grandsons, 
 he imposed his hands upon their heads (Gen. xlviii. 14) 
 in the form of a cross, when, according to TertuUian, he 
 called down on them the Holy Ghost. From that time the 
 Jews were accustomed to bless their children by the imposi- 
 tion of hands, as seen in the engraving. When Moses was 
 dying on the mount, where he gave the charge of the 
 Israelites into the hands of Josue, he imposed his hands on 
 him, and "Josue, the son of Nun, was filled with the spirit 
 of wisdom, because Moses had laid his hand upon him " 
 (Deut. xxxiv. 9). From that time he was filled with power 
 and strength to fight the battles of the Lord. The Holy 
 Spirit dwelling in him, he fought against and conquered all 
 the enemies of Israel. In the same way we read that many 
 times our Lord imposed his hand on his Apostles, and gave 
 them power to heal and work miracles. Thus the imposi- 
 tion of hands always signified power and force. 
 
 Confirmation comes from the Latin, and signifies to com- 
 plete, to finish, to strengthen, or to make strong. It has 
 been defined in many ways by writers, according to its 
 effects, its nature, or its ceremonies. By Luke, Sts. Augus- 
 tine, Isidore, and many others, it is called "the imposition 
 of hands ;" by Dionysius, " the mystery of anointing ; " by 
 St. Augustin, "the sacrament of chrism;" by the Council 
 of Laodicea, " the holy or the heavenly chrism ; " by Leo the 
 Great, "the chrism of salvation;" by Theodoret, "the 
 chrism of spiritual anointment;" by Pope Cornelius, "the 
 seal by which the Holy Spirit is received ; " by St. Cyprian, 
 "the seal of the Lord ;" and by Pope Leo the Great, "the 
 seal of everlasting life." According, then, to St. Thomas, 
 "The fullness of Christian grace, sufiicient for salvation, is 
 given in baptism ; and the fullness of grace to resist temp- 
 tation is given in confirmation." In baptism the germ of 
 the Christian life is given us ; in confirmation that life is 
 made strong and perfect. 
 
 Confirmation, then, is a sacrament which makes us strong 
 and perfect Christians. It is a sacrament instituted by 
 Christ, in which, by the imposition of hands and the 
 anointing with chrism on the forehead, with a prescribed 
 form, the Holy Spirit is given to the baptized, that they 
 may firmly believe and strongly defend their faith. 
 
126 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 The Scriptures prove that confirmation is one of the seven 
 sacraments. When Philip the Apostle converted the people 
 of Samaria, "they were baptized, both men and women" 
 (Acts viii. 12). " When the Apostles who were in Jerusa- 
 lem had heard that Samaria had received the word of God, 
 they sent unto them Peter and John, who, when they were 
 come, prayed for them that they might receive the Holy 
 Ghost. For he was not yet come upon any of them, but 
 they were only baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then 
 they laid their hands upon them, and they received the Holy 
 Ghost'' (Acts viii. 14, 15, 16, 17). We see by these words 
 that baptism was not enough, but that the imposition of 
 hands was also required by the Apostles, in order to com- 
 plete the grace of baptism. Again, we read that when 
 St. Paul had preached the Gospel to the people of Ephesus, 
 "Having heard these things, they were baptized in the 
 name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had imposed his 
 hands on them, the Holy Ghost came upon them" (Acts 
 xix. 6). 
 
 We read also that Christ by the imposition of his holy 
 hands healed diseases (Math. ix. 18 ; Mark v. 23). We are 
 also told by the fathers of the Church, that when Christ 
 laid his hands on the heads of little children, he gave his 
 Apostles a figure of the Christian confirmation. The Apos- 
 tles were confirmed when the Holy Ghost came down on 
 them on Pentecost Sunday in the form of tongues of fire, 
 and sat on the heads of each (Acts ii.). 
 
 Thus we find in the Bible a sensible sign, the imposition 
 of hands ; the institution by Christ as appears ; an ordinance 
 giving grace or the Holy Spirit for the salvation of men, and 
 therefore a sacrament. This has been the constant and uni- 
 versal tradition of the Church, from the days of the Apos- 
 tles up to our times. We could cite the words of St. Cyprian, 
 the bishop of Carthage, in the north of Africa ; the Homilies 
 of St. Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople ; the 
 writings of the great St. Augustin, bishop of Hippo ; the 
 words of St. Jerome, who lived at Bethlehem, and the 
 writers of all ages, proving confirmation to be a sacrament. 
 
 Clement of Rome, the fourth to sit on Peter's chair as 
 bishop of Rome, and who died in the third year of the reign 
 of Trajan, when writing to the Corinthians, says : "A full 
 outpouring of the Holy Spirit has been given to all." Cer- 
 
CONFIRMATION. 127 
 
 tainly he here speaks of confirmation. Justin the Martyr, 
 who was put to death at Rome in the year 163, says : " First 
 we anoint with oil, then in the holy font, then the mysteries 
 are furnished, after that we sign with the anointment." 
 Theophilus, the sixth bishop of Antioch from St. Peter, in 
 the days of the emperor Mark Aurelius, wrote : "What 
 mortal, who goes forth in this life, who begins the fight on 
 the arena of this life, and is not anointed with oil ? What 
 work can be considered beautiful unless finished, and, as it 
 were, illuminated with beauty ? Besides, the air and every 
 creature under heaven is anointed with light and by the 
 Spirit, and you refuse to be bought for God with oil. Cer- 
 tainly, no one bears the Christian name who has not been 
 anointed with divine oil." St. Ireneus, who became bishop 
 of Lyons in the year 180, explaining the words of St. Paul, 
 says : " On whomever the Apostles imposed their hands, 
 they received the Holy Spirit, which is the food of life." 
 Tertullian, who lived under Severus, says: "The flesh is 
 anointed that the soul may be consecrated, the flesh is 
 signed that the soul may be strengthened, the flesh is over- 
 shadowed by the hand that the soul may be enlightened by 
 the Spirit." 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, Origin's teacher, says of the priest 
 who received into his house and baptized a young man, 
 that "he signed him with the seal of Christ," meaning that 
 he was confirmed. Origin, that wonderful mind of the 
 early Church, speaks of "the oil, by which the true light 
 and the fire of knowledge is lighted, is put on the head by 
 the hands of the priest." Again he writes, that "the gift 
 of the grace of the Spirit is typified by the figure of oil, by 
 which not only they may be purged, but filled with the Holy 
 Ghost." St. Cyprian, a teacher of rhetoric and a senator of 
 Carthage, who became the bishop of that city in the year 
 250, writes : " It is necessary to anoint the one who is bap- 
 tized, whence there is no spiritual anointing among heretics, 
 because that oil by which the baptized are anointed is sanc- 
 tified on the altar." When, in the year 256, the seventy-two 
 bishops of Africa gathered in the Council of Carthage, they 
 debated if persons baptized by heretics could be confirmed, 
 and wrongly concluded that such a baptism was null and 
 void. Firmilian, one of Origin's disciples, and who was 
 present at the Synod of Antioch, in 253, wrote: "By the 
 
128 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 hands of the hishop," he says, "the Holy Ghost is given to 
 each one believing as the Apostles did to the Samaritans." 
 A council held towards the end of the third century stated 
 in the clearest terms, in three canons, the doctrine of con- 
 firmation such as we have it to-day. 
 
 The ecclesiastical monuments of the fourth century give 
 us the same doctrine. The Council of Aries, held under 
 Bishop Constantino in 314, states that ''baptized pagans in 
 danger of death should be confirmed." The Council of 
 Laodicea, held in 320, under Pope Sylvester, directed that 
 those heretics who, when converted and taught the princi- 
 ples of religion, should be baptized, confirmed, and admitted 
 to the holy table. The Council of Nice, held in 325, com- 
 manded that converts should be received by the imposition 
 of hands. The same might be said of many provincial or 
 national councils held about this time. 
 
 The Council of Constantinople, held in 381, which was the 
 Second Ecumenical Council of the Church, says, speaking 
 of the baptized : '* We say that signing them writes the seal 
 of the gift of the Holy Spirit. * * * * " 
 
 St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, says that we are called 
 Christians ''because we become so after we have received 
 the image of the Holy Ghost. Christ, when he was washed 
 in the river Jordan, communicated to the waters the fra- 
 grance of his divinity. He went out and the Holy Spirit 
 substantially came down on him, resting also on those like 
 him. You in the same way, when you have come out 
 of the waters of the holy font, chrism is marked on you, 
 which is the image of him, who was anointed as Christ, 
 but this is the Holy Ghost." St. Basil, the bishop of Cesse- 
 rea in Cappadocia, who died in 378, speaks of the consecra- 
 tion of this oil, and says it is done according to the traditions 
 of the Apostles. Gregory of !N'azianzen, who died in 389, 
 speaks of confirmation. St. Ambrose, who from a layman 
 became the bishop of Milan, and who died in 397, speaks of 
 this sacrament in his book on Solomon, and in his work on 
 receiving converts. St. Chrysostom, archbishop of Constan- 
 tinople, who died in 407, in his Homily on the Acts, and in 
 other places, preached to his people this doctrine of the im- 
 position of hands. St. Jerome, who died in 420, in many 
 parts of his works gives the same teaching. Pope Innocent 
 I., who was elected in 402, writes of the sacrament of con- 
 
CONFIRMATION. 129 
 
 firmation in his Epistle to Decentius Eugubinus. St. Augus- 
 tin, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, who was ordained a priest in 
 the year 391, speaks clearly of confirmation. He gives the 
 doctrine in so many places that we have not space to cite 
 here. St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, who succeeded to 
 that See in 431, says : " There is given to us as rain the living 
 waters of baptism, as wine blood. Then comes also the use 
 of oil, by which those who through baptism are justified in 
 Christ are made perfect." 
 
 Pope Leo the Great, who was elected in 461, writes: *^ Re- 
 main strong in the faith, which you have confessed before 
 many witnesses, and in which you were re-born through 
 water and the Holy Spirit. You have received the chrism 
 of salvation and the seal of everlasting life." St. Gregory, 
 elected archbishop of Tours in 574, writing a history of the 
 baptism of Clovis, king of France, says : ^'The great king 
 confessed God in the Trinity, was baptized in the name of 
 the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. He 
 was anointed with holy chrism and with the seal of the 
 cross of Christ." Gregory I., who was elected Pope in 590, 
 wrote: '^Balsam with oil, by episcopal blessing, becomes 
 chrism, by which the gift of the Holy Spirit is given." 
 Eulogius, who was elected archbishop of Alexandria in 581, 
 speaking of the sacraments, says : ^' After the people have 
 been baptized by progress in the faith, they become worthy 
 of the coming of the Holy Ghost, which is given by the 
 imposition of the hands of the Apostles." 
 
 The fourth Council of Toledo, held in the year 633, forbade 
 Jews to be forced to believe, and commands them to be 
 confirmed when they are willing. Isidore, who is called by 
 the eighth Council of Toledo, ''The great doctor and the 
 latest ornament of the Church," writes : ''After our Lord, 
 who is the true King and the eternal Priest, and who was 
 anointed by a mystic anointment by his heavenly Father, 
 not only bishops and kings, but every member of the 
 Church is consecrated by the anointment of chrism, because 
 he is a member of the eternal Priest and King." Again, in 
 another place, he says: "After baptism, through the 
 bishop, the Holy Ghost is given by the imposition of 
 hands." Venerable Bede, that prodigy of learning, born in 
 England in 670, speaks so plainly of confi.rmation in many 
 parts of his remarkable works, when explaining the mean- 
 
130 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 ing of the Scriptural account of the Apostles sending Peter 
 and John to confirm the Samaritans, converted by St. Philip. 
 Pope Gregory II., who ascended Peter's chair in 714, when 
 consulted by St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, regard- 
 ing confirmation, replied : *' Regarding a man who has been 
 confirmed by a bishop, it is forbidden to confer again the 
 sacrament." Gregory III., who became Pope in 731, when 
 asked by the same St. Boniface if those who had been bap- 
 tized by pronouncing the words of baptism in the language 
 of the country, if they should be baptized again, the reply 
 of the Pope was: ''They should be confirmed by the im- 
 position of hands, and the anointing of holy chrism." 
 
 The Roman Ordo, which was either compiled from pre- 
 ceding works, or written in the eighth century, contains the 
 matter, form, and ceremonies of confirmation, so that they 
 certainly were confirmed in this century. Alcuinus, the 
 disciple of the Venerable Bede, and who lived in the days 
 of the great Charlemagne, writing of the sacraments, 
 speaks so clearly of this sacrament. Theodulphus, the 
 bishop of Aries, writes in one of his pastorals: "No one 
 should be confirmed, nor baptized, nor stand sponsor for 
 another, nor be presented to the bishop for confirmation, 
 unless he knows by heart the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's 
 Prayer." The Capitules, edited by Charlemagne in 801, 
 prohibited any Vicar General "from giving the Holy 
 Ghost by the imposition of hands." Raban Maur, the 
 disciple of Alcuinus, says: "These are the sacraments; 
 baptism and chrism, body and blood," and in many other 
 places of his works, he speaks so clearly of confirmation. 
 Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, France, in 845, speaks of 
 the different ways of imposing hands, and mentions con- 
 firmation as being one of the sacraments. Herard, arch- 
 bishop of Tours, France, in 858, promulgated a law : "That 
 those who come for confirmation should be fasting and of 
 adult age ; that they should first go to confession, that they 
 may be innocent when receiving the Holy Ghost." Photius, 
 the author of the Greek Schism, when he became the arch- 
 bishop of Constantinople in 858, interprets the words of 
 St. Paul : " The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts 
 by the Holy Ghost, which is given to us " (Rom. v. 5), to 
 mean the sacrament of confirmation, and the members of 
 the Greek Church hold the same ideas to' this day. 
 
CONFIRMATION. 131 
 
 Thus we have given only a few passages from the writ- 
 ers of the first ten centuries of the Church, space forbidding 
 us to cite more. At the same time we could have given 
 numerous decrees and canons of the most famous councils ; 
 we could cite the historic incidents of the confirmation of 
 princes and of kings, which took place during the first 
 thousand years of Christianity, all showing how unanimous 
 and universal was the belief and practice relating to con- 
 firmation in the early Christian Church. Where could this 
 doctrine have come from, if not from the Apostles ? Can 
 any one show when it had a beginning otherwise than at 
 the time of Christ ? Can any one point out any other 
 author of confirmation but Christ ? 
 
 Not one of the ancient heretics in the early ages denied 
 confirmation to be a sacrament instituted by Christ. Theo- 
 doret mentions the Novatians of his time as not giving con- 
 firmation with chrism. Up to the time of Wicklif and the 
 Hussites, all Christendom believed in this sacrament. These 
 claimed that simple priests were the ordinary ministers of 
 this sacrament. Luther and Calvin were the first to deny 
 the doctrine of confirmation. 
 
 In the churches of the East there is no imposition of hands, 
 although in the first ages of Christianity they confirmed in 
 this way. Now they confirm altogether with chrism. Still 
 the imposition of hands is commanded in the Rituals of the 
 Nestorians of Chaldea, who confirm immediately after 
 baptism. The churches of the East consider the anoint- 
 ing with chrism as the necessary part of confirmation, 
 which they call the sacrament of chrism, or simply chrism. 
 St. Cyril, of Jerusalem, says that confirmation was given 
 in his time in the churches by anointing the forehead, the 
 ears, the nostrils, and the heart. In other places, they 
 anointed the whole body, but all considered the anointing of 
 the forehead as the chief. The first Council of Constanti- 
 nople ordered also the lips to be anointed, and St. Gregory, of 
 Nazianzen, speaks of anointing the eyes. This was the cus- 
 tom among the Greeks for the first four centuries. The 
 anointment of the forehead was always made in the form of 
 a cross among all Christians of ancient times. 
 
 The imposition of hands and the anointing with oil were 
 always accompanied with prayers and words of blessing, 
 all of which were carried out with great ceremony by the 
 
132 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 early Christians, as they invoked the Holy Spirit with his 
 sevenfold gifts. 
 
 The words used when confirming have not always been 
 the same. Since the twelfth century, the words used in the 
 Latin Rite are " I sign thee with the sign of the cross, and 
 confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in the name of 
 the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." The 
 Roman Ordo, written in the eighth century, has, '^Icon- 
 firm thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and 
 of the Holy Ghost." Amalarius speaks of a Ritual in 
 which the form was, *'In the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." According to Alcuinus, 
 this was practiced in his day in France. In England, the 
 form of words was like ours to-day. An early English 
 Pontifical in Latin, still preserved in the Church of Rouen, 
 has a long form of words different from any used in our 
 times. The Pontifical of Egbert, archbishop of York, Eng- 
 land, says : '^ Here the bishop should apply the chrism to 
 the forehead of the man and say, ' Receive the sign of the 
 holy cross with the chrism of salvation in Jesus Christ our 
 Lord unto everlasting life, Amen.' " In the Galasian Sacra- 
 mentary, preserved in manuscript, more than 900 years old, 
 it says : "Afterwards he signs them on the forehead, say- 
 ing, ' The sign of the cross unto everlasting life. Amen.' " 
 
 The same may be seen in other Rituals and ancient works 
 of these ages. You will see that they are substantially the 
 same as we have to-day. 
 
 The words used to-day by the Greeks are, ''The seal of 
 the gift of the Holy Spirit," when they anoint the forehead, 
 but they use other words when they anoint different parts 
 of the body. These words are given in the first Council of 
 
 Constantinople. The Jacobites of Syria say, " N , receive 
 
 the seal of the holy chrism of the good odor of the Holy 
 Ghost unto everlasting life. Amen," words which they at- 
 tribute to Severus, patriarch of Antioch. Nearly the same 
 words are found in their office attributed to St. Basil. The 
 Coptic Jacobites, of Egypt, use about the same form. The 
 words used by the Ethiopians are, "May it be the anoint- 
 ment of the Holy Spirit, Amen." The Episcopalians make 
 all about to be confirmed renew their baptismal vows ; but 
 as they do not use chrism or oil at their confirmation, they 
 have no form of words relating to it. Such is a short sum- 
 
CONFIRMATION. 133 
 
 mary of the forms of confirmation used by the different 
 churches, which are either in unison with the Catholic 
 Church, or which separated from this mother of all 
 Churches, during the civil or religious revolutions which 
 have convulsed Christianity since the time of Christ. 
 
 Some writers claim that the anointing with chrism is the 
 essential part of confirmation, while others contend that it 
 consists in the imposition of hands. The Christians of the 
 East have the former alone, the Episcopalians have the 
 latter alone, while the Catholic Church uses both. Still 
 some writers of great weight say that the Eastern Christians 
 impose their hands on those to be confirmed, when they 
 anoint their foreheads. When the Greeks united with the 
 Catholic Church so many times, their sacraments were 
 considered as valid, and they were not required to change 
 their ancient rites and ceremonies. 
 
 Among the Copts, the chrism is made of thirty-five dif- 
 ferent kinds of aromatic oils and sweetly smelling herbs. 
 In the East, the whole of Lent is taken up with the cere- 
 mony of blessing these materials for the sacraments. This 
 is the practice also among all the Oriental churches. A 
 whole book among the Copts is composed of the prayers 
 and directions how to bless the chrism. Besides the oil of 
 olives and balsam, they use the extract of many flowers, 
 the nature of which we do not know, as well as ambergris, 
 aloes, cloves, nutmegs, spikenard, the red roses of Irak, 
 and many others mixed with the precious perfumes of the 
 East. 
 
 The Greeks use even forty different kinds of perfumes 
 and materials in their chrism. Nothing is more solemn than 
 this ceremony among them. When the archbishop of Con- 
 stantinople consecrates these holy oils, he is assisted by 
 his suffragan bishops, and a host of priests and clergymen. 
 This great ceremony is not carried out each year. The 
 metropolitans of Constantinople are so jealous of their 
 rights in this matter that, in 1200, the primate of the Bul- 
 garians was refused the right of blessing the chrism. The 
 latter then appealed to Pope Innocent III. , who freely al- 
 lowed the bishops of that country the right of blessing the 
 holy oils, and that independently of the archbishop of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 In the Latin Church, we do not carry out these cere- 
 
134 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 monies with the same pomp and grandeur, such as is seen 
 among the Christians of the East. In the work written by 
 us, entitled " The Festal Year," on pp. 255 to 263, are found 
 the ceremonies of the blessing of the holy oils on Holy 
 Thursday, where the meaning of those beautiful and ven- 
 erable ceremonies of antiquity are fully explained. 
 
 From the writings of Tertullian, Sts. Cyprian, Augustin, 
 and others, we learn that in the first ages, confirmation 
 was given directly after baptism. That was the discipline 
 up to the thirteenth century, when the bishops baptized. 
 When they began to build baptisteries in the country 
 churches, it was impossible for the bishops to baptize all. 
 Then councils directed those baptized by priests to be pre- 
 sented to the bishop for confirmation, because this latter 
 sacrament was always reserved to the bishops of the 
 Western Church. 
 
 During the fourth century they separated these two sacra- 
 ments in many places where the bishop did not reside. 
 All writings show that they gave confirmation as soon as 
 possible after baptism, because so many adults were bap- 
 tized in these early times. The bishops of England were so 
 solicitous about having children confirmed as soon as 
 possible, that in a Synod held at Wigorne in 1240, they 
 directed parents to have their children confirmed within a 
 year after their birth. Another Synod, held at Oxford in 
 1287, condemned parents to fast on bread and water on 
 Fridays till they got their children confirmed. The council 
 held at Cologne in 1280 required children to be confirmed 
 at the age of seven. Many councils of France directed that 
 they should not be confirmed before their seventh year. 
 The Catechism of the Council of Trent requests children to 
 wait till they are twelve before receiving confirmation. 
 This is the discipline of our day. The bishops used to con- 
 firm in any place — in the church, vestry, or in buildings 
 sometimes erected for that purpose. 
 
 The ancient custom is to have sponsors for those to be 
 confirmed. St. Charles Borromeo desired that they should 
 be of the same sex, and that they should not be far ad- 
 vanced in age. The same had been directed before his time 
 by many councils. In 829 the Council of Paris declared 
 public penitents incapable of being sponsors. The Ponti- 
 fical of Egbert, archbishop of York, written in beautiful 
 
CONFIRMATION. 135 
 
 Saxon letters, the Councils of Wigorne and of Cologne, all 
 speak of the fillet or band wrapped around the forehead of 
 the confirmed, and worn for seven days after the ceremony, 
 in honor of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 Adults before confirmation always went to confession. 
 That was prescribed by the Constitutions of Odon, bishop 
 of Paris, by the decrees of the Council of Cologne, and by 
 many councils held at different times and places. This is 
 according to the universal traditions of the Apostles. 
 
 Confirmation, like baptism, is never given twice. That is 
 the constant tradition and practice of all Christian churches, 
 both in the East as well as in the West. St. Cyprian, bishop 
 of Carthage, supposing that heretics could not administer 
 confirmation, confirmed again those he converted to the 
 Church, but Pope Stephen decided against him. The 
 bishops assembled at the Council of Aries in 314, wrote to 
 Pope St. Sylvester, stating that when converts came into the 
 Church, they questioned them relating to the way in which 
 they had been baptized. If in the name of the Father, and 
 of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, they imposed hands on 
 them, that they might receive the Holy Ghost. A valid 
 confirmation was never knowingly conferred again in the 
 Church, because, like baptism, this sacrament imprints a 
 character, and therefore it should be received only once. 
 The Greek Church follows the decrees of the Council of 
 Constantinople, which states that '^the Arians, the Mace- 
 donians, the Sabbatians, and the Novatians, shall give 
 Tvritten testimony, by which they anathematize every 
 heresy which is foreign to the belief of the holy Catholic 
 and Apostolic Church. After which they will receive the 
 seal, that is to say, they will be first anointed with holy 
 chrism on their foreheads, on their eyes, at the nostrils, on 
 the mouth," etc. They were received thus because of the 
 peculiar errors of the Arians, who denied the divinity of 
 Christ. The other sects mentioned followed singular 
 teachings. 
 
 The Acts of the Apostles tells us that when the deacon 
 Philip had converted and baptized the people of Samaria, 
 he left, and the Apostles sent Peter and John, two Apostles, 
 to confirm the converts. They could have sent some of the 
 priests, if priests were the ones to confirm. The ancient 
 fathers are very clear in saying that it belongs to the 
 
136 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 bishop to confirm. Besides, as the bishops mostly baptized 
 in the first ages, they confirmed directly afterwards. 
 This discipline of restricting confirmation entirely to the 
 bishops has been preserved all through the Western Church 
 up to our times. Wherever a priest confirmed, except by 
 the express permission of the Pope, he was corrected both 
 by the bishops and in many famous councils, such as the 
 sixth of Paris in 827, that of Meaux in 843, and others. 
 Still, many examples are found in history of simple priests 
 confirming by the authority of the Church. 
 
 SS. Ambrose and Augustine tell us that in their day, 
 when the bishop was absent, throughout Egypt the priests 
 confirmed, from whence it spread throughout the whole of 
 the East, where the priests now confirm as well as baptize. 
 That became the custom about the ninth century. Popes 
 Innocent III. and IV. wished to introduce the discipline of 
 the Western Church among the Christians of the East, but 
 the decree was never published. In the Council of Florence, 
 they gave Pope Eugenius their reasons for this custom of 
 allowing priests to confirm, and there was no dispute on 
 that point when they united with the Latin Church. The 
 custom of priests confirming goes back in history beyond 
 the time of their separation from us, and is lost in antiquity 
 before the origin of the Nestorians and the Jacobites. 
 Popes Leo X. and Clement VII. decreed that the Greeks 
 should not be disturbed in their discipline and ceremonies, 
 and therefore we agree with them on these points. 
 
 All know the history of the first Pentecost Sunday at 
 Jerusalem, when the Apostles were confirmed, and the 
 wonderful miracles which then took place. They were then 
 given a force and a power to overturn the empire of Satan, 
 and to convert the world to the Gospel of Christ. The 
 Acts tells us that the Apostles, by the imposition of hands, 
 gave the same power to those they confirmed. Simon 
 (Acts viii.) tried to buy, with money, the power of con- 
 firming and conferring the grace of miracles on those upon 
 whom he imposed his hands. These miracles were neces- 
 sary for the infant Church. St. Luke, in the Acts, tells us 
 that there were prophets and doctors in the Church of 
 Antioch. History states that wonders and miracles were 
 seen in every church when the people were confirmed. St. 
 Paul speaks of the Church at Ephesus, at Tyre, at Cesserea, 
 
CONFIRMATION. 139 
 
 at Jerusalem, and of the wondrous miracles performed at 
 the confirmation of the first converts. 
 
 We see by these historic monuments how common were 
 the supernatural effects of this sacrament in the first days 
 of the Church. They were called the gifts of the Holy 
 Spirit, the gift of tongues, or simply the Holy Ghost. Some, 
 when confirmed, received the knowledge of knowing hidden 
 secrets, others the power of reading the thoughts of men, 
 others the gift of working miracles, others the wisdom of 
 preaching the Word of God, others the science of human 
 knowledge, others could heal the sick, and others many 
 powers which were necessary at that time for the spread 
 of the Gospel. Thus St. Paul says that there were '' diverse 
 gifts of the same Holy Spirit." '^Some," he says, are 
 called "to be Apostles, some prophets, some teachers, some 
 to heal the sick, some to speak in diverse tongues " (I. Cor. 
 xii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11). 
 
 In the engraving on the opposite page is seen the man- 
 ner of confirming in the early Christian Church. 
 
 These wonderful and supernatural works continued in 
 the early Church, after the death of the Apostles. St. 
 Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, who was martyred eight years 
 after the death of St. John, the last of the Apostles, in his 
 letter to the people of Philadelphia, writes of these prodi- 
 gies as still existing in his time. Eusebius, the historian, 
 tells us that many were filled with wonderful works during 
 the first century of the Christian religion. 
 
 Quadrat, the first defender of the faith, who himself pre- 
 sented his written defense to the emperor Adrian, the 
 daughters of the deacon Philip, Ammea, the deaconess, and 
 many others worked wonders during this time. St. Justin 
 the Martyr tells us that these prodigies were still common 
 in the Church in his age. St. Ireneus, who died towards the 
 beginning of the third century, testifies to these gifts of 
 the Holy Spirit. During this century these wonders be- 
 came less common, and after the Church was given her 
 liberty, by the conversion of Constantine, not being longer 
 necessary, we hear less of them. Still they have always 
 existed in the Church, for God can raise up prophets and 
 Apostles now, when the good of religion requires it, as well 
 as in the beginning of the Christian Church. 
 
 The material part of confirmation consists in the imposi- 
 
140 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 tion of hands, in the anointing with chrism, or in both. 
 The Council of Trent says nothing of the imposition of 
 hands, but speaks of chrism. This chrism is made of the 
 oil of olives, mixed with balsam. It is blessed with great 
 ceremony, with the other oils, on Holy Thursday. 
 
 The chrism is called by Dionysius "an oil made holy by 
 divine power, and the completing anointment by which the 
 coming down of the Holy Spirit is spread." By Theophilus, 
 of Antioch, it is called '' the divine oil of God." Tertullian 
 says it is "an anointment, by which the flesh is anointed 
 and the soul consecrated." Cornelius calls it "the seal 
 without which the Holy Spirit cannot be received." St. 
 Cyprian declares it "the spiritual anointment," by which 
 "the candidate is the anointed of God, and has in him the 
 grace of Christ." By the Council of Laodicea, it is spoken 
 of as "the holy chrism," by which "we become partakers 
 of the kingdom of Christ." The Council of Constantinople 
 proclaimed it "the holy chrism, and the seal of the Holy 
 Spirit." Paceanus writes that " it is the anointment of the 
 Holy Ghost," "the sacrament of chrism, by which the 
 Holy Spirit is given." St. Cyril, of Jerusalem, confesses 
 that it is "the holy anointment, * * * * which has the 
 force of the Holy Ghost, whose divinity comes by it." St. 
 Ambrose, writing of chrism, says "it is the anointment, 
 by which Christ gives the Holy Spirit," and "by which 
 God anoints us unto everlasting life." St. Augustin speaks 
 of it as "the sign of Christ," "the oil of God," and "the 
 sacrament of God." St. Cyril, of Alexandria, taught that 
 it is "the oil, by the use of which those who by holy baptism 
 are already justified in Christ are finished Christians." 
 Isidore, of Spain, says "it is the heavenly and mystic 
 anointment, by which every church is anointed, and the 
 chrism by which man after baptism is sanctified. For as 
 in baptism, sins are forgiven, thus by anointing the sanc- 
 tification of the Holy Ghost is given." Venerable Bede 
 wrote so many years ago that "chrism is the highest gift 
 of the Holy Ghost. They sign the forehead when they 
 give the holy Paraclete to the baptized, as visible anoint- 
 ment, which is a sacrament of an unseen anointment, or 
 the Holy Spirit." Raban Maur exclaims it is "chrism by 
 which the Holy Ghost, by the force of his power, sanctifies 
 those who believe." Pope John VIII. defined it " the salva- 
 
CONFIRMATION. iii 
 
 tion and the true perfection of all Christendom." Such is 
 the testimony of the writers of the early ages of the Church, 
 showing by their unanimous and powerful voices that holy 
 chrism used in confirmation comes from the times of the 
 Apostles. We could have given the testimony of many 
 others, and bring forth the witnesses of faith, who lived in 
 the after ages of the Church up to our times, but space will 
 not permit. 
 
 Some writers think that it is to be believed as an article of 
 faith that chrism is the material part of confirmation. 
 Others of great weight say that the imposition of hands is 
 the material part of the sacrament. Still other writers 
 think that the sacrament consists in both the imposition of 
 hands and the anointing with oil, taken both together. As 
 both are always used in confirmation, and as the Church 
 has defined nothing relating to the controversy, it is only a 
 theoretical question, and we are free to believe as we think fit. 
 
 The Apostles confirmed by the imposition of hands, as we 
 see that when Peter and John went to confirm the converts 
 of Samaria, "they laid their hands upon them, and they 
 received the Holy Ghost" (Acts viii. 17). Also when St. 
 Paul came to Ephesus and *' had imposed his hands on them, 
 the Holy Ghost came upon them" (Acts xix. 6). Again St. 
 Paul speaks of the "imposition of hands" in his Epistle to 
 the Hebrews (Heb. vi. 2). That it was the belief of the early 
 Church, as we see by the testimony of SS. Ireneus and of Ter- 
 tuUian in the second century; of Origin, Cyprian, Firmelian, 
 and a council in the third century ; by the words of SS. Chry- 
 sostom, Ambrose, and of the Councils of Nice and of Aries 
 in the fourth century ; by the testimony of SS. Augustin, 
 Jerome, Leo the Great, Theodore, and of many others in the 
 fifth century, and by the works of Gregory the Great and 
 of many others in the sixth century. After this century the 
 testimony of the writers on the imposition of hands became 
 very numerous in each age up to our times. 
 
 The sacramentary of Gregory the Great contains word 
 for word the form given in the Pontifical used in our days, 
 when the bishop extends his hands over all before confirm- 
 ing each singly. We may say that twice the hands of the 
 bishop are extended over the ones to be confirmed, in the 
 beginning, when saying the prayer mentioned above, and 
 when signing each with chrism on the forehead. 
 
142 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 The Greeks in the early ages extended their hands when 
 confirming. That can be seen from their works written in 
 the first three centuries and in their books of rites and 
 ceremonies. This imposition of hands took place among 
 them before they anointed the forehead. The imposition or 
 extending of the hands signifies the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost on the heads of the Apostles. The priests of the Old 
 Law held their hands over the animals for the sacrifice, and 
 the priest now holds them over the bread and wine before 
 the consecration in the Mass. 
 
 It appears that the ceremony of imposing the hands on 
 those to be confirmed has always been in the Western 
 Church from the times of the Apostles, as can be seen by the 
 testimony of the Fathers. It is not found among the 
 Greeks. Tertullian, Cyprian, and some of the great fathers 
 from the first to the ninth centuries believed that it was 
 necessary for the validity of the sacrament, but after that 
 time it was considered only as one of the ceremonies of the 
 sacrament. In 619 the eleventh Council of Hespalen forbade 
 priests to confirm by the imposition of hands, because they 
 had not been elevated to the episcopacy. 
 
 Some solid writers think that it is necessary for the sacra- 
 ment that the hands be elevated over those to be confirmed. 
 Photius, the archbishop of Constantinople in the ninth cen- 
 tury and the author of the Greek schism, taught that con- 
 firmation was given by the imposition of hands. Even to 
 our day we see that such has been the practice among the 
 Greeks. In the times of Pope Gregory I. the Arians con- 
 firmed by the imposition of hands and by anointing with 
 chrism. The ancient Greeks, before their separation from 
 the Church, imposed hands on all to be confirmed before 
 they anointed them with oil. That is proved by the writings 
 of the early saints among them. In the Church of England 
 and in the Episcopal Church of this country, they confirm 
 only by the imposition of hands. The writer was aston- 
 ished at seeing in Hook's Church Dictionary that they claim 
 we do not use this ceremony. They also say that confirma- 
 tion is not a sacrament, but a pious ceremony, and that it was 
 not instituted by Christ. Most Protestant denominations 
 with bishops confirm their baptized. At the Eef ormation in 
 Germany this sacrament was discontinued, but later restored 
 by Spener when the age of reception was fixed at from 
 thirteen to sixteen. 
 
CONFIRMATION. 
 
 143 
 
 In ancient times they confirmed in all parts of the world 
 soon or directly after baptism, but for many centuries they 
 postponed it till the child learned its catechism. 
 
 In the Episcopal and English Church the child renews its 
 baptismal vows at confirmation. Those of high church 
 tendency conform more and more to our ways in these mat- 
 ters. The Copts of Egypt also admit the seven sacraments 
 the same as we do, and hold confirmation as one of them 
 instituted by Christ. The same can be said of all the East- 
 ern Churches. 
 
 The remote material part of confirma- 
 tion is chrism, made of the oil of olives 
 and balsam, blessed on Holy Thursday by 
 the bishop in the Cathedral. The chrism 
 is kept in the chrismal. The near mate- 
 rial of this sacrament is the anointing of 
 the head with this chrism, or the imposi- 
 tion of hands, or both taken together. 
 From this, we conclude that the matter of 
 confirmation does not partly consist in the 
 general imposition of hands, of which we 
 spoke before. 
 
 The anointing with chrism belongs to 
 the essence of confirmation. This appears 
 from the Apostolic way of anointing those 
 they baptized, as St. Paul says : '^ Now he 
 that confirmeth us with you in Christ, and 
 that hath anointed us is God" (II. Cor. 
 i. 21). How plain he speaks of confirming 
 by anointing with oil. Still he continues, ^^ Who also hath 
 sealed us and given the pledge of the Spirit in our hearts" 
 (Ibidem, 22). SS. Ambrose, Theodoret, and many others 
 say that here St. Paul wrote to the Corinthians of confirma- 
 tion which they say was instituted by Christ. These ancient 
 writers say that here St. Paul speaks of confirmation. 
 ''Hath anointed us," they claim means anointing us with 
 chrism, or the external ceremony. ''Hath sealed us," re- 
 lates to the interior character impressed on our souls. " The 
 pledge of the Spirit in our hearts," relates to the chief ef- 
 fect of this sacrament, which is the gift of the Holy Ghost 
 in our hearts. In the same way, the great fathers of the 
 early ages explain the words of St. John (I. Epist. i. 20), 
 
 THE CHKISMAL. 
 
144 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 *' But you have the unction from the Holy One, and know- 
 all things." Of these words, St. Augustin says : " The sacra- 
 ment of unction is an unseen power, w^hile the unseen 
 unction is the Holy Ghost." This is the testimony of all 
 the fathers and writers of the early ages. Those are the 
 men who gathered up the traditions of the Apostles. 
 
 The Rituals of the early Churches, the ceremonials and 
 works of the Eastern Churches, all proclaim that the imposi- 
 tion of the hands with anointing with chrism is essential 
 to this sacrament. We could, if space permitted, begin at 
 the days of the Apostles, and passing in review, century 
 after century, as they flowed down to our time, and clearly 
 show how such great writers taught this doctrine. The 
 Greek eucholoqum to-day prescribes the anointing, but says 
 nothing of the imposition of hands. As all their rituals 
 have the words, '*The Seal of the Holy Ghost," they say 
 that they and the anointing with chrism are essential for 
 confirmation. 
 
 An ancient council says that the Apostles were confirmed 
 by the Holy Ghost, coming in the form of tongues of fire, 
 and resting on their heads ; and that the Apostles them- 
 selves gave that same Holy Spirit to those they confirmed, 
 by the imposition of their hands, when they anointed 
 them on their foreheads. 
 
 Authors do not agree as to the origin of chrism. Some 
 say it was ordained by councils, others that it was intro- 
 duced towards the beginning of the third century, because 
 it is mentioned by Tertullian and some of the ancient 
 fathers. St. Bonaventure thinks it '* was instituted by the 
 rectors of the Church, led by the Holy Spirit," by which he 
 means the successors of the Apostles. Honorius Avrites 
 that the Apostles themselves were the authors of chrism. 
 Some of the old councils have decreed that it was delivered 
 to us by the Apostles. St. Thomas teaches that Christ him- 
 self was its author ; and that from the time of the Apostles 
 it had been spread throughout the world. After deep re- 
 search, we conclude that chrism was instituted by Christ 
 himself, and used by the Apostles. That appears to be cer- 
 tain from the writings and the monuments of the first days 
 of Christianity. It is mentioned by Dionysius, in his cele- 
 brated work on the Ecclesiastical Hierarchia, one of the 
 oldest works of the Christian religion. It is spoken of by 
 
CONFIRMATION. 145 
 
 Theophilus, who was elected patriarch of Alexandria in the 
 year 170. It is found in the works of Ireneus in the first, 
 Grosticus, in the second, and in the writings of the Valen- 
 tinians in the third centuries. In the same way, Tertullian 
 writes of *'the sign in foreheads," which he places among 
 the divine sacraments. As this writer fell from the true 
 faith, if the use of chrism had been instituted after the 
 Apostles, he would have accused the Church of corrup- 
 tion. On the contrary, in his book against Marcion, he 
 speaks of this as a sacrament. 
 
 We cannot find that any of the heretics of the early ages 
 accused the Church of changing in matters relating to 
 chrism, which they certainly would have done if they 
 could, and as they did, regarding some other points of 
 little importance. We might also cite the testimony of 
 St. Cyril of Jerusalem, of St. Basil, of the Great St. 
 Ambrose, and of the various fathers and writers who lived 
 in the first ages, as well as many celebrated councils. They 
 say that the Apostles always signed the ones to be confirmed 
 with chrism when imposing hands on them, and that it was 
 called the imposition of hands. Chrism, in the teachings of 
 the fathers, signifies Christ the Anointed, whence its name 
 chrism, the oil we anoint with. As the Holy Spirit proceeds 
 from Christ the Son, it is so natural that the Holy Spirit be 
 given by chrism, which represents Christ the Son of God. 
 
 The unction with chrism was given on the forehead from 
 the earliest ages. We have the testimony of many early 
 writers on that point. By many it was called "the sign 
 on the forehead." Seven of the early fathers mention it in 
 their works. At that time in certain places they used to 
 anoint not only the forehead, but also the ^y^e senses, or 
 various parts of the body. At Antioch they anointed the 
 various members of the body. The Greeks anoint the 
 senses and the feet when confirming. The great Innocent 
 III. says that, " not only priests and kings are anointed, but 
 also all Christians, because St. Peter says, we are ^ a chosen 
 race and a royal priesthood.'" St. Thomas says we are 
 anointed with chrism on our foreheads, because we become 
 by that the soldiers of Christ. We are anointed on the 
 forehead because that part is never covered. Thus we can, 
 as it were, show the sign of the son of man on our fore- 
 heads. Within that forehead is the brain, the organ of the 
 
14') CONFIRMATION. 
 
 imagination. On the forehead of the Apostles descended 
 the Holy Spirit in the form of tongues of fire. 
 
 The anointment is made hy the bishop in the form of a 
 cross, which is of the highest antiquity, which by some of 
 the fathers is called ^'the seal of the forehead," or "the 
 Lord's sign." It is not certain if this sign of the cross be- 
 longs to the essence of the sacrament, but it is the way of 
 confirming in both the Latin and Greek Churches. 
 
 In the early ages, as well as at the present time, there 
 were two anointments on the head with chrism at baptism, 
 one on the forehead before and the other on the top of the 
 head after receiving the white garments of baptism. These 
 must not be confounded with the anointment at confirma- 
 tion, in reading the early writers. The first was given by 
 the priest, who baptized, the second by the bishop, who 
 confirmed. The first is used to-day only in the Latin or 
 Western Church, while the latter also is in vogue among 
 the Greeks and the Eastern Christians. The vertical unc- 
 tion appears to have been instituted towards the pontificate 
 of Pope Sylvester in the beginning of the fourth century. 
 It was common in the Church of Milan in the days of 
 St. Ambrose. It spread into Spain in the seventh century, 
 and from that time it became general in the Church as a 
 part of the ceremony of baptism. 
 
 The word chrism comes from the Greek, and signifies to 
 anoint with oil. In the language of the Church it means 
 the anointment composed of oil and balsam, used in bap- 
 tism, confirmation, and in the consecration of creatures 
 dedicated to God. One of the objections brought by the 
 Greeks against the Latin Church, in the times of Photius, 
 when they separated from us, was that we used chrism 
 made of river water, which is false. Gregory VII. declared 
 that the chrism used by the Armenians, and composed of 
 oil and mixed with butter, was an abuse, as it must be made 
 of the oil of olives and of balsam. St. Thomas says baptism is 
 given with a simple oil, because it gives simply our spiritual 
 life, while confirmation is given with a compound of oil and 
 balsam, because it gives the Holy Spirit with his multiform 
 gifts. Innocent HI. says : " By oil is signified the purity of 
 our conscience ; by balsam is expressed the odor of our good 
 works." 
 
 It must be made of the oil of olives because, as Yen. Bede 
 
CONFIRMATION. 147 
 
 says, '^ the ever green olive signifies the force and merct of 
 the Holy Ghost."' Oil is used to strengthen the limbs of the 
 athletes, to heal the wounds of the bruised, and to cure 
 those who are burned. Therefore it is apt to signify the 
 healing power of .the Spirit of God. 
 
 Balsam, once only found in Judea, was discovered in 
 India. It used to grow in former times in France. Xow it 
 is found in most parts of North America. 
 
 There is no doubt but oil was used from the beginning of 
 Christianity, as the early writers testify, but Gregory the 
 Great is the first to mention balsam. Ratramnus says that 
 in the ninth century it was used by the Greeks, the Latins, 
 and throughout the whole world. Many writers of the 
 sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries say that Christ com- 
 manded balsam to be mixed with oil for the material part 
 of the sacrament of confirmation. The third Council of 
 Bacarens directs that balsam be mixed with oil according 
 to the ancient traditions of the Church. St. Augustin speaks 
 of it. St. Basil says chrism in his time was made of oil 
 mixed with many elements. Gregory of Tours writes that 
 balsam was used in the days of Prudentius, who lived in 
 the fourth century. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, who lived before 
 his time, gives testimony of the same. The Apostolic Con- 
 stitutions distinguish chrism from simple oil. The Greek 
 fathers might be cited to show the same. Ireneus, who lived 
 in the second century, tells us that the Gnostics and the 
 Valentinians used to baptize and then anoint with oil and 
 balsam, or sometimes with only balsam, or only water, oil 
 and balsam mixed. St. Dionysius, in the first century, says 
 that the chrism in his time was made of sweetly-smelling 
 materials, which we must conclude was balsam. Thus the 
 use of balsam comes from the times of the Apostles. 
 
 It appears that the Greeks used a chrism made not only 
 of oil and balsam, but of many other materials of a sweet 
 smell, which custom is found among them to-day. Some- 
 times they have as many as forty aromatic herbs, producing 
 a most fragrant smell. In the Latin Rite this chrism is 
 blessed only on Holy Thursday, while the Greeks spend 
 nearly the whole Lent in carrying out the ceremony. 
 
 Some writers say that oil is only necessary for the validity 
 of confirmation, while the balsam belongs only to the cere- 
 mony, and might be omitted. Again, others think that bal- 
 
148 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 sam is required for the validity of the sacrament, while 
 some think that it can be given either with oil or with bal- 
 sam alone, or with both. 
 
 Luther and Calvin claimed that the blessing of the chrism 
 was only a kind of superstition. But if they had studied 
 the fathers they would have seen that the ceremony comes 
 from the time of the Apostles. We could cite texts from the 
 writings of the early Church to show that it was used in all 
 ages and in every part of the world soon after the time of 
 our Lord. The blessing or consecration of the chrism belongs 
 to the bishops, and not to the priests, according to the testi- 
 mony of antiquity, as can be shown from the writings of Dio- 
 nysius in the first century ; from the decrees of the second 
 Council of Carthage, held in the year 390 ; from the third 
 council held in the same place in 397; from the words of the 
 first Council of Toledo, held in 400, and from many other 
 synods and councils. Such is the universal custom of our 
 days in the Western Church. Many ancient writers say 
 that the consecration of the chrism is forbidden to be per- 
 formed by simple priests by both divine and ecclesiastical 
 laws, and such is the decree of many councils. Some 
 authors think that the Church can in extreme cases delegate 
 this power to a simple priest. This is the practice to-day in 
 the churches of the East. Some claim that the bishop can 
 give permission to the priest to consecrate the chrism, while 
 others require the permission of the Pope. 
 
 Some authors write that the episcopal consecration of the 
 chrism is required for the sacrament, so that otherwise it 
 would be null and void, while others say that some blessing 
 is necessary for the sacrament, but that either the one given 
 by any bishop or priest is sufiicient. Still another school of 
 writers hold that the blessing or consecration is required by 
 the law of God, and consequently that without it the sacra- 
 ment given by simple oil and balsam would be valid. 
 
 ** The holy chrism is used by the bishop," says Dionysius, 
 one of the earliest writers, '^for the consecration of all 
 things, because it signifies Christ, whose name in Hebrew 
 means the anointed of the Lord, for he was consecrated by 
 the Holy Spirit as the Saviour of the world." Chrism then is 
 used at the baptism of all persons, because they then 
 become like so many Christs. They are then born into the 
 Church. They are anointed with it at confirmation, because 
 
CONFIRMATION. 149 
 
 then they begin the battle of the Lord against all tempta- 
 tions. It is used in the consecration of bishops, who in a 
 most perfect way signify and typify the Lord, the Anointed 
 Saviour, the great bishop of our souls — the head of the 
 Church. It is used in the consecration of churches, which 
 are signed in twelve places to signify the twelve Apostles, 
 who are the twelve foundations of the universal Church. 
 Again, it is used in the consecration of altars, because the 
 altar stone typifies Christ, the corner-stone of the whole 
 Church. The chalice and paten are consecrated with it 
 because they are to hold the Body and the Blood of Christ. 
 They consecrate the bells of the church with this holy oil, 
 because their tones are like the sacred voice of Christ call- 
 ing his people to the services of his Church. 
 
 They do not use precisely the same form or words when 
 administering confirmation in the Greek as in the Latin 
 Church. The words we use are : ** I sign thee with the sign 
 of the cross, and I confirm thee with the chrism of salva- 
 tion, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost. Amen.'' This is the form of words pro- 
 claimed by the Council of Trent as coming down to us 
 from the most remote ages. The followers of Luther claim 
 that it is not found in the Bible ; that it was not used by 
 Christ or the Apostles ; that it is not found in the ancient 
 writers, and that St. Ambrose is its author. It is a pity they 
 had not made a deep study of those things before falling 
 into so many mistakes. Nearly all the writers of the 
 Church agree that these words are enough, and that they 
 are essential for the validity of the sacrament, and that 
 they were instituted by Christ and used by the Apostles. 
 Still some think that the sacrament consists in the imposi- 
 tion of hands alone. The Council of Florence for the union 
 of the Armenians decreed that these are the words of con- 
 firmation, yet as the Armenians did not get to the council 
 till it was dissolved, the decree was read for them when 
 they came, and it agreed with their ancient traditions. 
 
 Writers sometimes say that the whole essence of this 
 sacrament consists in the imposition of hands alone, others 
 in the anointing with oil alone, while a third school thinks 
 that it consists in both at the same time. As both the 
 imposition of hands and the anointing are always used in 
 the Catholic Church when confirming, the sacrament is 
 
150 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 always valid. But we are not sure in what precisely the 
 essence of confirmation consists. On account of the early 
 custom of concealing the mysteries of religion from the 
 pagans, it is hard to find the form of this sacrament used 
 in the early ages in books, for it was handed down from 
 one to another by word of mouth. The Apostolic constitu- 
 tions give it in nearly the same words we use to-day. SS. 
 Ambrose and Augustine treat of it. For the first seven 
 centuries the words were in the form of a prayer, with the 
 imposition of hands and the anointing with chrism. St. 
 Ambrose appears to think that the form of confirmation 
 comes from the words of St. Paul (II. Cor. i. 21, 22) : ^^Xow 
 he that hath confirmed us with you in Christ, and that hath 
 anointed us is God, who hath sealed us and given the 
 pledge of the spirit in our hearts." 
 
 The words as we have them to-day appear to have been 
 always contained in the Greek words of confirmation, and 
 from the prayerful way to have assumed the absolute and 
 indicative mood by the lapse of ages. Those who think the 
 sacrament consists alone in the imposition of hands, or in 
 the anointment alone, suppose that these words are not 
 necessary, but only a part of the ceremony. It may be that 
 Christ did not determine the exact words of this sacrament, 
 as he did for the others, but that he laid down, in a general 
 way, the form to be used. Therefore, the Church could 
 have determined what was to be used at one time as the 
 imposition of hands with the anointment, at another time 
 the anointment alone. As all these have been in use in the 
 Church from its foundation, we are sure the sacrament is 
 valid, as we use all things ever used in administering this 
 sacrament, although we cannot now point out precisely in 
 what the sacrament essentially consists. 
 
 In the same way there are different opinions relating to 
 the form of the sacrament among the Greeks. Some say it 
 is in the words by which the chrism is consecrated ; others 
 in the prayer which precedes the anointment ; others in 
 these two taken together ; while a third party think it is in 
 the words used while anointing. But it seems to rather 
 consist in these words : '^The seal of the gift of the Holy 
 Spirit." The form or words in the Episcopal Church ap- 
 pear to be the words said by the bishop when he lays his 
 hands on the heads of each, as they do not consider con- 
 
CONFIRMATION. 151 
 
 firmation as a sacrament, but a simple ceremony. Because 
 they have lost the Apostolic succession, and, therefore, 
 their bishops and ministers are only simple laymen, con- 
 firmation among them is not a sacrament. 
 
 Writers do not agree relating to the time of the institu- 
 tion of this sacrament. Some say Christ himself instituted 
 the words and the material themselves. Others think 
 that Christ gave the words only, leaving the Apostles or 
 the Church to choose the material part, consisting of the 
 imposition of hands, or in the anointing, or in both. More 
 write that Christ made the imposition of hands the material 
 part of the sacrament. Yet others still suppose he insti- 
 tuted the sacrament himself in a general way, and left to 
 the Apostles and the Church the power of determining 
 them more closely after his ascension. We find some who 
 say that the Apostles themselves instituted it with the im- 
 position of hands. But these are the opinions of only a few, 
 and not the universal tradition of Christianity. 
 
 It is reasonable to say that only Christ himself can insti- 
 tute a sacrament, and, therefore, the last opinion is evi- 
 dently false. We find confirmation had spread throughout 
 the world at the time of the Apostles, and that it was be- 
 lieved by all Christians down to our age. Yet we do not 
 find it stated clearly in the Gospel when it was made by our 
 Lord as an ordinance of salvation, and one of the seven 
 sacraments of the Church. In the same way there are 
 diverse opinions regarding the exact time Christ instituted 
 it. Some think it was when he called little children to him 
 and imposed his hands on them (Math. xix. 13). Others 
 claim that he instituted it when he promised to send the 
 Holy Ghost, the Paraclete, on his Apostles. We find some 
 still contending that it was at the last supper ; still others 
 that it was when he breathed on his followers, and said, 
 '* Receive ye the Holy Ghost" (John xx. 22). More say it 
 was instituted on Pentecost Sunday, when the Holy Ghost 
 descended on the Apostles in the form of fiery tongues. A 
 few others suppose it was some time during the forty days 
 when he lived with his followers after his resurrection. 
 The question is merely speculative, as it has nothing to do 
 with the validity of confirmation, when precisely it was in- 
 stituted. 
 
 Luther, Calvin, Wicklif, the Waldenses, and Hussites, 
 
152 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 with the Arians of the fourth century, claimed that the 
 bishops were not the ordinary ministers of this sacrament, 
 a doctrine which was condemned by many councils, the 
 last of which was the great one held in Trent. Photius, 
 who by the intrigues of the emperor's court became the 
 archbishop of Constantinople, when he was corrected by 
 the legate of Pope Nicholas I., attacked the ancient cus- 
 tom of the Church in not allowing simple priests to confirm. 
 Sending letters to all the bishops of the East then in union 
 with Rome, he thus caused the division between the East 
 and the West, which finished by causing the Greek schism. 
 He claimed that no law reserved confirmation to bishops 
 alone ; that as priests could baptize, why not also confirm ; 
 that as they could say mass and give communion, why not 
 also confirmation ? The Greeks did not all follow his teach- 
 ings. But as he occupied the chief episcopal See in the 
 empire, and as he was related to the royal family, his influ- 
 ence had great weight. To-day the Christians of Russia, 
 of Turkey, and of many parts of the East of Europe and 
 the West of Asia follow his teachings, and are known 
 by the name of the Greek schismatics. They hold nearly 
 all our doctrines, and have preserved nearly all the teach- 
 ings of the Church. Their clergy are validly ordained. 
 Some of the Greeks are in union with us, but use the Greek 
 language and Liturgy in place of the Latin Rite in their 
 services. 
 
 The teachings of the Church, as given in the councils, in 
 the writings of the fathers, and in the traditions of anti- 
 quity, tell us that the ordinary minister of this sacrament is 
 the bishop, and not a simple priest. We see that only the 
 Apostles confirmed. For, when Philip, a disciple, and 
 therefore a simple priest, preached to the Samaritans, the 
 Apostles Peter and John came and confirmed his converts 
 (Acts viii. 17). When some of the people of Ephesus were 
 converted and baptized, St. Paul confirmed them and they 
 "received the Holy Ghost" (Acts xix. 6). Wherever con- 
 firmation is spoken of in the Scriptures, it is given by the 
 Apostles and not by simple priests. Such is the testimony 
 of all the fathers of the Church. 
 
 The ordinary minister of this sacrament, then, is the 
 bishop, who is the complete and high priest. To him ordi- 
 narily belongs the power of completing, by confirmation, 
 
CONFIRMATION. 153 
 
 the spiritual life planted in the soul by baptism. But a 
 simple priest can, when delegated by the Pope, confirm. 
 This extraordinary power appears to have been given by 
 Christ, so that those who may be converted by missionaries 
 in places where a bishop rarely or never penetrates, may 
 not be deprived of the grace of confirmation. Writers do 
 not agree relating to the validity of confirmation given by 
 a priest who has not been delegated for this by the Pope, 
 and most of them say that in that case the sacrament 
 would be invalid. 
 
 In our day the Greek bishops rarely confirm. That is left 
 almost entirely in the hands of the priests. The only differ- 
 ence between the Greeks and Latins in the Council of Flor- 
 ence was that they claimed the Holy Spirit proceeds from 
 the Father alone ; that the bread used for the sacrament of 
 the Eucharist should be fermented ; some things relating to 
 purgatory, the vision of God in heaven, and the supremacy 
 of the Pope. They united with us at that and at other 
 times. The doctrines of the two Churches are so near alike, 
 that if it were not for some misunderstandings we would 
 still be the same. When the students from Greece and the 
 various places in the East where their Liturgy has spread, 
 come to Rome to study for the priesthood, they are then 
 already confirmed in their own country by simple priests, 
 and the custom is to let them advance to orders without 
 being again confirmed. This is done under the very eyes 
 of the Pope, and therefore he tacitly admits their confirma- 
 tion to be valid. 
 
 Confirmation given by heretical bishops is certainly valid, 
 although a few writers of little weight say the contrary. 
 This sacrament, like baptism, does not depend on the juris- 
 diction of the minister who gives it, but on the sacramental 
 character of orders. In former ages, when Catholics left 
 the Church and again returned, they were admitted by the 
 imposition of the bishop's hands. This is seen by many 
 texts of the fathers and in the practice of the first ages. 
 This imposition of hands was a penitential ceremony rela- 
 ting entirely to repentance, and not to confirmation. Some 
 mistaking this in reading the fathers, supposed they were 
 reading about confirmation. In this way they were recon- 
 ciled to the Church. This was a kind of public penance 
 imposed on them. The Manechaus were an exception to 
 
154 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 this rule, and special laws were made for them. From the 
 works of St. Augustin, who lived in their times and wrote 
 so effectually against them, we conclude that from their 
 contumacy and insincere conversion, the Church made 
 severe special laws relating to their reception. In these 
 ceremonies, neither in the Latin nor Greek Churches was 
 there any anointing with oil or chrism. 
 
 The non-Catholics of these times who did not use a valid 
 form or words in baptism were first baptized, then, after a 
 time, or directly after, they were confirmed. Those who 
 were validly baptized had the ceremonies of baptism sup- 
 plied when they had not been by the ministers of the differ- 
 ent sects. They were then admitted into the Church by the 
 rite of confirmation. Certain severe penances, for the most 
 part public, were then imposed on them. The early Chris- 
 tians never received any one into the Church who had been 
 guilty of capital crimes, like murder and those crimes pun- 
 ished by death. 
 
 Those baptized and confirmed outside the Church were 
 admitted in the West during the first four centuries by the 
 imposition of hands, without being anointed with chrism. 
 This can be proved by many monuments of the early ages 
 and by the decrees of Popes. This custom of the Roman 
 Rite was imitated by the Gallican Church for many ages, 
 from whence it spread into Spain and many parts of Europe. 
 During the fifth century in France they added the anoint- 
 ing with chrism to the imposition of hands ^when receiving 
 converts. 
 
 In the Eastern Churches, during the first four centuries of 
 Christianity up to the Council of Laodicea, they also 
 received heretics into the Church by a simple imposition of 
 hands, as can be concluded from the monuments of their 
 churches. The Council of Laodicea, the first held by them, 
 ordained that converts should be made to learn the funda- 
 mental doctrines of the Church, that they should be anointed 
 with chrism and be present at the consecration during mass. 
 This council was held in the year 314. From that time the 
 Greeks joined the anointing with chrism to the imposition 
 of hands when receiving converts. 
 
 No vestige of the ceremonies or the prayers with which 
 these converts were once received into the Western Church 
 remains to us, not even in Gregory's Sacramentary, in the 
 
CONFIRMATION. 155 
 
 ancient Rituals, or in the writings of the fathers. There is 
 one fragment for the reception of converts from Arianism. 
 The rites, ceremonies, and prayers used by the ancient 
 Churches of the East still remain among the writings of 
 the Greeks and Christians of the Eastern Churches. 
 
 In the first ages of the Church, confirmation was always 
 given directly after baptizing, when the bishop was present. 
 That custom appears to have come from the habit of the 
 Apostles, who confirmed their converts as soon as they 
 were baptized. As the writers of the first few centuries 
 unite these two sacraments, confirmation then can be re- 
 ceived at any age like baptism. St. Thomas says that as 
 the soul can at any time receive spiritual life in baptism, 
 so it can at any time receive the fullness and the comple- 
 tion of that spiritual life in confirmation. 
 
 The custom of confirming children while infants at bap- 
 tism, or soon after, remained till the sixteenth century, and 
 many rules and regulations were made relating to its recep- 
 tion. Yet this was not universal in the Church, and we 
 read that the first Council of Milan, held in 345, forbade 
 young children to be confirmed, and the fifth Council, held 
 in the same place, ordered that the sick, who had not to be 
 confirmed, should receive it. From the sixteenth century 
 the habit of confirming children ceased, and many laws 
 were made about this time forbidding children under seven 
 years to be confirmed. The custom at the present time is 
 to confirm them only after making their first communion, 
 and after they have learned their catechism. 
 
 In former times the same preparation was made for both 
 baptism and confirmation, and the same dispositions and 
 care were required for both sacraments. Still St. Ireneus 
 seems to require more preparation for the latter than for 
 the former. Tertullian says : " Baptism wipes out sin, and 
 confirmation gives the Holy Ghost." There are required for 
 the sacrament a knowledge of religion, the state of grace, 
 prayer and fasting, yet the last is not now required, but 
 counciled. That a knowledge of the Christian religion 
 was required in former times can be seen from the writings 
 of SS. Chrysostom, Maximus, Euloquias the Martyr, and 
 many others. That a state of grace was exacted to receive 
 the Holy Spirit, may be concluded from all who wrote 
 on this sacrament. They used to assemble all together 
 
150 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 in the church, and, both in public and in private, they 
 prayed fervently for the descent of the Spirit of God upon 
 them. 
 
 Besides, many councils made special laws commanding 
 all who were confirmed to be fasting from midnight. Not 
 only that, but the bishop who administered the sacrament 
 used to fast. That is seen in the Roman Ordo, in many litur- 
 gical works of antiquity, and in the decrees of ancient coun- 
 cils. The custom of fasting, both on the part of the bishops 
 confirming and of the ones receiving, appears to have gone 
 out of use in many places in our day. Besides, many laws 
 were made relating to and enjoining confession on those to 
 be confirmed, before they received it. The Episcopalians, 
 in their Book of Common Prayer, require ' ' That none shall 
 be confirmed but such as can say the Creed, the Lord's 
 Prayer, and the Ten Commandments, and can also answer 
 to such other questions as in the short catechism are con- 
 tained." Besides, they follow our custom, and confirm only 
 those who have '^come to the years of discretion." The 
 Lutherans and Moravians, with the Episcopalians, are the 
 only Protestant Churches wherein they admit any ceremony 
 like this sacrament. The Episcopalians will not allow any 
 one to receive communion except he has been either con- 
 firmed and desirous or ready to receive confirmation. 
 
 Confirmation increases sanctifying grace, makes us per- 
 fect Christians, and imprints an everlasting character in 
 the soul. Such are the chief effects of this sacrament. 
 
 The sanctifying grace here spoken of is the grace of the 
 full-grown and perfect Christian. As all living creatures 
 here below require a certain time in order to get their per- 
 fect size, growth^ and strength, thus in this sacrament in 
 an instant Christ fills the soul with ghostly strength and 
 perfection. Thus the one confirmed receives grace to resist 
 all temptations against that faith received in baptism. It 
 gives strength to confess the name of Christ, to publicly 
 proclaim himself a Christian, and if necessary to die a 
 martyr's death for the faith. Such is the secret of the 
 strength and courage of the martyrs, who died in millions 
 before they would deny their religion. They were con- 
 fimed and received the Holy Spirit. The grace of perfec- 
 tion, which makes us strong and perfect in our holy religion, 
 and which is the first and chief effect of this sacrament, is 
 
CONFIRMATION. 157 
 
 variously named by the fathers and ancient writers of the 
 Church. St. Ambrose calls it ''the Holy Ghost ;" Photius, 
 ''the perfection of baptism;" Tertullian, "the nourish- 
 ment of the soul ;" Clement of Alexandria, "the guardian 
 of baptism;" and St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "the weapons of 
 the Holy Spirit." By others it is called by different names. 
 As it also increases the grace already received, where the 
 person confirmed is in the state of sanctifying grace, the 
 increase of grace is called by Eucherio, "an increase of 
 grace;" by Premasio, "a gift of the Holy Spirit;" by 
 Isidore, "the sanctification of the Spirit;" by Dionysius, 
 "the completing anointment of the divine Spirit;" by St. 
 Cyprian, "the Holy Spirit and the seal of the Lord;" and 
 by St. Cyril of Jerusalem, " the finishings of the just." 
 
 The fathers say that the grace of baptism is the grace of 
 infancy, while the grace of confirmation is the grace of the 
 full-grown spiritual man. Again it is the grace unto the 
 resisting of the temptations, passions, and allurements of 
 the soul within ourselves, against the unseen spirits tempt- 
 ing us without, and for the strengthening of our faith, so we 
 will not deny our Lord, or the Church he founded for our 
 salvation. Thus were the converts made by the Apostles 
 first baptized to implant in them the germ of the Christian 
 life, then they were confirmed to make that strong and 
 perfect, then they were given communion to still further 
 nourish that Christian life. In the words of a council : 
 "By baptism we are spiritually born, by confirmation we 
 are increased in grace and strengthened in the faith. Born 
 and strengthened, we are nourished by the divine nourish- 
 ment of the Eucharist." What growth gives the body, 
 confirmation gives the soul. By growth we become perfect 
 men, by confirmation we become perfect Christians. In 
 infancy we are nourished by our mothers' milk till we are 
 able to take stronger food. In our spiritual infancy we 
 receive baptism and confirmation, by which we are born 
 and grow strong and complete sons of God, members of 
 Christ, partakers of the Eucharist, and all together we form 
 the Church of God, that mystic body of Christ, as St. Peter 
 says : " Being born again, not of corruptible seed, but in- 
 corruptible by the word of God " (I. Peter i. 23). As new- 
 born babes desire the rational milk without guile, that 
 thereby you may grow unto salvation (Ibidem ii. 2), that is 
 
158 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 unto a perfect Christian by the virtue of the sacrament of 
 confirmation. 
 
 Baptism, which is the foundation of all spiritual life in 
 us, is given by water, which lives not, but is the founda- 
 tion of the life of all living beings upon this earth. In all 
 the other sacraments some vegetable or living material is 
 used, which is the product of a living creature. By these 
 materials the other sacraments are given to those only who 
 have been baptized, or to those who have already living 
 supernatural faith given by baptism. Thus we see the 
 wonderful agreement between the material and the spiritual 
 growth of Christians, and the divine wisdom of Christ in 
 making the visible things of earth agree with the unseen 
 and spiritual things of the other world. 
 
 In confirmation the Holy Spirit descends into the soul 
 Avith his sevenfold gifts of wisdom, understanding, counsel, 
 fortitude, knowledge, piety and the fear of the Lord, godly 
 gifts poured out so plentifully on Christ and on his people, 
 so that they will be like unto him, their head and leader, 
 him whom they love and worship and imitate. 
 
 The second effect of the sacrament is to make of the bap- 
 tized a perfect Christian. This was taught by Calvin in 
 the fourth book of his Institutions. It is spoken of by all the 
 fathers. Thus Dionysius says it is ''the perfection of the 
 divine regeneration." St. Cyril of Jerusalem writes : ''The 
 gift of this chrism having been received, Tve are rightly 
 called Christians." St. Cyprian contends that "he who is 
 baptized should be anointed. For, having received the 
 chrism — that is, the anointment — he may have in him the 
 grace of Christ." St. Justin the Martyr declares that "we 
 are anointed in baptism, that we may be Christs ; that is, 
 anointed." Another ancient writer says: " After regenera- 
 tion by water, then by the bishop, you are confirmed by the 
 sevenfold gifts of the Spirit, otherwise you would not be 
 a perfect Christian, nor could you have a seat among the 
 perfect." By these texts you can see, kind reader, that the 
 grace of confirmation was considered as making us perfect 
 Christians. 
 
 The third effect of confirmation is to imprint a character, 
 or spiritual seal, on the soul. Of this Tertullian speaks 
 when writing about the devil imitating our religion, saying: 
 " He signs his soldiers on their foreheads." Pope Cornelius, 
 
CONFIRMATION. 159 
 
 writing of the ISTovatians, heretics of the third century, 
 complains of one, ^'for he was not signed by the bishop 
 with the seal of the Lord." St. Cyprian writes of the Chris- 
 tians of his time that "they become perfect by the seal of 
 the Lord." Theodoret, treating of the Christians of that 
 age, says: " They received as it were a royal seal." Pope 
 Leo the Great, preaching on the birth of Christ, calls the 
 character of confirmation the seal of everlasting life. St. 
 Augustin, in one part of his works, says to the people : 
 '' You are baptized ; you are signed with a royal character." 
 In the same way we might show that this has been the 
 doctrine of the Church from the very beginning, as found 
 in the fathers, in the councils, and in the historic monu- 
 ments of the past. 
 
 This character of confirmation is an unseen spiritual seal 
 impressed on the substance of the soul, which can never be 
 effaced or taken off. Therefore we will wear it during this 
 life and during eternity. 
 
 From what has been said you can judge of the dignity of 
 confirmation. The fathers of the Church have not hesitated 
 to say that it is nobler and higher than the sacrament of 
 baptism, while some go so far as to compare it to the divine 
 Eucharist. 
 
 Confirmation is not so absolutely necessary that without 
 it one cannot go to heaven, but it is necessary by the laws 
 of the Church. Hence, he who would neglect it through his 
 own fault would be guilty of a grievous sin. Gregory says 
 to "omit it is the ruin of the faithful." The same may be 
 concluded from the words of St. Jerome, and from many 
 celebrated councils. The reception of confirmation, then, 
 really or by desire, when it is for any reason impossible, is 
 required for salvation, so that where any one would neglect 
 it through contempt, he would be in danger of damnation. 
 This can be seen by many decrees of councils in the 
 writings of the fathers and in the decrees of Pontiffs. 
 This relates to laws made by the Church, but St. Thomas 
 says that by the laws of Christ, who is its author, and 
 who instituted it, confirmation should be received. That 
 law of Christ urges especially in times of persecutions 
 against religion, in temptations against faith, and at 
 the hour of death. Whence it follows that if the people 
 are obliged to be confirmed, the bishop should also be 
 
IGO CONFIRMATION. 
 
 ready to confirm them, unless prevented by grievous 
 reasons. 
 
 As by it we become perfect Christians, so it follovrs that 
 one cannot be received into a convent as a nun, or into the 
 ranks of the clergy, without first having been confirmed. 
 Not only that, but in our Church, as well as among the 
 Greeks, Maronites, Copts, Russians, Syrians, and in all 
 religious sects, confirmation, like baptism, can be received 
 only once. 
 
 The ceremonies carried out by the Greeks, Maronites, 
 Armenians, Copts, and Christians of the East do not sub- 
 stantially differ from those seen in the Catholic Church. 
 This shows that all these different rites sprung from one 
 source, the Apostles, before their separation to preach the 
 Gospel in many lands. 
 
 The ceremonies of confirmation appear to be substantially 
 as old as the Christian religion, and many learned articles 
 have been written on them. Those who were confirmed in 
 former times were clothed in white garments, a custom 
 still followed in all countries for the girls, but which ap- 
 pears to have fallen into disuse for males. Some Rituals 
 prescribed not only the anointing of the forehead, but also 
 of the five senses, the members, and the whole body. From 
 the writings of St. Jerome, we learn that in his day. as now, 
 they prepared for confirmation when the bishop was to 
 visit the parish. As a general thing, this sacrament was 
 administered on Holy Saturday, and on the Saturday be- 
 fore Pentecost. Those who were baptized on those days 
 were immediately afterwards confirmed. By the lapse of 
 ages, when baptism began to be given on other days besides 
 those mentioned above, confirmation also was given on any 
 day during the year. One council stated that it should be 
 given during the Quarter Tenses or Ember days. 
 
 Sponsors are required in confirmation, the same as in 
 baptism. The reason of this is given by St. Thomas, who 
 says, that as this sacrament is to give strength to fight 
 against our spiritual enemies, as those who go forth to 
 fight must have instructors, and captains, and commanders, 
 so those who are confirmed to fight the battles of the 
 Lord must have instructors. These instructors are the spon- 
 sors in confirmation. No one should, therefore, be a spon- 
 sor in confirmation who has not been himself confirmed. 
 
CONFIRMATION. 161 
 
 or who does not know the Christian faith. Whence St. 
 Charles Borromeo, in one of the Councils of Milan, forbade 
 sponsors to be less than fourteen years of age. The sixth 
 Council of Paris forbids notorious sinners, monks, abbots, 
 and nuns to become sponsors, because they could not well 
 fulfill their duties. The clergy have sometimes taken upon 
 themselves the duties of sponsors, but it is not according 
 to the spirit of the Church, yet if it is the custom it may be 
 followed. The parents of the confirmed cannot stand as 
 sponsors for their own children. Formerly in Rome the 
 sponsors in baptism could not become the sponsors for the 
 same person in confirmation. In some places ladies were 
 sponsors for females and gentlemen for males, and the 
 fifth Council of Milan forbade sponsors to stand for the 
 opposite sex. The ancient custom was for the sponsor to 
 hold the one with his right hand, and offer him to the 
 bishop, while the confirmed held his right foot on the right 
 foot of the sponsor. 
 
 From the most remote ages the bishops have been accus- 
 tomed to call the one to be confirmed by name. This may 
 be either the baptismal name or a new one given at the 
 ceremony. In our day they add a new name to the one 
 given in baptism. The fifth Council of Milan commands 
 bishops and pastors to see that no evil or badly sounding 
 name be used, but only a name importing with it religion 
 and piety. It is best to choose the name of some saint, who 
 will thus become the patron of the confirmed. The bap- 
 tismal name may at this time also be changed to another. 
 This was granted in the last council mentioned, besides in 
 three others, held about the same time. The same councils 
 also ordered the foreheads to be washed before confirma- 
 tion. 
 
 The Gregorian Sacramentary directs that when they are 
 confirmed directly after baptism, they shall wear their 
 white baptismal robes. This has always been the custom 
 in the Church. But when they are not confirmed immedi- 
 ately after baptism, the councils do not require any special 
 garments, except those which are decent and modest. 
 
 In the early Church it appears that they were either con- 
 firmed on the day of baptism or two days afterwards. The 
 Saturday before Easter, and before Pentecost, Christmas 
 day, and the Epiphany were the great days of baptism and 
 
162 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 of confirmation among the converts of the Apostles. Yet 
 they both baptized and confirmed on any day or at any 
 hour, in cases of necessity. When by the lapse of ages 
 these two sacraments were separated, confirmation was left 
 to the convenience of the bishops. Still Easter, Pentecost, 
 and the Ember days were the special times when the peo- 
 ple were confirmed. The time was nine in the morning, 
 the hour when the Holy Ghost came down on and confirmed 
 the Apostles at Pentecost. This ancient custom was again 
 decreed by St. Charles Borromeo in the fifth Council of 
 Milan. Formerly confirmation was almost always adminis- 
 tered in the cathedrals ; but when it was separated from 
 baptism, they began to confirm in parish churches. This is 
 seen in the writings of St. Jerome. The males were con- 
 firmed first, the females afterwards. This appears to come 
 from the early Christian customs, for men and women were 
 separated during the services of the Church in early times, 
 especially among the Greeks. 
 
 All those who are to be confirmed kneel down, and the 
 bishop prays that the Holy Spirit may come down on them. 
 Then extending, or imposing, his hands over them, he prays 
 the Eternal Father to send down on these baptized persons 
 the Holy Ghost with his manifold gifts. They all come up 
 to him. He sits if there be many, or he confirms them 
 
 standing, with the words: " N , I sign thee with the sign 
 
 of the cross ►J*, and I confirm thee with the chrism of salva- 
 tion : in the name of the "f- Father, and of the -f- Son, and of 
 the t Holy Ghost." 
 
 He makes a sign of the cross on their foreheads with 
 chrism at the word cross, and another cross at the name of 
 oach person of the Holy Trinity. He gives a little stroke 
 on the cheek to each one, as the Roman Catechism says, 
 that by this they may remember that they are to fight unto 
 death for their faith. "We cannot find out when this was 
 first used, but suppose it came from the times of the Apos- 
 tles. The Roman Ordo says the bishop used to give each 
 one the kiss of peace, but it is not given in our days. It 
 meant that they received the fullness of heavenly grace 
 and tfee peace which is above all understanding. 
 
 The forehead of the confirmed used to be bound with a 
 linen fillet, a custom we still use at the consecration of 
 bishops, when he is anointed on the head. Some of the 
 
CONFIRMATION. 163 
 
 councils of the fifteenth century speak of this fillet, but it 
 is not used to-day, at least in this country. Girls generally 
 come with white garments and veils, with their heads cov- 
 ered with flowers, a very pretty custom. In former times 
 they wore the white clothes and the fillet for seven days, 
 after which their foreheads were washed, because for seven 
 days after Pentecost the Church celebrates the coming of 
 the Holy Ghost on the Apostles with his sevenfold gifts. 
 This is given in the Roman Ordo, and the reasons are found 
 in the writings of Hugo a St. Victor. Towards the four- 
 teenth century they wore these garments for only three 
 days, in the fifteenth only two days, in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury but for one day, and after that the customs of our 
 times became established, when the forehead is immediately 
 wiped, and they wear these garments only on the day of 
 confirmation. They used a short time ago to wear the 
 fillet during the day, and then come to the church, when it 
 was removed by the priest, and their foreheads washed 
 with salt and water, while the fillets and whatever touched 
 the holy oil were burned. That was the discipline estab- 
 lished by some of the councils of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries. 
 
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 HOLY COMMUNION. 
 
^ HILE you have seen thus far, 
 gentle reader, that spirit - 
 ^^ ual life is generated by 
 God and planted in the 
 ^^ soul by baptism, you have 
 also seen that it becomes 
 strong, and perfect, and of 
 full growth by confirma- 
 tion. But when a man 
 arrives at full growth and 
 strength, he must eat or he will starve ; he 
 must take food or his strength will not last. 
 In the same way our souls must be fed or our 
 spiritual life will die out, and at length we would 
 become so dead to heavenly and religious 
 things that we would lose our faith and 
 become infidels. How has God provided for 
 this ? Read on and you will see the most 
 stupendous works of Christ. The Saviour him- 
 self becomes our food. So as to nourish and 
 sustain our spiritual life, he comes by Commun- 
 ion to enter into the heart of the redeemed 
 race of Adam. 
 The fathers of the Church exhaust their most sublime 
 eloquence in speaking of this sacrament. They call it '^ the 
 true Holy of Holies," "the centre of the Church," "the 
 pledge of the love of God," and "the acme of the whole 
 Christian religion." By the Greeks it is called the Eucha- 
 rist, that is the giving of thanks, or the Eulogia, that is the 
 praises of God. Again the Greeks call it the Synaxis, 
 which means in their language a meeting of the people. 
 By the people of the Western Church it is called the Holy 
 Communion, for it is the union of the soul with Christ. By 
 
1118 EUCHARIST. 
 
 the Prote^ant churches, which by tradition have kept a 
 kind of Communion service, it is called the Lord's Supper, 
 for they observe the taking of bread and wine in their 
 services, as a remembrance and as a memorial of the last 
 supper, and of the death of Christ. By many writers it is 
 called the Most August Sacrament, because it is the holiest 
 of all the sacraments. By some of the churches of the East 
 it is named the Agapa, which means a love feast, for it is 
 the last and highest bond of love between Christ and his 
 people, while by the Council of Trent it is called the mos-t 
 holy and venerable sacrament. 
 
 The Old Testament, which was like a shadow of the 
 good things to come, when Christ left his Father's throne 
 and came down, contains many figures and types of Com- 
 munion. It was prefigured by the bread and wine, offered 
 by that great and good high priest of God, Melchizedek. 
 It was typified by the brazen serpent raised by Moses in 
 the desert, and by which the children of Israel were healed. 
 God foretold this, our spiritual food, by the manna which 
 came down from heaven, and by which he fed the wander- 
 ing Israelites for forty years, while they were traveling to 
 the promised land. Thus, while we are traveling in this 
 world, we are fed by the Eucharist while on our way to 
 heaven, the true promised land. The paschal lamb was a 
 figure of this sacrament, because it was eaten by all the 
 children of Israel, and because it was sacrificed on the four- 
 teenth moon of March, a type of Christ sacrificed on 
 Calvary on the fourteenth moon, and of our Paschal Com- 
 munion. Because of his innocence and because of the 
 custom of eating the flesh of a lamb, Christ is called the 
 '^Lamb of God." And as by the blood of the paschal lamb 
 the children of Israel were delivered from the destroying 
 angel ; thus, by the blood of Christ are we delivered from 
 destroying spirits of darkness. The proposition bread 
 eaten by the Jewish priests, after it had laid on the tables 
 of the tabernacle, was a figure of the Communion. 
 
 St. Cyprian calls it ''our daily bread ;" St. Hilary says it 
 is "the Word bread;" St. Chrysostom cries out ''the 
 wonderful mysteries ; " St. Cyril of Alexandria exclaims it is 
 the " sublime things, than which greater we can neither 
 name nor think of ;" St. Leo the Great names it the "holy 
 table;" St. Justin the Martyr writes it is "the cup, the 
 
EUCHARIST. 109 
 
 giving of thanks, * * * * the nourishment, by which our 
 blood and flesh by change are nourished ; " St. Ireneus 
 declares that it is " the bread which he— that is, Christ— con- 
 fessed to be his body, and the temperament of his chalice 
 he confirmed as his blood ; " St. Athanasius concludes that 
 it is "the body to which was said, 'sit thou at my right 
 hand'" (Ps. cix. 1). In many places the fathers speak of 
 this sacrament as being the most holy of all. The others 
 produce grace, but Communion is the author of grace him- 
 self, and is therefore the greatest of all. The others produce 
 their effect in an instant and cease, while the Eucharist 
 remains on the altar, or in the heart of the receiver, till the 
 appearances of bread and wine are changed. 
 
 Communion has been defined as " the Sacrament of the 
 Body and Blood of Christ under the appearance of bread 
 and wine." By others it is called " a sacrament of the new 
 law, instituted by Christ to be the spiritual food of the 
 soul, in which really and substantially the Body and Blood 
 of Christ are present under the appearance of bread and 
 wine." Again it is defined as ''the sacrament of the Body 
 and Blood of Jesus Christ, under the appearance of bread 
 and wine, for the spiritual nourishment of Christians." 
 
 You will notice what a wonderful agreement there is 
 between science and religion in these sacraments. Baptism 
 as the foundation of the Christian religion is given by 
 water, which is the foundation of all living things upon 
 this earth. Confirmation, which gives strength, is conferred 
 by the oil of olives, the product of a living tree, for this sac- 
 rament was ordained by Christ to make strong a spiritual 
 life already living in the soul. Confirmation is to give 
 strength, for oil of olives gives strength to the limbs, heals 
 wounds, and gives power to those who are anointed. 
 
 In the same way this material part of the Communion 
 which nourishes our souls is bread and wine, the chief food 
 and drink of man. Of all foods bread is the most widely 
 used, and aptly called "the staff of life." Of all beverages 
 wine, from the beginning of the world, has been the chief 
 drink of man. In all this we see the wisdom of Christ. If 
 he had given his body, his flesh, to us to eat, we could not 
 partake of the bloody red flesh. To accommodate himself 
 to us he hides that flesh under the appearance of our chief 
 food — bread. It would have been repulsive to us to drink 
 
170 EUCHARIST. 
 
 blood, and for that reason he hides his sacred blood under 
 the appearance of wine, our chief beverage. Wonderful 
 was the providence of God in thus accommodating himself 
 to our nature ! Here we see the love of Christ displayed on 
 Calvary's cross stretching out and embracing all ages, all 
 generations, all lands, and all peoples. Will not the love of 
 God be deeper than the love of creatures ? Our mothers 
 fed us with their milk, and no love is deeper or more lasting 
 than the mother's love upon this earth. Christ feeds us, 
 not with milk, but with his own flesh and blood. What 
 mother, with all her motherly instincts, will open her breast 
 and feed her child with her heart's blood ? Here is the 
 boundless love of Christ, going deeper than that instinct he 
 planted in our mother's breast. Well St. Augustin, writ- 
 ing of its wonders, cries out : "O sacrament of piety! O 
 sign of unity ! O bond of charity ! Who wishes to live 
 has here what he needs to live. Let him approach and be 
 united that he may live." 
 
 The different Rites, composed by the Apostles before their 
 separation ; the remains of ancient churches now in ruins ; 
 the monuments of antiquity ; the venerable works written 
 so many ages ago ; the altars in the middle of ecclesias- 
 tical buildings; the venerable writings of antiquity; the tra- 
 ditions of Christianity, all cry out with one voice, and the 
 burden of their story is, Christ is on our altar, coming down 
 each day to become the food of man. From one end to the 
 other of the Christian world during the first twelve cen- 
 turies, the whole of Christendom, from the prince to the 
 pauper, all bent in adoration of Christ really present in our 
 churches. Must we not conclude that such a belief came 
 from the times of the Apostles ? Any one who upheld a 
 new belief lives in history. But before the days of Beren* 
 garius no one is given trying to deny the belief in the real 
 presence of Christ. We must conclude, then, that it came 
 from the Apostles. 
 
 Again, during these many centuries different heretics 
 arose and claimed that on some points of little importance 
 the Church had departed from the teachings of the Saviour, 
 yet not one of them claimed that the belief in the real 
 presence was a new doctrine, showing that they themselves 
 believed in it, and therefore that it was the belief of their 
 times. 
 
EUCHARIST. 171 
 
 The mind of man was made for truth. You cannot get 
 men in any large numbers to conspire against what they 
 believe to be the truth. Then how could so many millions 
 of Christians be brought to believe in the real presence of 
 Christ if it was not always an article of faith ? 
 
 The services of the Church are carried out according to 
 nine different Rites or Liturgies. In each of these are spe- 
 cial parts relating to Communion. Although they differ in 
 small matters, still they are substantially the same relating 
 to this sacrament. These Liturgies go back to the origin of 
 the Christian religion and show that the sacrament is as old 
 as Christianity itself. 
 
 This truth was so impressed on the mind and on the con- 
 science of the people that at the Reformation all Protestant 
 denominations adopted the ceremony of the Lord's Supper, 
 and still use the bread and wine. They at that time could 
 not deny so widespread a belief. Even Luther believed that 
 Christ was present. Not understanding the true belief, he 
 writes that our Lord is present with the bread and wine, 
 while at present most Protestant sects believe that Christ is 
 present only in the partaking of Communion, and they all 
 have their Communion services. 
 
 The only reasonable way of getting at the truth as taught 
 by Christ and the Apostles is to examine the works of the 
 fathers of the Church and of the early writers, who them- 
 selves were either taught by the Apostles or their followers. 
 We are sorry to say that space will not allow us to place 
 before you but a few texts and passages from the works of 
 the early writers. 
 
 St. Ignatius, the third bishop of Antioch from St. Peter, 
 in the first century, in his Letter to the people of Smyrna, 
 writing about the heretics called the Docetists and others, 
 says : ''They abstain from prayer and from the Eucharist 
 because they do not know that the Eucharist is the body of 
 our Saviour Jesus Christ, who suffered for our sins." St. 
 Justin, in the second century, says that the Eucharist is not 
 received by the faithful ''like common bread, or as a usual 
 drink," but "we know that it is the flesh and blood of 
 Christ, who became incarnate." St. Ireneus, writing against 
 the heretics of his time, who denied the Divinity of Christ, 
 says : " How can they be certain that this bread over which 
 the prayers are said is the body of their God, and the chal^ 
 
172 EUCHARIST. 
 
 ice of his blood ?" Against those who denied the resurrec- 
 tion of the dead he says : *'How do they dare to say that 
 this flesh, which is nourished by the blood of the Saviour, 
 will fall into rottenness and receive not life ? Let them 
 either change their words or abstain from offering the sacri- 
 fice of which we spoke." That great mind of the early 
 Church, Tertullian, says against Marcion : '^The flesh is 
 nourished with the body and blood of the Lord." And 
 again: "He changed into his body that bread which he 
 took and gave to his disciples, saying, 'This is my body,'*' 
 etc. Origin, instructing the people, says : ''You who have 
 been accustomed to be present at the celebration of the 
 divine mysteries, you know how, when you have received 
 the body of the Lord, with what care and respect you pre- 
 serve it, and what precautions you take lest any particle of 
 that precious gift should fall." St. Cyprian, writing of 
 those who had left the Church and wanted to join it again : 
 "They do violence to the body and blood of Jesus Christ." 
 
 Thus we might go on and give numberless texts from the 
 fathers and writers of the early ages proving the belief in 
 the real presence to have been clearly held in the first ages 
 of the Christian religion. But we have not space in a book 
 of this kind, and we will only give their teachings in a short 
 and summary way. 
 
 We may reduce to ten heads the writings of the best 
 known of the early writers. SS. Ambrose, Epiphaniug. and 
 John Damascenus repel the idea that Christ is present in a 
 figurative sense. SS. Chrysostom, Hilary, Cyril of Jerusa- 
 lem, and Cyril of Alexandria reject the errors that Christ 
 comes to us by faith, or that he unites to us by the giving 
 our hearts to him in Communion. SS. Chrysostom and 
 Augustine draw a comparison between our mother's love 
 in feeding us on her milk and Christ's love in feeding us on 
 his body and blood. SS. Augustin, Ambrose, Cyril, and 
 Damascenus claim that Christ gives us his body and blood 
 under the appearance of bread and wine so to give merit 
 to our faith, and so that we could partake of him without 
 repugnance. SS. Chrysostom, Ambrose, and Justin say 
 that this sacrament is the most stupendous miracle of divine 
 providence. 
 
 Many of the same fathers say that this takes place by a 
 true change of the bread and wine into the body and blood 
 
EUCHARIST. 173 
 
 uf Christ, or that his body is made or created with the 
 bread. To explain this, they bring forward the question, 
 or the miracle, of the changing of water into wine. Again, 
 some of them, in teaching the faithful of the early times, 
 insisted that the people must not be guided by their senses, 
 but by the words of Christ, and they admit that this is a 
 mystery very difficulty to believe. This may be found in 
 the writings of the two Cyrils, and in the works of St. 
 Chrysostom. The latter, with SS. Gregory the Great, 
 Ireneus, and Hilary, prove the other mysteries of our holy 
 religion by the presence. They call the Eucharist the un- 
 bloody sacrifice of the ISTew Law, in which is offered not 
 only bread and wine as memorials of his passion, but they 
 say also that here the real body and blood of Christ are 
 offered in an unbloody manner, and that the faithful par- 
 take of the same body, which the Word of God took in the 
 womb of the Virgin, was laid in the manger, died on the 
 cross, and ascended into heaven. This is the reasoning of 
 SS. Ignatius of Antioch, Cyril of Jerusalem, Cyril of Alex- 
 andria, and Chrysostom of Constantinople, and shows that 
 the people of the early ages in which they lived believed 
 firmly in the real presence. 
 
 We will finish these few proofs from the fathers, which 
 might be lengthened by many others did space permit, by 
 saying that SS. Ambrose, Cyril, and Augustine call this 
 sacrament '^a terrible mystery," ^^an adorable mystery," 
 ''bread and wine," ''an everlasting nourishment," "holy 
 and incorruptible," which when received in the heart of 
 man is the Saviour. 
 
 The different sects which, from the most ancient times, 
 separated from the Church, the Mother and chief of 
 Churches, as the Marcosians, the Gnostics, the Nestorians, 
 the Eutychians, the Armenians, the Jacobites, the Greeks, 
 all admire the doctrine of the real presence, and believe it 
 even to our day. If they had not received it from the 
 Apostles, they would attack the Church, which they do not. 
 On the contrary, they all believe this as an article of faith. 
 
 The pagan writers of the first ages of the Church, not 
 knowing well our doctrines relating to Communion, accused 
 the Christians of sacrificing an infant, and of eating human 
 flesh, not knowing the nature of the Eucharistic sacrifice. 
 Those who were better posted, complain of such a doctrine 
 
174 EUCHARIST. 
 
 as that of the real presence. The martyrs confessed be- 
 fore their death that they believed it. At one time this 
 belief in eating the flesh of Christ and of drinking his 
 blood caused a persecution against the Christians, as the 
 pagans thought it was horrible to eat human flesh. Do 
 you think for a moment that any other belief could have 
 been in the early Church except that of the real presence, 
 and that all Christian writers and martyrs would have 
 remained silent under these accusations ? They certainly 
 would have explained their belief, if it was otherwise. 
 
 St. Paul beautifully expresses this belief in Communion, 
 when writing to the Corinthians : " For I have received of 
 the Lord that which I also deliver unto you, that the Lord 
 Jesus, the same night in which he was betrayed, took 
 bread, and giving thanks, broke and said, Take ye and eat ; 
 this is my body which shall be delivered for you ; this do 
 for the commemoration of me. In like manner, also, the 
 chalice, after he had supped, saying. This chalice is the 
 new testament in my blood ; this do ye, as often as you shall 
 drink, for the commemoration of me. For as often as you 
 shall eat this bread and drink the chalice, you shall shew 
 the death of the Lord until he come. Therefore, whosoever 
 shall eat this bread or drink the chalice of the Lord un- 
 worthily, shall be guilty of the body and of the blood of the 
 Lord. But let a man prove himself, and so let him eat of 
 that bread and drink of the chalice. For he that eateth and 
 drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh judgment to him- 
 self, not discerning the body of the Lord " (I. Cor. xi. 23-29). 
 What words could be clearer than those of the Apostle of 
 the nations to the converts he made at the great city of 
 Corinth, in Greece ? They are so clear that we will not add 
 any explanation. 
 
 In another place he really uses the word Communion, 
 where he says: ^'The chalice of benediction which we 
 bless is it not the Communion of the blood of Christ, and 
 the bread which we break is it not the partaking of the 
 body of the Lord " (I. Cor. x. 16) ? Farther on he reproves 
 some of them for taking part in the pagan sacrifices offered 
 to the devils : '^ You cannot drink the chalice of the Lord 
 and the chalice of devils, you cannot be partakers of the 
 table of the Lord and of the table of devils" (lb. x. 21). 
 From these words it appears that in the time of the Apostles, 
 
EUCHARIST. 175 
 
 they were accustomed to go to Commuiiion. We are still 
 further confirmed in this by the words of the Acts of the 
 Apostles, which say "that they met daily in the break- 
 ing of bread" (Acts ii. 42). 
 
 Our Lord came down from heaven to restore fallen man 
 to his lost inheritance. It is to his sacred words that we 
 should look for proofs of this sacrament. And here we 
 must say that God does nothing hurriedly or abruptly. He 
 prefigured this sacrament by the many rites and cere- 
 monies of the Mosaic law. Following out the plan of 
 redemption, he always promised beforehand, so as to pre- 
 pare his followers for any new doctrine. Thus we see that 
 after the miraculous multiplication of the loaves and fishes 
 in the mountains of Judea, when they were astonished at 
 that wonder, which he performed to show forth his mighty 
 power, he then promised that he would give them his own 
 body and blood to eat and drink for their spiritual nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 In the sixth chapter of St. John's Gospel, to the forty- 
 eighth verse, he speaks of faith. He wanted them to 
 believe and have faith in his words and in his power to feed 
 them with his own body and blood, which he then promised 
 to give at a future time. 
 
 " I am," he says, ''the bread of life. Your fathers did eat 
 manna in the desert, and are dead. This is the bread which 
 Cometh down from heaven, that if any man eat of it he 
 may not die. I am the living bread, which came down 
 from heaven. If any man eat of this bread, he shall live 
 forever, and the bread that I will give is my flesh for the 
 life of the world." What words could be clearer, or more 
 conclusively show the Communion of which we are writ- 
 ing ? '' The Jews therefore strove among themselves, say- 
 ing : ' How can this man give us his flesh to eat ? ' " 
 Evidently the Jews understood it as meaning his real flesh, 
 and they had a horror of eating human flesh. Then Jesus 
 said to them : ''Amen, amen, I say unto you. Except you 
 eat the flesh of the son of man and drink his blood you 
 shall not have life in you. He that eateth my flesh and 
 drinketh my blood hath everlasting life, and I will raise 
 him up on the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and 
 my blood is drink indeed. He that eateth my flesh and 
 drinketh my blood abideth in me, and I in him. As the 
 
176 EUCHARIST. 
 
 living Father hath sent me, and I live by the Father, so he 
 that eateth me the same also shall live by me. This is the 
 bread that came down from heaven. Not as your fathers 
 did eat manna and are dead. He that eateth this bread 
 shall live forever" (John vi. 48 to 60). 
 
 He left the impression on his followers that he could 
 give them his flesh and blood, which was so hard to believe, 
 that '^Many, therefore, of his disciples hearing it, said, this 
 saying is hard, and who can hear it" (Ibidem, 61). He then 
 draws their attention to a miracle to show his power, never 
 for a moment taking back or explaining a word. He leaves 
 them under the same impression they took from his words, 
 that he could give them his flesh and blood. That was so 
 hard a doctrine and so repulsive to them, that " After this, 
 many of his disciples went back and walked no more with 
 him " (Ibidem, 67). In fact, it appears that nearly all the 
 disciples left him. Then he turned to the twelve Apostles 
 and asked them if they, also, would go away from him. 
 Peter spoke up, with his usual great faith, '' Lord, to whom 
 shall we go ? Thou hast the words of eternal life " (Ibidem, 
 69). 
 
 Thus he left them under the impression that he would 
 give them his body and blood. He explained nothing, and 
 if he did not leave them his own flesh and blood, but 
 deceived them and their followers, as the doctrine has been 
 always received by the whole Christian world, as the mar- 
 tyrs died for it, as the whole of Christendom believed it up 
 to our time, either it is true or Christ is the most stupendous 
 liar and deceiver who ever appeared on this earth. But as 
 we know that he is God, who can neither deceive nor be 
 deceived, so we must conclude that it is true, and that he is 
 really present. 
 
 By reading carefully the words of our Lord, you will 
 notice that he draws a comparison between Communion and 
 the manna with which God fed the Israelites in the desert. 
 As manna was a real food to be eaten, so must this also be a 
 real food to be eaten. You must also conclude the same 
 from the words he uses; for nothing can be clearer than his 
 words which his hearers all understood in the literal sense. 
 If Christ did not intend to teach the doctrine of the real 
 presence, but that they were to partake of his flesh and 
 blood only by faith, he used a curious way of explaining it, 
 
EUCHARIST. 177 
 
 and uselessly turned his followers against him. You will 
 remark the careful difference drawn by him between eating 
 and drinking, which would not be necessary if he meant 
 only faith. 
 
 Those who will not believe in the real presence, because 
 they cannot understand it, or because they do not want to 
 be convinced of the continual miraculous works of God, 
 «ay he here speaks of Communion, which only contains his 
 body and blood, as in a type or figure. Those who deny 
 this wonderful work of the love of God are only acting now 
 like the Jews who heard him and hardened their hearts 
 against his words, which they then took in the real and lit- 
 eral sense. If Christ meant anything besides the real eat- 
 ing of his body and the drinking of his blood, as the Jews 
 understood, why did he not explain his words as he did to 
 Nicodemus about baptism (John iii. 5, etc.), and in many 
 other places, and not have them laboring under a delusion ? 
 On the contrary, he repeated again and again that he was to 
 give them his body and his blood. He insisted on it by such 
 lively and expressive words. He went so far as to confirm 
 it with a Jewish oath, ''Amen, amen, I say unto you," etc. 
 
 When the Jews said, ^'How can this man give us his flesh 
 to eat ?" he replied : ''For my flesh is meat indeed, and my 
 blood is drink indeed" (56). He unites the two by saying, 
 ''He that eateth this flesh shall live forever" (59). And 
 again, "He that eateth me the same also shall live by me" 
 (58). By these words he excludes from the minds of the 
 Jews all ideas as to his death, for here he gives himself as 
 the life of those who partake of him. 
 
 All this horrified and scandalized his hearers. Yet he 
 explains nothing, but simply confirmed it by saying, "Doth 
 this scandalize you?" (62). In order to confirm them in this 
 belief of his power to give them his flesh and blood, he 
 draws their attention to his poTver of performing miracles, 
 and especially to his ascension, "If then you shall see the 
 son of man ascend up where he was before " (63). Yet he 
 gives no other explanation. The work of Christ at that 
 time was to gather his followers around him and found the 
 Church. He was to feed their minds on the purest and 
 clearest doctrines. He was to attract them by miracles and 
 by every other means to himself. Yet here, in the very 
 beginning of his public life and works, if he does not mean 
 
178 EUCHARIST. 
 
 Communion, he certainly uses strange words, and drives them 
 all away, except his Apostles alone, and gives no explana- 
 tion of his words if he meant only faith. If he did not 
 mean Communion, his words are certainly absurd. We 
 cannot see the connection between bread and wine and 
 faith, as some pretend, and it would be absurd for Christ to 
 use such a far-fetched figure. Whenever the words of our 
 Lord are difficult or obscure, the writers of the Gospels 
 explain their meaning. But here there is no explanation. 
 When Christ uses hard figures, as in the case of the parable 
 of the sower, he explained it himself ; but here he gives no 
 explanation, showing that these words are to be taken for 
 exactly what they mean — partaking of his body and blood 
 in holy Communion. Not only that, but all the fathers of 
 the Church for the first six centuries, without exception, say 
 that from tradition they have received the doctrine that 
 these words mean holy Communion. Besides that, three 
 ecumenical councils, held at Mce, Ephesus, and at Trent, 
 have decreed that such is the meaning, and that Christ is 
 really present in the sacrament of the altar. 
 
 Many writers of little theological knowledge bring objec- 
 tions against this doctrine, but as they only try to explain 
 away the words of our Lord by twisting them into every 
 shape, we will not stop to refute them. Besides, what we 
 have already said on this subject is enough to convince any 
 good honest mind. 
 
 The Saviour, faithful to his promise, as given above, insti- 
 tuted the sacrament of the Eucharist or Communion at the 
 last supper, as given by the three Evangelists (Math. xxvi. 
 26, Mark xiv. 22, Luke xxii. 19). ''And whilst they were 
 at supper Jesus took bread and blessed and broke and gaA^e 
 to his disciples, and said : Take ye and eat. This is my 
 body. And taking the chalice he gave thanks and gave to 
 them, saying : Drink ye all of this, For this is my blood of 
 the new testament, which shall be shed for many unto the 
 remission of sins." 
 
 The difference between Christians is whether these words 
 are to be taken in their true and literal meaning, or in a 
 figurative and metaphorical sense. They were taken in the 
 true and natural sense by the whole world from the most 
 ancient times, and thus gave origin to the Mass in the days 
 of the Apostles. 
 
EUCHARIST. 181 
 
 If we say they are to be taken in a figurative sense, it is 
 because the natural sense is contrary to our reason. But 
 there is nothing unreasonable in Christ giving us his body 
 and blood, for he is God and can do everything. '' This is 
 my body and this is my blood " are very plain and sim- 
 ple words, and should be taken for what they mean. Besides, 
 bread has never been taken for body, nor do we see any way 
 in which bread can signify the human body. Those, then, 
 who think that the bread and wine figure and typify the 
 body and blood of Christ certainly cannot show in what 
 bread is like a body or wine is like blood. 
 
 The words of Christ, ''this is my blood of the new testa- 
 ment, which shall be shed for many unto the remission of 
 sins," certainly shows that there is no figure. He says 
 that it is his blood, which shall be "shed for many unto 
 the remission of sins." It is then his blood, and not a fig- 
 ure or image, for the figure or image was not put to death 
 for the remission of sins. He says : "For this is my blood 
 of the new testament," meaning that this is the real blood 
 figured by the bloody sacrifices of the old testament, and 
 which is to become the sacrifice of the new testament. In 
 the original Greek the words are stronger, and read, "For 
 this blood, this here, is mine, this of the new testament, 
 this, which shall be shed for many unto the remission of 
 sins." These words are certainly very emphatic, and mean 
 that it was his blood or a body deprived of blood, and the 
 blood in the chalice such as we see in the Mass. 
 
 Christ, in speaking of the new testament at the last sup- 
 per, alludes to the work of Moses establishing the old testa- 
 ment, when he took the blood and sprinkled it upon the 
 people, saying: "This is the blood of the covenant which 
 the Lord hath made with you concerning all these words 
 (Exod. xxiv. 81). 
 
 According to the teachings of Christianity, the whole 
 substance of the bread and of the wine is changed into 
 the body and blood of Jesus Christ, only the appearance 
 of bread and wine remaining. As when we eat or drink 
 the substance of our food and drink is changed into the 
 substance of our bodies and blood. This takes place in 
 this sacrament, except while this change in us takes place 
 slowly and according to the laws of nature, in the sacra- 
 ment of the Eucharist, it takes place quickly and in a 
 
182 EUCHARIST. 
 
 miraculous way. It is then only the change of one substance 
 into another, which God works every day around us in 
 nature. The body of Christ since the resurrection has 
 become as near like a spirit as it is in the power of God to 
 make it. We cannot see a spirit, nor can we see a spirit- 
 ualized body. As a spirit can be in many places at the 
 same time, so his body can be on many altars at the same 
 time. He cannot suffer any cold or heat, for he has entered 
 into his rest to suffer no more. Neither can he suffer any 
 indignity from any cause. If an animal, for example, 
 would take the Host, Christ would only enter into a more 
 perfect tabernacle than he dwells in on our altars. For 
 what can be more wonderful in structure, blood vessels, 
 nerves, and perfect beauty than a living stomach made by 
 God for its own object ? 
 
 The scientific men of our days, almost without exception, 
 believe that all bodies are composed of atoms and mole- 
 cules, while some have thought they were made up of sim- 
 ple substances, or of matter and form, according to the 
 belief of the greatest thinkers of antiquity, like Aristotle, 
 St. Augustin, and St. Thomas. The matter is invisible to 
 the senses, while the form acts on the senses. In the 
 Eucharist, the matter passes into the body and blood of 
 Christ, while the form, or, as we have often repeated, the 
 appearances, which acted before on the senses when it was 
 bread and wine, still remain, and still act on our senses. 
 Thus it has still the appearance of bread and wine. This 
 the great Lutheran writer, Leibnitz, expresses in the follow- 
 ing words : ^' Pious antiquity says clearly that the bread is 
 changed into the body of Jesus Christ, and the wine into 
 his blood, and the ancients recognize and admit it in many 
 parts of their writings, as a change which the Latins have 
 perfectly translated by transubstantiation. * * * * Thus, as 
 in so many other places, by tradition we should explain the 
 Scriptures, of which the Holy Church is the guardian, and 
 which has transmitted to us the holy deposit." 
 
 Space will not permit us to go deeper into the matter. 
 Any one sincerely disposed to the truth, and free from 
 prejudice, can see the truth of the real presence from what 
 has been said. Let us now see a little of the history and 
 changes of discipline relating to this sacrament among the 
 most ancient churches of the world. 
 
EUCHARIST. 183 
 
 In the first centuries the people used to bring different 
 things to the church for the sacrifice, and place them on 
 the altar. But at length it became such an abuse that at 
 last the Apostolic Constitutions forbade all other things ex- 
 cept what were necessary for the sacrament, with the new 
 fruits, raisins, oils for the lamps, and incense. Thus it 
 went on, till the third Council of Carthage forbade the offer- 
 ing of anything but bread and wine. The gifts were then 
 divided between the clergy, the bishop, the Church, and 
 the poor for their livings. This continued till the ninth 
 century. Many laws were made during these times to pre- 
 vent abuses. Special prayers were said at the time of the 
 offering, of which the remains are still found in the Mass 
 Book, under the head of the Offertory. It was the way of 
 supporting religion in those days. The remains of these 
 customs are still found in many churches of France, in 
 Milan, and in othpr places. The clergy offered their own 
 gifts on the altar, and the people at the altar railing. 
 Monks and nuns, in the times of SS. Augustin and Jerome, 
 offered also their gifts on the altar. According to the 
 writers of these remote ages, no Christian was excused 
 except the emperor himself, through respect for his dignity. 
 But the Christian emperors generally carried out the cus- 
 tom, especially on the feast of the Epiphany. At the pres- 
 ent time we do not know that this custom is carried out in 
 any part of the world. The bread and wine is now pre- 
 pared under the direction of the clergy. Money, since the 
 eighth century, has taken the place of these offerings, for 
 it represents a fixed value of exchange, and it is better 
 handled than a large amount of bread, wine, and such 
 things. 
 
 In ancient times the people partook of the consecrated 
 blood from a chalice differing from the one used by the 
 celebrant, till the use of two chalices was forbidden by 
 Gregory II., in his reply to St. Boniface, the Apostle of Ger- 
 many. The chalice used by the priest was called the Offer- 
 torial Chalice, the other the Ministerial Chalice. The cus- 
 tom of the people receiving Communion under both species 
 gave rise to many abuses. Some came because they liked 
 the taste of wine, and not through devotion. Others got 
 excited and spilled the chalice on their clothes or on the 
 floor. A few used to wipe their lips, and the sacred blood 
 
184 EUCHARIST. 
 
 was carried away in their clothes. Still others, who were re- 
 formed drinkers, were again enticed to drink by the taste of 
 wine. These and other abuses gave rise to varied discipline. 
 From the beginning they presented the chalice to the peo- 
 ple to drink from, both in the East as well as in the West. 
 That can be seen in the writings of the fathers, and the 
 custom remained till the seventh century in France. On 
 account of the abuses and difficulties mentioned above, 
 they then used pipes to suck up the contents of the chalice. 
 Afterwards they dipped the body of our Lord into the blood 
 and gave it to the people. Ernulphus, bishop of Rochester, 
 England, and Yves, of Chartres, France, upheld that prac- 
 tice, because they said it prevented the blood from being 
 spilled. But it was discountenanced by a council held at 
 Toledo. For many ages that has been the way of giving 
 Communion among the Greeks. Popes Urban and Pascal II. 
 forbade giving Communion wet with the blood in the chal- 
 ice, because it became an abuse, for they supposed the 
 wine was consecrated by contact with the body of our 
 Lord, and not by the words of consecration. 
 
 The Manicheans believed that the devil was the author 
 of wine, and they infected the people with these doctrines. 
 It often happened then that the people would take Com- 
 munion under only the one species of bread, and not par- 
 take of the chalice. There were some who partook only 
 under one kind from the very beginning of the Church. 
 Again, in ancient times they used on certain days to say 
 mass without consecrating, as the Greeks do now, during 
 the week days of Lent, except Saturdays, and, as the Latins 
 do, on Good Friday. Then they used to give Communion 
 from the particles consecrated before, for they never pre- 
 served the sacred blood in any church. Pope St. Leo or- 
 dered all to communicate alike, and Pope Gelasius renewed 
 his predecessor's orders. On the days mentioned, when 
 the Greeks say the mass of the Presanctified, they give 
 Communion under one species to the people. That is as old 
 as the Christian religion, as we see by the decrees of a 
 council held in the sixth century, and by the Council of 
 Laodicea. Now, the Greeks wet with blood, in the form of 
 a cross, the host before taking it, but that is a modern cus- 
 tom among them. 
 
 We may say that to the care of the Church Christ left the 
 
EUCHARIST. 185 
 
 sacraments ; and to her, his spouse, he gave all power re- 
 quired for their dispensation, yet so as not to substantially 
 change them. The Church then has power to give Commun- 
 ion only under one form, as Christ is entirely under the form 
 of bread, and entirely under the form of wine. Therefore 
 those who partake either of one or of the other element, 
 partake of the whole Christ. This Christ appears to mean 
 when he says : ' ' He that eateth this bread shall live for- 
 ever" (John vi. 59) ; and again: ^' If any man eat of this 
 bread he shall live forever, and the bread that I will give is 
 my flesh for the life of the world" (Ibidem, 52). St. Paul 
 also says the same. ** Therefore whosoever shall eat this 
 bread or drink the chalice of the Lord unworthily shall be 
 guilty of the body and of the blood of the Lord " (I. Cor. 
 xi. 27). The Christians of the early ages believed in re- 
 ceiving under only one species, for after their children were 
 baptized when infants, and could not receive Communion 
 under the form of bread, they used to dip their finger into 
 the consecrated chalice and let the children suck the blood. 
 This custom is still retained among many Christians of 
 the Eastern Rites. In the same way they used to give 
 Communion only under the species of bread to those who 
 were sick and could not come to the church. For the 
 reasons given above, the Councils of Trent and of Constan- 
 tinople forbade the laity the use of the chalice. This also 
 relates to the clergy, so that, the Pope alone excepted, no 
 one can partake of the chalice except the celebrant of the 
 mass, because he alone offers the sacrifice. 
 
 In continuing the history of this sacrament, we would 
 say that while the offerings were being made, the custom 
 of singing Psalms was introduced in the fourth century, as 
 can be seen by the writings of the fathers of that time. It 
 was introduced into the Church of Carthage, in the days of 
 St. Augustin. From the offerings, it was called the Offer- 
 tory, which is now seen in every mass book. The Church 
 of Lyons, France, still observes that custom on solemn 
 feasts. 
 
 They chose in the first ages the bread and wine necessary 
 for the mass, and placed them on the altar. In the ninth 
 century, in Spain, these gifts were arranged in different 
 ways. The Empress Irene made laws relating to the sub- 
 ject for a religious community she established in the eighth 
 
186 
 
 EUCHARIST. 
 
 century. The wine was poured into the chalice with a 
 strainer, so as to prevent it spattering. That is still pre- 
 served in. St. Denis, Paris. The chalices of this time were 
 large and heavy, with handles. 
 We give here the picture of the chalice, such as is used at 
 
 the present time. They are 
 sometimes very costly, being 
 made of solid gold, and pro- 
 fusely ornamented with dia- 
 monds, pearls, and precious 
 stones. The highest art of the 
 goldsmith's trade is expended 
 in beautifying that holy cup, 
 which is destined to hold the 
 blood of the Saviour. 
 
 The bread for the sacrifice 
 was placed on a plate of the 
 same material as the chalice. 
 Among the Latins it was called 
 the paten, and was in the first 
 ages much larger than at pres- 
 ent. They rested on a linen 
 cloth, called the corporal among 
 the Latins, and the shroud in 
 the Ambrosian Rite, because 
 it is like the linen cloths on 
 which they laid the body of our 
 Lord in the tomb. It was called 
 also the pall, because, being large, it was turned over and 
 covered the chalice. Now the pall and corporal are seiDa- 
 rated, forming two linens. Sometimes they were of em- 
 broidered silk, often ornamented with precious stones. Every 
 monument of antiquity shows the profound respect with 
 which the Communion was treated among all Christians. 
 
 The same can be seen in the churches of the East^ which 
 have preserved their ancient rites and customs. The large 
 churches of the Greeks are, like ours, divided into three 
 parts — the vestibule, the nave, and the sanctuary. In the 
 latter place only the bishop, priests, and deacons hear mass. 
 In the middle of the sanctuary stands the altar. At the 
 left is the altar of proposition, where the bread and wine 
 for the sacrifice are prepared. On the right is a little altar 
 
 THE CHALICE. 
 
EUCHARIST. 187 
 
 where the celebrant and his ministers put on their vest- 
 ments. The bread is round or square, having impressed on 
 it Greek letters which signify, "Jesus Christ the Conqueror/"^ 
 The Copts make their breads with twelve crosses in squares, 
 representing the Apostles, with a large one in the middle, 
 typifying our Lord. Often the words in Coptic signifying- 
 Lamb or Christ, are found on these breads. 
 
 The Greek priest during the mass, with a little knife 
 called 'Hhe holy lance," and with certain prayers, pierces 
 the bread many times, with the deacon saying prayers relat- 
 ing to the crucifixion of our Lord. At the words of their 
 Liturgy : " One of the soldiers with a spear opened his side 
 and immediately there came forth blood and water " (John 
 xix. 34), the celebrant drives the lance deep into the bread 
 and the deacon puts the wine and water into the chalice. 
 The celebrant now cuts the bread in many pieces, each in 
 honor of the Virgin, of the Saints, and of the bishop of the 
 diocese. The mass pursues its course, with prayers and 
 incense not differing materially from ours. To some of the 
 prayers the choir replies Kyrie Eleison, '^ Lord have mercy 
 on us." Such are the principal rites of the churches subject 
 to the archbishop of Constantinople, among the Bulgarians, 
 the Russians, the Melchites, and those who follow the 
 Liturgy of St. Chrysostom, or rather the Liturgy of St. 
 James revised by St. Chrysostom. 
 
 The Copts, Ethiopians, Jacobites, and other Christians of 
 the East, practice about the same rites. Everywhere they 
 have the greatest veneration for the real presence and 
 prepare well for holy Communion. The Jacobites begin 
 their Liturgy by the preparation of the gifts, which they 
 place on the altar before beginning mass, while the Greek 
 Melchites do that only after the Gospel, like we of the Latin 
 Rite. The Ethiopians have a procession with the gifts, and 
 all kneel down while they ring the bells. They have great 
 respect for the bread and wine, which is to become the body 
 and blood of our Lord, so much so that they genuflect to 
 them. But when asked if it was not a kind of idolatry to 
 adore the bread and wine before consecration, they replied 
 that they only anticipated the consecration. The Armen- 
 ians also have a procession of the same kind at the offertory, 
 kneeling and prostrating themselves on the ground. Some 
 of these customs were brought to France, and became a 
 
188 EUCHARIST. 
 
 part of the ancient Galilean Liturgy by the first bishops of 
 France, who in the times of the conversion of that country 
 came from the East. Afterwards the Roman Rite was 
 introduced into nearly the whole of France, where it still 
 remains. 
 
 These customs, so venerable, coming from the Apostles 
 themselves, and spread into every part of the world, all show 
 that the belief of the real presence comes from the very 
 origin of the Christian religion. 
 
 In the first ages even emperors, kings, and princes thought 
 it was an honor to prepare the bread and wine for the sacri- 
 fice. We see this by the example of the emperor Valins, of 
 Queen Radegonda, of Candida, Trajan's queen, and of many 
 others, who with their own hands prepared them for the 
 mass. One of the Councils of Toledo, held in the year G95, 
 made laws relating to the preparation of the bread and 
 wine. The monks of Cluny and of other religious houses 
 carefully guarded the growing wheat which was to be used 
 for the breads. The same care is prescribed by the canons 
 of the churches of the East, where the breads are often 
 baked in an oven in the church itself. The Jacobites of 
 Syria, as well as of Egypt, the Melchites, and the IN'estorians 
 bake the bread on the same day it is to be used. Among 
 the Armenians, the night before the deacon makes and 
 bakes the breads, ornamented with figures, and round like 
 ours. 
 
 Ail the Christians of the East use leavened bread, but in 
 the Latin Rite we use unleavened bread. In either case the 
 consecration is valid, as this does not belong to the essence 
 of the sacrament. The difference came from this : that we 
 do not know whether Christ used leavened or unleavened 
 bread at the last supper. The Ebionites eat only unleav- 
 ened bread during the week following Easter Sunday, and 
 the Ethiopians use it altogether in their masses. The use 
 of unfermented bread appears to be as old as the C.'hristian 
 religion. It is prescribed in the Latin and Mozarabic Litur- 
 gies, in the Councils of Toledo, by the decrees of Popes, 
 and was taught by the great fathers of the Church. In 
 the East the Armenians and Maronites alone use unfer- 
 mented bread. The former do not mix water with the wine 
 in the chalice. The non-use of water was condemned by 
 a council held in 692. The Christians of Ethiopia soak 
 
EUCHARIST. 189 
 
 raisins in water and use the wine made from them for the 
 mass. 
 
 Among all Christians, only wine made of grapes and 
 bread made of wheat are used for this sacrament, as they 
 were used by our Lord, who then pointed out these as the 
 materials of the sacrament of the Eucharist. There has 
 never been any serious dispute on this question, as it is so 
 clearly given in the Bible that our Lord used them at the 
 last supper. 
 
 The words by which the consecration takes place have 
 always been considered as the most sacred words used by 
 man. In ancient times they were uttered only at the time 
 of the consecration. For that reason no writer before the 
 fourth century mentions them lest they would be mocked 
 by the pagans. They are the same substantially in all 
 Liturgies as in ours, except that the Greeks invoke the Holy 
 Spirit at the words of consecration. The Greeks have also 
 a kind of invocation to the Holy Ghost after the Gospel. 
 The Latins invoke the Holy Ghost after the Offertory. At 
 the Council of Florence for the union of the Greeks they 
 agreed perfectly with us, that the bread and wine are 
 changed into the body and blood of Christ at the words 
 of consecration, by the power of Christ himself. They all 
 say that such is the testimony of St. Chrysostom and of the 
 fathers. The Episcopalians also use the words of Christ at 
 the last supper, and some of them believe in the real pres- 
 ence, while others do not. The writer is astonished at their 
 false doctrines, and which some of their best clergy and 
 writers lay to the door of the Catholic Church, on these sub- 
 jects. They frequently make out that we believe doctrines 
 which we actually condemn. Besides, it appears that the 
 greater part of the theology of the different Protestant sects 
 consists in showing where we are wrong, and not a sincere 
 seeking after truth. 
 
 If the different churches, both here and in the East, bet- 
 ter understood each other, there would be a more cordial 
 feeling, and we would not be so much belied. It appears 
 that all denominations in this country use the words of 
 Christ at the last supper at their communion services. Also 
 they use fermented or common bread. The first Book of 
 Common Prayer of Edward YI. commanded unleaven bread 
 for the celebration of the Eucharist all through England, and 
 
190 EUCHARIST. 
 
 they were made round as in the Greek and Roman Churches. 
 But at the review of the English Liturgy under the fifth 
 King Edward common bread, such as is used at the table, 
 was enjoined, and that is the custom since among the 
 Episcopalians and all Protestants of this country. The use 
 of fermented or unfermented wine at communion has 
 caused many disputes among the different denominations 
 both here and in England, so much so as to almost break 
 up some Protestant congregations. 
 
 No Christian denomination believes that any change takes 
 place by the invocation of the Holy Ghost. In the Nestor- 
 ian Rite it is made, like ours, before the consecration. The 
 Ethiopians, who take some parts of their Rite from the 
 Jacobites of Egypt, say, after the consecration, '' I believe, 
 I confess that this is truly your body." Words like these 
 are also used in some of the other Liturgies of the East. 
 In the Nestorian Liturgies, the words of consecration are 
 omitted from the books, but are said from memory by the 
 priest. 
 
 It appears that the Apostles formed these ceremonies of 
 the mass according to the chief languages of the earth at 
 their time. Thus, St. Chrysostom, archbishop of Constanti- 
 nople in the fourth century, in his 27th homily on I. Cor., 
 says : '^ When the Apostles came to that holy supper, what 
 did they do ? Did they not break forth in prayers, and did 
 they not sing hymns ? " His successor, Proclus, of Con- 
 stantinople, writing on the traditions of the Apostles, says : 
 '^Our Saviour having been raised up into heaven, the 
 Apostles, before having scattered into all the earth, together 
 passed the whole day in prayer. And as they found great 
 consolation in the celebration of the mystic sacrifice of the 
 body and blood of the Lord, they extended a great deal that 
 action with hymns and words. * * * * They therefore 
 employed their time with great joy in celebrating that 
 divine sacrifice, remembering these words of the Lord, • This 
 is my body,' and ' do this in commemoration of me,' etc. For 
 that reason they sang many prayers with a contrite heart, 
 imploring the aid of God. " Thus you see that in the East 
 the prayers of the mass were believed in those early times 
 to have been composed by the Apostles at Jerusalem. 
 
 In the first ages, before Communion, the deacon cried 
 out : " Holy things for those who are holy," signifying 
 
EUCHARIST. 191 
 
 that only those in the state of grace could approach the 
 table of the Lord. The priest gave the particle, saying : 
 ''The body of Christ," and the receiver replied, ''Amen," 
 by which he admitted his faith in the real presence. That 
 remained in the Eastern as well as in the Western Churches 
 up to the sixth century, as can be seen in the Apostolic Con- 
 stitutions, in the writings of Tertullian, of Pope Cornelius, of 
 St. Augustin, of Pope St. Leo, and in many others. 
 
 About the sixth century they began to give Communion 
 with the words used by us at the present day : ' ' May the 
 body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve your soul," and 
 "unto everlasting life, Amen," was added in the eighth 
 century. The celebrant always gave Communion to him- 
 self, then to the bishop, to the priest, deacons, sub-deacons, 
 the lower clergy, monks, deaconesses, nuns, then to the 
 men and women in the order mentioned. The bishop gave 
 the Communion, aided by all the clergy. The same order 
 was observed regarding the precious blood. To-day the 
 Greek priest must know the name of the one to receive, 
 because he gives it, calling him by name : " Servant of God, 
 
 N , receive thou the holy body and the precious blood 
 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ, for the forgiveness of your sins 
 and unto everlasting life." Some deacons through pride 
 desired to interrupt the order given above and receive first, 
 but they were put in their place by one of the Councils of 
 Nice. The remains of that are seen to-day in the ceremonies 
 of Holy Thursday, when the deacon and subdeacon serving 
 the celebrant, receive before the priests in the sanctuary. 
 In some places altar boys received before the people. 
 
 Long before the time of Justinian, the emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, they used to give what remained after the 
 Communion to the infants in the congregation. It re- 
 mained the custom till the sixteenth century, and was also 
 practiced in France up to the time of Charlemagne, when 
 it was forbidden in the third Council of Tours, held in 813. 
 It was also forbidden at Paris in the eleventh century. 
 
 The discipline relating to the place of receiving Com- 
 munion varied, as well as the manner of its reception. In 
 the Roman or Latin Rite the celebrant always received at 
 the altar, the clergy around the altar, at the steps, or at the 
 entrance of the sanctuary, while the people always received 
 at the altar railing. Only the kings and emperors were 
 
192 EUCHARIST. 
 
 dispensed from that law and received at the altar. Such 
 was the discipline established by councils. St. Ambrose 
 drove the Emperor Theodosius from the altar for his sins, 
 and forbade him the church till he did penance. 
 
 This was common among the Greeks, as well as among 
 the Latins. In the Roman Church, the people once re- 
 ceived in their place, the priest going among them and 
 giving them the Communion under the species of bread, and 
 the deacon the chalice, the people all remaining in their 
 places in the church. But in Africa they came up to the sanc- 
 tuary railing, as we learn from the sermons of St. Augustin. 
 In France, in these early times, all the people went up to 
 the altar for Communion, as we learn from the second 
 Council of Tours, held in 567. At that time the custom was 
 already ancient. Thus the discipline among the ancient 
 Gauls differed from that established in other parts of the 
 world. The custom of receiving communion in their places 
 in the church is practiced by the Presbyterians and many 
 Protestant Churches in our day. 
 
 In the East, among the Greeks, all the clergy and laity 
 received the sacrament standing, the head bowed and eyes 
 cast down, as signs of humility, as St. Augustin says ; that 
 way of receiving Communion is found to-day in the Rituals 
 of the Greeks, and travelers say they all receive standing. 
 In the Roman Church that ancient custom is still con- 
 tinued, for when the Pope pontificates solemnly, the deacon 
 receives standing. From the writings of the ancients, we 
 also conclude that the monks and nuns of those days also 
 received Communion standing. We learn from St. Odon, 
 of Cluny, that, out of respect for the ineffable Eucharist, 
 the monks used to approach the altar barefooted. That 
 custom appears not to have been observed outside of the 
 monasteries. From the most ancient times the Popes 
 received Communion at solemn masses sitting on their 
 throne. That appears to come from the way the Apostles 
 received at the last supper, lying on couches around the 
 table. 
 
 In the early ages they received the particle in their hands, 
 and they themselves placed it in their mouths. The same 
 was practiced in the East, as we learn from SS. Basil, 
 Chrysostom, and Cyril of Jerusalem. That was followed 
 in the East till the eighth century. Venerable Bede, who 
 
EUCHARIST. 193 
 
 died in 735, says it was also practiced in the Western 
 Church in his time. The men received the Eucharist on 
 the palms of their hands, but the women received It on their 
 hands covered with a linen cloth, both in the Eastern and 
 Western Churches. Many regulations were issued by 
 Popes and Councils relating to these matters. They used 
 to carry the Eucharist to their houses to keep It for the 
 sick, and many abuses rose till the Council of Rouen, held 
 in the time of Louis the Good, ordered priests to place the 
 particles in the mouths of the communicants. From that 
 the present discipline rose and spread into all parts of the 
 Western Church. We do not find the exact date when that 
 change took place among the Greeks and in the East, 
 but we know that for many centuries they are accustomed 
 to put the consecrated particle tempered with the precious 
 blood into the mouth of the receivers with a spatula, like a 
 little spoon. In the monastery on Mount Sinai, the arch- 
 bishop takes a particle in his hand, and gives it to all the 
 ministers in their hands, which, when they have taken It, 
 they come and drink three times from the chalice. This 
 shows that the ancient discipline is still preserved in some 
 places of the East, at least with respect to the ministers of 
 the altar. The Nestorians and Georgians still preserve 
 that custom, and also give the chalice to the laity. Yet 
 some conform to the usages of the Latin Church. 
 
 We would also say that formerly the celebrant broke the 
 Host in many pieces, took one himself and gave the rest to 
 the deacon, subdeacon, and to the people. The most an- 
 cient way of receiving the consecrated blood, both in the 
 West as well as in the East, was to present the chalice to 
 the people, from which they drank. SS. Cyprian and 
 Cyril of Jerusalem speak of it as being the custom in their 
 day. It was also the way in France, in the days of St. 
 Gregory, of Tours, towards the end of the sixth century. 
 That is the custom still among the Greeks. We have given 
 the reasons why the Western Church abolished that, be- 
 cause of abuses and dangers of irreverence. 
 
 During the Communion they sang the Psalms of David, 
 and when all had communicated, the celebrant gave the 
 sign to finish with the ''Glory be to the Father," etc. From 
 that came that part of the mass called the Communion in the 
 Mass Book. The singing of these Psalms appears to have 
 
194 EUCHARIST. 
 
 commenced in the East, and from there it spread into 
 the Western Church. The Apostolic Constitution mentions 
 it, and St. Augustine says it was the custom of the Church 
 of Carthage in his time. That remained till the end of the 
 eleventh century. It is still preserved during solemn feasts 
 in the Church of Lyons, France. 
 
 Some used to go to Communion after mass or at other 
 times during the day, and they used to say the prayer : '*I 
 confess to Almighty God," etc., as a public confession when 
 the priest gave them a general absolution. More than five 
 hundred years ago that was introduced for all those who 
 received even during the mass. For that reason there is no 
 prayer of this kind for the celebrant. At the Abbey of 
 Cluny and at St. Denis, Paris, the deacon and subdeacon 
 of the mass on great feasts receive Communion under both 
 species. 
 
 What we have said relates to Communion in public. But 
 the first Christians received so frequently and lived in such 
 daily danger of martyrdom, that they loved to receive every 
 day, so as to be always prepared for death. St. Luke, in the 
 Acts of the Apostles, tells us that they ^* continued daily 
 "with one accord in the temple and breaking bread from house 
 to house (Acts ii. 46). The traditions of Christianity tell us 
 that this meant that daily the holy sacrifice was offered up in 
 private houses, and that all received Communion each day. 
 The persecutions made this necessary, for they could not 
 build churches. The deacons used to carry the Communion 
 to those who could not be present. Such is the testimony 
 of St. Justin and Lucian, a priest of the Church of Antioch. 
 Tertullian speaks of it as having been quite common before 
 his time, while SS. Cyprian, of the Church of Carthage, 
 and Clement, of Alexandria, both speak of it. When they 
 saw the persecutions coming during these dark days, they 
 redoubled their devotions and Communions, for they did 
 not know the day nor the hour they would be deprived of 
 their pastors. They used to send the consecrated Elements, 
 not only by the hands of deacons, but also by the inferior 
 clergy. Even the laity used to carry It sometimes to their 
 absent friends. In this way the anchorites and solitaries of 
 the desert used to receive Communion. St. Basil tells us 
 that the people used to keep the Eucharist in their houses 
 and receive It from their own hands. Some of them would 
 
EUCHARIST. 195 
 
 never eat without having first partaken of Communion. 
 Yet this was not universal. The custom of the laity guard- 
 ing the Eucharist in their houses remained in vogue in the 
 Eastern Church till the sixth century. At present it is 
 observed among some of the Christians of the East. They 
 have the greatest respect and adore our Lord present with 
 them. Sometimes they carry the Eucharist with them to 
 guard them from dangers and temptations in their jour- 
 neys. 
 
 This custom of the early Church gave rise to many abuses, 
 so that in the Western Church the first Council of Toledo, 
 held in the fourth century, commanded the people, under 
 pain of excommunication, not to carry the Particle home, 
 and to consume the Eucharist before leaving the church. 
 This related only to the Church in Spain, over which alone 
 that council had jurisdiction or spiritual authority. The 
 same custom was continued in other parts of Europe for some 
 time, till it finally died out towards the twelfth century. 
 
 When a Christian fell sick, usually the Communion was 
 carried to him by the priest under the form of bread. 
 Sometimes It was brought by a lay person wet with wine, a 
 custom to-day followed by the Greeks, who consecrate all 
 the particles for the dying on Holy Thursday, which they 
 wet with T^ine and water and carry to the sick during the 
 following year. As the early Christians could keep only the 
 Communion under the species of bread for a long time, 
 for the species of wine would corrupt, it appears that they 
 gave It to the sick only under the species of bread, and not 
 the chalice. When the Church was given peace from per- 
 secution, the councils reclaimed against this abuse of the 
 laity giving Communion, because of the danger of abuse 
 and disrespect of the Sacrament. This ceased about the 
 tenth century, and the priests alone brought the Viaticum 
 or Communion to the dying ; yet It was still sometimes 
 brought by the deacons. During the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries councils and statutes forbade deacons to bring the 
 Viaticum to the sick, and the discipline of our day was 
 established. 
 
 Sometimes the sick were brought to the church and 
 received under both species, as may be seen in the engrav- 
 ing of "The Last Communion of St. Jerome just before his 
 Death " (facing page 291). St. Edmond, Archbishop of Can- 
 
196 EUCHARIST. 
 
 terbury, says in his Constitutions that '*the body of the 
 Lord is to be carried reverently to the dying," showing that 
 in his day in England the customs of our days were carried 
 out. 
 
 There is no doubt but that in the first ages of the Chris- 
 tian religion frequent Communion was practiced by every 
 one. They had then great fervor and devotion, as Tertul- 
 lian, St. Cyprian, and others tell us. For the first three 
 centuries during the persecutions their fervor and zeal were 
 unabated. At that time, as seen in the Apostolic Constitu- 
 tions, laws were made obliging all present at mass to receive 
 the Eucharist, under the penalty of excommunication from 
 the Church. The Council of Antioch, held under Pope 
 Julius, renewed that law. That custom of receiving each 
 time they assisted at mass remained in some places till the 
 fifth century. The people from that time became negligent,, 
 and councils held in the sixth century commanded them to 
 receive at Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas, under the pain 
 of excommunication. That is seen in the decrees of coun- 
 cils, in the works of Egbert, archbishop of York, and in 
 other monuments of this early time. Soon after that, 
 some went to Communion each day, others every Sunday, 
 others once a month, while more could hardly be got to go 
 once or twice a year. Among the Greeks at this time all, 
 both clergy and laity, received each Sunday. Under Char- 
 lemagne and Louis the Good, they tried unsuccessfully to 
 introduce the ancient discipline into France. 
 
 Some time afterwards the twelfth Council of Toledo for- 
 bade clergymen to offer the holy sacrifice many times dur- 
 ing the day without consuming the elements, except at 
 their last mass. Again, some of the laity used to assist at 
 many masses and receive at each, which was also forbidden. 
 Many changes of discipline now rose in different Churches 
 and nations, which we will not now stop to mention. 
 From century to century the devotion of the people grew 
 less and less each generation, till the fourth Council of Lat- 
 uan commanded all to go to Communion at least once a 
 year, at the Easter time, which is the discipline of the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 The Saviour instituted this sacrament after eating the 
 paschal lamb, and the early Christians, following his 
 example, used to partake in the evening after the agapse,. 
 
EUCHARIST. 197 
 
 love feasts gotten up by the rich, and to which the poor 
 were all invited. Over these feasts the bishop or one of the 
 principal priests presided. They were held by the Greeks 
 as well as by the Latins. On account of abuses and excesses 
 carried out at these feasts of friendship, St. Paul writes to 
 the Corinthians, correcting their excesses (I. Cor. xi. 18 to 34). 
 Because of many abuses and deceptions, the Christians in 
 all places in early times began to receive fasting, for many 
 used to come to Communion Tvhen intoxicated. St. Augus- 
 tin says the habit of receiving the Eucharist while fasting 
 comes from the Apostles, but we cannot find the exact date. 
 Yet these feasts, or the agapse, the love feasts, and which 
 some writers think were the mass services, still were observed 
 for many centuries in Africa, although the Council of Car- 
 thage, held in 397, thought of abolishing them because they 
 were filled with danger; still the fathers of this council 
 allowed them on Holy Thursday, as a memorial of the last 
 supper. Before that time they used to receive the Eucha- 
 rist fasting as a general thing. That council ordered all to 
 receive fasting except on the anniversary of the Lord's Sup- 
 per. All Christians of the Eastern Churches, even up to 
 our times, receive fasting. They have certain laws also 
 relating to married people, or in case an accident happens dur- 
 ing the night before. That is followed out especially by the 
 Syrians, while some are not allowed to drink intoxicating 
 liquors since the evening before receiving. 
 
 The Eastern Christians are very particular regarding any 
 irreverence offered to the Eucharist, and impose severe pen- 
 ances on the guilty. They have the same veneration for 
 the holy vessels as we of the Latin Rite. In every way they 
 show honor and adoration of Christ really present, and take 
 every precaution against it in every one of these Oriental 
 Rites, so ancient and so venerable. 
 
 Many customs of the early ages have come down to our 
 days, while others long ago ceased. Of the latter we may 
 mention that the bishops used to send the Eucharist from 
 one to another as a sign of fraternal charity and union. 
 That was practiced in the times of the Apostles. It was 
 often sent to bishops living at a great distance. When in the 
 year 180 Pope St. Victor threatened to excommunicate the 
 bishops of Asia Minor because they followed the custom of 
 celebrating Easter on the day it is celebrated by the Jews, 
 
198 EUCHARIST. 
 
 a custom taught by the Evangelist St. John, St. Ireneus, 
 bishop of Marseilles, France, wrote to the Pope and begged 
 him not to cut them off, recalling that his predecessors in 
 the chair of Peter used to send the Eucliarist to those 
 bishops as a sign of their unity with the Church of Rome. 
 They carried the Eucharist as the remains of that ancient 
 custom. We read that when Pope Honorius sent St. Berin, 
 who became the bishop of Dorchester, to preach the Gospel 
 in England, on the journey he carried the Eucharist. From 
 that it became quite common in Great Britain as well as in 
 the other parts of the world. SS. Columbanus did the same 
 in Ireland, Boniface in Germany, and others in France. 
 Sometimes the laity in the same way used to carry our Lord 
 as a protection when away from home. Now this privilege 
 is reserved to the Pope in the Western Church, but the 
 custom is quite common still among the Greeks. The 
 Maronites carry It when going to war, but that is an 
 abuse. The Council of Laodicea, held in the beginning of 
 the fourth century, forbade that custom, because of the 
 danger of irreverence to the sacrament. From that time 
 they sent common bread as a sign of unity and friendship. 
 Many of the early writers speak of that bread, which was 
 called Eulogia, or blessed bread, which was blessed at 
 Christmas and Easter. The Popes used to send the Eucha- 
 sist to other bishops and priests in and near Rome, as a sign 
 of union. The bishops sent the same to their priests in their 
 dioceses, who used to put the particle in the chalice the 
 next time they said mass. 
 
 Besides, on long voyages, they used to carry the Host 
 with them, and even to-day, when on a journey or on dan- 
 gerous voyages, the Pope always, as the remains of those 
 old and venerable customs, carries the Host. 
 
 The bishops, on the day of their consecration, used to 
 receive the Eucharist from the hands of the Pope, or the 
 consecrating bishop, and the rest was kept for their Com- 
 munion during the forty days following their consecration. 
 Sometimes the people of the Latin Church, as well as of the 
 Eastern Rites, used to place the Communion in the mouth 
 of the corpse, when they died without Communion, or the 
 Viaticum, but that abuse was first condemned in the third 
 Council of Carthage. That condemnation was confirmed 
 by the sixth council held in Germany, by St. Boniface, 
 
EUCHARIST. 199 
 
 and by many other prelates and councils in various parts 
 of the world. 
 
 Besides, they used to bury the Eucharist with the dead in 
 Europe, and also in the East, which abuse was also con- 
 demned by different councils. It is said that the same was 
 done at the funeral of St. Cuthbert in England, who died in 
 the year 687. Besides other abuses and changes, we may 
 mention that Edward, king of England, and other mem- 
 bers of royalty, used to take an oath to the truth of what 
 they said on the holy Eucharist. We might mention 
 numerous other abuses, which were only local and soon 
 died out, if space permitted. 
 
 It is time to speak of the place where the sacrament was 
 kept, as well as the holy vessels used in its administration. 
 From the earliest times, in the East, they kept the sacra- 
 ment in a kind of tabernacle, made in the form of a dove 
 suspended over the altar. They used to do the same in 
 France in ancient times, but we do not think it was ever 
 tolerated at Rome. These doves were of silver, and some- 
 times of gold. They represented the Holy Spirit in the 
 form of a dove coming down on the Saviour at his baptism. 
 There the Eucharist was preserved for the adoration of the 
 people, and for the Communion of the sick. 
 
 In Italy and in Rome, they always preserved the Eucha- 
 rist in tabernacles, often made of gold, silver, or costly 
 stone, like our tabernacles of the present day. In France 
 they sometimes preserved the Host in ciboria, made of 
 costly materials formed like little towers. St. Remi, arch- 
 bishop of Rheims, in his will directed his successor to make 
 a ciborium of the gold given by the great King Clovis of 
 France, whom he had baptized. That shows how ancient 
 is the custom of keeping the Eucharist in the ciborium. 
 Many were made by orders of the Popes. Yet in some 
 places they kept the sacrament suspended over the altar in 
 little golden boxes. For more than 300 years, at Verona, 
 Italy, they kept It in an ivory urn. Popes, kings, bishops, 
 emperors, nobles, clergy, and laity, showed their devotion 
 to Christ present in their churches, by decorating the place 
 where He rested with the most costly materials and the 
 most artistic devices. Some centuries passed, and they 
 guarded the Eucharist, not in doves, but in golden boxes 
 suspended over the altar. Then they copied after Rome 
 
200 EUCHARIST. 
 
 and built tabernacles over the altars ; and such is the cus- 
 tom at the present time. 
 
 These doves or tabernacles where the Host was kept, were 
 not always in the church, but in the sacristy, vestry, or in a 
 chapel attached to the church. Even to-day we find that 
 some of the grand altars have no tabernacles, as at Lyons, 
 Vienna, and Besangon. It is the same among the Greeks. 
 On the opposite page is seen the picture of a modern Greek 
 tabernacle, made of costly marbles and decorated with 
 precious stones. That shows us how the Greeks and other 
 Christians of the East love to decorate the resting-place of 
 our Lord. In other places, by them It is kept on the side of 
 the altar, back of the altar, or on one of the side altars. 
 The reason is that the ancients did not like, generally, to 
 say mass in the presence of the Host. The third Council of 
 Tours ordered the Eucharist to be kept under the image of 
 the crucifix, in the centre of the altar. From that time our 
 present discipline began. They made the tabernacle with 
 a canopy over it, sometimes sustained by four columns, and 
 frequently decorated in the most costly manner. That was 
 found not only in the Western, but also in the Eastern 
 Churchs. To-day the Greeks often have only one altar in 
 each church, without either a tabernacle or a dove, for they 
 reserve in the sacristy the consecrated Host for the sick 
 and for the mass of the Presanctified. They carry It to the 
 altar with great pomp and veneration, when going to say 
 the mass of the Presanctified. They keep the Host behind 
 the altar in the sacristy, with a lamp ever burning before 
 It. No Protestant Church preserves the bread and wine 
 after their services, and therefore they have neither 
 tabernacle nor place in which to keep it. 
 
 After this long historic account, it is now time to come 
 to the practices of our times relating to this most August 
 Sacrament. The Eucharist may be considered in relation 
 to God, to whom it is offered, and in that case it is the sacri- 
 fice of the mass. Of that we will not treat at present; some 
 other time, perhaps, we may write on the mass. Again, It 
 may be considered in relation to men whom It sanctifies. 
 In that case it is the Holy Communion, and we will treat of 
 It only under this respect. 
 
 It has been defined by the councils, especially by the one 
 held at Trent, that Christ is really present, under the species 
 
IliniitniminnflniiHiliiiflMiiuumiinnMiiiiii 
 
 THE TABERNACLE IN THE CATHEDRAL OF OUR SAVIOUR, MOSCOW. 
 
202 EUCHARIST. 
 
 either of bread or wine, after the consecration, and that he 
 is really present in every part, when they have been di- 
 vided. Christ established the way and the manner of his 
 presence, so that each one who would receive any part of 
 the Eucharist would receive Him wholly and entirely. He 
 is not broken, nor can he suffer, for, as the Apostle says, 
 '* that Christ rising again from the dead, dieth now no more, 
 death shall no more have dominion over him " (Rom. vi. 9). 
 The whole Christ is there complete and entire, regarding 
 both body, soul, blood, and flesh under the species of bread 
 or of wine. Such is the testimony of the councils, of the 
 fathers, and of the writers of all ages of the Church. Not 
 only that, but as where one Person of the Trinity is present 
 there is the whole Godhead ; and, therefore, there is Christ, 
 there are also the Father and the Holy Spirit, for Christ 
 said to the Jews, ^' the Father is in me and I in the Father" 
 (John X. 38). 
 
 Christ remains present in the Eucharist as long as the 
 species or appearance of bread and wine remains, so that, 
 according to our common way of speaking, as long as they 
 have the appearance of bread and wine. For this reason 
 the Host in the tabernacle should be changed each week, 
 according to the direction of the Congregation of Rites in 
 1753. In the one who receives Communion, the species 
 remain for a lay person about as long as you would be 
 saying the Lord's Prayer twice, and in the celebrant till 
 about the time he has taken off his vestments. 
 
 From what we have said it appears that Christ really 
 present in this sacrament should be adored and worshiped 
 as God by all his creatures. This has been defined by the 
 councils of the Church, and is proved by the continual 
 tradition of all Christians, both in the Eastern and in the 
 Western Churches. The custom of exposing the Host for 
 the veneration and worship of the people is very old, and is 
 often mentioned by writers. It is called the Benediction, 
 or the Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. On visits to 
 the sick to give them Communion, the priest may bless 
 them with the Host, they kneeling. The people are ex- 
 horted to make frequent visits to the Lord present on our 
 altars, and ask his aid in all their difficulties. 
 
 The Greeks not united with us, as well as many 
 Calvinists, hold that as a means of salvation we must 
 
EUCHARIST. 203 
 
 actually receive Communion. But the Church teaches that 
 we can go to heaven absolutely without it, for we are united 
 with Christ at baptism. For then we become the adopted 
 sons of God, and heirs of his everlasting kingdom in 
 heaven, according to St. Paul: ''For as many of you as 
 have been baptized in Christ, have put on Christ" (Gal. iii. 
 27). ''There is now, therefore, no condemnation to them 
 that are in Christ Jesus" (Rom. viii. 1). Therefore, accord- 
 ing to St. Augustin, the child who dies after baptism and 
 before committing sin goes to heaven. Well, the Council 
 of Trent condemned those who claimed that Communion 
 was necessary for the salvation of infants. Yet adults 
 should either receive Communion, or have the desire of 
 receiving. Regarding infants, some say the Church sup- 
 plies that desire for them, and adults have the unformed 
 ^vish of communicating when they receive the other sacra- 
 ments, for they wish to do all they can in as far as their 
 knowledge goes. Regarding the custom of giving infants 
 Communion, of which we spoke before, it was not practiced 
 everywhere, and came from the false ideas of those who 
 thought that the Eucharist was necessary for salvation. 
 
 Two laws oblige us to receive. One that of Christ him- 
 self, "Except you eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink 
 his blood, you shall not have life in you" (John vi. 54). 
 From these words writers have almost universally concluded 
 that we must receive frequently during our lives and when 
 in danger of death. For if we must eat food to preserve 
 the life of our body, certainly we must also eat our spiritual 
 food to keep up the life of our souls. Not only that, but 
 where one is in any special danger of falling into sin, or has 
 contracted bad habits, that one should go frequently to 
 Communion. If you have had the misfortune to fall into 
 any evil habit, this is the way to get grace, which will 
 make you strong to overcome it. This is the spiritual food 
 which Christ gives us, in order that we may eat and grow 
 strong unto everlasting life. 
 
 But not only by a divine, but also by a law of the Church, 
 are we obliged to go to Communion. The fourth Council 
 of Lateran, held in the year 1215, commands every one to 
 approach the table of the Lord at least at Easter Tide, 
 unless he has been advised otherwise by his confessor. 
 This relates to persons after they have made their first 
 
204 EUCHARIST. 
 
 Communion. The same law was confirmed and re-enacted 
 by the Council of Trent. This law obliges us, under the 
 pain of committing a mortal sin, if we have no cause for our 
 neglect. The time for this country, within which we can 
 make our Paschal Communion, lasts from the first Sundav 
 of Lent to Trinity Sunday. Hence, if a person were to 
 receive frequently during the year and not during this 
 time, he would not satisfy the law. According to the 
 privileges given, the necessity of the case, or the customs 
 of the country, the bishops often shorten or extend the 
 time in which to satisfy this law of Paschal Communion. 
 If you are prevented by any just cause from making your 
 Communion, you ought to make up for it by going as soon 
 as you can, even if the time has passed. Not only that, but 
 you should take every means to overcome any difficulties 
 preventing you from receiving at Easter time. 
 
 The councils say that those who have arrived at the years 
 of discretion are bound by this law. That relates to all 
 Christians after they have made their first Communion, and 
 holds good for all in prisons, poor-houses, in sick beds, or 
 for any reason confined to the house. When they cannot 
 attend church their pastor is obliged to provide them the 
 means of fulfilling the law. It is not absolutely necessary 
 to receive your Easter Communion from your own pastor in 
 your own parish church, because your pastor can give you 
 Communion in any other church. Yet you would not sat- 
 isfy by receiving in the cathedral from another priest not 
 your pastor. Still in this country the custom is to receive 
 anywhere. Travelers, soldiers, and tramps can make their 
 Easter Communion where they are. The pastors of souls 
 are obliged to see that their people approach their Paschal 
 Communion each year. 
 
 Children should be prepared to make their first Commun- 
 ion when they are between ten and fourteen years of age. 
 For that they are to be well instructed in their catechism. 
 Parents sin grievously who neglect their duty in this mat- 
 ter. They should see that their children come to the church 
 to attend the Sunday-school. They should teach them at 
 home and keep them at their catechism till they know it, 
 not like a parrot so that they can say the words, but so that 
 they understand the meaning of the words and of what 
 they are reciting. After they have made their first Com- 
 
EUCHARIST. 
 
 205 
 
 munion they should be sent quite frequently to the sacra- 
 ments afterwards, so as to become accustomed to the prac- 
 tice of their religion. We give in the engraving the first 
 Communion of the Prince Imperial of France. He was the 
 only son of Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie, and 
 the heir of the throne of France. He met a sad fate, being 
 killed by the Zulus of South Africa. 
 
 FIRST COMMUNION Or THE PRINCE IMEEElAt OF FKANCE. 
 
 There is also an obligation of receiving at our death. 
 That law was made at the Council of Nice, and the decree 
 states that then it was an old rule in the Church. As the 
 council was held in the year 325, it shows that this custom 
 is very ancient, and comes most probably from the Apostolic 
 times. This has always been the practice of the people, and 
 therefore should be carried out. Again, at the moment of 
 our death above all we want this heavenly food to strengthen 
 us against the enemies of our salvation. Then all at their 
 death are obliged to receive the Eucharist. In this case it 
 is given under the form of the Viaticum. The words used 
 
206 EUCHARIST. 
 
 are: *' Receive,brotlier (or sister), the Viaticum of the body of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, who will guard thee from the evil 
 enemy and lead thee into everlasting life. Amen." 
 
 The Communion cannot be given where there is great 
 danger that the person will vomit, because of the danger of 
 irreverence, as the Ritual says. Besides, it is not necessary 
 to be fasting in order to receive the Viaticum, yet if they 
 could fast it would be better. A good way, if they can- 
 not otherwise receive, because they cannot fast, is to give 
 them the Communion soon after midnight, when they will 
 be fasting. Still there is no obligation, as the councils 
 exempt from fasting those who are in danger of death, for 
 then they have to take medicine and often food, etc. The 
 Eucharist should be carried with great reverence to the 
 sick, but in this country we do so privately. In Catholic 
 countries they go in a procession with candles lighting, and 
 sometimes clothed in vestments and a bell to warn the peo- 
 ple of the coming of the Lord. Children who have not yet 
 made their first Communion, if they have arrived at the age 
 of reason, according to Pope Benedict XIV. and writers gen- 
 erally, should receive the Viaticum at their death, because 
 by the divine law they are obliged to receive our Lord. 
 
 The sick, even when not fasting, can receive a number of 
 times even in the same sickness, because this sacrament is 
 received not only in order to fulfill the divine command, but 
 also to give strength against temptations. From the writ- 
 ings of Benedict XIV., bishops can proceed against the 
 clergy who would refuse to give Communion frequently to 
 the people when they are in danger of death. The councils 
 are very plain on these matters, and want the people to have 
 every facility for receiving during sickness and before death. 
 
 Let us now see the present discipline of the Church, and 
 while keeping in sight the customs and ways of our own 
 Latin Rite, we will see at the same time the other old and 
 venerable rites coming down from the Apostles, as well as 
 the traditions of Christianity treasured up by the people 
 who separated from us. 
 
 Christ used bread and wine at the last supper. Whence 
 bread and wine are required by the divine law. The conse- 
 cration of only one species would be valid, because the 
 power of consecrating can never be taken from a priest. 
 But it would be very sinful to consecrate one species alone. 
 
EUCHARIST. 207 
 
 because it would be contrary to the example of Christ at 
 the last supper, who consecrated both the species of bread 
 and of wine. Besides, it is forbidden by the Council of Trent. 
 
 The bread must be made of wheat flour, otherwise it 
 would be an invalid mass, as only bread made of wheaten 
 flour can be used. Besides, the bread should be made with 
 natural water. This is shown by the continual practice of 
 the Church, by the testimony of the fathers, by the Litur- 
 gies of the Greek and Latin Churchs, and by the traditions 
 of Christianity. They all state that such was the material 
 used by Christ. In the Latin Church the bread should be 
 unfermented. In the Greek Church the bread should be 
 fermented. The consecration would be valid in either fer- 
 mented or unfermented bread, but according to the Council 
 of Florence each priest should keep the rules and regula- 
 tions of his own Rite, whether it be the Greek, the Latin, 
 or any other Rite. The breads should not be made more 
 than two weeks before they are used. Christ instituted 
 the last supper on the fourteenth moon of March, the time 
 of the great Jewish Feast of the Passover, when they were 
 commanded by the law of Moses not to use fermented 
 bread, and therefore we use, like him, unfermented bread. 
 
 The wine made of the juice of the grape is the only wine 
 which can be used. Any other wine would be invalid. 
 This has been always observed in the Church, as may be 
 seen in all the fathers and in many councils, for wine made 
 of grapes was used by our Lord at the last supper. The 
 old heretics, as the Ebionites, the Manicheans, and others, 
 were condemned for using water in place of wine, as well 
 as Calvin, who taught that any kind of wine would do as 
 well as that made of the juice of the grape. Hence wine 
 made of any other material than grapes, or manufactured 
 from chemicals, would be invalid. 
 
 In many churches they keep the wine in beautiful orna- 
 mental vases. We give on the following page an engraving 
 of a beautiful Greek cruet for wine. 
 
 In the East they have some holy vessels, as chalices, 
 patens, cruets, etc., of very elaborate workmanship. 
 
 Pastors should be careful to get pure wine, especially in 
 our day, when the science of chemistry is advancing to 
 such a state of perfection that raany of the productions of 
 the animal and vegetable kingdom are imitated to such a 
 
208 
 
 EUCHARIST, 
 
 OBEEK CRUET FOR WINB. 
 
 perfection that it is almost impossible to tell the good wine 
 of grapes from the manufactured article. 
 
 There is always a little water mixed with the wine in 
 the chalice. This signifies the water which flowed from 
 
EUCHARIST. 209 
 
 the side of Jesus when pierced by the soldier's spear, and it 
 tells of the union of the Church with Christ. It is men- 
 tioned by SS. Justin, Ireneus, Cyprian, Ambrose, and many 
 others. All the ancient Liturgies prescribe it, and many of 
 the most celebrated councils direct that this be done. 
 
 St. Ireneus says that in his time it was believed that it 
 was done by command of Christ himself. It should be nat- 
 ural water and poured into the chalice. It is not necessary 
 absolutely for the sacrament, but only because it is com- 
 manded. There should be only a little water — a drop or 
 two — poured into the wine. 
 
 THE CRUETS. 
 
 We give here an engraving of the cruets which are used 
 to hold the water and wine. They are placed on the cre- 
 dence table on the Epistle side of the altar. 
 
 We now come to the words used at the consecration. 
 In the Liturgy of the Apostle St. James, which was revised 
 by St. Chrysostom, they say: ''Send forth thy Spirit and 
 make this bread become the body of thy Christ, and what 
 is in this chalice the precious blood of thy Christ," etc. 
 The words of consecration in the Ethiopic Liturgy, which 
 was composed probably by St. Matthew, are as follows : 
 ''We pray thee, O Lord, that thou send the Holy Spirit on 
 this bread and on this chalice — namely, the body and blood 
 of the Lord and our Saviour Jesus Christ, for ever and ever, 
 Amen." In the Divine Liturgy of St. James it reads : 
 *'Take, eat, this is my body broken for you, and given for 
 the remission of sins." Continuing in the same way as in 
 our Latin Rite, the celebrant now says: "Drink ye all of 
 this — this is my blood of the new testament shed for you 
 
310 EUCHARIST. 
 
 and many, and distributed for the remission of sins." In 
 the Liturgy of St. Mark the Evangelist, who became the 
 first bishop of Alexandria, it is: ''For this is my body, 
 which is broken for you and divided for the remission of 
 sins. For this is my blood of the new testament, which is 
 shed for you and for many, and distributed among you for 
 the remission of sins." In the Liturgy of the Apostles, com- 
 posed, it is said, by SS. Adseus and Maris, teachers of the 
 Eastern Christians, the words differ but little from the 
 ones given above ; the words of consecration in the Liturgy 
 of St. Basil are nearly the same. 
 
 We will not give any more examples from the ancient 
 Liturgies so remarkably confirming our own, and composed 
 by the Apostles or by their followers. But we must give 
 the words used by those who follow the Latin Eite. The 
 words are : ''For this is my body. For this is the chalice 
 of my blood of the new and eternal testament, the mystery 
 of faith, which shall be shed for you and for many unto 
 the remission of sins." These words are taken from the 
 Bible, except "the mystery of faith," which by tradition 
 comes down to us from the most remote antiquity. 
 
 The essential words are, "This is my body," "this is my 
 blood," and they are found, at least according to their 
 meaning, in all the different Liturgies of this and every 
 age. 
 
 The words used in their Communion services by the Epis- 
 copalians, the Methodists, and in all Protestant churches, 
 are the words of Christ as found in their Bible. Among 
 the Episcopalians the minister takes the bread and wine 
 and gives the bread to the clergy first, then to the laity, 
 kneeling, saying: "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto 
 everlasting life," etc. The minister who delivers the cup 
 gives them the wine to drink, saying: "The blood of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee, preserve thy 
 body and soul unto everlasting life," etc. If there be not 
 enough, the minister is to get more for them, and if any 
 remains after all have taken the minister returns to the 
 "Lord's Table," and at the end of the Communion service 
 takes it with the other communicants. This is given in the 
 Book of Common Prayer. The Presbyterians use the words 
 of our Lord at the last supper, and then the deacons give 
 
EUCHARIST. 211 
 
 the comniunion to the people in the pews, or as they come 
 up to the table. All these Churches believe Christ is pres- 
 ent only in a spiritual sense, or that the bread and wine are 
 only figures and types of his body and blood. The Episco- 
 palians show more faith and piety at the Communion ser- 
 vice than the members of other denominations, as far as 
 the writer's observation goes. 
 
 We now come to the question, by whose authority and 
 power are the bread and wine changed into the body and 
 blood of Christ ? or, in other words, who is the minister of 
 this sacrament ? Christ is the chief and supreme minister 
 of this sacrament, and by his power and might this change 
 takes place, and the priest is only his deputy or delegate, 
 and acts through his power. For that reason the priest, a 
 man like our Lord, puts on Christ, takes his place, and says : 
 "This is my body," "This is my blood." In the first age 
 the Montanists claimed that even women have the power 
 of consecrating. Afterwards the Waldenses supposed that 
 all men could consecrate. Luther taught that all persons 
 baptized had received this power from Christ, yet no one 
 should use it except in case of need. The true doctrine 
 is that only priests or bishops can consecrate the body and 
 blood of Christ. This is evident from the Bible. For when 
 Christ said, "Do this in commemoration of me" (Luke xxii. 
 19), he spoke only to his Apostles at the last supper, where 
 there were no lay persons present, and therefore he reserved 
 it to the clergy. The whole tradition of the Church proves 
 this. 
 
 The testimony of the fathers, like SS. Justin, Cyprian, 
 Athanasius, Basil, Augustin, and many others, show that in 
 the Church no one but the clergy ever attempted to say 
 mass. St. Jerome says : "If the deacons, who are next 
 to priests, have not the power of consecrating, cer- 
 tainly less the other inferior clergy and the laity." St. 
 Ambrose says: "Be careful that you choose a worthy minis- 
 ter to whom you will intrust the consecration of the Lord's 
 blood." The Councils of Florence and of Trent condemn 
 those who believe otherwise. Cardinal Bona warns us to 
 be careful in reading the fathers, so as not to misunder- 
 stand them, because the deacons used to give Communion, 
 and are sometimes said to consecrate, meaning to admin- 
 ister the sacrament. 
 
212 EUCHARIST. 
 
 Now, the question arises, who can administer Communion? 
 It is certain that, as Christ is really present, any one could 
 give Communion and it would be valid, but the present dis- 
 cipline of the Church forbids the laity to administer the 
 sacrament as in former times. For this reason a priest or 
 bishop is the ordinary minister of Communion, according to 
 the words of the Council of Trent, " In the sacramental re 
 ception, the custom has always been in the Church of God, 
 that lay people should receive Communion from the hands of 
 the priests and the priests celebrating should give it to them- 
 selves, which custom coming down from Apostolic tradition, 
 rightly and well should be continued." It is no more than 
 right that as the power of consecration is in the hands of 
 the clergy, so it belongs to him who consecrates to give 
 Communion to the people. 
 
 The right order of things also demands that the pastor of 
 the people should give Communion to his flock. Hence he 
 who would give Communion against the positive orders of 
 the pastor would be doing wrong. Nevertheless, to-day 
 these rules are not carried out, except for the first Com- 
 munion of children, Paschal Communion, and the Viati- 
 cum. The pastor is obliged to give Communion to his peo- 
 ple when they reasonably ask, and when they are obliged 
 to fulfill their duty in that respect. Otherwise the frequent 
 Communion recommended by the councils could not be car- 
 ried out. The deacon was the extraordinary minister of this 
 sacrament, so that in the absence of the priest, or from any 
 necessity, he could once give Communion. But he could 
 not if a priest was present, according to the directions of 
 the fourth Council of Carthage, as well as of other councils. 
 If a deacon should, without any reason, solemnly admin- 
 ister Communion, he would be guilty of a grievous sin and 
 become irregular, so that he could not exercise his orders. 
 If he belonged to a religious order he would be excommuni- 
 cated. At the present time many writers say that it would 
 be contrary to our discipline for a deacon to give Commun- 
 ion, as the sacrament is not absolutely required for salvation. 
 
 Except in case of death it is not allowed to give Com- 
 munion in an interdicted church or place, on Christmas night 
 or on Good Friday, unless there is a custom to the contrary. 
 Nor can we give Communion generally at night or in the 
 afternoon, except in danger of death. 
 
EUCHARIST. 213 
 
 The only one capable of receiving this sacrament is a 
 baptized human being. Before baptism no one can receive, 
 because this is to feed the spiritual life received in baptism. 
 A dead person cannot receive, because it is the spiritual 
 food only of those who are living. Infants, fools, and the 
 insane, those who have not the use of their reason because 
 of sickness or any cause, because they cannot tell the 
 Eucharist from common bread, should not receive. But if 
 idiots and persons suffering from such troubles have 
 moments of reason, so that they can tell what they are 
 receiving, they can receive. The deaf and dumb, the blind, 
 and others afflicted with troubles of whatever nature, should 
 receive, if they are instructed and know what they are 
 receiving. Persons about to be hung, or executed, can 
 receive even when not fasting, if for any cause they can- 
 not fast. 
 
 From what we have thus far said, it will appear with 
 what reverence, devotion, and cleanness of body and soul 
 we should approach the table of the Lord. Here we would 
 say that only moral uncleanness or sin will keep one from 
 Communion, and no uncleanness of the body or of the 
 clothes is sinful in the eyes of God, only the moral unclean- 
 ness of the soul, or sin, should prevent one from receiving. 
 Still, one should be as neat and tidy as possible in dress and 
 manner, so as to show an external respect to the Lord and 
 an example to our neighbors. 
 
 The sick should fast from midnight, not by the law of 
 God, as the Lord and his Apostles were not fasting at the 
 last supper, but by Apostolic tradition and the law of the 
 Church. We learn that the early Christians used to fast 
 when going to Communion, as St. Augustin says. Many 
 councils made this a law, and therefore it is only a law of 
 the Church. We are not allowed to take anything used as 
 food or drink. The smallest amount of food or a drop of 
 water will break our fast. We cannot even take medicine, 
 for nothing can enter our stomach before our Lord, to show 
 that he holds the first place in our hearts. Only what is 
 taken as food or drink breaks the fast. Tobacco will not 
 break the fast, as it is neither a food nor a drink. Still it is 
 better and more proper not to use it before Communion. 
 
 Luther and Calvin claimed that faith only was required 
 for the fruitful reception of this sacrament, but the Council 
 
214 EUCHARIST. 
 
 of Trent decreed that more than this is required. A person 
 to receive with fruit must be free from any censures inflicted 
 by the Church. Not only that, but you must be free from 
 mortal sin, otherwise you would receive unworthily and eat 
 to yourself '^damnation, not discerning the body of the 
 Lord," as St. Paul says. This is also expressed by St. 
 Augustin when he says ''Bring innocence to the altar." 
 This innocence is the freedom from mortal sin, or, as our Lord 
 expresses it, is ''the nuptial garment,"' w^hich, if we have 
 not, we will be ' ' tied hand and foot and thrown into exter- 
 nal darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of 
 teeth " (Math. xxii. 11). Therefore persons must not approach 
 the altar of God if they are in mortal sin. If, unfortunately, 
 they are in this condition, they must go to confession and 
 receive absolution. Or, as St. Paul expresses it, "Let each 
 man prove himself." Thus the Council of Trent declared 
 that the Apostolic custom was for people to confess if they 
 were conscious of mortal sin before they either say mass or 
 approach the altar to receive Communion. This is certainly 
 the law of the Church, and most writers suppose that it is 
 also a law made by Christ, for St. Paul says that he received 
 it from the Lord. All this relates to those who are certainly 
 in mortal sin. 
 
 A person guilty of only venial sins can go to Communion 
 without confession, as we see the clergy and nuns go fre- 
 quently, yet they go to confession only about once a week. 
 The people have often wrong notions relating to these 
 things, and think they should go to confession before they 
 receive, whereas they are obliged to go only when they are 
 guilty of mortal sin. For this reason many through a false 
 conscience are kept from frequent Communion. 
 
 Here we would advise you, reader, to make a practice of 
 going to frequent Communion, as the most powerful w^ay of 
 strengthening your soul against temptation and sanctifying 
 yourself. This was the practice of the great saints who 
 lived before the sixth century. When they became relax 
 about this time a council ordered them to receive each Sun- 
 day. Not only that, but with the advice of your confessor, 
 you should go not only once a week, but frequently during 
 the week. This is the expressed desire of the great Council 
 of Trent. The Roman Catechism enjoins pastors to exhort 
 their people to go each day to Communion. For, as your 
 
EUCHARIST. 215 
 
 daily food is necessary for your body, thus this spiritual 
 food is necessary for your soul. This was also approved by 
 Pope Innocent XI. in 1679. This was again the custom in 
 the days of the great St. Basil, for he says r '^ Even each 
 day it is good and useful to go to Communion, so as to be a 
 partaker in the body and blood of Christ." Many foolishly 
 say: ^^I am not good enough to go frequently to Com- 
 munion." You would not be good enough if you were the 
 brightest and most holy angel in heaven. Christ will make 
 you good with his own infinite goodness, and such talk or 
 thoughts are foolish. This is the way saints are made. 
 
 This is Christ, the fountain of all holiness and sanctity, 
 who instills his own infinite sanctity into you. Still you 
 must be careful so as not to lose your love and reverence 
 towards such a great sacrament. Try to increase each day 
 in the love of Jesus, fervor of mind, in acts of self-denial, 
 mortification of passions, conquering your chief fault, and 
 keeping from venial sin. You will also be careful not to get 
 into a kind of routine, but make each Communion a prepa- 
 ration for the next. Remember, perfection consists in doing 
 the will of God, for *^ he that loveth me keepeth my com- 
 mands," says Christ. Still in all these things be guided by 
 the advice of your confessor. 
 
 Where a person cannot or is not prepared to actually re- 
 ceive, it is a good thing to receive spiritually. This was the 
 delight of the saints. Prepare yourself as though you were 
 really to receive. Then hear mass in the same way as if you 
 were to approach the altar. By faith see Christ really pres- 
 ent; fancy yourself really approaching God's altar and receiv- 
 ing the Host from the hands of the priest ; then spend your 
 time in thanksgivings, the same as when you really receive. 
 You can do this, not only in the church, but even at home, 
 or at your work. And it is a powerful way of obtaining 
 the blessings and the graces of God. If, unfortunately, 
 you are in mortal sin, make an act of perfect contrition, 
 inflamed by charity and love of God above all, and you will 
 receive the blessings of heaven. Still, to receive a large 
 amount of grace in spiritual Communion, you should be in 
 the state of grace. This is required by the Council of 
 Trent. 
 
 We now come to the effects of this sacrament. Many 
 modern writers claim that the chief effect of the Eucharist 
 
216 EUCHARIST. 
 
 is the forgiveness of sin, but that doctrine was condemned 
 by the fathers of the Council of Trent. This sacrament 
 was not instituted by Christ to forgive sin, nor should it 
 be given to a person publicly known to be in the state of 
 mortal sin. St. Ambrose says : " No one should receive the 
 bread of Christ unless he was first healed." St. Chrysostom 
 says : "If you come pure, you come unto salvation ; if you 
 come with a bad conscience, you come unto punishment and 
 damnation." This doctrine can be proved by all monu- 
 ments of antiquity to have always been the teachings of 
 the Church. One of the effects of Communion is a close 
 union with Christ, the head of the Church. "Who eateth 
 my flesh and drinketh my blood abideth in me and I in 
 him," says Christ. The word "Communion" means united 
 with Christ. Not only that, but it means that all who 
 receive are united together by him whom they receive. 
 His body is the only creature united to the Godhead in 
 the Second Person of the Trinity, and therefore it is the 
 union of the creature with the Creator, and the channel 
 and fountain of the chief graces which flow into the souls 
 of men. This sacrament increases the sanctifying grace 
 already in our souls. "My flesh is meat indeed," says 
 Christ. As food increases and sustains our bodily life, thus 
 this food sustains our spiritual life, which is the grace of 
 God. Hence St. Chrysostom says : "Like lions we come forth 
 from that table, terrible to the devil." This sacrament pro- 
 duces a spiritual sweetness in our hearts, excites in us the love 
 of God and of our neighbor, and fills holy souls with fervor 
 and devotion, so that they are ready to do anything for God. 
 Whence the Council of Vienna says : "In this sacrament the 
 sweetness of the Lord is tasted. " It gives us the right to enter 
 the everlasting happiness of heaven, for Christ says : "He 
 that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath everlasting 
 life, and I will raise him up in the last day" (John vi. 55). 
 
 This sacrament wipes out our little sins by increasing our 
 spiritual strength and multiplying the fervor of our charity. 
 This the Council of Trent expresses where it says that the 
 Eucharist "is the antidote by which we are delivered from 
 our daily faults." For this reason St. Augustin calls it 
 "our daily medicine," and St. Damascenus, "the sacrament 
 which buries our sins." By increasing our charity it takes 
 away indirectly the temporal pains we should suffer for 
 
EUCHARIST. 217 
 
 our sins. But that comes from our devotion and fervor, for 
 this sacrament was not instituted to forgive sins. Not only 
 these effects are produced, but by this sacrament we are 
 strengthened in the ghostly powers of our soul, so that we 
 are less liable to fall into sin. Whence St. Ignatius, in his 
 Epistle to the Ephesians, says it is ''the medicine of 
 immortality ; the antidote, lest we should die, but that we 
 may ever live in Christ Jesus." St. Chrysostom says of it : 
 ''If those who only touched hi^; garments were healed, how 
 much more those who receive him himself ! " 
 
 This sacrament does not pass away like the others at the 
 moment it produces its effect, but remains in the person as 
 long as the appearance of bread and wine are present. In 
 the other sacraments the material part does not change, 
 while here the substance changes into the body and blood 
 of Christ, and again the body and blood of Christ change 
 into other matters as soon as the appearances change. 
 Again, it is not only a sacrament instituted by Christ for 
 the salvation of souls, but it is also a sacrifice offered to 
 God each day as an offering of peace, love, and thanksgiv- 
 ing, and besides as a testimony of his supreme dominion 
 over the world. 
 
 To validly consecrate it is necessary that the bread and 
 wine be present, and that the priest intends to consecrate 
 this matter. To consecrate licitly the priest must follow his 
 own Rite, whether it be the Latin, Greek, or any other Rite. 
 Besides, the bread and Avine must be placed on the altar and 
 the chalice uncovered. The words of consecration must be 
 pronounced at the time marked in the canon of the mass. 
 Whence the Hosts hidden under the others and the ones on 
 the paten covered are validly consecrated. If the priest 
 sees only one or two, while really there are many present, 
 they are consecrated, because he is supposed to consecrate 
 all which are present. Where the priest intended before 
 mass to consecrate all on the altar, although he forgets 
 them at the moment he pronounces the words, they are 
 consecrated, because his intention of consecrating them 
 still remains. But breads placed on the corporal unknown 
 to the priest at any time are certainly not consecrated, 
 because his intention does not extend to them. Drops of 
 wine outside of the chalice are not consecrated, because the 
 intention of the priest is to consecrate only what is within 
 
218 EUCHARIST. 
 
 the chalice. It is not allowed to consecrate drops outside 
 the chalice, as it would be irreverent. Probably not even 
 drops inside the chalice are consecrated, because that does 
 not appear to be the intention of the Church, and there- 
 fore not of the priest, who wishes consequently to consecrate 
 only the large amount of wine within. It is not right to 
 consecrate a broken Host or one that is cracked. Still, if 
 there is no other, it is allowed rather than miss mass. 
 
 When the pastor allows others to say mass in his church, 
 he also concedes to them the right of giving Communion, 
 unless he expresses the contrary. The same may be said 
 with regard to the Viaticum. Only in extreme cases can a 
 deacon administer this sacrament, and for that the permis- 
 sion of the bishop or pastor is required. Priests of relig- 
 ious orders can administer the Eucharist in their own 
 churches, except on Easter, when, according to an old law, 
 they cannot give Communion to the secular people who do 
 not belong to the monastery, even if they have already 
 made their yearly Easter Communion. This was often 
 defined by Rome. Yet the contrary custom so much pre- 
 vails that many claim that the law has long ceased to 
 bind. They cannot administer it in strange churches 
 without the permission of the pastor or superior. But 
 they can in case of danger of death and in extreme cases. 
 When the pastor cannot, any priest is obliged to give Com- 
 munion to the dying, but not otherwise, because he is 
 obliged in charity to aid his neighbor in danger of death. 
 The pastor should look after his people when they are in 
 danger of death, and see that they receive Communion. 
 But he is not obliged to do this personally. He can appoint 
 assistants in his place. He will administer Communion to 
 his people when they ask it in a reasonable manner, even 
 when they are stricken down with contagious diseases and 
 he has to expose his life. 
 
 To licitly administer the sacraments the minister must be 
 free from every excommunication or suspension, otherwise 
 he would sin grievously and become irregular. Not only 
 that, but the minister himself must be in the state of grace. 
 For the dignity and reverence we should offer toward the 
 august body of Christ requires in the minister freedom from 
 mortal sin. Hence a priest guilty of mortal sin would com- 
 mit another mortal sin each time he would give Communion, 
 
EUCHARIST. 219 
 
 although he would not commit as many sins as there are 
 persons present to whom he gives Communion. He must 
 treat those most holy sacraments with the greatest rever- 
 ence. Hence he must be clothed in a cassock, with a stole 
 and surplice or abb, and have lights. Any one who, except 
 in case of necessity, distributes Communion without any 
 sacred vestment would commit a grievous sin, because this 
 v^ould argue irreverence to Christ. But it is only a small 
 sin to omit the stole, and no sin if Communion be given with 
 no stole or no light, if they are forgotten. The priest admin- 
 isters the sacrament with his thumb and forefinger, because 
 these were consecrated for that at his ordination. If the 
 Host falls, the place must be washed and the water thrown 
 so it will flow under the church. If It falls on any cloth it 
 should be burned. If It falls into a woman's clothes, she 
 should take It out and give It to the priest, then her fingers 
 will be washed. If she cannot find It, she should be taken 
 from the church into the vestry as quietly as possible, where 
 she will look for It. 
 
 Communion is generally given at mass just after the 
 Communion of the priest, but for any just cause it can be 
 given before or after mass. 
 
 We can give Communion outside of mass to the sick, to 
 children, to the old, or to others who cannot fast. Still, at 
 the present day there appears to be no rigorous law obliging 
 us to give Communion only during mass. Communion 
 may be given at a requiem mass. Generally, when giving 
 Communion the priest should wear the vestments of the 
 color belonging to the ofiice of the day. Where a person 
 is to receive Communion outside of mass, he comes up to 
 the altar and kneels down, making an act of contrition. 
 The server of the mass says: '' I confess to Almighty God," 
 etc. The priest says certain prayers while opening the tab- 
 ernacle. He says the usual absolution prayers over the 
 person and then gives Communion. Two candles should at 
 this time be burning on the altar. The persons receiving 
 Communion should not leave the altar railing until the 
 tabernacle be closed and they receive the blessing of the 
 priest. Only a man or boy can serve the priest at the altar, 
 according to the general custom. 
 
 A nun or lady can answer mass, but at a distance. A 
 number of consecrated particles cannot be given to one 
 
220 EUCHARIST. 
 
 person at Communion, as it is forbidden. If there are not 
 sufficient particles, they can be broken, but they should not 
 be broken too small, as they could not be swallowed, and it 
 would not be a Communion if the Eucharist is not swal- 
 lowed. The priest, before taking the ablution, can consume 
 all the particles remaining. 
 
 When you call the priest to give Communion to the sick, 
 you should prepare a table near the sick-bed, covered with 
 a white linen cloth, on which the blessed Sacrament may be 
 placed. You should have lights, a vessel with wine and 
 another of water, so that with them the sick may easily 
 swallow the Host, and also that the priest may wash his 
 fingers. You should also have a linen cloth, which the sick 
 will hold on his breast while receiving. You will also have 
 near by a vessel of holy water. A good custom practiced 
 by pious people is to have a little altar in the house on 
 which our Lord can be placed. 
 
 In Catholic countries the Eucharist is carried from the 
 church to the houses of the people with great ceremony. 
 The priest who carries the Host is clothed in surplice and 
 stole, with the humeral veil upon his shoulders, carrying in 
 both hands the Ciborium with the most holy Sacrament 
 before his breast. Over him is held a large baldachin, or 
 canopy, and he goes with head uncovered, reciting and sing- 
 ing psalms of praise to the Lord. When he comes to the 
 door he says : ^^ Peace be to this house." Then they answer : 
 *'And all living in it.'' He places the Sacrament on the 
 table, makes a genuflection in adoration, and sprinkles the 
 sick and the bed, saying : " Sprinkle me, O Lord, with hys- 
 sop," etc. Then he recites the prayers given in the Ritual. 
 He gives then the blessed Eucharist in the form of Com- 
 munion. But for a person in danger of death It is given 
 under the form of the Viaticum. 
 
 We do not carry out these processions in this country, and 
 if a person is about to die these prayers may be omitted. 
 After Communion the sick and all present kneel down, and 
 the priest makes over them the sign of the cross with the 
 blessed Eucharist that Christ may bless all those present. 
 You should see that the sick is decently and cleanly dressed, 
 that the house and room are put in order, and that every- 
 thing is prepared so that our Lord may be received with 
 due reverence and respect. Communion cannot be brought 
 
EUCHARIST. 221 
 
 to the sick at night unless in cases of urgent necessity, as 
 in danger of death, and then it should be carried secretly. 
 A priest, in urgent necessity, can give the Viaticum with- 
 out any vestments ; for example, where the person is dying 
 and he has not time to put on the vestments. He can also 
 in this case hurry a little while carrying the blessed Sacra- 
 ments. For that purpose, even in times of a pest, he can 
 give the Eucharist by means of an instrument. He can 
 carry the blessed Sacrament secretly when riding horse- 
 back, in a carriage, or traveling in any other way. The 
 sick can receive Communion a number of times under 
 the form of the Viaticum, even when not fasting. If 
 the sick again fall into danger of death, or if the sickness 
 changes, or even during the same sickness, if he is sick a 
 long time, the person may receive many times. Persons 
 who are confined to the house can often receive Communion, 
 according to their piety and with the advice of their pas- 
 tor. 
 
 The real reception of the Eucharist is not a necessary 
 means of salvation, either for children or for adults. That 
 is proved by the universal custom of the Church, according 
 to which Communion is given neither to infants nor to 
 adults who cannot receive, as, for example, on account of 
 sickness, fits, vomiting, or insanity. Those who went to 
 Communion a few days before and suddenly fall sick and 
 are in danger of death, according to some should receive 
 the Viaticum. Children who have not arrived at the age of 
 reason, when in danger of death need not receive Commun- 
 ion, but should they have the use of their reason and have 
 made their first Communion, on their death-bed they should 
 receive the Viaticum. The insane, if they once had their 
 reason or periods of reason, should receive during those lucid 
 intervals, if possible. Persons who have lost their senses 
 and die without ever recovering their reason, cannot receive. 
 As long as there is no danger of irreverence, and when they 
 can swallow, the deaf and dumb should receive, if they 
 know what they are receiving. The same may be said 
 regarding those who have epileptic fits and criminals con- 
 demned to be executed. 
 
 In order to receive, a person should be in a state of grace, 
 otherwise he would commit a horrible sacrilege. Sacra- 
 mental confession is required for all the mortal sins com- 
 
222 EUCHARIST. 
 
 mitted since the time you last received absolution, except in 
 cases of necessity. But a case excusing from confession 
 happens rarely. If a person is already at the altar and 
 remembers a sin which he forgot, he is not strictly obliged 
 to leave and go to confession, because the precept of con- 
 fession does not urge in such difficulties which would dis- 
 turb the congregation. 
 
 A person should be fasting before receiving. This is 
 according to the universal and unanimous customs of the 
 Church, and according to all the practice and rituals 
 approved by the Church. Besides, this was made a law in 
 many of the councils. In order to break the fast, three 
 things are required : first, that something is taken from 
 without, because if it is not taken from without the body 
 and swallowed it is not called eating. Hence blood, saliva, 
 etc., do not break the fast. Secondly, it must be taken as a 
 food or drink, because only food or drink break the fast, 
 according to the general way of thinking. When anything 
 is taken, such as the fumes of food, dust, or anything of 
 that kind, it does not break the fast. Thirdly, to break the 
 fast it must be either food or drink — that is, something that 
 is digestible. Otherwise, according to the common way of 
 speaking, it is neither food nor drink. Hence to swallow any 
 metal, wood, or things of that kind, does not break the fast. 
 Swallowing food that adheres to the teeth or drops of 
 water mixed with saliva, or water involuntarily swallowed 
 when washing the mouth, if not done purposely, probably 
 do not break the fast, because they are not taken as food or 
 drink. But they will if swallowed purposely. Taking 
 snuff, smoking or chewing tobacco, do not break the fast, 
 because tobacco is neither food nor drink. 
 
 Formerly they used to fast after receiving until noon, but 
 this law has fallen into disuse. Nevertheless, we should 
 remain for a little while after Communion before breaking 
 our fast, unless there is some reasonable cause, for it would 
 be irreverent. While the Host remains in our mouth we 
 should not expectorate, because it would be irreverent. 
 The Host must be swallowed in order to receive. A person 
 not fasting can receive Communion only when in danger of 
 death, from whatever cause. 
 
 If there is any danger lest the Eucharist would be 
 destroyed or badly treated by infidels, or any great danger 
 
EUCHARIST. 223 
 
 of scandal, great irreverence to the Sacrament or to the 
 sacrifice, or the necessity of continuing the mass, etc., the 
 Host can be taken by one not fasting. Yet some allow it 
 when sickness is long and they cannot fast. In these cases 
 the Eucharist may be given imniediately after twelve o'clock 
 at night, especially when it is the Paschal Communion, which 
 they are obliged to receive at Easter. The sick may receive 
 every week if they have been accustomed to do so when 
 they were well. But this is left to the judgment of the 
 pastor. 
 
 No corporeal infirmity or sensitive feeling over the defect 
 of clothes or of cleanness, or of beauty, should keep a per- 
 son from Communion, because God hates only moral bad- 
 ness, which is sin. 
 
 There is no obligation for keeping from Communion on 
 account of any hidden imperfections, or even outward 
 defect of the body. Ladies should come decently dressed, 
 in a modest and becoming manner. If they come indecently 
 dressed they may be denied Communion. Leprosy, disease, 
 deformity, or any such thing which happens without their 
 own fault, does not prevent people from coming to Com- 
 munion, because it is not their fault. A good disposition of 
 the soul is required during Comraunion. Soldiers in coming 
 to the altar should leave aside their arms ; nevertheless 
 there is no law, and each one will follow the customs of the 
 place. 
 
 In order to be brought to the sick when necessary, Com- 
 munion should be kept in the parish church. In the cathe- 
 dral it is generally kept on a side altar, because of the 
 episcopal ceremonies carried out at the main altar. It can 
 be kept also in parish churches, in churches belonging to 
 religious orders, in chapels, monasteries, and other places 
 appointed by the bishop. It should be kept in a clean, 
 locked tabernacle ; in a ciborium resting on a corporal and 
 covered with a white veil. 
 
 We give on the following page the picture of a ciborium, 
 according to the style common in our time. It should be 
 covered with a veil enclosing it completely. This is gener- 
 ally of costly material and beautifully embroidered. 
 
 A light should burn day and night before the blessed 
 Eucharist. The Roman Ritual says: "Lamps, many, or at 
 least one, should burn day and night before it." Nothing 
 
224 
 
 EUCHARIST. 
 
 else should be kept in the tabernacle, not even the Holy oils. 
 The ciborium should be blessed ; not necessarily conse- 
 crated. It should be made of strong material — either gold, 
 
 silver, or tin, if the church is very 
 poor. But it cannot be of wood, glass, 
 etc. If the vessel itself be not of gold, 
 it should be gilt with gold on the inside. 
 It is a sin without a cause not to keep 
 a light burning before the blessed sac- 
 rament. The light should generally 
 be fed with olive oil, or at least with 
 some vegetable oil. Kerosene, gas, or 
 sperm candles are forbidden. 
 
 If a Host is lost and the priest finds 
 it during mass, even after the ablu- 
 tions, he should consume it, even if 
 he has gone into the sacristy, if he 
 still has on the vestments. It then 
 morally belongs to the sacrifice. If 
 he has taken off the vestments, and if 
 there be no place to keep it, he should 
 take it. If the fragment was conse- 
 crated at another mass it should not 
 be taken, unless it cannot be kept in 
 a decent place or there is great danger of irreverence, 
 because it should be taken only when fasting. If a lay 
 person finds the Host he should tell the priest, who will 
 look after it. If no priest is there, he should reverently take 
 it up on a piece of paper or clean cloth by means of something 
 and place it in the tabernacle or in a vessel till the priest 
 comes. If there is doubt about the particle being conse- 
 crated the priest should take it before the ablutions. 
 
 If a sick person rejects Communion it should be carefully 
 gathered in a clean vessel, carried to the church, and kept 
 in a safe place until all is corrupt ; then it is thrown under 
 the church with the baptismal water. If a Host cannot be 
 found among all that is rejected, everything should be gath- 
 ered up, the mouth of the sick washed, dried, and then all 
 should be burned, and the ashes thrown in the same place. 
 The particles in the ciborium should be frequently 
 renewed lest they should become corrupt. This should take 
 place every eight or fifteen days at the longest. 
 
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PENANCE 
 
\ENAKCE was instituted by 
 Christ, in order to restore our 
 spiritual life when we have 
 been so unfortunate as to lose 
 it by sin, after having received 
 so many blessings and graces 
 through the other sacraments. 
 Thus when, through weakness 
 and human frailty, we fall 
 into sin, Christ has, in pen- 
 ance, provided us a way of 
 regaining his love, friendship, and the for- 
 giveness of our sins. Penance comes from 
 the Latin, and means pain or spiritual sor- 
 row for having offended God. It is a sorrow 
 for having sinned ; for when we break the 
 law of God we must suffer for it, because 
 every time a creature breaks the order of 
 nature — that is, the law of God — he must 
 suffer. Thus, if you injure yourself, if you 
 destroy your health, if you break the law of 
 the land, you must suffer the penalty. The 
 reason is, that every law must have a pen- 
 alty attached to it — that is, a punishment 
 for those who disobey that law. This is seen 
 everywhere. God has attached a punishment to the break- 
 ing of all his laws. That punishment is suffering ; not that 
 God delights in the sufferings of his creatures, but that the 
 fear of punishment may keep the law from being broken. 
 
 Sin is a willful breaking of the law of God, and penance 
 is the reparation of that sin. God is law and order, truth 
 and light. Sin is against God, who is the eternal law- 
 maker. A grievous sin, therefore, in as much as it is an 
 
 237 
 
228 PENANCE. 
 
 offense against an Infinite God, in that respect is infinite. 
 It requires, therefore, an infinite punishment. Punishment 
 can be infinite either in intensity or in duration. But man, 
 being a finite creature, cannot bear an infinite pain — that 
 is, a punishment which is infinite in intensity or severity. 
 The punishment due to a grievous sin, in order to compen- 
 sate guilt which is infinite^ therefore, must be infinite in 
 duration, or everlasting. That justice requires. This shows 
 how reasonable is the doctrine of the endless pains of hell. 
 
 Then penance relates to justice. For when a person has 
 been injured, justice requires that the injury be repaired. 
 So when we have injured God by sin, justice requires that 
 we repair that injustice. But we cannot repair an infinite 
 injustice, as we are only creatures. Therefore Christ, the 
 God-man, came down from heaven and placed the Second 
 Person of the Trinity in the place of the human person, 
 which naturally belongs to us. Thus the sufferings of his 
 human nature received an infinite value from the infinite 
 Person of God, to whom his body and soul belonged. There- 
 fore by his passion and death he repaired the infinite justice 
 of God. Thus the sufferings of Christ are infinite in value, 
 because he is the Infinite God and repaired for all the sins 
 of the world. 
 
 Our penances, then, must be grafted on to the sufferings 
 of Christ. They are not infinite like his, but we must be 
 disposed to repair, in as much as we can, the injury our sins 
 do to God. Therefore penance is a part of justice, but it 
 is not perfect justice. It is, rather, the application of the 
 merits of Christ to the wiping out of our sins, united with 
 our reparation, in as far as we can. 
 
 By the ancient writers penance is called a virtue, a sacra- 
 ment, or that part of the sacrament which we now call sat- 
 isfaction. It is a virtue because by it we are inclined to 
 repair the evil done by sin. In the beginning, allow us to 
 say, that there are two kinds of sin — big and little sins. 
 Big sins are those which are so heinous in the sight of God 
 that they entirely destroy his friendship for us, and sepa- 
 rate man from his Creator in this life, thus making the 
 soul worthy of the everlasting fires of hell. Venial sins are 
 small sins, which do not entirely separate the soul from 
 God, but lessen his friendship for us, and make us worthy 
 of suffering temporal pain either here or in purgatory. Big 
 
PENANCE. 229 
 
 sins are called mortal, from the Latin, meaning death, be- 
 cause they mortally wound the soul. Little sins are named 
 venial, from the Latin, meaning forgiveness, because they 
 can be forgiven. 
 
 Penance is a Christian virtue, infused by God into our 
 soul, inclining us to repair the injury done to him by sin. 
 It is, therefore, a sorrow of the soul and a hatred of sin, 
 with the intention of never sinning again. Penance exists 
 in the mind and not in the feelings. The memory repre- 
 sents to us our sins. The will commands the mind to bring-- 
 forth acts of sorrow. It is not, therefore, in tears, nor in 
 sighs, nor in the feelings, but it is in the mind, for the mind 
 can alone sin, even if we sometimes see people weep for 
 their sins. Strictly speaking, only sinners can do penance, 
 whether on earth or in purgatory. Therefore neither the 
 happy souls of saints, nor the angels in heaven, nor the 
 condemned in hell, do penance, because penance, strictly 
 speaking, is the repairing of our own sins in order to be 
 reconciled with God. Hence Adam, in the state of inno- 
 cence, Christ, the Blessed Virgin, or innocent children, do 
 no penance, because they never sinned. ISTevertheless they 
 can be sorry for the sins of others and do penance for them, 
 or in their place. 
 
 The object of penance, therefore, is sin, whether mortal 
 or venial, to destroy it and to shun it. Sin is a free disobe- 
 dience of a divine law. It is an injury done to God, and 
 produces three effects in the soul. First, it produces a 
 blemish which dims the brightness of the soul, because in 
 sinning man falls away from the light of reason. Secondly, 
 it draws down the displeasure of God, inasmuch as he is 
 injured by sin. In the third place, it subjects us to the pun- 
 ishment decreed by God against sin. These three effects of 
 sin are exceedingly grievous for big sins, but not so griev- 
 ous for smaller sins. Therefore, venial sins partly dim the 
 brightness of our souls, and partly destroy the grace of God 
 in us. Hence penance is a virtue opposed to and contrary 
 to every sin, whether committed or even possible. It relates 
 especially to our own sins. To do penance for the sins of 
 others belongs rather to charity. Thus Christ, who took 
 upon himself our sins, and atoned for them on Calvary's 
 cross, was not moved by penance, but rather by the infinite 
 charity of God. Since penance relates to all sins, by an act 
 
230 PENANCE. 
 
 of sorrowful retraction of sin, we can do penance. The 
 reason why we do penance for sins is to destroy sin with its 
 effect, inasmuch as it is an offense against God, who has 
 laid a penalty on all who disobey his laws. 
 
 The first act of penance is divine grace poured into the 
 heart of man, by which God comforts the soul. Then fol- 
 lows, first, an act of faith, believing in the Word of God, that 
 we will be forgiven. Afterwards arises a fear of the punish- 
 ment inflicted on the sinner by God. Then comes the hope 
 of forgiveness through Christ. Lastly springs up a move- 
 ment of charity, by which we love God and hate sin, which 
 is against God. We are then animated by a filial fear of 
 being separated from God as our Father, and by which we 
 intend to be united with him, and therefore excite in our- 
 selves sorrow for sins. It is not necessary that all of these 
 be expressed clearly in the mind ; but it is necessary that 
 we come back to God. We can have penance or sorrow for 
 sins because we are moved by the fear of punishment only, 
 or by a childlike fear of God, or by both. 
 
 The general effects of penance are three — ^the forgiveness 
 of guilt, the remission of punishment, and the restoration 
 of our merits. By penance every sin can be forgiven that 
 has ever been committed by man, for God gives sufficient 
 grace to every one to do penance, and he is ever ready to 
 receive his creatures when they come back to him, as he 
 says : '^Be converted and do penance for all your iniquities 
 and iniquity shall not be your ruin (Ezek. xviii. 30). Again : 
 '^If the wicked do penance for all his sins which he hath 
 committed, and do penance * * * fie shall live and shall 
 not die" {Ih. 21). Hence the blackest crimes will be for- 
 given by God, if man but does his part. Yet a true repent- 
 ance is required, and a penance in proportion to the gravity 
 and number of the sins, as the Bible says : "Be converted to 
 me with all your heart, in fasting and in weeping, and in 
 mourning " (Joel ii. 12) ; and as John the Baptist says : 
 "Bring forth, therefore, fruit worthy of penance" (Math, 
 iii. 8). But one kind of penance is required for venial sins, 
 another for mortal sin ; one for the sacrament, and one for 
 forgiveness outside the sacrament. 
 
 God could forgive any sinner without doing penance, be- 
 cause God is infinite. But according to the present law of 
 God, no sin can be forgiven without penance. Hence the 
 
PENANCE. 231 
 
 Council of Trent has declared that for ^'all adults who 
 sinned, penance is a necessary means of salvation ; " and, 
 again, that "penance is necessary for all men who at any 
 time have fallen into mortal sin." This doctrine is proved 
 by the Scripture, by the fathers, and by reason ; as the 
 Christ says : ''I say to you, but unless you do penance you 
 shall all likewise perish" (Luke xiii. 3), and as the Holy 
 Ghost says : '"If we do not penance we shall fall into the 
 hands of God" (Eccl. ii. 22). This is also proven by the 
 testimony of all ages. For no one ever taught that God 
 V70uld forgive a sinner without he hated his sins. No one 
 can break the law of nature Tvithout suffering the conse- 
 quence in pain or sickness. In the same way to break the 
 law of God brings suffering, either in this world or in the 
 next. 
 
 Imperfect contrition is required for the forgiveness of 
 sins with the sacrament. Perfect contrition forgives with- 
 out the sacrament. Perfect contrition consists in man lov- 
 ing God above all. Imperfect contrition in loving God, but 
 not above all. For the forgiveness of sin there must always 
 be, in some way in the soul, a love of God. No venial sin 
 can be forgiven without the mortal sins in the soul are at 
 the same time wiped out. For it is reasonable to suppose 
 that God will not forgive his enemy while he remains an 
 enemy, for the one in mortal sin is the enemy of God. The 
 imperfect contrition is a certain displeasure that any one 
 feels for having committed sin. The difference between 
 the penance required to forgive mortal sins and that neces- 
 sary to forgive venial sins, consists in this, that it must be 
 greater for the mortal than for the venial ones. True pen- 
 ance for mortal sin extends to all mortal sins, but not 
 necessarily to all venial sins ; for one can be sorry for one 
 venial sin and not for another. Hence one mortal sin can- 
 not be forgiven without all the other mortal sins being at 
 the same time forgiven ; while one venial sin can be wiped 
 out without wiping out all the others which are of a dif- 
 ferent kind. 
 
 In the new law true penance for mortal sin must be 
 united in some way with sacramental penance ; but venial 
 sins may be forgiven without the sacrament of penance. 
 Yet no sin can be forgiven without some kind of penance, 
 as St. Augustin says: "Do not think that any one can 
 
232 PENANCE. 
 
 pass from error to truth, or from a great or from a little sin 
 to correction without penance." For the forgiveness of 
 venial sin without the sacrament of penance, we should be 
 displeased with sin. But we should not be moved by the 
 fear of purgatory alone, but by higher motives ; as, for ex- 
 ample, that sin displeases God, decreases the reverence 
 and worship due to him, and prevents us from being per- 
 fectly united with him. These are not necessarily required 
 to be plainly expressed in the mind, for they are contained 
 in an act of the love of God, and in many other pious mo- 
 tives. Hence St. Thomas says that any virtual displeasure 
 for sin will suffice which leads the soul to God, and turns it 
 from sin, so that the person is dissatisfied for having sinned. 
 This relates to the forgiveness of venial sin, without the 
 real reception of any sacrament, like the Eucharist. But 
 for the reception of the sacrament of penance, which, by 
 its very nature, may wipe out sins, a real act of contrition 
 or attrition is required. 
 
 Hence the penance should be in proportion to the guilt — 
 greater for mortal than for venial sins. For mortal sin the 
 sorrow should be really expressed ; for venial sin a virtual 
 penance contained in any supernatural act is sufficient. 
 True penance extends to all mortal sins, but not necessarily 
 to all venial sins. One mortal sin cannot be wiped out 
 without at the same time all the others are forgiven ; 
 while one venial sin can be forgiven without all the others 
 at the same time. Since the preaching of Christ, the for- 
 giveness and the penances for mortal sins are always in some 
 way connected with the sacrament of penance. But this is 
 not so regarding venial sins, which may be wiped out inde- 
 pendently of the sacrament of penance. 
 
 We have considered penance thus far as a virtue. As a 
 sacrament it may be defined a sacrament of the new law, 
 by which those who, after baptism, have fallen into sin, 
 when contrite, having confessed to a priest with jurisdic- 
 tion, receive absolution for their sins. 
 
 By the early fathers confession is called the " imposition 
 of hands;" ^^the reconciling imposition of hands;" "the 
 satisfaction;" ''the plank after the second shipwreck;" 
 ''a pleasing offering;" ''the laborious baptism;" "the 
 baptism of tears ; " "the medicine for sin ; " " the consump- 
 tion of wickedness ; " " the armor against the devil ; " " the 
 
PENANCE. 233 
 
 hope of salvation;" "the reconciliation;" ''the peace;" 
 and "the communion of sinners." 
 
 The early ages send down to us many vestiges of confes- 
 sion as practiced in the days of and soon after the Apostles. 
 St. Barnabas, the Apostle, says, in his Epistle, "Confess 
 your sins ;" St. Clement wrote to the Corinthians : " After 
 we have left this world we cannot any more there confess, 
 or do penance." Another writer of the same age told them 
 to "confess to him who presides." In the second century 
 St. Ireneus, the disciple of St. Polycarp, who was the disci- 
 ple of St. John, the Apostle, says of women corrupted by 
 Mark, a heretic : " These, having been converted, con- 
 fessed." Tertullian, who lived in the second century, says : 
 "Every wickedness, either of the flesh or of the spirit, or 
 committed with the will, is destined by God to punishment, 
 and forgiveness is obtained by penance." Again he writes : 
 "Confession forgives, inasmuch as deceitfulness exagger- 
 ates, for confession is the council of satisfaction." "In 
 another place : "If we hide from human knowledge, how 
 will we conceal it from God ? Therefore how will we com- 
 pare the esteem of men with the knowledge of God ? Is it 
 better to conceal the evil than to be openly absolved ? " In 
 the third century Origen exclaimed : "See what the Script- 
 ures teach us. * * * * if any one is the accuser of himself, 
 while he accuses himself and confesses, he remits the sin. 
 * * * * Look carefully around to whom you should confess 
 your sin." "Through penance is the remission of sin, 
 whence the sinner should not be ashamed to tell his sin to 
 the priest of the Lord." * * * * St. Cyprian, writing about 
 the sinner in his book On the Fallen, says : "Because they 
 thought of this they went with sorrow and simply confess 
 it to the priests of God. ***>!= Let each confess his sin 
 whilst he is in this world, while his confession can be heard, 
 while satisfaction and remission can be given by the 
 priests." Lactantius, in the fourth century, wrote : "That 
 we may uncover our hearts — that is, if we confess our sin — 
 we sufficiently satisfy God, and we obtain forgiveness." 
 In another place he writes : " Therefore the Catholic Church 
 alone retains the true worship. * * * * But because each 
 congregation of heretics calls themselves Catholics, and 
 think theirs is the Catholic Church, let them know that 
 there is the true Church in which are found confession and 
 
234 PENANCE. 
 
 penance, where the sins and the wounds to which the weak- 
 ness of the flesh is prone is cured." How very appropriate 
 to our age are these words of the beginning of the fourth 
 century. 
 
 SS. Hilary, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Pacianus, and others 
 give a clear testimony of confession in the fourth century. 
 The words of St. Ambrose are to the point on this subject. 
 In the fifth century St. Chrysostom says : *^The priests of 
 the new law received the power to cleanse the unclean- 
 ness of the soul, not only of cleaning those approved, but 
 they received completely the power of purging." In his 
 Homily on the Samaritan woman, he says: ^'Who is 
 ashamed to confess his sins to a man ? but who will not 
 confess, nor do penance, on the day of judgment, not only 
 before one or two, but he will be brought before the whole 
 world." In another place he says: "^^By what means, 
 therefore, takes place the healing power of penance ? The 
 first of all is the forgiveness and the declaration of sins.** 
 SS. Jerome, Augustin, Leo, Innocent, and others give 
 abundant testimony of confession in their age. In the 
 sixth century John Climacus, in his book on The Thirty 
 Degrees, wrote : '' Therefore I exhort you by this example 
 to come to confession, without which no one can obtain the 
 forgiveness of sins. * * * * In confession with simplicity, 
 the wounds are to be opened to the ghostly doctor as to 
 God." 
 
 In the sixth century Gregory the Great sat on Peter's 
 chair. He was elected Pope in the year 590. He says : 
 "Behold, they fulfilled the principality of the supreme 
 judges, when, with the authority of God, they retain some 
 sins and forgive others." Again: " What is the confession 
 of sins but a certain healing of wounds ; for it is healthy to 
 open the poison of sins in confession," etc. About this 
 time the archbishop of Rheims laid down in his diocesan 
 statutes that : '' During Lent no one will hear the confes- 
 sions of penitents except the pastor." Many councils and 
 diocesan statutes of this century made laws relating to the 
 way of hearing confession. 
 
 In the ninth century the bishop of Metz stated that " It 
 is necessary for those who, by the suggestion of the devil, 
 do anything against the will and law of God, that they 
 repair it by true humility and confession." In the same 
 
PENANCE. 235 
 
 age Egbert, archbishop of York, England, in his penitential 
 work, says : " When you wish to make a confession of your 
 sins, act manly and be not ashamed, because without con- 
 fession there is no forgiveness." He then lays down rules 
 relating to the way to make our confession. Many synods of 
 Germany, held under the direction of St. Boniface, Apostle 
 of Germany, drew up rules relating to those matters. In one 
 of his letters he says: ^''Without penance and confession, 
 from light they pass to the torments of hell." Venerable 
 Bede writes : ^^ If the sick are in sins, and confess to the 
 presbyters of the Church, and with upright hearts amend 
 their lives and try to do better, they will be forgiven." In 
 the ninth century the Capitules of Charlemagne, published 
 in 801, decreed ''that all priests with great diligence will 
 impose a worthy penance on all who confess their sins." A 
 Synod of Tours, held in 813, lays down rules relating to 
 confession. 
 
 As we come down the later centuries, to the present day, 
 we find the testimony of confession to become more and 
 more numerous. But the design and scope of this book will 
 not allow us to give more proofs from the monuments of 
 antiquity. They are exceedingly numerous. We have 
 only taken a few here and there from the numberless writ- 
 ings and monuments of > antiquity we could cite, proving 
 that the confession of sin was practiced in the days of the 
 Apostles, and in every age up to our times. It is time we 
 saw a little of the history of the sacrament, and the changes 
 of discipline which have taken place during various times, 
 and in different countries of antiquity. 
 
 Confession was the way in which the ancient Greeks, in 
 the times of the Apostles, received the grace of God. Ac- 
 cording to St. Cesar, of Aries, it was the beginning of the 
 healing of the soul. The Greeks called this sacrament the 
 exomologesis, which, in their language, means the same as 
 a general confession. The Christians of the primitive 
 Church confessed not only their secret sins, but during the 
 first six or seven centuries of the Church they confessed 
 publicly. That was for a long time the custom in both the 
 Eastern and Western Churches. Such is the testimony of 
 St. Ireneus, who minutely gives us the history of the con- 
 fessions of two women, which were made in public ; of the 
 historian, Eusebius, who gives us the example of Narcissus, 
 
236 PENANCE. 
 
 of Jerusalem, who was the implacable enemy of sin ; of St. 
 Cyprian, of Carthage, in his book On the Fallen ; of St. Pa- 
 cian, bishop of Barcelona ; of Pope Cornelius, who sat on 
 Peter's chair in the third century, and of many other writ- 
 ers of those early ages. This public confession of sins was 
 voluntary on the part of the sinners. Whence they freely 
 humbled themselves in public to receive forgiveness from 
 God. But the Church made rules lest these public confes- 
 sions might scandalize the hearers. Besides, as a number 
 of Christian emperors enacted wise laws condemning to 
 death those guilty of certain crimes, thus these crimes were 
 not confessed publicly, but privately. Such, for example, 
 was murder or shameful sins. Origen speaks, in some 
 places in his works, of these ancient customs. 
 
 In the fourth century a change of the discipline took 
 place. At the time when the weak Nectarius was arch- 
 bishop of Constantinople, a lady, among other things, con- 
 fessed publicly that she had committed sin with a deacon — 
 that is, one bound by a vow of chastity. That public con- 
 fession shocked the Christians, and brought such a disgrace 
 on the Church, that from that time public confession be- 
 came rare. Still we read that Potamius, bishop of Prague 
 in the tenth Council of Toledo, held in the year 556, con- 
 fessed himself guilty of a great crime before all the assem- 
 bled bishops. He took an oath to the truth of what he said, 
 and was deposed from the episcopacy. St. Theodard, bishop 
 of Narbon, confessed in the monastery, on his death-bed, 
 before all the priests, the sins of his whole life, after which 
 he expired. St. Annon, archbishop of Cologne, confessed 
 also publicly his sins. St. Gerale, a hermit of the twelfth 
 century, went to Rome to confess before the Pope and car- 
 dinals. The Greeks furnish us the example of the Emperor 
 Michael, who confessed his sins to the Patriarch Joseph, in 
 the presence of many bishops and priests. The Patriarch 
 first gave him absolution, then one bishop after another did 
 the same. 
 
 The power of forgiving sins, left by Christ to his Church, 
 is called the power of the keys. The power of the keys, in 
 a wider sense, signifies all the power Christ gave to Peter 
 and to his successors, and through them to the Church ; 
 while, in a more restricted sense, the keys signify the 
 power of forgiving sins, both with regard to the guilt and 
 
PENANCE. 237 
 
 with regard to the penalty due to sin, as exercised in con- 
 fession by absolution, or outside of confession by indul- 
 gences. By an apt figure of speech, this is called the power 
 of the keys, because as a key opens or locks, so by this 
 sacrament heaven is opened or closed to the sinner. This 
 figure of speech is used often in Holy Writ. Christ says : 
 "I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven" 
 (Math. xvi. 19). And, again, Christ says in the Apocalypse 
 (Apoc. i. 18) : '^ I live for ever and ever, and I have the keys 
 of death and hell." Still again : ^^He that hath the key of 
 David, he that openeth and no man shutteth, shutteth and 
 no man openeth" (Apoc. iii. 7). This figure, or metaphor, 
 has been used in the Church from its very beginning. 
 
 The first, or supreme, minister of the sacraments is 
 Christ himself ; so it is Christ himself who has supreme 
 power to forgive sin, and the priest sits in his name, acts 
 with his power, and puts on Christ. Therefore Christ wipes 
 out sin through the priest, for the priest is the delegate of 
 Christ, who ratifies what his minister does. When Christ 
 came down from heaven to found the Catholic Church, he 
 appointed Peter as its head ; and after Peter's profession of 
 faith he said : '' I say to thee that thou art Peter, and upon 
 this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell- shall 
 not prevail against it. And I will give to thee the keys of 
 the kingdom of heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt bind 
 upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven ; and whatso- 
 ever thou shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed also in 
 heaven" (Math. xvi. 18, 19). 
 
 Again, he said to all the Apostles : '^I say to you, what- 
 soever you shall bind upon earth, shall be bound also in 
 heaven ; and whatsoever you shall loose upon earth, shall 
 be loosed also in heaven " (Math, xviii. 18). He said to 
 fhem after his resurrection : ^'Receive ye the Holy Ghost : 
 whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them ; and 
 whose sins you shall retain, they are retained " (John xx. 
 22, 23). The Council of Trent says that: ''The power of 
 forgiving or retaining, for the reconciliation of the faithful, 
 who have fallen after baptism, is given in such clear words 
 to the Apostles, and to their legitimate successors, that 
 such has been the unanimous consent of the fathers." 
 
 The power of the keys, or the power of forgiving sins, 
 extends to all sins which can be committed by man. This 
 
238 . PENANCE. 
 
 was defined by the Council of Trent, and is a matter of 
 faith. Christ on the cross took upon himself the sins of 
 mankind, and expiated for them by his sufferings. He 
 left to his Church the power of applying this redemption to 
 the souls of men, of forgiving the sins for which he paid the 
 price. In former ages the Montanists and Novatians de- 
 nied that the Church could remit all sins, especially enor- 
 mous crimes, and their doctrines were condemned. The 
 words of Christ which we have given above contain no 
 restriction. Therefore they relate to all sins. We read that 
 St. Paul absolved the incestuous Corinthian (II. Cor. ii.), 
 and the early history of the Church tells us that the Apos- 
 tles exercised this power in cases of the greatest sins. In 
 the early Church they had penitential canons regulating 
 the penance which was to be performed for different sins ; 
 and no sin, no matter how enormous, was excepted. That 
 shows that the practice was to send no one away in despair 
 of salvation. 
 
 The exercise of this power of the keys belongs only to 
 priests and bishops. Only to the Apostles and disciples 
 Christ said : '^ Whose sins you shall forgive, they are for- 
 given," etc. This was defined by the Council of Trent, and 
 it is therefore an article of faith. Whence it follows that 
 only the clergy ordained can exercise this power. The 
 whole tradition of the Church shows that this has always 
 been the belief of Christians. We will only cite a few of 
 the fathers on this point. St. Ambrose says : '' It appeared 
 impossible to forgive sins by penance. Christ gave this to 
 his Apostles, and by the Apostles it has been handed down 
 as a duty of the priests." In another place he says in his 
 work on Penance: ''This right is allowed only to the 
 priests." St. Chrysostom, in his work on the Priesthood, 
 writes: '''Whose sins you shall forgive." he says. I ask 
 you what power can be greater than this. The Father gave 
 all power to the Son, and behold, all this, which was given 
 to the Son, has been delivered to those," that is, the priests. 
 
 The exercise of the power of the keys, or the forgiveness 
 of sins, is carried out as a judicial act. This appears from 
 the decrees of the councils, especially the ones held at 
 Trent and at Florence. Before a court and judge can try a 
 case, they must have jurisdiction. You will see that ques- 
 tions of jurisdiction often come up during trials in our 
 
PENANCE. 239 
 
 courts. The meaning of this doctrine is, that the priest 
 pronounces a real sentence, like a judge, by virtue of which 
 the sins are forgiven. It does not consist, then, in a declara- 
 tion that the sins are forgiven by God, but the words of the 
 priest wipe out the sins. Christ then sits in the person of 
 his priest, and pronounces the judgment through him ; or, 
 rather, ratifies what he does by the power received at his 
 ordination. That power which was given to the Apostles, 
 by ordination comes to us. This appears from the words of 
 Christ, who says : ''Whose sins you shall forgive, they are 
 forgiven them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are 
 retained." Here he does not say whose sins you shall de- 
 clare forgiven are forgiven. By this he shows that he gave 
 complete power to the Apostles and to their successors. 
 Again, he gave the power of forgiving and of retaining. 
 But this must be done with care and discretion, and there- 
 fore a judgment is required. '' As the Father sent me so I 
 send you," Christ says. ''All power is given me in heaven 
 and in earth." Therefore, as the Father sent him with 
 all power, so he sends his Apostles into the ^world with all 
 power. 
 
 This is found, by reading the writers of antiquity, to 
 have always been the belief of the Church. Pacianus says : 
 "What is done by the priests, is by the power of Christ 
 himself." St. Chrysostom says: "From the earth heaven 
 takes its chief power, for the judge sits on earth. The 
 Lord follows his servant." Christ, then, gave this power to 
 his Apostles and disciples, so that it would remain with 
 them, "even unto the consummation of the world." Ter- 
 tullian says : " Remember Christ gave the keys to Peter, 
 arid through Peter he left them to the Church." 
 
 According to the ancient discipline of the Church, certain 
 public penances were imposed on sinners, even after the sin 
 was confessed and remitted. This related only to external 
 matters, and not to the secrets of the confessional. Often 
 deacons, in the absence of the higher clergy, could remit 
 these public penances. Thus we read that St. Cyprian, of 
 ancient Carthage, says, in one of his works, that "confes- 
 sion may be made to a deacon," in order that the public 
 penances might be imposed or remitted by the latter. In 
 reading the fathers one must keep this in mind, that sacra- 
 mental confession was always made to the priest or bishop, 
 
240 PENANCE. 
 
 as the lower clergy can never receive the power of forgiv- 
 ing sins. 
 
 The exercise of the power of the keys is the sacrament of 
 penance. The Church has defined in the councils that 
 penance, in which the power of the keys is exercised, is a 
 sacrament of the new law, different from the sacrament of 
 baptism. Calvin and his followers claim that penance is 
 nothing more than a memorial, or renewal, of the sacra- 
 ment of baptism. 
 
 The exercise of the power of the keys is an ordinance of 
 Christ, as appears from his words, cited above, giving his 
 Apostles the power to forgive sins. It is an external sign, 
 consisting in confession and absolution, and it produces 
 grace, which alone wipes out sin. Therefore it is a sacra- 
 ment, for there are found an ordinance of Christ, an exter- 
 nal ceremony, and the production of grace, which are the 
 necessary conditions of a sacrament. Not only that, but 
 the minister of the sacrament is given, for Christ said these 
 words to his Apostles, disciples, and successors. The form, 
 or words, of the sacrament is contained in the words of 
 Christ : '^ Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven ; " 
 by which he indicates that forgiveness must take place by 
 a judicial sentence of the priest, sitting as a judge ; and 
 therefore it must be an external judgment, such as is pro- 
 nounced in court. 
 
 The material part of the sacrament of penance — that is, 
 sin — is shown by the words : ''Whose sins you shall for- 
 give." The contrition, or sorrow, of the penitent is hinted 
 at, for Christ says that those whose sins they forgive, are 
 forgiven ; and those whose sins they retain, are retained. 
 Therefore he leaves it to the clergy to judge of the good* or 
 bad disposition of the penitent. The words of Christ say- 
 ing that some sins are to be retained, mean, that when the 
 confessor finds the person indisposed, or for any other rea- 
 son judges that he should not receive the forgiveness of his 
 sins, then those sins remain on his soul precisely as they 
 were before confession, and therefore ''retained." The 
 confession of sins is required, because, if the priests are to 
 retain the sins of some and forgive those of others, accord- 
 ing to the words of Christ, they must know the sins, other- 
 wise how can they judge whose sins are to be forgiven, 
 whose are to be retained ? because no one can be a judge 
 
PENANCE. 241 
 
 in a case unless he knows the case. Therefore the priests 
 must know the sins. It is evident that Christ intended that 
 the sinner is to give satisfaction for the sins he committed. 
 For that reason he gave the power of retaining the sins of 
 those who would refuse to repair, and of wiping out the 
 sins of those who would make full restitution. 
 
 The fathers, in many parts of their works, give this as 
 the doctrine of the Church in the different ages in which 
 they lived. St. Ambrose says: '^What does it matter 
 whether they prove that this authority was given to priests 
 either in penance or in baptism ? " St. Athanasius, arch- 
 bishop of Alexandria, writes : '* As a man is baptized by a 
 man, a priest, thus the penitent on confessing, in pen- 
 ance receives forgiveness from the priest by the grace of 
 Christ." 
 
 The whole history of the Church tells us that penance 
 was always separated from baptism. The Apostles did not 
 call sinners within the Church to baptism, but to penance 
 (Acts viii. ; I. Cor. v.). The fathers teach that sins com- 
 mitted before baptism are remitted by baptism ; but sins 
 committed after baptism are forgiven by penance and con- 
 fession. St. Augustin says, speaking of a murder : ** If this 
 was done by catechumen " — that is, a person preparing for 
 baptism — ^"^it would be wiped out by baptism; if by one 
 haptized, by penance and reconciliation he is healed." 
 
 Our Lord does not speak of sins forgiven in baptism, for 
 he gives them a different order, a different rite, in different 
 v^ords, at a different time, and with different surroundings. 
 As given by SS. Matthew and John, when Christ instituted 
 baptism all the Apostles were present. When he gave them 
 the power of forgiving sins there were only ten Apostles 
 present. Thomas was absent and Judas was dead. Nor 
 can we say that he gave this power to the Apostles present, 
 so that it would die with them. He gave it to them as the 
 Lord gave the keys to Peter, and through Peter to the 
 Church. The sin against the Holy Ghost, of which our 
 Lord speaks, teaches us of the difficulties of forgiving sins, 
 not because of the weakness of the power given, but on 
 account of the bad dispositions of the receiver. For the 
 power given to the Apostles and to their successors exercis- 
 ing it, is only limited by the good disposition of the peni- 
 tent. SS. Ambrose and Augustine think that the sin against 
 
242 PENANCE. 
 
 the Holy Spirit means that it is impossible for persons to be 
 baptized again. 
 
 The remote material of this sacrament are all sins com- 
 mitted after baptism, whether mortal or venial. Mortal, or 
 big sins, are the necessary matter of confession, so that 
 every mortal sin committed after baptism must be told in 
 confession. Venial, or little sins, are not necessarily a 
 matter of confession, for they can be wiped out by many 
 other ways — by prayer, patience in bearing the crosses of 
 this life, giving alms, fasting, and good works. But it is 
 better to tell all the sins you can remember, when you 
 come to confession, as otherwise many venial sins would 
 be forgotten. We must do sufficient penance for them, 
 either in this life or after death. Contrition, confession, 
 and satisfaction are the three parts of penance. It appears 
 from the Councils of Florence and Trent that contrition and 
 confession are the essential parts of this sacrament, so that 
 if either of these be absent the sacrament would be useless 
 and invalid. Satisfaction is the completing part of the 
 sacrament, so that without the satisfaction, or, as it is called, 
 the penance imposed, the sacrament would be valid, but 
 not complete — as a man without his limbs is a man, but not 
 a complete man. 
 
 Hence penance, considered in all its parts, is made up of 
 the acts of the penitent and of the absolution of the priest. 
 Therefore it is really a form of judgment, or a tribunal, in 
 which all the characteristics of a court are to be found. 
 But it is a court, not of punishment, but of reconciliation, in 
 ^which the judge, in the name of Christ, reconciles the peni- 
 tent to God. Therefore it is called the "Tribunal of Mer- 
 cy." The priest is the judge. But when other judges pro- 
 nounce sentence it is to condemn the guilty. Here the 
 judgment of the priest is to forgive the guilty. The fathers 
 of the Church see in the parable of the Good Samaritan, and 
 the man who went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and 
 fell among thieves, so many examples of penance. The 
 Good Samaritan is the Lord, and the oil poured into the 
 wounds is the Grace of God poured into the souls of 
 sinners. 
 
 This sacrament was promised to the Apostles by our Lord 
 before his death, in the words given before by St. Matthew ; 
 but it was instituted on the day of his resurrection. Ac- 
 
PENANCE. 243 
 
 cording to the Council of Trent, " the Lord chiefly instituted 
 the sacrament of penance when he breathed upon his disci- 
 ples, saying : ' Receive ye the Holy Ghost : whose sins you 
 shall forgive, they are forgiven them ; and whose sins you 
 shall retain, they are retained ' " (xx. 23). 
 
 This sacrament differs in many things from baptism. 
 There is a form and a material part in baptism, that is 
 water ; a different form and a different material part for 
 penance, that is sin. The essential minister of penance is 
 the bishop or priest only ; in baptism, the priest or the laity. 
 The minister of penance acts as a judge ; not thus in bap- 
 tism. Baptism impresses a character which, therefore, 
 cannot be received again, while penance may be received 
 many times. Baptism wipes out original sin, and all actual 
 sins ; penance only the sins committed after baptism. In 
 baptism we become a new creature in Christ, and we are 
 born into spiritual life, so that all guilt and all pain due to 
 sin are forgiven. In penance grace is given to heal the 
 soul, and the temporal punishment due to sin is atoned for 
 by sorrow and penance. Whence the fathers called pen- 
 ance *^a laborious baptism." In baptism no penance is im- 
 posed. In confession a penance is always imposed. Bap- 
 tism, either real or in desire, is necessary for all, except in 
 cases of martyrdom. 
 
 Penance is necessary only for those who have sinned 
 after their baptism. The sacrament of penance differs 
 from the virtue of penance. The virtue of penance adheres 
 to the soul ; the sacrament of penance is an external sign, 
 or a holy ordinance instituted by Christ. The virtue of 
 penance was from the beginning of the world, and was the 
 means used by all the just of the Old Testament to receive 
 the forgiveness of their sins. 
 
 We now come to the form of this sacrament, or to the 
 words of absolution. Let us again go back into history. 
 It appears that in the first ages, even till the twelfth cen- 
 tury, the form or words of absolution were pronounced 
 in the prayerful or deprecative manner. This can be seen by 
 the works of SS. Ambrose, Leo, Augustin, and many others. 
 These great fathers say, that by the power and authority of 
 God sins are forgiven. They always imposed their hands 
 on the penitent in giving absolution, and that is still fol- 
 lowed by priests at the present day. It was prescribed in 
 
244 PENANCE. 
 
 all the ancient penitential works for the reconciling of sin- 
 ners to the Church. Many councils and synods of our times 
 recommend the same ceremony. 
 
 Towards the end of the twelfth century they began to use 
 the absolute or indicative form of absolution. Yet the 
 words of absolution were always the same in either form, 
 only the manner, or way of pronouncing them, changed 
 about this time. They said : '' I absolve thee, and the Lord 
 absolves thee," etc. In all ages the priest sat in the tribu- 
 nal of penance, and pronounced a judgment, which, by vir- 
 tue of the power left the Church by Christ, remitted the 
 sin, because Christ promised to ratify whatever his follow- 
 ers should do. The custom of pronouncing the forms of the 
 sacraments in a prayerful or deprecating way, appears to 
 have come from the ancient Roman customs, because 
 among them the judges, tribunes, and even the emperors 
 themselves, pronounced their sentences in a modest, and, as 
 it were, a prayerful manner. The Council of Trent says 
 that the words of absolution are : " I absolve thee from thy 
 sins," etc. Therefore the words preceding or following 
 these words do not belong to the essence of the sacrament, 
 and can change from time to time. Tournali says that 
 Christ did not determine the precise words of absolution, 
 but left it to the Church, whether it would be absolute in 
 the indicative, or deprecative in the subjunctive mood. 
 
 The Greeks have still preserved the ancient deprecative 
 form of absolution. Pope Clement YIII. decreed that, in 
 case of necessity, the clergymen of the Greek Rite could ab- 
 solve the members of the Latin Rite, thus tacitly acknowl- 
 edging the validity of their form. The Jacobites, of Syria, 
 and the Nestorians, placing the hand on the head of the 
 penitent, pronounce a prayerful form, like the Greeks. De- 
 riving their language from the Hebrew, they have no pres- 
 ent indicative, and other forms found in our language, as 
 well as in others derived from the Greek and Latin. They 
 must, therefore, express their words in long prayers, 
 wherein the words of absolution are found. The following 
 is a specimen of the absolution given by the Christians of 
 the East: '^Wilt thou, O Lord, forgive the sins of this 
 N -, because it is in thy power." 
 
 We will give, word for word, a translation of the words 
 of absolution used by the priests of the Latin Rite to-day, 
 
PENANCE. 245 
 
 with the prayers going before and following the essential 
 form, which is : '*I absolve thee from thy sins." 
 
 "May Almighty God have mercy on you, and your sins 
 being forgiven, may he lead you unto everlasting life. 
 Amen. May the Almighty and Merciful God grant you 
 forgiveness, absolution, and the remission of all your sins. 
 Amen. 
 
 " May the Lord Jesus Christ absolve thee, and by his au- 
 thority I absolve thee from every bond of excommunica- 
 tion, suspension, and interdict, in as much as I can, and as 
 you need. I absolve thee from thy sins in the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. 
 
 ' ' May the passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, the merits of 
 the blessed Mary, ever Virgin, and of all the saints, and 
 whatever good thou didst do, or evil suffered, be for thee 
 the forgiveness of thy sins, an increase of grace, and the 
 pledge of everlasting life. Amen." 
 
 Three things are required on the part of the penitent in 
 order that the sacrament may be complete. They are con- 
 trition, confession, and satisfaction. Contrition, or sorrow, 
 is the most important part of this sacrament, because, if 
 the sinner is not sorry for sin, God will not forgive him. 
 Confession must be made when possible, according to the 
 kind and number of sins. Satisfaction must be given when 
 it is in the power of the penitent. If the neighbor has been 
 injured in any way, that injury is to be restored. If it is 
 impossible to restore, the penitent must be disposed to do it 
 as soon as possible. 
 
 According to the Council of Trent, contrition is absolutely 
 necessary for the forgiveness of sins. It is the first and 
 most important part of penance. Contrition is a sorrow of 
 the mind, and a hatred of sin comm.itted, with the inten- 
 tion of not sinning in the future. Three things are given 
 here — sorrow of the mind, hatred of sin, and the inten- 
 tion of sinning no more. These are the three parts of 
 contrition. The most essential part of contrition is the 
 detestation of sin. Persons may feel sorry for sins they 
 have committed ; but unless they hate sin, and make all 
 the reparation in their power, they are not truly sorry and 
 contrite. The word contrition means the tearing asunder 
 of the heart. It is an act of the mind, by which the heart 
 is, as it were, broken and filled with sorrow. As the plow 
 
246 PENANCE. 
 
 tears up the earth in order to prepare it for the seed, thus 
 the heart and mind, torn by contrition, are prepared to 
 receive the grace of God. Contrition must have four qual- 
 ities, which are necessary for it, in order that mortal sins 
 may be wiped out. Our contrition must be sincere, super- 
 natural, universal, supreme. It must, be sincere, that is, in 
 the mind, and not in the feelings. 
 
 As man sins by his free will, so his sorrow must now 
 dwell in his free will. Hence the Council of Trent declares 
 that contrition is "a sorrow of the mind, with a firna 
 resolve of sinning no more." Therefore if the contrition of 
 the penitent is not a true and sincere sorrow for sin, it is 
 not valid before God, who readeth the heart, and whom no 
 one can deceive. It must, in the second place, be supernat- 
 ural — that is, brought forth by the aid of grace. It must be 
 founded on a reason given by our faith ; on a motive given 
 us by religion, which inclines us towards God. Grace is 
 given by God, because without this no act of man can rise 
 above this world, and therefore prevail unto the soul's sal- 
 vation. The motive must be proposed by faith, because 
 *^ without faith it is impossible to please God" (Heb. xi. 6). 
 In the third place, our contrition must be universal — that is, 
 relating to and extending to all mortal sins, without any 
 exception. Hence a man may be sorry for sorue one or 
 more mortal sins, but attached to one particular mortal sin. 
 Then it would be a partial contrition, and useless because 
 not extending to all sins. But when a man is sorry for all 
 his sins, then it is universal, whether he remembers them 
 in his mind or not. He must be attached to no mortal sin, 
 and disposed to renounce all mortal sins which he has com- 
 mitted, even if he does not remember them. A person can 
 be sorry for all his sins by recalling one after another, and 
 making an act of contrition for each as they come into the 
 mind, or by one act in which the person is sorry for all 
 mortal sins taken together. 
 
 Hence, that contrition may wipe out all mortal sins in 
 penance, it is not incumbent on us that we remember dis- 
 tinctly all our sins, for that is often impossible. But it is 
 sufficient that in a general manner we are sorry for all. 
 Contrition, in the fourth place, must be supreme, so that 
 we consider sin, which deprives us of heaven and condemns 
 us to hell, as the greatest evil that can befall us. We must 
 
PENANCE. 247 
 
 at the same time abhor and hate sin with our whole heart. 
 That God may receive back the sinner, all he wants is 
 that the wicked come back to him, and turn away from sin, 
 according to the words of the prophet: ^'Be converted to 
 me in your whole hearts" (Joel ii. 12). Contrition, accord- 
 ing to the motive for which we are sorry, is either perfect or 
 imperfect. The distinction is given by the Council of Trent. 
 Perfect contrition arises from perfect charity. Perfect 
 charity is the love of God above all. Therefore perfect con- 
 trition is founded on the love of God above all. It contains 
 within itself a hatred for whatever is against him, which is 
 sin. This act of perfect contrition can be formed in two 
 ways — by bringing forth in the mind an act of perfect 
 charity, which is the love of God above all, in considering 
 his goodness and perfections, in being above all creatures, 
 and hence hating all that is wicked and all that is against 
 him, which is sin. In the second place, contrition may be 
 without the motive of charity distinctly formed in the 
 mind. For example, by considering the perfections of God 
 in himself, or the divine goodness in itself, and detesting 
 and hating sin, which is so contrary to God, without at the 
 same time forming in our minds an act of perfect charity, 
 or the love of God above all. Either of these will do in 
 confession. 
 
 Imperfect contrition is a sorrow of the mind, and a hatred 
 of sin committed, with a firm resolve to sin no more, com- 
 ing from the fear of the punishment of hell, or from any 
 other good motive different from charity. Perfect contri- 
 tion and imperfect contrition, therefore, are founded on dif- 
 ferent motives or reasons. The motive of perfect contrition 
 is the love of God above all. The motive of imperfect con- 
 trition is the fear of punishment in the other life, the wick- 
 edness of sin, or any other supernatural motive. Perfect 
 contrition immediately justifies a raan, although not without 
 the desire of the sacrament of penance. It is not therefore 
 necessary for the sacrament of penance. This is certain, as 
 seen in the decrees of the Council of Trent, and of other 
 councils. It immediately justifies a man before he goes to 
 confession, although Baius and Jansanius taught the false 
 doctrine that perfect charity did not justify a man outside 
 of confession, unless in case of martyrdom or death, where 
 no priest was present, and unless it was exceedingly vehe- 
 
248 PENANCE. 
 
 ment. The contradiction of this is shown from the teach- 
 ings of the Church in a number of councils, by the decrees 
 of the Popes, in various texts of holy Scripture, and by the 
 writings of the fathers. St. Peter says : "Charity covereth 
 a multitude of sins" (I. Peter iv. 8). The prophet Ezekiel 
 says : " The wickedness of the wicked shall not hurt him 
 in what day soever he shall turn from his wickedness 
 (Ezekiel xxxiii. 12). St. Augustin says : " Charity alone de- 
 stroys wickedness." The great St. Thomas says : "No mat- 
 ter how small is the sorrow, whenever it partakes of the 
 nature of perfect contrition, it wipes out all guilt." Accord- 
 ing to the Council of Trent, perfect charity is not necessary 
 for confession. 
 
 The sacrament of penance was chiefly ordained for the 
 purification of the heart from sin, and the sanctification of 
 souls by giving grace, coming from the sacrament itself. 
 By perfect contrition, with the desire of confession, there- 
 fore, we may obtain grace before the sacrament is received. 
 Whence it is not necessary for the validity of this sacra- 
 ment. We find, consequently, that there are two kinds of 
 contrition — one perfect, which justifies a man before he 
 receives the sacrament of penance, and the other imperfect, 
 which justifies a man in the sacrament. Imperfect contri- 
 tion, or, as it is called, attrition, conceived from the sole 
 fear of hell, is good and useful for the sinner. That is next 
 to an article of faith, because it naturally follows from the 
 doctrine of the Church given in the Council of Trent. Hence 
 Pope Alexander YIII. condemned as false a proposition 
 which says : " Imperfect contrition — that is, attrition which 
 is conceived from the fear of hell and of its punishment, 
 without the love of God for himself — is not a good and 
 supernatural act." This contrition of which we speak is 
 that which is not conceived from perfect charity, or the 
 love of God above all, but from any other motive, coming 
 from the other life, joined to the fear of hell, to the punish- 
 ment due to sin in the other life, or from the wickedness of 
 sin. Luther said such an act was evil because it was driven 
 into the heart and mind by fear, and made a man a still 
 greater sinner. 
 
 There are different kinds of fear. There is a worldly 
 fear — that is, a fear of the punishments of men. There is a 
 filial fear, which is a fear of sin, in as much as it offends 
 
PENANCE. 249 
 
 God, who should be loved above all. There is a servile 
 fear, which is a fear of the pain inflicted hj God on the 
 sinner. This servile fear is still of two kinds. There is an 
 honest, or simple servile fear, by which a person fears pun- 
 ishment due to sin in such a way that he abstains from sin ; 
 and there is a dishonest servile fear, by which a person ab- 
 stains from sinning, yet is so attached to sin that he would 
 commit the sin, but he abstains through fear of the punish- 
 ment. This last will not do for the justification of man in 
 confession. That imperfect contrition which is conceived 
 from an honest, simple fear of punishment, is useful unto 
 salvation, according to the words of our Lord : ^^ But rather 
 fear him that can destroy both soul and body into hell." 
 And as St. Augustine says: ^^It is necessary, therefore, 
 that fear enters first, through which cometh charity. Fear 
 is the medicine, charity the health." That fear is good 
 which has a good end and a good effect. The fear of hell 
 having a good effect, therefore, is good. It will not, in 
 itself, justify a man ; but it will with the sacrament of pen- 
 ance, because it is not always easy for a sinner to make an 
 act of the perfect love of God above all. But it is easy for 
 him to fear hell and hate sin for the punishment due to it. 
 So God, as it were, reaches down his almighty hand, and in 
 the sacrament of penance raised man up to forgiveness. 
 
 It is an article of faith that for the sacrament of penance 
 some sorrow is necessary for man's salvation when he has 
 committed a mortal sin. It is also an article of faith that 
 imperfect contrition, conceived from the wickedness of sin, 
 or from the fear of hell, is given by the Holy Spirit, and 
 disposes man to receive sanctifying grace in this sacra- 
 ment. It is also certain that sorrow, conceived from a mo- 
 tive of perfect charity, reconciles mankind with God before 
 the sacrament of penance is received. It is also certain 
 that perfect contrition is not required in order to receive 
 the sacrament of penance, but that imperfect contrition 
 suffices. 
 
 Let us now see a little of the customs of the early Church, 
 and the changes of discipline. The Christians of the first 
 ages knew no evil. They had such a horror of those com- 
 mitting sin, that they tried to banish them from the Church. 
 For that reason the fathers of the first councils made many 
 canons enjoining severe penance on sinners. . Yet they 
 
250 PENANCE. 
 
 punished only those who publicly and formally confessed 
 their sins before the whole Church. St. Gregory Nazianzen 
 tells us that such was also the custom and the discipline in 
 the East. At the same time he gives us the reason why it 
 was carried out in that manner. St. Basil claims that a thief 
 or robber who confessed his sin should be deprived of Com- 
 munion for a year ; and if he was proved guilty, he should 
 do penance for two years. St. Ambrose says that the one 
 who accused his sins himself should be treated more leni- 
 ently. St. Augustine imposed a duty on Christian ladies to 
 bring to Church the short-comings of their husbands, and 
 to tell them to the Church. That is never done to-day, as 
 the custom ceased long ago. Ives, of Chartres, says that 
 Theodore, of Canterbury, England, carried out the same 
 discipline. St. Basil lays down rules for public penances 
 in the churches of his diocese. St. Augustine says : *^ I will 
 not expose the sinner. I will cry with him in secret. I will 
 put before him the judgment of God. I will drive terror 
 into his criminal senses. I will persuade him to do pen- 
 ance." Burchard and Ives, of Chartres, say, according to 
 the second canon of the Council of Toledo, the priest should 
 denounce the sinner who would not confess his public 
 crimes, and that he is unworthy of Communion. Here they 
 speak of a person guilty of great sins who was denounced 
 before the whole Church. The bishops of Africa decided 
 that bishops should be careful to say nothing against the 
 priest, when they have no other knowledge except what is 
 derived from confession. 
 
 The ancient Christians considered it to be a duty on their 
 part to reveal the names of those guilty of great crimes. 
 The custom, therefore, and the obligation of denouncing 
 before the Church those who were guilty of grievous sins, 
 whether well known or secret, was practiced in the Church 
 for more than a thousand years, and the bishop required 
 that the candidates for the sacraments should do penance 
 in reparation of their crimes. The Council of Cologne, 
 held in the year 1536, attempted to restore that ancient 
 discipline ; but it was not carried out. The way confession 
 was made changed from time to time. 
 
 The sinner confessed his sins publicly in the early 
 Church, either on his knees or prostrated upon the earth ; 
 sometimes in sackcloth and in ashes. They did that in 
 
PENANCE. 251 
 
 the presence of the bishop, priest, clergy, and people. That 
 was the discipline of both the Eastern and Western 
 Churches soon after the days of the Apostles. But often 
 confessions were made in a different way. The penitent 
 sometimes came to the priest filled with humility and sor- 
 row. He would sit beside the confessor, make his confes- 
 sion, and receive advice and penance, in the meantime 
 being asked by the priest regarding his belief. King Pepin 
 came to confession barefooted. According to Alcuinus, in 
 ancient times the penitent, when making his confession, 
 knelt upon the earth, extended his hands, his face showing 
 signs of sorrow, and thus he asked the priest to reconcile 
 him with God. Then prostrating himself upon the floor, he 
 wept and moaned, showing the sorrow which filled his soul. 
 Then the priest told him to rise, prescribed fasting and pen- 
 ance for his sins. Afterwards he again prostrated himself 
 at the feet of his confessor, asking courage to fulfill his 
 penance. Then the penitent arose and sat upon the seat. 
 
 To-day the Maronites confess with nearly the same cere- 
 monies. The monks, also, confessed sitting down, or they 
 sometimes stood up while confessing. The monks of Char- 
 treuse and of other places only confessed kneeling before 
 the thirteenth century, which gave rise to the present cus- 
 tom of kneeling, while confessing. This custom was intro- 
 duced towards the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 Yet Luke, bishop of Cozence, tells us that when called 
 to the palace to hear the confession of the Empress Con- 
 stance, she made her confession while seated. The 
 Greeks of to-day confess sitting. The priest of the Greek 
 Rite, with his stole on, sits on a bench ; the penitent, with 
 his head uncovered, sits near him. The manner of impos- 
 ing the penance is the same as in our own Church. They 
 give absolution, but do not allow Communion except to 
 those who are free from sin, or after they have done their 
 penance. The discipline of the Maronites, and of other 
 Eastern Christians, is like that found among the modern 
 Greeks — some kneeling down and some sitting when con- 
 fessing their sins. 
 
 Some of the Copts and Jacobites confess only to God in 
 secret, before a smoking incensor, when they imagine that 
 their sins will ascend to heaven with the smoke. Two Pa- 
 triarchs of Alexandria, in modern times, abrogated conf es- 
 
252 PENANCE. 
 
 sion. One of these was Abraham, the seventy-second 
 Patriarch of Alexandria. Zarra confirmed them in the new 
 doctrines. From the times of the Apostles they had prac- 
 ticed confession, like those of the Eastern and Western 
 Churches. Whence there is great diversity among these 
 ancient Christians in Egypt since the twelfth century. 
 Some preserve the old Catholic customs of confessing to the 
 priest, while others confess with the incense. The Ethiopi- 
 ans practice the superstition of the incensor, which the met- 
 ropolitans of Alexandria introduced into Egypt when confes- 
 sion fell into disuse. Macarius was ordained in the year 1183. 
 As the first Patriarch of the Jacobites of Alexandria had 
 done away with many rites, during this time confession 
 with incense was introduced into Egypt. During the reign 
 of Lalibeba, towards the year 1210, another abuse arose 
 among the Ethiopians. Those who committed great sins 
 were baptized over again, a baptism by which they sup- 
 posed these sins were wiped out. The Portuguese mission- 
 aries found the superstition of the incensor among the Nes- 
 torians of the East. 
 
 Some of them still confess to their priest in about the 
 manner we do to-day, but with head uncovered, kneeling 
 on the ground, hands crossed on the breast, and eyes cast 
 down. They tell their sins with great sincerity, with 
 weeping and groaning, confessing to the priest even their 
 most secret weaknesses. The priest then says : *'Be care- 
 ful in future and do not commit these sins any more. I 
 here forgive you your sins, and God has forgiven them in 
 heaven ; and because you have confessed them here they 
 shall not be revealed on the day of judgment, and you shall 
 not be condemned for them." 
 
 In the ancient Church all were obliged to go to confession 
 at the beginning of Lent. Such is the testimony of SS. Hil- 
 ary of Aries, and Honoratus of Marseilles. The Councils 
 of Agde and of Rheims, in the seventh century ; of Meaux 
 and of others in the seventh century ; the writings of The- 
 ophilus, bishop of Orleans, and of many others, all speak of 
 and order the confession of sins. Many bishops obliged 
 their people to confess three times during the year. Such 
 was the order of the Council of Toulouse, of St. Edmond, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, of the Synod of Worcester, and of 
 Otton, bishop of Brambury. The Council of Sens ordered 
 
A CONFESSIONAL IN MEXICO. 
 
PENANCE. 253 
 
 the people to go to confession ^ve times a year. In the days 
 of the great Theodore they all went to confession and com- 
 munion at Christmas Tide. During the Middle Ages the dis- 
 cipline was not uniform everywhere regarding that point. 
 The Greeks as well as the Latins called their confessors their 
 spiritual fathers. Those about to go on a long journey, or 
 soldiers before going to war, went first to confession. Rich- 
 ard, the son of King William, of England ; Philip the Fair, 
 the three sons of Louis, of France, Philip VIL, and many 
 other kings and princes, went to confession before departing 
 for the battle-field. The Norman soldiers, under William 
 the Conqueror ; the warriors under Duke Conrad ; and the 
 great generals, statesmen, and soldiers of the Middle Ages, 
 went to confession before departing for war, or setting out 
 on long and dangerous journeys. We could give many 
 other examples to show the discipline of the early ages. 
 The Greeks and the Christians of the East have also laws 
 obliging them to go to confession. Sometimes among them 
 persons not having the aid of a clergyman can go to Com- 
 munion without confessing their sins. 
 
 The places where confessions are heard should be seen 
 from all parts of the church. St. Edmond, of Canterbury, 
 directed that the place where ladies' confessions were to 
 be heard should be in a public place, so as to give rise to 
 no suspicions. The same was laid down in the Council of 
 Breziers, and in many other councils. The Council of Co- 
 logne, held in 1280, under pain of excommunication, forbade 
 the hearing of women's confessions in obscure or dark 
 places ; and that the priests should, while hearing, have on 
 their surplices and stoles. Yet the Council of Paris, in the 
 year 29, allowed the confessions of the sick to be held in 
 their houses. The confessions of some were heard before 
 the altar, from whence Egbert, of York, says : ^' I confess 
 before Almighty God, and before his holy altar." Peter 
 Damien heard the confession of the Empress Agnes before 
 the altar of St. Peters, in Rome. 
 
 In the Latin Rite confessions are mostly heard in special 
 confessionals, made for that purpose. The confessor sits in 
 a kind of box, called a confessional box, and the penitents 
 come to him. On either side a grate divides the priest from 
 the penitent. A sliding cover prevents one on the other 
 side hearing anything said to the priest. In some places it 
 
254 PENANCE. 
 
 is forbidden to hear the confessions of ladies in the church 
 without a screen. The priest should have on a stole, and, 
 if convenient, a surplice. 
 
 The Greeks, also, used to hear confessions before the 
 altar. We have seen that in the first ages the confession 
 of sin, either publicly or privately, was made to the priest, 
 sometimes to one another, to many priests, to the bishop 
 only, or to the cardinal priest, or confessor appointed by the 
 bishops for that purpose. Any of the lower clergy, not 
 raised to the priesthood, never immediately heard sacra- 
 mental confessions. Yet confessions were occasionally 
 made to deacons, in order that they might impose on them 
 the public penances. The first Council of Toledo threat- 
 ened to lower to the rank -of subdeacons those deacons 
 guilty of any disorders, and forbids them to impose hands 
 on the penitents. The custom of deacons baptizing, giving 
 Communion, and imposing public penances on sinners, re- 
 mained in practice for many ages, until forbidden by the 
 councils held at York, London, and other places, during the 
 year 1200. The ambition of the deacons in this respect was 
 curbed by the bishops, councils, and synods of this age for- 
 bidding it as a usurpation of the rites attached to the priest- 
 hood. From this we learn that sometimes deacons heard 
 confessions in the Western Church, to the end of the 
 thirteenth century, but only in cases of necessity, till this 
 abuse was wiped out. 
 
 The sacrament of penance was held so sacred in those 
 times that people even confessed, not only to deacons 
 and to the lower clergy, but also to one another, in the ab- 
 sence of the priest, as an act of humility, knowing that for- 
 giveness could only be given by a priest. Abbesses or 
 superiors of convents sometimes heard the confessions of 
 their subjects in order to direct them. To the bishops only 
 appeared to belong, in the first ages, the duty of hearing 
 confessions. But when the people multiplied the priests 
 were called to their aid. Often the monks, or bishops, be- 
 came confessors to kings, princes, and members of rich 
 families. In the East the monks heard confession more 
 frequently than in the West ; and rarely the people of the 
 East went to confession to any one but to a monk. Still 
 great and heinous crimes were reserved to the bishop, or 
 even to the Pope. 
 
PENANCE. 255 
 
 Although the power of binding and of loosing belonged 
 to the priesthood, nevertheless all the priests did not exer- 
 cise that power of hearing confessions, except they received 
 also jurisdiction. In other words, they could not hear con- 
 fessions unless subjects were appointed over whom they 
 exercised that power. It was given them at ordination, 
 and is called faculty, or jurisdiction. In the early Church 
 difficult confessions and cases were heard by the bishop, 
 aided by the priests, and that community of bishops and 
 priests was called the senate, or the presbytery of the dio- 
 cese. That was the origin of the Cathedral Chapter. For 
 that reason they used sometimes to confess to many priests, 
 sitting as one court or tribunal. Confession was restricted to 
 only one priest in after ages. When the bishop and his 
 senate of priests were occupied with other matters by the 
 rapid spread and growth of the Church, a priest was ap- 
 pointed to hear confessions. This took place from the time 
 when the Novatian heretics separated from the Church, be- 
 cause the Christians did not want to enter into communion 
 with those who fell during the persecution of Decius. 
 The bishops added to the list of officers of the Church a 
 priest whom they appointed to hear confessions, so that 
 those who fell after baptism might confess their sins only 
 to him. Afterwards, when the number of the faithful had 
 still more increased, priests were appointed to govern the 
 parishes in the great cities, as at Rome and Alexandria. 
 Afterwards this was extended to the country. Those con- 
 fessors, in Rome, were called cardinals. To them the peo- 
 ple went to confession. 
 
 For a long time they alone could hear confessions, and 
 we read that in the Council held at Rheims, in the year 
 1639, it was given out that no priest but the pastor could 
 hear confessions during Lent. Chrodegand, in the follow- 
 ing century, recommended the same. The statutes of Ahy- 
 ton, bishop of Basel, one of the chief lights of the Church 
 in the ninth century, carried this so far that he stated that 
 those who came to Rome to visit the tombs of the Apostles, 
 should confess before their departure. He restricted the 
 people to their own bishop or priest in matters of confes- 
 sion. That was also the custom in some places in the 
 tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. Yet by permission 
 of the Popes many priests preached and heard confes- 
 
25G PENANCE. 
 
 sions in different dioceses. The influence of the crusades 
 changed a little this discipline. 
 
 At this time the mendicant preachers, the Dominicans 
 and the Franciscans, arose to instruct the ignorant and 
 look after the poor. They exerted their influence on the 
 discipline of the Church of that age. Having many clergy- 
 men illustrious, both on account of their family and for their 
 talents, they began to hear confessions everywhere. A Bull 
 of Gregory IX. was published in 1227, twelve years after 
 the Lateran Council. In it the Pope requested bishops and 
 other ecclesiastical superiors to receive favorably the Do- 
 minicans, and allow them to preach and hear confession in 
 different dioceses. Innocent IV. commissioned three bish- 
 ops of England to receive them well in that island. Many 
 of the nobles of England, puffed up with pride, despised 
 their bishops and pastors, and would confess only to the 
 Dominicans. They gave themselves up to every kind of 
 disorder, because they could go to strange priests without 
 shame. That was the origin of the present custom we 
 sometimes see among people who imagine that religious 
 orders are much better than the secular priesthood estab- 
 lished by Christ, who was the author and founder of the 
 seculars as well as the episcopacy, while religious orders 
 were established by men. 
 
 At this time some supposed that the rights given the Do- 
 minicans conflicted with the decree of the Lateran Council. 
 Difficulties arose, but Innocent lYo, two weeks before his 
 death, published a Constitution, dated at Naples, in which 
 he defined the privileges of the Dominicans, declaring that 
 those who wished to go to a strange priest, must first obtain 
 the permission of their own pastor. Alexander TV. con- 
 demned those who claimed that the Pope, or the bishops, 
 could not allow the priests of religious orders to hear con- 
 fessions in spite of pastors, excepting Easter confession and 
 reserved cases. Many decrees of Popes and councils were 
 given, defining the limits of the authority of pastors and 
 religious orders. 
 
 The custom of making a general confession of all sins 
 committed since the age of reason, appears to have been 
 customary from the very age of the Apostles. Socratese 
 speaks of a lady who confessed all her sins committed after 
 her baptism. SS. Gregory, of Tours, and Onen, give some 
 
PENANCE. 257 
 
 examples of general confession made in their day. Hinc- 
 mar says Pepin, king of Aquitania, made a general confes- 
 sion, according to his advice. St. Anselm exhorted a young 
 man to do the same before commencing his voyage to the 
 Holy Land. The Empress Agnes, according to St. Peter 
 Damien, made a general confession. 
 
 Monks, before making their vows, confessed to the abbot 
 all their sins. According to the monk Cesar, and other 
 writers and historians, they not only made a general con- 
 fession, but they also sometimes wrote their sins in a letter 
 and sent it to their confessor. Robert, bishop of Mans, be- 
 lieving himself near death, wrote his sins to the bishops of 
 the Council of Douzi, which assembled in the year 872, 
 under John VIII. He asked them for absolution, although 
 he was a thousand miles away. Gregory YII. thus sent 
 an absolution to the bishops of Lincoln, of Leige, and to 
 Alphonsus, King of Spain. St. Thomas, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, not wishing to be present at a council held at 
 Clarendon, England, some members of which acted con- 
 trary to the liberty of the Church, in 1164, started on his 
 way to Winchester, and resolved, if it was a sin, not to exer- 
 cise his duties till he had received absolution from God and 
 from the Pope. The latter was then at Sens. Having 
 heard what had happened, he replied that he was not as 
 guilty as he supposed. He directed him to confess to any 
 discreet and wise priest. Many writers consider these as 
 not being sacramental confessions, but only made for hu- 
 mility, or to relieve the soul, or get advice. According to 
 the present discipline of the Church, a person should 
 be present with the priest, in order to make his con- 
 fession. 
 
 We now come to the material or practical part of this 
 sacrament — that is, to confession itself. In the Holy Script- 
 ure, and in the writings of the fathers, confession means 
 many things. Sometimes it signifies a confession of faith, 
 and sometimes a confession of praise, or thanks. At other 
 times it signifies an open confession in court, where we 
 plead for mercy and leniency. The confession of sins is a 
 judicial act, for it takes place before a priest, who sits as a 
 judge when the court is to pass sentence about the guilt of 
 the person. Hence it is about the same as where a person 
 pleads guilty. It may be a friendly confession, where the 
 
258 PENANCE. 
 
 person seeks a friendly advice, and when we unload our 
 heart into the bosom of our friend for the sake of sympa- 
 thy. It may be an interior confession when it is made to 
 God alone, and from whom we ask forgiveness, or it may 
 be a public confession, when we accuse ourselves in public 
 before the Church. But it is a sacramental confession 
 when it is made to the priest with the intention of receiving 
 absolution. The latter kind of confession, only, is a part of 
 the sacrament of penance. It may be defined as an accusa- 
 tion of our own sins, committed after baptism, told by the 
 penitent to the priest, in order to attain forgiveness by the 
 power of the keys. 
 
 The fathers of both the Eastern and Western Churches 
 have always considered confession as part of the sacra- 
 ment of penance. Many unbelievers think that confes- 
 sion was instituted by Innocent III., in the fourth Lateran 
 Council. Some of them say it is useful, others neces- 
 sary for salvation, while others condemn it. At the 
 present time many Episcopalian Churches are introducing 
 confession. The Catholic Church declares that confession 
 is a divine institution, founded by Christ, and that all sins 
 committed after baptism must be submitted to the power of 
 the keys, at least once before death. We therefore say 
 that the sacrament of confession was instituted by Christ, 
 and therefore by divine law it is necessary for the sacra- 
 ment of penance. This was defined as an article of faith 
 by the Council of Trent. Therefore persons cannot get the 
 forgiveness of sin, and the sacrament of penance, unless 
 they make their confession, if they can do so. The w^ords 
 of Christ are : *' Whose sins you shall forgive, they are for- 
 given them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are 
 retained" (John xx. 23). By these words Christ made his 
 Apostles and priests judges, that they might, by a judicial 
 act, remit sins. This the Council of Trent has defined. But 
 no one can judge a case unless he knows it, and, therefore, 
 without the knowledge of sins the priest cannot judge the 
 case. But as the sins are secret, how will it be possible to 
 judge unless the penitent confess ? Therefore the Lord 
 wished that there should be a confession of sin, and that it 
 should be a part of this sacrament. 
 
 Now in confession each and every mortal sin is to be con- 
 fessed. This is an article of faith defined by the Council of 
 
PENANCE. 259 
 
 Trent. Sins should be confessed singly — that is, in kind, 
 number, and important circumstances. It is not absolutely 
 necessary that each and every sin be confessed, because 
 sometimes we may forget our sins. But it is necessary to 
 confess those we remember then and there, when we are in 
 confession. To deny a mortal sin in confession is a sacri- 
 lege, and the persons return more guilty than when they 
 came. Christ instituted confession that our sins may be 
 remitted. Therefore each sin is singly to be confessed. 
 For if the priest forgives those sins which are confessed, it 
 is better for us to confess all. And if the priest is to pass 
 judgment on a case in which he pronounces forgiveness, 
 each one must separately be declared. This is proven by 
 the continual practice of the Church. St. Cyprian tells us 
 that the people of his time "made a sorrowful and simple 
 confession of their conscience. Before the priest they ex- 
 posed the weight of their minds, and sought healing for 
 their light and little wounds." 
 
 Thus people should confess their venial sins as well as 
 their mortal sins. Venial sins cannot be forgiven unless 
 mortal sins are driven out. According to St. Thomas, ve- 
 nial sins, when the soul is free from mortal sins, can be for- 
 given by the sacraments, for they give grace and increased 
 charity. But for this it is necessary that the receiver hates 
 sin, and is not attached to it. All penitential acts which 
 follow the hatred of sin, as prayers, fasting, and works of 
 this kind, forgive venial sins. Besides that, the taking of 
 holy water, the blessings given by bishops and priests, 
 actions called the sacramentals of the Church, and all good 
 works of this kind, wipe out venial sin as well as the guilt 
 due mortal sins already forgiven. 
 
 Any way of confessing your sins will do when there is a 
 sufficient reason. But the usual way is by word of mouth, 
 and that in secret, to the confessor, as St. Leo says : " From 
 Apostolic rule secret confession suffices." 
 
 Satisfaction for sin is the third part of the sacrament of 
 penance. It is the action by which compensation for sin is 
 offered unto God. No mortal sin can be forgiven unless 
 the sinner is disposed in his heart to repair the injury done 
 his neighbor ; because he is not truly sorry who is not ready 
 to repair the injury done in as much as it is in his power. 
 In the same way he must be disposed to take and to fulfill 
 
260 PENANCE. 
 
 the penance imposed on him by the priest, and which is 
 the satisfaction demanded of him by God. 
 
 The satisfaction imposed for sin is of two kinds — the sat- 
 isfaction of Christ and the satisfaction of the Christian. 
 The satisfaction of Christ is that satisfaction which was 
 offered on Calvary unto the Eternal Father, by which the 
 sins of the whole world were effaced, and from whence is 
 drawn the forgiveness of all sins. The satisfaction of the 
 Christian is some work which the sinner does to satisfy 
 God for his sins. It may be defined as a temporal punish- 
 ment imposed on the sinner to satisfy divine justice. 
 Every sin committed brings pain and guilt to the sinner. 
 The satisfaction for guilt which God requires in the remis- 
 sion of sin is contrition and the confession of sins. The 
 satisfaction of the penitent is that which is offered for the 
 punishment of sin. There are two kinds of punishment — 
 everlasting and temporal. Everlasting punishment is the 
 punishment of hell, due for mortal sin. Temporal punish- 
 ment is the pain willingly suffered in this life or in purga- 
 tory by the sinner, and offered unto God for the satisfaction 
 of his sins, whether mortal or venial. 
 
 Satisfaction may be defined as a voluntary punishment 
 of one's self, offered to God for sins, that temporal punish- 
 ment due to sin may be forgiven. It may be sacramental 
 or not sacramental, public or private, complete or incom- 
 plete. All Protestants reject satisfaction and impose no 
 penance for sin. They claim that the public penance of 
 the early Church related only to a strange discipline, and 
 that it was not imposed for the satisfaction of sins. On the 
 contrary, the Church teaches that all punishment is not for- 
 given at the same time that the guilt of sin is forgiven, but 
 that there is a sacramental and an extra-sacramental pen- 
 ance. The satisfaction which we speak of here is the non- 
 essential part of the sacrament of penance, but which 
 makes the sacrament complete. 
 
 Therefore, according to the doctrine defined by the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, the punishment due sin is not forgiven at the 
 same time that the guilt of sin is forgiven. Very often 
 when the everlasting punishment of hell is forgiven, there 
 remains a temporal punishment to be suffered. When 
 mortal sin is forgiven the grace of God is infused into the 
 soul, by which man becomes the heir of eternal life. But 
 
PENANCE. 261 
 
 i;\^hen the everlasting punishment due mortal sin is for- 
 given, there often remains a temporal punishment due that 
 sin, or rather the everlasting punishment is changed by 
 Christ into a temporal punishment. This is proven by 
 many parts of Holy Writ, as Wisdom says : ''She brought 
 me out of his sin " (Wisdom x. 2) ; and nevertheless the 
 writer was afflicted many years by the temporal sufferings 
 of this life. The Israelites who sinned in the desert were 
 forgiven their sin, but they were not allowed to enter the 
 promised land, and died in the desert. Moses and Aaron, 
 for their sin, although forgiven, were prohibited from en- 
 tering the promised land of milk and honey. David, al- 
 though forgiven his sin of adultery, was punished by the 
 death of his son, and by many grievous domestic sorrows, 
 although God told him his sin had been forgiven. There- 
 fore we see that God does not always forgive the punish- 
 ment due to sin when he forgives the sins themselves. 
 
 This is also proved by the fathers. St. Augustin says : 
 "Man is forced to tolerate evils, even when his sins are 
 forgiven, although the cause which brought him unto all 
 this misery was the first sin. The suffering, therefore, is 
 greater than the guilt." The reason of that, as the Council 
 of Trent states, is, because the sins committed after bap- 
 tism incur greater penalties than those committed before 
 baptism. For then Christians are more united to God, and 
 therefore more ungrateful to him. From this we conclude 
 that the ministers of penance can and should impose satis- 
 factory penance on their penitents. This was defined in 
 the Council of Trent, and is proven by the continued and 
 universal practices of the Church, by the writings of the 
 fathers, by the councils, in penitential works, by the ritu- 
 als, and by the continual practice of all Christians, up to 
 the time of the Apostles. Christ says: ''Whose sins you 
 shall forgive, they are forgiven them : and whose sins you 
 shall retain, they are retained." Therefore he gave the 
 power to his priests to impose works of satisfaction upon 
 his penitents. He then gave them power to wipe out the 
 sins of the penitents with regard to eternal guilt and ever- 
 lasting punishment due to sin, and to retain the temporal 
 punishment, even after the guilt is forgiven. Hence St. 
 Leo says: "The Mediator of God and of man gave this 
 power to the clergy of his Church, that they might give 
 
262 PENANCE. 
 
 works of penance to those confessing ; and that, having- 
 been purged by satisfaction, they might admit them to any 
 one of the sacraments by the gate of reconciliation." 
 
 The reason why penance is imposed on the sinner is thus 
 given by the Council of Trent : *' There is greater ingrati- 
 tude and malice in sins committed after baptism. Baptism 
 is a new birth, by which we are born without labor ; while, 
 on the contrary, penance is a medicine by which, through 
 suffering and trials, we may be purged. Satisfaction is a 
 remedy, and is given that the sinner may with Christ suf- 
 fer for sins." The amount of pain necessary to satisfy sin, 
 after it is forgiven, is known only to God. It is greater or 
 less in proportion to our sorrow and contrition. Hence a 
 sinner may be so exceedingly sorry as to take away the 
 whole debt due for sin. Christ desired satisfaction to be a 
 part of this sacrament, because general contrition is not 
 sufficient to perfectly wipe out the debt of temporal punish- 
 ment. Hence Christ wishes that the punishment imposed 
 should be a satisfaction, so that by the power of the keys, 
 and by works of penance, all temporal punishment might 
 be wiped out. The penance imposed by the priest need not 
 necessarily be fulfilled before absolution, for it can be ful- 
 filled afterwards. 
 
 This penance is imposed for three reasons, according to 
 the Council of Trent : to guard the new life of grace from be- 
 ing lost again by mortal sin, as a cure for spiritual weakness, 
 and also as a chastisement for past sins. Hence the penance 
 to be effective should be a punishment, a medicine, and a 
 preservative against future sins. Then our satisfaction, ac- 
 cording to the Council of Trent, is through Christ, through 
 whom we live, through whom we merit, and through whom 
 we satisfy and bring forth worthy fruits of penance. Any 
 good labors or religious works will do as a penance to impose 
 on the penitents. All penances may be reduced to three 
 classes — prayer, fasting, and giving alms. Hence one person 
 can do penance for another. This follows from the doctrine 
 of the Communion of Saints. Penances can be applied either 
 for the living or for the dead. As St. James says : ^*Pray 
 for one another, that you may be saved" (James v.). St. 
 Paul says : '' I, Paul, * * * now rejoice in my sufferings for 
 you, and fill up that which is behind of the afflictions of 
 Christ in my flesh, for his body's sake, which is the Church '* 
 
PENANCE. 263 
 
 (Col. i. 24). That the prayers of one may be useful for 
 another, it is necessary that the one for whom the prayers 
 are offered is in a state of grace ; that is, free from the guilt 
 of mortal sin. It is required on the part of the one who 
 offers the prayers, or good works, that he is in a state of 
 grace — that he offers a work in proportion to the sin, and 
 that he has the intention of offering it for the other party. 
 
 The pains due to sin committed after baptism, may be 
 satisfied, after the guilt is forgiven, by the sacrifice of the 
 mass, by sacramental penance, by the prayers of the Saints 
 in heaven, and of the just on earth ; but especially by our 
 own good works, and by patience in carrying our crosses 
 while we are in the state of grace. 
 
 The penance imposed for sin is not left to the whim 
 either of the penitent or the confessor, but it should be ac- 
 cording to the Holy Scriptures, to the canons of the Church, 
 to the traditions of the Apostles, and to the customs of the 
 times. The Church made many laws relating to those pen- 
 ances after the incursions and devastations of the Goths, 
 the Huns, and the northern tribes, when with fire and force 
 they came down upon the fairest portions of Europe. Peter, 
 of Alexandria, the illustrious master, published fourteen 
 penitential canons, regulating the penances to be imposed in 
 confession. Basil ordained others. SS. Gregory of !N"azian- 
 zen, Cyprian, and other Saints wrote or gave directions on 
 matters relating to the penance to be imposed for different 
 kinds of sin, according to their number and enormity. The 
 ancient decrees and decisions of Popes show wise laws 
 made for the regulation of these matters. Many old works 
 containing these penances come down to us from antiquity. 
 They are called penitential works, penitential canons, or 
 simply penances. They are found among the Greeks and 
 Latins. They may be seen in the decrees of the ancient 
 councils, held during the first ages of the Church, or during 
 the epoch which is called the Middle Ages. 
 
 Every one knows that in ancient times the discipline re- 
 lating to penances was much more severe than at present. 
 Sins committed before baptism are forgiven by that sacra- 
 ment, but sins committed after baptism are wiped out by 
 long penitential works ; whence penance was called by 
 the fathers '^The Laborious Baptism." Baptism was con- 
 sidered as creating in a moment a new man of grace, 
 
264 PENANCE. 
 
 while penance was looked on as the healing of the soul, 
 which was done only little by little, and by long works of 
 penance. Those who made their confession on their death- 
 bed, if they recovered, were obliged to fulfill their penance. 
 But converts baptized in that case were exempt from all 
 penances. Tertullian speaks of these severe penances of 
 the early Church, giving the Apostolic traditions on this 
 subject. St. Augustin says that by long penance we regain 
 the innocence we lose in a moment. SS. Cyprian, Greg- 
 ory, Basil, and the ancient fathers say that the punishment 
 due to sin is wiped out by painful penance voluntarily un- 
 dertaken. They say that as the courts condemn men to 
 prison, there to expiate their sins, thus the Church enjoins 
 penance on the faithful. ISTo age, sex, or condition in life 
 was exempt from those penances in the early Church. 
 
 History tells us that emperors, kings, queens, princes, 
 and nobles could be often seen doing public penance in 
 those times. Thus, Theodosius, the great emperor after 
 Trajan, and who governed the Roman Empire, was fre- 
 quently found among the public penitents, bedewing with 
 his tears of sorrow the pavements of the church while pros- 
 trate upon the ground. Louis the Good, of France, Ed- 
 ward the Confessor, of England, and many others of as 
 high rank and dignity expiated their sins by public pen- 
 ance. The way of doing penance during the first two cen- 
 turies of the Church is not as well known to us as the pen- 
 ances of the following ages. It appears that the early 
 Christians divided sins into three classes, — little sins, big 
 sins, and grievous crimes. They were deprived, for a time, 
 of the Eucharist for little sins, and for their big or grievous 
 sins they were separated from the people, nor could they 
 be present at the holy sacrifices of the mass, until they 
 expiated these crimes by rigorous fastings and long works 
 of self-denial. 
 
 Those who were guilty were not only separated from the 
 people during the celebration of mass, but they were also 
 ,forbidden to enter the church. These different ranks of 
 sinners were known in the Latin or Western Church by 
 the name of Abstainers, whilst the Greeks called them by 
 a word which means the Excluded or the Separated. In 
 the Western Church, those who committed great crimes 
 were called Penitents, and among the Greeks they were 
 
PENANCE. 265 
 
 called the Repentants. Up to the third century they were 
 divided into different ranks, from those who were deprived 
 of Communion to those entirely separated from the faith- 
 ful. Some had to weep their sins for two years, others 
 were three years among the penitents, while others were 
 obliged to spend their time in penance and sorrow for four 
 years. Those who were guilty of great sins and would not 
 do penance were considered to have abandoned the Church, 
 and were treated like the Jews. They could come to church 
 and hear the sermon, but they were not allowed to be pres- 
 ent at the solemn parts of the mass. These regulations 
 may be seen in the Apostolic Constitutions, and in other 
 works of that time. According to TertuUian, the early 
 Christians did not refuse to associate with heretics and 
 persons of that kind, but according to him the wicked were 
 excommunicated for their sins, deprived of the Communion 
 of the Church, and excluded from its prayers, as a sign of 
 the judgment of God in the future life. This related only 
 to religious matters and not to worldly affairs. The Apos- 
 tolic canons, which were considered ancient in the fourth 
 century, which were published in the second century, and 
 which were known to Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and 
 Tertullian, speak of the manner of proceeding against these 
 sinners. 
 
 In cases where a clergyman committed an enormous 
 crime, he was deprived of his office and driven completely 
 from the Church. St. Cyprian and some writers of Rome 
 speak of those subjects in their letters. During the first 
 three centuries, with great difficulty, those who were guilty 
 of enormous crimes were allowed to enter the ranks of 
 the public penitents, lest the sacrament of penance might 
 be administered to the unworthy. Tertullian tells us that 
 they were admitted only after they had most humbly 
 begged to be received. St. Gregory describes the different 
 penitential stations, besides other marks of sorrow and hu- 
 miliation required from public sinners. In many places 
 they shaved their heads before receiving the penance, 
 and in other places they received ashes on their heads. 
 That may be seen in the decrees of the third Council of 
 Toledo. SS. Augustin and Ambrose mention also this 
 custom. That, however, was not universal throughout the 
 Church. Still it was common in Spain, as shown in the 
 
266 PENANCE. 
 
 works of Isidore, of Seville, and in parts of Germany, as 
 proved by the works of Raban Maur. They imposed hands 
 upon the public penitents to give them force and courage 
 to fulfill their penance. St. Augustin says that, at Nar- 
 bonne, -the public penitents did not enter the church during 
 the latter part of Lent, but that they recited their prayers 
 at home during the celebration of mass. In other places 
 they mixed with the rest of the people during the cere- 
 monies of Ash Wednesday. 
 
 At Avallon, Orleans, Sens, and other places, ashes were 
 put on the heads of the people, while kneeling on the steps of 
 the church. At Rome the ashes were given after notice had 
 been published, or after a certain time had elapsed between 
 the reconciliation of the penitents and their reception of the 
 Blessed Eucharist, although they could enter the church 
 and be present at mass. They were called Consistents, 
 because they had completed the fourth grade of penance. 
 St. Cyprian speaks of these in one of his letters. His book. 
 On the Fallen, was written by this holy bishop to repress 
 the effrontery of certain Christians who, having fallen into 
 heresy during the persecution, pretended that they could 
 receive Communion. The early Christians considered 
 idolatry and murder as enormous sins. Tertullian often 
 speaks of those sins in his works, and the fathers who 
 came after him wrote about them. SS. Basil and Gregory of 
 Nazianzen say the second class of sins were those mortal 
 by themselves, and which were considered sufficient to send 
 them to hell. The daily or venial sins were ranked in the 
 third class. Only those Christians guilty of the first class 
 of sins were subjected to public penance. Still other sins 
 were also subjected, if the confessor judged them sufficiently 
 grievous. Some Christians voluntarily asked public pen- 
 ance to be imposed upon them. 
 
 The fourth Council of Toledo directed that, if a man re- 
 ceived public penance, he should cut his hair ; but if a 
 woman, that she should not receive the Eucharist until she 
 had changed her life. The penances imposed for these griev- 
 ous sins were very severe and of various kinds. Some lived 
 on bread and water, others were told to sleep on ashes, and 
 others to stand at the door of the church in sackcloth and 
 ashes for three years ; others stood or knelt for one year at 
 the corner of the church separated from the people. Those 
 
PENANCE. 267 
 
 who refused to do penance and fell again into the same sin 
 were separated forever from the meetings of the people. 
 Those who were convicted of great crimes by the civil 
 courts were obliged to do public penance. These penances 
 lasted a number of days, and even years sometimes. 
 
 Sinners of public notoriety in the ancient Church were 
 of three kinds — those who committed sins in public, as 
 living in , sin with a woman, drunkenness, and such kind ; 
 those who, although guilty in secret, yet whose guilt was 
 established by witnesses ; and, finally, those whose lives and 
 morals scandalized their neighbors. The ancient peniten- 
 tial canons imposed penances on the guilty, whether they 
 Tvere public sinners or not, but a distinction was made 
 between those who freely pleaded guilty and those who, 
 having deserved it, were convicted before the Church. A 
 greater penalty was imposed on the latter, or their time of 
 penance was lengthened. All courts of justice in modern 
 times have copied after these statutory laws of the Church, 
 and impose less penalties on those who plead guilty. Pub- 
 lic penances appear to have been imposed only for public 
 sins, and certain good works were imposed for private sins, 
 except the grievous sins of the first order mentioned above. 
 When any member of the clergy was guilty of the same 
 sins for which public penance was imposed on the people, 
 such a clergyman was deposed from his office, or suspended 
 from the Church. It was the same even when the sins were 
 committed in secret. As they could no longer officiate, it 
 was the same as a public penance for them. The canons 
 drawn up by the great St. Basil suspended the lower clergy 
 when guilty of secret sins. Often the clergy were sus- 
 pended for life, especially if guilty of grievous public sins. 
 Public penances were imposed only once on Christians, 
 and if they fell again into the same sins, they were refused 
 admission to the Church. That discipline continued from 
 the Apostolic times till the end of the seventh century in 
 the Western Church. 
 
 While imposing severe penances on sinners, the Church 
 always acted as a tender mother, having only in view the 
 good of the people and the salvation of souls. The bishops 
 of ancient times, in carrying out the discipline, diminished 
 its rigors where the sorrow of the sinner was extraordinary, 
 in times of persecutions, and at the request of the saints. 
 
268 PENANCE. 
 
 For these reasons the rigors of the penitential canons were 
 in part or completely relaxed for those who came to con- 
 fession. These were called indulgences by the early 
 Christians. Thus an indulgence is a remission or forgive- 
 ness of the temporal punishment due to sin, conceded by 
 the Church, through the power of the keys, by the applica- 
 tion of the satisfaction which is contained in the treasury 
 of the Church. This takes place after the guilt of the sin 
 has been forgiven. From the year 57, when St. Paul ab- 
 solved and granted an indulgence to the incestuous Co- 
 rinthian, up to our time, indulgences have been given by the 
 Church. Few understand what is an indulgence. Most 
 people suppose it is a license to commit sin, whereas it is 
 only the forgiveness of the temporal punishment due to sin, 
 after the wickedness of sin has been forgiven. 
 
 From the middle of the third to the end of the seventh 
 century the penances of the Church imposed on sinners 
 obtained their greatest rigor. The persecutions had then 
 partly or entirely died out, and the Church, being free, spread 
 rapidly throughout the Eoman Empire. Both among the 
 Greeks as well as among the Latins, public sinners were 
 divided into four classes — the weepers, the hearers, the 
 prostrates, and the consistents. The weepers wept their 
 sins in the porch of the church ; the hearers heard the ser- 
 mon within the second vestibule or porch, where they 
 stood till sent away by the deacon ; the prostrates were 
 allowed within the church, but were sent away with the 
 catechumens, while the consistents mingled with the faith- 
 ful, and remained during the whole services, but were not 
 allowed to receive Communion. They were not always 
 obliged to pass through the different degrees of the afore- 
 mentioned penances, nor were the places given above the 
 same in all parts of the world. 
 
 All sinners were not obliged to pass through the same 
 degrees of penance. On the contrary, some were omitted 
 and some shortened, according to the good dispositions of 
 the penitents. Till the end of the fifth century, the most 
 severe penances were imposed by the Church on her chil- 
 dren guilty of great crimes. Before the middle of the 
 seventh century, the bishops of Spain, who had become 
 powerful in state affairs since the conversion of King 
 Recared, carried out the full penances of the Church. Such 
 
PENANCE. 269 
 
 we learn from the decrees of the sixth Council of Toledo, 
 which directed that those who would not fulfill their pen- 
 ance should be excommunicated. During the seven first 
 centuries of the Christian religion, those who were guilty 
 of scandalous and public sins were forbidden ever to enter 
 the ranks of the clergy, and if they had already received 
 orders, they could not exercise the functions of those 
 orders. 
 
 Various and effective reasons were used to excite horror 
 of sin in the minds of the people. Sinners were forbidden 
 the church, refused the sacraments, hindered from entering 
 the army, and their places of business were deserted. They 
 were socially ostracized and most effectually boycotted by 
 ail, when they had fallen into grievous sins. This can be 
 shown by the writings of Popes Siricius and St. Leo, by 
 the Councils of Orleans, of Barcelona, and by the works of 
 the fathers of this time. The vestiges of that severe but 
 wholesome discipline remained till the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century, when it died out and the customs of 
 our day began. 
 
 It appears that the Churches of the East never carried 
 out the severe penances of the Western Christians, but they 
 were as severe in imposing private penances in the confes- 
 sional as those of the Latin Rite. Towards the seventh 
 century their discipline changed a little, but they continued 
 to be as severe as before till the twelfth century. From the 
 sixth century, the Greeks imposed on sinners a penance in 
 proportion to their sins ; then, as a penance, they deferred 
 their Communion till the penance was finished. Those who 
 were guilty of certain great crimes were driven out of the 
 church during mass. As a general thing, the Greeks re- 
 ceived absolution at their first confession, or some kind of 
 a blessing, if absolution was denied. Much relating to this 
 may be seen in the Penitential of John the Faster, arch- 
 bishop of Constantinople, and contemporary with Pope 
 Gregory the Great in the sixth century. Among them the 
 clergy, when guilty of sin, were deposed from their Church 
 duties, but not deprived of Communion. The Greeks were 
 always very careful lest any one should approach the table 
 of the Lord for Communion before they were prepared by 
 long works of penance and the absolution of the priest. 
 That is the custom among the Greeks to-day, according to 
 
270 PENANCE. 
 
 travelers and missionaries. Those who cannot go to Com- 
 munion, receive a kind of blessed bread which they call the 
 Eulogia. Even to-day, as a remembrance of the ancient 
 discipline, those who are guilty of great crimes remain in 
 the vestibule, or near the door of the church, during mass. 
 Among them the penances imposed in confession are much 
 more severe than among us, and are more like the ancient 
 discipline. As examples, we would say that the Penitential 
 of John the Faster prescibes ten, twelve, and fifteen years 
 of fasting and prayer for certain grievous sins, yet some of 
 the Greeks have thought them too lenient. 
 
 The other Christians of the East followed about the same 
 rules as the Greeks, except that, while they always con- 
 fessed in private, we do not find that they ever confessed in 
 public like the Greeks and Latins. The penance was given 
 immediately after confession, whether absolution followed 
 or not. Different prayers were said both before and after 
 absolution. The penances imposed by them are called the 
 canons, because they are prescribed by the ancient canons 
 of the different Rites. Some of these canons were enacted 
 in the ancient Church, others by the Greek Church, while 
 others still were drawn up by these different Christians 
 after the conquest of the Mohammedans. 
 
 Among the Eastern Christians, at the time to hear confes- 
 sion, the confessor and the penitent go to the door of the 
 church, where the former takes his seat, and the latter, with 
 head uncovered, hands crossed and eyes cast down, kneels 
 on his right knee and confesses all his sins. The confessor 
 excites him to sorrow, recites certain hymns, psalms, and 
 prayers, and imposes penances for each sin. The Greeks 
 give absolution while imposing the penance. In the Syriac 
 and Arabic books we find many collections of penitential 
 canons, some more severe than others, the remains of the 
 discipline of the ancient Church. The Nestorians, the 
 Eutychians, and the Jacobites, when separating from the 
 Catholic Church, for the most part retained the customs of 
 the early Christians regarding penance. But since the 
 conquest of the Mohammedans, the patriarchs of these 
 Eastern Rites have shortened somewhat the penitential 
 canons of the early Church, lest their people should be in- 
 duced to join the followers of the false prophet, through 
 fear of the severe discipline. Some of them put incense in 
 
PENANCE. 271 
 
 the censer in praying for the penitent. The Greeks, Ara- 
 bian Christians, and Syrians impose about the same kind 
 of penances on sinners. In all the Eastern Churches the 
 priests can diminish the penances or change them into 
 other kinds of good works, according to the directions of 
 Michael, patriarch of Antioch. This is also found among the 
 Copts. The members of the Eastern Rites, being more severe 
 in' their penances than the Catholics, were scandalized 
 when some missionaries proposed that by joining the Cath- 
 olic Church they would escape the severe penalties imposed 
 by the discipline of their own rites. 
 
 The severe penances spoken of before lasted in all their 
 rigor till the epoch elapsing from the end of the eleventh 
 to the middle of the thirteenth century, during which 
 they entirely ceased in all parts of the Western Church. 
 These are called the Middle Ages, but they were ages of 
 faith, of morality, of religion, of saints, and of spiritual 
 prosperity. Towards the end of the eleventh century pub- 
 lic penances were changed into temporal punishments. Pil- 
 grimages to Rome, to the Holy Land, and to the shrines of 
 the martyrs were imposed in place of public penances. The 
 rich were exhorted to help build or decorate churches ; the 
 poor were told to work so long for the good of religion ; the 
 people in good circumstances were told to help the poor ; 
 and thus little by little the custom of imposing public pen- 
 ances fell into disuse. Many thought that by giving money 
 they could escape penanca, till condemned by councils held 
 in England in 958, 982, and 1054. 
 
 In 1095 the Crusade was published by Pope Urban II., at 
 the Council of Clermont, composed of 13 archbishops, 205 
 prelates, and numerous clergymen. In place, then, of im- 
 posing public penances on sinners, the confessors sent them 
 as a penance to fight against the Saracens, and rescue the 
 Holy Sepulchre from pagan hands. All these different 
 causes had their effect in abolishing public penances in the 
 Western Church, till to-day we rarely see it carried out ex- 
 cept for notorious sinners. Thus, it should rarely be im- 
 posed except by advice of the bishop. 
 
 Vestiges of these severe public penances are still seen to- 
 day in many Protestant churches. When a church mem- 
 ber falls into any public sin, he is tried by the church, and 
 often excluded from membership. That gives rise to many 
 
272 PENANCE. 
 
 disputes, trials, and scandals. Ministers are tried by courts 
 composed of the elders, deacons, or ministers and bishops. 
 They often appeal to the civil courts, to the detriment of re- 
 ligion. The Catholic Church has her own spiritual courts, 
 where these cases can be disposed of without publicity and 
 detriment to religion. But with few exceptions they re- 
 jected confession at the reformation. The Episcopalians 
 in many places are introducing confession. 
 
 The chief minister of this sacrament is Christ, for to him 
 alone, as the supreme Priest, belongs the administration of 
 the sacraments. The priest is only the secondary minister, 
 who received the power of the keys at his ordination. 
 
 The person who can receive this sacrament is only a bap- 
 tized Christian, who has fallen into sin after baptism. For 
 baptism is the door through which we all enter into the 
 Church, and no sacrament can be received before baptism. 
 The sacrament of penance, then, is necessary for all those 
 who have committed mortal sin after baptism. This is 
 certain. The Council of Trent says: *'The sacrament of 
 penance is necessary unto salvation for those who have 
 sinned after baptism, as baptism is for those who have not 
 been baptized." Penance is therefore the necessary means 
 of salvation, in reality or in desire, for those in mortal sin, 
 even with perfect contrition. This is shown by the script- 
 ural metaphor of the keys, by which heaven is open to the 
 sinner, and by the words of Christ, to bind and to loose, to 
 forgive and to retain. For if there is no other way to wipe 
 out sins, then they are really retained. It also appears 
 from the position of the priests, who are appointed as 
 judges, holding tribunals in every parish or church. The 
 tribunal, then, of the priest, is where the guilty are ab- 
 solved through the words of Christ, who says: "As the 
 Father sent me so I send you" (John xx. 21). But Christ 
 was sent to wipe out the sins of the world, and therefore he 
 has sent his Apostles and their successors in his place into 
 the whole world, to wipe out all sins. Christ says : '' No one 
 Cometh to the Father except by me ; " and, therefore, as he 
 was sent by the Father, he sent his Apostles ; so no one can 
 come to the Father except through them or their succes- 
 sors. Christ was one man, and could not go to all nations — 
 into every parish — and preach and hear confessions in 
 every part of the world. He sent, then, his Apostles with 
 
PENANCE. 373 
 
 the same power he had received from his Father, to sit in 
 his name, by his authority, and through his power to wipe 
 out sins. Therefore he forgives sins through them. 
 
 There is, consequently, a command given all to go to 
 confession. There is also a law of the Church, passed in 
 ancient times, by which the divine law is determined, 
 which commands us to go to confession once a year. 
 Another law was enacted in 1215, in the fourth Lateran 
 Council, and it was re-enacted again in the Council of 
 Trent. This law was only a promulgation of the ancient 
 law or custom existing in the Church since its founda- 
 tion by the Apostles, as we see that the fathers always 
 preached to their people on the obligation of going to con- 
 fession once a year. St. Chrysostom, preaching on Holy 
 Week, told his people : '^Now is the time to make a pure 
 confession." 
 
 The effects of this sacrament are the forgiveness of all 
 sins, the restoring of grace, and the wiping out of temporal 
 pains due to sin. It revives our weakened virtues, makes 
 our works meritorious, fills us with sanctifying grace, 
 strengthens us for the future, so we may shun sin, enables 
 us to resist temptation, gives us peace of mind, serenity of 
 soul, and great spiritual consolation. All these effects 
 unite to drive out from the soul the sad effects of sin. The 
 effects of sin are the guilt, the wickedness, the punishment, 
 and the remains of sin. The T^ickedness is entirely wiped 
 out by the absolution. The guilt of everlasting damnation 
 is entirely wiped out, our lost merits are restored, but tem- 
 poral punishment often remains. 
 
 Our Christian works may be living or dead, meritorious 
 or useless. Dead works are those which are done by a per- 
 son in mortal sin ; for example, giving charity in the state 
 of mortal sin. These works do not gain us any merit, for 
 they were not alive, but were performed when the soul 
 was deprived of sanctifying grace, which is the life of the 
 soul. These works often only merit temporal reward in 
 this world, and if done through grace, they often dispose 
 us to go to confession. Living works are those done by 
 persons in the state of grace. We should then always be 
 in the state of grace, so as to merit heaven, and a higher 
 reward there. 
 
 The remains of sin are certain bad dispositions, or vicious 
 
274 PENANCE. 
 
 habits contracted by sin. They are bad inclinations, will- 
 ful blindness, or torpidity of the mind. They are greatly 
 weakened by the frequent reception of this sacrament, 
 and at last they die out, after we have frequently gone to 
 confession and Communion. Sins once forgiven are for- 
 given forever. They never revive, nor will they be brought 
 against us by God ever afterwards, neither with regard to 
 the everlasting punishment, nor with regard to temporal 
 punishment. Thus saith the Lord : '^I will not remember 
 all his iniquities that he hath done. In his justice which 
 he hath wrought he shall live" (Ezechiel xviii. 25). 
 
 Every penitent is bound under grievous sin to examine 
 his conscience regarding mortal sins, before going to con- 
 fession ; because, by the divine and ecclesiastical laws, he is 
 obliged to make a complete confession — to tell the number 
 and kind of sins he committed. To do this he must exam- 
 ine his conscience. This is according to the Council of 
 Trent, which says : "Every penitent should confess all his 
 mortal sins which he remembers, after a thorough exami- 
 nation of his conscience, and tell them in confession." This 
 is a serious matter, and it should be done in a serious man- 
 ner, as men do serious things. Yet all are not bound to 
 give the same attention to their examination of conscience, 
 because those who are in the habit of going frequently to 
 confession need not be so diligent as those who have not 
 gone for some time. In the same way some have a good 
 memory, whilst others have not. Therefore a person who 
 would neglect this examination, and thereby omit a mortal 
 sin, would be obliged to examine his conscience and go 
 again. 
 
 A person who is morally certain that he has not commit- 
 ted a mortal sin since his last confession, is not obliged to 
 make so very serious an examination of his conscience, ex- 
 cept in order to find matter sufficient for the sacrament. 
 Nevertheless, all should piously and seriously examine 
 themselves for at least five minutes, or better, half an hour, 
 if they have time. Less diligence is required for those of 
 timorous consciences. As a general thing, it is sufficient to 
 remember what you did each day, in thought, word, and 
 deed. How did you manage at the house and the church 
 with your friends ? If you are afraid you cannot remem- 
 ber these things, you are not obliged to write them down. 
 
PENANCE. 275 
 
 Humbly ask God for his light and grace, that you may well 
 and carefully examine your conscience, and that you may 
 excite yourself to sorrow and contrition for having com- 
 mitted sin. Still never put off your confession because you 
 have not time to examine your conscience. The priest will 
 ask you questions if you have not had time. It is only a 
 delusion and a snare to delay your confession from week to 
 week, and from month to month, because you have not 
 time to examine your conscience. 
 
 General confession is a repetition of many confessions, or 
 a confession of your whole life, or of any part of your life, 
 during a year, or during many years. You should make a 
 general confession when you are certain that your former 
 confessions were invalid, or sacrilegious for any reason. 
 But in no other case are you obliged to repeat your confes- 
 sions. Sometimes, if you are in doubt of the validity of 
 former confessions, and when you think you would receive 
 great spiritual fruit on account of your devotion, humility, 
 fervor, and knowledge of yourself, or if you wish to give 
 your confessor a more perfect idea of the state of your 
 mind, you can make a general confession. In other cases 
 it might be useless, and even hurtful. But you will follow 
 the advice of your confessor in these matters. A general 
 confession is good at any important epoch of your life, as 
 before ordination to the priesthood, before your religious 
 profession, at your marriage, or at your first Communion. 
 In making your general confession, follow some order, and 
 do not mix everything up. Commence and go through one 
 year after another, stating what sins you committed in 
 each year, against each commandment, against each vir- 
 tue, and against any law you broke. 
 
 According to the decree of the Lateran Council : '^Ev- 
 ery one of the faithful, of every sex, after he has arrived 
 at the age of discretion, will faithfully confess all his 
 sins alone to his own priest, at least once a year, and try 
 and endeavor to fulfill the penance laid upon him, other- 
 wise, living, let him be driven from the Church ; and dy- 
 ing, let him be deprived of Christian burial." You are, 
 then, obliged to go to confession once a year, according to 
 the Lateran Council. If you do not you are in danger 
 of being cut off from the Church. When you go to con- 
 fession you are to kneel down and say : ''Bless me, father. 
 
276 PENANCE. 
 
 for I have sinned." It is not necessary to say : *' I confess to 
 Almighty God/' etc. That takes up the priest's time. You 
 should say that before going. Tell every sin that you can 
 remember, being careful to mention no sin but your own, 
 remembering that you fulfill the law when you confess all 
 that you remember. Confession is for your own sins, and 
 not for the sins of your neighbor. When kneeling down, 
 confess all you can remember. That is sufficient, for it is 
 sometimes impossible to remember all, and God does not 
 bind you to what is impossible. Be as clear as you can, 
 telling the kind of sins clearly, and the number of them. 
 Do not say repeatedly : '^I am in the habit of doing" such 
 and such things, for that will not do, because it does not 
 give the number of sins. Tell some number. 
 
 You can omit a venial sin without committing a mortal 
 sin, because you are free to confess venial sins or not. 
 You are not obliged to confess sins that you are not sure 
 were mortal ; but it is best to confess all. Also tell the cir- 
 cumstances of the sins, which may diminish or increase 
 the guilt or heineousness of them, the effect that follows 
 from those sins, and if it has injured your neighbor, etc. 
 If you remember any mortal sins committed before your 
 last confession, and which you had forgotten then, you 
 should now tell them. All sins committed after baptism 
 must be confessed. If you forget a mortal sin in your con- 
 fession, and remember it just before going to Communion, 
 you need not necessarily trouble your conscience, because 
 if you cannot conveniently go again to confession, you can 
 go to Communion, and tell the forgotten sin in your next 
 confession. The sacrament produces grace, which is 
 poured into the soul by God, and that grace destroys every 
 mortal sin. 
 
 Sometimes it is impossible for a person to make a com- 
 plete confession. For example : a person is in danger of 
 sudden death, or loses the power of speech, or there is no 
 time, or there is danger of losing his good name, or re- 
 vealing the confession of others, or the danger of scandal. 
 Sometimes before a battle the priest will stand, while all 
 the soldiers pass by, and he gives absolution to each as 
 he lifts his hat, or gives some sign of contrition. In a 
 shipwreck the priest may give absolution to all together as 
 the ship is going down. A priest can absolve a person 
 
PENANCE. 277 
 
 dying, who gives any sign of sorrow, or who should express 
 due sorrow before losing his senses. If he gives no sign of 
 sorrow, but we are informed by a prudent person that he 
 was sorry for his sins, and called for the priest, we can 
 give absolution. Thus those who ask for the priest can be 
 absolved after they have lost their ssnses, and the sacra- 
 ment will be valid for those if the necessary dispositions 
 are in the soul of the dying before becoming insensible. 
 Those who lived a Christian life, but who gave no signs of 
 sorrow, can be absolved conditionally. Even a person, 
 although in the act of sinning, as a person killed in fight- 
 ing a duel, or committing a theft, can be absolved condi- 
 tionally. The reason is that confession of each -sin is 
 required by the laws of God and of the Church, if possible. 
 But if, for any cause, the confession cannot be made, then, 
 in his goodness God extends the sacrament so as to save 
 all who sincerely wish to be saved. 
 
 The material part of confession is sin ; not, therefore, 
 your imperfections, trials, troubles, miseries, or worldly 
 affairs. But you must confess your own sins, and not the 
 sins of your husband, wife, friends, or acquaintances. You 
 are obliged to tell every mortal sin committed after bap- 
 tism, for which you have not received absolution. If you 
 would deny a mortal sin in confession, it would be a sacri- 
 lege. You are free to confess or not your venial sins, but 
 we advise you to confess all your A'enial sins, if you can re- 
 member them. There is no sin except you knew you were 
 doing wrong, or breaking the law of God, when you com- 
 mitted it. See how many times you did Tvrong, then exam- 
 ine yourself on the Ten Commandments, and see what you 
 did against each, and the number of times. Then go over 
 the principal virtues and on your predominant fault or pas- 
 sion, the kind of sin you commit, and the number of times 
 you committed it. If you cannot remember the exact num- 
 ber, guess at it. Always give some number. Excite your- 
 self to a hearty sorrow and contrition for your sins. Recite 
 over and over again an act of sorrow and detestation of 
 w^hatever you did which was wicked, and then make a firm 
 resolve to never commit those sins again. Confession 
 which, for any reason, was invalid must be repeated, for 
 every mortal sin should be submitted to the power of the 
 kevs, and absolution received for it. 
 
278 PENANCE. 
 
 If you have not told all your mortal sins, you are obliged 
 to tell those mortal sins which have been omitted. There- 
 fore if you go to one priest and tell him your sins, and do 
 not receive absolution from him, if you then go to another 
 priest, you must tell the latter also the sins that you have 
 told the other, because each mortal sin must be submitted 
 to the power of the keys. If you go to some priest who put 
 you off, for any reason, without absolution, saying : '' I will 
 remember you," you can, when you return to him, draw his 
 attention to the fact, and to what you told him the last 
 time. You need not repeat a confession unless you are 
 pretty sure that you have not received absolution. Your 
 confession will be exact and short if you follow those rules. 
 
 You cannot judge of the sins told in confession by the 
 time the penitent remains there ; for sometimes people who 
 commit grievous sins are sent away in a little while, and 
 people who commit but a few sins are kept for a longer 
 time to give them good advice. After you have finished 
 confessing your sins you can, if you wish, get the advice of 
 your confessor on any particular subject relating to your- 
 self, or the state of your soul. It is always better to make 
 your confession first and tell these things afterwards. 
 
 The priest is obliged to impose on you some penance, and 
 you are obliged to perform it if it is reasonable, because 
 this penance is a part of the sacrament. Although the sac- 
 rament would be valid without the penance imposed, it 
 would be still incomplete ; and because the sentence of a 
 judge for any crime requires some punishment. Your con- 
 fessor will give you a penance which will be convenient 
 and necessary for your salvation, a punishment for your 
 sins, and a medicine and healing balm for your soul. It 
 will be in proportion to the number and grievousness of 
 your sins, and accommodated to your circumstances. 
 Thus, according to the Council of Trent, the confessor is 
 obliged, under the pain of mortal sin, to impose on the pen- 
 itent a penance for mortal sins, and probably also for venial 
 sins. The penance is generally given before absolution. 
 The penance is left to the judgment of the confessor, and 
 it should be according to your disposition and strength. 
 
 Public penance is imposed only for notorious crimes, and 
 is seldom imposed now. Perpetual penances — that is, pen- 
 ances to be done during our life — are never imposed now. 
 
PENANCE. 279 
 
 because they might be forgotten, or cause great trouble. 
 The penitent is obliged to accept and fulfill any reasonable 
 penance imposed by the confessor, because, as we have 
 shown above, the confessor is obliged to impose penance, 
 and therefore the penitent is obliged to fulfill it under pain 
 of mortal sin, if imposed for mortal sin, and under pain of 
 venial sin, if imposed for venial sins. You should fulfill 
 this penance as soon as possible, so as not to forget it, or 
 put it off too long. If you do not like the penance, or if it 
 is not easy for you to fulfill, you can tell the confessor, who 
 will take it into consideration. You should fulfill the pen- 
 ance exactly as it is given, while you are in the state of 
 grace, and not put it off for a long time, especially if it is a 
 penance imposed for mortal sin. 
 
 The penance cannot be changed by the sinner, but it can 
 be changed by the confessor who imposed it, or by another 
 confessor to whom you have repeated the sins. But for 
 that the penance must be oppressive, or there must be other 
 reasons. To have the penance changed you must repeat 
 the sins, unless you go to the same confessor and he re- 
 members them. The same confessor can change the pen- 
 ance, either in confession or immediately afterwards, or 
 during that day. But a strange confessor can only change 
 in confession. You are not obliged to fulfill the penance 
 when your confession was for any reason invalid, for then 
 there was no sacrament, except your penance be a medi- 
 cine, or you go a number of times to one confessor, who 
 imposes each time a penance on you, with the intention of 
 at last absolving you. You cannot have another person 
 satisfy your penance for you, unless with the consent of 
 the confessor, because it is a part of the sacrament you 
 have received, and is a personal obligation. 
 
 Wonderful is this power of the priest, who not only 
 preaches on the altar of God, but who also sits as God in 
 the tribunal of penance. There is no higher dignity on 
 earth, or more sublime ministry, than that possessed by 
 him who hears confessions. The confessor puts on the per- 
 son of God himself, when he sits in the tribunal of penance, 
 and he pronounces the words of absolution as the minister 
 of Christ, as St. Paul says : '^Christ hath given to us the 
 ministry of reconciliation" (II. Cor. v. 18). To exercise 
 this ministry three things are required — orders, jurisdic- 
 
280 PENANCE. 
 
 tion, and approbation. Holy orders are required — that is, 
 the character of the priesthood must be impressed on the 
 soul of the confessor by the sacrament of holy orders, be- 
 cause to the priests alone Christ said: ''Receive ye the 
 Holy Ghost : whose sins you shall forgive, they are for- 
 given them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are re- 
 tained" (John XX. 20.) This is the perpetual and universal 
 teaching of the Church. Jurisdiction is required, or au- 
 thority given to the priest, to exercise this power over sub- 
 jects given to him. The approbation of the bishop is re- 
 quired that confessions may be validly heard. 
 
 Approbation is a judicial judgment regarding the worthi- 
 ness of a priest to hear confessions. Hence an examination 
 is not essentially required in order that the bishop may 
 give his approbation, as a prudent judgment regarding the 
 worthiness of the priest can be formed without an actual 
 examination. Approbation is required according to the 
 teaching of the Church, as the Council of Trent says : ''No 
 priest, not even of a religious order, can hear the confes- 
 sions of secular people, not even of priests * - * * unless 
 he is judged worthy of it, and obtains from the bishop 
 his approbation, which without price is given.*' The bishop 
 who has jurisdiction, or the one who holds his place as 
 ruler over the diocese, can give faculties to the priest, be- 
 cause to the prelates of the Church alone is given to judge 
 of the worthiness of the minister who hears confessions. 
 The bishop can approve a confessor either by himself alone, 
 or he can appoint some one for that purpose, because appro- 
 bation belongs to jurisdiction, and jurisdiction can be dele- 
 gated. The present custom is to give the approbation and 
 the faculties at the same time to the priest whom he accepts 
 into the diocese, or appoints to a position in the Church. 
 
 Approbation and jurisdiction are generally called facul- 
 ties, and they must be obtained from the bishop of the dio- 
 cese in which the confessions are to be heard. That is 
 according to the customs of our times, and according to the 
 directions of Innocent XII. The bishop can limit his ap- 
 probation to a certain time or place, because it altogether 
 depends upon his free will. He can also, for a reason, 
 recall his approbation, or the faculties given to the priest. 
 The bishop can approve a strange priest coming into his 
 diocese, even when only passing through. 
 
PENANCE. 281 
 
 Jurisdiction is the power of ruling subjects, and is of two 
 kinds in the Church. It consists of the external power of 
 making laws, ruling the people, imposing penance, and in 
 the internal power of absolving, binding, or loosing in the 
 sacrament of penance. Jurisdiction or faculties are re- 
 quired to hear confessions, and the ordination of a priest is 
 not sufficient, because absolution is a judicial sentence, 
 which can be pronounced by a judge only on his subjects. 
 A confessor, therefore, should have subjects. This spiritual 
 power of ruling resides in the Pope, to whom our Lord said, 
 in the person of St. Peter : ^^I will give to thee the keys of 
 the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt bind 
 upon earth, it shalt be bound also in heaven ; and whatso- 
 ever thou shalt loose upon earth, shall be loosed also in 
 heaven" (Math. xvi. 19). The Council of Trent says: 
 "Hence the end and nature of a judgment require that a 
 sentence shall be pronounced only on subjects.*' Spiritual 
 jurisdiction over the whole world resides only in the Pope, 
 for to him Christ said, in the person of Peter : "I will give 
 to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever 
 thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven ; 
 and whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth, shall be loosed 
 also in heaven" (Matthew xvi. 19). 
 
 Jurisdiction over the diocese resides in the bishop, for to 
 him the care of the diocese was committed by the Pope. 
 The jurisdiction over the parish belongs to the pastor ap- 
 pointed by the bishop, and the jurisdiction over persons of 
 religious orders resides in their superiors. Ordinary juris- 
 diction can be delegated, or exercised by any priest. In the 
 case of sudden death the Church supplies the jurisdiction 
 in every case, even among schismatics when in good faith. 
 Delegated jurisdiction cannot be subdelegated. Thus a 
 pastor in this country cannot give faculties to any stranger, 
 as he has only delegated jurisdiction. Hence a suspended 
 priest cannot hear confession ; and if he gives absolution it 
 is invalid. The people, therefore, should not go to confes- 
 sion, except to a priest who has faculties. This relates to 
 secular priests. Priests of religious orders who take sol- 
 emn vows, who have their jurisdiction direct from the 
 Pope, and who are exempt from the jurisdiction of bishops, 
 with the consent of their superior, can hear the confessions 
 of their own members, anywhere they receive approbation 
 
282 PENANCE. 
 
 for the confession of their own subjects, when they receive 
 permission from the superiors of their monasteries or orders. 
 But in order to hear the confessions of the people, they 
 must receive approbation from the bishop of the diocese. 
 Hence, although they have jurisdiction from the Pope for 
 members of their own orders, nevertheless the approbation 
 of the bishop is a condition without which the confessions 
 of the people would be invalid. When these priests come 
 to give a mission, the pastor generally obtains faculties for 
 them from the bishop. The bishop can limit their faculties 
 with regard to time and place as he sees fit. 
 
 Nuns can generally confess only to the priest especially 
 approved for them by the bishop of the diocese. The 
 bishop or superiors of the nuns are obliged to provide them 
 with an extraordinary confessor two or three times during 
 the year. Besides that, the bishop provides an extraordi- 
 nary confessor for pious congregations of ladies who are 
 not nuns. 
 
 As the Pope and bishop give faculties to hear confessions, 
 so it is in their power to reserve certain sins to themselves, 
 or to limit the jurisdiction of the confessor, so that they 
 cannot absolve certain sins. Therefore the Pope can re- 
 serve certain enormous sins throughout the whole world. 
 The bishop can do the same in his own diocese. All others 
 having episcopal jurisdiction can do likewise. Three things 
 are required that a sin may be reserved, that it is really a 
 mortal sin, external, perpetrated and not simply attempted. 
 The reservation relates directly to the confessor, and binds 
 his authority. The confessor, therefore, cannot absolve a 
 reserved case ; only the bishop can absolve what is reserved 
 to himself in the diocese, or the Pope only can absolve 
 what is reserved to him, or the confessor delegated by 
 those can absolve. 
 
 The confessor fulfills four important spiritual duties. He 
 is the father, the physician, the teacher, and the judge of 
 every one over whom he pronounces the words of absolu- 
 tion. He is a father. A father is one who is either the au- 
 thor of life, who fosters life, or who restores life when it 
 has been lost. Hence God is the Almighty Father of all, 
 and therefore we address him with the words : ^' Our Father 
 who art in heaven." The priest is the spiritual father of 
 his people, and therefore he is generally known every- 
 
PENANCE. 283 
 
 where by the sweet name of '' Father." He is the spiritual 
 father because he gives spiritual life in baptism, feeds it 
 in Communion, restores it in penance, and fosters it in the 
 other sacraments. He carries with him the power and the 
 authority of Christ, the Father of all the faithful. His soul 
 is filled with the exhaustless charity of Christ ; and there- 
 fore where will you find a deeper, a truer, a purer, a holier, 
 or a more constant love than you will find in your spiritual 
 father ? He has no selfish motives. He has only your good 
 in view when hearing your confessions, giving absolution, 
 and directing you on the way to heaven. He is therefore 
 clothed with the bowels of the mercy of Jesus Christ, who 
 came to call, not the just, but sinners to repentance. How 
 carefully, patiently, and kindly the priest treats all those 
 who come to him to confession. 
 
 Besides that, he is the physician of the soul, for he exam- 
 ines, inquires into, and studies the diseases of the soul, that 
 he may know the causes, prescribe the right remedies, and 
 pour into the wounds made in the soul by sin, the oil and 
 wine of forgiveness, the healing remedies which he draws 
 from the infinite sufferings of Jesus Christ on the cross. 
 The physician of the soul, therefore, must know the cause 
 of the evil. He should know how to heal it, and know how 
 to prevent a relapse again into sin. He must, therefore, be 
 a man of great wisdom and knowledge, who knows the hu- 
 man heart, its frailties, its passions, and its diseases and 
 their cure. 
 
 To be a good confessor, he should be a man who has gone 
 through the whole course of human knowledge, and has 
 studied the fundamental principles of all human science ; 
 for every one, the learned, the unlearned, the rich and the 
 poor, the great and the small, the scientist, the doctor, the 
 lawyer, the judge, the king, the queen, the emperor, all 
 come to him and seek advice; "for the lips of the priest 
 shall guard science, and they shall seek the law from his 
 mouth" (Malachi ii. 7). For if he is not a learned man, 
 then the blind leads the blind, and they both fall into the 
 ditch (Matthew xv. 14). No one, therefore, should attempt 
 to sit in the tribunal of penance, unless a man of learning, 
 for God says: "Thou hast rejected knowledge; I will re- 
 ject them that they shall not do the office of priesthood to 
 me" (Osee iv. 6). Still it is not necessary that the priest 
 
284 PENANCE. 
 
 should have such a perfect knowledge of all things that he 
 can solve every case immediately ; but it is well enough if 
 he can decide cases as they generally come, and then doubt 
 about difficult ones. The confessor, therefore, will teach 
 you all things necessary that you may receive the sacra- 
 ments rightly and well, if he sees that you are ignorant of 
 those things. He is not obliged to teach you all things that 
 you should know, for the duty of teacher only belongs to 
 the careful administration of this sacrament. You yourself 
 should get and read Catholic books, and inform yourself 
 with regard to your duties. 
 
 The confessor is obliged to know the number and kind of 
 sins, the circumstances surrounding each sin, their cause, 
 occasions, habits, and the dangerous surroundings of the 
 penitent, because he is the judge of each sin, and must 
 therefore know all, so as to judge correctly of all. For that 
 reason the penitents should not wait to be asked, but should 
 prepare themselves to tell these things while the confessor 
 listens. Do not wait until the confessor says : '' How many 
 times ? " but go on and make youi* confession yourself. The 
 confessor must be exceedingly careful not to ask you about 
 any sins that you did not commit, lest he might teach you 
 things of which you knew nothing. You should tell your 
 story clearly, making your own confession, and not wait- 
 ing to be asked, or expect him to make it for you. He is to 
 judge from what you say, whether it be for or against you. 
 
 The confessor is obliged in justice to give you absolution, 
 when you confess correctly, and when you are well dis- 
 posed ; because, from the moment he begins to hear your 
 confessions, there is a holy contract between you both, that 
 you will do your part, and that he will do his according as 
 he judges to be the best for your salvation. Still, if it is 
 not for your own good, he can put you off for a time, and 
 not give you absolution just then. If you have any prop- 
 erty of your neighbor, and you are in a condition to re- 
 store it, you should restore it at once, for each one must 
 have his own. If it is not possible for you to restore now, 
 you must be disposed to do so as soon as you can. It is not 
 necessary for the owner to know where it came from, or 
 who stole it, or to reveal that you took it, or that you 
 cheated, for you might be subjected to the law if you were 
 found out. But it is necessary that the owner should get 
 
PENANCE. 285 
 
 his own, and that as soon as possible. The confessor will 
 never put you off unless it is for your own good, and he 
 will hardly ever do so if you are well disposed. He will 
 form a prudent judgment of your case, and if he puts you 
 off, do not run to another confessor, but follow his advice. 
 Have your own confessor who knows you well, and there- 
 fore will know better your case, and how to heal your spirit- 
 ual diseases. 
 
 An occasion of sin is any external circumstance which, 
 either from its nature or from the weakness of the person, 
 entices the person to sin. Hence the danger of sin is some- 
 thing either external or internal which entices to sin. A 
 proximate or near occasion is that in which men generally 
 fall into sin. A remote occasion is that in which persons 
 generally do not fall into sin. An absolute occasion is that 
 which, by its very nature, entices men to sin ; and a rela- 
 tive occasion is that which does not entice others, but en- 
 tices certain ones, on account of their peculiar weakness, or 
 for other reasons. A voluntary occasion is that which you 
 can easily shun, while a necessary occasion is that which 
 is not easily avoided. A present occasion is that which is 
 really present, while an occasion of sin not present is one 
 that is absent, and which you can easily find. You should 
 avoid the occasions of sin in every possible way, for our 
 Lord says : ^^ If thy right eye scandalize thee pluck it out 
 and cast it from thee, ^- * * * and if thy right hand scan- 
 dalize thee cut it off and cast it from thee, for it is expedi- 
 ent for thee that one of thy members should perish, rather 
 than that thy whole body should go into hell " (Math. v. 29, 
 30). Think that if a thing as dear to you as your eye or 
 hand leads you into sin, that you are obliged to avoid it. 
 A person who refuses to avoid the occasions of sin, which 
 they could easily have avoided, cannot receive absolution. 
 Relating to other occasions you will follow the advice of 
 your confessor. 
 
 Persons who commit the same sins frequently soon form 
 the habit of committing those sins. You should avoid the 
 habit of sinning, for bad habits are easily contracted, but 
 with great difficulty overcome. The best way to overcome 
 any bad habit is to go frequently to confession, and to 
 Communion. There you will get grace and a healing balm 
 for your soul, which will break up the evil habits into 
 
286 PENANCE. 
 
 which you have unfortunately fallen, j^o matter what you 
 do, when you have formed bad habits, there is no way so 
 powerful as that of receiving frequently the sacraments, 
 which pour into your soul the grace of God, and which 
 alone can heal it, and save you from those wicked habits. 
 
 The confessor is not only to absolve sinners, but he is 
 also to lead souls on the road of perfection and virtue, as 
 our Lord says : '^ I have set thee this day over the nations, 
 and over kingdoms, to root up and to jjull down, and to 
 waste and to destroy ; to build up and to plant " (Jeremiah 
 i. 10). Your confessor is therefore to lead you on from vir- 
 tue to virtue, and from perfection to perfection, that you 
 may become more and more holy, and more and more 
 pleasing to your Heavenly Father ; and at last that he may 
 offer your soul, pure and holy, before God at the moment 
 of your death. You should, therefore, go to confession as 
 frequently as possible, not only that your past sins may be 
 wiped out, and that you may do penance for them over and 
 over again, but also that you may receive the sacrament of 
 penance, which will give you strength to meet temptation 
 for the future. If there are no sins to be wiped out, the 
 grace will remain in your soul, and make you more and 
 more holy. 
 
 Whatever you tell in confession, you may be sure it will 
 be kept as secret as the grave. The strictest obligation ex- 
 isting in this world is that of keeping the secrets of the 
 confessional. The law requires the lawyer to keep the se- 
 crets of his clients ; but how much more carefully are 
 guarded the secrets of confession. Christ is the author of 
 the sacrament of confession, and he therefore wished it to 
 be kept secret. Many councils of the Church made special 
 laws regarding the secrets of confession. The fourth Lat- 
 eran Council says: ^'The confessor will be exceedingly 
 careful, lest by a word, or sign, or by any other way, he 
 might reveal the sinner ; and if he requires a more prudent 
 council, he will carefully seek it without any expression 
 which would betray." He is therefore bound by charity, 
 by justice, and by religion to keep your secrets. The se- 
 crets of the confessional are to be kept in every case, even 
 if by revealing the confessor saves his life. The obligation 
 of keeping it secret arises only from a sacramental confes- 
 sion. It cannot be revealed in court, when under oath, or 
 
PENANCE. 287 
 
 for any purpose. Nor will the good of the Church, nor of 
 the government, ever require that the secrets of confession 
 be revealed. Not only the confessor, but all who have heard 
 any matters of confession, in whatever way, are obliged to 
 keep them secret. A confessor is not obliged to keep the 
 secrets of persons who come to him to deceive and mock 
 him, to lead him into sin, or to trap him, for they are not 
 sincere. 
 
 We can say that no secrets have ever been kept like the 
 secrets of confession, and we have yet to find in history a 
 case where it has been directly revealed. By the laws of 
 the Church the confessor who directly reveals the secrets 
 of confession, is to be deposed from his office, and do pen- 
 ance in a monastery for the rest of his life. In the same 
 way the penitents should keep secret what they are told by 
 their confessor, and all matters relating to confession, 
 which would injure the confessor. The things to be kept 
 secret are each and every sin confessed, and whatever is 
 said in explanation of those sins. Besides that, the con- 
 fessor is to keep inviolably secret everything told him in 
 confidence, in confession, the relation of which would injure 
 the penitent. Hence, if a priest hears in confession that 
 they were preparing to take his life, or injure him, without 
 the consent of the penitent he cannot make use of that in- 
 formation, even if the revealing of it would save his own 
 life ; for by that means the confession would be revealed. 
 Still he might find some excuse for finding out further. But 
 he cannot act on what he heard in confession without the 
 permission of the penitent. The confessor cannot use infor- 
 mation received in confession. Hence you can conclude 
 that the confessor cannot use the smallest word or sign if 
 there would be danger of revealing the confession. 
 

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 ^^- .wc/^ d-^e/id ^t^v^e iedeiitec^ton in ^e^fnevei'U 
 
ST. JEROME PREPARING FOR DEATH. 
 
FTER having seen how Christ, 
 our Lord, has led the soul of 
 man along through the differ- 
 ent ways he has provided for 
 our salvation, we now come to 
 the last end of man, when he is 
 on his dying bed, about to enter 
 the boundless depths of eter- 
 nity. Faith was planted in his 
 soul by baptism. His religion 
 was made fast and strong by 
 confirmation. His soul was fed by Commun- 
 ion. His sins were wiped out by penance. 
 But as each sin makes a wound in the soul, 
 even when the wound is healed it leaves a 
 scar. Therefore every sinner bears in his 
 soul the marks and the scars of sin, even after 
 God has forgiven him his sins. A mark or a 
 scar disfigures the beauty of the creature. 
 The scars of sin disfigure the soul, and in or- 
 der that our souls may be perfect and beauti- 
 ful, without a mark or scar to mar their 
 beauty, Christ has instituted another sacrament, to take 
 away the remains of sin. That sacrament is extreme unc- 
 tion. The meaning of the words extreme unction is the 
 last anointment, or the last putting on of oil, because we 
 were anointed many times during our lives. We were 
 anointed at our baptism ; we were anointed at our confir- 
 mation ; kings and queens are anointed at their coronation ; 
 and bishops and priests are anointed at their consecration 
 or ordination. Thus as we are always anointed with oil 
 when God gives us special power, strength, and graces, so 
 
 291 
 
XJO'J EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 now, at our last hour, we are anointed with oil. For that 
 reason it is called extreme unction, or the last anointing. 
 
 This is the last sacrament which was instituted for the 
 sanctification of the individual members of the Church, as 
 holy orders and matrimony relate to the spiritual good or 
 increase of the whole community. As confirmation is the 
 completion of baptism, so extreme unction is the comple- 
 tion of penance, and we might also say the completion of 
 the Christian life. 
 
 The precious monuments of the first ages and the great 
 writers of Christianity call this sacrament by different 
 names. By the early Greeks it is called ''the holy oil," or 
 •'the office of the holy oil." By the Latin writers of the 
 first ages it is named "the oil of benediction." A cele- 
 brated council calls it "the holy anointment." In the Cap- 
 itules of Charlemagne, it is mentioned as "the anointment 
 of sanctifying oil." In another council the bishops name 
 it "the sacrament of the holy unction." In the life of St. 
 Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, it is mentioned as 
 "the blessing of sanctifying oil;" and by writers of the 
 Middle Ages, "the sanctification of anointment." Because 
 of the words used when administering the sacrament, it is 
 said to be "the prayer with oil." Because of the one who 
 receives it, the Latins write that it is "the anointing of the 
 sick." Because of its relation to the anointments received 
 with the other sacraments, it goes under the name of "ex- 
 treme unction," or "the last anointing," or "the sacrament 
 of the departing." 
 
 Because of its effects it is named " the medicine of the 
 soul and body," "the liquor by which health is restored 
 and sins forgiven," "the holy medicine," "the last and, as 
 it were, the finishing touch of all spiritual healing," "the 
 finishing point of penance and of the whole Christian life." 
 
 Extreme unction may be defined, a sacrament of the 
 New Law, given by a priest, which, by the anointment of 
 oil, with the usual prayer, preserves the health of soul and 
 body. Again, it is said to be a sacrament of the New Law, 
 instituted by Christ, in which, by the anointing with holy 
 oil, with the given prayers, the soul of the sick is healed, 
 and sometimes the bodily health is restored, if it be good 
 for the soul. The Council of Trent says : " This holy 
 anointing of the sick was instituted by Christ, our Lord, as 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 293 
 
 a true and proper sacrament of the New Testament, and 
 insinuated by Mark and commended and promulgated by 
 James, the Apostle, and brother of the Lord : ' Is any man 
 sick among you,' etc. Wherefore, for no reaon should 
 they be listened to who teach that this anointment is a hu- 
 man invention, or a rite received by the fathers, and not 
 commanded by God, nor has a promise of grace," etc. It 
 was, therefore, instituted by our Lord himself. 
 
 We read that Christ called his Apostles and sent them 
 into the villages of Judea, to preach the Gospel ; and they 
 ^^ Anointed with oil many that were sick, and healed them" 
 (Mark vi. 13). Here we find that Christ himself instituted 
 a new way of healing the sick, by anointing them with oil. 
 There is everything here to make a sacrament — the institu- 
 tion of Christ, the external or outward sign, " anointing 
 with oil," the conferring of grace : ^'they were healed;" 
 and it was to last, for Christ was teaching his Apostles how 
 to preach the Gospel which is to last **unto the consumma- 
 tion of the world." 
 
 But we have all this given more clearly in the Epistle of 
 St. James (cap. v. 14, etc.) : "Is any man sick among you ? 
 Let him bring in the priests of the church, and let them 
 pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the 
 Lord. And the prayer of faith shall save the sick man, 
 and the Lord shall raise him up, and if he be in sins they 
 shall be forgiven him." In these words are found all things 
 required for a sacrament of the [N^ew Law — a visible or out- 
 ward sign, the anointing with oil, it is to last forever, and 
 gives grace. The words of the Apostle are so clear that 
 they do not need any explanation. 
 
 All the chief fathers and writers of the early ages speak 
 of this sacrament, showing that such was the belief of the 
 early Church. In the first century the Apostles were ac- 
 customed to visit and anoint the dying with oil. The fol- 
 lowers of the Apostles did the same, as many ecclesiastical 
 monuments of this early time show. In the second century, 
 the age of persecution, few wrote, and therefore few mon- 
 uments exist, or survived to come down to us. In the third 
 century Origen mentions six ways of remitting sin, and a 
 seventh which he cites as fulfilling the words of St. James, 
 given above — that is, the sacrament of extreme unction, 
 which he says is the fulfillment and the completion of pen- 
 
204 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 ance. In the fourth century, Pope Eusebius, in one of his 
 decrees says : *^ If any one wishes to do penance when the 
 priest conies * * * if it is shown that he did penance, and he 
 can by any way give a sign of his wish, as was given above, 
 the priest shall fulfill all, and say the prayers and anoint him 
 with holy oil and give him the Eucharist ; and when he dies 
 he shall tend him as the others." This certainly is the way 
 we attend now on a sick call ; showing how little we have 
 changed since that remote time. St. Chrysostom, "the 
 golden-mouthed," in the fourth century, in his work on the 
 Priesthood, writing on the forgiveness of sin, says of this 
 sacrament : "Not only when they regenerate us, but even 
 afterwards, they obtain the faculty of our forgiven sins. 
 Is any man," he says, "sick among you, let them bring us 
 the priests." Here he evidently writes of extreme unc- 
 tion. In the fifth century Pope Innocent I. cites the words 
 given in the Epistle of St. James, adding: "There is no 
 doubt that this is to be understood of the faithful, when 
 sick, who are anointed with the holy oil of chrism, which 
 is blessed by the bishop. Not only priests, but all Chris- 
 tians in their sickness should be anointed. * * * * Eor this 
 should not be poured on the penitents because it is a kind 
 of sacrament. For to whom will the other sacraments be 
 denied ? " Here he evidently considers extreme unction 
 as a sacrament, which he compares to the others. 
 
 St. Augustin, who lived in the same century, says in one 
 of his sermons : "Whenever any sickness comes, the sick 
 should receive the body and blood of Christ, and then his 
 body should be anointed, that it may be fulfilled what was 
 written : ' Is any man sick among you ? ' " Here the great 
 saint gives entirely that celebrated passage of St. James, 
 and finishes by : " See, brethren, how those sick will run to 
 the Church to receive the healing of the body, and that 
 they may be worthy of obtaining the forgiveness of their 
 sins." This is certainly as clear a doctrine on extreme 
 unction as though he lived in our age. St. Cyril, of Jeru- 
 salem, nearly contemporary with St. Augustin, writes : 
 "But you, if any part of your body is ailing, * * * * I re- 
 member also the divinely inspired Scriptures, which says : 
 ' Is any man sick among you, let him bring in the priests,' " 
 etc., giving the words of St. James. Victor, of Antioch, 
 in the same century, explaining the Gospel account of 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 295 
 
 the Apostles anointing the sick, says : "What the Apostle 
 James relates in his Epistle, does not differ from this, for he 
 writes, * Is any man sick among you,' etc. * * * * The oil, 
 therefore, which is used in the holy unction figures the 
 mercy of God, the healing of the disease, and the early 
 blessing of the heart." The Sacramentary of Pope Gregory 
 the Great gives minutely the way the sick are to be anoint- 
 ed, differing only in details of little importance from the 
 way we anoint at the present time. 
 
 It is related in the life of Eugendus, the Abbot, who lived 
 in the sixth century, that on his death-bed "he asked 
 also that his breast might be anointed, as was the custom." 
 The holy priest Tresanus, who died in the same age, is said 
 to have "received the oil of the holy reconciliation, with 
 the deepest sorrow of heart and humility." Soon after he 
 died. 
 
 Theodore, who was consecrated archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, England, by Pope Yitalianus, in the year 668, in his 
 Penitential Book, says of the sick : "From the sick in dan- 
 ger of death there is to be asked a confession of sins, * "^ * 
 and therefore, according to the canonical authority, lest 
 the door of piety appears closed to them by the prayers and 
 Church consolations, let them be anointed with the unction 
 of oil, according to the statutes of the holy fathers, and re- 
 freshed with the Communion of the Yiaticum." St. Eligius, 
 of the seventh century, writes : "But if any one is sick let 
 him confide alone in the mercy of God, and receive the Eu- 
 charist with faith and devotion ; and let him faithfully ask 
 the oil blessed by the Church, with which his body may be 
 anointed, and, according to the Apostle : ^ The prayer of 
 faith shall save the sick man, and the Lord shall raise him 
 up.' Not only his body, but his soul will be healed." Ven- 
 erable Bede, the great author of the early English Church, 
 writing on the words of St. Mark, that the Apostles 
 anointed with oil, says: "St. James says: 'Is any man 
 sick among you.' Whence it appears that this custom of 
 the Church came from the Apostles themselves, that the 
 possessed, or others who are sick, should be anointed with 
 oil, consecrated by episcopal blessing." In another place : 
 "Now the custom of the Church holds that the sick should 
 be anointed by the priests with consecrated oil." 
 
 Egbert, archbishop of York, England, writes in the 
 
296 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 seventh century : " That according to the definitions of the 
 holy fathers, ' Is any man sick among you, he be carefully 
 anointed by the priest, with hallowed oil, and with the 
 prayers." The ancient Anglican Pontifical shows that such 
 was everywhere practiced in the early English Church. 
 The Capitules of Charlemagne directed that if any one was 
 ''stricken down with sickness, he shall not end his life 
 •without Communion, nor be deprived of the unction of holy 
 oil." He says that all priests should get the oil for the sick 
 from the bishops. Besides, he gives some other directions 
 relating to this sacrament. 
 
 The same was directed to be done, according to the Apos- 
 tolic tradition, by the great councils held in the eighth and 
 ninth centuries. We find the writers of these and the fol- 
 lowing centuries are very profuse in proofs of the universal 
 use of this sacrament. From this time up to our day, there 
 is no trouble relating to the belief in this sacrament. We 
 will not cite these proofs for want of space. 
 
 The remote material of the sacrament, as St. James says, 
 is oil: '^ Anointing him with oil." No one ever doubted 
 that such is the material part of extreme unction. The 
 catechism of the Council of Trent says: "Most aptly this 
 matter signifies what is worked in the soul by this sacra- 
 ment. For as oil is valuable in order to lessen the pains of 
 the body, thus the virtue of this sacrament diminishes the 
 sorrow and the sufferings of the soul." St. Thomas ex- 
 presses the same idea. 
 
 This oil is called by these ancient writers, '*the blessed 
 or consecrated oil ; " '' the oil consecrated by episcopal bless- 
 ing;" "the sanctified oil;" "the hallowed oil," and by 
 many other names, which tell that it was in all times con- 
 sidered as having become holy and sanctified by episcopal 
 consecration. Thus we learn that from the earliest ages 
 they blessed the oil for the sick, at the time of the year 
 when the other holy oils were consecrated. It is also prob- 
 ably necessary, for the validity of the sacrament, that the 
 oil be blessed, but any oil of olives will do. No part of Holy 
 Writ, in the writings of the fathers, of St. Thomas, and the 
 councils say that in order that the sacrament be valid, the 
 oil should be blessed or consecrated. Yet the law of the 
 Church, and the universal tradition since the times of the 
 Apostles, say that it should be consecrated by the bishop. 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 297 
 
 Therefore it would be a sin to anoint without the oil being 
 consecrated. 
 
 In the Western, or Latin Church, the bishop only can 
 consecrate this oil, and the priests never do so alone, but 
 with the bishop. In the Eastern, or Greek Church, the 
 priests consecrate the holy oils ; a custom which Pope Clem- 
 ent YIII. confirmed for the priests of the Greek Rite. 
 This custom flourished among the Greeks from the most 
 ancient times. From this we conclude that the Pope could 
 grant a priest of the Latin Rite the privilege of consecrat- 
 ing the oil for the sick. But it is disputed whether a bishop 
 could give that permission to a priest. Where the conse- 
 crated oil is nearly gone, and more consecrated oil cannot 
 be got, a smaller quantity of not consecrated oil may be 
 mixed with it, when the whole will be consecrated. 
 
 The near or proximate material part of this sacrament is 
 the anointing with oil, as St. James says : ' ^ Anointing him 
 with oil." The sick among the Greeks is anointed on the 
 forehead, cheeks, chin, hands, breast, and feet. In the 
 Western Church they anoint the five senses. That is seen 
 in the Sacramentary of Pope Gregory, and is therefore 
 very old. The Anglican Pontifical says the sick should be 
 anointed on the neck, between the shoulders, on the breast, 
 feet, navel, and where the most pain is felt. An old ritual 
 says the sick is to be anointed on the feet, throat, neck, 
 shoulders, where the most pain is felt, and on the five 
 senses. Still another one says that the right side should be 
 anointed first, and that the anointment should be made 
 with the sign of the cross, as done at present in the Latin 
 Church ; and if a priest, on the outside of his hands, be- 
 cause it is not proper to anoint him on the palms of his 
 hands, where he was anointed by the bishop at his ordi- 
 nation. 
 
 The present discipline of the Latin, or Western Church, 
 is to anoint the organs of the five senses, seeing, hearing, 
 smelling, tasting, touching, walking, and on the loins. The 
 latter was added after the decree of Pope Eugenius IV. in 
 his decree for the union of the Armenians. St. Thomas, 
 with his usual clearness, explains the reasons of these dif- 
 ferent anointments. There are, he says, in us the three 
 powers of knowing, of desiring, and of locomotion. Our 
 faculty of knowing is seated chiefly in the five senses, and 
 
298 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 there we are anointed. The faculty of desiring is concu- 
 piscence, and for this reason the loins are anointed. Our 
 faculty of locomotion, or of carrying out our projects, is 
 seated in the power of walking, and for this reason the feet 
 are anointed. Through these powers the inclination to sin 
 conies into the soul, or rather, wickedness comes by the 
 abuse of these jjowers, which were given for a good pur- 
 pose. Man sins, and therefore that the remains of sin may 
 be taken away, these powers are anointed. In both the 
 Greek and Latin Churches these anointments are made in 
 the form of a cross, because all the virtue of this, as well 
 as of all the other sacraments, comes from the cross and 
 pas'sion of Christ. The anointing of the loins is never, or 
 very seldom, carried out in our day. The Roman Ritual 
 says it should never be performed in case of ladies. Some 
 writers claim that the anointing of the five senses is neces- 
 sary for the validity of the sacrament, while others think 
 that any anointment will do. This latter opinion appears 
 to be the true idea, because St. James speaks only of 
 anointing, without mentioning any special way of doing it, 
 or place to be anointed ; because the sacrament as given by 
 the Greeks is considered valid, and they do not anoint the 
 senses ; and because many Rituals speak of only one 
 anointment. Still each one is to follow his own Rite, and 
 the customs in his own Church. The universal custom in 
 the AVestern Church is to anoint the five senses. When 
 there was only one anointing used, it was on the forehead, 
 as the chief part of man. The head is the chief seat of the 
 ■Qrve senses. When a person is mutilated, so that some of 
 the parts which should have been anointed are gone, he 
 should be anointed on the neighboring parts. 
 
 St. Thomas, the Apostle, says : '^ And the prayer of faith 
 shall save the sick man." In his time, therefore, some form 
 of prayer was used. This prayer is not found in the Bible. 
 It only comes down to us by tradition. In the Latin Rite 
 there appears to have been three kinds of forms or prayers 
 used in administering this sacrament — one absolute and in 
 the indicative mood ; another in the prayerful or subjunc- 
 tive mood ; and the third both of these forms combined. 
 As an example of the first, we give the one supposed to 
 have belonged to the ancient Church of Milan, in the Am- 
 brosian Rite. It is: "I anoint those eyes with sanctified 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 299 
 
 oil, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost." The same is said at each of the other senses 
 or place anointed, calling out the name of each sense. 
 
 The prayerful or subjunctive mood can be seen in the 
 words used by the clergy of the Latin Rite to-day, and in 
 all parts of the Western Church: "Bj this holy anoint- 
 ment, and through his most pious mercy, may the Lord for- 
 give thee whatever thou hast sinned by sight," and thus at 
 each anointing mentioning the sense or part in place of 
 ^^ sight." As an example of the absolute and indicative 
 form, we may cite the T^^ords found in the ancient Sacra- 
 mentary of Pope Gregory : ^^I anoint thee with holy oil as 
 Samuel anointed David, as a king and a prophet. Do, thy 
 work, thou creature of oil. In the name of the Almighty 
 Father, that no unclean spirit may hide here, nor in his 
 members, nor in his nerves, nor in the structure of his 
 members ; but that the power of the Most High God, and of 
 the Holy Spirit, may dwell within thee." In an ancient 
 Anglican Pontifical the words are in a prayerful way. The 
 came may be found in an ancient and venerable Codex of 
 the Galilean Liturgy. The words used by the Greeks in 
 anointing is of the prayerful kind, and is quite long. They 
 ask the Father, through the intercession of the Son, to heal 
 the sick. They likewise implore the Virgin, John the Bap- 
 tist, and all the saints, mentioning particularly those saints 
 whom that Church holds in the greatest reverence, praying 
 all to intercede for the health of the sick. 
 
 The words said in the manner of a prayer appear to be the 
 oldest, and the best agreeing with the word of the Apostle : 
 ^' And they shall pray over him." That is the way the sacra- 
 ment was given both in the Eastern and Western Churches. 
 All the other sacraments are administered in an absolute 
 manner. But St. Thomas says that extreme unction is 
 given in the form of a prayer, because sometimes the in- 
 firmities of the body are not healed, the sick person may 
 place some obstacle in the way, the person may not die, 
 and therefore does not need any preparation for death. 
 
 The essential part of the words used is : "By this anoint- 
 ment may God forgive thee." The rest is only to express 
 more forcibly the essential words, or are prayers for strength. 
 The act of administering the sacrament is given : "By this 
 anointment." The author of the sacrament, and of its 
 
300 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 effect, ^'God;'' the subject who receives, ^'thee;" and the 
 effect by '' forgive thee." The words used in the Latin form 
 are rather, "May God indulge thee;" but "indulge," in 
 English, does not mean the same as in Latin, as in the lat- 
 ter it is stronger. 
 
 The effect of this sacrament, as given by the Council of 
 Trent, is "grace;" by which sins, if any remain, and the 
 remains of sins, are wiped out. This grace soothes and 
 strengthens the soul, by exciting in it great confidence in 
 divine goodness, by which the sick is comforted, so that 
 with patience he may bear the miseries and sufferings of 
 sickness, to resist easier the temptations of the devil, and 
 where it is better for the soul, sometimes the body is 
 healed." This is certainly what St. James meant in writ- 
 ing of this sacrament. 
 
 The forgiveness of sins is one of the effects of extreme 
 unction. Still, some say that this is one of its direct effects, 
 depending on the words of St. James : "And if he be in 
 sin, they will be forgiven him ; " while others claim, that sin 
 is only wiped out in this sacrament, when, by any accident, 
 the person, without his own fault, is in sin. The form of 
 words used: "May God forgive thee what thou hast 
 sinned by seeing," etc., appears to prove the opinion of the 
 latter school. Again, the writings of the fathers seem also 
 to show that such was their belief in the different ages of 
 the early Church. 
 
 The second effect is the comforting and soothing of the 
 soul during the last sickness. This is shown by the words 
 of the Council of Trent, given above. It is also given in 
 the words of St. James: "And the Lord shall raise him 
 up." The Greeks say : "The Lord will elevate him." Some 
 Eituals say: "The Lord will comfort him;" while Inno- 
 cent I. says : "The Lord will rouse him," as it were from 
 his deathly sickness, to prepare for eternity. 
 
 This sacrament is sometimes called the sacrament of 
 hope, as baptism is of faith, confirmation of strength, while 
 the Eucharist is called the sacrament of love. These all 
 relate to the chief effect of each sacrament, and therefore 
 extreme unction gives the dying the hope of everlasting 
 life, the hope of going to heaven. The healing of the body 
 may, and sometimes does, take place, when God sees that it 
 is for the spiritual good of the sick. But as the sacraments 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 301 
 
 were given, not to cure the body, but to heal the soul, the 
 people should not always look for such temporal effects, 
 but rather seek the healing of their souls from the effects 
 of sin. That the sick have been often healed by this sacra- 
 ment, is shown by the writings of the most celebrated and 
 renowned doctors and fathers of the Church in every age. 
 St. Thomas says: ''Extreme unction does not heal the 
 body through any natural power of the material oil, but by 
 divine power." * * * * It does not produce this secondary 
 effect, or heal the body, unless when this is good, or for the 
 spiritual benefit of the sick. Hence this bodily cure does 
 not always follow. Many times we see the sick improve in 
 a remarkable way after having been anointed. The doc- 
 tors know from experience how calm and reconciled the 
 sick become after having been anointed. The physicians 
 themselves sometimes send for the priest, because of the 
 remarkable improvement often seen after the sick is 
 anointed. God does not always heal the sick from inclina- 
 tion to sin, for we see that many, after they get well, are as 
 great or greater sinners than before. Besides, the sacra- 
 ments were not instituted to perform miracles, but to heal 
 the souls of men. Therefore people should not always ex- 
 pect God to overturn the laws of nature, in order to heal 
 their sick friends. The people also sometimes ask the priest 
 to cure the sick. This power of performing miracles in the 
 material world, was given in the first ages of Christianity, 
 in order to attract the eyes of men to the Church, and to 
 show the divinity of the Christian religion ; but this is not 
 necessary now. Our power is over the soul, and not over 
 the body. The saints have always exercised wonderful 
 power ; but we are not all saints. In fact, very few of us 
 are so holy as to be able to perform miracles. 
 
 According to the words of St. James, the ministers of the 
 sacrament are ''the priests of the Church." The word 
 given in the old versions of the Bible is the presbyters, 
 which, in the King James Bible, is translated as the elders, 
 and which Luther and Calvin claim means any venerable 
 person, even of the laity. But the universal tradition of 
 the Church, the ancient writers, the councils, all monu- 
 ments of antiquity tell us that the minister of this sacra- 
 ment is only a priest or bishop rightly ordained or conse- 
 crated. St. James does not say, '^any presbyters," but only 
 
302 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 the presbyters of the Church, which means, certainly, the 
 clergy of the Church. Such has been the belief of the 
 fathers, as can be seen in numerous parts of their writings. 
 St. Chrysostom says : '' It belongs to priests to anoint peo- 
 ple as well as to baptize them." St. Augustin preached 
 that "the sick shall run to the Church, that they may, by 
 anointment, receive the cure of the body and the forgive- 
 ness of sins." In the same way we could give the testimony 
 of many others of the ancient writers. 
 
 Any priest, therefore, can anoint a person in danger of 
 death, and the sacrament will be valid. Nevertheless, 
 according to the laws of the Church, only those priests 
 who have the faculties of the diocese should anoint, be- 
 cause they ought to administer the sacraments to their 
 subjects, which are given them when they receive jurisdic- 
 tion. Therefore it belongs to the pastor, or to his assist- 
 ants, to anoint his people. Some writers say that it would 
 be a mortal sin for a priest of a religious order, without the 
 consent of the pastor or bishop, or without any necessity, 
 to anoint a person not his own subject, except in case of 
 necessity. Pope Clement I. made it a case of excommuni- 
 cation. This was only in order to better guard the rights 
 of the bishops and pastors over their flocks. 
 
 St. James says: ''Let him bring in the priests of the 
 Church." Priests here are in the plural number. How 
 many priests are required ? Among the Greeks seven 
 priests, typifying the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, repre- 
 senting the seven times marching around the city of Jericho, 
 recalling the seven prayers of Elias and of Eleseus, these 
 seven all together anoint the sick. In the Western or Latin 
 Church a number of priests were once accustomed to 
 anoint the sick, as the Gregorian Sacramentary says : ''For 
 many priests shall anoint the sick in their five senses." 
 The Life of Charlemagne says: "He was anointed with 
 holy oil by many bishops." Numerous monuments of an- 
 tiquity tell us that sometimes a number of clergymen, all 
 together, administered this sacrament. One anointed and the 
 other pronounced the words, as in the Gregorian Sacramen- 
 tary ; or each anointed and said the words, or one anointed 
 one part, and the others the other parts, each saying the 
 words proper to the part anointed. These were abuses which 
 were condemned. Luther and Calvin, writers of the refer- 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 303 
 
 mation epoch, claimed that unless many priests anointed 
 the sick, the sacrament would be invalid. 
 
 The Waldenses reclaimed against this custom of having 
 many clergymen all together anoint the sick. It had be- 
 come quite customary in the Middle Ages to make an offer- 
 ing to the clergy who came to anoint the dying, and many 
 poor people thought that they could not be anointed without 
 paying. Some councils enacted laws directing priests to 
 refuse offerings given them by the sick, and exhorting all 
 on their death-bed, to be anointed, because they sometimes 
 neglected it, as through ignorance the people did not call 
 the priest. 
 
 Although sometimes a number of priests anointed to- 
 gether, still only one was ever considered as enough for the 
 validity of the sacrament. That was declared by Pope Alex- 
 ander III., and besides was decreed by many councils. 
 Innocent I. declared that the bishop alone, without any 
 priest to aid him, could give this sacrament. Many exam- 
 ples of the first ages tell us that one clergyman alone used 
 to anoint the sick. According to the present discipline of 
 the Church, one priest only anoints the sick. 
 
 The sick only are to be anointed in the Western Church. 
 St. James only speaks of the sick. Such is the decision of 
 the Council of Trent, the teachings of the Popes, councils, 
 and all writers of the Latin Kite. Therefore the oil used is 
 called the "Oil for the Sick." Again, Pope Eugenius, in 
 his decree for the union of the Greeks, in the Council of 
 Florence, says: "This sacrament should be given only to 
 the sick, whose death we fear. " In many other ways we 
 could show that in the Latin Church this sacrament is ad- 
 ministered only to the sick who are in danger of death. 
 
 The Greeks anoint, not only the sick, but also the well, 
 who are only ill-disposed, or even 'v^hen they are well, so as 
 to wipe out the remains of their sins. This appears to be 
 the custom in Greece, Asia Minor, Russia, and wherever 
 the Greek Rite has spread. On Holy Thursday they are 
 anointed by the bishop, with the oil blessed by him, after 
 they receive Communion from his hands. This is to be 
 considered as a sacrament when they are sick. But regard- 
 ing those who are well, the Latins consider the anointing 
 as null and void, while the Greek writers say it is valid. 
 The Council of Trent says that the sick are the subjects of 
 
304 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 this sacrament, and such has always been the practice of 
 the Latin Church. Yet they never condemned the Greeks 
 for anointing those who are well. 
 
 The sick, afflicted with whatever disease, sickness, or 
 danger of death, may be anointed. The sick should be 
 anointed only when they are in danger of death. This has 
 always been the practice of the Latin Church, as shown by 
 councils, writings of the fathers, and the practice of all 
 ages. Hence only those who are prudently thought to be 
 in danger of death should be anointed. The first thing is 
 to ask the doctor if there is danger of death, and be guided 
 by his decision. The writer has been called often on the 
 most trivial cases, as for toothache pains, colds, etc. Such 
 visits are generally useless, and only take up the valuable 
 time of the priest. 
 
 This sacrament was instituted by Christ, in order to wipe 
 out the remains of sin. As there are no remains of sin 
 where there are no sins, those who never sinned are not ca- 
 pable of receiving this sacrament. Hence children, or those 
 who never had the use of their reason, because then they 
 never sinned, are not capable of this sacrament. Extreme 
 unction is to take away the remains of sin, which we com- 
 mitted ourselves, not original sin ; and therefore it is given 
 to those whose sins were forgiven by the sacrament of 
 penance. 
 
 Although this sacrament was instituted to be received in 
 the state of grace, although its effects are to heal the soul 
 from the remains of sin, and sometimes the bodily infirmi- 
 ties if it be good for the soul, still, if by any accident the 
 receiver, without his own fault, be in the state of sin, ex- 
 treme unction probably wipes out these sins. That is the 
 opinion of nearly all writers on this subject. It is not, 
 therefore, absolutely necessary for salvation, like baptism 
 and penance, for those not in mortal sin. It should be given 
 to the insane, if they have moments of reason. It should 
 also be given to them even if they have no moments of rea- 
 son, in case they have been insane from birth. When a 
 person is raving in a furious manner, he cannot receive 
 extreme unction, if it expose the sacrament to willful irrev- 
 erence. In case the person has lost his senses, the priest 
 can absolve him conditionally, and anoint him, as we sup- 
 pose he would do all he could for his salvation, if he was 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 305 
 
 conscious of his state. Still, if he refused when in his right 
 senses, he cannot receive extreme unction. The sacraments 
 produce their effects, if there be no obstacle on the part of 
 the receiver. As we have seen, children without the use 
 of their reason, are validly baptized, so people can also 
 receive the other sacraments, except marriage, which re- 
 quires the deliberate and willful consent of the parties, be- 
 fore the obligation of matrimony can be imposed on them. 
 
 The one, then, who can receive this sacrament is only a 
 baptized sinner, sick and in danger of death. It is not nec- 
 essary that we are sure of death, but that we fear death. 
 When once anointed, the person is prepared for death, and 
 cannot be anointed while he remains in the same sickness, 
 without any change. But if the sick person is a long time 
 laboring under the same infirmity, or has notably changed 
 for the better, and fallen again into the same sickness, or 
 fallen into another sickness, that person can be anointed 
 again. Thus the person can be anointed whenever he has 
 fallen into a new danger of death, from any sickness. 
 
 Before receiving this sacrament the sick should excite 
 themselves to make acts of faith, hope, charity, and, above 
 all, of sorrow for their sins. The relatives should see that 
 the sick is prepared, with the hands and feet washed, and 
 the room put in good order. It is rarely we find the sick 
 decently prepared for this sacrament. The feet are often 
 in such a bad condition that we can scarcely find a place 
 on which to put the holy oil. The ears and feet of the sick 
 should be uncovered when the priest comes to the ceremony 
 of the anointments, so as not to keep him waiting. You 
 should have ready holy water, with a little sprinkler made 
 of feathers, flowers, or anything with which the priest will 
 sprinkle the sick. Prepare, if he is going to receive Holy 
 Communion, two napkins, one to place under the chin of 
 the sick, the other to lay as a white cloth on the stand, be- 
 side the bed ; a glass of water or wine, with a spoon with 
 which to wet the lips of the sick after receiving Com- 
 munion. You will also have some cotton batting with 
 which to wipe off the holy oil from the places anointed. 
 Get also a piece of bread with which the priest will wipe 
 the holy oil from his thumb and fingers. After he has gone 
 you will burn the cotton and crumbs with which the holy 
 oil has been wiped. 
 
306 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 There should be some one, a male preferred, who can say 
 the prayer ''Confiteor," at the time the sacraments are ad- 
 ministered, and answer the responses. All the family 
 should come and kneel down beside the sick-bed, and pray 
 for the spiritual welfare of the sufferer. The bad habit 
 which some people have of goin^ about their daily work 
 when the priest comes to anoint the sick, is to be con- 
 demned. He often brings our Lord, and no one comes to 
 properly receive him. You should continue kneeling till 
 the priest gives the sign to rise, as when he makes many 
 calls that morning, he may have many hosts, and give the 
 Benediction of our Lord to all present just before leaving. 
 
 Some persons have a horror of being anointed, thinking 
 that then they must surely die. This is a mistake, because 
 often this sacrament cures not only the soul, but also the 
 bodily disease of the sick, and they should be glad to be 
 anointed. Besides, some with bad faith, or rather half pa- 
 gan Catholics, are afraid to have their friends tell them 
 that they are going to die, and their friends keep their true 
 condition secret from them. The Church prays to "deliver 
 us from an unprovided death." Such deaths are often sud- 
 den and unprovided ; for the sick make little preparation 
 for eternity. We die as we go to sleep, first losing our rea- 
 son, later our senses, when only the vegetative faculties are 
 working in us, and we pass away without knowing it. We 
 should be prepared while we have strength, and not put it 
 off till the last • moment, when it is sometimes too late to 
 prepare for death. 
 
 Besides, people should have their worldly affairs arranged, 
 their wills made, so their last moments of reason may be 
 given up to the more important matters of their salvation ; 
 otherwise they may be disturbed during their last few pre- 
 cious moments. Occasionally the lawyers get the lion's 
 share of their property after they are gone. We would ex- 
 hort people of means to leave something for charitable or 
 religious purposes, if they are blessed with a large amount 
 of this world's goods, so they will not be forgotten after 
 they are gone. 
 
 We give an engraving of the edifying death of a Chris- 
 tian Brother, which took place lately in France. The dy- 
 ing Christian is surrounded by his friends, some kneel- 
 ing, others standing, all praying most earnestly for the 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 307 
 
 happy departure of that good soul on its journey towards 
 heaven. 
 
 This sacrament is given either in the house, and in the 
 room of the receiver, or in the church. Among the Greeks 
 
 they are always anointed in the church, or in a chapel, as 
 can be seen in the lives of their saints, and in their writers. 
 Yet when they are very sick, they are anointed in their 
 houses, or in bed. In former times, in the Latin Church, 
 the sick person was placed on a bed on the floor, so all 
 
308 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 could surround the bed of the dying, and pray for the de- 
 parting soul, that he might be loosed from his sins. It was 
 the custom, formerly, in England, to bring the sick to the 
 church. Then the clergy formed into a procession, and 
 marched to the church, where they anointed the sick. The 
 priest, who was to administer the sacrament, was vested in 
 a white humeral veil and stole, the deacon carrying the book 
 of the Gospels and the holy oils, whilst the other clergymen 
 brought the holy water, the censer, and a candle. When 
 they came to the sick, the officiating clergyman sprinkled 
 the room, the sick, and those present with holy water, say- 
 ing the prayers : " Sprinkle me, O Lord, with hyssop, and 
 I will be cleansed," etc. (Ps. L). Then the words : "Peace 
 be to this house," with the answer : ^' And all living in it." 
 Then, according to the Anglican Pontifical, the clergyman 
 asked the sick: ^^What did you call us for, brother?" 
 ''To anoint me, if you think me worthy," replied the sick. 
 The questions differed a little in the different Rituals of old 
 England, so many years ago when they were such good 
 Catholics. The sick then answered certain questions, and 
 promised if he got well to keep the faith. 
 
 In some places the sick recited the Lord's Prayer, the 
 Apostle's Creed, and made the sign of the cross. In other 
 Churches, besides, they recited the Litany of the Saints, the 
 Penitential Psalms, and other prescribed prayers. In every 
 case the sick was obliged to go to confession before being 
 anointed. 
 
 Let us now go into a bit of history relating to this sacra- 
 ment. We read that the thirtieth day after she was taken 
 sick, the pious queen Clotilde, of France, was anointed by 
 the priests with oil, and that then she received the body 
 and blood of Christ under the form of the Yiaticum. In 
 ancient times the way they anointed people varied from 
 age to age. In some places they anointed the whole body ; 
 in others only certain places or parts of the body ; but all 
 Churches followed the custom of anointing the five senses. 
 But it does not appear that they were ever anointed on the 
 same places they were anointed when receiving the other 
 sacraments. As the remains of that a priest never receives 
 the holy oil of extreme unction on the palms of his hands, 
 but on the backs of his hands, for his palms were anointed 
 when he was ordained a priest. 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 309 
 
 Among the Greeks, and in those Churches which sepa- 
 rated from us more than a thousand years ago, they consider 
 the anointing of the sick as one of the seven sacraments. 
 Among them the ceremonies are carried out with the great- 
 est eclat and splendor, generally seven priests being pres- 
 ent and taking part in the rite. In that way the Eastern 
 Christians believe that they are carrying out the words of 
 St. James : ^' Is any man sick among you, let him bring in 
 the priests," etc. If seven cannot be present, Rve, or three, 
 or one will do to administer the sacrament. They do not 
 wait till the sick is in danger of death, but they carry the 
 ill to the church, when they light a seven-branched candle- 
 stick with its seven lamps of olive oil. They light one lamp 
 after the other, while they are anointing different parts of 
 the body of the sick, with the sign of the cross. The Copts 
 have almost precisely the same ceremony, except that they 
 read the Lesson of St. James' Epistle, and the Gospel, first 
 in the Coptic, and then in the Arabic language. Then 
 they light another lamp, and the priest second in rank re- 
 cites the Epistle, the Gospel, and the prayer in the same 
 way, till the seven Epistles, Gospels, and prayers are said 
 as prescribed in their Eitual. The sick, if he can, now 
 comes forward, turning towards the East. The priests put 
 the book of the Gospel on his head, and impose their hands 
 on him, while the chief of the priests says the Lord's 
 Prayer. They now open the book and read the first passage 
 they find. Then they recite the Creed, the three prayers 
 following, raise the cross over his head, and give him abso- 
 lution for all his sins. If nothing prevents, they now go in 
 procession with the seven-branched lamp, and the lighted 
 candles, around the church, praying for the healing of the 
 sick, through the intercession of the saints and martyrs. 
 If the sick is not able himself to go in that procession, any 
 other person can take his place. When they come back 
 they anoint him. 
 
 In the engraving at the head of this treatise, we give a 
 picture of St. Jerome receiving the Viaticum, and prepar- 
 ing to be anointed in the church according to the customs 
 of his age. The engraving is copied from a celebrated 
 painting by one of the masters. 
 
 Such are the rites and ceremonies of Extreme Unction as 
 practiced to-day by the Jacobites of Alexandria, the Ethio- 
 
310 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 pians, and the Jacobites of Syria. These rites came from 
 the Greek, which is the mother of all the Eastern rites, 
 which they all held in common when they were all united 
 together and with the Latin Church. The chief difficulty 
 between us and them relating to this sacrament is that, 
 while we use oil blessed by the bishop, they use oil blessed 
 by any priest. Yet Theodore, of Canterbury, England, 
 who was himself a Greek, tells us that the use of oil 
 blessed by a simple priest, was very ancient among them 
 in his time, and their custom is tolerated by the Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 In former times the sick were anointed before receiving 
 the Viaticum. We find that custom given in the writings 
 of Tresain, of Rheims, Theodore, of Canterbury, Venerable 
 Bede, of England, Hincmar, of Rheims, and in many mon- 
 uments of antiquity. That custom was preserved till the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, as we read that St. 
 Elizabeth, of Hesse, Henry L, of England, and many others, 
 were thus first anointed before receiving the Viaticum. 
 Still there were many exceptions, where they received first 
 and were anointed afterwards. Cesar, of Aries, Herard, 
 archbishop of Tours, and some other writers, give us exam- 
 ples of this discipline. In an ancient manuscript of St. 
 Prudence, bishop of Troyes, it is left to the judgment of 
 the priest which sacrament to give first. In a Ritual of 
 Tours, and in some others, it is directed to re-anoint the 
 patient again each day for seven days ; but these anoint- 
 ments were not considered as sacraments. At the present 
 time we give the Viaticum first, and anoint the patient 
 afterwards. 
 
 In England, France, and in many countries, they used to 
 come to the church to be anointed. In the third century 
 many falsely supposed that, if they recovered after being 
 anointed, they could not marry, eat meat, or walk bare- 
 footed. The bishop of England condemned those curious 
 ideas, which had spread into the British Isles. A Synod 
 held at Oxford speaks against these false notions, which 
 were turning away the people from receiving this sacra- 
 ment. The same absurd views traveled into Normandy, in 
 France, and were likewise there condemned by the Church 
 authorities. They died out towards the end of the fifteenth 
 century. Among the Copts, Syrians, Greeks, and other 
 
EXTREME UNCTION. 311 
 
 Christians of the East, this sacrament is never adminis- 
 tered until the people have first gone to confession. 
 
 In all ages the good and- devout Christians approached 
 their death with lively sentiments of sorrow, and of repent- 
 ance for sin. We read in the lives of the saints that their 
 deaths were most edifying. St. Martin, before his death, 
 used to sleep on sackcloth and ashes. That was prescribed 
 in the Pontifical of Egbert, archbishop of York, in one of 
 the manuscripts of St. Remus, the first bishop of Rheims, 
 France, and in the works of an author of the ancient 
 Church of Chambery. Some of the oldest Rituals give a 
 form for the blessing of the sackcloth and ashes. In some 
 places, after receiving the Viaticum, and before being 
 anointed, the sick person made the sign of the cross on his 
 breast with ashes that had been blessed. Then, after he had 
 received extreme unction he covered his head with a hood 
 made of sackcloth, after it had been sprinkled with holy 
 water. That ceremony changed a little in different places, 
 and appears to have been very old, especially among the 
 religious orders, as at Cluny, at Caen, at Canterbury, and 
 at Chartreuse. Many famous bishops, like the great Lan- 
 franc, of Canterbury, and others introduced the customs 
 into their dioceses. Henry III. of England, Louis the Big, 
 of France, and many princes and nobles thus prepared 
 themselves for their last end, so that their example of pen- 
 ance was followed by every age, sex, and condition of life ; 
 for, as Tertullian says: '^ Penance is life when death ap- 
 proaches." These customs were never practiced in the 
 Eastern Churches, and but seldom seen in Germany. They 
 ceased about the end of the fifteenth century. 
 
 When the soul has departed, the body is decently laid 
 out. Burning candles, as signs of faith ; the crucifix, a 
 sign of redemption ; and many other symbols of faith, are 
 placed beside the body. We here give a picture of the 
 corpse of a dead minister of France laid out. The abuses 
 sometimes seen at ^^ wakes" have often been condemned. 
 The people should spend the time praying for the soul of 
 the departed, rather than in dissipation. 
 
 We suppose now that all things mentioned before have 
 been prepared in the room of the sick, and the priest of 
 God comes to prepare the dying Christian for his home be- 
 yond the skies. He prays over the sick, reciting the beau- 
 
312 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 tiful words of the Ritual, humbly asking '^ that Jesus Christ 
 himself may enter in with him, with endless happiness, 
 divine prosperity, serene joy, fruitful charity, ceaseless 
 health ; that the coming of the demons may be driven out, 
 and that the angels of peace may be present, and that all 
 
 evil discord may cease in this house. Exalt, O Lord, upon 
 us thy holy name, and bless our conversation," etc. The 
 prayers of the Church are really magnificent, and we are 
 sorry we cannot give them all here. They are the tears 
 and the weepings of the Mother Church over the sick-bed 
 of her dying children. 
 
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RDEES is the foundation of the 
 Christian religion. For there 
 can be no religion without a 
 priesthood, a sacrifice, and sacra- 
 ments. By holy orders men are 
 spiritually raised above the peo- 
 ple — elevated into the ranks of 
 the clergy. By this sacrament 
 they become the mediators be- 
 tween God and man. By orders 
 they receive power to immolate the ever 
 living Victim of Calvary, to reconcile a sin- 
 ful world with God, and to open the ever- 
 lasting gates of heaven to fallen man. 
 
 The word clergy comes from the Greek, 
 and signifies the men whom our Lord has 
 chosen to take his place in this world — to 
 represent him, to rule the Church he found- 
 ed, and to save the souls he redeemed. 
 ''You have not chosen me, but I have chosen 
 you" (John xv. 16), said Christ to his Apos- 
 tles. They chose the Lord for their inheri- 
 tance, as first the Lord had chosen them. As 
 St. Jerome says : '' There are two kinds of Christians — one 
 kind is bound to the holy oflSce, to meditation, to prayer, to 
 be free from worldly things ; they are the clergy and those 
 devoted to God. * * * There is another class of Christians, 
 who form the laity. They can have temporal things, they 
 are allowed to marry wives, to till the lands," etc. 
 
 By Hesiod, and other Greek poets, as well as by SS. 
 Augustin and Isidore, the clergy are called brethren, be- 
 cause they all live together, sons of the same Lord, brothers 
 of Jesus Christ ; and because, in Holy Writ, the Apostles 
 
 315 
 
316 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 and disciples are called brethren. By St. Paul and some of 
 the early fathers they are called ministers, because they do 
 not administer the sacraments and rule the Church in their 
 own name, but as the ministers and representatives of 
 Christ : '' Let a man so account of us as of the ministers of 
 Christ, and the dispensers of the mysteries of God '' (I. Cor. 
 iv. 1). By the writers of the Middle Ages they are called 
 ecclesiastics, from the Greek, meaning of the Church, be- 
 cause they belong to the Church, they form the teaching 
 Church and rule the believing Church, which is formed of 
 all true believers. Because of the altar, and of the sacri- 
 fice they offer there, they are called priests — that is, one 
 ^who offers sacrifice, although this only belongs to those in 
 the higher ranks of the clergy, as bishops and priests. Be- 
 cause of the confession of the penitents they are called 
 fathers. The word laity comes from the Greek, and means 
 the people. 
 
 Orders, among the ancient Romans, meant a superior 
 class of people, as the senatorial or the equestrian orders, 
 and it was in the beginning of the Christian religion taken 
 to signify the sacrament, or the rite of ordination, by 
 which the chosen ones are raised to the ranks of the clergy. 
 
 Wycliffe, Luther, and many of the reformers, taught that 
 there is no difference between the clergy and the people. 
 From that, as from a poisoned fountain, springs many of 
 the errors of our times. Some Protestant chui:ches, espe- 
 cially the Baptists and Congregationalists, teach that the 
 minister is only superior when he has the truth. But who 
 is to judge whether he has the truth or not ? Others claim 
 that all power possessed by the clergy is derived from the 
 people, and hence he can be removed at once. This gives 
 rise to divisions and disturbances among them. Their 
 ministers are not sent as Christ was sent by his Father, as 
 the Apostles were sent by Christ, as the clergy of the Cath- 
 olic Church are sent by their bishops and superiors ; but 
 they receive ^'sl call" from the congregations to whom they 
 preach. 
 
 All this is wrong. God chose the tribe of Levi, and 
 formed of them the clergy of the Old Testament. He called 
 Aaron and his family to be the high priests of his taberna- 
 cle. The sons of the tribe of Levi were the lower clergy, 
 and the sons of Aaron were the bishops of the Old Law. 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 317 
 
 They prefigured the priests and bishops of the Catholic 
 Church. They were separated from the people. They re- 
 ceived no inheritance in the promised land. The Lord God 
 was their inheritance. They received direct from God the 
 authority of ruling the people of Israel in spiritual things. 
 Hence, as Tertullian says: '^The difference between the 
 clergy and the people, in the Church, is authority * * * * 
 we become priests of God." Whence St. Peter calls us " s. 
 royal priesthood, a holy people." 
 
 There have always been different ranks of clergymen in 
 the Church. The fourth Council of Carthage says that 
 in that age there were nine ranks of clergymen — bishops, 
 priests, deacons, subdeacons, acolytes, exorcists, readers, 
 porters, and choristers. A Council of Rome, held under 
 Pope Sylvester, about the year 315, gives the same number. 
 The Maronites have also nine orders, leaving out porters, 
 acolytes, and exorcists, and counting with the others named, 
 archdeacons, archpriests, and chorebishops ; their orders 
 agreeing with ours. To-day, in the Latin Rite, there are 
 eight orders, as given by the ancient Council of Carthage, 
 choristers being left out. The episcopacy is considered the 
 fullness of the priesthood. Bishops were always and in 
 every Church considered, by divine right, as superior to 
 priests. The Greeks have only five orders — bishops, priests," 
 deacons, subdeacons, and readers — the porter, exorcist, 
 and acolyte being omitted. We may conclude that these 
 lower ranks of the clergy were instituted by the Apostles, 
 and their successors, to be ordained or not as the needs of 
 the Church demanded ; and that they are all contained, 
 virtually or in a higher manner, in deaconship. For that 
 reason Churches differ regarding these inferior orders in 
 different countries, and in diverse epochs. Besides, the cere- 
 monies carried out in these different ordinations, are typi- 
 cal of the various duties which are annexed to each order. 
 But they are not so many sacraments. Formerly all 
 these were called holy or sacred orders, although now, in 
 the Western Church, only the higher, from subdeaconship 
 up, are called sacred orders. Writers generally state that 
 subdeaconship was instituted towards the beginning of the 
 second century, that it remained among the minor orders 
 till from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, when, in the 
 Latin Rite, it was elevated to the rank of a sacred order. 
 
318 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 In former times many laymen exercised Church duties of 
 little importance, without having received any orders. 
 Such are the porters, singers, and exorcists among the 
 Greeks, and the sextons, trustees, and vestrymen of our 
 times. St. Basil mentions these officers. 
 
 The first five sacraments relate to the sanctification and 
 to the salvation of individual souls. The two last sacra- 
 ments, holy orders and matrimony, relate rather to the 
 public than the private good of the members of Christ's 
 Church. Holy orders was instituted for the spiritual gen- 
 eration of priests and pastors ; while marriage, at first a 
 simple contract, but afterwards elevated to the dignity of a 
 sacrament, was instituted for the carnal generation of the 
 human race. As the spiritual is above the material, so the 
 sacrament of orders is above matrimony ; and for that rea- 
 son we will treat of it first. In the Church of Christ holy 
 orders holds the chief place regarding the effects of the 
 sacraments, because it is the column and the fulcrum of 
 the whole Church. From this sacrament arises a wonder- 
 ful hierarchy of men, one above another, one subject to 
 another, by which the whole Church is ruled, sustained, 
 taught, and held together. As the Eucharist is the highest 
 and most Holy Sacrament, for it is Christ himself, thus or- 
 ders is the greatest in its effects ; for it raises man up to 
 that ineffable dignity which makes him like unto Christ 
 himself. Eather it raises him up until he becomes, if we 
 may so speak, another Christ, who speaks, teaches, preaches, 
 administers the sacraments in the name and by the power 
 of Christ himself, and opens the gates of heaven to fallen 
 man. Well, then, can we exclaim with the prophet : ^^ But 
 to me thy friends, God, are made exceedingly honora- 
 ble, their principality is exceedingly strengthened" (Ps. 
 cxxxviii.). 
 
 By these orders man receives power and becomes the am- 
 bassador of Jesus Christ. He administers the sacraments, 
 and saves souls, wearing the person of Christ. As when 
 Elias, the prophet of God, ascended on the fiery chariot of 
 the Lord of Hosts, his mantle fell, and his power rested on 
 the shoulders of his disciple, Eliseus, by which the latter 
 worked miracles, and showed forth the mighty power of 
 God which dwelt within him, thus Christ, before he as- 
 cended into heaven, after his victory over hell, before he 
 left this earth to take his place at the right hand of his 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 319 
 
 Father, left this power to his Apostles and his disciples. 
 On them he conferred the sacrament of holy orders at the 
 last supper. Christ was a man, a single man, and there- 
 fore it would have been impossible for him to teach all na- 
 tions by himself alone. Therefore he chose other men, 
 whom he sent unto the uttermost ends of the earth, ''to 
 teach and baptize all nations '' in his name, to take his 
 place, and save the nations he redeemed. 
 
 Order, generally, is the apt arrangement of things among 
 themselves, for the accomplishing of a certain end. 
 Hence order is called by St. Augustine '' an arrangement 
 or a disposition of things collectively, or of any one among 
 the others, by which each is in its own place." It is said 
 by the Council of Trent to be the disposition of superior 
 and of inferior things by which they are so arranged that 
 one refers to another. 
 
 Orders, strictly considered, is the arrangement of persons 
 of the same dignity, one to another, in any community, or 
 republic, or nation. It may be defined as a certain grade 
 or position, in which there are many of the same dignity. 
 This does not differ much from the orders, or the different 
 ranks we see in society. Orders, strictly considered in re- 
 lation to Church matters, means either the ecclesiastical 
 hierarchy, the sacred rite by which they are elevated to it, 
 or it signifies the sacrament, by which men are raised to 
 the ranks of the clergy. Orders, considered as an ecclesi- 
 astical hierarchy, which is called the clergy or clerical or- 
 der, is a certain state of man, in which there are diverse 
 grades, one above another, divinely instituted for fulfilling 
 their holy duties, and dispensing the sacraments to the peo- 
 ple. Orders, considered as a holy rite, is a sacrament of 
 the Xew Law, instituted by Christ, by which spiritual 
 power is given. It is a sacrament of the ]^ew Law, by 
 which spiritual power and grace are given to the cler- 
 gy, so that they may decently and rightfully fulfill all 
 the duties of their state. Among the Greeks the rite 
 of holy orders is called by a word which means election, 
 because, among them, the clergy are elected to this dig- 
 nity. Besides, they call it by a word which means the 
 imposition of hands. For, by the imposition of hands, 
 among all Christian Churches, the clergy are ordained. 
 Orders, considered as a sacred rite, contains all the grades 
 of the particular orders, or the different ranks of the clergy, 
 
320 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 even those which do not in themselves constitute a sac- 
 rament. 
 
 Holy orders, or ordination, by which the ministers of the 
 Church are admitted into the ranks of the clergy, is really 
 a sacrament of the New Law, instituted by Christ. There 
 are diverse rites of ordination, by which special power is 
 given to the one ordained. Each order in the Church has 
 its own rite or ceremony, by which the receiver obtains 
 power from God, and is elevated to the rank belonging to 
 the order he received. The meaning is not how many 
 grades there are in orders, or how many special orders 
 there are which make a part of this sacrament, but how 
 many grades there are in the rite of ordination — whether 
 each of these rites is a sacrament or not. Even if it was 
 certain, which is only probable, that there are certain ordi- 
 nation rites which are not sacraments, these, nevertheless, 
 should be considered as grades of sacramental orders, be- 
 cause they are so many introductions to the sacrament of 
 orders, and lead up to the higher orders. There is in the 
 Church a sacrament of orders, and there are various grades 
 of ordination, some of which are sacraments. We will 
 show all this in the following pages. 
 
 St. Paul, writing to his disciple, Timothy, says : '' ^N'eglect 
 not the grace that is in thee, which was given thee by proph- 
 ecy, with the imposition of the hands of the priesthood*' 
 (I. Timothy iv. 14). Again he says to Timothy: '"For 
 which cause I admonish thee, that thou stir up the grace of 
 God which is in thee, by the imposition of my hands ** (II. 
 Tim. i. 6). In these words three things are found v;^hich 
 make a sacrament. There is a holy rite, the imposition of 
 hands ; there is a promise of grace, for he tells him to " stir 
 up the grace ; " and there is an institution of Christ, for he 
 says : ^' It is given thee by prophecy." 
 
 Our Lord himself chose seventy-two disciples and twelve 
 Apostles. At the last supper he said to them : " Do this for 
 a commemoration of me" (Luke xxii. 19). This is proved 
 by the constant and continual traditions of the Church, 
 treasured up in the most remarkable manner in the writings 
 of the great fathers. St. Leo, the Martyr, in his twelfth 
 Epistle to the bishop of Mauritania, speaks of certain ordi- 
 nations which took place during a noisy tumult. ^^Who 
 would suppose," he says, ^'that they would offer such an 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 321 
 
 injury to so good a sacrament." St. Gregory, the Martyr, 
 in his fourth Book on the Book of Kings, says : ''He who 
 is promoted to orders is rightly consecrated within, and his 
 soul is fortified by virtue of this sacrament." St. Ambrose 
 says that ''by this sacrament the clergy receive from God 
 an invisible grace." St. Gregory of JSTazianzen says : "The 
 power of the words of Jesus Christ makes the priest august 
 and venerable, and separates him from the common people 
 by a particular blessing. Really yesterday, and later he was 
 confounded with the common people, but he becomes sud- 
 denly the teacher, the priest, the master of piety, and the dis- 
 penser of the hidden mysteries. This takes place without 
 any extraordinary change, in which by it he is and always 
 will be, as he was before, having in his invisible soul changed 
 for the better, by a certain power, and by it invisible." 
 
 Some of the fathers compare orders ^th baptism, saying 
 "that both are sacraments. If the baptizer cannot injure in 
 his faith the one whom he baptizes, in the same way the 
 one ordaining cannot injure the priest. St. Augustine says : 
 "As he who receives baptism cannot lose it, I do not see 
 how he has lost the right of giving it ; " that is, orders. " For 
 one and the other is a sacrament, and one and the other is 
 conferred upon man by a kind of consecration. The first is 
 given to him 'who is baptized, the second to him who is 
 ordained." We could cite numerous examples from the 
 early fathers proving that holy orders is a sacrament. 
 
 The second Council of Mce ; the one held at Chalcedon ; 
 the Provincial Synods held at Constantinople ; the first held 
 at Braganca, in Portugal ; the eighth Council of Toledo — all 
 these ancient monuments declare that ordination gives 
 grace, and for that reason it has ever been considered a sac- 
 rament in the Church. The Council of Chalcedon says : 
 "If a bishop ordains for money he has sold grace, which he 
 should not sell, and let him be degraded from his office." 
 All Churches, even those which fell away from the Chris- 
 tian faith in different ages, from their very origin, testify 
 with a loud voice to the divine origin of orders. The 
 Greeks and Orientals have always held this doctrine. They 
 teach that there are seven sacraments, and that holy orders 
 should be considered as one of them. Bossuet, in his His- 
 tory of the Protestant Variations, says that even the Wyc- 
 liffes and Hussites did not depart, on this point, from the 
 
322 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 Catholic doctrine. Not even Luther would deny this uni- 
 versal Christian doctrine. It remained for his followers to 
 attempt to break up the order of things established by 
 Christ and the Apostles. 
 
 The Council of Trent says that by a wonderful disposition 
 there are diverse ministries attached to the office of the 
 priesthood, arranged in such a way that those who receive 
 tonsure pass to minor orders, and from that to sacred or- 
 ders. Holy Scripture not only mentions priests, but also 
 deacons. At the very cradle of the Church the different 
 ranks of the clergy were designed, properly named, and 
 their duties pointed out. The Council of Trent gives the 
 Catholic doctrine, without touching the Greek Church, or 
 the opinions of the different schools ; for it defines only 
 matters of faith. The Council says that there are in the 
 Catholic Church minor and major orders, without saying 
 whether or not they are each and separately divine ordi- 
 nances, or without saying whether all or only one is a 
 sacrament, or whether all, without distinction, impress a 
 character on the soul, one after another, or all together. 
 
 All Catholic writers agree that the episcopacy, the priest- 
 hood, and the deaconate were instituted by Christ, and that 
 the priesthood is a sacrament. The Greeks do not agree 
 with the Latins in recognizing eight orders of clergymen — 
 the bishop, the priest, the deacon, the subdeacon, the aco- 
 lyte, the exorcist, the reader, and the porter. They claim 
 that there are only five — the bishop, the priest, the deacon, 
 the subdeacon, and the reader. Besides that, the Latins 
 consider subdeaconship as a sacred order, while the Greeks 
 consider it only a minor order, which, with the reader, they 
 conferred outside the rails of the sanctuary. 
 
 We make three assertions, which we will prove : First, 
 that Christ established a visible priesthood. Secondly, that 
 the members of the priesthood differ from the common peo- 
 ple. Thirdly, that the priesthood is propagated in the 
 Church by an exterior rite, which is a sacrament. The 
 first part of this doctrine was defined by the Council of 
 Trent, which condemned any one who would deny that 
 there was a visible and external priesthood of the ISTew Tes- 
 tament. The other parts of the proposition are like so 
 many corollaries and necessary consequences of the first. 
 
 The Council says that God has so closely united the priest 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 323 
 
 and the sacrifice of the mass, which is the chief act of di- 
 vine worship, so that in all religions they are one and the 
 same. The Holy Scriptures and the traditions of the 
 Church have always taught that our Saviour thus estab- 
 lished holy orders, and that he gave to his Apostles, and 
 their successors in the priesthood, the power of offering in 
 the mass his sacred body and blood, as well as forgiving 
 and retaining sins. Christ instituted a real priesthood, a 
 visible and exterior priesthood, for he instituted a real sac- 
 rifice at the last supper. Our Lord instituted the Eucharist as 
 a real sacrifice, as was shoAvn before, in the part on the Eu- 
 charist, Therefore he has instituted a priesthood. The 
 priesthood and the sacrifice are so closely united that one 
 cannot be separated from the other. That is what St. Paul 
 means when he says to the Hebrews: ^'For every high 
 priest, taken from among men, is ordained for men in the 
 things that appertain to God, that he may offer up gifts and 
 sacrifices for sins" (Heb. v. 1). We find in every religion 
 that there are priests and sacrifices. When the patriarchs 
 were guided by the law of reason, they were the priests who 
 offered sacrifices as the heads and fathers of their families. 
 In the law of Moses God himself chose the priests from the 
 family of Aaron. They offered to him the sacrifices of the 
 temple. Christ himself instituted the Eucharist as the real 
 sacrifice of the New Law, to fulfill the typical sacrifices of 
 the Old Testament ; and, therefore, he chose a priesthood 
 to offer the sacrifice of the mass. 
 
 The councils of the Church, in all ages, in numerous de- 
 crees and canons, have spoken by the voice of the Holy 
 Ghost, that Christ instituted a visible, exterior priesthood, 
 different from the people, belonging only to the Apostles, 
 to the disciples, and to their successors. At the last supper, 
 by the words : "Do this in commemoration of me" (Luke 
 xxii. 19), Christ ordained his followers. The words were 
 addressed only to the Apostles. Therefore he ordained 
 only his Apostles, who thus formed a new class of men, 
 different from others. This is the belief of every ancient 
 Christian Church, and is proved by the voice of every tra- 
 dition, going back to the days of Christ. It is found in the 
 writings of the fathers, and in the decrees of the councils. 
 All say that the priesthood belonged only to the Apostles 
 and disciples, and lives in their successors. 
 
324 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 The clergy of the early ages were always raised to this 
 high and wonderful dignity by a special rite, called ordi- 
 nation, so that even in times of persecution, when there 
 were no priests, they would not allow the laity to exercise 
 the duties of the priesthood. St. Gregory of ISTazianzen 
 says : *'The power of the word of Christ makes the priest- 
 hood august and venerable, separated from the common 
 people by the newness of his blessing." St. Chrysostom 
 wrote a beautiful work on the priesthood, in which he ex- 
 plains so clearly this doctrine. In the third book he says : 
 '* There is an earthly priesthood, but it fulfills the duties of 
 the heavenly order, for it was not a man, nor an angel, nor 
 an archangel, nor any grade of power, but the Holy Ghost 
 himself, who established that office and wished that those 
 who were in this would fulfill with love the ministry of an- 
 gels." Whence he concludes that the priests, in dignity, 
 are higher than princes or kings, and even than the angels 
 themselves. 
 
 The Old Testament was but a preparation for the New 
 Testament. It was a type and a figure of the New. As in 
 the Old Testament there were the grand sacrifices and the 
 offerings of the law of Moses, and the priesthood of the 
 house of Aaron ; so, as the New Testament is a fulfillment 
 of the Old, there must be a priesthood and sacrifice in the 
 New ; otherwise the New will not contain all that is in the 
 Old Testament, and would be, therefore, more imperfect. 
 This priesthood should be propagated by exterior rites and 
 ceremonies, which are a sacrament ; for sacrifice and priest- 
 hood relate to each other, and represent the death of Christ. 
 St. Paul says : '' For as often as you shall eat this bread and 
 drink the chalice, you shall show the death of the Lord till 
 he come" (I. Cor. xi. 26). Therefore the priesthood is to 
 remain till Christ comes, at the end of the world. Besides, 
 the Saviour having given his priests the power of forgiv- 
 ing or retaining sins, that power should remain as long as 
 there are sins to forgive or retain in the world — ^that is : 
 ''Even to the consummation of the world" (Math, xxviii. 
 20). Therefore till the end of the world there will be priests 
 to exercise that power. 
 
 The history of the Apostles, after the ascension, shows 
 that they propagated the priesthood by means of rites and 
 ceremonies. We read in the Acts that: "As they were 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 325 
 
 ministering to the Lord, and fasting, the Holy Ghost said 
 to them : Separate me Saul and Barnabas for the work 
 whereunto I have taken them. Then they, fasting and 
 praying and imposing their hands upon them, sent them 
 away" (Acts xiii. 23). This imposition of hands is certainly 
 the essential rite and ceremony of ordination. Again, we 
 read in the next chapter that Paul and Barnabas, when 
 they lived at Iconium and Lystra, ordained to them priests 
 in every church, and signs and wonders followed the impo- 
 sition of their hands (Acts xiv. 22). At Lystra and Anti- 
 och they ordained them priests in every church. St. Paul 
 ordained Titus as bishop of .Ci:ete. He consecrated Timothy 
 as bishop of the Ephesians. He commanded Titus to estab- 
 lish priests in every village. He directed Timothy not to 
 ordain priests when too young. Thus the Apostles, when 
 they received the priesthood from our Lord himself, trans- 
 mitted it to the other bishops, and they to the others, till, 
 by a continual series of uninterrupted successions, it comes 
 down to us. 
 
 All ecclesiastical monuments of the Greeks, the Eastern 
 Christians and the Latin Church prove, if this Apostolic 
 succession is broken, no man can be spiritually born a priest, 
 for as we descend by natural generation from Adam, if a 
 link were broken we would not be born, so we descend by 
 spiritual generation from Christ — if a link was broken we 
 would have no priests. 
 
 We conclude from this that the exterior rite or ceremony, 
 which we call holy orders, and by which the priesthood is 
 propagated, is one of the seven sacraments, as defined by 
 the Council of Trent. " If any one shall say that ordination 
 is not given by the Holy Ghost, and therefore that the 
 bishops uselessly say ' receive the Holy Ghost ; ' or that it 
 does not impress a character, or that he who is once a 
 priest can become a layman, let him be accursed." That is, 
 the priesthood which Christ instituted first among the 
 Apostles, and which he wished to perpetuate in the Church, 
 is to be given to others by means of a certain rite of ordi- 
 nation, called the imposition of the hands of the Apostles. 
 That power is not for justifying sinners, but also for pro- 
 ducing sanctity — that is, for the pouring of grace into the 
 heart of the receiver. Therefore it is a sacrament of the 
 !New Law. Hence we conclude that the priesthood is a 
 
:J2G HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 holy ceremony — a sacrament — instituted by God. which 
 gives to the clergy the power of consecrating the body and 
 blood of Jesus Christ, and of forgiving and retaining 
 sins. 
 
 The Pontifical says: **It belongs to the priest to offer 
 sacrifice, to bless, to preside, to preach, and to baptize." 
 Those duties are so great and so high that the holy fathers 
 of the Church call a priest 'Hhe ambassador of God and 
 angels, the advocate between men and God upon the earth, 
 standing between the fallen race and the Creator." Whence 
 St. Chrysostom says : '' He who fulfills the august duties of 
 the priesthood, should lead a life as pure as though he lived 
 among the angels in heaven. For when you see the Saviour 
 immolated, extended upon the altar of sacrifice, and the 
 priest praying and offering that divine victim * * * can you 
 believe that you are still upon earth, in the midst of men ? 
 Do you not rather believe that you are transported to the 
 skies, and that you are free from all earthly thoughts ? " 
 For that reason the doctrine of the Catholic Church is as 
 given in the Council of Trent : '^ No one should be admitted 
 to sacerdotal ordination who has not been found worthy, 
 after a serious examination, to instruct the people and ad- 
 minister the sacraments. They should be remarkable for 
 their piety, and the purity of their morals, that they may 
 become models of Christian life, and examples of all good 
 works." 
 
 Besides the priesthood, which is complete in the episco- 
 pacy, there are, in the Catholic Church, a number of orders, 
 which are like so many steps, or degrees, by which we rise 
 to the dignity of the priesthood. These inferior orders are 
 the deacon, the subdeacon, the acolyte, the exorcist, the 
 reader, and the porter. Holy Scripture alone mentions the 
 deaconship, the priesthood, and the episcopacy. Yet the 
 traditions of the most ancient Churches say that the other 
 orders were customary from the beginning of Christianity. 
 In the sixth chapter of the Acts we see that '' seven men of 
 good reputation, full of the Holy Ghost and wisdom, were 
 appointed deacons, and ordained by the imposition of the 
 hands of the Apostles" (Acts vi. 5,6). It is evident that 
 these were elected and ordained according to the rules and 
 rites laid down by Christ himself, because only a few of 
 the things which Christ told the Apostles are found in Holy 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 327 
 
 Writ. In the Epistle (I. Tim. iii.) of St. Paul to Timothy, 
 he requires of deacons the same virtue he asks of bishops 
 and priests. In another place (Philip i. 1.) he confounds 
 deacons with bishops and priests. Why should he exact 
 such strict virtue, and such a plenitude of the Holy Spirit 
 for deaconship, if it; was not one of the sacred orders ? This 
 shows that they were to exercise holy duties by virtue of 
 their promotion to the office of deacon. The Acts of the 
 Apostles speaks of ^'St. Stephen as being full of grace and 
 fortitude, and that he did great Tvonders and signs among 
 the people," preaching the Gospel, disputing with the eld- 
 ers, so that they could not resist the spirit of wisdom with 
 which he spoke. The same is also said of Philip the dea- 
 con (Acts vi.), by whom a great number were baptized. 
 
 The Apostolic fathers, such as SS. Polycarp and Ignatius 
 the Martyr, say that deacons are the ministers of Jesus 
 Christ. Pope Clement, in his first Epistle to the Corinthi- 
 ans, says that the Apostles instituted deacons by the or- 
 der of Christ himself. This is confirmed by St. Ignatius, 
 when writing to the inhabitants of Smyrna, to whom he 
 says: ''Obey your bishop as Jesus Christ obeyed his 
 Father, the priests his Apostles, and respectable deacons as 
 have been ordained by the command of God." For that 
 reason the councils often call deacons ''the hands, the eyes, 
 and the feet of the bishops," because their office was to 
 assist the priests or the bishops at the altar, and to carry 
 the Eucharist to those who could not assist at the Holy Sac- 
 rifice, as shown by the writings and the monuments of an- 
 cient times. Writers of the present day are almost unani- 
 mously convinced that deacons were established by com- 
 mand of Christ. William Beveridge says that deacons were 
 established by ordination of the Apostles, not only to wait 
 at the table, but also as ministers in every Church. The 
 archbishop of York says that they were elected and or- 
 dained to fulfill holy duties, because at the time of the 
 Apostles the altars were called "Tables of the Lord." 
 
 Numerous passages. from the writings of the fathers, and 
 numberless decrees of the ancient councils speak of the 
 lower orders of the clergy. Pope Cornelius, in a letter to 
 Fabium, says of the Novatians : "Those new-comers, do 
 they not know that it is necessary that there be one bishop 
 in the Catholic Church, in which he knows that there are 
 
328 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 forty-four priests, seven deacons, as many subdeacons, 
 forty-two acolytes, and fifty-two exorcists, readers, and 
 porters ? " Anastasius, an ancient writer, says that Pope 
 Caius issued a decree in the year 283, "not to admit to the 
 episcopacy any person who had not before been a porter, 
 reader, exorcist, subdeacon, deacon, or priest." 
 
 The early Christian fathers, such as Tertullian, Farmil- 
 lian, SS. Cyprian, Jerome, Augustin, and many others, 
 speak of major and minor orders. In different parts of 
 their works they mention them, one after another, treating 
 each separately. They mention these seven different or- 
 ders, and state that they came down to them from the time 
 of the Apostles. The Popes, the fathers of the Church, the 
 councils both ecumenical, general, and provincial, speak 
 of these orders as being known and admitted by the whole 
 Christian world. Some writers think that these different 
 orders were instituted by Jesus Christ himself. According 
 to the rule of St. Augustin : " What the whole Church 
 holds, and what was not ordained by councils, but which 
 has always been believed, comes from Apostolic traditions." 
 This is not entirely certain, but probable, for the Greeks 
 and the other Churches of the East do not admit all of the 
 lower orders. The clergy of the Eastern Rites hold as sa- 
 cred orders, deaconship, priesthood, and the episcopacy. 
 The eighth General Council, held in the year 869, against 
 Pasius, declares that no one can be consecrated a bishop 
 who has not passed through all the inferior orders, and 
 mentions these four. The Jacobites, the Egyptians, the 
 Nestorians, and the Asyrians admit only these four orders 
 mentioned above. 
 
 Holy orders may be considered as comprising the orders of 
 bishop, priest, deacon, subdeacon, acolyte, exorcist, reader, 
 and porter, taken all together ; or each of these may be 
 considered separately. The highest of these, or, as it were, 
 the climax of this sacrament, is the episcopacy. Many of 
 the ancient writers believe that the episcopacy is not an 
 order, properly called, nor a sacrament independent of the 
 priesthood, but that it is simply the extension or perfection 
 of the priesthood ; or that it is simply an exterior deputa- 
 tion to exercise the functions and duties of the ministry, 
 not belonging to the priesthood. The opinion generally 
 held to-day is, that the episcopacy is a sacrament and an 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 329 
 
 order distinct from the priesthood. The Holy Scripture ap- 
 pears to place that beyond a doubt ; because, to make an 
 order a sacrament, we only require an exterior rite, the 
 giving of grace and a divine institution. All these are 
 found in the ceremonies of consecration to the episcopacy ; 
 for the Apostles were ordained bishops by Christ, with 
 rites and ceremonies different from those by which he 
 called, and ordained, and sent forth the seventy-two 
 disciples. 
 
 Besides, in the consecration of bishops there is a distinct 
 matter, a distinct form, and the giving of special powers 
 and graces. Therefore it is a sacramental order, different 
 from that by which the priesthood is conferred. The Apos- 
 tolic Constitutions mention not only the consecration of 
 bishops, but give the special form and the prayers to be 
 used in their consecration. Whence we can define the 
 episcopacy as a supreme order or sacrament, which gives a 
 priest the grace and power of conferring the sacraments of 
 confirmation, of holy orders, and of governing the Church 
 confided to his care. That shows that the priesthood is the 
 beginning and the foundation of the sacerdotal character, 
 of which the episcopacy is the summit and the acme. The 
 consecration of the bishop finishes and completes the grace, 
 power, and perfection given in the ordination of the priest, 
 and the episcopacy is to the priesthood as the house is to 
 its foundations. 
 
 There were in ancient times chorebishops, or rural bish- 
 ops, in the East, from the beginning of the fourth century, 
 as shown by the Councils of I. Neocesara and of Ancyre. 
 The custom passed into the Western Church towards the 
 fifth century, as shown by the Council of Beize. These 
 were not consecrated bishops, but they exercised certain 
 episcopal functions. They were nevertheless at the same 
 time only priests. They helped bishops like our Vicars 
 General of the present day. 
 
 The priesthood, or presbyteryhood, if we may so speak, 
 is a holy order instituted by Christ, in which is given the 
 power of consecrating the body and blood of the Lord, and 
 of forgiving and retaining sins. The priest stands, as it 
 were, between the bishop above him and the deacon below 
 him. The episcopacy and the priesthood are one, except 
 that the bishop is the greater priest, and the presbyter the 
 
330 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 inferior priest, and the presbyteryhood is the beginning 
 and foundation of the priesthood. Deaconship is a sacra- 
 ment because it is an institution of Christ, given by exter- 
 nal rites, with the promise of grace. The fathers of the 
 early ages tell us that it is a divine institution, which the 
 Council of Trent calls a holy order and a sacrament. Dea- 
 conship gives strength and power to the priest in the exer- 
 cising of his sacred duties. The grace of this order enables 
 the priest to resist all temptations, and to willingly and 
 with pleasure fulfill his duties. 
 
 In defining these different rites as sacraments, we do not 
 increase the number of sacraments beyond the seven, for 
 all know that these different orders are not in themselves 
 complete sacraments, but only partial sacraments, or rather 
 parts of one and the same sacrament, which is holy orders. 
 The duty of the subdeacon is to take charge of the holy ves- 
 sels used at the altar, and to wait on the deacon. We are 
 not certain if subdeaconship is a sacrament, but it appears 
 probable that the order of subdeaconship, and the other in- 
 ferior orders, were not instituted by Christ, but were added 
 by the Church. Therefore it is probably not a sacrament, 
 because ancient writers say that minor orders, below sub- 
 deaconship, were instituted by the Church in the early 
 ages, according as the number of the faithful increased, 
 and as they were needed. At different times they were 
 suppressed, increased, abrogated, and restricted ; sometimes 
 one, sometimes another, and sometimes many of them 
 were entirely suppressed, according as the necessity of the 
 Church required. This shows that they were not instituted 
 by Christ. Many monuments of antiquity show that when 
 men were promoted to higher orders, they did not always 
 pass successively through these different lower degrees. 
 The readers were established before the porters, and the 
 acolytes before there were either porters, exorcists, or read- 
 ers ; while deacons were in the Church before subdeacons. 
 As the Church has not the power to change anything estab- 
 lished by Christ, she would not have done this if she had 
 believed these lower orders had been instituted by Christ. 
 
 The reasons why the Church instituted these different 
 orders, according to the testimony of the Popes and coun- 
 cils, was that the clergy might, by exercising these differ- 
 ent orders, become accustomed to holy things before being 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 331 
 
 promoted to the higher orders. The Greek Church has 
 only the lower orders of subdeaconship and reader. Below 
 the reader, the Syrians and Maronites have the chanter and 
 the psalmist. These are the degrees by which a young cler- 
 gyman passes to the office of reader among these Christians 
 of the East. But these varied from time to time both in the 
 Eastern and Western Churches. 
 
 Numerous ancient monuments say that at one time the 
 Latin Church had the order of chanter, or the chorister, 
 who was ordained by the priest or bishop, as we see by the 
 third Council of Carthage. At times there were different 
 orders in various Churches. As St. Jerome says in one of 
 his letters, the first degree of the clergy, in the early 
 Church, was a grave-digger, the same as a sexton among us. 
 In mentioning the several orders, he omits entirely the por- 
 ter and the exorcist. The order of sexton, which is very 
 common among the Syrians, and which they called work- 
 men or sextons in certain places, is mentioned by St. Igna- 
 tius, the ancient bishop of Antioch, and by some of the 
 very early churchmen. Still the Western Church, ever 
 since its commencement, admits only seven sacraments, 
 one of which is holy orders. Subdeaconship may be de- 
 fined as an order or a holy rite, which gives the receiver 
 power to assist the priest and deacon during the sacrifice of 
 the mass. In the Greek Church they are ordained subdea- 
 cons outside the sanctuary, for they do not consider it as a 
 sacred order ; while in the Latin Church the subdeacons 
 are ordained by the bishop, inside the sanctuary, and 
 among us it is considered as a sacred order. 
 
 The order of acolyte is an order which gives power to aid 
 the subdeacon and the deacon during the holy sacrifice. 
 The exorcist is one who, in his ordination, receives the 
 power to invoke the name of God upon those who are pos- 
 sessed by the devil. They cannot exercise their power at 
 the present time, without a special permission of the bishop. 
 This is to prevent abuses. The reader is the order which 
 gives to the receiver the power of reading the Holy Bible 
 publicly in the church, as well as the writings of the holy 
 fathers. In the Greek Church it is conferred by the impo- 
 sition of hands, and by the prayer which accompanies it, 
 as found in the Greek Rite. The order of porter gives a 
 clergyman authority to take charge of the church and the 
 
332 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 holy things contained therein, to keep order and silence in 
 the temple of the Lord during the celebration of the myste- 
 ries. The material part of that order, according to the 
 fourth Council of Carthage and the Roman Pontifical, is 
 the giving of the keys of the church. Further on in this 
 book we will give their origin, as well as the rites and cere- 
 monies with which these different orders are given, both in 
 the Latin and Eastern Rites. 
 
 As a preparation for these orders there is another cere- 
 mony called tonsure. It may be defined as a ceremony in- 
 stituted by the Church, by which a layman who has been 
 baptized and confirmed is admitted to the ranks of the 
 clergy. Some of the ancient writers supposed that tonsure 
 is a sacrament. Calvin, who considered it as a supersti- 
 tious rite, instituted by men in the Middle Ages, was wrong, 
 because it goes back to the highest antiquity, and gives a 
 special grace to the receiver. We read that St. Enigne, the 
 disciple of St. Polycarp, the disciple and successor of St. 
 John, the beloved disciple and bishop of Smyrna, was identi- 
 fied by his tonsure, and condemned to death. In the second 
 century we read that Lucian, the mocker of Christians, de- 
 scribed a clergyman coming down from the mountains, 
 having his hair cut. Nancilenius says that a certain Deo- 
 dorus was put to death by the pagans of Alexandria, in the 
 reign of Julian the Apostate, during the fourth century, 
 because he admitted children to the ranks of the clergy by 
 cutting their hair. Prudence, a distinguished poet of the 
 fourth century, describes how St. Cyprian v/as admitted 
 among the clergy by the ceremony of tonsure, saying : 
 *^They cut very short his beautiful flowing hair." The 
 fourth Council of Carthage, the second Council of Toledo, 
 and many other monuments of the highest antiquity, speak 
 of tonsure. They show that it existed from the very first 
 ages of the Church, and that it is not a superstitious cere- 
 mony. The hair of the head is made a delusion and a van- 
 ity among men and women. 
 
 Among vain and worldly people great care is taken of 
 the hair. As a sign that the clergy put away all worldly 
 pomps and vanities when they are admitted into the ranks 
 of the clergy, the bishop cuts a little of the hair of the 
 head in five places, in the form of a cross, saying, in the 
 words of David: ^^The Lord is the portion of my inherit- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 333 
 
 ance and of my cup : it is thou that wilt restore my inher- 
 itance to me" (Ps. XV. 5). The clergy therefore accept 
 the Lord for their inheritance in giving up the things 
 of this world. The way of cutting the hair varied in 
 different times. Sometimes they do not wear their hair 
 cut, as in this country. In Catholic countries they shave 
 the top of their head. Among the monks they shave 
 nearly the whole head. That will explain the reason why 
 monks are sometimes pictured with the top of their heads 
 shaved. 
 
 In the Western Church subdeaconship was considered 
 as one of the minor orders, till the twelfth century. After 
 that, by law and custom, it has been considered a sacred 
 order. When they receive it they make their vows. Be- 
 fore this they could return again to the secular pursuits of 
 the world. But when once the vows of subdeaconship are 
 taken, they are bound to perpetual chastity, to recite the 
 office of the breviary, and to serve in the sanctuary of the 
 Lord. In many of the Eastern Rites sometimes married 
 men are ordained, but they cannot marry after their ordi- 
 nation. 
 
 Let us now see how the clergy are elected to their high 
 station before they receive holy orders. We will begin by 
 the episcopacy, which has preserved its dignity better than 
 the priesthood, because a bishop is rarely consecrated, ex- 
 cept to a vacant diocese, and with some title. 
 
 The word bishop comes from the Saxon, and means an 
 overseer or superintendent. Such is also the meaning of 
 the word in the ancient Latin and Greek languages. They 
 are sometimes called pontiffs, from the ancient chief pagan 
 priest of the Romans. Thus the Pope is called the Supreme 
 Pontiff, or the Bishop of bishops. In ancient times the bish- 
 ops called themselves the servants of their Churches, and 
 the Pope, in remembrance of that, calls himself the Servant 
 of the Servants of God. The bishops are the successors of 
 the twelve Apostles, while the priests succeed the seventy- 
 two disciples. The Apostles established bishops in every 
 large city, and these ruled the clergy under them. It ap- 
 pears that the Apostles themselves chose those bishops they 
 consecrated. Thus they elected Mathias in place of Judas 
 (Acts i.). St. Paul appointed Timothy and Titus bishops of 
 the converts he had made (I. Tim. i. ; Tit. i. 5, 7). All tra- 
 
334 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 dition tells us that bishops were always consecrated by 
 bishops. But in order not to give the clergy and people a 
 pastor they would not receive, the clergy and people of the 
 early Church were called to take part in the election of their 
 bishop. In the Apostolic times the whole clergy and peo- 
 ple chose as bishop for a vacant church, a deacon, priest, 
 or even a layman of great virtue and learning — often one 
 who had suffered for the faith during the persecutions. He 
 was then consecrated by the laying on of the hands of the 
 episcopacy. 
 
 After the conversion of Constantino the Christians rap- 
 idly increased, and had a voice in the election of their bish- 
 ops. But the duty of electing bishops chiefly belonged to 
 the clergy, especially to the bishops with the archbishop, as 
 they were considered the best judges of the qualities of the 
 candidates. St. Cyprian minutely tells us the way the dif- 
 ferent ranks of the clergy concurred in the election of the 
 bishops — a way which he says is of divine and Apostolic 
 origin. He even says that this was the command of Christ. 
 The bishops of the province had a chief voice in their elec- 
 tion, and the consecration of bishops as well as the ordina- 
 tion of priests. The consecration of bishops took place 
 publicly, so that no bad man might be raised to such a dig- 
 nity in the Church. In this way not only priests and bish- 
 ops, but also the Popes were elected in the early Church. 
 This was also the custom in the East as well as in the West. 
 Thus Lawrence, bishop of Ephesus, at the Council of Chal- 
 cedon, proved the regularity of his election by saying : 
 '^ Forty bishops consecrated me, with the votes of the no- 
 bles, the princes, and of the venerable clergy of the whole 
 city." Pope St. Leo, at the request of the Council of Chal- 
 cedon, directed the bishops of the province of Vienna to 
 elect a bishop. The consent of the people and of the priests 
 was first asked, lest a bishop whom they would not receive 
 might be imposed on them, as Pope Celestin says. The 
 bishops could veto any candidate whom they judged un- 
 worthy. That was to prevent intriguing and unworthy 
 parties from obtaining the votes of the people. 
 
 In Africa, on the death of a bishop, one of the neighbor- 
 ing bishops went to the vacant cathedral and instructed 
 the priests and people regarding the manner of electing his 
 successor. It was also to prevent ambitious persons form- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 ing intrigues among the people. First this neighboring 
 bishop was called the intercessor, then the visitor. The 
 Councils of Carthage speak of this custom. When a year 
 elapsed from the death of the bishop, his successor was 
 consecrated. The Council of Chalcedon allowed only 
 three months before a successor was appointed and con- 
 secrated. 
 
 The duty of supervising the election often devolved on 
 the archbishop or the metropolitan. When the proper time 
 elapsed, and he was notified of the election, with all the 
 bishops of the province, he came to the vacant cathedral 
 and ordered a three days' fast, with prayer for the light and 
 guidance of the Holy Spirit. They then examined care- 
 fully the mode of election — if it took place according to the 
 traditions of the Apostles, the faith and morals of the can- 
 didate. When everything had been carried out according 
 to the customs and the canons of the Church, and the bish- 
 ops found no fault with the candidate i)roposed by clergy 
 and people, they consecrated the candidate proposed with 
 the usual ceremonies, and installed him on his episcopal 
 throne. But if the good of religion required, or the election 
 did not take place regularly, the bishops rejected the can- 
 didate and ordered a new election. Such was the custom 
 from the origin of the Church till the middle of the fifth 
 century. In this manner the great fathers, doctors, and 
 saints of the early Church were elected. Certainly no 
 greater churchmen ever sat on episcopal thrones than the 
 bishops elected in this way during the first ages of the 
 Christian religion. It was the age of the great fathers and 
 doctors. 
 
 The conversion of Constantino and the moving of the seat 
 of the Roman empire to Constantinople, opened up a new 
 epoch in the discipline of the Church. The emperors of the 
 latter city took no part at first in the election of bishops, ex- 
 cept the bishops and archbishops of Constantinople, the im- 
 perial city. After the time of Justinian they asked and ob- 
 tained the privilege that no Pope would be consecrated till 
 they had given their consent. Diverse customs now arose 
 and became established in different countries. At Lyons, the 
 chief Church of ancient France, when an episcopal throne 
 was vacant, they sometimes waited for and expected a par- 
 ticular revelation from God, before they chose a bishop for 
 
336 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 that world-renowned Church. When the barbarians came 
 down from the north of Europe, and overrun the Roman 
 empire — when they, after long labor, were converted to the 
 Gospel — they established the feudal system of government, 
 and their rulers were given a voice in the election of bish- 
 ops. This was a privilege given them by the Church, so 
 that they would not persecute the bishops, with the clergy 
 and people under them. The bishops were thus elected by 
 the people, the princes, the clergy, and the bishops of the 
 province, with the archbishop at their head. 
 
 Yet the regal or kingly authority appears to have pre- 
 dominated in some European countries. In other nations 
 the king sometimes wrote to all the bishops, naming a can- 
 didate who would be favorably received by him and by the 
 court. If the bishops knew no reason against him, he was 
 elected in the regular way and consecrated. The Emperor 
 Louis the Good renounced the privilege of naming bishojDs, 
 because he wanted the Church free from secular influence. 
 He left the election in the hands of the clergy and people 
 of the dioceses of his kingdom. Some kings claimed that 
 they alone had the right to sell a vacant episcopal throne 
 to the highest bidder, till curbed by the great Gregory VII. 
 in his celebrated contest with Henry IV. of Germany. 
 
 About this time the archbishops began to exert a larger 
 influence in the election of bishops. The archbishop used 
 to write to the king, suggesting that he would name a can- 
 didate. Besides, the archbishop sent a bishop to preside 
 over the caucus of clergy and laity, so that the ancient cus- 
 toms could be carried out. All the members of the Church, 
 the clergy, monks, nuns, and people, having given their 
 votes in the assembly presided over by the bishop, the chief 
 churchmen signed the documents, which were then sent to 
 the archbishop. The latter now assembled all the bishops, 
 personally or by proxy, without exception, who all together 
 most carefully examined the life and morals of the elect. 
 The king having been informed of the election, was granted 
 the privilege of confirming or of rejecting the candidate. 
 Many civil rulers supposing that this privilege granted 
 them by the Church was a personal right, sometimes abused 
 their power, and afflicted the Church. This custom of 
 electing bishops remained in full force till the eleventh cen- 
 tury, when the third epoch began. 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 337 
 
 The first emperors and kings of Germany, France, and 
 other Christian countries were careful to choose good bish- 
 ops for the Church, and religion flourished during the 
 reigns of the successors of Charlemagne. Henry lY. of 
 Germany then claimed the right of selling vacant episcopal 
 thrones, and of investing bishops with the ring and crosier, 
 the insignia of their spiritual authority. Many Popes tried 
 to remedy the evil. After a long struggle, Gregory VII. 
 not only stopped it, but broke up the custom, or rather the 
 abuse of civil governments controlling the Church in the 
 election of bishops. 
 
 This privilege of the people uniting with the clergy in the 
 election of bishops became an abuse by the tyranny of the 
 civil rulers, and caused numerous discords, revolutions, 
 and divisions between Church and State, from the reign of 
 Henry lY. of Germany, till the death of Frederick II. It 
 broke out in England between the great St. Thomas a 
 Becket of Canterbury and Henry I. of England. It caused 
 many severe trials in other parts of Europe. 
 
 Towards the twelfth century the people, fearing the ill- 
 will of the civil governments, scarcely dared take part in 
 the election of their bishops. The duty then fell on the 
 chapters of the cathedrals, who represented the clergy and 
 formed the senate of the diocese. At the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century the whole duty of electing bishops, 
 throughout Europe, belonged to the chapters, even to the 
 exclusion of the bishops of the province. They elected not 
 only the bishops, but also the archbishops. The kings of 
 this epoch appeared to give entire freedom to the chapters 
 in these elections, and the archbishop consecrated the elect, 
 with scarcely an exception, during the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries, when civil wars and national divisions 
 made it impossible for councils to meet in any part of 
 Christendom. Yet appeals to Rome were occasionally 
 heard, and the Popes settled many disputed elections. Dur- 
 ing the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, for the greater 
 spread of religion, concordats were drawn up between the 
 Church and Christian governments and states, by which to 
 the governments was conceded the privilege of recom- 
 mending the candidates for the episcopacy. This took place, 
 especially in France, in 1516, with Leon X. and Francis I. 
 
 In the first ages they required only testimony of the good 
 
338 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 life and morals of the candidate for the episcopacy. After- 
 wards, because the bishops often owned lands, and as land- 
 lords ruled extensive tracts of country, the kings required 
 them to take an oath of allegiance to the government. In 
 the Middle Ages the custom obtained of having them also 
 take an oath that they would well fulfill their duties in spir- 
 itual things. That was the origin of the oath the bishops 
 now take the day of their consecration. 
 
 To-day bishops are elected in different ways, according to 
 the customs of the country, either by people, clergy, and 
 bishops all together, by the clergy alone, by the bishops 
 alone, or by the laity alone, represented by the govern- 
 ment. Yet the Pope has always, from the beginning of the 
 Church, reserved the right of vetoing any candidate if 
 he found sufficient reasons. In Ireland the pastors or can- 
 ons of the cathedrals nominate their bishops. In France, 
 Spain, and in most Catholic countries where there is a con- 
 cordat with the Holy See, the governments either nominate 
 or name the candidates who would be acceptable. In this 
 country, up to the present time, the bishops of the various 
 provinces nominate three candidates ; naming them respect- 
 ively worthy, more worthy, and most worthy of the office. 
 The three names are sent to Rome, and the Pope chooses 
 the one he judges the best for the high and holy office. Re- 
 cently other ways of electing bishops in this country have 
 been broached. 
 
 All Christians in the early Church, both clergy and 
 laity, took part in the election of the ministers of religion, 
 although the chief part in this election belonged to the Apos- 
 tles, and to the bishops, their successors. This can be seen 
 in the election of Mathias and of the seven deacons (Acts 
 vi.). That was also the discipline in the time of St. Cyp- 
 rian, who began no important work without having first 
 consulted his clergy and people. The pagans so admired 
 that care, and the admirable working of that plan in the 
 choice of the clergy, that one of the Roman emperors 
 adopted it and elected his officers in the same way — by the 
 votes of the officers and people. All the bishops of Africa 
 followed that rule. Only in extraordinary cases did they 
 depart from that Apostolic custom, still further promul- 
 gated in the third and fourth Councils of Carthage. St. 
 August in, in his government of the diocese of Hippo, al- 
 
HOLY OKDERS. 339 
 
 ways asked the advice of the clergy and people in confer- 
 ring orders. It was also the discipline of Rome, where, in 
 ancient times, the Popes, as well as the bishops and priests, 
 were elected by the votes of the clergy and people. We 
 might say that it was everywhere observed in the Church 
 during the first centuries, as shown by the histories and the 
 councils of those times. 
 
 Towards the beginning of the fourth century the elections 
 of the clergy by the people became boisterous. They some- 
 times were led by the intrigues of ambitious men, desirous 
 of holy orders. Occasionally they rebelled against the au- 
 thority of the bishops, and the Council of Laodicea, by wise 
 laws, regulated the matter. 
 
 At Hippo they wanted to force St. Augustin to ordain the 
 Koman senator Pinian, hoping that he would leave his 
 great riches to the Church. St. Augustin refused, saying : 
 ••If you want to have him for a priest, against my wishes, 
 you cannot have me for your bishop." Little by little this 
 custom, which worked so well in the first ages, was dis- 
 couraged because intriguing and ambitious men used the 
 people to elevate them to the clergy. Towards the sixth 
 century it died out, when, according to the laws of Justin- 
 ian, the emperor, during the ordination ceremonies the 
 laity could oppose the elevation of any one they thought 
 unworthy. The vestiges of that custom are seen to-day in 
 the ordination of priests or deacons, when any one can ob- 
 ject — when the archdeacon, in the name of the clergy, tes- 
 tifies that they are worthy. 
 
 From the sixth century the choice of the ministers of the 
 Church fell on the bishops, whose houses were often turned 
 into seminaries for the education of young men for the 
 priesthood. They generally delegated this power of edu- 
 cating and of choosing the clergy to priests of piety and 
 learning, w^ho trained the young Levites in their duties, and 
 educated them for the altar. After the time of the Council 
 of Trent, and of St. Charles Borromeo, seminaries were 
 everywhere established for the sole purpose of training 
 young men for the ministry. 
 
 Aerius, Wycliffe, the Presbyterians, Baptists, Congrega- 
 tionalists, and many other of the Protestant Churches claim 
 that bishops and priests are equal in orders and in jurisdic- 
 tion. But we lay down as a Catholic truth that bishops, by 
 
340 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 divine right, are superior to priests. That is an article of 
 faith defined in the Council of Trent, which says : " If any 
 one says that bishops are not superior to presbyters, let him 
 be accursed." That they are superior to priests by divine 
 right is certain, although that the Council did not expressly 
 define. Nevertheless Catholics, Episcopalians, Lutherans, 
 and Methodists hold it as a revealed truth. In the fourth 
 century Aerius taught a doctrine which St. Epiphanius said 
 "was a truth above the intelligent fool." Aerius claimed 
 that '' a bishop is not above a priest ; that there is no differ- 
 ence between them, and that they occupy the same rank 
 and the same dignity." Scarcely had he pronounced these 
 words, when the whole Christian world of that time, ac- 
 cording to the testimony of St. Epiphanius, considered him 
 a heretic, because he taught a new doctrine, neither re- 
 vealed in the Bible nor found in tradition. The Scripture 
 tells us that Christ chose twelve Apostles, whom he placed 
 over the seventy-two disciples. He gave to the Apostles 
 supreme power in his Church, and told them that "they 
 are to sit on twelve seats and judge the twelve tribes of 
 Israel" (Math. xix. 28). When that number became incom- 
 plete, by the death of the traitor Judas, Mathias was elected 
 from the ranks of the disciples, and consecrated in his 
 place (Acts i. 16 to 26). All the fathers of the Church claim 
 that the bishops are the successors of the Apostles, and that 
 the priests are the successors of the seventy-two disciples 
 of our Lord. The Apostolic fathers of the first and second 
 centuries of the Church unanimously taught this doctrine. 
 St. Clement, bishop of Rome, in his Epistle to the Corinthi- 
 ans, says: "The supreme priest received his office, the 
 priests have their own place, and the Levites have their 
 functions to fulfill." St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, who 
 died in the year 107, wrote much relating to this subject. 
 In his Epistles to the people of Smyrna he says: "Obey 
 your bishop as Jesus Christ obeyed his Father ; let the 
 priests do so as the Apostles, and honor the deacons as hav- 
 ing been established by God." Here the holy martyr shows 
 us that the higher clergy were then, as now, divided into 
 three ranks — bishops, priests, and deacons. In another 
 Epistle he says : "It is well that each one of you, and espe- 
 cially the priests, would aid the bishop and honor him for 
 the glory of our Father, and of the Lord Jesus Christ and 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 341 
 
 his Apostles." In another Epistle he says : '^I request you 
 that you endeavor, in every manner, to remain in the peace 
 of God; the bishop, who holds the place of God; the priests, 
 the senate of the Apostles ; and the deacons, who are so 
 dear to hira, who has been granted the honor of serving 
 Jesus Christ. " In the third century Clement of Alexandria, 
 writing against Aerius, says: ^^ There are in the Church 
 degrees of bishops, and priests, and deacons." Origen says : 
 "God asks of me, a priest, more than of a deacon, and 
 more of a deacon than of a lay person ; and he that holds 
 the first dignity of the Church shall give an account of the 
 whole Church." St. Cyprian says: '^Our Lord has com- 
 manded and we are obliged to organize his Church. For 
 in the Gospel he says to St. Peter, ^ I say thou art Peter, 
 and upon this rock I will build my Church, and I will give 
 to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven ' " (Math. xvi. 
 18). The ancient fathers and writers of the Church speak 
 of bishops succeeding one another, and consecrating each 
 other, from the time of Christ down to this age. They 
 write against Aerius, and prove him to have been in error. 
 Eusebius, the historian, cites many of them. St. Ireneus 
 says: '^We can count the bishops who have been estab- 
 lished in the Church by the Apostles, from their time down 
 to us." He then gives the names of the Popes of Rome 
 from St. Peter down to the epoch in which he lived. Ter- 
 tullian, in one of his works, says that every Church can 
 trace its bishop back to the Apostles from whom he re- 
 ceived ordination and jurisdiction. He cites as an exam- 
 ple the Church of Smyrna, of which St. Polycarp was the 
 first bishop, consecrated and sent by St. John the Apostle. 
 Many fathers claim that the first Pope of Pome, in his day, 
 was ordained by St. Peter. The spread of the episcopacy 
 in these early days, shows how carefully, in these remote 
 times, they distinguished between a bishop and a priest. 
 They always considered that the former were above the 
 latter. The bishops only, and not the priests, were consid- 
 ered at that epoch as the successors of the Apostles. The 
 ancient rituals of the Greek and Latin Churches give a 
 form for the consecration of a bishop, and another and sep- 
 arate formula for the ordination of a priest. Every age, 
 from the Apostles to the present time, proclaim with loud 
 voices the difference between the episcopacy and the priest- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 343 
 
 hood, or presbyteryliood, and no epoch can be pointed out 
 when there was not a distinction between them. 
 
 The Episcopalians, who follow mostly the Apostolic Con- 
 stitutions in their services, and who are striving to conform 
 to what they believe were the practices of the early Church, 
 carefully distinguish between bishops and priests. Among^ 
 them the former are always above the latter. In the Book 
 of Common Prayer used by the Church of England, and by 
 the Episcopalians of this country, there is a form of ordina- 
 tion for a priest, and another entirely separate one for 
 the consecration of bishops. We give here an engraving of 
 the consecration of an Episcopal bishop, of Springfield, 111., 
 in Trinity Church, N. Y. The peculiar dress used by the 
 clergymen of that Church, was once the court dress of the 
 Catholic clergymen of England, when presented to the 
 court of the sovereign before the Reformation. It is, then, 
 beyond question that the ordinations among them are 
 null and void, because they lost the Apostolic succession 
 during the stormy times of the Reformation. We say, then, 
 that these orders were not preserved as among the Eastern 
 Rites ! Then the latter have all the sacraments, when they 
 use valid forms and materials in administering these sacra- 
 ments. Now we can admit only baptism and marriage 
 among the former, not because they are separated from us, 
 for we admit the validity of the sacraments among the 
 Eastern Christians, although not in union with us ; but we 
 are obliged by historic accounts to say that the Apostolic 
 succession was lost at the Reformation. 
 
 In heaven there are nine choirs of angels. According to 
 the ancient tradition of the Church, the angels are ruled by 
 an archangel, as their general ; the archangels by a virtue -^ 
 the virtues are presided over by a power ; the power obeys 
 a principality ; the principalities are directed by a domina- 
 tion ; the dominations are presided over by a throne ; the 
 thrones are under the leadership of a cherub ; the cherubim 
 are ruled by a seraph ; and the seraphim themselves are 
 commanded by the Son of God. Thus there is a perfect 
 order in heaven. Christ organized the Catholic Church 
 which is the '^ heavenly Jerusalem," so as to make of it an 
 image of his blessed abode in heaven. For that reason he 
 himself rules and directs the Church through his Yicar on 
 earth. He organized these different grades of the clergy. 
 
344 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 SO that the superior might command and rule the inferior, 
 and the bishop ruling all represents, in the highest manner, 
 Jesus Christ, the Head of the Church. He gave to each of 
 these different orders special gifts of grace — graces to fulfill 
 the duties imposed on them, that they might more or less 
 perfectly prefigure the perfections of the priesthood, eter- 
 nal in Jesus Christ ; and that all might know him who 
 '^sitteth at the right hand of his Father, and always inter- 
 cedes for us." 
 
 Again, he established these different orders, that the peo- 
 ple by obedience might practice humility, and obey Jesus, 
 the great High Priest, whom they see prefigured by their 
 clergymen, who are only trying to be perfect, like Christ 
 their Lord. He ordained it in this way, that they might 
 remain in charity— that they might distribute the sacra- 
 ments, preach the Gospel, and give spiritual things— that 
 all might be bound together by the closest bonds of unity, 
 which is charity and obedience ; and that they all might be 
 united together and to Christ, through his Yicar and lieu- 
 tenant, the Pope. Thus St. Paul says : ^'That there might 
 be no schism in the body, but that the members might be 
 mutually careful, one for another" (I. Cor. xii. 25). '^For 
 now ye are the body of Christ, and members of member" 
 (Ibid., 27). Whence the Church is called the '' Mystic Body 
 of Christ." Again, the Church is a spiritual and religious 
 society, kingdom, and army. In every army, kingdom, 
 and society, one is subject to another. So there are differ- 
 ent offices to fulfill in the Church, and God gives different 
 graces to each, according to his order, and position. St. 
 Paul says : ^^ Now there are diversities of grace, but the 
 same spirit ; and there are diversities of ministry, but the 
 same Lord." ^'For he gave some Apostles, and some 
 prophets, and some evangelists, and some pastors and 
 teachers. For the perfecting of the saints, for the work of 
 the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ. Till 
 we all meet in the unity of faith, and of the knowledge of 
 the Son of God, unto a perfect man — unto the measure of 
 the stature of the fullness of Christ." 
 
 God with wonderful wisdom disposed the natural world 
 around us in such a way that there are diverse orders of 
 creatures, of vegetables, and of animals — some more perfect 
 than others, some higher than others — in the ranks of crea- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 345 
 
 tion, yet all are perfect in their own places. As we pass 
 along by the way, studying the beauties and the perfections 
 of each creature, we rise from the lower to the higher, till 
 we find all combined in the most perfect manner in man, 
 and all are at last combined in a more wonderful way in 
 Jesus Christ, who is the Man-God. Thus among the clergy 
 we find some in one, some in another, of the holy orders — 
 some higher and others higher still — till we find all per- 
 fected and completed in the perfect Priest, Jesus Christ, 
 who is the eternal and everlasting Priest of the New Testa- 
 ment, and by whose gentle power the sacred functions of 
 the priesthood, and of the episcopacy, are carried through- 
 out the whole world. 
 
 The word ordination is wide in its meaning, because it 
 applies both to the inferior as well as to the higher degrees 
 of the sacrament of holy orders. The Latin writers think 
 that the material part of minor orders consists in giving or 
 presenting the different instruments used in the sacred 
 functions of each order, and that the words or formula of 
 ordination consists in the words and prayers with which 
 these articles are presented to the candidates. The Greeks 
 think that the matter and form of minor orders consist 
 rather in the imposition of hands, and in the prayers which 
 accompany that ceremony. Regarding the material part, 
 and the formal part or words of the higher orders, there 
 was a difference of opinion, because some of the ancient 
 writers considered them as consisting in the presentation 
 and in the prayers said at the same time. The opinion gen- 
 erally received at the present day is, that the matter and 
 form of holy orders consist in the imposition of hands. The 
 Rituals and forms of the Sacrament used in the early 
 Church, for more than nine hundred years — the Apostolic 
 Constitutions, the four Councils of Carthage, the first of 
 Mce, the Council of Antioch, held in 341, a Council held at 
 Ancyra, and a thousand other monuments of the primitive 
 Church, say nothing of the presentation of those instru- 
 ments, nor of the prayers mentioned. But they all speak 
 of the imposition of hands. 
 
 The fifth canon of the Council of Carthage says that the 
 difference between the higher or sacred orders, and the 
 lower or minor orders, consists in this, that the former are 
 conferred by the imposition of hands, and the latter by the 
 
346 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 presentation of the instruments. Besides, most of the 
 fathers of the Middle Ages, such as Isidore, who flourished 
 in the eighth century, Amalarius, Raban-Maur, and many 
 others of the ninth century, who wrote on the ceremonies 
 of the Church, and described the ordination rites of those 
 times, do not mention the presentation of the instruments. 
 The Churches of the East, as the Greeks, the Nestorians, 
 the Egyptians, the Maronites, and others, admit no otlier 
 material part, in conferring holy orders, but the imposition 
 of hands. Whence, as the imposition of hands is the com- 
 plete and essential rite of ordination, it follows that the 
 prayer with which the hands are imposed is the essential 
 formula of this sacrament. Regarding the priesthood, the 
 imposing of the hands of the bishop, together with the 
 assisting priests, is the essential matter ; the first imposi- 
 tion is accompanied by no form of words, and the third, 
 except it is used by those who have the consecrating of the 
 Holy Eucharist, with the bishop, is not found among the 
 Greeks and Maronites, as it was not among the Latins, be- 
 fore the thirteenth century. Those who claim that the im- 
 position of hands is the essential and complete rite of ordi- 
 nation to the ranks of the higher clergy, say that the presen- 
 tation of the instruments was added by the Latin Church, 
 to show in a more striking manner the power conferred by 
 this imposing of hands. As the hands are imposed on the 
 ordained, and the instruments are given, without exception, 
 in every ordination to the higher ranks, there is no doubt 
 but the ordination is always valid, although we are not cer- 
 tain in what its precisely essential part consists. If by any 
 accident it should happen that the hands were not imposed, 
 or the instruments not present, these rites should be sup- 
 plied as was decreed by the Congregation of Rites. 
 
 The imposition of hands signifies that power comes down 
 from the high God on the person ordained. The Episcopa- 
 lians, and all Protestants, always ordain with the imposi- 
 tion of hands both deacons, ministers, and bishops. They 
 have no special ordination ceremonies for the lower ofl&cers 
 of the Church, as church wardens, vestry-men, sextons, 
 etc. We give here an engraving of the ordination of an 
 Episcopal missionary to China, which took place some time 
 ago in Grace Church, N. Y. 
 
 The Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and all Protest- 
 
548 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 ants ordain with the imposition of hands. Those sects 
 who have bishops, as the Methodists, Lutherans, etc., or- 
 dain their bishops by the imposition of the hands of three 
 or more bishops. The deaconrj kneel, while the ministers do 
 not. Among the Baptists and Presbyterians, and others 
 who do not recognize the episcopacy, the deacons and min- 
 isters are ordained by the imposition of the hands of the 
 ministers delegated for that purpose. 
 
 The person capable of receiving holy orders is only a 
 male member of the human race. The Church, from time to 
 time, condemned certain ancient heretics, as the Marcosins 
 and others, who ordained women. Neither in the Law of 
 Moses nor in the early Christian Church were women ever 
 allowed to approach the altar and offer sacrifice. Christ, 
 who is really the Supreme High Priest, being a man, is rep- 
 resented in a more perfect manner by a man than by a 
 woman. Besides, since the fall of Adam God has command- 
 ed women to be subject to man. To elevate a woman to the 
 priesthood would be placing her over man, and therefore 
 God would have reversed the order he established at the 
 beginning. I^either Christ nor the Apostles ever ordained 
 a woman, not even the Virgin herself. Hence St. Paul 
 says : '^Let women keep silence in the Churches, for it is 
 not permitted them to speak, but to be subject as the law^ 
 sayeth" (I. Cor. xiv. 34). 
 
 The deaconesses mentioned in the Bible were quite com- 
 mon in the early Church. They were not priests, for many 
 ecclesiastical monuments and numerous traditions of the 
 early Church tell us that they were simply ladies elected 
 to aid the clergy in the baptism of females. They in- 
 structed children in their religious duties, especially those of 
 their own sex. They guarded the door of the church through 
 which ladies entered, for the two sexes were separate in 
 the early Church. They were also chosen to carry out 
 works of charity among the people. They were initiated 
 into these offices by special sacred rites, established by the 
 Church. But they were never ordained by the imposition 
 of hands, which relates to holy orders. Hence their initia- 
 tion was only a simple Christian ceremony. They were 
 common in the Church during the first ten centuries. They 
 were the forerunners, or rather they prepared the way for 
 the different orders of nuns, and for the numerous commu- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 349 
 
 nities of ladies so widely extended in all parts of the 
 world in our day. 
 
 It is probable that they were the wives of the bishops 
 and priests of the Latin or Western Church, before their 
 ordination, who then took vows of chastity ; for in the 
 early Church priests and bishops were exhorted not to have 
 families, that they might better devote themselves to their 
 duties in the Church. Thus we conclude that some of the 
 Apostles married, for we read that "'Peter's wife's mother 
 was sick of a fever." We are not certain whether the other 
 Apostles were married or not, except St. John, who always 
 remained a virgin. St. Paul himself says he always re- 
 mained a virgin, and exhorts others to lead the same life. 
 Hence those ladies had no authority or jurisdiction over 
 men, derived from the power of the keys ; but they were 
 only over members of their own sex, like a mother over her 
 family. 
 
 As baptism is the door of the Church, no one can receive 
 holy orders who was not baptized. Baptism is the founda- 
 tion of the Christian life ; hence, if a man before baptism 
 mixed in with those to be ordained, he could not receive 
 holy orders, but he should be baptized and ordained over 
 again. Besides, for the validity of holy orders it is neces- 
 sary that the person gives his consent. Hence the Popes 
 often declared the ordinations null and void, where persons 
 were forced to receive the rite. Yet la the early Church 
 little boys were sometimes ordained after baptism, and be- 
 fore the age of reason. Their ordination was valid, like 
 baptism, and they could afterwards choose to enter the 
 ranks of the clergy, or remain among the laity. But this 
 was an abuse, and was soon condemned by the councils. 
 
 The minister of ordination in the Western Church, in 
 every case, Avhether for sacred or minor orders, is the 
 bishop alone. The ordination is valid if the person is will- 
 ing, is baptized, and the bishop confers it. The Pope can 
 give permission to a simple priest to confer minor orders 
 and subdeaconship ; but all writers agree that the bishop 
 only can give the sacred orders — as deaconship, the priest- 
 hood, and the episcopacy. The highest power is required 
 for a creature to propagate its kind, and full strength and 
 power is required to generate its race. Therefore the high- 
 est spiritual power is required to propagate the race of the 
 
350 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 priesthood. As the priesthood is whole and complete only 
 in the episcopacy, so only a bishop can ordain a priest or 
 consecrate a bishop. Thus the spiritual agrees with the 
 natural order in the most surprising manner. 
 
 The legitimate minister of ordination is a Catholic bishop, 
 nominated and consecrated in a canonical manner, and 
 who, in the ordination, conforms to all the laws of the 
 Church. On the contrary, he would not be the legitimate 
 minister of orders who would not conform to each and every 
 one of those conditions. Yet such an ordination would 
 be valid, but sinful. As it is certain that unless a man be a 
 bishop, he can neither consecrate another bishop nor or- 
 dain a priest or deacon, he must have, therefore, the sacer- 
 dotal character of the episcopacy impressed in his soul, like 
 unto the character of confirmation and of baptism. 
 
 The bishops have the power of ordaining the higher 
 clergy, and that power the priests have not in common 
 with them. That was defined by the Council of Trent : '^ If 
 any one says that the bishops have not the power of con- 
 firming and ordaining, or that they have that power in 
 common with priests, let him be anathematized." The 
 Holy Scripture, the traditions of the Church, the practice 
 of the early ages, the customs of all the Churches which 
 separated from the Catholic Church in ancient times, all 
 these prove that bishops only have the power of ordaining 
 the higher clergy. The Bible tells us that Christ estab- 
 lished his Apostles, that these ordained the seven deacons 
 chosen by the people, and that they ordained and estab- 
 lished priests in each Church. The Apostolic Constitutions 
 direct that ''bishops shall be consecrated by three bishops, 
 and that priests, deacons, and the other clergy shall be or- 
 dained by one bishop." Novatius of Eome, who was very 
 desirous of the episcopacy, according to Eusebius, tried in 
 every way to get bishops to come and consecrate him a 
 bishop. The heretics of the third century were so per- 
 suaded that bishops could be consecrated only by bishops, 
 that St. Epiphanius, writing to Aerius, says: ''The order 
 which consecrates bishops belongs chiefly to bishops ; for 
 it is in this way they succeed one another in the Church. 
 The other way — that is, priests cannot bring forth priests — 
 but they bring forth children of the Church by the regen- 
 eration of baptism." St. Jerome says : "Who knows what 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 351 
 
 a bishop does, that a priest cannot do ? Is it not ordina- 
 tion ?" St. Chrysostom says : ''The bishops are superior to 
 priests only by ordination ; in that alone exists all their 
 pre-eminence." This has been the constant and universal 
 practice of the Church, as shown by the ancient Rituals of 
 the Greeks, Latins, and the other Christians of the early 
 ages. They all say that the bishop is the only minister of 
 ordination. The uniform practice of the Church in every 
 age has been, never to allow the clergy of the higher orders 
 to be ordained except by a bishop — not even during the 
 persecutions. That has also been the belief and custom of 
 the Churches of the East, which are unanimous on that 
 point of doctrine. One time the Churches of Ethiopia had 
 no archbishops, and a simple priest was obliged to take his 
 place in some of the duties of the archbishop. All the 
 bishops of Alexandria and Egypt considered him as being a 
 sacrilegious usurper, having no kind of authority. They 
 sometimes go to the other extreme, raising to the priesthood 
 as many subjects as they can, without much care or choice, 
 so that if afterwards they were deprived of their metropoli- 
 tan archbishop, they would not be deprived of priests. 
 
 The various orders we have mentioned make up the hie- 
 rarchy of the Church. The word hierarchy comes from the 
 Greek, and signifies a sacred sovereignty or authority. We 
 have said that the Church is the mystic body of Christ. 
 He has therefore two bodies. He has his natural body 
 united to his soul, and which was born of the Virgin Mary. 
 He has another body, which is the people forming the 
 Church, with which he is united as to his spouse, by the 
 most holy bonds of redemption and of charity. To clergy- 
 men like unto himself he has given authority over these two 
 bodies by the rite of ordination and by jurisdiction. The 
 clergyman receives authority and power over the natural 
 body and blood of Jesus Christ, in the sacrament of the Eu- 
 charist, when he is ordained a priest. But by jurisdiction, 
 which consists in the right to rule men, he obtains the au- 
 thority to rule his Church, his parish, or the people com- 
 mitted to his charge. Therefore there are two hierarchies 
 in the Church — one the hierarchy of orders, the other the 
 hierarchy of jurisdiction. The hierarchy of orders has au- 
 thority over Christ's natural body, which is the Eucharist ; 
 and the hierarchy of jurisdiction has authority over his 
 
353 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 mystic body, which is the Church. The hierarchy of orders 
 consists in the porter, reader, exorcist, acolyte, subdeacon, 
 deacon, priest, and bishop. The hierarchy of jurisdic- 
 tion consists in the ordinaries, the bishops, the archbishop, 
 the primates, the patriarchs, the cardinals, and the Pope. 
 As the bishop, the head of the hierarchy of orders, unites 
 within himself the perfections of all the clergy below him, 
 so the Papacy, which is the head of jurisdiction, contains 
 within itself the perfections of all in the hierarchy of juris- 
 diction below him. 
 
 But the source of all authority, of all power — the foun- 
 tain-head of all these — is Jesus Christ, the perfect man, the 
 perfect priest, and the Second Person of the Trinity. He. 
 alone, is the supreme ruler of the Church. The clergy rule 
 in his name and by his authority. He delegates them to 
 take his place. The clergy then rule, teach, administer the 
 sacraments, and sanctify the souls of men by Christ's au- 
 thority, and through the power received from him. They 
 are like so many instruments in the hands of the Son of 
 God, administering his real body — the Eucharist — and rul- 
 ing his mystic body — the Church. By rite of consecration 
 all bishops are equal. Neither is the Pope, or any one in 
 authority over the Eucharist, in this respect any greater 
 than any simple bishop. But with regard to jurisdiction, 
 or power over the mystic body of Christ, or authority over 
 souls, which is the Church, they are not equal, but divided 
 into the different degrees mentioned above, and the Pope is 
 over all the Church. 
 
 Over every diocese is a bishop, who has authority in his 
 own sphere over his subjects, both the clergy and the peo- 
 ple. Over a number of bishops in a province is an arch- 
 bishop, who has authority to preside at councils, and to 
 decide cases when appealed to by the bishop, clergy, or peo- 
 ple. Over all the bishops of the nation or country is the 
 primate, who occupies the first see, and presides over a 
 council of the whole nation. Over all the archbishops in 
 any one part of the world, is a patriarch. Men of great 
 learning and dignity are raised to the honor of being a car- 
 dinal. They are the advisers of the Pope. As a number of 
 priests form a senate, or chapter of the diocese, to advise 
 and aid the bishops in ruling their charges, so a number of 
 men, pre-eminent in learning and experience, are raised 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 353 
 
 to the dignity of being cardinals. They aid the Pope in 
 ruling the universal Church. They form, as it were, a ven- 
 erable senate of the Church. All jurisdiction, all authority, 
 all dignity centres in the Pope. The Pope, therefore, is a 
 bishop of bishops — the bishop of the diocese of Rome, the 
 archbishop of the province of Rome, the primate of Italy, 
 the patriarch of the West, and finally the Pope — the Suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter, to whom our Lord said: "Feed my 
 lambs — feed my sheep." He is the director of every grade 
 of clergy, of every nation of the earth in matters of faith 
 and morals. Thus our Lord formed the hierarchy of the 
 Church. 
 
 Before he ascended into heaven, after finishing his work 
 of founding and organizing the Catholic Church, upon this 
 earth, he organized these two hierarchies of orders and of 
 jurisdiction, to represent the orders and perfections of the 
 celestial spirits in heaven, and to save the souls he re- 
 deemed with his blood. As he presides over and directs 
 the whole court of heaven, so he appointed one man — Peter 
 and his successors — to direct, rule, and unite the hierarchy 
 of the Church, As all the perfections of a living creature 
 centre in the head, so all the perfections of the priesthood 
 and of the episcopacy centre in the Pope. As every nation 
 must have a ruler, so the Church must have a ruler. As 
 every band of men must have a leader, so the Church must 
 have a leader. As every army must have a captain or a 
 general, so the Church must have her general, the Pope. 
 The bishop of Rome unites the hierarchies of the Church. 
 He has authority over all the members of the hierarchy, of 
 all ranks of the clergy and of the people below him. It is 
 not necessary that a cardinal be a bishop. He may be a 
 bishop, a priest, a deacon, or ojie of the inferior clergy. To 
 them in conclave, forming a senate of the Church, belongs 
 the duty of electing the successor of the Pope, when 
 dead. 
 
 When an order has been received, like baptism and con- 
 firmation, it impresses an indelible character upon the soul, 
 which can never be effaced. Therefore once a priest, ever 
 a priest ; and no power on earth can take from the clergy 
 the character impressed in their souls by holy orders. A 
 priest then can consecrate the Elements and say mass, in 
 spite of any power on earth, because his power relates to 
 
354 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 the consecration of the real body and blood of Christ. But 
 it would be sinful to exercise this power except he has full 
 faculties, and not restricted by his superior relating to the 
 power of officiating at the altar. Still if a suspended priest 
 were to say mass, Christ would be really present. Thus it 
 is with regard to the real and natural body and blood of 
 Jesus Christ — the Eucharist. But regarding his mystic 
 body — that is, with regard to the people — which form the 
 Church, the mystic body of Christ, the priest cannot hear 
 confessions, unless he has, besides the power given by holy 
 orders, the power also given by the Church, which is called 
 jurisdiction. If he would attemjjt to hear confessions with- 
 out such jurisdiction, the absolution would be invalid, and 
 the confessions would be wholly and completely null and 
 void. This is to guard the people from impostors. In thus 
 restricting the power of the priest in hearing confessions, 
 Christ shows that he is more careful of his mystic body — 
 the Church formed of his redeemed people — than he is of 
 his own natural body and blood — the Eucharist. 
 
 The sacrament of orders is one complete whole, not di- 
 vided into parts. Those who receive the different grades of 
 orders mentioned above, partake in the diverse graces or 
 powers given by the different ordination rites. Holy or- 
 ders is only complete in one grade, namely, in the episco- 
 pacy ; and the lower grades are like so many partial powers 
 of the priesthood. Therefore all these orders compose only 
 one sacrament. It is similar in civil governments ; there 
 are various grades of authority, yet there is but one admin- 
 istration, one power, one government. 
 
 In the writings of the fathers the imposition of hands is 
 often mentioned. The Apostles laid hands on others for 
 various purposes — to cure them of diseases, to confirm those 
 who were baptized, to reconcile those who were sinners, 
 and to consecrate others unto the ministry of the altar, and 
 of the Gospel. But only the imposition of hands in con- 
 firming and the imposition of hands in ordaining are sac- 
 raments. 
 
 The first effect of this sacrament is an increase of sancti- 
 fying grace — that is, those who receive holy orders should 
 be already in the state of grace ; consequently, the sanctity 
 in their souls is increased, and they become by it more holy 
 before God. They receive, also, actual grace— that is, the 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 355 
 
 grace which belongs to each order. This grace they receive 
 at the proper times during their whole lives, that they may 
 correctly, easily, and with pleasure fulfill their duties as 
 clergymen. During his whole life, therefore, whenever the 
 clergyman is to exercise the duties of his office, he will, if 
 he is faithful, receive from God the grace that will enable 
 him ever, and with pleasure, to fulfill his ministry — 
 to preach, to teach, to direct, to administer the sacraments, 
 to say his office, to offer the holy sacrifice, to obey his supe- 
 riors, to love his people, and to love Ohrist and his Church- 
 He is, therefore, different from other men. Wherever you 
 go you can tell a priest. I^o matter what a priest does, he 
 cannot long hide himself, for he carries with him a charac- 
 ter which makes him different from all others. The good 
 and the bad, the Christian and the infidel — every one, often 
 at a moment's glance — can tell a priest. An atmosphere of 
 the supernatural surrounds him. Before beginning his 
 studies for the priesthood, he was like unto other men — not 
 different from the rest of the people. But when he becomes 
 a priest, a peculiar mark is impressed on him. There is 
 something about him which tells of a supernatural power. 
 There is an unseen power and feeling of God around him, 
 which draws the attention of men. You never feel this 
 when among those who have not received holy orders. 
 You cannot tell the ministers of other religious denomina- 
 tions from the rabbi of the Jewish Synagogue, from the 
 professor of a college, or from a lecturer. But you can al- 
 ways tell a priest ; for there is something about him which 
 tells you of God. Not even the priest himself can conceal 
 this. Is not this remarkable ? something above the world ? 
 something supernatural ? something Godly ? something in- 
 describable^ which tells us the priest is different from other 
 men, and which so impresses itself on the minds and hearts 
 of the people ? What causes this ? It is the grace of holy 
 orders which God showers down on his chosen ministers, 
 and by which Christ shows that his power and authority 
 are resting there. 
 
 The third effect of this sacrament is the character of or- 
 ders imprinted in the soul by holy orders. This, according 
 to St. Thomas, is the chief effect of this sacrament. This 
 character gives to the priest that sublime power, by which 
 he consecrates the real body and blood of Christ at the 
 
356 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 altar, and by which he rules the mystic body of Christ, 
 which is the Church. Holy orders impress a character in 
 the soul, whether he receives it in sin or not ; for the sacra- 
 ments, when valid, are always sacraments. But if he is 
 not rightly disposed, although he receives the character, 
 yet he does not receive the grace of orders. For if he is 
 badly disposed, his sin stands as an obstacle in the way of 
 the grace. But when the sins are removed, the graces of 
 holy orders are then received like unto baptism and confir- 
 mation. The character of holy orders can never be wiped 
 out of the soul. St. Augustine says : '^If an ordination of 
 the clergy takes place, for the gathering together of the 
 parish, even if the gathering of the congregation should 
 not follow, nevertheless the sacrament of ordination would 
 remain in those ordained. If, on account of any weakness, 
 one should be removed from his office, he shall not cease to 
 carry the sacrament of the Lord, which shall remain even 
 unto the last judgment." 
 
 Minor orders, although we acknowledge them as real 
 orders, yet we are not certain that they are each a sacra- 
 ment. But they carry with them and impress a certain 
 kind of a character. When a person receives minor orders 
 he can go back to the world. He is not obliged to ascend 
 to the higher orders. Nevertheless these orders imprint on 
 the soul a character — if not a sacramental character, at 
 least a divine and ecclesiastical mark, like unto an hono- 
 rary title, or a civil office in the state. Thus a judge, after 
 his term has expired, does not cease to be called a judge, 
 although he does not exercise any judicial act. Thus it is 
 with a person who receives minor orders. When he retires 
 to the laity, and gives up the intention of becoming a priest, 
 he is still and always will be in minor orders. Hence the 
 Church never ordains again those who are once validly or- 
 dained, and return to the world, but change and come 
 back. Although we read that sometimes bishops, priests, 
 and other clergymen, for certain reasons, have been de- 
 graded to the level of the laity, this only related to the ex- 
 ercising of their ministry. They still retained the character 
 of the orders received. 
 
 According to the laws of the Western Church, persons in 
 sacred orders — that is, subdeacons and those above them — 
 cannot validly marry. If they attempt to marry, the mar- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 357 
 
 riage will be invalid as long as both parties live. Hence 
 the Council of Trent says : " If any one says that the clergy 
 in sacred orders can contract a marriage, and that the 
 marriage is valid in spite of ecclesiastical law, let him be 
 anathematized." The Western Church forbids a married 
 man to be ordained, unless his wife releases him from 
 his marital obligations, and both take a vow of chastity. 
 It also forbids one in sacred orders to marry. Besides, it 
 obliges him to abstain from all lewdness, in thought, word, 
 or deed. It forbids, even, all marital relations with his 
 wife, if he was married before his ordination. 
 
 It is impossible to describe how furiously the reformers 
 of the sixteenth century, whom God delivered up to the de- 
 sires of their own hearts, rebelled against this ecclesiastical 
 law of celibacy. Rasimus wrote: '^Whence, therefore, 
 comes such a rebellion of the flesh in those who claim to be 
 led by the Spirit of Christ ? " We will give some of the 
 reasons why the Church forbids the marriage of the clergy. 
 First, we would say, that only by a law of the Church are 
 clergymen in sacred orders forbidden to marry. The par- 
 ish and the people of the Church are to take the place of 
 wife and family in the heart of the priest. If he had to 
 look after both, a parish and a family, he would be divided, 
 and could not devote his whole time to his Church, or his 
 whole time to his family. Therefore he could not well ful- 
 fill the duties of both pastor and husband and father. 
 For, having the care of a family, the care of wife and chil- 
 dren, their support and their clothing to obtain, how could 
 he give his undivided attention to the affairs of the Church ? 
 Would he not be afraid to visit those sick with dangerous 
 and contagious diseases, lest he might bring the malady to 
 his wife and children ? For that reason he could not well 
 take care of all the sick of his parish. Besides, he would 
 have to support his wife and family in a way becoming his 
 position. He would, therefore, be running around from 
 parish to parish, seeking where he might obtain a larger 
 salary. He would be inclined to store up money to settle 
 on his children, and he would thus be exposed to the danger 
 of becoming a miser. 
 
 According to the law of God, man and wife are one flesh 
 (Math. xix. 5). The wife might disgrace herself, and in 
 that way disgrace the Church of which her husband is the 
 
358 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 head and pastor. By her imprudence she might mix up in 
 Church matters, and thus easily give rise to scandal, and 
 set the larger part of the parish gossiping. A priest nmst 
 hear confessions and keep the secrets of the confessional. 
 This would be difficult in the close relationship existing be- 
 tween man and wife. For we know that a good husband 
 keeps few secrets from his wife. Therefore the married 
 priest would often be exposed to reveal the secrets, if not 
 of the confessional, at least other matters of the parish, to 
 his wife, by word or sign. Besides, if he could keep them 
 secret when awake, he might reveal them in dreams, while 
 talking in his sleep. The people would not feel free to tell 
 all their secrets, lest the woman should learn some, and 
 thus they might be tempted to make sacrilegious confes- 
 sions. The priest, especially assistants and members of 
 religious orders, is to be ready at any moment to go any- 
 where his bishop or superior requires. This he could not 
 do if he were weighed down with a family. He must, in 
 missionary countries, make long journeys at a moment's 
 notice. He must go each year to a retreat, with the rest of 
 the clergy, and spend certain days there in silence, prayer, 
 and meditation, where he could not bring his wife and 
 family. Often the parish priest and assistant live in the 
 same house, and it would be utterly impossible for two 
 families to get along under the same roof. 
 
 Many priests belong to religious orders and congregations 
 where there are a great many clergymen in the same 
 house, where certainly a great many families could not 
 live. No house is large enough for a number of families. 
 Christ was a man, but he had no wife. Every priest is to 
 regulate his life according to the model of him, the Perfect 
 Priest, who lived a single life while on this earth. Of all 
 the wounds in human nature, the deepest is the inclination 
 to lewdness — the instinct for the generation and preserva- 
 tion of the race — and the priest is to be a shining example 
 to all in this world, to show that all, if they wish, by 
 prayer and the grace of God, can live a single life. The 
 instinct of the preservation of the race is so deeply im- 
 pressed in every living creature on this earth, that it is the 
 hardest for man to control. Therefore no founder of any 
 religion or any Church ever attempted to impose celibacy 
 upon their followers. Only Christ (Math. xix. 12), the 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 359 
 
 founder of the Catholic Church, could raise men to such a 
 height above nature. Men know this so well that those 
 outside of the Catholic Church often will not believe that 
 priests live a holy, chaste life. For according to the every- 
 day life of men, this is almost impossible, considering fallen 
 human nature. To show that the Catholic Church is di- 
 vine now, as she was when Christ founded her, the clergy 
 live single lives. That shows that by his grace Christ is 
 still with them, to give them the strength and grace to live 
 such a life. The Eucharist makes them pure. The true 
 priests are those who are called by God, for not every one 
 who desires can become a priest, but only those who have 
 shown by long years of probation, in virtue and in their 
 studies, that they have received a divine call, like Aaron 
 and the Apostles, only such are admitted into the ranks of 
 the clergy. 
 
 Not only are they called by the exterior call of the rec- 
 tors and professors of the seminaries where they study, 
 who judge by their exterior deportment, but they are also 
 called to advance to holy orders by the confessors, who for 
 years have heard their confessions ; and, therefore, who 
 know their secret hearts, their weakness and their strength. 
 Thus the celibacy of the clergy is one of the proofs of the 
 divinity of the Catholic Church. According to the words 
 of the Holy Ghost : " Oh, how beautiful is the chaste gener- 
 ation with glory ! for the memory thereof is immortal : be- 
 cause it is known both w4th God and with men " (Wisdom 
 iv. 1). Do you suppose for a moment that ladies, who are 
 by nature so delicate and modest, would allow priests 
 freely and with confidence to enter their rooms and hear 
 their confessions, when they are sick in bed, and have such 
 confidence in them, if they did not know that they were 
 bound by a vow of chastity, and that therefore they are 
 perfectly safe in their company everywhere ? 
 
 Considering these valid reasons in the days of the Apos- 
 tles, the clergy were exhorted not to marry. St. Paul says 
 he was a virgin, and praises virginity. History and tradi- 
 tion tell us that those Apostles who were married when 
 called by Christ, did not afterwards live with their wives. 
 They could not while traveling from place to place with 
 our Lord. When the Apostles went forth to convert the 
 world, they found a wife an encumbrance. They coun- 
 
360 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 seled their disciples in the ministry not to be burdened 
 with a wife and family. Little by little the clergy either 
 gave up their wives, or were virgins when ordained. At 
 length the Church, which followed the Latin Rite, made a 
 law forbidding the marriage of the clergy. That is seen in 
 many ancient councils. Pope Gregory gave it more ex- 
 pressly, stating that bishops shall presume to ordain no 
 subdeacon, unless he promises to live chastely, because 
 none should approach the ministry of the altar, unless his 
 chastity has been proved before the ministry is received. 
 
 The celibacy of the clergy, therefore, comes not from the 
 law of God, but from the law of the Church. Marriage and 
 the ministry of the Gospel are both ordinances of God, and 
 no law of God forbids both at the same time. But for the 
 reasons given before the Church forbids the marriage of 
 the clergy. 
 
 There is an exception to this, showing the wonderful 
 adaptability of the Church. Among the Greeks in union 
 with us, certain married men are raised to the priesthood, 
 and allowed to retain and live with their wives. They 
 often come to Rome to complete their studies at the Propa- 
 ganda ; and under the very eyes of the Pope they are or- 
 dained, their wives often being present. The celibacy of 
 the clergy, therefore, is enforced only for those of the 
 Latin or Western Church, and not for the Eastern Chris- 
 tians. But the bishops and higher clergy of the East, as 
 well as those in the monasteries, never marry. Neither are 
 they allowed to marry after they have been ordained dea- 
 cons, which is considered as the first sacred order among 
 them. In the Latin or Western Church, married men may 
 be ordained if their wives die or release them from their 
 marital obligations. In the latter case the wife should take 
 a vow of chastity, and enter among the nuns, so she would 
 not be exposed. Cardinal Manning was once a married 
 minister of the Episcopal Church of England, before his 
 conversion. The writer knows some other cases of the 
 same kind. In the Latin Church the clergy, at their ordi- 
 nation to subdeaconship, make vows of chastity, and im- 
 pose the obligation of celibacy on themselves. 
 
 All Protestant Churches, except the Episcopalians, deny 
 that holy orders is a sacrament. Yet most of them con- 
 sider it as a holy ordinance, instituted by Christ. The 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 361 
 
 members of other Churches claim that all Christians are 
 equally priests, or that they cannot exercise the duties of 
 the priesthood unless they are appointed for that by the 
 civil government. The latter is especially the belief of 
 Protestant Europe. Among them any men can become 
 ministers, v^hen they think they have a divine calling, and 
 can preach well and get a congregation. Their ceremony 
 of appointing or licensing a minister to preach, in their 
 church, consists in this, that the minister is not sent as 
 Christ was sent by his Father, as the Apostles were sent by 
 Christ, as the bishops are sent by Rome, or as the priests 
 are sent by their bishops ; but in many Protestant Churches 
 they are inaugurated by a certain ceremony called installa- 
 tion. All the ministers impose their hands on the candi- 
 date. One minister preaches a sermon, and tells the people 
 their duties toward the minister, and tells him his duties to- 
 ward the people. This is called giving the charge to the 
 people and to the minister. The Episcopalians ordain their 
 bishops, rectors, and deacons, according to the form found 
 in the Book of Common Prayer. They impose hands on 
 the deacons, rectors, and bishops, with certain ceremonies 
 and rites taken from the Pontifical used by the Catholic 
 Church. They admit only deacons, ministers, and bishops, 
 rejecting minor orders and tonsure. Yet they admit that 
 these inferior orders were in the early Church. 
 
 In the Episcopal Church the candidate for holy orders 
 must produce testimonial letters of his baptism, from the 
 college professors, of his good standing in the community, 
 etc. A deacon must be twenty-three and a priest twenty- 
 four years of age, for orders in the Episcopal Church. Be- 
 sides, a means of living must be provided for him. In Eng- 
 land the candidate must declare his belief in the Thirty- 
 nine Articles of the Established Church, besides taking the 
 following oath : ^^1. That the Queen's majesty, under God, 
 is the only supreme governor of this realm, and of all other 
 of her highness' dominions and countries, as well in all 
 spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes as temporal," etc. 
 Thus they take an oath that the English sovereign is the 
 pope of the English Church — the remains of the work of 
 Henry VIII., in tearing Catholic England from the foster- 
 ing arms of the Catholic Church. They must also take the 
 following oath: ''I, A. B., do swear that I do from my 
 
3G2 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 heart, abhor, detest, abjure as impious and heretical, that 
 damnable doctrine and position, that princes excommuni- 
 cated or deprived by the Pope, or any authority of the see 
 of Rome, may be deposed," etc. An Act of Parliament (50 
 Geo. III. c. GO), directs the way candidates for orders may 
 be received and promoted in the British colonies. In ac- 
 cordance with these laws the Episcopal Church was estab- 
 lished in the United States. Thus we could show how this 
 Church is only a human invention, and not organized by 
 God's only begotten Son, the founder of the Catholic 
 Church, the author of the sacrament of holy orders. 
 Among them, at the consecration of a bishop, the conse- 
 crating prelate is assisted by two other bishops in the cere- 
 mony as in the Church. Among them only bishops are 
 allowed to ordain. 
 
 The installation of the clergy of the Catholic Church con- 
 tains three things — their election, their ordination, and 
 their mission. The election generally takes place in the 
 seminaries, over which are professors, who educate and 
 call the candidates in the name of their bishops. The ordi- 
 nations take place at stated times during the year, or as 
 the necessities of the dioceses and churches demand. The 
 mission is the act by which the priest receives subjects, or 
 is sent to a parish, and differs little from the faculties men- 
 tioned before. The mission, the vocation, or the calling of 
 ministers and pastors do not belong to the people, for eccle- 
 siastic authority does not reside in the laity. Christ said to 
 Peter, "Feed my lambs — feed my sheep" (John xxi. 16, 
 17); '^As my Father sent me so I send you" (Ibid. xx. 
 21); "Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven 
 them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained " 
 (Ibid. XX. 23) ; "This do in commemoration of me" (Luke 
 xxii. 19). This was said only to Peter, to the Apostles, and 
 to their successors, and not to the people. Therefore the peo- 
 ple cannot call their own pastors and dismiss them at will, 
 as the Protestant Churches do. " Priests in each city I left 
 thee, and in Crete," said St. Paul to Titus, "that thou 
 shouldst set in order the things that are wanting, and or- 
 dain priests in every city, as I also appoint thee " (Tit. i. 5). 
 The right, therefore, of choosing their pastor does not be- 
 long to the people, for the Apostle says : " Let no one take 
 to himself the honor, but he that was called of God, as 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 363 
 
 Aaron was " (Heb. v. 4). But Aaron was elected by Moses, 
 by command of God, without the consent of the council, or 
 on the part of the people of Israel. Christ was sent by his 
 Father, not chosen or elected by his Apostles. He asked 
 not the consent nor the votes of the people, not when se- 
 lecting his Apostles, nor even when electing his seventy -two 
 disciples. The Apostles, when they consecrated bishops, 
 sent them to Jews, to infidels, and to gentiles — people who 
 never chose or called them. That was always the custom 
 after the Apostolic times, as proved by the writings of the 
 fathers and the traditions of the Church. The Council of 
 Laodicea says : "The people shall not elect those who are 
 to be promoted to the priesthood." The second Council of 
 Mce decreed: "Any election of bishops, priests, or dea- 
 cons, made by the magistrates, shall be invalid." Here we 
 see the wisdom of the Church. For where the people can 
 elect and dismiss at will their pastors, the latter are not 
 free to preach the truth, lest they might expose the secret 
 vices of influential persons in the Church, who would then 
 turn against them, incite the people against them, and 
 drive them from the parish. We see the deplorable effect 
 of this in Protestant Churches, where often a talkative old 
 lady may disturb the whole church, and drive the minister 
 away. Besides, the minister is not free to preach as he sees 
 fit, but as the people like, and truth suffers. In all human 
 things there must be a head. 
 
 A bishop elect, before his consecration, cannot ordain a 
 priest, but he can give faculties that he may be ordained by 
 another bishop already consecrated. The bishop under whose 
 jurisdiction a clergyman lives, should ordain him. He can 
 be under him, because born in his diocese, because he has a 
 residence there, because he has ecclesiastical benefits in 
 that diocese, or because he lives with the bishop. A person 
 who lives with the bishop three years, or who is supported 
 by the bishop, even in any other place, for that length of 
 time, belongs to that bishop. A bishop may give one of his 
 own students an exeat that the latter may be adopted and 
 ordained by any other bishop. But they cannot be ordained 
 except they belong to some diocese, or to some religious 
 order in the Church. 
 
 That sacred orders may be legitimately received, the 
 clergyman should have a calling from God, his intention 
 
304 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 should be right, he should have led an innocent life, and 
 he must have an intention of being ordained. Every priest 
 should have a vocation to the priesthood. A vocation may 
 be considered as a supernatural act of Providence, by 
 which God elects a priest to the Church, and gives him the 
 talents and graces necessary to prepare himself for worthily 
 and laudably fulfilling the duties of the priesthood. A vo- 
 cation for the clergy is necessary before a person can be 
 ordained, for St. Paul says : '^ Let no one take to himself 
 the honor, but he who is called of God as Aaron was" 
 (Heb. V. 4). Christ said to his Apostles : "You have not 
 chosen me, but I have chosen you" (John xv. 10). So 
 Christ also did not glorify himself, that he might be made 
 a High Priest, but he that said unto him, "Thou art my 
 Son ; this day I have begotten thee *' (Heb. v. 5). The ordi- 
 nary signs of a vocation are a continual and unchanging 
 desire of becoming a priest, the love of study, the love of 
 God and of our neighbor, the love of prayer, and an apti- 
 tude for fulfilling the duties of the priesthood. A priest 
 should have two characteristics. The first and most impor- 
 tant is piety. The second is learning. A person should 
 advance with the right intention — that is, the desire of sav- 
 ing his own soul and the souls of others. Hence how sinful 
 it would be for them to advance to holy orders because they 
 imagine it is an eas}' life, or choose that state of life the 
 same as they would medicine, law, or any other profession ! 
 A priest should lead a pure life, for the eyes of all are 
 upon him, and when he falls great is the fall thereof, and 
 many will he drag down with himself to perdition. There- 
 fore those who desire to advance to that holy state, should 
 show first innocence and uprightness of life. They should 
 be confirmed before receiving tonsure, according to the di- 
 rections of the Council of Trent ; for by confirmation they 
 become perfect Christians. They should exercise the duties 
 of each order if convenient. Tonsure cannot be received 
 before the age of seven years ; minor orders from seven to 
 fourteen years of age. For subdeaconship they should be 
 twenty-two, for deaconship twenty-three, for the priesthood 
 twenty-five, and for the episcopacy thirty-one. That is, 
 just beginning those years, except for the episcopacy, 
 which requires thirty years complete. A dispensation to be 
 ordained before the time named is reserved to the Pope, 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 365 
 
 who grants it only for the priesthood. By an Indult raany 
 bishops have authority from the Pope to dispense, when 
 they need priests. No clergyman should be ordained unless 
 with some title. This title may be considered as the right 
 of receiving a sufficient support. 
 
 In the first ages they ordained only those they knew were 
 worthy — following carefully the rules of St. Paul (I. Tim. 
 3-10, Tit. 1, 7). If these rules were ever broken, it was be- 
 cause of the remarkable virtue of the candidate. Thus St. 
 Ambrose was elevated to the episcopal see of Milan, al- 
 though he had not yet been baptized when he was sent to 
 that city by the emperor, to settle a dispute. The old can- 
 ons required that only the most holy among the people 
 should be elevated to the ranks of the clergy. Those who, 
 after baptism, had fallen into great crimes, or had done 
 public penance, were entirely rejected. Such is the testi- 
 mony of SS. Cyprian and Isidore, of Origen, of Popes Siri- 
 cius. Innocent I., and of Gregory the Great. This was the 
 custom established by the councils of the first eight centu- 
 ries. Sometimes, but rarely, public penitents were after- 
 wards ordained ; but they were exceptions. Men twice 
 married, or who had espoused a widow, were not ordained, 
 because the Church desires only the union of virgins. The 
 ignorant, the mutilated, the weak in virtue, or those hav- 
 ing any notable defects of soul or body, or of good name, 
 were rejected, because the priest must, in as much as pos- 
 sible, be a perfect man, like Jesus, whom he represents. 
 JSTo one born the fruit of sin, outside Christian wedlock, 
 slaves, nor those belonging to families of evil report, were 
 accepted. We find that those customs are still partly car- 
 ried out in Ireland, for a defect or a disgrace in any of the 
 family will prevent the ordination of one of its members. 
 Yet dispensations are always given in urgent cases. But 
 nothing shows the care of the Church over her people as 
 the rules she follows in the choice of her clergy, who. like 
 the seven deacons chosen by the Apostles, should be filled 
 with the Holy Spirit (Acts vi.). 
 
 In the Western Church they never ordained the clergy 
 unless they had some means of living a decent and respect- 
 able life, as became their station. But toward the fifth 
 century, in the East, they ordained without titles or livings, 
 till it was forbidden by the Council of Chalcedony, which 
 
366 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 allowed them to be ordained with the title of their own pat- 
 rimony. After the beginning of the twelfth century the 
 clergy rapidly increased, and many were ordained without 
 titles, till the evil was again stopped by Pope Alexander 
 III., in the Lateran Council. The Council of Trent re-en- 
 acted the old laws of the primitive Church, and forbade the 
 ordination of clergymen unless they had some means of 
 living in a respectable manner becoming their station. 
 The council left to the bishops the right of judging the 
 amount of patrimony required. No clergyman, therefore, 
 should be ordained unless there is a provision made for his 
 living ; and when once ordained the Church must provide 
 him with means of support, and not allow him to beg, for 
 that would bring a disgrace on the priesthood. Rarely is 
 any provision made for the support of numbers of Protestant 
 ministers, when they become sick or disabled. Yet occa- 
 sionally they provide for them when they have many 
 friends. St. Paul says : ^'They that serve the altar partake 
 with the altar" (I. Cor. ix. 13). 
 
 The different grades of orders should be received regu- 
 larly, each in its own time, without skipping any orders. 
 According to the Justinian Code and the councils, a certain 
 time should elapse between the reception of each order, so 
 that they may exercise the duties of the orders received. 
 That was first commanded by Pope Zozimus in the fifth 
 century. The time which should elapse between the recep- 
 tion of one minor order and the other is not given, but 
 rather left to the judgment of the bishop. Minor orders 
 are often given the same day. Between minor orders and 
 subdeaconship one year is required. From subdeaconship 
 to deaconship, and between the latter and the priesthood, a 
 year should elapse. That is the present discipline, and the 
 bishop can dispense when clergymen are badly wanted in 
 the Church. 
 
 In former times the rules were stricter, and deacons were 
 ordained only at twenty-five, priests at thirty, and bishops 
 from forty to fifty years of age. This was the custom in 
 many parts of the Eastern and Western Churches, as 
 shown by numerous monuments of the early ages. At 
 Rome when the Lateran Palace, the ancient residence of 
 the Roman emperors, was turned into a seminary for the 
 education of the clergy, they were still more strict, as 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 367 
 
 shown by the acts of Popes Siricius and Zozimus. The 
 Apostolic Constitutions forbid bishops to be consecrated 
 before they have attained their fiftieth year, because, it 
 says, then they have passed the youthful age of incon- 
 stancy, and then nothing can be brought against their 
 character. 
 
 Certain great characters were elevated to the episcopacy 
 without passing through or exercising all the lower orders. 
 The most remarkable examples history offers are the great 
 SS. Augustin, Cyprian, and Ambrose, who, while still lay- 
 men, were so celebrated for their virtues and learning that, 
 for them, the Church dispensed. Yet the cases were rare 
 where the lower orders were not received before the higher, 
 and which are contained virtually in the higher orders ; for 
 there is but one entire sacrament of holy orders, complete 
 in the episcopacy. 
 
 The time and place of ordination was first determined by 
 Pope Gelasius in the fifth century. Tonsure can be given 
 on any day, at any hour, or in any place. Minor orders 
 may be conferred on Wednesday or Thursday, before the 
 general ordination, which usually takes place the Saturdays 
 before Christmas and before Trinity Sunday. Minor orders 
 may be given also on the same day as the other orders. 
 Sacred orders are generally conferred on Saturdays of the 
 Ember Days, on the Saturday before Passion Sunday, 
 and on Holy Saturday. Still if the needs of the diocese 
 require clergymen, the bishop can ordain at any other time. 
 A bishop should be consecrated only on Sunday, on the 
 Feast of the Apostles, or on any other feast, when the 
 Pope has dispensed. Holy orders, in the Western Church, 
 are always conferred in the morning, during mass. The 
 clergy can be ordained in the cathedral, in any large 
 church of the diocese, or in any other place which the 
 bishop chooses. The bishop who ordains a subject belong- 
 ing to another bishop, should receive letters from the other 
 bishop. 
 
 The Church, almost from the beginning, chose the Ember 
 Days and the days of fasting and of prayer as the proper 
 time of ordination, that the people at this time might pray 
 for worthy ministers. Ives of Chartres, Amalarius, as well 
 as other ancient writers, believed that the custom of or- 
 daining at these times came from the Apostles, and was 
 
368 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 only suspended durint^ the j)ersecutions. When St. Boni- 
 face, the Apostle of Germany, was obliged to ordain at 
 other times, he supposed he was obliged to get a dispensa- 
 tion from the Pope. 
 
 During the persecutions the ceremonies of ordination 
 were held in any and every place the faithful could assem- 
 ble, without disturbance, or without attracting the atten- 
 tion of the pagans. But, as much as possible, they were 
 held in public, in the churches, before the people who me!; 
 to see the ceremony, and to give testimony of the good 
 name of the candidates. Some of the old councils ordered 
 bishops to be consecrated in the church to which they wer ; 
 to be sent as chief pastors, or in the metropolitan church of 
 the archbishop. Sometimes they were obliged to ordain or 
 consecrate the solitaries of the deserts, in their retreats, 
 because through humility they refused to take the respon- 
 sibility of holy orders. 
 
 Certain impediments prevent a man from being regularly 
 ordained ; others make the ordination invalid ; while a 
 third class of impediments prevent the exercise of the func- 
 tions of those orders already validly received. Irregularity 
 may be said to be a canonical impediment, which prevents, 
 and chiefly forbids one to receive orders, or to exercise the 
 orders already received. It is called a canonical impedi- 
 ment, because it arises only from the laws of the Church. 
 Yet in some cases it may come from the law of reason, or 
 nature. It differs from excommunication, by which a per- 
 son is deprived of Communion with the Church ; from an 
 interdict, which removes a person from his support derived 
 from the divine offices, and from suspension, which pre- 
 vents a person from administering the sacraments, or exer- 
 cising the functions of his orders. 
 
 During the persecutions, lest spies might report the meet- 
 ings of the people, for the sacrifice of the mass, prudent 
 men were chosen to stand at the doors of the churches. 
 Their duty was to keep out the pagans, to separate the 
 males from the females, the clergy from the people, to keep 
 order in the church, to call the people to the services, and 
 afterwards to close and lock the sacred building. That 
 was the origin of the order of porter. He was ordained in 
 the early Church by handing him the keys of the church. 
 The forms or words used in conferring minor orders must 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 369 
 
 be very old, because thej are mentioned by the fourth 
 Council of Carthage, held in the time of St. Augustine, 
 about the year 398. 
 
 The readers, in the early Church, were generally younger 
 than the porters. They usually intended to enter the ranks 
 of the higher clergy, while often the porter remained as a 
 sexton for life. The readers were sometimes bishops' or 
 priests' secretaries. They made their studies in the houses 
 of the clergy, and on Sundays and holidays they read the 
 lessons of the Holy Bible, or the letters of the martyrs, 
 bishops, etc., in the church, when the bishop or one of the 
 priests delivered a homily — a short sermon or explanation 
 on the part read. They guarded the Holy Scriptures, which 
 were much exposed to be destroyed by the pagans during 
 the persecutions. The formula or words of their ordination 
 is given, also, in the fourth Council of Carthage, which says 
 that they are ^'^to read for him who is going to preach, to 
 sing at the services, and to bless the wine and the new 
 fruits." To-day their duties are fulfilled by the higher 
 clergy, and even by the priests. 
 
 At the time of Christ many Tvere possessed by demons. 
 We see that by the Gospel narratives. These possessions 
 were quite frequent in the Apostolic times, especially 
 among the pagans. In order to show how they despised 
 the works and the powers of those spirits of darkness, the 
 duty of driving them out was left to the lower ministers of 
 the Church. They were called exorcists, from the Greek ; 
 meaning to drive out an evil spirit. They also directed the 
 people in the Church, who were not to receive Communion, 
 to make way for the others coming forward to receive. 
 They sometimes sent away the catechumens and the pos- 
 sessed before the offertory. They prepared the bread and 
 wine for the sacrifice, as well as imposed hands on the 
 possessed. Besides, in the early Church they sometimes 
 healed the sick. 
 
 The acolytes were at first young men from twenty to 
 thirty years of age, who waited on the bishop, carried out 
 his orders, served the deacons at the altar, before subdea- 
 cons were established. They lighted the candles on the 
 altar, and in the early Church they carried the Eucharist 
 to the sick and absent. But especially they prepared the 
 water and wine, and laid them on the table during mass. 
 
:370 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 The Councils of Carthage say that the acolyte, at his ordi- 
 nation, should be presented with a candlestick and candle, 
 as well as with the cruets for wine for the Eucharist. 
 
 Since subdeaconship was raised to a sacred order, in 
 the Western Church, many ceremonies have been added to 
 that rite of ordination. The fourth Council of Carthage, so 
 often mentioned, says : "Because the subdeacon is not or- 
 dained with the imposition of hands, at his ordination he 
 will receive the empty chalice and paten from the hands of 
 the bishop, and the cruet with water," etc. Besides, at the 
 present day, he receives the Book of the Epistles, with the 
 authority of solemnly reading it in the church, as well as 
 other things which belong to his order. The subdeacon is 
 to assist at the altar, to wait on the deacon, priest, and 
 bishop, on great and solemn ceremonies. Formerly they 
 were mostly bishops' secretaries, and took charge of the 
 temporal affairs of the Church. Since subdeaconship be- 
 came one of the sacred orders, they are obliged to take a 
 vow of chastity at their ordination. From that time they 
 are bound to perpetual celibacy, to recite the divine office 
 or breviary, and to spend their lives in the services of the 
 altar. We conclude from Pope St. Gregory's letters that 
 the subdeacons at Rome sometimes took charge of the pat- 
 rimony of St. Peter, in the early Church, besides difficult 
 and important matters belonging to the Holy See. Thus 
 we read that Hildebrand, who afterwards became the great 
 Gregory VII., was sent, when a subdeacon, to the court of 
 Henry lY. of Germany. As a memorial of this old custom, 
 sometimes cardinals and important officials of the Holy See 
 remain in the lower ranks of the clergy, without ever ad- 
 vancing to the priesthood. 
 
 The Greeks, in former times, agreed with the Latin 
 Church regarding the time and place of the ordination of 
 the lower clergy in all details ; but since their separation 
 they have somewhat changed their discipline. It appears 
 that all the ancient Rites, both of the East and of the West, 
 direct that deacons, priests, and bishops should be ordained 
 by the imposition of hands. That was the way evidently 
 laid down by Christ, and was prefigured by the Jewish im- 
 position of hands, when establishing their priests of the tem- 
 ple, and of the tabernacle of the Old Testament. The an- 
 cient Romans gave power to their governors, generals, and 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 371 
 
 magistrates in handing them the insignia of their author- 
 ity. Copying after this, all through the East, they give 
 Church authority by conferring on the ministers of their 
 churches the symbols of their power. The keys of a city 
 are given to-day to the one whom they wish to honor with 
 the freedom of the city. It is then but natural that the 
 power of orders would be given by handing the candidate 
 the insignia and instruments of his office. 
 
 In the year 254, when Pope St. Cornelius was elected to 
 the vacant Papacy, there were 44 priests, 7 deacons, 7 sub- 
 deacons, 42 acolytes, 52 exorcists, and 52 porters attached 
 to the churches of Rome. The ceremonies of the Church 
 were carried out at that time with great splendor. The 
 lower clergy multiplied rapidly up to the time of the con- 
 Aversion of Constantino, about 310. For the following four 
 or five centuries, the Church was served with great mag- 
 nificence by numerous clergymen of the lower orders. Af- 
 ter that time, when the foundations for low masses, and the 
 foundations for the, support of the clergy diminished, the 
 pastors and parishes becoming numerous, the higher clergy 
 rapidly multiplied, and the loAv^er clergymen diminished. 
 
 Among the Greeks the lower clergy are ordained in the 
 vestry, or in the nave of the church, before the beginning 
 of mass ; while the higher orders, beginning with deacon- 
 ship, are conferred in the sanctuary, before the altar, dur- 
 ing a solemn mass. That must be a very old custom among 
 them, because one of the charges brought against St. Chry- 
 sostom by his enemies was, that he did not ordain deacons 
 and priests before the altar. This is the custom followed 
 by the Western Church, even when ordaining subdeacons. 
 Minor, or the lower orders, St. Ambrose says, were not in 
 his day given during mass or before the altar, because 
 originally these ministers were not to serve the altar dur- 
 ing mass, like the members of the higher or sacred orders ; 
 but they were to take charge of the church and the people. 
 Amalarius and others of the ninth century say, that in 
 their time the ordination of the deacons began with the 
 prostration of all those who were to be ordained, including 
 even the bishop himself, during which they sang the Litany. 
 
 At the present time, in the Western Church, the prostra- 
 tion takes place after the ordination of the acolytes, and 
 the bishop kneels on the higher step of the altar, in place of 
 
372 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 prostrating himself on the floor, as took place in the early 
 Church. The subdeacons prostrate themselves on their 
 faces as well as the others. This is one of the most striking 
 scenes of the Latin Rite. We give here an engraving of 
 the impressive ceremony of the prostration, from a pho- 
 tograph taken for the writer at the Christmas ordination in 
 the Grand Seminary, Montreal. The writer has a singular 
 affection for this great ecclesiastical institution of learning, 
 for there he made his studies, and there he received from 
 bishop Fabore all his orders. 
 
 Amalarius, Rutold, the ancient Sacramentaries of Sens, 
 of Pope Gelasius, the works of Pope Gregory, and many 
 remarkable old works, rank subdeacons among the lower 
 clergy. By lapse of time the Greeks and the other Orien- 
 tals, who, only after the ordination once presented the infe- 
 rior clergy with the instruments, figures of their power, 
 changed to our custom of giving them these instruments 
 during the ceremony of ordination. They always ordained 
 their lower clergy — that is, their subdeacons and readers — 
 with the imposition of hands alone. 
 
 The ceremonies of the ordination of deacons are long and 
 beautiful. The archdeacon presents them to the bishop, 
 who tells them that their office is to minister at the altar, 
 to baptize, and to preach the word of God. He tells them 
 that their order was figured by the tribe of Levi, in the Old 
 Testament, dwelling on how careful they should be to 
 rightly fulfill their ministry. With the others who are to 
 receive sacred orders, they now prostrate themselves on 
 their faces on the floor, as they did before when they were 
 ordained subdeacons. During the prostration the Litany is 
 sung, and towards the end the bishop blesses them. Rising 
 from his knees, the bishop takes the crosier in his left hand, 
 and standing on the platform of the altar he turns to those 
 prostrated, and calls down the blessing of heaven on all 
 those prostrated, saying : 
 
 ^'That thou wouldst deign to bless *}• these thy elect. '^ 
 '' We beseech thee hear us," reply all those taking part. 
 
 ''That thou wouldst deign to bless *i* and sanctify ►[• 
 these thy elect." " We beseech thee hear us." 
 
 ''That thou wouldst deign to bless, *J* sanctify, ^J* and 
 consecrate "I* these thy elect." *'We beseech thee hear 
 us." 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 375 
 
 The bishop makes a cross over the prostrated each time 
 it is given here. 
 
 The bishop im.poses his hands on them, saying: "Re- 
 ceive the Holy Ghost for strength to resist the devil and 
 his temptations : in the name of the Lord." After certain 
 prayers the bishop places the stole on their left shoulders, 
 coming down before at the right, saying : '' Receive this 
 white stole from the hand of God," etc. The deacon is then 
 clothed with the dalmatic, with the prescribed form of 
 words. The bishop now gives him the book of the Gospels, 
 with power and authority to read it publicly in the church, 
 for the living and the dead. The bishop then blesses the 
 deacons with the prayer given in the pontifical. 
 
 Deaconship was always conferred in the Church by the 
 imposition of hands. The voice of all antiquity proclaims 
 that as a historic fact. The other ceremonies were added 
 at various times to give splendor to the rite — to show the 
 effect of the sacrament of holy orders, and to point out the 
 functions and duties of deaconship. 
 
 The rituals written before the ninth century do not men- 
 tion the presentation of the dalmatic, and of the book of 
 the Gospels. Yet they are spoken of in a sacramentary 
 of England, more than a thousand years old. Durandus, 
 the bishop of Mende, in the thirteenth century, says that 
 he added the ceremony of presenting the book of the 
 Gospels to the ritual of his church. In the early Church 
 the duty of reading the Gospel belonged to the porters and 
 to the subdeacon, as well as to the deacon. It is evident 
 that the essential part of deaconship consists in the imposi- 
 tion of the right hand of the bishop, with the words, "Re- 
 ceive the Holy Ghost," etc. That has always existed in the 
 Church, both in the East as well as in the West. It is men- 
 tioned in the Acts in the ordination of the seven deacons 
 chosen by the Apostles (Acts vi.). 
 
 The Greeks and the other Oriental Christians ordain their 
 deacons with the imposition of hands, and they carry out 
 the ceremony of giving them the insignia of their ofl&ce. 
 The candidate in the Eastern Churches is presented by the 
 oldest deacon to the bishop, who makes three crosses on his 
 head, and afterwards takes off his cincture and the vest- 
 ments of subdeaconship. The candidate then bows, and 
 holds his forehead on the table of the altar, while the bishop 
 
376 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 and archdeacon impose their hands on his head, saying : 
 " Divine grace raises such a pious subdeacon to the dignity 
 of deacon. Let us pray for him that divine grace may 
 come down on him." Other prayers follow, after which 
 the bishop again imposes his hands on his head, praying 
 that he may receive the grace of St. Stephen, etc. (Acts vi.). 
 He imposes his hands for the third time, with a beautiful 
 prayer given in their ritual ; after which he clothes him 
 with the stole hanging from the left shoulder. Other cere- 
 monies then follow, which we will not mention. In these 
 rites they do not present the book of the Gospels to the 
 deacon. They use two chalices in the celebration of the 
 ordination mass, and the deacon receives Communion from 
 the bishop, as in the Latin Rite. 
 
 The ordination of a deacon among the Maronites and Ja- 
 cobites is as follows : The candidate at the altar is pre- 
 sented by the archdeacon to the bishop, who says about the 
 same prayers as those found in the Greek Rite, given 
 above. After this he invests the candidate with the alb 
 and stole. He then presents him with the book of the Epis- 
 tles of St. Paul. He then reads that instruction of St. Pa\il 
 to Timothy (I. Tim. iii.), where the duties of deacon are 
 mentioned. While the choir sings a response telling of the 
 dignity of deaconship, the candidate puts incense into the 
 thurible, and walks around the church, carrying the book 
 of the Epistles. After he has placed it on the credence 
 table, he takes the veil used to cover the chalice and paten 
 in the Latin Rite, which only deacons can touch in these 
 Eastern Rites. He now prostrates himself before the altar, 
 while they sing certain prayers. The bishop imposes his 
 hands on him, saying: **Such a one is ordained;" while 
 the archdeacon continues in a loud voice, '* Deacon of St. 
 
 N , altar of the holy church of the city of N ." 
 
 While the bishop imposes his hands on the candidate's 
 head, two other deacons hold each a fan over the head of 
 the candidate. The latter kisses the altar, when he re- 
 ceives the ''Pax" from the bishop, from whom also he re- 
 ceives Communion. The ceremony ends with a few words 
 of exhortation on his ministry, given by the bishop to the 
 new deacon. 
 
 The Nestorian Rite of ordaining a deacon does not sub- 
 stantially differ from the ceremony given above. The 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 377 
 
 bishop stands in his place, and after he has sung certain 
 prayers, asks God to send down his grace on those to be 
 raised to deaconship, that they may well and saintly fulfill 
 their duties. He prostrates himself on his face on the floor, 
 to thank God for having given him the power and grace of 
 ordaining others. At the same time the candidate also 
 prostrates hiraself on his face on the floor. The bishop then 
 rises and makes the sign of the cross on the head of the 
 candidate, and imposes his right hand on his head, his left 
 raised toward heaven. After another prayer the bishop 
 makes again the sign of the cross on the head of the candi- 
 date, who again prostrates himself on his face on the 
 ground, when they take off the stole which he had on his 
 neck while a subdeacon, and put it on his left shoulder. 
 The archdeacon now hands him the book of the Epistles of 
 St. Paul. After he has touched the book the bishop makes 
 the sign of the cross on his forehead, saying : " Such a one 
 is separated, sanctified, and consecrated to the ministry of 
 the Church, and to the levitical service, like St. Stephen, in 
 the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost. Amen. " 
 
 The ceremony of the ordination of priests, in the Latin or 
 Western Church, begins by the archdeacon presenting the 
 deacons, saying that the Holy Church asks them to be ele- 
 vated to the rank of presbyters. The bishop, reading from 
 the Pontifical, reminds them of the old customs of the 
 Church, when the people were once consulted regarding 
 the life, deportment, and morals of the clergy before they 
 were promoted to the priesthood. Continuing, he tells them 
 that as Moses elected seventy elders from the different 
 tribes of Israel, to aid him in the government of the people 
 of the old Law, as our Lord chose seventy-two disciples to 
 preach the Gospel, thus they are to aid the bishop in the 
 sacred ministry of sacrificing, blessing, presiding, preach- 
 ing, and baptizing. 
 
 They then prostrate themselves on their faces, with the 
 deacons and subdeacons, as when ordained deacons and 
 subdeacons. This is in memory of our Lord, who, before 
 his passion, prostrated himself in the garden. It is also to 
 humble all human pride in the hearts of the candidates, be- 
 fore taking the high and holy orders. The bishop now im- 
 poses his hand on the head of each. They kneel in their 
 
378 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 places, and all the priests, one after another, impose hands 
 on them. Then the bishop and all the priests hold their 
 right hands extended over them, as given in the engraving 
 at the opening of this tract. While this takes place the 
 bishop prays that God may send down the blessing of the 
 Holy Spirit and the power of the priesthood on the can- 
 didates. 
 
 They come before the bishop, who turns the stole, shown 
 in the engraving, on l^heir left shoulder, and puts it on their 
 neck, saying : '' Receive the yoke of the Lord, for his yoke 
 is sweet and his burden light." The bishop now takes the 
 chasuble from the hand of the waiting ministers, and puts 
 it on the candidate, saying : ''Receive this sacerdotal vest- 
 ment, which signifies charity," etc. This vestment is 
 pinned up to show that the candidates have not yet re- 
 ceived the full and complete power of the sacrament. Again 
 the bishop blesses them, reminding them how Titus and 
 Timothy were the disciples of St. Paul. After which the 
 beautiful hymn to the Holy Spirit, ''Come, Holy Ghost," 
 etc., is sung. 
 
 They again come before the bishop, who consecrates 
 their hands by anointing them with the Oil of Catechumens, 
 saying : ''Whatever these hands bless, may it be blessed," 
 etc. He anoints the thumbs and index fingers, that they 
 may be consecrated to touch the Holy Eucharist in offering 
 the sacrifice of the mass and giving Communion. Again 
 they come to the knees of the bishop, who hands them the 
 chalice and paten, with the bread and wine, saying : " Re- 
 ceive the power of offering sacrifice to God, and of celebrat- 
 ing mass for both the living and the dead. In the name of 
 the Lord, Amen." 
 
 During the rest of the service they say mass with the 
 bishop, pronouncing these holy words with him, besides re- 
 ceiving Communion at his hands. Towards the end of the 
 mass they again come to the bishop's knees, who, imposing 
 both hands on the head of each, says: "Receive ye the 
 Holy Ghost : whose sins you shall forgive, they are for- 
 given them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are re- 
 tained" (John XX. 22, 23). The chasuble is now unfolded 
 and allowed to hang down in all its beauty, to show that 
 the candidate has received the fullness of the power of a 
 presbyter. The newly ordained priests promise reverence 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 379 
 
 and obedience to their bishops, without which there would 
 be no peace or unity in the Church. 
 
 Let us now see the origin and history of some of these 
 august ceremonies of ordination. Many of them come from 
 the Jewish temple, and from the Apostles, and are univer- 
 sally found both in the Eastern as well as in the Western 
 Churches. 
 
 Twice the bishop imposes his hands on the candidates for 
 priesthood — once when he, with all the priests present, in 
 silence impose their hands on them, and after the Com- 
 munion. The first imposition of hands, given in the illus- 
 tration at the beginning of this tract, is as old as the Chris- 
 tian religion. It is given in the New Testament, in the 
 fourth Council of Carthage, in the Apostolic Constitutions, 
 in the works of the fathers, in all the ancient Kites, and 
 was customary in all ages of the Christian religion. The 
 anointing of the hands is not mentioned by the ancient 
 writers, nor is it practiced to-day by the Greeks. Authors 
 of antiquity, when speaking of anointments, mean the spir- 
 itual anointment of the Holy Spirit, and not of this visible 
 ceremony, the origin of which we cannot find. In the 
 Western Church the anointing of bishops appears to be 
 older than the anointing of priests. Both were practiced in 
 ancient Gaul, now France. The monuments of the ancient 
 Churches of Spain and of Africa are altogether silent on 
 the anointing of bishops and priests at their ordination and 
 consecration. Bishops, at their consecration, were anointed 
 in the ancient Churches of Rome, long before the epoch of 
 Popes Leo and Gregory, because they speak of this cere- 
 mony in some of their sermons. The anointing of the hands 
 of the priest appears to be later than the ninth century, from 
 a reply of Pope Nicholas I. to the archbishop of Bourges. 
 Some of the ancient rituals directed the priests to be 
 anointed, both on the head and on the hands — the former 
 with Chrism, and the latter with the Oil of Catechumens. 
 
 The Greeks, during ordination, never give the chalice 
 and paten to the candidate, nor do writers of the eighth 
 and ninth centuries mention this ceremony ; which go to 
 show that the rite is later than that epoch. It appears to 
 have been introduced into the Western Church about the 
 twelfth century. The Gregorian Sacramentary gives it for 
 the consecration of a bishop, but not for the ordination of a 
 
380 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 priest. In ancient times the attendant clergy all together, 
 with the bishop, recited the prayers at mass, when the 
 bishop celebrated the sacred mysteries. That old custom is 
 continued still in the rite of ordination, and in some cathe- 
 drals by the members of the cathedral chapter. 
 
 The imposition of hands, with the words, '* Receive ye 
 the Holy Ghost," etc., is still later than the other ordina- 
 tion rite. The writers of the early ages are entirely silent 
 on that point. 
 
 It appears that the essential part of this sacrament con- 
 sists in the first imposition of hands, still practiced by all 
 Christians, as well as in the Latin, or Western, Church. All 
 the Eastern Christians, the Episcopalians, and many Prot- 
 estant Churches still practice the imposition of hands. The 
 other ceremonies were added by different Churches at vari- 
 ous times, in order to give dignity and eclat to the cere- 
 mony. Therefore they might be left out, and still the ordi- 
 nation would be valid with the imposition of hands alone ; 
 but it would be sinful for each not to follow the rites of his 
 own Church. Writers of little historical knowledge say we 
 have changed. But they do not see the difference between 
 changing in faith or in discipline, or changing in customs. 
 We have never changed in faith, nor in the essential facts 
 or ceremonies of the sacraments. But we have changed in 
 customs, and added certain ceremonies of little importance. 
 
 We will suppose that all the rules and customs of the 
 country, in the election of bishops, having been carried out, 
 a bishop is about to be consecrated. He can be consecrated 
 only when his election has been approved by the Pope. 
 That is the custom in every part of the world at the present 
 time. Besides, a bishop must be consecrated by three 
 bishops. An episcopal consecration is one of the most 
 beautiful ceremonies of the Church. We will suppose that 
 all has been prepared, and a great crowd assembles in the 
 church — people, priests, and prelates — being prepared to 
 see the candidate raised to high dignity in the episcopacy. 
 We must give the ceremonies as short as we can. 
 
 We have already spoken of the origin of the oath taken 
 by the bishop. At the beginning of the ceremony he is ex- 
 amined regarding his faith and morals. He is told the 
 chief duties of the episcopacy, which are ^^to judge, to in- 
 terpret, to consecrate, to ordain, to offer sacrifice, to bap- 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 381 
 
 tize, and to confirm." He then prostrates himself on the 
 floor, while they sing the Litany ; during which he is six 
 times blessed by the consecrating bishop. When all rise 
 the consecrator bishop, with his two assisting bishops, im- 
 pose their hands on the elect, saying: "Receive the Holy 
 Ghost." His head is then anointed with holy chrism, which 
 signifies Christ, the anointed of the Lord, that the spirit of 
 Christ — that is, the Holy Ghost — may dwell within that 
 mind, to direct the diocese over which he is to be placed. We 
 give here an engraving of the consecration of archbishop 
 Corrigan, of New York, as bishop of Newark. His hands 
 are anointed, that they may be ever given to holy works for 
 the glory of God, for the salvation of souls, and for the 
 good of the Church. The crosier is blessed and given him 
 to signify his authority, like a good shepherd, to correct 
 and guide his flock. The ring is blessed and given him, to 
 typify his wedlock with his diocese as with his spouse. 
 The book of the Gospels is placed on his head and on his 
 shoulders, to signify that he is, as it were, in word and in 
 action, and in his whole life, to carry the Gospel of Christ 
 and preach it to the people. The mitre is blessed and placed 
 on his head, to signify the knowledge of both Testaments, 
 which he should always study and guard. The gloves 
 placed on his hands tell of care and judgment in his works. 
 The newly consecrated bishop is now seen in all his sacred 
 vestments. After the grand Te Deum he gives his first 
 episcopal blessing to the people, which brings the ceremony 
 to an end. 
 
 Let us see the history of the ceremonies. It is certain 
 that in all ages of the Church, bishops, both in the East as 
 well as in the West, were consecrated by the imposition of 
 hands, as given in Holy Writ (Acts ix. 3 : I. Tim. iv. 14). 
 The same may be said regarding the invocation of the Holy 
 Spirit, and the placing of the book of the Gospels on his 
 shoulders, which were always practiced both in the East 
 and in the West, as it is mentioned by numerous ancient 
 authors. 
 
 In many Protestant ordinations the Bible is handed to 
 the candidate, or he touches the holy book. At that mo- 
 ment he is told to go and preach the Gospel or the Word of 
 God. This is evidently the remains of those old Catholic 
 ordination ceremonies still preserved as a tradition among 
 
CONSECRATION O" ARCHBISHOP CORRIGAN AS BISHOP OF NEWARK. 
 
HOLY ORDERS. 383 
 
 them. Thus it appears that the presentation of the Words 
 of Holy Writ, and the imposition of liands is, and always 
 have been, universal among all people calling themselves 
 Christians. Although the presentation of the book is not 
 mentioned in the Bible, yet we can conclude that it is Apos- 
 tolic in its origin. 
 
 Some writers once supposed that the essence of the con- 
 secration was the imposition of the book of the Gospels ; but 
 nearly all solid authors say the essence of the sacrament 
 consists in the imposition of hands. The imposition of the 
 book is mentioned in the Apostolic Constitution, by writers 
 of the fifth century, in the fourth Council of Carthage, and 
 it was consequently practiced soon after the Apostolic 
 times. The imposition of the hands of the consecrating 
 bishops appears to be as old as the Church, and was prac- 
 ticed by the Apostles (Acts vi. G ; Ibidem, xiii. 3 ; I. Tim. v. 
 22). Innumerable monuments of the early Church tell us 
 that by the imposition of hands the first bishops were con- 
 secrated by the Apostles. We may say that the imposition 
 of the hands of the episcopacy, with the invocation of the 
 Holy Ghost, has always been considered as the essential 
 ceremony of the ordination of deacons and priests, and the 
 consecration of bishops in the Latin Church. It is so be- 
 lieved among all the Eastern Christians, as well as among 
 the Episcopalians of England and of this country. 
 
 The other Protestant Churches, for the most part, still 
 practice the ceremony of the imposition of hands. But hav- 
 ing lost the Apostolic succession, their ministers are only 
 laymen. The Episcopalians alone, especially in England, 
 carefully uphold the dignity of their bishops. But it is 
 with sorrow that we have to say that among the latter, 
 also, the Apostolic succession has been lost, not having 
 been handed down from one to another, as among the East- 
 ern Churches. 
 
 The episcopacy is greatly venerated by the Eastern Chris- 
 tians, who separated so many ages ago from the Catholic 
 Church. They all have bishops, who descend from the 
 Apostles. Their bishops are always consecrated by three 
 or more bishops, and by the imposition of hands. The Ja- 
 cobites derive their Apostolic succession from the arch- 
 bishop of Alexandria. The Greeks of Egypt having once 
 been ninety-seven years without a patriarch, sent their 
 
384 HOLY ORDERS. 
 
 bishop to a neighboring bishop for consecration. The 
 Greeks of Antioch, the Nestorians of Seleucia, and all those 
 old Churches that separated from us retained a validly con- 
 secrated episcopacy, and since that time, in their ceremo- 
 nies of ordination and in consecrating their bishops, they 
 carefully followed the customs of the early Church. 
 
 The Greeks, the Nestorians, the Jacobites, and other Ori- 
 entals, also place the book of the Gospels on the head and 
 shoulders of the new bishops. Their rite of consecrating 
 bishops does not differ substantially from the ceremonies 
 of the Latin Rite. But the Nestorians again impose their 
 hands on bishops already consecrated, when they are raised 
 to the see of an archbishop, which is an abuse introduced 
 after their separation from us. 
 

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MARRIAGE CEREMONY IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY, LONDON. 
 
CaTEIMONY comes from two 
 Latin words, and means the 
 duties of a mother ; for 
 on the wife and mother 
 fall the chief obligations, 
 duties, and trials of the 
 wedded life. While the 
 man changes but little 
 when he enters the mar- 
 ried state, the whole 
 course of the life of the wife, from that 
 time forward differs from the days of 
 her maidenhood. She is now to become 
 a wife and mother, and new fountains 
 of love spring forth in her heart. 
 
 Let us penetrate a little the secret 
 designs of God in instituting marriage. 
 Why are living creatures propagated 
 one from another? To represent and 
 figure the life of God they were created 
 living beings. In the lower forms of the 
 vegetable and animal kingdoms one 
 creature comes from another, either by 
 the breaking off of a part, which forms 
 a new and independent living individual, or as we rise 
 higher each individual is of both sexes. Thus as living be- 
 ings in this world, coming one from another, they represent 
 God the Son coming from the Father in heaven. The high- 
 est act of a creature is to produce its kind. The highest act 
 of God is the coming forth of the Persons of the Trinity. 
 When we rise higher still in the ranks of created beings, 
 we find that each creature is born of two parents. This 
 bringing forth of the young typifies the coming forth of 
 
 387 
 
388 MATRIMONY. 
 
 the Holy Ghost from the Father and from the Son. Not 
 that the Trinity has anything carnal, for all is spiritual 
 and eternal there. But as God created the universe to 
 show forth his wonderful and eternal perfections, thus the 
 birth of creatures, which requires the highest strength of 
 the parents, tells of the coming forth of the Most Holy 
 Trinity. In mankind, therefore, the family is an image of 
 the Trinity. 
 
 Let us go back to the origin of the race. God began with 
 the lowest order of creatures, and ended with the animals 
 nearest related to the human race. Then he said : '• Let us 
 make man to our image and likeness" (Gen. i. 26). Man, 
 then, is made to the image of God. Adam was made alone. 
 He came from no other person. He was not born. He rep- 
 resented the Father, not generated nor proceeding from 
 any one. The Lord could have made Eve from the earth 
 like unto Adam. But no. He made her from him. She 
 then came forth from Adam, because she represented God 
 the Son coming forth from the Father. God could have ar- 
 ranged the laws of nature so that all mankind would have 
 come forth from the earth like Adam, so we would be of 
 the neuter gender, like the angels, like the mind. But he 
 chose to make man and woman, and that from the union 
 of both man and woman the child would be born. Then 
 the child represents the Holy Spirit coming from the 
 Father and the Son. So the Trinty is found throughout 
 nature in the generation of all living beings, but especially 
 in the family the most perfect image of the Trinity in this 
 world. The highest act of any creature is to generate its 
 race. You will notice that all efforts of creatures below 
 man tend towards that object. Thus the flower is the most 
 beautiful effort of the plant, because there is found the male 
 and the female stamens and petals, and all are intended for 
 the production of seeds, which are to become new plants. 
 The first injury or weakness destroys this in the creature, 
 for the highest effort is required, because it produces 
 another like itself, representing the highest act of God — the 
 coming forth of the Persons of the Trinity — which took 
 place in eternity, is taking place now, and will as long as 
 God will be God. Thus all perfections in creatures are 
 found infinite in God. '* Shall not I that make others to 
 bring forth children myself bring forth ? saith the Lord. 
 
MATRIMONY. 389 
 
 Shall I that give generations to others be barren ? " (Isaiah 
 Ixvi. 9). 
 
 Let us penetrate deeper still into the works of God, who 
 is the author of marriage, and who was present at the wed- 
 ding of Adam and Eve. There God Eternal gave the model 
 after which all marriages should be contracted. God made 
 Eve out of the bone and flesh of Adam, to show all genera- 
 tions that the wife should be bone of his bone and the flesh 
 of his flesh, as our Lord says, repeating Adam's words : 
 *'For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and 
 shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall be in one flesh '^ 
 (Math. xix. 5). Can a man separate from his bone and 
 flesh ? Certainly not. Therefore man and wife, when one 
 flesh, can never separate. A divorce then is contrary to the 
 very nature of the first marriage, as our Lord replied when 
 the Jews said that Moses gave a divorce : "Because of the 
 hardness of your hearts * * * * but from the beginning it 
 was not so" (Math. xix. 8). Divorces, such as we see to- 
 day, are the curse of modern society, and are condemned 
 by every law of God, of reason, and of the Church. This 
 evil, if not checked in this country, will sap the foundations 
 of society and destroy the race. The Catholic Church never 
 can give a divorce, because it is not in her power to sepa- 
 rate "those whom God hath joined together." 
 
 God took a rib, and from it built up a wife for Adam. 
 Why did he take a rib ? The rib is a bone nearest to the 
 heart of man. And as the heart typifies and represents the 
 affections of our souls, so the wife is to be of all creatures 
 the nearest to the heart of her husband. He is to love her 
 above all others. She is to be like one of his ribs, against 
 which each pulsation of his heart should beat. God took a 
 rib, one of the bones of the middle of the body. For if he 
 had taken a bone out of his foot, it would show that the 
 woman was inferior to the man, and therefore to be tram- 
 pled on like a slave. If he had taken one of the bones of 
 Adam's head, it would signify that she was to be the head 
 and the superior of her husband. But he took a bone mid- 
 way between the head and feet of Adam, to show that the 
 wife is the equal of the husband. This is the equality to 
 which the Catholic Church elevated woman. To the 
 Church every woman is indebted for her place as the help- 
 mate of her husband. One has no more authority in things 
 
390 MATRIMONY. 
 
 relating to marriage rights than the other. Yet after the 
 fall God, as a punishment on woman, and as in fallen man- 
 kind a head is necessary, made the man the superior of the 
 household. Among the savage and half- civilized tribes, 
 woman is like a slave, a tool in the hands of man. She has 
 no rights which men are obliged to respect. In our modern 
 society, led by the writings of Comte, woman is made into 
 a little goddess, especially if she be young and pretty. One 
 extreme is nearly as bad as the other. The Church, guided 
 by the Holy Spirit, avoids either extreme, and says woman 
 is man's equal, and his helpmate for the generation of his 
 race. 
 
 Deeper still we penetrate the mystery of the first mar- 
 riage. God cast a deep sleep on Adam, and while in that 
 state he formed for him a spouse. Adam, the first father of 
 our race, was a figure of Jesus Christ, the second father of a 
 spiritual and God-fearing race — the Christians. Adam was 
 our father according to the flesh. Christ is our father ac- 
 cording to the spirit. Sleep is a figure of death. The sleep 
 of Adam prefigured the death of Christ. While Adam was 
 asleep there came forth from his side his spouse. While 
 Christ was dead on the cross there came forth from his 
 side, pierced by the soldier's spear, the water and the blood. 
 The water signified the water of baptism, by which the 
 members of the Church are born according to the spirit. 
 The blood signified the sacrament of the Eucharist, by 
 which the members of the Church are fed. Thus these two 
 sacraments generate and feed the children of the Church of 
 Christ. Thus as from the side of the sleeping Adam came 
 forth Eve, his spouse, in the same way from the dead Christ 
 came forth the Church, his spouse. The Church, then, is 
 the spouse of Christ, spotless and innocent as was Eve the 
 day she came forth from the side of sleeping Adam. 
 
 Each union, then, of man and wife, signifies the union of 
 Christ with his spouse, the Church. The child comes from 
 the father, and from the latter the child derives original 
 sin. As by means of his spouse man generates his race, 
 thus by means of the Church Christ generates his children 
 in baptism, and feeds them in Holy Communion, and nour- 
 ishes them by the other sacraments. Well, then, St. Paul 
 says of marriage : '' This is a great sacrament ; but I speak 
 in Christ and in the Church" (Eph. v. 32). 
 
MATRIMONY. 391 
 
 God said : *'It is not good for man to be alone; let us 
 make him a help like unto himself" (Gen. ii. 18). What 
 was the meaning of this ? It signifies that man alone can- 
 not generate his race, and therefore a woman was made 
 for him, by the aid of whom he would reproduce his kind. 
 For this reason all woman's instincts are for the family. 
 From her childhood she plays With dolls, the image of her 
 future children. Her motherly instincts develop at an 
 early age. She keeps house in play, while her brother takes 
 part in boyish sports, playing with horses, or soldiering, or 
 in those robust plays which are the shadows of his future 
 manly life. The little girl, on the contrary, is taken up 
 with the indoor life, for which she was created. Her whole 
 thought is the house and the fireside. Her only idea, when 
 she grows up, if not called by grace to the high state of vir- 
 ginity, is to secure a good husband and make him a good 
 wife, and be a good mother to his children ; and she gener- 
 ally succeeds in both if she is a womanly woman. 
 
 God said, '^Increase and multiply" (Gen. i. 28). This 
 was not a command to all to marry, for a few verses before 
 the great Creator said the same to the animals, who could 
 not understand a command. We are not, therefore, all 
 obliged to marry, as God binds us but to few things. By 
 the words said at the conferring of the sacraments, they 
 become powerful instruments for our salvation. The words 
 pronounced by the priest make them sacraments. Then by 
 these words, said both to animals and to man, God gave 
 these creatures the power of propagating their race. This 
 is certainly one of the most surprising powers we find in 
 nature, that a living creature comes from another by gener- 
 ation, and thus the races of living creatures are continued. 
 
 The chief object of marriage is the propagation of the 
 human race, and the education of the children; The prop- 
 agation of the race could take place without the bond of 
 marriage. But the education of the family is so important 
 that both father and mother are required, so that the chil- 
 dren may be properly reared and educated. Thus among 
 these animals, when the mother is so strong that she can 
 take care of the young herself, unaided and alone, the par- 
 ents remain together only for a time. Where God has pro- 
 vided for the young without any care on the part of either 
 parent, the parents separate and care not for their young. 
 
392 MATRIMONY. 
 
 But when the young are by nature weak, there is a shadow 
 of marriage among the animals, and the parents remain to- 
 gether till the young are able to take care of themselves. 
 In the human race the woman is weak and frail. No crea- 
 ture is born which needs so much care as the child. The 
 weak mother and the weak child want, then, a protector and 
 a provider in the husband and the father. Divorces, there- 
 fore, should never divide them, because of the children. 
 
 The education of the children lasts till they are grown up. 
 The time which elapses from the marriage of the parents 
 till the youngest child is grown up, is so long that it takes 
 up about the whole of the age allotted to man. In their old 
 age, therefore, when their time for reproducing their race 
 is gone, they have no need of a divorce. The father is to 
 ever protect and foster his wife and children. This obliga- 
 tion he imposed on himself the day he led her, a blushing 
 maiden, to the altar. In the same way the wife and mother 
 is obliged to be faithful to him and to her children. 
 
 By nature the man is robust and severe. By nature the 
 woman is gentle and kind. These qualities appear espe- 
 cially in their relations with their children. The father is 
 inclined to severity, the mother to kindness. The father's 
 severity and harshness with the children are tempered by 
 the love and the kindness of the mother. Hence the au- 
 thority of both father and mother check each other when 
 they go to extremes with the children. Both combined 
 make up a perfect government of the home. It is a great 
 misfortune for the children to lose either father or mother, 
 or have them separate, because the government of the 
 father alone is too severe, while the authority of the 
 mother alone is too lenient for the proper education of the 
 family. 
 
 We have not time here to speak of the great injustice 
 done a father or a mother by separating them by divorce, 
 and leaving the children in the hands of either parent, or 
 dividing them. Children do best when brought up together 
 — the harshness of the boys is softened by the gentleness of 
 the girls. A divorce, then, is a great evil on the family, 
 and on the Church, and on society. 
 
 The word marriage comes from the French, and means 
 the responsibilities of a husband ; wedding comes from the 
 old Saxon, and signifies a contract or agreement ; conjugal 
 
MATRIMONY. 393 
 
 is derived from the Latin, and signifies the equal yoke im- 
 posed on both parties ; nuptials is also derived from the 
 Latin, and tells of the veil which conceals the bride as a 
 white cloud. Marriage to-day is taken for the act by which 
 these two are united, while matrimony tells of the state of 
 union which follows the ceremony of marriage. It is called 
 a union of man and wife, because it arises from their free 
 consent, which is given in a moment, and which gives rise 
 to that union which is to last till it is dissolved by death. 
 It is called a conjugal or marriage union to distinguish it 
 from all other contracts, partnerships, or agreements which 
 man and woman may enter into for other purposes than for 
 the generation of their race. That union should take place 
 between persons who are capable of the duties of man and 
 wife — not prevented from marrying by any law of nature, 
 of God, of the Church, or of the government. 
 
 As a natural contract or agreement between man and 
 woman, God is the author of marriage, because at the be- 
 ginning God made mankind of the male and female gen- 
 ders. He presided at the wedding of Adam and Eve, and 
 told them to increase and multiply. As a sacrament of the 
 New Law, Christ is the author of marriage, because he took 
 the natural marriage contract and elevated it to the dignity 
 of being one of the saving ordinances of the Christian relig- 
 ion, giving grace to man and wife, enabling them to fulfill 
 their duties to each other and to their children. This is the 
 belief of all the early Christians, the voice of tradition, and 
 is shown by the most venerable monuments of antiquity. 
 
 Three schools of writers exist to-day regarding the essence 
 of marriage. Some say that the essential part of this sacra- 
 ment consists in the nuptial blessing which is like the form 
 of the sacrament, while the consent of the couple is the ma- 
 terial part. Others write that the essential part of the sac- 
 rament consists of the words or signs by which the parties 
 mutually agree to marry, and that the mutual delivery of 
 their bodies is the material part of the sacrament. A third 
 school claim that marriage, like the Eucharist, is a lasting 
 sacrament. While the other sacraments pass away as soon 
 as they produce their effect, marriage, like the Eucharist, 
 lasts as long as both parties live, giving grace to both, and 
 typifying the union of Christ with his Church. The first is 
 rather an opinion, and appears to have but little weight. 
 
394 MATRIMONY. 
 
 while the two last, taken together, appear to be the true 
 doctrine. Yet marriage is not complete till cohabitation 
 takes place ; then they become one flesh, figuring Christ 
 generating and bringing forth his spiritual children through 
 the Church, his spouse. 
 
 As St. Paul prophesied (I. Tim. iv. 1, 2, 3), many heretics 
 after his time claimed that marriage was forbidden, and 
 that it was an invention of the devil. Such was the doc- 
 trine of the Simoneans, the Manicheans, and many heretics 
 of the early ages. They were effectually combated by SS. 
 Augustin, Ireneus, Theodoret, and others. Now they only 
 live in history. Luther, Calvin, John Huss, and other re- 
 formers, stripped marriage of its sacramental character 
 and dragged it down to the condition of a natural contract, 
 which could be dissolved by a divorce. Their writings 
 have formed numerous Churches, wherein divorces are al- 
 lowed, man and wife are separated without other alliances, 
 while sins against marriage, and its lawful use, are de- 
 stroying families, ruining society, murdering the innocent 
 unborn, and preventing the increase of population. We 
 only draw the attention of the intelligent reader to those 
 good Christian parents, with numerous families, inside the 
 Catholic Church, where the wise laws of marriage are told 
 to both husband and wife, in the secrets of the confessional, 
 and the result is that divorces are unknown, and large fam- 
 ilies grow up and live to bless and to honor the gray hairs 
 of father and mother. 
 
 One of the most surprising things in this world is to leave 
 father, mother, and all, and join yourself to a husband or 
 wife, and that for life. Why do people do so ? It is the 
 instinct for the preservation of the human race. It is not 
 because they want to gratify their passions, but it is to fol- 
 low the blind impulse of nature written deeply in the heart 
 of man by the God of nature. We say they love each 
 other. But what is love ? We hear often of love, but few 
 know its meaning. Love is the impulse of God leading 
 creatures towards the end for which he created them. 
 Thus, when any creature has to do a difficult work, God 
 makes it easy by implanting love for that work in that 
 creature. Then the animal loves its young. The weaker 
 animals love each other, and gather together for mutual 
 protection from their enemies. While the young needs the 
 
MATRIMONY. * 395 
 
 protection of the mother, the mother's love lasts. She loves, 
 and therefore she protects them. When they are large, 
 and do not want her care, her love for them ceases. Our 
 mother loved us the most at the time of our birth, for then 
 we wanted most her care. The heart of the priest beats 
 with love for his people. The married love each other and 
 their children. All nature breathes of love, because it re- 
 flects in a faint and dim way the eternal love of the Per- 
 sons of the Trinity for each other. Thus love eternal in 
 God is shadowed forth by the love of man for woman, and 
 woman for man, in wedlock. 
 
 When two are about to enter on the difficult duty of mat- 
 rimony, in order to lighten their crosses — to make them 
 bear patiently with one another and their trials, till their 
 children are born and educated and prepared for the duties 
 of life — to lighten all these God implants in their hearts 
 love and fondness for each other. Thus the love of which 
 the poets sing and writers have called divine, comes from 
 God. It is born in heaven. It is the beginning of the grace 
 of marriage, which is poured out in all its fullness when 
 true lovers have been united in holy, happy wedlock, ac- 
 cording to the laws and rites of holy Church, which, in the 
 name of Christ, and by the power of God, blesses their union. 
 
 Mankind is divided into two — man and woman. They 
 are both man — he is the male and she the female man. The 
 image of God is in woman as well as in man, for it is in the 
 soul rather than in the body. But the race is not complete, 
 neither in one nor in the other, but rather in both taken to- 
 gether. What is wanting in one is found in the other. For 
 that reason man likes the company of woman, and woman 
 the society of man rather than of their own sex. God cre- 
 ated them thus, because he made them for each other, to 
 live together in holy wedlock. He impressed in the hearts 
 of each the love of each other, and of each other's society. 
 Hence the perfect man is found only in the moral man, 
 composed of man and wife. 
 
 • When they are children they are not capable of fulfilling 
 the duties of the married life. They think then but little of 
 each other. But when they grow up it is as natural for 
 them to fall in love as to eat and to sleep. Therefore where 
 men and women meet and associate together, they will, be- 
 fore they know it, fall into love. You should, then, avoid 
 
396 MATRIMONY. 
 
 the company of the one you would not marry, for before 
 you are aware you will be irresistibly carried away on the 
 vast flood which leads to wedlock. Therefore choose your 
 company beforehand. 
 
 The most important business of life is to choose a life 
 partner ; for your mate will exert on you an influence for 
 good or for bad which you will not be able to resist. There- 
 fore choose carefully your future spouse. You should, if you 
 can, be of the same temperament, disposition, and station 
 in life. But especially you should be of the same religion. 
 This latter is of the greatest importance, both for you and 
 for your children. Be careful whom you join in holy wed- 
 lock. Be humble yourself, and do not expect too much in 
 your life partner. You are both the fallen children of sinful 
 Adam and Eve, You will not find your future spouse an 
 angel, but one, like yourself, filled with imperfections. 
 
 We suppose that the time of courtship has come. You 
 must not keep company if you do not intend to marry, for 
 then courtship would have no lawful object, but might end 
 in sin. You meet each other. No company is so sweet as 
 that of your intended. 'No feeling is so remarkably sweet as 
 that which you have for your future partner. You are both 
 bound up in each other. The man first likes the womanli- 
 ness of his lady, and she loves his manliness. They become 
 so attached to each other that they think there is to be no 
 happiness for them unless they are united. We are ashamed 
 that we love any one but God. They want, therefore, no 
 eyes but their own to see their cooing. Hence they want 
 to be alone. Here is the danger of sin and disgrace. To 
 the woman we say, keep him in his proper place till the 
 Church blesses your union — till you can call him your hus- 
 band. He will despise you during all your wedded life if he 
 does not lead you a virgin to the altar. 
 
 Let your love for each other be like that of the angels in 
 heaven — holy and sanctified, blessed of God and man, and 
 not cursed by sin. Man and wife form, as it were, two 
 souls in one body. There should be a union of minds and 
 of souls, of feelings and of sentiments, during their whole 
 lives. They were made for each other. Man has his way 
 of courting, and woman has a different way ; but she can 
 make love as well as he, but in a different manner. The 
 God of nature has written it deep in the nature of both. 
 
MATRIMONY. 397 
 
 Man first seeks his wife, and afterwards she follows him 
 till death, like a cruel knife, divides them. 
 
 We will not stop to prove marriage. God has written it 
 so deeply in human nature that all peoples, all nations 
 marry, and therefore proofs would be useless. Among 
 those peoples not baptized, marriage is a natural contract to 
 live together during life as man and wife. It is, then, 
 among them a valid wedlock. Christ came not to crush, 
 but to elevate human nature. One of his first miracles was 
 performed at the request of his Mother, that they might 
 celebrate a marriage feast at Cana. Then the Son of God, 
 who at creation stretched forth his mighty hand from end 
 to end of the universe, he disposed all things so sweetly, 
 when he came on earth he took this natural contract be- 
 tween the married couple, and raised their union to the 
 dignity of a sacrament of the New Law ; that this sacra- 
 ment might pour into their hearts the sweetest love and 
 tenderness for each other, that the earthly bliss of their 
 honey -moon might last during their whole lives — that they 
 might have love and care for each other in sickness and in 
 sorrow, in poverty and in wealth, and that they might bring 
 up their children — the fruit of their sweet union — according 
 to the law of God, prepared and reared to be good members 
 of Christ's Church, good citizens of the state, and be happy 
 with God in eternity. 
 
 In all matters of the heart, both for man as well as for 
 woman, the pastor is their best, and almost the only true, 
 sincere friend they can consult. Follow carefully his ad- 
 vice. He, as the pastor of souls, has only your salvation in 
 view. He will guide you with an educated eye, and show 
 you the pitfalls you are to avoid. The animals gather in 
 flocks. Men gather into nations. But especially man is a 
 family animal. He chooses a partner for life, and founds 
 a home and a fireside. Guided by the truths left us by 
 Christ, and transmitted to us by the Apostles, directed by 
 the Holy Ghost, the Church formed wise laws relating to 
 marriage. These rules and regulations we will lay down in 
 the following pages, with a bit of history here and there, 
 as well as the diverse ancient and modern marriage rites 
 and customs of various nations, and of different epochs. 
 Happy will be the couple who follow these wise laws in 
 uniting together in holy wedlock ; while the parties who in 
 
398 MATRIMONY. 
 
 marrying trample on these wise laws, will soon find their 
 wedded life a heavy yoke they can scarcely bear. We 
 will begin by the espousal, engagement, or the promise of 
 marriage. 
 
 An espousal or betrothal is a true and deliberate promise 
 of future marriage, mutually expressed by sensible signs 
 between persons capable of wedlock. It is solemn when 
 it is made before the Church — that is, before the pastor and 
 witnesses. It is private when it takes place privately — 
 that is, only between the parties themselves, or before the 
 parents or any of the family. It is absolute when there is 
 no condition, or conditional when made with a stated con- 
 dition. The espousals must have all the conditions given 
 above in order to be valid, because it is a valid contract, 
 ruled by the laws of contracts. The engagement is valid, 
 whether it be solemn or private, because the consent alone 
 of both parties is sufficient for any contract, nor does the 
 Church ever dissolve engagements made in private. At 
 the present time solemn or public espousals have gone out 
 of practice, because of abuses. Engagements or promises of 
 marriage conditionally contracted are valid, if the condi- 
 tion is fulfilled. If they are made according to certain fut- 
 ure conditions, they become valid when these future condi- 
 tions are fulfilled. For example, an engagement given on 
 condition of obtaining the consent of parents, if the consent 
 of the parents is given, the engagement contract is valid. 
 The parties are obliged to wait till the conditions are ful- 
 filled, when they conditionally contract an engagement to 
 marry. Espousals or engagements made or contracted 
 through great fear, are not valid. But when they are ani- 
 mated by only a slight fear, they are valid, because slight 
 fear does not take away or cloud reason. 
 
 Espousals or engagements made between a Catholic and 
 a non-Catholic, on condition of receiving a dispensation, 
 are not valid till the dispensation is obtained. But the en- 
 gagement contract may be renewed when the dispensation 
 is given. All promises of marriage are not to be considered 
 as real engagements, for sometimes they are only vague 
 promises, or only express future intentions. The one 
 who has thus espoused or engaged himself or herself to 
 another, is obliged, in justice and under pain of mortal 
 sin, to marry at the appointed time : or if there was no 
 
MATRIMONY. 399 
 
 time appointed, as soon as convenient ; because engage- 
 ments so contracted are of a grievous nature, and therefore 
 a grievous obligation follows. 
 
 The engagement forms an impediment, so that they are 
 forbidden to marry any other person than their intended, 
 unless the engagement was first dissolved ; because the en- 
 gagement supposes an obligation founded in justice, and 
 therefore must be fulfilled. Besides, espousals or engage- 
 ments give rise to another impediment, called public hon- 
 esty, by which those betrothed cannot contract a marriage 
 with a relative of the other party, within the first degree of 
 kindred. 
 
 The parties engaged are allowed to make presents to one 
 another. If the engagement is broken through the fault of 
 one of the parties, that one cannot expect these presents to 
 be returned. But if one person is innocent, and the espou- 
 sals are broken up without the fault of that party, the other 
 is bound in justice to return the presents. Also, if one dies 
 before the marriage, the parents or friends of the dead 
 should return all presents to the other, unless they are of 
 little value with respect to the other party. A man who 
 sins with a woman under the promise of marriage is obliged 
 to marry her. Sometimes if a person marry before a mag- 
 istrate or minister, with the intention of marrying after- 
 wards before a priest, if they manifest that intention this 
 marriage is considered only as an espousal or engagement. 
 But if they intend to marry then and there, it is a clan- 
 destine matrimony, as the Tredentine Congregation has 
 decided. 
 
 An espousal or engagement for any just reason can be 
 dissolved. A good reason would be the consent of both 
 parties ; an impediment which arises against marriage after 
 the espousals were made ; the election of a more perfect 
 state, as entering religion, or taking holy orders ; a griev- 
 ous crime on the part of the espoused ; a notable change in 
 the state of circumstances or conditions in which, if it had 
 been foreseen, the espousal would not have taken place ; if 
 the marriage, although set for a certain time, is indefinitely 
 postponed ; if one becomes very sick, or if one takes a vow 
 of chastity. Any of these will be reasons sufficient to dis- 
 solve the engagement. If the parents without reason ob- 
 ject to the marriage, that will not dissolve the espousal, 
 
400 MATRIMONY. 
 
 because children can marry independently of their parents. 
 But if the parents have a sufficient reason, they can dis- 
 solve the espousals of their children. Nevertheless all this 
 should be left to the judgment of their pastor. If one party 
 has a grievous hidden defect, he or she should reveal it to 
 the other, otherwise they would sin against justice in de- 
 ceiving their future spouse. But if it would not injure 
 their spouse in any way, it is not necessary to reveal the 
 defect. No one is obliged to reveal his defects when his 
 rights would be grievously injured. Even a future mar- 
 riage does not dissolve the espousals ; so that if a person 
 engaged to a lady marries another, and the latter dies, he 
 is probably obliged to marry the first. Yet some authori- 
 ties think not ; still it all depends on whether she has re- 
 leased him from his obligation on hearing of his marriage. 
 If the lady be assaulted the man is not obliged to marry 
 her, because, although not her fault, still she has been 
 injured. 
 
 Promises or engagements of marriage are found among 
 all civilized nations, and are often solemn ceremonies in 
 both the Eastern and Western Churches. They are very 
 ancient ceremonies, dating back among the pagan na- 
 tions far beyond the foundation of the Christian religion. 
 Pliny says it was customary in his day for the man to 
 send his future wife a plain iron ring — the remains of the 
 primitive simplicity of the Romans. The giving and the 
 accepting of the engagement ring was the ceremony of 
 the mutual promise of fidelity regarding their future mar- 
 riage among the primitive Christians. This is spoken of 
 by SS. Gregory of Tours, Isidore of Seville, and by Tertul- 
 lian. The man sealed the engagement to his affianced 
 with a kiss, and gave her his sandals. Perhaps that gave 
 rise to the custom, sometimes seen to-day, of throwing 
 slippers after the bride. In the Christian religion the ring 
 signifies everlasting fidelity, and the presentation of the 
 engagement ring. early became a religious ceremony. That 
 was also the custom among the Greeks and other Eastern 
 Christians of the early Christian Church. Besides, the an- 
 cient Franks gave their intended some pieces of money. 
 That gave rise to the custom of sending presents to his in- 
 tended before marriage, and to giving a dowry to a daugh- 
 ter about to be married. Thus, Clovis, king of France, 
 
MATRIMONY. 401 
 
 espoused the sweet and gentle Clotilde. That ceremony 
 itself was the remains of the pagan Saxons, Germans, and 
 Franks, who often bought their wives. 
 
 In no part of the world, to-day, is the engagement cere- 
 mony carried out with greater splendor than among the 
 Greeks. The engagement often takes place on the day 
 of marriage. The emperor Alexis enacted certain laws 
 relating to this ceremony, which takes place on the same 
 day as the marriage Rite, but a little before the wedding 
 itself. This appears to be the custom throughout the East, 
 among the Christians of these different Rites, and then 
 neither can draw back from the engagement promise. 
 
 In the early Church, at the engagement, the condi- 
 tions of future marriage were laid down ; friends, rela- 
 tives, parents, and the pastor, or bishop, as the common 
 father of the faithful, being present and subscribing to 
 the conditions. Afterwards this contract was recalled 
 to the couple, after their marriage, in order to settle any 
 dispute between them. St. Augustin often speaks of these 
 things. 
 
 The Greeks and other Orientals always considered mar- 
 riage as a sacrament of the New Law. Among them not 
 only the wedding, but also the engagement, is celebrated 
 in the Church, The engagement takes place at the sanctu- 
 ary railing, the parties kneeling and presenting a gold and 
 silver ring to the priest, which are placed on the altar. 
 Each holds a lighted candle in the hand. The priest makes 
 the sign of the cross three times over them, with many 
 prayers, to which the assistants reply, ^^Kyrie Eleison," 
 asking that God may guard them, give them children, 
 charity, peace, unity, and an unspotted couch. Afterwards 
 the priest gives the gold ring to the man and the silver one 
 to the woman, saying : ''This servant of God betroths this 
 handmaid of God in the name of the Father, and of the 
 Son, and of the Holy Ghost." In giving her the ring he 
 says the same words, except he mentions that she is be- 
 trothed to the man. 
 
 When people are engaged they should not appoint a time 
 for the marriage till they see the pastor. They are to go to 
 their own pastor, expose the matter to him, and follow his 
 advice. The Church having the good of the community at 
 heart, forbids secret marriages lest immorality be fostered, 
 
^02 MATRIMONY. 
 
 families ruined — lest afterwards it be found out that there 
 is some cause against that marriage, or the marriage be 
 wholly null and void, and they be rendered unhappy for 
 life. Our ladies do not always know the men with whom 
 they keep company. A man might have a wife in some 
 other place, or be engaged to another, or have injured 
 another. To prevent a bad man from ruining any of our 
 girls, lest he might already have a wife, the Church has 
 wisely made a law that the bans of marriage shall be pub- 
 licly proclaimed before the marriage ceremony takes place. 
 The word ban comes from the German, and means a public 
 proclamation. Hence it is a public announcement by which 
 the people learn of a marriage soon to take place. There is 
 a grievous obligation of publishing the bans. That obliga- 
 tion the Church imposes on the pastor and people. That 
 can be seen in both the Lateran Council and the Councils 
 of Trent. The good of the people and the discipline of the 
 Church require that the proclamation of the bans be not 
 omitted. The bans are not absolutely required for the va- 
 lidity of the sacrament, because the Council did not make 
 it thus ; and no law can be cited proving the bans necessary 
 for the validity of the sacrament. Nevertheless all Church 
 members are included, and no one is exempt except emper- 
 ors, kings, and princes, whose marriages are sufficiently 
 well known. 
 
 These royal marriages are so public and so well known 
 that there is no necessity of publishing the bans. In fact, 
 the bans are already published over the world long before 
 the wedding takes place, and the ceremony is very grand. 
 We give here a picture of the marriage of Humbert and 
 Margaret, King and Queen of Italy, celebrated in the Ca- 
 thedral, Tourin, Italy. 
 
 Yet if, in the judgment of the pastor, there is a sufficient 
 reason, a dispensation from the bans can be obtained from 
 the bishop. The pastor would sin if he would omit publish- 
 ing the bans, even if he were quite certain that there was 
 no impediment ; because it would be difficult for him to 
 know that it is absolutely certain no impediment to the 
 marriage exists. Besides, if he makes one exception, other 
 cases would rapidly multiply, and thus the law itself would 
 not be carried out. If it seems there is no impediment be- 
 fore the announcement, one may be found afterwards. 
 
MATRIMONY. 
 
 403 
 
 Probably the pastor could omit one proclamation, if there 
 is sufficient reason. 
 
 The bans of marriage should be announced during the 
 solemnities of mass, on Sundays and holy days of obliga- 
 tion, one following the other, without omitting any. That 
 is seen in the Council of Trent. The announcements may 
 be made on feast days of obligations and Sundays, or on 
 each Sunday or feast day, when they follow each other. 
 
 MARBIAGE OF THE KING AND QUEEN OF ITALY. 
 
 The bans must be published during mass — that is, during 
 the parochial mass, and not during a private mass, or at 
 vespers. Probably if within two months the marriage does 
 not take place, the announcements should be made over 
 again. If the pastor forgets to make the last announce- 
 ment at mass, and the marriage is to take place before the 
 next Sunday, he can announce it at vespers. This the Con- 
 gregation decided on Oct. 25, 1586. 
 
 According to the Council of Trent, the announcement 
 of the bans must be made in the parochial church of the 
 
404 MATRIMONY. 
 
 parties who are about to marry, and not in a hall or house 
 unless the parochial mass is said there. The parish meant 
 here is not the parish where the parties were born, but the 
 parish where they live. If the engaged parties live in dif- 
 ferent parishes, the announcement should be made in both. 
 If one lives partly in one parish and partly in another par- 
 ish, the announcement should take place in both. If the 
 parties have not lived long enough in the parish to acquire 
 a residence, which takes about six months, the bans should 
 be announced in the parish where they formerly lived. 
 The bans of marriage between minors — that is, persons un- 
 der age — should not be announced except with the consent 
 of their parents or guardians, and the bans should be pub- 
 lished both in the parish where their parents or guardians 
 live and where they now reside. The bans of the marriage 
 of soldiers should be announced in the place where they are 
 encamped, and in the resident parish of their parents, if 
 they are minors, but if they are of age, in the place where 
 they resided before enlisting. The bans for the marriage 
 of tramps should be announced in the parish where they 
 now are, and in their native place, or where they have re- 
 mained the longest. Yet those tramps who appear to have 
 no fixed place of residence should not be married without 
 the permission of the bishop. 
 
 Many people do not like to have their marriages pub- 
 lished ; but this is for their own good, and for the good of 
 the whole Church. No one should be exempt. Still if there 
 is sufficient cause, the Council of Trent says that a dispen- 
 sation can be given. But the Church will dispense easier 
 from one or two announcements than from all three. It 
 belongs to the bishop or to the ordinary of the diocese to 
 dispense ; for the Council of Trent says that a dispensation 
 shall be left to the prudence of the ordinary. 
 
 The legitimate causes for obtaining a dispensation are : 
 lest the marriage should be maliciously prevented ; lest a 
 grievous evil or a great scandal might follow the postpone- 
 ment of the marriage till the announcement was made ; or 
 lest the man might leave the lady whom he wronged ; if 
 they married outside the Church, and are living together 
 and will not agree to a publication of the bans, etc. Where 
 the parties belong to two dioceses, a dispensation should be 
 obtained from the ordinaries of both dioceses. Dispensa- 
 
MATRIMONY. 405 
 
 tions are always given for reasons known to the pastor and 
 bishop. As a general thing, where people are married 
 without being announced in the regular way, there is often 
 something wrong. Those who are announced and married 
 in the regular way, give no cause for suspicion. When you 
 know any reason is against parties marrying, you are 
 obliged, under pain of mortal sin, to reveal it to your pas- 
 tor. 'No matter how secret it is, religion and charity to- 
 wards the persons about to be married, as well as the laws 
 of the Church, oblige you to reveal it to the proper author- 
 ity. This obligation relates to all persons, of whatever sex, 
 state, parish, or diocese. It obliges even the intimate 
 friends and relatives of the parties, because this law was 
 made by the Church in many councils, to whom all Chris- 
 tians are subject. It is also founded upon the law of char- 
 ity, which binds all. 
 
 You are therefore strictly obliged to tell the pastor any 
 cause arising against such a marriage. You should do that 
 as soon as possible, because they might obtain a dispensa- 
 tion and marry while you are delaying. You are obliged 
 to reveal the impediment, even if you took an oath to keep 
 it secret ; because your promise or your oath will not bind 
 you when a great evil threatens the community, or danger 
 of persons contracting a marriage binding till death, where 
 there is an impediment against it. Still doctors, lawyers, 
 pastors, bishops, and other public men, when the informa- 
 tion is obtained in their official duties, are exempt from 
 this law, especially when it has been revealed to them in 
 order to get their advice. The good of the community re- 
 quires that public men shall keep such secrets. But they 
 may tell the parties about to marry, so the latter may not 
 marry, or tell the pastor, so that he will not marry them. 
 Still you are not obliged to reveal it, if it would bring great 
 difficulties upon yourself, because you are not obliged to 
 put yourself to so much trouble. As soon as the marriage 
 is celebrated, the ecclesiastical obligation of revealing the 
 impediment ceases ; but the precept of charity yet remains. 
 
 If you alone know the impediment, you are obliged to re- 
 veal it, even if you are one of the contracting parties. As 
 will be explained afterwards, there are two kinds of impedi- 
 ments ; one kind renders the marriage sinful, but if they 
 marry their marriage is valid. The other kind of impedi- 
 
406 MATRIMONY. 
 
 ment renders the wedlock not only sinful, but also invalid, 
 null, and void, as long as the impediment lasts. It is evi- 
 dent that there is a greater obligation of revealing the lat- 
 ter kind of impediment than the former, as the parties who 
 knowingly marry with such an impediment are not man 
 and wife, and live in sin. When people marry, not know- 
 ing, or having no suspicion of the impediment, they should 
 be left in good faith, and the pastor warned, so that he can 
 obtain a dispensation or otherwise, and prudently settle 
 the case. 
 
 Let us look up a little history relating to these things. 
 Towards the beginning of the second century, when the last 
 of the Apostles, St. John, was bishop of Ephesus, the Chris- 
 tians, when about to marry, informed their bishop, who 
 united them by joining their hands and giving them then 
 his Apostolic blessing. Then the joining of hands and the 
 blessing of the clergy is of Apostolic origin. Some writers 
 say that the man went to the deacons, and the woman to 
 the deaconesses, to get them to interview the bishop to see 
 if their marriage would be allowed and blessed by the 
 Church. Thus by Tertullian they were called the council- 
 ors of marriage. As the Christians were forbidden, from 
 the earliest times, to contract marriages with Jews and pa- 
 gans under pain of sin, but not of their marriage being null 
 and void, this was the way of finding out if there was any 
 impediment. It was not, therefore, necessary to publish 
 the bans of their wedlock. When in future ages the Latin 
 Church found it necessary to make laws rendering certain 
 forbidden marriages null and void, she also in councils di- 
 rected the bans to be publicly announced at the public ser- 
 vices. The bans, therefore, never published in the Greek 
 Church, became quite common in Europe, especially in 
 England and France. It first became a custom, not a law. 
 The publication of the bans was afterwards approved for the 
 whole Church by Innocent III. , in the ninth Council of Lat- 
 eran, in 1215, without stating the day or the number of 
 calls. That wise law having fallen into disuse in some 
 parts of Europe, especially in Spain, it was enacted again 
 in the Council of Trent, at the request of the bishops of 
 France. The time, place, and number of calls of marriage 
 were then given by this great council. Although the coun- 
 cil was rejected by Protestant England, still they adopted, 
 
MATRIMONY. 407 
 
 or rather continued, the custom of publishing the bans, 
 which conies down to them from remote antiquity. 
 
 Marriage is the union of man and woman. It may be 
 considered as a contract or as a sacrament. As a contract, 
 it is an agreement by which a man and woman give mu- 
 tual authority over each other, to live together as man and 
 wife. As a sacrament, it may be defined a sacrament of the 
 ^ew Law, giving grace to sanctify the union of man and 
 ^v\^ife, that they may piously beget and educate their 
 children. 
 
 Marriage is considered both with regard to the union of 
 man and wife and with regard to the bond of wedlock, 
 which arises from their union. It may be treated as now 
 taking place — that is, at the moment the mutual consent of 
 the parties is given, or as a bond of wedlock following from 
 and caused by the marriage contract. It is a legal wedlock 
 when unbaptized persons marry according to the laws of 
 nature and of the land. An approved marriage is one 
 which baptized persons contract, where no impediment 
 renders their wedlock forbidden or null and void. It is 
 called an approved marriage, because it is entered into by 
 parties, not only according to the laws of nature and of the 
 land, but because the Church approves such unions. The 
 marriage is consummated when it is completed and per- 
 fected by the cohabitation of the parties. 
 
 The marriages of those who are not baptized are only 
 marriage contracts, validly contracted according to the 
 laws of nature, and are binding as long as both parties 
 live. Thus the Church has always considered the mar- 
 riages of such parties as valid matrimonial contracts. The 
 marriage of baptized persons is not only a contract, but 
 also a sacrament of the New Law — the last of the seven 
 sacraments instituted by Christ. Christians, therefore, 
 who rightly marry, not only are united according to the 
 laws of nature, but they also receive a sacrament and all 
 the sacramental graces necessary to live in wedlock, to 
 tenderly love and foster each other till death parts them. 
 They also receive grace to rear and educate their children 
 in the fear and love of God, so that they will become good 
 citizens of this world, and well prepared for saving their 
 souls. Therefore the marriage of two baptized persons is a 
 sacrament, as St. Paul says, when quoting Adam's words 
 
408 MATRIMONY. 
 
 when he saw Eve : ^' ' For this cause shall a man leave his 
 father and his mother : and shall cleave to his wife, and 
 they shall be two in one flesh.' This is a great sacrament ; 
 but I speak in Christ and in the Church'' (Ephes. v. 31, 32). 
 Therefore only those who belong to the Church receive the 
 sacrament of marriage. All monuments of Christianity, 
 the writings of the fathers, the rituals of the various early 
 Churches, the lives of the Saints, the customs of the primi- 
 tive Christians, all prove that marriage among Christians 
 was ever considered in the Church as one of the seven 
 sacraments. St. Augustin says: ''In the nuptials of 
 Christians the holiness of the sacrament is more valuable 
 than the fecundity of the womb." Hence the Council of 
 Trent says : ''If any one saith that matrimony is not really 
 and truly one of the seven sacraments of the Evangelical 
 Law, instituted by Christ the Lord, but invented by men in 
 the Church, or that it does not give grace, let him be 
 anathematized. " 
 
 For a valid marriage it is necessary that the mutual con- 
 sent of both parties be given, because marriage is an agree- 
 ment between man and woman. Whence if one should re- 
 fuse there would be no marriage. They must give their 
 consent to here and now marry. If it is a promise to marry 
 at some future time, it would not be a wedlock, but an 
 espousal, betrothal, or promise of marriage. It must be a 
 deliberate and voluntary consent, because it is a contract 
 of a grievous nature, giving rise to grievous obligations, 
 which no one is supposed to impose upon himself unless he 
 deliberately and freely consents. Hence, according to the 
 laws of the Church, a marriage contracted through great 
 fear is invalid, because great fear takes away free will. 
 The consent must be given in some outward way — by word, 
 or sign, or in some way manifested and mutually accepted 
 by both parties. Besides, both parties must be serious and 
 intend to marry. For the marriage to be valid, it is not 
 necessary that the consent be expressed in words ; because, 
 according to the nature of human affairs, the consent can 
 be expressed by any sign. But, according to the present 
 laws and customs of the Church, the consent should be ex- 
 pressed in words. Nevertheless if, from shame, modesty, or 
 timidity, the consent is not expressed in words, but in signs, 
 it is no sin. 
 
MATRIMONY. 409 
 
 The consent can be given by proxy, or by a third party, 
 because a contract can be made through a third party. 
 But this third party must obtain consent of the one he rep- 
 resents by himself, and not through another. The person 
 who sent him must not revoke his intention. The third 
 party must receive the consent of the one to whom he is 
 sent before the pastor and the two usual witnesses. All 
 these conditions being present, the marriage is valid. Yet 
 these marriages are not allovv^ed to be contracted in this 
 way without a grievous reason, because this manner of 
 forming matrimonial alliances is contrary to the customs 
 of the Church. They scarcely ever take place, except in 
 cases of emperors, kings, princes, rulers, and persons of 
 that kind. Hence the pastor should not, by his own au- 
 thority, bless such a marriage, because they are forbidden. 
 
 A conditional marriage may be contracted, and if the 
 condition is fulfilled it immediately becomes an absolute 
 and valid wedlock, and therefore it is not contrary to the 
 sacrament. Still, if the condition is good and possible, re- 
 lating to the future, the real matrimony does not take place 
 until the condition is fulfilled, because the matrimonial 
 contract does not give them the mutual right, one over the 
 other, until that condition is fulfilled. When that takes 
 place the matrimony is valid, for the conditional contract 
 becomes absolute as soon as the condition is fulfilled. 
 Therefore it then and there becomes a sacrament, because 
 among baptized Christians the contract of marriage cannot 
 be separated from the sacrament of marriage. Still such a 
 way of contracting marriage is strictly forbidden, espe- 
 cially if the condition relate to the future ; because numer- 
 ous public troubles and dangers would follow from such a 
 way of marrying, especially scandalous disputes and quar- 
 rels. But if the condition is evil and contrary to the very 
 essence of marriage — namely, if the parties contracting 
 marriage would agree to a condition which would be con- 
 trary to the generation of the race, to conjugal fidelity, or 
 to the lasting marriage bond ; or if they would agree to 
 marry only for a time, the marriage would be entirely null 
 and void. But it is necessary that one or more of these 
 conditions be expressly conceived in the mind of the par- 
 ties, and that they intend to marry in this way. Hence, if 
 they would marry with the intention of abusing wedlock in 
 
410 MATRIMONY. 
 
 such a way that they could not have children, or if they 
 intended to marry only for a certain time, they would not 
 become man and wife. But they would be married if they 
 had any general idea of validly binding themselves in wed- 
 lock, if the bad condition is not expressly formed in the 
 mind, or if it is not contrary to the very nature and essence 
 of marriage, they would be married, although they would 
 sin very grievously. If persons say that they gave their 
 consent in words, but that they did not intend in their 
 heart to marry, they are not to be believed, but before the 
 public they are to be considered as having married, unless 
 from surrounding circumstances it appears that they were 
 forced into wedlock, or married through fear. If all the 
 surrounding circumstances incline us to believe that the 
 marriage was valid, we suppose that their free consent was 
 given ; otherwise the peace and union of families would 
 be broken up. But in confession such parties are to be in- 
 structed that they should give their free consent. The 
 party to the wedlock who has given his free consent is not 
 obliged to believe the other who denies that he gave his 
 consent, even if he should affirm it with an oath. Hence 
 he should live as a married person until the other party 
 gives his consent, ^lich he is obliged to do, in order to re- 
 pair the injury done to his spouse. But if they both agree 
 to separate, they can do so if the Church permits. 
 
 Sometimes parents object to the marriage of their chil- 
 dren. But their objections will not prevent the marriage, 
 for by no law is the consent of the parents required for the 
 validity of this sacrament. The contracting parties only 
 have the power over themselves to marry. Otherwise the 
 parents could dissolve marriage, which would ruin families 
 and overturn the order of society. Hence the Council of 
 Trent condemns those who falsely claim that the marriage 
 of children, without the consent of the parents, was invalid, 
 and that the parents could dissolve their children's mar- 
 riage. When at this Council the representatives of some 
 European governments asked the Church to make a law 
 declaring marriage, without the consent of the parents, in- 
 valid, the Council refused. By every law children should 
 show honor, respect, and reverence to their parents, espe- 
 cially in things which relate to the whole family, such as 
 matrimony, from whence often depends the honor and 
 
MATRIMONY. 411 
 
 peace of the family. The Council of Trent says that the 
 Church of God has always held marriages contracted with- 
 out the consent of the parents as detestable and strictly 
 forbidden. Children therefore should consult their parents 
 before marriage, and follow their advice unless the parents 
 are unreasonable. People about to contract marriages are 
 generally so blinded by love that they are not always capa- 
 ble of judging for themselves. God has impressed the in- 
 stinct of the preservation of the race so deeply in human 
 nature, that their affections for one another often nearly 
 blind their reason. The parents, free from this blindness, 
 will be able to give a clearer advice. If the parents are 
 severe, unreasonable, and refuse, then consult your pastor, 
 and follow his advice. If he says the objections of your 
 parents are not reasonable, you are free from the obligation 
 of obedience to them, and can therefore marry. Hence, if 
 the parents unjustly forbid marriage, consult your con- 
 fessor or pastor, and carefully follow his direction. 
 
 The unity of marriage consists in this — that is, the union 
 of one man with one vv^oman. It is certain that polyandria 
 — that is, the union of one woman ^th many men — is un- 
 natural, contrary to reason and to the chief end of mar- 
 riage, because the chief ends of marriage — namely, the 
 generation of the race and the education of children — can- 
 not be carried out in that state. It is also certain that po- 
 lygamy — that is, the union of one man with many women 
 at the same time — is not unnatural, but was allowed in the 
 Old Testament. But it is forbidden by the divine law ; for 
 our Lord says : ^^ Every one that putteth away his wife and 
 marrieth another, committeth adultery ; and he that marri- 
 eth her that is put away from her husband committeth 
 adultery" (Luke xvi. 18). Polygamy is also forbidden by 
 the laws of the Church, which can be seen in the decrees 
 of the Council of Trent, and in many other councils and 
 decrees of Popes. 
 
 It is certain that the marriage of widowers and widows' 
 is allowed by the customs and authorities of the Church. 
 Holy Scripture sanctions it, for St. Paul says : '' A woman 
 is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth ; but if 
 her husband die she is at liberty ; let her marry to whom 
 she will, only in the Lord" (I. Cor. vii. 39). 
 
 The unity of marriage relates either to the bond of wed- 
 
412 MATRIMONY. 
 
 lock or to cohabitation. Marriages once validly contracted 
 can never be dissolved. Hence divorces are forbidden by 
 the law of nature, as shown before, and also by the law of 
 God, as Christ said : '' Therefore now they are not two but 
 one flesh. What, therefore, God hath joined together let 
 no man put asunder" (Matthew xix. G). St. Paul says: 
 "To them that are married, not I but the Lord command- 
 eth, that the wife depart not from her husband. And if 
 she depart that she remain unmarried, or be reconciled to 
 her husband" (I. Cor. vii. 10). It is also forbidden by the 
 councils of the Church. 
 
 The Orientals, the Episcopalians, and all Protestants con- 
 sider unfaithfulness to marriage vows as sufficient to dis- 
 solve marriage. The Roman law allowed it. In the Coun- 
 cil of Florence it was brought up after the discussions had 
 closed. ISTumberless passages of the Greek and Latin 
 fathers show that in the early Church they unanimously 
 taught that the marriage of Christians once consummated 
 can never be dissolved. The Council of Trent says that 
 such is the Evangelical and Apostolic teaching. St. Paul 
 says : "The woman that hath an husband, whilst her hus- 
 band liveth is bound to the law * * * whilst her husband 
 liveth she shall be called an adulteress if she be with an- 
 other man" (Rom. vii. 2, 3). "That the wife depart not 
 from her husband ; and if she depart, that she remain un- 
 married" (I. Cor. vii. 10, 11). In many other parts of the 
 Bible marriage is shown to be indissoluble by divine right, 
 as was decreed by Adrian YL, and by many other Popes. 
 
 Our Lord speaks of putting away a woman for adultery. 
 That means a separation from bed and board, and not a 
 separation from the bond of marriage. Such are the writ- 
 ings of the fathers, the decisions of the councils, and the 
 traditions of the Church. Therefore marriage may be dis- 
 solved regarding cohabitation, but not regarding the bond 
 of union. 
 
 Yet there are exceptions to this universal law. The mar- 
 riage of Christians before they have completed it by cohab- 
 itation, for very grievous reasons, can be dissolved by the 
 Pope. History tells us that Gregory YIL, Paul III., and 
 many other Popes used this power. The bond of marriage, 
 when not consummated by cohabitation, can also be dis- 
 solved by the solemn religious profession of one of the par- 
 
MATRIMONY. 413 
 
 ties, for the Council of Trent says this special privilege was 
 given by Christ to the Church. The words of the Council 
 are: "If any one says that matrimony, not consum- 
 mated, cannot be dissolved by solemn religious profession 
 of either party, let him be anathematized." Still if any 
 one were to marry with the intention of entering reli- 
 gion, without notifying the other party of his intention, he 
 would sin grievously. Even the marriage of infidels, con- 
 summated by cohabitation, can be dissolved where one is 
 converted to the Christian faith, and the other refuses to 
 cohabit with him, or will not cohabit except with great 
 danger to the faith of the convert, contempt of religion, or 
 trying to prevent the convert fulfilling his religious duties. 
 This is shown from the declaration of Innocent III., and by 
 the words of St. Paul : "If any brother have a wife that 
 believeth not, and she consent to dwell with him, let him 
 not put her away * * * * but if the unbeliever depart, let 
 him depart ; for a brother or sister is not under servitude in 
 such cases, but God hath called us in peace " (I. Cor. vii. 12, 
 13, 15). 
 
 Married people by the bond of wedlock are obliged to live 
 together, as man and wife, unless grievous reasons require 
 them to separate. They can separate with regard to cohab- 
 itation, if there is any grievous reason ; but the bond of 
 marriage remains so that neither party can marry. On 
 that point the Council of Trent says : " If any one says that 
 the Church errs when, for many reasons, she declares that 
 married people can separate with regard to bed and board, 
 for a certain or uncertain time, let them be anathema- 
 tized.'' In order to separate they must each agree. There 
 must be, besides, a great spiritual or bodily danger. They 
 can separate by mutual consent, because both can give up 
 their rights to cohabitation, if business requires it, either 
 for a time or forever, if there be no danger of sin. In the 
 same way they can separate with regard to cohabitation if 
 they think it a more perfect life ; if there is danger of one 
 being perverted from the faith ; if there is great danger of 
 one mutilating or taking the life of the other ; if cohabita- 
 tion becomes impossible ; if the life of one with the other 
 becomes unbearable ; if one has been unfaithful. But for 
 that it is necessary that it be certain — that is, not a sus- 
 picion or imagination caused by jealousy — that it be will- 
 
414 MATRIMONY. 
 
 ful ; hence, not brought about by force ; that it be not 
 forgiven, either expressly or implicitly, by resuming cohab- 
 itation ; and that both parties be not guilty ; then one 
 would be equally guilty with the other. Hence the words of 
 Christ are plain : '* Whosoever shall put away his wife, ex- 
 cepting for the cause of fornication, maketh her to commit 
 adultery ; and he that shall marry her that is put away, 
 committeth adultery" (Matthew v. 32). 
 
 When one knows the other to be unfaithful, there is no 
 obligation on the part of the innocent one of putting the 
 other away ; because this separation is given in favor of 
 the innocent. Still, sometimes, in order to avoid scandal, 
 the separation should not publicly take place, because there 
 are other means of correcting the guilty. When it is 
 secret, scandal should be avoided if possible. If they sep- 
 arate privately, the innocent one can force the other to 
 come and resume marital relations again. This can take 
 place even if separation takes place by judicial sentence ; 
 because the sentence is in favor of the innocent party, and 
 therefore does not take away the right of bringing back 
 the guilty. No judicial sentence of either the courts or of 
 the authorities of the Church, is required that they unite 
 again. Nevertheless, when the woman is guilty, it is 
 sometimes better not to force her back to the man, when it 
 is reasonably supposed that she will be cruelly treated. If 
 they are separated by judicial sentence, for unfaithfulness, 
 and the innocent one afterwards becomes unfaithful, he or 
 she can be obliged to come back and live with the other, be- 
 cause now both have lost their rights. They can separate 
 privately, if they have a just cause, and in case of unfaith- 
 fulness, because the guilty party has lost all matrimonial 
 rights. For a public separation it is necessary that the 
 crime is certain, and that from the separation will not arise 
 scandal that otherwise could not be prevented. Still some 
 think that a public separation cannot take place on account 
 of secret unfaithfulness, because the sin and guilt would b^ 
 publicly revealed. Still, if there is a grievous danger for 
 the soul or body, that may be carried out. The party 
 should seek the counsel of some prudent person, especially 
 their confessor. 
 
 The remote material part of this sacrament is the bodies 
 of the persons contracting marriage, given one to the other. 
 
MATRIMONY. 415 
 
 The near or proximate material part of this sacrament is 
 the giving of these one to another, which is expressed by 
 words or signs. The formal part or formula of this sacra- 
 ment is the mutual acceptance by both parties of this au- 
 thority over each other, expressed by words or signs. The 
 contract or consent of the marriage of the parties is found 
 in this sacrament, but under different respects. The con- 
 tract is the material part, inasmuch as it expresses the mu- 
 tual giving of authority one over the other ; the formal 
 part, inasmuch as it signifies the acceptance of this power, 
 one over the other. 
 
 The presence of the pastor is required for the validity of 
 the marriage, wherever the decree of clandestinity of the 
 Council of Trent has been proclaimed. It is certain the 
 Church has always wished that a priest, appointed for that 
 purpose, be present at the marriage of the people. The pas- 
 tor cannot refuse to be present at the marriage of his peo- 
 ple, when they marry according to the rules of the Church. 
 People who marry secretly commit a grievous sin, even 
 where the decrees of the Council of Trent have not been 
 published. Thus, Catholics who contract a marriage be- 
 fore a minister, are excommunicated from the Church ; and 
 the sin is considered so great that it is reserved in such a 
 way that only the bishop, or a priest appointed for that 
 purpose, can give them absolution for that sin. The reason 
 is, because marriage is a sacrament, like unto baptism or 
 the Eucharist, which should not be profaned by any lay- 
 man, like a minister. 
 
 Pope Eugenius IV. , in his decree for the union of the Ar- 
 menians, says : ' ^ The effectual cause of marriage is regu- 
 larly the mutual consent of the parties expressed at the 
 moment by words." The Council of Trent says that where 
 the decrees have not been published, the marriages of per- 
 sons without the presence of the pastor are valid. Although 
 the contract of marriage alone exists where both are un- 
 baptized, yet where both are baptized, there is not only 
 the contract of marriage, but also the sacrament of mar- 
 riage. Nor in this case can the sacrament be separated 
 from the contract. Thus to the natural contract, God adds 
 the supernatural sacrament, which gives heavenly graces 
 to the husband and wife, to love each other, and to fulfill 
 their duties as married people. But where they do not 
 
416 MATRIMONY. 
 
 marry according to the laws of the Church, when both are 
 baptized, they are validly married, if Church laws do not 
 render the marriage null and void, but only forbidden. 
 But in both cases, although there is a valid contract and a 
 sacrament, yet the grace of the sacrament is not received, 
 because in breaking the laws of the Church they sinned 
 grievously, and their sin stands in the way of the grace of 
 marriage. 
 
 How foolish it would be for people to profane such a holy 
 sacrament by marrying before a minister, or before any 
 one but a priest, who alone has charge of the sacraments 
 instituted by Christ for the salvation and sanctification of 
 souls ! Since the Reformation many nations and peoples 
 have given this holy sacrament over to the hands of gov- 
 ernments, and public morals have fallen to a low degree. 
 We protest in the strongest manner against laymen, courts, 
 judges, and law-makers mixing up in marriage cases, which 
 alone belong to the Church. The loose marriage laws and 
 divorce statutes are the curse of modern times. Christ left 
 these holy sacraments in the hands of his Church, and the 
 laity, either as legislators or as judges, have nothing to do 
 in this matter, no more than they have in matters relating 
 to Communion or to the other sacraments. 
 
 The decree of clandestinity has been published in but 
 few places in North America. Therefore the marriages 
 of Catholics, not contracted before their pastor, or a priest 
 representing him, although they are very sinful and cursed 
 by God, still they are valid. If a marriage unfortunately 
 has not been contracted in a regular way, then they should 
 see the pastor as soon as possible, and abide by what he 
 says and does. 
 
 Marriage, being a sacrament, should take place in the 
 church, with a bridal mass. Therefore all parties should 
 be married with a mass. Nevertheless the priest is not 
 obliged to offer the holy sacrifice for them, if they do not 
 make an offering to him for that object. Advent and Lent 
 are times of public penance, during which the solemnities 
 of marriage are forbidden. But if there be a grievous rea- 
 son, with a dispensation, they can be married privately. 
 In certain places, and at different epochs, weddings were 
 forbidden from the first Sunday of Advent to Epiphany, 
 and from Ash Wednesdav to the octave of Easter, inclusive 
 
MATRIMONY. 417 
 
 of these days. That is the law at the present time in some 
 places. That was inserted in the laws of Gratian, confirmed 
 by the Councils of Sens and of Nimes. A Synod held at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, in 836, forbade marriages on Sundays. The 
 custom, in former times, was to be married in the morning, 
 before the whole Church. The parties were to come fast- 
 ing, so they could receive Communion. The only exceptions 
 to these larws were the nuptials of kings, who were married 
 in their private chapels. But these cases were rare, and 
 severe laws of the Church ordered the ceremony to be car- 
 ried out before the altar in the Church. 
 
 When the parties, for any reason, are married during the 
 forbidden time, a remembrar of the persons wedded cannot 
 be made at any mass. The prayers given in the missal for 
 the married, after the Lord's Prayer, should not be said. 
 When the forbidden time has elapsed, the nuptial mass can 
 be said on any day, except on Sundays, holy days of obli- 
 gation, and on some other feasts. The real mass, according 
 to the spirit of the Church, is that which is said at the mar- 
 riage of virgins. Thus, as St. Paul says, virginity is a 
 higher state than wedlock, and widowers and widows are 
 advised not to marry again, if they lose their mates by 
 death. 
 
 In his Epistle to Timothy (v. 3, 4, 14, 15), St. Paul devel- 
 ops the Christian teachings relating to the marriage of wid- 
 owers and widows. He desires them rather to remain 
 single. Rarely the early Christians married after losing 
 their mates, believing that a second marriage was a sign of 
 passion, or fearing the dissensions and inconveniences 
 which often result from such alliances. The early fathers 
 praise widowhood as well as virginity. SS. Ireneus, Clem- 
 ent of Alexandria, Origen, and other writers of this early 
 epoch exhort people not to contract second marriages, after 
 the death of their spouse. Origen, with his usual severity, 
 considered such weddings as sinful, but the Council of Mce 
 declared them valid and allowable, thus condemning him, 
 as well as the ISTovatians, who upheld his doctrines. The 
 fathers also declared that when, for the third and fourth 
 time, a person marries, although such nuptials are valid, 
 still people ought to be ashamed to contract them. St. 
 Basil declares that such Christians are a disgrace to the 
 Church. Yet Charlemagne was seven times married, and 
 
418 MATRIMONY. 
 
 his name lives in benediction. The Greek Church is more 
 rigid on that point than the Latins. Basil the emperor dis- 
 couraged such alliances, and the laws of Justinian con- 
 demned them as sinful and forbidden by God. Such sever- 
 ity caused serious dissensions in the Byzantine empire dur- 
 ing the reign of the emperor Leon. After this the Greek 
 prelates drew up their rules — that the marriages of widow- 
 ers and widows should be allowed, if they contracted with 
 good intentions ; that those over thirty or forty years of 
 age should not be allowed to marry for the third time when 
 they had children by their first marriages. 
 
 In some places a widow was not allowed to marry for one 
 year after the death of her first husband. That was the law 
 of the Roman emperors Gratian, Valentanian, and Theodo- 
 sius. That custom passed into the Western Church, is 
 found in the Capitules of Theodore of Canterbury, and was 
 enforced by Egbert, archbishop of York. 
 
 Thus the spirit of the Church is against second marriages, 
 desiring only the union of two pure virgin hearts. For that 
 reason, in the first ages penances were imposed for such 
 weddings, and priests were forbidden to attend the mar- 
 riage feast, when the parties were not virgins. As remains 
 of that the Greeks do not crown those who are married 
 twice, nor do they give them Communion. The Greeks, Ja- 
 cobites, and other Orientals use separate prayers and cere- 
 monies at such weddings. The Jacobites give no nuptial 
 blessing at the second, nor the Greeks at the fourth mar- 
 riages. The modern Greeks crown at the second marriages. 
 The same can be seen in the rituals of the Nestorians, the 
 Syrian Jacobites, and other Orientals. 
 
 On the opposite page we give an engraving of the mar- 
 riage ceremony according to the Latin Rite. The bishop is 
 just pronouncing the blessing. 
 
 In the Latin Church second and third marriages are al- 
 lowed ; but if the bridal mass and blessing were carried out 
 at the first marriage, it is not given the second time, be- 
 cause the Church desires only the marriage of virgins. 
 From the rules given above arose the evil custom of mock- 
 serenades, sometimes inflicted on those who marry a second 
 time. These abuses were condemned at the Councils of 
 Langres, held in 1421, and in another held at Narbonne in 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
MARRIAGE OF MISS FOX AND PRINCE LIECHTENSTEIN, AT KENSINGTON. 
 
420 MATRIMONY. 
 
 The person who alone can receive the sacrament of mar- 
 riage, is only a man or woman baptized, and prevented by 
 no impediment from receiving validly this sacrament. Per- 
 sons who are not baptized are not capable of receiving the 
 sacrament. They are bound only by the natural contract 
 of marriage. The marriages of persons unbaptized are 
 valid marriages, but not sacraments. In the same way a 
 person baptized who receives from the Pope a dispensation 
 to marry a person not baptized, does not receive a sacra- 
 ment, because they must both together receive this sacra- 
 ment, which is one and undivided. But as the person not 
 baptized cannot receive the sacrament, so neither can re- 
 ceive the sacrament of marriage. Still they are bound for 
 life by the contract of marriage. Marriage gives grace not 
 by the union of man alone, or the union of woman, but by 
 the union of both. Heretics, those outside the Church, but 
 validly baptized, when they are married validly and ac- 
 cording to the laws of the Church, they receive the sacra- 
 ment of matrimony. This is proved by the constant and 
 universal practices of the Church. We do not make infidels 
 renew their consent when they are converted to the Church, 
 even when we give them the nuptial blessing. 
 
 We give here an illustration of the marriage of the Czar- 
 ouitz of Russia with the princess Mary. According to the 
 Greek or Russian Rite, crosses are held over their heads 
 while they join hands. You will notice the peculiar vest- 
 ments worn by the archbishop and the clergy of the Greek 
 Rite. 
 
 The parties about to be married should be in the state of 
 grace, as when they receive holy Communion. This sacra- 
 ment is to be received in a state of grace, free from mortal 
 sin, for it was not instituted by Christ to forgive sins, as bap- 
 tism and penance, but to grant them the grace of marriage. 
 Hence those who contract marriage in the state of mortal 
 sin, are guilty of a terrible sacrilege, and do not, while in 
 that state, receive the graces of wedlock. These graces are 
 suspended, and when the mortal sins are removed by con- 
 fession and absolution, these graces of marriage are poured 
 into the soul and produce their effect. After the marriage 
 takes place, it is often better not to warn the persons who 
 are married in this state, especially if they do not know 
 any better ; but they may be persuaded to go to confession 
 

 i' I / j/ 
 
422 ■ MATRIMONY. 
 
 as soon as possible. From this it appears that persons be- 
 longing to the Latin Rite, about to marry, should always 
 go to confession immediately before the marriage ceremony, 
 for they must be in the state of grace while the ceremony 
 takes place. They may thus shun being corrected by the 
 priest, and their feelings hurt before their friends. Every 
 priest wishes the marriage ceremony carried out in a regu- 
 lar way, according to the rules and regulations of the 
 Church. 
 
 Most of the marriage ceremonies are very ancient, yet 
 some are more modern, and many of the rites oi the early 
 Church have been abolished. From the very origin of the 
 Christian religion, people entered holy wedlock with the 
 prayers of the Church and the blessings of the clergy. 
 They are commanded to do so by St. Ignatius, the successor 
 of St. Peter and the Martyr of Antioch, as related by Ter- 
 tullian. From the days of the Apostles, marriages were 
 blessed by the Church and the holy sacrifice of the mass, 
 offered up for the couple, otherwise they were considered 
 as profane, unholy, not blessed by God although valid. The 
 nuptial blessing and the mass, therefore, come down to us 
 from the Apostolic times. This custom was so widely 
 spread among all the early Christians that Pope Syricius 
 says it is a sacrilege to marry without the nuptial blessing 
 of the Church. St. Ambrose says : '' Marriage is made holy 
 by the blessing of the priest.*' The fourth Council of Car- 
 thage directs that the bridegroom and bride be presented to 
 the Church by their parents or guardians. Pope Hormer- 
 das forbade secret marriages. The nuptial blessing used to- 
 day by the Church, formed a part of the Missal of Pope 
 Gelasius. 
 
 The custom of celebrating marriages in public, before the 
 whole Church, became so common in the early ages, both in 
 the East as well as in the West, that secret weddings, or 
 those contracted without the nuptial blessing, were strictly 
 forbidden ; and although they were held valid by the 
 Church, still they were proclaimed null and void by the laws 
 of the emperors Leo the Philosopher, Alexis, and other 
 kings and emperors. The Christian nations which rose 
 from the ruins of the Roman empire, after the incursions of 
 the barbarians from the North, made laws forbidding mar- 
 riage under pain of nullity, except according to the wise 
 
MATRIMONY. 423 
 
 laws of the Church — that is, with the nuptial mass and 
 blessing. Public morals, besides law and order, demanded 
 these wise safeguards, with which the Church surrounded 
 the hallowed union of man and wife. Thus all the early 
 Christians, since the Apostolic times, considered matrimony 
 as one of the seven sacraments, instituted or raised to that 
 dignity by Christ. 
 
 The nuptial blessing, considered so holy by the early Chris- 
 tians, was, as in our day, made up of a certain number of 
 prayers recited by the priest, before and during the nuptial 
 mass. By that the priest, as an officer of the whole Church, 
 beseeches heaven to send down the chosen graces and 
 blessings on the married parties, that they may well and 
 saintly fulfill the duties of the hallowed state into which 
 they are entering. The words, *' I join you in matrimony : 
 In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost," and which some think is the formula of this sacra- 
 ment, is not found in the ancient rituals, and therefore can- 
 not be the essential formula of marriage. 
 
 The custom of uniting the married couple with the nup- 
 tial mass and the blessing of the Church, was carefully 
 carried out without change by the early Christians, for the 
 first six centuries. After this some were married by the 
 clergy without a mass. This lasted till about the middle of 
 the ninth century. Nicholas I., in his reply to the Bulgari- 
 ans, when asked to change from this Apostolic custom, lays 
 down the order and the solemnities of marriage. He says 
 that the nuptial mass and blessing do not oblige under pain 
 of sin. Later the fourth Lateran Council, finding many 
 claimed that secret marriages could be contracted without 
 sin, and that the nuptial mass was not necessary, declared 
 that children, the fruit of such marriages, should be consid- 
 ered as bastards ; thus declaring secret marriages null and 
 void. Roger, king of Sicily, deprived such children of the 
 right of succeeding to the titles and property of their par- 
 ents. But this abuse went on increasing till the Council of 
 Trent re-enacted the old laws of the Church relating to 
 clandestine or secret marriages, a matter which we will see 
 further on in this book. 
 
 In his reply to the Bulgarians, Nicholas I. says : '^They 
 are led to the church with the offeringjs which they are to 
 give to the Lord by the hands of the priest, and they will 
 
424 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 * * * 
 
 receive there the blessing with the heavenly veil. * 
 After that, having gone from the church, they carry on 
 their heads the crowns which are customarily preserved in 
 the church." 
 
 We give here an engraving of the crowning of the mar- 
 ried persons being crowned during the marriage ceremony 
 
 of Prince Murat, which took place recently at the Russian 
 church, Paris, according to the Greek Rite. 
 
 During the Middle Ages, after the engagement or be- 
 trothal of the parties, the marriage ceremonies were carried 
 out in the church at the same time and on the same day. 
 The priest or bishop who, in the early Church, was to per- 
 
MATRIMONY. 425 
 
 form the betrothal and weddmg cereraonies, vested in ab 
 and stole, with the holy water, met the wedding party at 
 the door of the church, and sprinkled them with holy water. 
 There he carefully instructed them regarding their mar- 
 riage obligations. He then told the parents or guardians 
 to give away the bride to her husband, to assign her her 
 dower, and sign the wedding conditions in presence of the 
 witnesses. The promise of marriage was now given, the 
 engagement ring blessed in the name of the Holy Trinity, 
 and the ring was placed by the man on the finger of the 
 bride. The priest then gave them the blessings of the 
 Church, and began the bridal mass, during which the bride 
 and bridegroom held lighted candles in their hands, and 
 gave the priest the usual offerings. Before the " Pax '' they 
 were covered with a veil and received the nuptial blessing. 
 At present only the bride wears a veil, of which this old 
 ceremony was evidently the origin. After the blessing of 
 the ring the bridegroom took it between his right thumb and 
 three fingers and placed it on one of the fingers of the left 
 hand of the bride. The precise finger is not given in the 
 old rituals of these early ages ; but as the bishop wears his 
 ring on the third finger of his right hand, we conclude that 
 the wedding ring was placed on the same finger of the left 
 hand of the bride, and custom at present confirms that 
 conclusion. 
 
 When the prayers were said they cam.e into the church 
 and prostrated themselves -on the fioor before the altar, dur- 
 ing which the priest recited certain Psalms and prayers. 
 After that they were let into the sanctuary, where they re- 
 mained on the right side of the altar during mass, the bride 
 at the right of her husband. At the ^' Sanctus" they again 
 prostrated themselves on the floor, while over them four 
 clergymen held a pallium, during which the nuptial bene- 
 diction was pronounced. At the ^' Pax " they rose, the man 
 received the ^^Pax" from the priest and gave it only to his 
 wife. The priest also came to the house, and blessed the 
 nuptial bed and chamber after they had retired in those 
 early days of the Christian Church. 
 
 You will notice that the bridegroom takes the right hand 
 of his bride, while the priest says : "I join you in matri- 
 mony, in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the 
 Holy Ghost. Amen." That ceremony appears to be very 
 
426 
 
 MATRIMONY. 
 
 old, because it is described by St. Gregory of Nazianzen as 
 being ancient even in his day. In some places the priest 
 placed the right hand of the groom on the bride's right 
 hand, to signify that she should be subject to him. In 
 some parts of Russia, where they follow the Greek Rite, 
 when the groom places the ring on her finger, the latter 
 
 kneels down and kisses his feet, to signify her obedience, 
 and the man covers her with his mantle, to show that he 
 will be her protector during life. 
 
 In the accompany illustration of the marriage of Al- 
 phonso, king of Spain, to the Archduchess of Austria, the 
 ceremony of joining hands is clearly shown. 
 
MATRIMONY. 427 
 
 f 
 
 St. Ambrose says that in his time both were covered with 
 a purple veil, typifying conjugal modesty, during which 
 they received the nuptial blessing. This ceremony was 
 never carried out except at the weddings of virgins. The 
 latter came with their hands bare, while those who married 
 after the death of their first spouse covered their hands. 
 
 The ceremony of crowning the married couple, which is 
 still practiced by the Christians of the East, is very ancient. 
 The crowns were first formed of olive branches, bound with 
 white and purple bindings, and were placed on their heads 
 by the clergyman. St. Chrysostom, speaking of this, says 
 it was introduced into the marriage ceremony to signify the 
 purity of their intentions and victory over their passions. 
 That ceremony was never widely practiced in the Western 
 Church, although they used to crown the married couple 
 with chaplets of flowers in the Middle Ages. The Greeks, 
 Nestorians, Jacobites, Melchites, and other Orientals, 
 always crown the parties at the first marriage, or at the 
 weddings of virgins. But they did not at first crown those 
 who, after the death of their mates, contract second mar- 
 riages. Whence, the nuptial blessing is called by them 
 " the crowning." 
 
 The nuptial blessing given by the priest who, for that 
 purpose, interrupts the mass, is very ancient. It is given 
 by TertuUian and other writers of his time, as well as by 
 the Gelasian Missal. They always received Communion 
 at the nuptial mass, both in the East and in the West. The 
 Greeks, in our times, often marry during the evening. 
 They receive Communion in the morning, even at the mass 
 of the Presanctified, taking the Particle from a chalice 
 holding the wine. They give them Communion, and then 
 the priest pours a little wine into a glass vase, and after 
 having blessed it, he gives it to the bridegroom and the 
 bride. In some parts of Europe, especially at Salisbury, 
 England, they blessed the bread and wine and gave them 
 to the couple during the marriage ceremony — a custom 
 observed in France up to the last century. Some Rit- 
 uals, especially of Lire, of Salisbury and York, have 
 formulas for blessing the nuptial bed and chamber, 
 with incense and holy water. That is still practiced by the 
 Abyssinians. 
 
 Among the Greeks, those who are about to marry enter 
 
428 MATRIMONY. 
 
 « 
 
 the church, carrying lighted candles in their hands, while 
 all march two by two, the priest heading the procession 
 with incense, singing (Psalm cxxvii), "Blessed are all that 
 fear the Lord," etc., to each half verse of which the people 
 reply, ** Glory to thee, O Lord." The priest finishes the 
 Psalm with the ^^ Glory be to the Father," etc., as in our 
 own Latin Rite. The deacon then recites the prayers for the 
 peace of the Church, and for the bridegroom and the bride. 
 The priest then asks God to bless this marriage as he did 
 that of Abraham and Sarah, of Isaac and Rebecca, etc. In 
 one of the prayers the priest says : " Unite them in perfect 
 agreement, and crown them that they may be one flesh. 
 Give them the fruit of marriage, that they may be happy in 
 their children." He then puts one crown on the head of the 
 bridegroom, saying : ''Such a servant of God marries such 
 a handmaid of God, in the name of the Father," etc. He 
 says the same when he crowns the bride. 
 
 We show in this engraving a marriage ceremony among 
 the poor, according to the rites and ceremonies of the East- 
 ern Christians. 
 
 This is the marriage ceremony nearly universally prac- 
 ticed in the East. Among the Copts, who follow the revered 
 ritual of the patriarch Gabriel, the man comes to the church 
 early in the morning. He is met by the clergy, who lead 
 him to his place in the church. They then go and bring 
 the bride from her home. They place a new stole, girdle, 
 cross, wedding-ring, and incense on the Gospel side of the 
 altar, where they read the Gospel, first in the Coptic and 
 then in the Arabic languages. The godfather presents the 
 garments of the bridegroom to the priest, who blesses 
 them. Then the man dressed in his wedding-garments, 
 goes to receive the ring from the priest, and is crowned by 
 the latter. He then goes to the place where his future wife 
 sits among the ladies, places the ring on her finger, attached 
 to the crowns, representing that both give their consent. 
 A white veil is extended over their heads, telling of conju- 
 gal fidelity. They are also anointed with hallowed oil, 
 when the priest places the crowns on their heads, saying : 
 ''The Father crowns them with honor and glory, the Son 
 blesses them ; may the Holy Spirit as a crown come down 
 and complete it." To which the people reply : ''It is wor- 
 thy." After this the mass is commenced. Although their 
 
A MARRIAGE CEREMONY AMONG THE POOR IN RUSSIA. 
 
430 MATRIMONY. 
 
 ritual does not say they should receive communion, still it 
 is the custom among them. 
 
 In Russia they carry out the Greek Rite with great splen- 
 dor. Both groom and bride, among the higher classes, are 
 clothed in richest garments, having on their heads crowns 
 garnished with precious stones. At the beginning of the 
 ceremony the priest takes his place before the parties and 
 begins by reading the services and prayers from the ritual, 
 while the man puts the ring on the :Qnger of his future 
 bride. The priest then takes the two crowns, joined with 
 gold and vermilion cloth, which he presents them to be 
 kissed, and then replaces them on their heads. Afterwards 
 he begins to read again from the ritual, while they join their 
 right hands. In this way they march three times around 
 the church. The priest gives them a glass of wine to drink. 
 After other ceremonies of this kind, the priest gives his 
 blessing, when the ceremony concludes with feasting and 
 dancing, lasting sometimes three days and nights. To 
 illustrate a wedding in Russia, according to the Greek Rite, 
 we give an engraving of the marriage of the Czarowitch 
 Alexander of Russia, with the princess of Denmark. The 
 bride is represented kissing the cross in the hands of the 
 officiating archbishop. 
 
 In some of the Protestant Churches the ceremony is very 
 solemn, especially among the Episcopalians. They follow 
 many of the old Church laws relating to the impediments of 
 marriage, given further on in this work. But they all allow 
 divorces for conjugal infidelity. Many ministers marry 
 most any parties who come to them, taking the word of the 
 contracting parties, and not inquiring further, while other 
 ministers are more strict. Here you will find a picture of 
 the marriage of Lord Lome and the Princess Louise, 
 daughter of Queen Victoria, who stands near her daughter. 
 The ceremony took place in St. George's Chapel, Windsor 
 Castle, England. 
 
 Marriage is a very important matter. It was instituted 
 by God in the garden of Paradise, and blessed and sancti- 
 fied by Christ, as the means of generating and continuing 
 the race. The peace of families, the prosperity of nations, 
 and the good of the state, depend on wedlock. The Church 
 has made wise laws regulating it, and forbidding it in cer- 
 tain cases. These laws are of two kinds. One kind of 
 
MATRIMONY. 433 
 
 Church laws renders wedlock grievous, forbidden, and sin- 
 ful. Still, if they do contract marriage, although they 
 commit a grievous mortal sin by so doing, still the marriage 
 is valid. Another class of laws render marriage not only 
 grievous and sinful, but also null and void. These laws form 
 what are called the impediments of marriage. There are 
 four impediments which render marriage grievously sinful. 
 Yet, if contracted, the marriage will be valid, but without 
 grace. First, there is a certain law of the Church which, 
 for various reasons, forbids a marriage between certain par- 
 ties ; secondly, the prohibition of the Church, forbidding 
 marriage to be solemnly celebrated at certain times during 
 the year ; thirdly, the espousal, or the promise of marriage 
 made to another ; and, fourthly, a vow which cannot be ful- 
 filled in the state of marriage. A general prohibition of the 
 Church consists in this, that an ecclesiastical superior for- 
 bids certain marriages to take place. A particular prohibi- 
 tion of the Church consists in this, that, on account of just 
 and special reasons, certain designated parties are forbidden 
 to marry. A general prohibition of the Church has been 
 pronounced in three special cases. 
 
 First, the Church forbids marriage between a Catholic 
 and a heretic. Secondly, the Church forbids marriage to 
 be contracted without the publication of the bans. Thirdly, 
 the Church forbids marriage to be contracted without the 
 consent of the parents. These laws relate, therefore, to 
 time engagements, vows, and the consent of parents. 
 There are certain times in the year during which the 
 Church has forbidden the solemnities of marriage. These 
 epochs are from and including the time elapsing from the 
 first Sunday of Advent to the Epiphany, and from and in- 
 cluding the season from Ash Wednesday till the octave of 
 Easter. This is seen in the Council of Trent, which prohib- 
 its marriage during these seasons. The Council only for- 
 bids the solemn blessings of the nuptial mass, the marriage 
 feast, and public solemnities of that kind, because these 
 are the times of public fasting or solemnities of solemn 
 Church feasts. Yet the pastor, for special reasons, can pri- 
 vately marry those parties, although in some places that is 
 also forbidden. 
 
 The espousals or promises of marriage, whether they be 
 public or private, unless dissolved for just causes, or by 
 
434 MATRIMONY. 
 
 mutual consent, prevent marriage with another. For in 
 justice, and according to the natural law, there is a griev- 
 ous obligation of keeping our contracts or agreements. 
 Yet, if any one espoused to another marries, while still 
 bound to their affianced, the marriage will be valid in itself, 
 but sinful because of the first engagement. They therefore 
 commit a sin against justice in not marrying the person to 
 whom they were engaged, unless released from the en- 
 gagement. 
 
 Four kinds of vows prevent marriage ; namely, a vow of 
 chastity, a vow of not marrying, a vow of entering a relig- 
 ious Order or Community, and a vow of receiving holy 
 orders. They who make a vow of chastity, would commit 
 a grievous sin if they would marry with the intention of 
 breaking that vow. They would even sin grievously if they 
 married without the intention of breaking the vow, because 
 they would expose themselves to the danger of doing so, or 
 trample on the rights of their spouses by keeping their vow. 
 A person thus bound, even after marriage is contracted, can- 
 not fulfill the duties of marriage for the first two months, 
 because during this period of time the married are not 
 obliged to fulfill the duties of married life. But after this 
 time has elapsed the person can fulfill that duty toward the 
 other party, but cannot assert their own rights without be- 
 ing dispensed from their vow. If the other party releases 
 the one bound by the vow, or has been unfaithful, all mar- 
 riage rights are lost. Otherwise they should ask for a dis- 
 pensation as soon as possible. If the spouse dies the party 
 bound by a vow cannot marry again unless dispensed. A 
 person who takes a vow of not marrying, or a vow of vir- 
 ginity, would commit a grievous sin by marrying. Never- 
 theless, after the marriage they have full rights, because it 
 is impossible now to fulfill the vow of not marrying. If the 
 spouse dies they can marry again. Who makes a vow of 
 entering a religious Order or Community, would also com- 
 mit a grievous sin by contracting a marriage, because that 
 person would deceive the other, and expose himself to the 
 danger of violating his vow. Before cohabitation that per- 
 son is obliged to enter religion so as to fulfill that vow. 
 These persons should not fulfill marriage for two months, 
 for by divine law, during that time, they are allowed to en- 
 ter religion. If, before that time elapses, and before cohab- 
 
MATRIMONY. 435 
 
 itation, they take solemn vows, their spouse is absolved 
 from the bond of marriage, and therefore can marry again. 
 After cohabitation they possess full marriage rights, be- 
 cause the fulfillment of their vow is now impossible. But 
 if the spouse dies, he or she is obliged to enter that religious 
 Order or Community, because the obligation of the vow 
 always remains. Still, if they marry, they should get a 
 dispensation from the vow as soon as possible. 
 
 A person who takes a vow of receiving holy orders, and 
 then marries, would also sin grievously, because married 
 men are not ordained in the Latin Rite. Still, when they 
 contract marriage, they possess full marriage rights. 
 
 We have spoken of obtaining a dispensation, but no one, 
 not even the Pope himself, can dispense from an impedi- 
 ment arising from valid espousals or engagements, for when 
 parties are engaged it is a contract, and justice requires 
 that the obligations be fulfilled. In the same way no one 
 can dispense from the duty of obtaining the consent of the 
 parents, because that arises from the law of nature, which 
 naturally ceases if the parents unjustly refuse their con- 
 sent. The bishop, or the ordinary of the diocese, can dis- 
 pense from the proclamation of the bans, and give a dis- 
 pensation, so that the marriage can take place in Advent 
 or Lent. They can also dispense from a temporary vow of 
 chastity, of virginity, or of not marrying. But they cannot 
 dispense from perpetual vows of chastity, of entering relig- 
 ious orders, or from the impediment between Catholics and 
 non-Catholics. These three are reserved to the Pope, who 
 often gives this power to the bishops to exercise it in his 
 name. The Pope can dispense in vows and obligations 
 made to God, because Christ left that to Peter: "Whatso- 
 ever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in 
 heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth, it 
 shall be loosed also in heaven" (Math. xvi. 19). The Pope, 
 therefore, being the Vicar of Christ, taking his place as the 
 visible head and ruler of the Church, has received all the 
 power and authority left to St. Peter by the Lord. A vow 
 is like a particular law imposed on a person by himself. It 
 is something we offer to God. The Pope or the superiors of 
 the Church can, for a sufficient reason, in the name of God 
 release a person from a vow. But an espousal, or an en- 
 gagement, and other matters of that kind, being made be- 
 
43G MATRIMONY. 
 
 tween a man and a woman, relate to justice between man 
 and man. They partake of the nature of a contract, over 
 which the Pope or Church has no control. Therefore the 
 Church can dissolve or change a vow, but not an engage- 
 ment nor a marriage between Christians when completed 
 by cohabitation. 
 
 The impediments mentioned thus far forbid and prevent 
 marriage. But if, in spite of these impediments, the par- 
 ties contract marriage, although they sin grievously, and 
 receive not the grace of marriage, yet their wedlock is 
 valid and they are man and wife. For these laws do not 
 relate precisely to the essence of marriage, but rather to its 
 allowable conditions. There are other impediments, which 
 not only make the marriage sinful, but also renders the 
 wedlock invalid, null, and void as long as the impediment 
 stands in the way. 
 
 Christ gave the Church all power, useful and necessary, 
 to becomingly guide and rule the Christian world, and ad- 
 minister the sacraments in a proper manner. But one of 
 the most important institutions in the state, and in Chris- 
 tian society, is marriage. The rulers of this world know 
 this so well that they have, in many countries, and in some 
 civilized nations, regulated marriage by law. Many regula- 
 tions and statutes render marriage null and void before the 
 law, if these conditions are not fulfilled. Do you not think 
 that our Lord left the same authority to his Church ? Mar- 
 riage among the baptized is a sacrament. But the dis- 
 pensing of the sacraments is in the hands of the Church. 
 As the Church can make laws relating to baptism, to the 
 Eucharist, and to the other sacraments, so she can also 
 make laws relating to the sacrament of marriage. There- 
 fore the Church has enacted certain laws according to 
 which marriage may be honorably, decently, and worthily 
 contracted, surrounded with all the splendor and ceremo- 
 nies necessary for so holy a sacramental rite. Therefore 
 the Council of Trent says: ''If any one says that the 
 Church cannot institute impediments rendering marriage 
 null and void, or that she has erred in making them, let 
 him be anathematized." 
 
 We have before spoken of governments enacting laws 
 relating to marriage. We would like you to understand 
 this. Civil laws relate only to the external acts of men. 
 
MATRIMONY. 437 
 
 and do not touch the mind. That is, although all just laws 
 bind the consciences of citizens, no matter how bad he may 
 be within, yet if the person does no bad external act, he is 
 not subject to punishment by the civil law. Therefore we 
 lay down a proposition, that the Church alone can enact 
 impediments which render marriage null and void in con- 
 science, before God and man ; while the civil laws relating 
 to matrimony have only civil effects. Hence the Council of 
 Tours, approved by Gregory XTI., says : ''By most certain 
 right marriage cases belong to the ecclesiastical courts, and 
 therefore their regulation and their decision are altogether 
 forbidden by the holy canons to be passed on by civil 
 judges, and by all others, except the bishops and their offi- 
 cials. * * * Under pain of anathema we forbid these to un- 
 dertake and decide." 
 
 Here the Church decides that marriage belongs only to 
 the Church to regulate, and in no way to secular judges, or 
 to men of the world. In the same way the Council of Trent 
 defined that marriage cases belong to the pastors of the 
 Church. In 1788 Pius YI. decided the same. As the mar- 
 riage contract was elevated to a sacrament by Christ, as a 
 spiritual thing it must be regulated by the Church, the 
 only spiritual power in this world. The union of man and 
 wife must be the same wherever they go. But if their 
 union could be regulated by governments, they would be har- 
 rassed by changed and changing laws in various countries, 
 as they changed their residences. Therefore their mar- 
 riage should be regulated by the Church, which is the same 
 always and in all countries of the earth. Besides, as the 
 Church has her own laws, if the governments should make 
 other laws, one power would conflict with the other. What 
 one would build up the other would destroy, and soon there 
 would be no obedience or reverence for either the spiritual 
 authority of the Church, or the civil authority of the gov- 
 ernments. Therefore the laws of the land, relating to mar- 
 riage, have only civil effects. 
 
 When the laws of the Church render matrimony null and 
 void, they affect directly the contract of marriage, and in- 
 directly the sacrament of marriage, because Christ elevated 
 the contract into a sacrament. Even where the parties do 
 not know that the Church renders the marriage contract 
 null and void, the marriage is nevertheless invalid, because 
 
438 MATRIMONY. 
 
 all laws produce their effect whether known or not. If 
 the parties do not know the law, they are in good faith, and 
 there is no sin on their part. But if one or both learn of the 
 impediment, they must abstain from cohabitation till a 
 dispensation is obtained by the pastor. 
 
 The impediments which render marriage forbidden, or 
 null and void, may come from the law of nature, from the 
 divine revealed law of God in the Bible, from the law of 
 the Church, or they may be derived from two or from all 
 of these laws at the same time. No power can depart from 
 the law of reason or of nature ; but the Church can only 
 give dispensations from her own laws, and never from the 
 law of nature or of reason. We will treat of the impedi- 
 ments which render marriage null and void in the follow- 
 ing pages, showing by what law they are so. 
 
 The emperor Theodosius first forbade the marriage of 
 first cousins. Afterwards the Church extended that law to 
 the seventh degree of kindred. But the fourth Lateran 
 Council restricted this impediment of relationship to the 
 fourth degree. The impediments founded on the natural 
 law were always the same, while those derived from the 
 Church and civil laws varied from age to age. Before the 
 Council of Trent there were fourteen impediments render- 
 ing marriage null and void, and the Church then added 
 another, that of clandestinity, or secret weddings. Because 
 it is a sacrament, the Church has full and complete author- 
 ity over marriage. But because certain civil and worldly 
 effects follow, Christian governments have made certain 
 rules and laws relating to matrimony. But the govern- 
 ment should only follow, and be guided by the Church, be- 
 cause the spiritual guides the material in all things. All 
 good civil rules, from Justinian up to our day, have fol- 
 lowed the wise laws of the Church in their laws relating to 
 marriage. 
 
 The Council of Chalcedony gave the bishops power to dis- 
 pense in certain impediments of marriage. Provincial or 
 national councils first established many of these impedi- 
 ments, and the universal Church afterwards adopted them 
 in ecumenical councils. The second Council of Carthage 
 established the celibacy of the clergy. St. Patrick, in a 
 council held in Ireland in 450, enacted the impediment of 
 the vows of virginity. In this way, also, the other impedi- 
 
MATRIMONY, 439 
 
 ments arose. Even the emperor Justinian made laws ren- 
 dering a marriage null and void, if contracted contrary to 
 the Roman law. The Visigoths, in Spain, forbade mar- 
 riage between relatives to the sixth degree. The Ostrogoth 
 princes of Italy adopted the Roman marriage laws. The 
 Lombards accepted the Church laws forbidding the mar- 
 riage of cousins. 
 
 There are at present fifteen impediments which render 
 marriage null and void. The first of these impediments is 
 error relating to the person you are about to marry. Here 
 we may say that error relating to marriage is of two kinds 
 — substantial and accidental error. Substantial error relates 
 to the person whom you are about to marry. Accidental 
 error relates to the conditions and qualities of the person. 
 Whence error relating to a person, by the natural law of 
 reason, and by every law, renders marriage invalid. If 
 you are going to marry a young lady, and another lady 
 whom you would not marry if you knew it, would take her 
 place and personate your intended, thus deceiving you, the 
 marriage would certainly be invalid. If a man would rep- 
 resent himself to be the one you intended to marry, and 
 you should contract the marriage with him whom you cer- 
 tainly did not intend to marry, he would deceive you, and 
 therefore he is not your husband. This would be a sub- 
 stantial error, and vitiates the very contract of marriage 
 itself. But if you were only ignorant of the qualities of the 
 person, whether he or she is rich or poor, good or bad, ex- 
 cept where you make these qualities a substantial condi- 
 tion, you are married. But if you married a lady whom 
 you supposed to be noble and rich, a virgin of a peaceful 
 disposition, but you find her a common, poor, crabbed girl, 
 of a quarrelsome disposition, the marriage would be valid, 
 because it is not a substantial but an accidental error. 
 Also, the marriage would be valid if you married a widow, 
 whom you supposed was never before married, even if you 
 were deceived. A woman would contract a valid marriage 
 with a man who was in reality a worthless tramp, although 
 he reported himself to be of a noble family, rich and influ- 
 ential, even if he should prove it by false witnesses, for you 
 intended to marry him then and there, and your error is 
 only accidental. The error relates to his qualities, and not 
 to the person himself. Still she would not be obliged to live 
 
440 MATRIMONY. 
 
 with him, but she could easily get a divorce with regard to 
 bed and board. 
 
 A solemn vow of chastity, in an approved religious Order, 
 or in a congregation approved by the Church, ever after 
 renders marriage invalid. A simple vow of perfect and 
 perpetual chastity does not render marriage null and void, 
 but only sinful. One who receives holy orders — that is, 
 subdeaconship, deaconship, or the priesthood — can never 
 marry. That has been defined by the Church. The clergy, 
 in holy orders, are not forbidden to marry either by the 
 natural or by the divine law, for there is nothing in mar- 
 riage to prevent them exercising the duty of priesthood. 
 
 A promise should be kept. How much more, therefore, 
 a promise of virginity, or of not marrying, which is made 
 to God. St. Ambrose, in a sermon addressed to a virgin, 
 and the letters of St. Gregory to Yenantius, show us the 
 belief of the early Church on this subject. St. Chrysostom 
 lays down the early teachings of how ladies should guard 
 themselves from the snares of the devil. The Church has 
 always detested and condemned such marriages contracted 
 by persons already bound by a vow. Yet before the sev- 
 enth century the Church did not render these marriages 
 invalid, but only forbidden. St. Augustin says: ''If we 
 ask anything more of those who have made a profession of 
 widowhood and of virginity, it is because of the excellence 
 of that gift ; because, after having freely chosen that state, 
 for them to marry, or to even desire to do so, is a damna- 
 ble thing." * * * Innocent I. treats such people as adulter- 
 ers, saying: ''Those who contract a spiritual marriage 
 with Jesus Christ * * - should not be admitted to penance 
 if they publicly marry." St. Leo, his successor, tempered 
 this rigor, saying : " He who, having deserted the religious 
 state, and marries, should do public penance." The Coun- 
 cil of Chalcedony excommunicated such persons. This was 
 also the custom in the sixth century, as shown by many 
 letters of Gregory the Great to Yenantius, a monk whose 
 marriage he did not treat as null and void. Lest the bad 
 example of these people might lead others to sin, the Church 
 made laws, towards the seventh century, rendering such 
 wedlocks invalid. That was first proclaimed in the Coun- 
 cil of Toledo, in 633, and re-enacted in 909 by the Councils 
 of Tribur and Trosly. They made no distinction between 
 
MATRIMONY. 441 
 
 simple or private, and solemn or public vows. That dis- 
 tinction was first given by Alexander II. The Greeks, 
 also, teach that a vow is an obstacle to marriage, and they 
 inflict spiritual punishments on those who break their 
 vows. Innocent I. distinguishes those who publicly enter 
 religion from those who privately make vows, and live 
 in the world, treating the first with greater rigor if 
 they marry. These marriages would be invalid in our 
 times. 
 
 The Greeks and other Orientals, following Justinian's 
 law, consider such marriages dissolved by a religious pro- 
 fession, even if they have children ; a custom they claim 
 they derive from St. Basil. 
 
 The Church always desired her ministers to be free from 
 the trials and embarrassments of the married life, that, like 
 the Saviour and the Apostles, they might be more indepen- 
 dent to preach the Gospel. History and tradition tell us 
 that the Apostles lived as brothers and sisters with their 
 wives after they were called by Christ. The celibacy of 
 the clergy was, therefore, only at first a custom ; but in the 
 Councils of Neocesarea, of Eloice, of Ancyre, and of Car- 
 thage it was made a law. Such is the testimony of Euse- 
 bius. St. Jerome says that the Apostles, the bishops, the 
 priests, and the deacons of the early Church were either 
 virgins or celibates after they began to preach. That was 
 the custom of the early Churches of Egypt, of the East, 
 and of all Churches subject to the Holy See. Whence, in 
 these remote times, when they were going to consecrate 
 Synesius a bishop against his will, he protested that he 
 could not keep a vow of chastity, but would have to live 
 with his wife. Yet that law was not then universal in the 
 Church. St. Gregory of Nazianzen speaks of his son, born 
 about the year 329, before the conversion of his father. St. 
 Epiphanius says that celibacy was the universal custom 
 enjoined by the canons of the Latin Church — at least for 
 priests and bishops. Numerous monuments of the early 
 Greek Church show us that some of the clergy married and 
 lived with their wives, while others did not. But in the 
 Western Church, celibacy was enjoined by the second 
 Council of Carthage, by the first of Toledo, by the one held 
 at Agde in 506, and by the commands of Popes Siricius and 
 Innocent I. Not that these formed anything new, but that 
 
442 MATRIMONY. 
 
 they raised to a universal law a custom which comes down 
 from the Apostles. 
 
 St. Epiphanius complains that some of the clergy of the 
 Greek Rite lived in his time with their wives. This, at first 
 tolerated, becoming a custom, was legitimatized by Justin- 
 ian's laws, and the Greeks ordained married men and 
 allowed them to live with their families. But the unmar- 
 ried men were not ordained unless they promised to live in 
 celibacy. Such is the custom to-day in the Greek Church. 
 
 The Council of Ancyra allowed bishops to ordain a mar- 
 ried man a deacon, and let him live with his wife, if he 
 said he could not keep a vow of chastity. The Council of 
 Neocesarea directed married priests to be treated with more 
 leniency than those who sinned outside of marriage. This 
 shows the motherly kindness and leniency of the Church in 
 every age. From the ninth to the eleventh centuries holy 
 orders became an impediment, rendering marriage invalid 
 in the Western Church. That law was enacted in the three 
 first Lateran Councils, from 1123 to 1179, where the mar- 
 riage of the clergy in sacred orders was declared null and 
 void. It is therefore a purely Church law, forbidding the 
 use of marriage, which the Greeks also forbid their priests 
 when they are about to serve the altar. 
 
 The Church, therefore, could allow the marriage of the 
 clergy, but she does not, although often asked to do So. 
 In 1564, the emperor of Germany, with the duke of Bava- 
 ria, requested the Pope to allow the clergy to marry. The 
 marriage of the clergy is not forbidden either in the Scrip- 
 tures nor by the natural law, for the duties of wedded life 
 and the ministry of the Gospel can be exercised by a per- 
 son at the same time. 
 
 Many councils have spoken regarding the vow of chas- 
 tity taken by those who receive holy orders. The Council 
 of Trent says: ^^If anyone says that clergymen in holy 
 orders, or members of the regular clergy, after having sol- 
 emnly professed, can contract marriage, and that the con- 
 tract is valid, in spite of the ecclesiastical law or vow, let 
 him be anathematized." 
 
 As a solemn vow belongs to the Church, and as they are 
 forbidden to marry only by her rules, or by the vow the 
 Church obliges them to take at ordination, the Pope, who 
 is the head of the Church, can dispense, if there be a suffi- 
 
MATRIMONY. . 443 
 
 cient reason. In order that a vow may render marriage in- 
 valid, it is necessary that it is voluntary and deliberately 
 taken, and with the intention of binding one's self. In 
 other words, it must be a valid vow. Besides, holy orders 
 must be validly and voluntarily received. 
 
 The third impediment to marriage is blood relationship. 
 Eelationship or consanguinity consists in this, that the per- 
 sons are born of the same stock. Three things are to be con- 
 sidered in consanguinity : the stock — that is, one person born 
 of another ; the grade — ^that is, the distance or relationship 
 of one to another ; and the line — that is, the series of per- 
 sons descending from the same stock. There are two lines. 
 One is direct, consisting of a series of persons, one born of 
 another, as children born of the same parents. The other 
 is a side line, as brothers, nephews, etc., compared to their 
 uncles and aunts. The latter line, called the side or collat- 
 eral line, consists in this, that although belonging to a com- 
 mon stock, yet one is not born of the other. The relation- 
 ship between those of the direct line — that is, those who are 
 born one from another — by the law of reason and of nature 
 renders marriage invalid, no matter how far they may be 
 from one another, because one is born of another. Thus 
 parents or grandparents can never marry their children. 
 The relationship between those of the side line, by the law 
 of the Church, renders marriage invalid to the fourth de- 
 gree ; that is, only third cousins can marry. Eelationship 
 renders marriage invalid in the same way between those 
 born of the same father, or from the same mother — that is, 
 half-brothers and sisters, half -cousins, etc. It is invalid, 
 even, between those who are illegitimate, or bastards, be- 
 cause the same blood relationship exists between them. 
 
 Those of the first degree in the side line — that is, brothers 
 and sisters — are forbidden to marry by all enacted laws both 
 of the Church and of governments. Even reason tells that 
 a person when not controlled by passion cannot marry his 
 sister. Yet we are not entirely sure that it is unnatural, 
 although no savages marry their sisters, because the chil- 
 dren of Adam married. The Church never yet gave a dis- 
 pensation that brother and sister might marry. But the 
 Church can, for a grievous cause, allow cousins to marry. 
 But it must be an exceedingly grievous cause for first 
 cousins. 
 
444 MATRIMONY. 
 
 The reasons why the Church render marriage, in some 
 cases forbidden, and in others invalid, between parties who 
 are related is, that they may treat one another with the 
 respect due relatives. As nature abhors the marriage of 
 persons of the same stock, or between blood relatives, so 
 the Church abhors and prohibits such marriages. As the 
 result of the marriage of persons of the same blood, we 
 often see their children either fools, cripples, or laboring 
 under some defect of mind or body. 
 
 The Church desires a perfect race, not a race of cripples, 
 born so by the sins of their parents. Therefore, in the in- 
 terest of the children she forbids such marriages. Mar- 
 riage is the best way of uniting people of different 
 races, and of forming a bond of unity between different 
 families, nations, and peoples. We see that animals of the 
 same flock are improved by being mixed with the animals 
 of another flock, and so it is in the human race. Besides, 
 people related being accustomed to associate together so 
 intimately and closely in the same house, if they knew that 
 they could marry, they would be exposed to immorality. 
 These are some of the reasons why marriage is forbidden 
 among relatives. 
 
 The person who baptizes, and sponsors in baptism and 
 confirmation, contract a spiritual relationship or affinity 
 with the persons for whom they stand. This arises also 
 from private or lay baptism. That spiritual relationship, 
 by the laws of the Church, renders marriage invalid be- 
 tween the minister of the sacrament and the receiver, be- 
 tween the minister of the sacrament and the parents of the 
 person baptized, and between the sponsors and the person 
 for whom they stand. Three conditions are required in 
 order that the sponsor may contract this spiritual relation- 
 ship. First, they themselves must be baptized, otherwise 
 they would not be Catholics, and not subject to the laws of 
 the Church. They must have the use of their reason, 
 otherwise they would not be capable of the duty of sponsor. 
 The third condition is, that they be nominated for this duty 
 by the parents or by the pastor. The sponsors can marry 
 each other, but not the parents of the children, or the child. 
 A person who simply holds a child who was privately bap- 
 tized, while the ceremonies of baptism are supplied, does 
 not contract a spiritual affinity, because he does not take 
 
MATRIMONY. _. 
 
 the child from the baptismal font, or hold it while the water 
 is being poured on its head. A person who privately bap- 
 tizes another in a case of necessity, contracts the affinity. 
 A person who stands for another at a private baptism prob- 
 ably does not contract a spiritual relationship, because the 
 Council of Trent speaks only of those who are sponsors in a 
 public baptism. Besides, at a private baptism sponsors are 
 not generally present. A sponsor, in order to contract this 
 relationship, must touch or hold the child at the moment of 
 baptism, or take the baptized child from the font. Hence, 
 according to the laws of the Church, they must receive, 
 hold, wash, and touch the person baptized. Parents who 
 baptize their own child in case of necessity, or in good 
 faith, do not contract a spiritual relationship, not even if 
 they baptize their own child without necessity. But they 
 should not baptize their own child except in case of great 
 urgency. 
 
 A legal relationship arises from the legal adoption of a 
 person. It is a perfect adoption where a person is adopted 
 according to legal forms, and when the one adopted ac- 
 quires all the rights and privileges of a natural child. It is 
 imperfect when the person adopted enters the family and 
 becomes the heir of the adopting party, but not with all the 
 rights of a natural child. Hence, from a legal adoption 
 arises an impediment according to the laws of the Church, 
 by which marriage cannot take place between the adopted 
 and the person who adopts — at least, while in the family. 
 The rules are the same as in blood relationship. A mar- 
 riage cannot, therefore, take place between the person 
 adopted and either of the foster parents, between the foster 
 parents and the wife or husband of the person adopted, or 
 between the adopted and children of the adopter, or the 
 children or spouse of the adopted party. This marriage is 
 forbidden within the first degree, and only lasts while the 
 person is under the care of its foster parents. Imperfect 
 adoption, which is not carried out in legal form, does not 
 give rise to an impediment of marriage. 
 
 An affinity is a relationship which arises between persons 
 who have cohabited. Hence it can arise from sin or from 
 a marriage. It renders marriage invalid between one and 
 the relations of the other party. Between a married couple 
 affinity exists to the fourth degree of kindred, and from sin 
 
440 MATRIMONY. 
 
 to the second degree. Affinity arises only from a consum- 
 mated cohabitation, or from that whence a child should be 
 born, for only in that way man and woman strictly become 
 one flesh. Affinity contracted by a person with his or her 
 spouse, cannot dissolve a marriage already contracted ; be- 
 cause a completed marriage between the baptized cannot 
 be dissolved. But, as a punishment for the sin, the sinner 
 loses his or her rights. This affinity, besides, is not con- 
 tracted unless with the person related to the spouse in the 
 first or second degree. Persons who are thus united do not 
 contract an affinity towards one another, but they are the 
 fountain from whence others contract affinity. Affinity 
 cannot arise between two persons where neither sinned with 
 the relatives of the other ; whence the relations of one spouse 
 cannot contract affinity with the relatives of the other. 
 Hence two brothers can marry two sisters; the father and son 
 can marry the mother and daughter, or the son can marry 
 the mother, and the father the daughter. Therefore affin- 
 ity does not give rise to affinity. The grades of relation- 
 ship in affinity are to be counted the same as the grades of 
 blood relationship, and as is the grade of relationship, such 
 is also the grade of affinity. He, therefore, who sins with 
 two sisters or cousins, or with both a mother and daughter, 
 cannot marry either of them. If both spouses contract 
 an affinity, both lose their rights. Affinity renders mar- 
 riage invalid, according to the ecclesiastical law, in per- 
 sons related in the direct and in the side or collateral lines. 
 The Church seldom gives a dispensation for the first degree 
 of affinity arising from a valid marriage. 
 
 Another impediment, called public honesty, arises from 
 the relationship existing between persons who are engaged 
 to be married, or who are already married, but who have 
 not yet cohabited. This impediment, when arising from a 
 valid espousal or engagement, renders marriage between 
 the person espoused and the relatives of the other, invalid 
 to the first degree. This impediment exists even when the 
 engagement has been broken, if the engagement was pri- 
 vate, or if the marriage is invalid by any law of the Church, 
 except it is null and void because the consent of the parties 
 had not been given. 
 
 One impediment is called the impediment of crime — 
 namely, immorality, or murder on the part of either spouse, 
 
MATRIMONY. 447 
 
 or both immorality and murder. But for an impediment of 
 this kind, it is necessary that the immorality be completely 
 and willfully comraitted. That it be a true adultery — that is, 
 one or both of the parties must be validly married ; that it 
 be voluntary — that is, both committing the sin should know 
 that one or both of the parties be married ; and that it be 
 perfect — that is, from which generation could take place. 
 It is necessary, in the second place, that this sin is commit- 
 ted under the promise of marriage, and accepted by the 
 other, whether this promise precedes or follows the immoral 
 act, and has not been revoked. In the third place, it is 
 necessary that this promise of marriage, and the sinful act, 
 takes place while one of the persons is joined in wedlock. 
 The impediment of crime can arise, also, from murder 
 alone. But it is necessary that there be a mutual conspir- 
 acy to murder the spouse, with the intention of marrying. 
 Then it is not suflS.cient that one spouse kills the other, 
 when the person with whom he or she intends to marry 
 does not kno^vv this, or does not consent to the crime ; but 
 murder must take place with the intention of marrying ; 
 and, thirdly, that death follows — otherwise it is not a mur- 
 der, or homicide. For example, if a married person sins with 
 another, T^ho knows him to be married, under the promises 
 accepted by the other of marrying, then those two persons 
 are incapable of ever marrying. Again, if two conspire to 
 kill the spouse of one, with the intention of marrying after- 
 wards, and if they kill, they are incapable of marrying 
 afterwards. 
 
 When they are guilty of both immorality and of the mur- 
 der of the spouse, as given above, a mutual conspiracy and 
 promises of marriage are not necessary to form an impedi- 
 ment between them, but the immorality must have the con- 
 ditions given above. Hence it must take place before the 
 murder. It is not necessary that it precedes the conspiracy 
 for murder, but only the murder itself. The conspiracy for 
 murder must be conceived by one of the parties. Probably, 
 also, it should be manifested to the other party. Death 
 must follow from the conspiracy as given above. All this 
 can be summed up in a few words — an act of immorality, 
 with the promise made by one and accepted by the other ; 
 murder, where both conspire to kill the spouse, with the 
 intention of marrying afterwards ; or, at least, conceived 
 
448 MATRIMONY. 
 
 by one and told to the other, or both crimes committed with 
 the intention of marriage. In these three cases will arise 
 an impediment to their marriage in such a way that they 
 can never be joined in wedlock. The reason of this is, that 
 the Church wants to prevent immorality and murder. 
 
 There is an impediment between a person baptized and 
 one not baptized. Marriage is wholly null and void and 
 entirely invalid between such persons. This can be proved 
 from the teachings of the fathers, by the writers of all 
 ages, by the decrees of the Popes, councils, pastors, bish- 
 ops, and by the common practices of the Church through- 
 out the whole world. A difference of religion between 
 those who are validly baptized does not render the mar- 
 riage invalid, but very sinful, unless a dispensation is 
 given. Hence no law or custom declares a marriage be- 
 tween two baptized persons invalid. A marriage between 
 a person baptized and another not baptized is null and void, 
 not by the law of reason or of nature, but by the law of the 
 Church, for marriage is a sacrament ruled and regulated by 
 the Church. This impediment did not exist in the first 
 ages of the Christian religion. St. Monica, the mother of 
 the great St. Augustin, was married to Patrick — a pagan. 
 The Pope alone can give a dispensation for a baptized per- 
 son to marry one unbaptized. Although the bishops of this 
 country have these faculties, and often use this power, yet 
 it was never given to them as an episcopal right. They are 
 simply delegated by the Pope to dispense from this impedi- 
 ment in his name. The dispensation can be obtained only 
 when there is no danger of the Catholic party being led 
 away from the Church. Besides, the Catholic must prom- 
 ise to labor for the conversion of the non-Catholic, and also 
 both must promise that all the children of both sexes, shall 
 be educated in the Catholic religion ; and there must be 
 grievous reasons for this marriage. If any of these reasons 
 be absent, the dispensation will not be given. The priest can 
 assist at such marriages, when the dispensation is obtained. 
 But they cannot be married in the church, not even in the 
 sacristy ; nor can the priest wear any vestments, or give 
 them his blessing. The bans of such marriages should not 
 be announced. If both refuse to bring the children up in 
 the Catholic religion, the priest can have nothing to do 
 with their marriage. If they are married in a Protestant 
 
MATRIMONY. 449 
 
 church, by a Protestant minister, according to the Protest- 
 ant matrimonial rites, they are excommunicated from the 
 Church. The priest cannot assist at their marriage either 
 before or afterwards, before the minister, nor can any but 
 the bishop absolve them. That is the law in this country. 
 Protestants who belong to a Church which has a valid bap- 
 tism, are to be considered as validly baptized. Those sects 
 whose baptism is invalid are to be considered unbaptized. 
 
 We would say that the Baptists, who baptize by immer- 
 sion ; the Episcopalians, and sometimes the Methodists, are 
 validly baptized in most cases. But those who sprinkle, 
 like the Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and others, are 
 probably not baptized, as the water often falls on the hair 
 or clothes, and does not wash. Still it is difficult to judge 
 this matter, there are such diversities among them. The 
 future welfare of the Church has more to fear from these 
 mixed marriages than from any other cause at the present 
 day in this country. Although the Church will give a dis- 
 pensation when there is an urgent reason ; still, in giving it 
 to her children, she weeps. We would say, better for you, 
 reader, a hundred times, to never marry, but to live single 
 all your life, than to contract such a marriage. We have 
 not time nor space to give the reasons why. We, with the 
 other clergy, come to this conclusion. 
 
 Great fear renders marriage invalid, according to the 
 laws of the Church, and probably, also, according to the 
 natural law. To contract this impediment it is necessary, 
 first, that this fear comes from external and free cause that 
 is from man and not from weakness, or natural timidity, 
 but caused by others. It must be inflicted unjustly upon 
 the person, and with the intention of forcing the person to 
 marry. A little fear or fright, even when caused unjustly, 
 does not render marriage invalid, because little fear does 
 not greatly influence the free consent of the will. Besides, 
 according to the laws of the Church, only great force or 
 fear renders marriage null and void. In the third place, if 
 slight or little force or fear would render marriage null, it 
 would cause great evils and many disturbances in society. 
 Hence, a person being exceedingly timid, because that 
 comes from the person about to marry, or because he or she 
 is frightened at the duties of marriage — all that does not 
 render the marriage invalid. Therefore fear only renders 
 
450 MATRIMONY. 
 
 marriage invalid when a person is forced by others, or 
 compelled, through fear, to marry against his free will. 
 
 The bond of marriage by which the wedded couple are 
 united, is such that while both live, neither of them can 
 validly contract a marriage with a third party. This im- 
 pediment is founded on the two attributes of matrimony — 
 on its unity and on this, that the bond cannot be broken. 
 This impediment comes from the divine, positive law of 
 Christ, who says : '' Whom God hath joined let no man put 
 asunder.'' Whoever in good faith believes his or her spouse 
 dead, if such marry again while the spouse lives, they do 
 not sin, because they married in good faith. But because 
 of the first, the second marriage is invalid, and they are 
 obliged to return to the first spouse as soon as they find 
 that he or she is living. The absence alone of one of the 
 spouses is not a sufficient reason that the other may con- 
 tract a new marriage. Authentic testimony of the death of 
 the absent is required. This is the law of the Church. A 
 public rumor, therefore, will not do ; but a moral certainty 
 of death is required. If there is the slightest doubt they 
 should seek the advice of their pastor, or of the bishop, 
 and while there is any reasonable doubt a second marriage 
 would be very sinful. If they marry while in doubt of the 
 death of the other, the marriage will be valid if the spouse 
 is dead, but they will commit a grievous sin in so mar- 
 rying. 
 
 The impediment of age consists in this, that a person has 
 not yet arrived at the age in which the duties of married 
 life can be fulfilled. By a law of the Church these prema- 
 ture marriages are rendered invalid. The law of the 
 Church makes certain exceptions for those who are ma- 
 tured enough to understand the weight of the conjugal 
 bond, and to fulfill the duties of husband and wife. 
 
 Another impediment is against clandestine marriages. 
 Clandestine means concealed or secret. It is a clandestine 
 marriage when they marry without the assistance of a 
 priest and two witnesses. This impediment arises only 
 from the laws of the Church, and renders marriage null 
 and void. It was promulgated in the Council of Trent. 
 Any witnesses will do for the validity of a marriage, 
 whether male or female, if they have arrived at the age of 
 reason, and can testify to the marriage ceremony. The de- 
 
MATRIMONY. 451 
 
 cree of the Council of Trent is as follows: "Who, other- 
 wise than in the presence of the pastor, or before another 
 priest, with his permission, or that of the Ordinary, and 
 before two or three witnesses, attempts to contract mar- 
 riage — those the holy Synod renders altogether incapable 
 of thus marrying, and decrees that this kind of contract is 
 null and void * * *.*' It declares, besides, that this decree 
 '^ will bind the people within thirty days of its publication 
 in the parish." Hence clandestine or secret marriages are 
 altogether null, void, and invalid in all places where the 
 decree of the Council of Trent has been promulgated. But 
 they are not invalid in places where this decree was not 
 promulgated or published, because they were valid before 
 the Council, and no law, either of Church or state, obliges 
 until it is promulgated. Clandestine or secret marriages 
 are everywhere forbidden under pain of the most grievous 
 mortal sin, and as the Council of Trent says, and Benedict 
 XIV. writes, the Church has always considered them as 
 detestable. 
 
 This decree of the Council of Trent was promulgated in 
 Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Holland, Belgium, Ireland, 
 and in parts of Catholic Germany. If persons living where 
 the decree was promulgated go into another place, where it 
 was not promulgated, with the intention of avoiding the 
 law, and of contracting a clandestine or secret marriage, 
 their marriage will be invalid. But if they have a resi- 
 dence, or a quasi residence there, they will be validly 
 married, even if they go with the intention of avoiding the 
 law, because there they have a residence, and partake in 
 the privileges of the place. Those living in a parish where 
 the decree has not been promulgated, cannot contract a 
 clandestine marriage in a parish where the Council has been 
 promulgated, because they pass into a place where they are 
 subject to the law. If one has a residence in a place where 
 the law of the Council is enforced, and goes with a person 
 who lives where the law is not enforced, they are not held 
 by the law, and therefore their marriage is valid. But it 
 will not be valid if they contract marriage where the Coun- 
 cil was published, if they can have recourse to the pastor or 
 bishop and do not do so. But if they cannot see the pastor, 
 for example, during a persecution, either religious or dur- 
 ing political troubles, their marriage will be valid, even if 
 
452 MATRIMONY. 
 
 the Council was promulgated in their parish. But it must 
 be during some public calamity, or be a particular and ex- 
 treme difficulty for them. 
 
 Heretics — that is, persons baptized but not belonging to 
 the Church — who are not married by the priest, in places 
 where the law of the Council has been promulgated, are 
 validly married according to Benedict XIV., although clan- 
 destinely married, because the Church is not supposed to 
 make their marriage invalid. 
 
 We give here a picture of the marriage ceremony of the 
 Marquis of Lorn, sometime ago Governor-General of Can- 
 ada, with the Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria. 
 The Queen is shown standing near her daughter. This cere- 
 mony was performed according to the rites of the Episcopal 
 Church. The Church always considers such marriages as 
 valid when there is no law or impediment against them. 
 
 If the people, for any reason, cannot marry before their 
 own pastor, they should get his permission, or the permis- 
 sion of the bishop, to marry before some other priest. 
 
 Where the Council of Trent has been promulgated, that 
 pastor oniy can validly assist who is the pastor of one or 
 of both of them, because he only has jurisdiction over them. 
 He obtains that jurisdiction by their residence or quasi-res- 
 idence in his parish ; not because they were born there, or 
 because they lived there for a short time, but because that 
 is their residence. This is shown by the declaration of the 
 Roman Congregations, by Benedict XIV. , and by nearly all 
 writers. A domicil, or residence, or quasi-domicil, is ob- 
 tained from the beginning of their residence — when they 
 move to the place with the intention of remaining there for 
 an indefinite time. A residence of one month, with the 
 real and sincere intention of remaining at least for the 
 greater part of the year, is sufficient to acquire a residence 
 in a parish. But a person cannot acquire a residence in a 
 month, i?f he comes only for a vacation, on a visit, to rusti- 
 cate, to do business, or with the intention of not remaining 
 there at least the greater part of a year. Where both par- 
 ties are tramps, they have no pastor, and therefore they 
 can marry before any pastor. But if one is not a tramp, 
 the marriage should take place before the pastor of the 
 party in whose parish the other has a residence. When 
 the pastor is absent or sick, the assistant pastor can take 
 
454 MATRIMONY. 
 
 his place. Still, on these points there is a diversity of dis- 
 cipline in different countries. 
 
 The bishops in this country are the real pastors over their 
 dioceses, and can therefore marry their people in any 
 church in the diocese. We give here an engraving of a 
 marriage of a prince and princess of Europe, performed by 
 the bishop clothed in his episcopal robes. 
 
 A pastor can marry his own people in any place, yet he 
 should marry in his own parish church, or in another 
 church, with the permission of the pastor, in a hall or 
 private oratory, or a house, with the permission of the 
 bishop. He should carry out all the rites of the Church. 
 In many parts of this country it is customary for the pastor 
 of the bride to marry the couple, because the man seeks the 
 woman and she follows him afterwards. 
 
 Incapacity renders marriage invalid. This incompetency 
 renders wedlock null and void by nature. It is certain or 
 doubtful, according as it is evident or not. It may precede 
 or follow marriage, according as it existed before the mar- 
 riage, or that it happened afterwards. It may be temporal 
 or perpetual, according as it may be cured or is incurable. 
 It may be natural or accidental, according as it arises from 
 an internal trouble or from an outside cause. It may be 
 absolute — that is, when it exists between one party and all 
 others of the opposite sex, or one party and only one of the 
 opposite sex, whom the person intends to marry. This im- 
 pediment exists where one party is not capable of fulfilling 
 the duties of wedlock. It arises then from the natural law, 
 as well as from the law of the Church. The marriage will 
 be valid if they, at the time of the wedding, are capable, 
 whether they were incapable either before or after from any 
 cause. 
 
 The impediment of abduction — that is, violently carrying* 
 away a woman from a place where she is safe, to another 
 where she will be under the power of her abductor, with 
 the intention of forcing her to marry, according to the law 
 of the Church renders marriage invalid between them. To 
 incur that impediment it is necessary that the woman be 
 taken from one place to another, that she be taken with the 
 intention of marrying her, and that she be carried off 
 against her will. This impediment will not arise if she is 
 coaxed by presents, arguments, etc., to go freely with the 
 
MATRIMONY. 455 
 
 man, because the Church, in creating this impediment, 
 wished to give ladies perfect freedom in matters relating 
 to marriage. When the woman freely consents none of 
 her rights are infringed. This impediment will not be con- 
 tracted if she is only carried from one room to another in 
 the same house, because she is not then in his power ; but 
 she must be taken from one house to another. This impedi- 
 ment does not arise if the Tvoman be carried off for any other 
 reason except that of forcing her to marry against her will. 
 
 This impediment will not arise if a woman carries off a 
 man, because that seems very improbable, and because the 
 Church only speaks of a man carrying off a woman. The 
 impediment ceases as soon as the woman is delivered from 
 the power of the man. This is clearly seen in the words of 
 the Council of Trent. Hence this impediment lasts only 
 while the woman is in his power, even if she should give 
 her free consent to marriage. 
 
 Such are the wise laws by which the Church of God, 
 guided by the Holy Ghost, has surrounded with safeguards 
 the sacrament of marriage. Here we must stop and say 
 that there is wonderful wisdom displayed in these rules 
 and regulations. They were enacted for the good of the 
 human race, both for the married people and for their chil- 
 dren yet unborn. 
 
 It may happen that for certain reasons these laws cannot 
 be carried out, on account of the peculiar circumstances of 
 the parties, or they might become harsh and oppressive on the 
 people. Therefore the Church, in her kindness, gives a dis- 
 pensation from her own laws. Yet you will understand that 
 no dispensation can be given from the obligations of the natu- 
 ral laws of reason, which come from God, are founded in nat- 
 ure, and which are shown us by our intellect and mind. Nor 
 can the Church dispense in any law made by God directly as 
 found in the Holy Bible. Hence the Church can never dis- 
 pense, either in the natural law or in the law imposed on us 
 by Christ. As Christ, therefore, made marriage an image of 
 the union between himself and the Church, his spouse ; as 
 he has raised marriage to the dignity of a sacrament, and 
 proclaimed that it cannot be dissolved, so the Church can- 
 not give a divorce where the persons have completed their 
 marriage by cohabitation. But the Church can dispense 
 any of her own laws ; for as she made these laws so she can 
 
450 MATRIMONY. 
 
 dispense with them, because every legislature can dispense 
 or repeal its own laws. Hence the Pope, the head of the 
 Church, can dispense from all ecclesiastical and matrimo- 
 nial impediments instituted by the Church, and validly in 
 every case, because he is the superior over all the Church, 
 and, lastly, if there is a just cause for dispensing. The 
 bishops cannot generally dispense in the impediments 
 which render marriage invalid, null, and void, because 
 these relate to the universal Church, and the bishops have 
 no authority to dispense the laws of the whole Church, but 
 only in the laws of their own dioceses. Yet some laws of 
 the universal Church, by custom and by the concessions of 
 Popes and councils, are given into the hands of the bishops, 
 who can dispense in some of these matrimonial cases. This 
 is shown by the decrees of councils, by the words of Pius 
 YII., in 1809, and by the continual practices of the Church. 
 The bishop can easily obtain from the Pope the power of 
 dispensing in the third or fourth degrees of consanguinity, 
 or of blood relationship, of public honesty, etc. But this is 
 given them only for a certain determined time. Formerly, 
 in France, the bishops had the privilege of dispensing in 
 impediments which rendered marriage void and invalid. 
 But these privileges were suppressed when the dioceses of 
 France were re-established by Pius VII., in 1802, after the 
 stormy times of the French Revolution. In matters of dis- 
 pensations your pastor will arrange all things. Go and see 
 him first when you are going to get married. 
 
 ^N"© dispensation should be given without a reason ; but 
 if given without a reason of some kind, it is null unless 
 given by the Pope. Hence there must be a cause for dis- 
 pensing from any of these remarkably wise laws of the 
 Church. These causes are grievous or light ; they are mo- 
 tive causes, final causes, and false or true causes. That a 
 dispensation may be given without sin, there should be a 
 grievous cause or reason. According to the Council of 
 Trent, in contracting marriages either no dispensation will 
 be given, or rarely, and then for a grievous reason. For 
 the validity of a dispensation it is necessary that the truth 
 be told, and only on the condition that the request is truth- 
 ful is the dispensation given. The following are some of the 
 reasons why an impediment rendering a marriage invalid 
 will be dispensed. 
 
MATRIMONY. 457 
 
 If the place is so small that there is danger lest a lady 
 cannot easily find a person to marry. A place is considered 
 small where only three hundred families live. If she has 
 not a sufficient fortune or dower to enable her to marry a 
 stranger, but has a chance to marry a relative ; if she is 
 over twenty-four, and cannot easily find a husband of her 
 own rank or state in life, whom she may marry ; if she has 
 sinned with a relative, or any person whom she cannot mar- 
 ry, and it is feared lest a great scandal will otherwise follow ; 
 if they have been quite familiar with one another, and they 
 may lose their good name unless they marry ; if it is neces- 
 sary to legitimatize a child not yet born ; if this marriage 
 will unite families that in the past have been unfriendly 
 toward one another ; if she is such a good Christian woman 
 that she cannot find a man except one bound by an impedi- 
 ment ; if it is necessary to preserve the good name of a 
 noted or noble family ; if a large amount of money will be 
 given for religion or good and charitable works ; if she is a 
 widow with a large family, and cannot find any other man. 
 These and many other reasons which might be mentioned, 
 are causes for giving a dispensation. The pastor will be 
 the judge in the case. 
 
 In asking for a dispensation the reasons why they want 
 to marry should be given, also the exact kind of an impedi- 
 ment standing in the way, the number of impediments, if 
 more than one exists between them, their exact relationship 
 or spiritual affinity, and the grade of blood relationship. If 
 anything sinful has taken place between them, or if they 
 already tried to marry, it should be stated, as well as the 
 various circumstances relating to this marriage. If they 
 sinned with the intention of getting a dispensation, this also 
 should be stated in making the request. If the cause for 
 asking the dispensation has ceased before the dispensation 
 is granted, then the dispensation will be useless. Many rules 
 are given relating to dispensations. They are well known 
 among the clergy, and would not be interesting to the pub- 
 lic. The way is, to plainly and clearly tell all to your pas- 
 tor, and he will arrange about getting you a dispensation. 
 At Rome there are two tribunals which have authority 
 from the Pope to give dispensations in his name. They are 
 the Datary and the Penitentiary. From the Datary are ob- 
 tained dispensations for public impediments, while the 
 
458 MATRIMONY. 
 
 Penitentiary gives dispensations from secret impediments. 
 Hence the names of the parties are not mentioned when 
 asking dispensations from the latter tribunal. 
 
 It may happen that a marriage may be invalid for want 
 of or from defect of the consent of the parties, because 
 they did not marry according to the prescribed form ; be- 
 cause there was some impediment between them ; or be- 
 cause they are living together. In that case a dispensation 
 is given. In this the goodness of the Church is shown in 
 rendering them capable of marrying, so that the marriage 
 may become valid between them. Hence, where the mar- 
 riage is invalid, because they did not consent, it becomes 
 valid when they renew their consent. If neither consented, 
 the consent of both is required. If one did not consent and 
 the other did, then the consent of the former only is re- 
 quired. Where one gives a fictitious consent, both should 
 renew their consent. It is not absolutely necessary, but 
 better, for the consent to be renewed before the pastor. 
 
 If the marriage is invalid because it is a clandestine wed- 
 ding — that is, contracted without the pastor and witnesses 
 being present — where the Council of Trent has been promul- 
 gated, it should be renewed before the pastor and the usual 
 witnesses, unless a dispensation had been obtained from 
 the Pope, which is rarely given. Hence this law obliges as 
 long as it has not been fulfilled. Such a marriage must 
 take place in the presence of the pastor and the witnesses, 
 without which it will be invalid, except where it is really 
 impossible to marry before them. When such parties come 
 before the pastor they will give their consent publicly, or 
 secretly, according as the invalidity and nullity of their 
 marriage is public or secret. In the first case the scandal 
 will be removed ; in the latter case it will be prevented, and 
 the good name of the couple will be saved. 
 
 Many difficulties arise if one is willing to go before the 
 pastor and the other refuses. Then they might be married 
 in their own house, or in some other place, before witnesses, 
 by which the marriage can be made public, if it is neces- 
 sary to repair the scandal, or if the marriage is well and 
 publicly known to be invalid. If one refuses through igno- 
 rance of the laws of the Church regarding the impediments 
 of marriage, then he or she should be instructed pru- 
 dently and charitably. If he or she still refuses to be 
 
MATRIMONY. 459 
 
 married before the Church, then they might appoint another 
 person in his place, and give consent through the third 
 person, as a proxy to take the place of the one who refuses ; 
 or he might give his consent by a letter sent to the priest, 
 or to another priest appointed by the bishop or pastor. 
 
 If he refuses still to renew his consent in this way, then 
 a dispensation from the very fountain-head should be ob- 
 tained, so that the marriage will be valid, and the salvation 
 of the innocent party will be secured, and the children will 
 be born legitimate, and those already born will become 
 legitimatized. If both parties refuse to give their consent 
 when they are not really married, then no dispensation can 
 be given by the Church, and the only thing we can do is to 
 pray fervently to God to give them better hearts, and con- 
 vert them to a better state of mind. That is the way we 
 proceed where the marriage is null and void because the 
 wise rules and regulations of the Church were not carried out. 
 
 Where the marriage is invalid because the parties are in- 
 capable of marrying, we proceed in this manner. If both 
 know the impediment, then both are obliged to renew their 
 consent, when the dispensation from the impediment has 
 been obtained, because a knowledge of the nullity of the 
 marriage, while the impediment exists, renders it null 
 and void, and really prevents their true consent. If only 
 one of the parties knows the impediment, he or she should 
 give the consent when the dispensation is obtained. Hence 
 persons ignorant of being bound by the impediment, need 
 not necessarily renew the consent for the validity of the 
 marriage, if the impediment only relates to the other party, 
 because the consent of the former was valid from the begin- 
 ning ; and, therefore, it remained valid when not revoked. 
 Hence only the renewal of the party incapable of marrying 
 is required. 
 
 If a member of the Church marry a person not baptized, 
 who was ignorant of the impediment, if the latter is con- 
 verted and baptized, or if a dispensation has been obtained, 
 the Catholic should renew his or her consent, because the 
 consent of the convert was valid, as before baptism he was 
 not subject to the laws of the Church. It is better for both 
 to give their consent when they come before the pastor. 
 In that case it would be better for both to be then and there, 
 but not before, told by the pastor that the marriage was in- 
 
460 MATRIMONY. 
 
 valid. A renewal of the marriage consent should take 
 place before the pastor and witnesses if the impediment be 
 public, so that scandal may be prevented or repaired. The 
 rules of the Datary always require this. Otherwise the va- 
 lidity of such a marriage could not publicly be proved 
 before the Church and before the world, as the pastor and 
 witnesses would not be present at the celebration of a valid 
 marriage, and thus the end intended by the Council of 
 Trent would not be obtained. Besides, the parties might, 
 after their clandestine or secret marriage had become a 
 valid marriage, secretly separate and marry other parties. 
 We are speaking of cases where the persons attempted 
 to clandestinely marry ; but on account of an impedi- 
 ment their marriage was invalid. When the dispensation 
 is obtained it is better for them to privately go before the 
 pastor and witnesses, if the impediment be secret. The 
 Council of Trent does not appear to require this, for the 
 Council wishes only to prevent the sins and calamities 
 which would arise from secret marriages. But in this 
 case the marriage is already a public contract, and hence 
 only a renewal of this consent is required. Besides, if 
 the Council required this, it might give rise to scandals, ex- 
 posing the parties to defamation of character, and many other 
 troubles. This is proved by the rules and customs of the 
 Penitentiary and the Roman congregation of Cardinals. 
 
 A radical dispensation is the wiping out of all ecclesias- 
 tical laws, which give rise to an impediment in a particular 
 case, with the wiping out of all the effects which have ever, 
 in a particular marriage case, followed from those laws of 
 the Church. Hence this dispensation produces its effect by 
 completely destroying every effect produced which follows 
 from the nullity of the marriage before the dispensation is 
 obtained, and all those results which follow that marriage. 
 Hence this differs from a simple dispensation, because the 
 latter produces its effects only from the time it was given, 
 and does not require a renewal of the consent of the par- 
 ties, whilst a radical dispensation makes the marriage valid 
 from the moment of wedlock ; as it were descending to the 
 very root of or moment of the marriage ceremony, and 
 rendering the marriage the same as though an impediment, 
 enacted by the Church, had never existed. Hence it is 
 called a radical dispensation, because it destroys the effect 
 
MATRIMONY. 461 
 
 of the impediment fromi its very root, or from the moment 
 of wedlock, by making the marriage valid, by making the 
 consent of the parties valid, and rendering the fruit of their 
 wedlock legitimate. 
 
 The Church, or the Pope, can give a radical dispensation 
 from all impediments arising from the laws of the Church. 
 Giving a radical dispensation is no other than to take away 
 the Church impediment, with its effects, not only for the 
 future, but also in the past, or to take away all the effects 
 following the impediment ; so that before the Church the 
 marriage stands as though the impediment had never ex- 
 isted. In this the Church does not exceed her power, be- 
 cause she made the impediments and can destroy them. 
 This is shown by the practice of the Church, in giving 
 these dispensations, for many centuries. We learn that 
 Pope Boniface VII., in 1301, was the first to give a dispen- 
 sation of this kind. Afterwards the Popes often gave radi- 
 cal dispensations. 
 
 The Church gives these dispensations from her own law 
 because she herself made the impediment. Wiping out the 
 effect of the law which made the impediment in a partic- 
 ular case, and the consent of the party null, because of 
 the impediment, when the obstacle is taken away the con- 
 sent is valid, and therefore, from the beginning, because 
 the la^v is as though it never existed for those parties. 
 When the law is taken away their consent naturally be- 
 comes valid. They are not obliged to renew their consent. 
 The Church only requires, for any ordinary dispensation, 
 that the effect of the sacrament of marriage may be more 
 certainly valid, and the effect produced by renewing the con- 
 sent of the parties, and that all anxiety may be taken away. 
 
 Three conditions are required that marriage may be valid 
 when a radical dispensation is given. First, that their 
 union has the external form of a marriage, and that it may 
 not be like a sinful cohabitation, without any marriage 
 ceremony. Otherwise there would not be a real marriage 
 consent of the parties, and therefore no foundation for 
 marriage. It is necessary that both parties have persevered 
 in their consent since they tried to marry, and have not re- 
 called it, for the Church could not make valid their marriage 
 if one or both revoked the consent. Hence the Pope often 
 requires testimony regarding the consent of both parties. 
 
462 MATRIMONY. 
 
 before he gives a radical dispensation. Thirdly, a very 
 grievous reason is necessary that this radical dispensation 
 be granted. According to Benedict XIV., this grievous 
 reason will be present when one of the couple refuses to be 
 married in the regular way, and intends to remain in that 
 slate. Secondly, when the impediment is known only to one 
 of the parties, and it cannot be revealed to the other without 
 great difficulty. Thirdly, when there is a grievous reason 
 for not speaking to the couple about the invalidity of their 
 marriage. This latter condition is not required for the va- 
 lidity of a dispensation given by the Pope, but it is if given 
 by the bishop, who has, by Indult from the Pope, the faculty 
 of giving dispensations of this kind in the Pope's name. 
 
 For a radical dispensation to obtain its effect, it is not 
 necessary for the parties to know that the dispensation is 
 given by the Church. For the authority of the Church in 
 these matters, as over the other sacraments, is independent 
 of the parties. This is confirmed by Clement XIII., who 
 gave a certain bishop the faculty of radically dispensing in 
 an impediment between parties without notifying them. 
 If both parties clearly know, in marrying, that their mar- 
 riage is null and void, no radical dispensation can be given, 
 because when they know that a marriage between them is 
 totally invalid, they cannot give a valid consent, and they 
 are to be considered, therefore, to be living in sin. Their 
 marriage becomes illegitimate and unholy, and cannot be 
 legitimatized or lawful, because from the very beginning it 
 was fictitious. Still, if, when married, although they knew 
 that there was an impediment, yet if they did not think 
 that their marriage would be invalid, but only forbidden, 
 then a radical dispensation can be given, because their 
 consent appears to be sincere, although they sinned. A 
 bishop who has received a particular permit from the Pope 
 to dispense any impediment which renders marriage in- 
 valid, cannot give a radical dispensation, because a greater 
 power is required, and the practice of the Church is to con- 
 cede special faculties for this purpose. Yet the bishops of 
 this country have received the power to dispense in most 
 marriage cases. 
 
The numbers refer to the page. 
 
 Absolution, words of, in all ages 244 
 
 among the Greeks 344 
 
 Eastern Chris- 
 tians 244 
 
 in the Latin Church 245 
 
 necessity of giving 284 
 
 can be postponed 278 
 
 Abstainers in the earlv Church 264 
 
 Acolyte 331 
 
 in the early Church 369 
 
 Adam, whv formed from the earth 388 
 
 figured Christ 390 
 
 Adam's sin 13, 66 
 
 sleep 390 
 
 Agapae, the 168, 197 
 
 abuses of 197 
 
 Albigenses, the 38 
 
 Altar signifies Christ 149 
 
 Anna Boleyn 40 
 
 excommunicated 41 
 
 Anointed, how the Jews were 123 
 
 in the form of an X 124 
 
 Anointing at baptism 116, 117 
 
 origin of 117 
 
 meaning of 117 
 
 how Christ was 129 
 
 the clergy are 129 
 
 at confirmation 140, 160 
 
 in Extreme Unction 291 
 
 the forehead at confirmation. . . 131 
 
 Approbation 280 
 
 Archbishops 352 
 
 Aristotle on the origin of the soul 71 
 
 Arians 88, 89 
 
 when they baptized 91 
 
 Attrition 248 
 
 August Sacrament, the 168 
 
 Balsam 129, 140, 147 
 
 commanded by Christ 147 
 
 Bans, origin of the word 402 
 
 of marriage 402 
 
 royal families only excepted 402 
 
 reasons for dispensing 402, 403 
 
 time and place of 403 
 
 of minors 404 
 
 obligations following the 405 
 
 origin of 406 
 
 not published in the East 406 
 
 history of the 406 
 
 Baptized, the, receive the Holy Ghost 61 
 
 Baptism, origin of the word 53 
 
 figures of 17, 53, 54, 55, 61 
 
 necessary for all 20 
 
 gives the first grace 29 
 
 the door of the Church 32 
 
 the fathers on 53, 62 
 
 predicted by the prophets 54 
 
 traditions of nations on 55, 56 
 
 among the Jews 55 
 
 Greeks 56 
 
 necessary for salvation. 57, 64, 68, 82 
 instituted by Christ 62, 64 
 
 Baptism, monuments of antiquity on. . .62, 63 
 
 in the first ages 69 
 
 minister of 80, 81 
 
 when administered 62, 90, 91, 92 
 
 where administered 92, 93, 96 
 
 traditions relating to 65. 66 
 
 against original sin 66 
 
 given by water 74, 75, 76, 77, 78 
 
 natural water 75 
 
 three kinds of 65, 71 
 
 matter and form of 78, 79 
 
 when the words are said 79 
 
 words of, among Greeks 79 
 
 Latins 119 
 
 in the East 79 
 
 infant 68,69 
 
 comes from the Apostles . 69 
 
 in all churches 70 
 
 preparation for 89 
 
 m the East 74 
 
 Eussia 75 
 
 efiects of 66, 67, 68, 87 
 
 by sprinkling, pouring, and im- 
 mersion 76 
 
 miracle during 93 
 
 examples of immersion 78 
 
 Avhen administered in early 
 
 times 80, 89 
 
 delegated to priests 81 
 
 the laity forbidden to give 82 
 
 Luther on 82 
 
 Anglican Church on 82 
 
 given by ladies 83 
 
 mid wi ves S3 
 
 heretics 84 
 
 Pope Stephen on 84 
 
 vestments worn during 85, 86 
 
 ceremonies of 89, 99, 108-120 
 
 solemn, only in the church 99 
 
 rules of, among the Protestants. 100 
 Orientals... 100 
 
 when first administered 108 
 
 rights of pastors relating to 96 
 
 how received with fruit 87 
 
 Baptisteries 93 
 
 history of 93, 94 
 
 among the Greeks 94 
 
 description of 94 
 
 in ancient times 96 
 
 Baptistery of Constantine 93 
 
 Pisa 93 
 
 Baptist, John the 57 
 
 baptizes Christ 58 
 
 where he baptized 57, 58 
 
 why he baptized Christ. 58 
 
 Baptists, the 38 
 
 claim immersion necessary for 
 
 baptism 38 
 
 rebaptism forbidden 87, 88 
 
 Bells consecrated with chrism 149 
 
 Beretta, why worn during baptism 86 
 
 Bible handed candidates for ordination, in 
 Protestant churches 381 
 
404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Birth, man's natural 
 
 supernutural 14, 
 
 the bejjiunin^ of life 
 
 baptism, the spiritual 
 
 at, a child is weak 
 
 Bishop, oritjin of the word 
 
 superior to priests (See Episco- 
 pacy) 
 
 chorebishops 
 
 consecration of a 
 
 succeed the Apostles 
 
 the Apostles established many. . . 
 mode of electinj; in all a^es. . .334 
 always consecrated by a oishop . 
 
 333, 
 
 houses once seminaries 
 
 all are equal 
 
 heads of the diocese 
 
 age of, at consecration 
 
 Blessing of clergy at baptism 
 
 Jacob 
 
 Blood of Christ 
 
 manner of receiving the 
 
 Book of Gospels during ordination 375, 
 
 in the 
 East. 
 
 Born of water, we are 
 
 Bread, the proposition 
 
 material part of the Eucharist 
 
 chief food of man 
 
 leavened and unleavened 
 
 among the Episcopalians 
 
 blessed, or Eulogia 
 
 at the last supper 
 
 and wine offered 
 
 Breads among the Greeks 
 
 Copts 
 
 pierced hy a lance 
 
 preparation of the 
 
 of wheaten flour 
 
 in Greek and Latin Rites 
 
 Breath, why at baptism 
 
 Brethren, meaning of 
 
 Bridal Mass, the 
 
 Boycotted sinners in early churches. . 
 
 14 
 123 
 14 
 14 
 15 
 3:« 
 
 317 
 329 
 329 
 
 -339 
 
 334 
 339 
 352 
 352 
 866 
 113 
 125 
 169 
 193 
 383 
 
 384 
 14 
 168 
 169 
 169 
 188 
 189 
 198 
 206 
 183 
 187 
 187 
 187 
 188 
 207 
 207 
 110 
 315 
 417 
 269 
 
 CAiiViN, his ideas relating to baptism 70 
 
 Cardinal priests at confession 255 
 
 Cardinals, origin of the 255 
 
 Candles at baptism 120 
 
 meaning of. 120 
 
 when laying out the dead 311 
 
 Catechumens preparing for baptism 89 
 
 among the Episcopalians. . . 89 
 
 at baptism 109, 113 
 
 proclaimed their belief 117 
 
 Catherine of England 40 
 
 upheld by Spain 41 
 
 Celibacy of the clergy. . . .356, 370, 440, 441, 443 
 
 exceptions to 360 
 
 Caesarean operation 71 
 
 Ceremonies of the sacraments 22 
 
 used by Christ 22, 24 
 
 nature of 22,23 
 
 essential,instituted by Christ. 22 
 accidental, instituted by the 
 
 Church 22 
 
 which might be changed 51 
 
 of baptism 108-120 
 
 Chalice and Palm, how consecrated 449 
 
 consecrated with chrism. 149 
 once given to the laity. 
 
 182, 183, 184 
 offertorial and minis- 
 terial 183 
 
 whv refused the laity. 183,184 
 
 pipes of 184 
 
 among the Greeks 184 
 
 how made 186 
 
 Chanter, the 331 
 
 Chaplet of flowers at baptism 120 
 
 Chapel, origin of the 100 
 
 Chapters, when established 93 
 
 cathedral, origin of the 255 
 
 Charity and penance 229, 247, 248 
 
 Character, nature of 30, 31 
 
 of baptism 
 
 confirmation .158, 159 
 
 holy orders :. 355, 356 
 
 Cheek, stroke on, at confirmation 162 
 
 Child baptism 68-73 
 
 Popes on. 70, 71 
 
 represents the Holy Spirit.. 388 
 
 Chrism, of what composed 146, 147 
 
 origin of the word 146 
 
 mystic meaning of. 145, 147, 148 
 
 origin of 144 
 
 at baptism 119, 148 
 
 in the East 124, 133 
 
 the early fathers on . . 129, 140, 144-146 
 
 at confirmation 138-145, 148 
 
 in the early Church 1.38, 147 
 
 among the Arians 142 
 
 where kept 143 
 
 among the Greeks 144, 145 
 
 when given 145 
 
 why on the forehead 145 
 
 in the form of a cross 145 
 
 at baptism and confirmation 146 
 
 difference between Greeks and 
 
 Latins regarding 146 
 
 how composed among Armenians. 146 
 Greeks.... 147 
 
 in the Latin Church 147 
 
 Luther and Calvin on 148 
 
 consecration of 148 
 
 when used 148, 149 
 
 Christ saved us 14 
 
 errors of Nestorius on 49 
 
 why baptized 58 
 
 when baptized 58 
 
 wonders at baptism of 61 
 
 meaning of word 148 
 
 Christian, the, a king 123 
 
 Christians, two kinds of. 315 
 
 Christian works 273 
 
 Church, the Albigensian 38 
 
 Armenian 38 
 
 Abyssinian 37 
 
 Baptist 38 
 
 Catholic 37 
 
 Congregational 39 
 
 Coptic 39 
 
 Episcopalian 39-43 
 
 Ethiopian 43 
 
 Lutheran 46 
 
 Maronite 48 
 
 Methodist 48 
 
 Nestorian 49 
 
 Presbyterian 49 
 
 Syrian 50 
 
 EasteiTi 37 
 
 Established, of England. ...'. 78 
 
 as a tender mother 267 
 
 the mystic body of Christ.. . . 344 
 
 consecrated by Chrism 149 
 
 how divided by the Greeks . . 186 
 
 Ciborium, the 199, 220, 224 
 
 material of 224 
 
 Circumcision in the East 109 
 
 ClandestLnity, impediment of. 450-456 
 
 where impediment exists. . 451 
 
 Clergy, meaning of the word 315 
 
 of the old law 316, 317 
 
 the Protestant, receive '' a call " . . 316 
 
 different ranks of 317 
 
 in ancient times 317 
 
 put to death during the Reforma- 
 tion 41 
 
 when deprived of their oflice 264 
 
 of the Eastern Rite 328 
 
 Latin Rite 328 
 
 different from the laity 355 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ^65 
 
 Clergy, why they do not marry. . . . 356, 357 
 
 to what bishop they belong 363 
 
 chief characteristics of 364 
 
 life of the 364 
 
 living of the 365 
 
 age at receiving orders 366 
 
 Clinical baptism 78 
 
 Common Prayer, Book of 36 
 
 on baptism 110 
 
 the first 189 
 
 Conception, the true birth 71 
 
 Congregational Church, the 39 
 
 founded by 
 Brown and 
 Robinson. . . 39 
 
 Communion meaning of the word 
 
 the fathers on. .167, 168, 171, 172 
 
 among all Christians 169 
 
 figures of, in the Old Testa- 
 ment 168 
 
 definitions of 169 
 
 testimony of early Church. . 170 
 
 Protestant belief of 171 
 
 explanations of the fathers.. 
 
 172, 173 
 
 early heretics believed iij . . . 173 
 
 pagan errors regarding. 173 
 
 St. Paul on 174 
 
 promise of. 175, 176, 177, 178 
 
 instituted by Christ 178. 196 
 
 diflference between Chris- 
 tians relating to 178 
 
 real or figurative 181 
 
 presence of Christ in 
 
 the 181, 182,200,202 
 
 history of. 182 
 
 changes of discipline regard- 
 ing 182 
 
 under both species 183, 184 
 
 Greek manner of giving 184 
 
 why given in one species. . . 185 
 ceremonies of, in the early 
 
 Church 191,213 
 
 words when giving 191 
 
 manner of giving 191 
 
 once given to infants 191 
 
 place of receiving 191, 194 
 
 kings, etc., receive in the 
 
 sanctuary 192 
 
 once given to the people in 
 
 their places 192 
 
 where given by the Greeks. 
 
 192, 193 
 how received by the Pope . . 192 
 once received on the hand . . 192 
 
 carried by the laity 193 
 
 deacons 194 
 
 in ancient monasteries . . 193, 194 
 
 among the Orientals 193 
 
 services during 193, 194 
 
 during the persecutions 194 
 
 fasting before 195, 197, 213 
 
 abuses relating to 195, 197 
 
 of the sick 195, 206, 226 
 
 (See Viaticum) 
 frequent in the early Church. 196 
 
 laws relating to 196, 212 
 
 yearly, commanded 196 
 
 sent by bishops to each other. 
 
 197, 198 
 now carried only by the 
 
 Pope 198 
 
 once given to the dead 198 
 
 buried with the dead. . 199 
 
 where reserved 199, 223 
 
 in the ciborium 199 
 
 suspended over altars 199 
 
 in tabernacles 200 
 
 when reserved by the 
 
 Greeks 200 
 
 necessity of receiving 
 
 202, 303, 221 
 
 Communion, Easter or Paschal 204 
 
 first 204,206 
 
 at death 205 
 
 minister of. 211, 212. 218, 219 
 
 pastoral rights relating to. . . 212 
 
 duties of pastors 212, 218 
 
 receiver of 213 
 
 preparations for. 213-215, 221-223 
 
 frequent 214,215 
 
 effects of 215-217 
 
 outside of mass 219 
 
 how carried in Catholic coun- 
 tries 220 
 
 preparation for, among the 
 
 Greeks 269 
 
 at the nuptial mass 427 
 
 Confession, different kinds of. 257, 258 
 
 definition of. 232, 257 
 
 how named by the early fa- 
 thers 232,235 
 
 the fathers on 233 
 
 among the early Greeks. .235, 254 
 
 public and private 235, 2.36 
 
 rules relating to public 236 
 
 public, a change of discipline 
 
 on 236 
 
 examples of public 236 
 
 instituted by Christ. .237, 240, 258 
 Christ hears through the 
 
 priest 239 
 
 a sacrament 240 
 
 how Christ instituted 240, 241 
 
 differs from baptism 241, 243 
 
 remote matter of, is sin 242 
 
 necessity of 243, 245 
 
 in the early Church 
 
 243, 250, 252-254 
 imposition of hands during. . 243 
 among the Eastern Christians 
 
 251-253 
 
 with incense 251, 252 
 
 during Lent 252, 253 
 
 before going into battle 253 
 
 place where heard 253 
 
 among the 
 Greeks.. 254 
 
 made to the lower clergy 254 
 
 once made to many clergy- 
 men 255 
 
 a general 275 
 
 by writing or letter 256, 257 
 
 near or niaterial part of 257 
 
 a part of penance 258 
 
 in the Episcopal Church.. 258, 272 
 
 the confessor a judge in 258 
 
 mortal and venial sins in.. 258, 259 
 . according to the number and 
 
 kind 259 
 
 to deny a mortal sin in 259 
 
 way of making, among the 
 
 Greeks 270 
 
 minister of, is Christ 272 
 
 necessity of 272, 273, 275 
 
 effects of 273 
 
 preparation for 274 
 
 way of making your 276-280 
 
 material part of. 277 
 
 frequent 286 
 
 the secrets of. 286, 287 
 
 Confessions for the laity 254 
 
 deacons forbidden to hear. . . 254 
 
 religious orders hearing 256 
 
 Confessional, the 253 
 
 for ladies 254 
 
 Confessor, the 279 
 
 four duties of 282 
 
 he must be learned 283 
 
 leads souls to perfection 286 
 
 Confirmation, origin of the word 125 
 
 figures of 17,123 
 
 the grace of 30 
 
 makes us perfect 123, 158 
 
46G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CoQfirDiatioD among the Jews 124, 125 
 
 di'flnitionH of. 125 
 
 a sacrament 125 
 
 Holy Writ on 126. 143 
 
 instituted by Christ 12«i, 143 
 
 the lathers on 126-131 
 
 councils on 127-131 
 
 given by the Apostle8.126,135,136 
 
 ancient laws relating to 130 
 
 rules of. among the Greeks. 130 
 
 iu the Middle Age? 131 
 
 among the Eastern Chris- 
 tians 131 
 
 given by anointing 131 
 
 customs of the early ages. . .131 
 
 imposition of hands at 131 
 
 words used at. in all ao^es.. . 132 
 of, among the Angli- 
 cans 132 
 
 of , among the Greeks. 132 
 Jacob- 
 ites.. 132 
 Copts.. 132 
 Ethiopi- 
 ans... 132 
 among the Episcopalians.. 
 
 132, 142, 143 
 
 essential parts of. 
 
 133, 143, 147, 149, 150 
 once given at baptism.. .134, 143 
 why and when separated 
 
 from baptism 134 
 
 first bishops of England on. 134 
 
 present discipline of 134. 135 
 
 sponsors at 134 
 
 never repeated 135 
 
 imprints a character 135 
 
 customs of Greeks at 135 
 
 given by bishops in Western 
 
 Church 136 
 
 can be given by priests 136 
 
 given by priests in the East. 136 
 this, sanctioned by Rome.. 136 
 
 of the Apostles 136 
 
 wonders at, in the early 
 
 Church 136 
 
 material part of. . . .138, 141, 143 
 Formulae, or words of, in 
 
 all ages 149, 162 
 
 among the Greeks loO 
 
 Episcopalians. . . 
 
 151. 156 
 
 ■when instituted 150 
 
 the minister of 152 
 
 by heretical bishops 153 
 
 in the early ages 155 
 
 preparation for 155 
 
 effects of 156-159 
 
 compared with baptism 157 
 
 necessity of 159 
 
 Coptics, Greeks, Armeni- 
 ans, etc., on 160 
 
 ceremonies of 160, 162 
 
 when administered 160, 161 
 
 sponsors at 160 
 
 a name given at 161 
 
 Conjugal, origin of the word 392 
 
 Conscience, examination of 274 
 
 Consecration, words of. 189 
 
 among the Greeks 189 
 
 Episcopalians... 189 
 
 Ethiopians 190 
 
 Greeks 209 
 
 Ethiopians 209 
 
 Eastern Chris- 
 tians 209,210 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Churches. 210 
 materials must be pres- 
 ent at 217 
 
 rules relating to 217 
 
 of bisliops 334 
 
 Consent of parents for marriage 410, 411 
 
 required for marriage 408 
 
 by some outward sign 403 
 
 serious, required 408 
 
 by prory 409 
 
 Consistents 268 
 
 Constantinople jealous of Antioch and 
 
 Alexandria 44 
 
 Contract of matrimony a sacrament among 
 
 Christians 393 
 
 Contrition, meaning of word 245 
 
 perfect and imperfect. 231, 247, 248 
 
 nature of 245 
 
 necessity of 845 
 
 an essential i)art of penance. . 245 
 
 motive of. 246 
 
 qualities of. 246,247 
 
 Copts, belief of 34 
 
 origin of their Liturgy 34 
 
 condemned 451, 34 
 
 origin of the 39 
 
 early troubles of. 39 
 
 doctrines of the 39 
 
 Corporal, the 186 
 
 Councils, object of.. 51 
 
 • various kinds of 51,52 
 
 Courtship, rules for 396 
 
 C-reatures figure the perfection of God.. 387, 388 
 
 Creed at baptism 114 
 
 in Ethiopic Rite 114 
 
 Cross, meaning of, at baptism Ill 
 
 at baptism among the Orientals 111 
 
 suppressed by Protestants Ill 
 
 sign of, among the Israelites 125 
 
 at confirmation 162 
 
 Crowns at baptism 120 
 
 at marriage.. 424 
 
 the ceremony of the 427, 428 
 
 Crusades, effect of the 271 
 
 Custom makes law 51 
 
 Deaconesses 77, 348, 349 
 
 Deacouship, origin of 326, 327 
 
 a sacrament 380 
 
 in the Episcopal Church 361 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 ceremonies of ordination to. . 
 
 372, 375 
 ordination to, among the Ori- 
 entals 375,376 
 
 " Defender of the faith," origin of 40 
 
 Discipline changes 51 
 
 Dispensation given Henry VIII 40 
 
 Dispensations, nature of 455, 456 
 
 reasons for giving 457 
 
 rules for asking 457 
 
 different kinds of 458, 459 
 
 for secret marriages 458 
 
 radical 459,460 
 
 effects of 461 
 
 conditions of 461 
 
 Divorce caused the Reformation in Eng- 
 land 40-43 
 
 Divorce contrary to nature of marriage. . . 389 
 
 why cannot be given 391, 392 
 
 an injustice to children 392 
 
 not allowed by the Church 412 
 
 from bed and hoard, causes of . . . 412 
 
 when given 412, 418 
 
 forbidden 412 
 
 Divorces in ancient and modem times... . 412 
 
 Doctor of the soul 15 
 
 Dolls, why girls play with 391 
 
 Dominicans, their 'influence on the dis- 
 cipline 256 
 
 Dominicans, rights and privileges of 256 
 
 Donatists, the, on baptism 88 
 
 Dove, the, on Christ 61 
 
 Eagle, a type of the IT. s 18 
 
 Ecclesiastic, meaning of the word 316 
 
 Election of the clergy 362 
 
INDEX. 
 
 467 
 
 Election of bishops in all ages 334-339 
 
 at first by clergy and laity. . . 333, 334 
 how carried on in the early 
 
 Church 334,335 
 
 after Constantine's time 335 
 
 the incursion of the Barba- 
 rians 336 
 
 by governments 336, 337 
 
 the Chapters of the Cathe- 
 drals 337 
 
 in our time 338 
 
 of priests 338 
 
 early discipline 339 
 
 once by the people 339 
 
 how at present 339 
 
 Engagements, the 398-402 
 
 different kinds of 398 
 
 conditional 398 
 
 form an impediment 399 
 
 how dissolved 399 
 
 private and public 400 
 
 among the Greeks 401 
 
 in the early Church 401 
 
 rules for 401 
 
 in the Middle Ages. . . .424, 425 
 
 England converted by St. Augustine 40 
 
 Ephpheta, meaning of 114 
 
 ceremonies of 115 
 
 used by Christ 115 
 
 Episcopacy, the 322, 328 
 
 superior to the priesthood.. 
 
 340, 341 
 
 among the Episcopalians 343 
 
 represents Jesus Christ 344 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 how venerated in the East, . . 383 
 
 Episcopalians, origin of the 39-43 
 
 how they confirm 132, 133 
 
 near to the Catholics 43 
 
 when they baptize 91 
 
 communion services 210 
 
 Espousals (see Engagements). 
 
 Eacharist, holiest of all 20 
 
 grace of 30 
 
 the most holy Sacrament 31 
 
 (See Communion.) 
 
 Eve, why from a rib 388, 389 
 
 spouse of Adam, typifies the Church, 
 
 the spouse of Christ 390 
 
 Excommunication 308 
 
 Exorcism, meaning of 112 
 
 origin of 112 
 
 mong the Orientals 113 
 
 at baptism 114 
 
 Exorcist, the 331 
 
 in the early Church 369 
 
 Extreme Unction, figures of IT 
 
 graces of 30 
 
 object of 291,292 
 
 meaning of the words. 291 
 how called in the first 
 
 ages 292 
 
 definitions of 292 
 
 instituted by Christ . . . 293 
 promulgated by St. 
 
 James 293 
 
 the fathers on 293-296 
 
 the material part of.. 
 
 296, 297 
 
 oil of 296, 297 
 
 minister of 297-301 
 
 among the Greeks 297 
 
 parts anointed 297 
 
 on the five senses . . 298, 308 
 
 the form of 298,299 
 
 the effects of 300 
 
 corporal effects of 301 
 
 a number of ministers. 
 
 302, 303 
 among the Orientals . . 303 
 
 the receiver of 304, 305 
 
 preparations for 305 
 
 Extreme Unction, way of serving the 
 
 priest at 306 
 
 way of, in ancient 
 times 308, 309 
 
 history of 308 
 
 customs of the Orient- 
 als 309 
 
 various customs of an- 
 tiquity 310-464 
 
 manner of laying out 
 the body 311 
 
 Faculties 280 
 
 how restricted 354 
 
 Faith unchanged in the Catholic Church. . 51 
 
 declaration of, at baptism 117 
 
 Fast, what breaks the 222 
 
 Fasting before communion. . .197, 221, 222, 223 
 
 after communion 222 
 
 before baptism among the Copts, 
 
 Maronites, Jacobites, etc 70 
 
 Father, who is a 282 
 
 why priests are called 316 
 
 Fear, different kinds of 248 
 
 Fillet, the, at confirmation 162 
 
 when worn 163 
 
 Flag, a white 18 
 
 Flesh and blood of Christ 169 
 
 Font, the baptismal 96 
 
 history of 96-98 
 
 material of . . . 97 
 
 how made 97 
 
 where situated 97 
 
 how guarded 98 
 
 origin of blessing of 75 
 
 Fonts among the Nestorians 98 
 
 some ancient 99 
 
 Food, material and spiritual 167 
 
 Forms act on the senses 182 
 
 Franciscans, their influence on the dis- 
 cipline 256 
 
 Freemasons have a kind of baptism 56 
 
 Gates, the Seven, of Heaven 16, 32 
 
 Generation, why from one and from two 
 
 creatures '. 386 
 
 Generation of creatures typify the Trinity 
 
 387, 388 
 
 power of, when given 391 
 
 Georgians on baptism 88 
 
 Germany, Protestant, upheld Henry VIII. 41 
 Ghost, the Holy, descending on Christ. . . 58 
 
 the Apos- 
 tles.... 58 
 
 Girdle at baptism 120 
 
 Godfather and godmother, origin of 101 
 
 their qualities. 101 
 were first dea- 
 cons and dea- 
 conesses 101 
 
 in the Egyp- 
 tian and Cop- 
 tic churches . 
 
 101, 102 
 
 at first 102,107 
 
 origin of the 
 
 words 102 
 
 among the Ori- 
 entals. .. .102, 104 
 customs relat- 
 ing to.... 103, 106 
 in the early 
 
 Church.. 103, 104 
 duties of. ..103,106 
 among the 
 Episcopalians 
 
 102, 106 
 Calvinists and 
 Presbyte- 
 rians on.. . 107 
 where they 
 stand 113 
 
408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 (jiodfather aud godmotlier, iimst toiicli the 
 
 child 119 
 
 Godparents not required for validity 102 
 
 t'race, Christ the author of 24 
 
 minister of ' 24 
 
 instrument of 25, 28 
 
 a free gift of God 25 
 
 contained in the Sacraments 27, 29 
 
 obtained in two ways 27, 28 
 
 Grave-ditrficr, the 331 
 
 Greeks, charge against the Roman Church 
 
 44, 45 
 
 their fall 45 
 
 have all the Sacraments 46 
 
 doctrines on baptism 88 
 
 when they baptize 91 
 
 Greek schism, the author of 44 
 
 helped by the government. 44 
 Guilty, pleading.- 267 
 
 Hair, why cut at tonsure 332 
 
 Hand, why held over the child at baptism . Ill 
 
 Hands joined at marriage 406 
 
 Head of child, why covered 120 
 
 why monks shave their 333 
 
 Hearers, the 268 
 
 Heaven, why opened on Christ 61 
 
 the Seven Gates of 16-32 
 
 Henry VIII. of England 39^3 
 
 wanted a divorce 
 
 40,43 
 excommunicated . 41 
 became head of 
 
 the Church 41 
 
 had six wives 42 
 
 Heretics 37 
 
 Hierarchy, meaning of the word 351 
 
 of orders and of jurisdiction. . 351 
 
 died out in England 42 
 
 in the Church 318 
 
 of heaven 343 
 
 persons for the 344 
 
 typified bvthe material world. 344 
 
 Christ the head of the 352 
 
 Holy Ghost 190 
 
 invocation of 190 
 
 Holy Orders, figures of 18 
 
 grace of 30 
 
 (See Orders, Holy.) 
 
 Horn of oil 123 
 
 Host, rules relating to 224 
 
 Hydrogen 57 
 
 Image, the seen world an, of the unseen. . 14 
 
 Immersion, baptism by 75, 76 
 
 history of 76 
 
 W'hy abandoned 76 
 
 in early times 115 
 
 why given three times 119 
 
 Imposition of hands among the Jews 125 
 
 at confirmation . . . 131, 141 
 by the Episcopalians 
 
 1.33, 142 
 Apostolic origin of. . 141 
 
 early fathers on 141 
 
 twice at confirmation 141 
 among the Greeks . . 142 
 when receiving here- 
 tics 153,154 
 
 in the East in early 
 
 times 154 
 
 in all churches. . .319, 370 
 
 in holy orders 345, 346 
 
 among the Protest- 
 ants 345.383 
 
 Impediment of affiaity 445, 446 
 
 public honesty 446 
 
 crime 446-448 
 
 infidelity 448, 449 
 
 fear 449 
 
 marriage 450 
 
 age 450 
 
 Impediment of secret marriages 450-455 
 
 incapacity 454 
 
 abduction 454, 455 
 
 forbidding marriage between 
 a Catholic and a heretic. . . 433 
 
 Impediments, of bans 433, 435 
 
 parental objections 433, 435 
 
 of forbidden times 4;33 
 
 of engagement 433-436 
 
 vows 434, 435, 438 
 
 holy orders 435 
 
 rendering marriage null and 
 
 void 436,437,439 
 
 sources of these 438 
 
 origin of 438 
 
 between cousins. . .4.38, 443, 444 
 
 error 439 
 
 vow of chastity .440-442 
 
 sponsors 444, 445 
 
 legal relationship 445 
 
 of marriage 430 
 
 two kinds of 433 
 
 Indulgence, meaning of 268 
 
 Infant baptism 67--74, 91 
 
 four opinions on those who 
 die without baptism. . .73, 74 
 Innocence wanted for some sacraments. . 32 
 
 Installation of the clergy ,362 
 
 Instruments in the hand of God 14 
 
 Intention, the, of the minister 27 
 
 in the receiver of the sacra- 
 ments .32 
 
 doubtful regarding baptism. . . 74 
 
 Interdict, an 368 
 
 Irregularity, nature of 368 
 
 Jacobites, origin of the 34, 46 
 
 use a modified Liturgy of St. 
 
 James 34 
 
 Liturgy of 187 
 
 Jews, persecution of 87 
 
 baptism of 89 
 
 Jurisdiction 238, 239, 280 
 
 necessity of ... 254 
 
 nature of 281 
 
 relating to marriage 452 
 
 Keys, the power of the 236-239 
 
 meaning of 236, 237, 371 
 
 left to Peter 237 
 
 extends to all sins 237, 238 
 
 belongs only to the clergy 238 
 
 the fathers on 238 
 
 exercising of a judicial act 238 
 
 of a city signify freedom of the 
 city 371 
 
 Knox, John, founds the Presbyterian 
 Church 49 
 
 Kjiox, John, his peculiar life 50 
 
 Ladies, way of baptizing them in the 
 
 early Church 115 
 
 "Lamb of God," the 168 
 
 Lamb, the paschal 168 
 
 Law, a vow a private 435 
 
 civil, relate to external acts 435 
 
 Leibnetz on the Eucharist 182 
 
 Levouians on baptism 88 
 
 Lies scattered during the Reformation. .40, 42 
 
 Life, natural and spiritual 16, 123, 167 
 
 Light before the Eucharist 223 
 
 Liturgies, the various 33, 190 
 
 formed by the Apostles 33 
 
 first handed down by tradition. 33 
 
 of St. James 33, 34, 209 
 
 Greek, origin of the 34 
 
 Russian, the 34 
 
 Jacobite 34,187 
 
 Coptic 34,187 
 
 Alexandrian 35 
 
 Armenian 187 
 
 Ethiopian 35, 43, 187, 209 
 
INDEX. 
 
 469 
 
 Liturgies, Episcopalian 210 
 
 Ephesian 35 
 
 Gallician 35 
 
 Mozarabic 35 
 
 Salisbury 35 
 
 the, of Egbert of York 35 
 
 Auglican, the 36, 210 
 
 Ambrosiau, the 36 
 
 Roman, the, founded by St. Pe- 
 ter 36 
 
 the, of tbe Holy Apostles 36 
 
 Latin, the 210 
 
 Lord's Prayer at baptism 114 
 
 Love, nature of 394 
 
 why in animals 394, 395 
 
 all nature tells of 395 
 
 why people fall into 395 
 
 natural to man and woman 395 
 
 kind of, between man and woman. . 396 
 
 sometimes blinds 411 
 
 of Christ for man 170 
 
 God necessary for forgiveness... 231 
 
 Lucifer, his followers on baptism 88 
 
 Luther, Martin 46 
 
 became an Augustiuian 
 
 monk 46 
 
 first moved by jealousy. . . 47 
 at first submits to the Pope 47 
 
 marriage of 48 
 
 translated the Bible 48 
 
 taught private interpreta- 
 tion of the Bible 4S 
 
 established the Lutheran 
 
 Church 48 
 
 his ideas on baptism 70 
 
 justification. . 70 
 
 Lutherans, origin of 46, 47 
 
 where they baptize 91 
 
 Major and Minor Orders 3^ 
 
 Man, robust 392 
 
 Mankind divided into man and woman. . . 395 
 
 Marcossiaiis rebaptize 89 
 
 Mariouites, the 48 
 
 Marriage (see Matrimony). 
 
 origin of the word 392 
 
 grace of 30 
 
 not commanded 391 
 
 different meanings of 393 
 
 to those outside the Church for- 
 bidden by tne Apostles 406 
 
 a legal 407 
 
 an approved 407 
 
 a consummated 407 
 
 preparation for 4-20 
 
 the ceremonies of. . .420, 421, 425, 426 
 in ancient times 
 
 425-427 
 
 among the Greeks 427, 428 
 
 Copts....' 428 
 
 cases belong to the Church 437 
 
 Marriages, second 417, 418 
 
 the Orientals on second 418 
 
 in the Western Church 418 
 
 mixed 420, 448 
 
 secret, forbidden 422, 458 
 
 mixed, forbidden by the Apos- 
 tles 406 
 
 bans of. not published 406 
 
 Married people, duties of 413, 414 
 
 how separated 413, 414 
 
 Martyrs during the Reformation 41, 42 
 
 Mass, more than one each day forbidden . 196 
 
 service of 219 
 
 Material or matter of baptism 74, 78 
 
 things, nature of 182 
 
 Matrimony meaning of the word 387 
 
 a sacrament 390, 393, 397 
 
 a shadow of among the ani- 
 mals 391, 392 
 
 natural contract of 393, 407 
 
 essence of 393 
 
 Matrimony, completed by cohabitation. . 394 
 
 heretics on 391, 394, 397 
 
 a natural contract among 
 those not baptized 397, 407 
 
 frace of 397 
 efore contracting, see the 
 
 pastor.." 397 
 
 objection of parents to... 399, 400 
 
 in the Apostolic times 406 
 
 a contract and a sacrament . . 
 
 407,408 
 
 union of man and wife 407 
 
 effects of 407 
 
 a sacrament only for those in 
 
 the Church 407, 408 
 
 consent required for . . .408, 415 
 
 by proxy 409 
 
 conditional 409 
 
 consent must be free 410 
 
 unity of 411, 412 
 
 material part of 414, 415 
 
 formal part of 415 
 
 in presence of the pastor 415 
 
 before a minister, excommu- 
 nication 415 
 
 time and place of 
 
 416, 417, 420, 454 
 
 the receivers of 420 
 
 Matter of the Sacraments 24, 25, 78 
 
 Mayflower, landing of the 39 
 
 Memory in penance 229 
 
 Mennouites, the waj- tbej- baptize 91 
 
 Methodists, the origm ol the 48 
 
 word 48 
 
 first established in Georgia.. 49 
 
 they excite the feelings 49 
 
 words of communion services 210 
 Minister of the Sacraments, Christ the. . . 211 
 neither faith nor holiness re- 
 quired in the 26, 27 
 
 intention required 27 
 
 of baptism 80 
 
 necessity of a good 211 
 
 deacons once the, of Commun- 
 ion 211 
 
 meaning of 316 
 
 Ministers, Protestant, only laymen 51 
 
 Minor Orders ". 326 
 
 in ancient times 327, 328 
 
 origin of 318 
 
 object of 330 
 
 how differ from the higher 
 
 orders 345 
 
 effect of '..... 356 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 time and place of 367, 371 
 
 in early ti aies 371 
 
 Mission 362 
 
 belongs to the superior 362 
 
 not in Protestant Churches 363 
 
 Mohammedans, baptism of 89 
 
 Monasteries plundered in England 42 
 
 Monks driven out of England 50 
 
 Scotland 50 
 
 Montanists, the, on baptism 89 
 
 More, Sir Thomas 40 
 
 Mormon baptism 56 
 
 Motive of contrition 246, 247 
 
 perfect and imperfect 247 
 
 Name given at baptism 108 
 
 Nature, human 66 
 
 Nestorians, the. 49 
 
 belief of 49 
 
 when they baptize 91 
 
 Nobility, abuses among the 256 
 
 Notoriety, public sinners of, in the early 
 
 Church 267 
 
 Nourishment, natural and spiritual 15 
 
 Eucharist is the, of our 
 
 souls 15 
 
 Nuns, confessions of 282 
 
470 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nuptial, incaniiiK of the word 393 
 
 blesHing 420, 421, 427 
 
 ma^^s 416,418,423 
 
 Oath, the, taken by clergy of English 
 
 Church :i61, 362 
 
 Obstacle, an, to grace of sacraments 32 
 
 Offering to the priest at baptism 86, 107 
 
 once divided into 
 
 four parts 86 
 
 councils on 86 
 
 among other denominations 87 
 
 Offerings in the early Church 183, 185 
 
 how divided 183 
 
 Oil, holy, represents the Holy Spirit 127 
 
 Christ 128 
 
 consecration of, comes from the 
 
 Apostles 128 
 
 Oils at baptism 75, 109 
 
 consecration of, among the Greeks . . 131 
 
 difficulties among the Bulgarians 131 
 
 consecration of, in the Catholic 
 
 Church 134 
 
 in the early Church 147 
 
 Order, what is 319 
 
 Orders, meaning of 316 
 
 Holy, nature of 315 
 
 the, among the Greeks, etc. 
 
 317, 319, 322 
 
 in ancient times 317, 324 
 
 sacred 317 
 
 object of 318 
 
 gives power to represent 
 
 Christ 318 
 
 when conferred on the Apos- 
 tles 319,320 
 
 different meaning of 319 
 
 a sacrament 320 
 
 the fathers on 320, 321 
 
 councils on 322, 323 
 
 established by Christ. . .322, 323 
 
 given by exterior rites 322 
 
 relates to sacrifice 323 
 
 in the old law 324 
 
 conferred by the Apostles. . 325 
 
 a spiritual generation 325 
 
 material part of 345. 346 
 
 the form of '346 
 
 receiver of 348 
 
 females incapable of. . . 348 
 
 minister of 349 
 
 impresses a character 353 
 
 effects of 354, 355 
 
 among Protestants 360, 361 
 
 in the Episcopal Church 361 
 
 candidates for, in the early 
 
 Church 365 
 
 impediments to 365, 368 
 
 time and place of 367 
 
 Ordination 362 
 
 belongs to the bishops 350 
 
 does not belong to priests . . 
 
 350, 351 
 
 time between each 366 
 
 and place of 367 
 
 in Latin and Greek churches. . 370 
 
 history of rites of 381 
 
 Original sin 13, 66 
 
 is concupiscence 66 
 
 Oxygen 57 
 
 Pastor, rights of, relating to baptism. 212. 213 
 
 communion. 
 
 212, 213 
 confession . . 
 
 255, 256 
 marriage . . . 
 
 415, 450, 451 
 
 Pallium at marriage 425 
 
 Paradise, Christ the door of 14 
 
 Parents at baptism 114 
 
 Parliament during the Reformation 40 
 
 Parliament reforming clergy and people. . 41 
 with Henry ^ IH. separated 
 
 England from the Church. 41, 42 
 makes Presbyterianism the 
 state religion of Scotland... 50 
 
 Paten, the 186 
 
 Patriarch, the 352 
 
 Penance, meaning of 227 
 
 figures of 17 
 
 necessary for sinners 20 
 
 grace of 30 
 
 object of 227 
 
 universally in nature 227 
 
 a part of justice 228 
 
 as a virtue 22&-232 
 
 meaning of 229 
 
 only in the mind 229 
 
 the object of, is sin 229 
 
 . how, takes place 230 
 
 ' effects of 230 
 
 proportional to the guilt 233 
 
 as a sacrament 233 
 
 public 239, 249, 250 
 
 a sacrament 240 
 
 material part of 240 
 
 in all its parts 242 
 
 promised by Christ 242 
 
 when instituted 243 
 
 as a \irtue and as a sacrament. . 243 
 
 formula of 243, 244 
 
 in the early Church 249 
 
 mode of, in early times 264, 265 
 
 and baptism 262 
 
 Penances, severity of early 266 
 
 lessened sometimes in ancient 
 
 times 268 
 
 not so severe in the East 299 
 
 minister of 272 
 
 receiver of 272 
 
 material part of 276 
 
 end of the severe 271 
 
 in Protestant Churches 271, 272 
 
 imposed in confession 278, 279 
 
 rules relating to 279 
 
 Penitents, the 264, 265 
 
 three things required of 245 
 
 rules relating to 263-272 
 
 some excluded from the 265 
 
 early customs relating to 265 
 
 among the Greeks 270 
 
 Orientals 270,271 
 
 Penitential stations 265 
 
 Photius. author of the Greek schism 44 
 
 Pluto on origin of the soul 71 
 
 Polyandria 411 
 
 Polygamy 411 
 
 Pope, how styled 333 
 
 elected in early times 334 
 
 head of jurisdiction ;352, 353 
 
 Porter, the 331. 332, 368 
 
 Pouring water in baptism 77, 78 
 
 Prayers of the Church, depth of 75 
 
 Presanctified, mass of the 184 
 
 Presbytery of the diocese 255 
 
 Presents before marriage 399, 400 
 
 sent to friends 107 
 
 the pastors 107 
 
 Priest, dignity of the 279 
 
 a physician of the soul 283 
 
 different from others 355 
 
 meaning of 316 
 
 Priesthood, the 326, 329 
 
 material part of 346 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 ceremony of ordination to the 
 
 377-379 
 ceremony of ordination to the, 
 
 among the Orientals 379, 380 
 
 Priests, errors relatin^to 339, 340 
 
 Profession of faith in Protestant churches 70 
 
 Property, manner of restoring 284 
 
 Prostrated, the 268 
 
INDEX. 
 
 471 
 
 Prostrated, the, in early times 268 
 
 Prostration, the 371, 372 
 
 at deaconship 373 
 
 priesthood 377 
 
 marriage 435 
 
 Protestant, origin of the word 42 
 
 world poisoned against the 
 
 Church 42 
 
 Presbyterians proclaimed Catholic bap- 
 tism null 88 
 
 Presbyterians, common services 210 
 
 Public honesty, impediment of 399 
 
 Punishment, temporal and eternal. .227, 228, 260 
 
 Questions at baptism 110 
 
 Kadical dispensations 46G-463 
 
 given only by the 
 
 Pope 461 
 
 conditions for giv- 
 ing 461, 462 
 
 effect of 461 
 
 Eeader, the 331 
 
 in the Greek Chuich 331 
 
 ancient Church.. 369 
 
 Rebaptism forbidden. 87, 88 
 
 Reformation, the, in Germany 47 
 
 England 39-42 
 
 was polit- 
 ical 43 
 
 occasioned by building St. 
 
 Peter's, Rome 47 
 
 helping causes of 47 
 
 upheld by governments 47 
 
 Religious liberty advocated by the Church. 129 
 
 orders giving communion 218 
 
 Renouncing the devil 116 
 
 origin of. 116 
 
 among Orientals, 
 Protestants, etc. . 116 
 
 Repentants among the early Greeks 264 
 
 Reserved cases 282 
 
 Residence, laws relating to 451, 452 
 
 Rib, why Eve was made from a 388-390 
 
 Ring, meaning of the 400 
 
 on which finger 425 
 
 Rites of Old Testament inferior to ours. . . 18 
 
 the nine different 171 
 
 Roger Williams founded the Baptist 
 
 Church 38 
 
 Roger Williams, doctrines of 38 
 
 Roman Empire moved to Constantinople. 43 
 
 Sacrament, origin of word 16 
 
 meaning of, among Pagans. 16 
 Greeks. 16 
 
 in the fathers 17 
 
 nature of a 17-19 
 
 in the old law 17 
 
 none in state of innocence.. 17 
 
 Sacraments in the old law 17, 18 
 
 figures of, in old law 17 
 
 heal our souls 18 
 
 of the new law 18 
 
 instituted by Christ. . . 18, 19, 24-26 
 represent Christ, grace, heav- 
 en, etc 18, 19 
 
 for all men 19 
 
 bonds of union 20 
 
 divided into four classes 20, 21 
 
 materials of the 21 
 
 St. Ambrose on the 25 
 
 given by Christ 26 
 
 contain grace 27 
 
 instruments of salvation 27 
 
 each contains a peculiar grace. 29 
 
 special grace of each 20 
 
 wipe out sin 31 
 
 preparation for .,. . . 31 
 
 only received by man 32 
 
 no holiness required 32 
 
 channels of grace 32 
 
 Sacramentals of the Church 3^3, 259 
 
 Salivation, ceremonies of 115 
 
 Salt, meaning of 112 
 
 why blessed 112 
 
 used at baptism 112 
 
 Satisfaction 245 
 
 third part of penance 259 
 
 of Christ and of the sinner. . 260 
 
 nature of 260-263 
 
 rejected by Proiestants 260 
 
 councils and fathers on 261-233 
 
 why imposed 262 
 
 in the early Church 263-272 
 
 why a part of penance 262 
 
 reduced to three heads 262 
 
 early discipline relating to.263, 264 
 
 examples of 264 
 
 Science and religion, agreement of. 169 
 
 Scientific men, opinions of 182 
 
 Seal of Christ, the 127, 140 
 
 everlasting life 12;i 
 
 Secrets of the confessional 358 
 
 Sects, the various 37 
 
 spring from the Catholic Church. . . 36 
 
 produced by revolutions 37 
 
 Senate of diocese once heard confession. . 254 
 
 Separation from bed and board 413, 414 
 
 public and private 414 
 
 Sexton, the, in ancient times .331 
 
 Sign, what Is a 18 
 
 Side of Christ, why opened 390 
 
 Sin, original 13, 25 
 
 Adam's 14 
 
 the first 13 
 
 what is 227 
 
 is infinite 22S 
 
 how Christ repaired for 228 
 
 mortal and venial.. . .229, 242, 258, 259, 276 
 
 effects of, in the soul 229 
 
 how mortal and venial are forgiven.. 
 
 231, 232 
 
 forgotten 242 
 
 the denial of, in confession 259 
 
 horror of, in early Church 269 
 
 remains of 274 
 
 what, told in confession 276 
 
 a habit of 285 
 
 Sinners of three kinds 267 
 
 public, of three classes 268 
 
 Sins, big and little 228 
 
 reserved to the bishop in the early 
 
 Church 254 
 
 mortal, told in confession 258 
 
 confessed singly 259 
 
 three kinds of, in the early Church.. 264 
 
 an occasion of 285 
 
 Sleep a figure of death 390 
 
 Sons, we are the, of Christ and of Adam. . 14 
 Sophia, S., desecrated by the Moham- 
 medans 45 
 
 Sorrow for sin 248 
 
 Sponsors for baptism 101-108 
 
 (See Godfather, etc.) 
 
 Sponsors at confirmation. 160 
 
 rules in selecting 161 
 
 Spouse, importance of choosing a good. . . 396 
 
 rules for choosing '. 396 
 
 Sprinkling, baptism by 78 
 
 Stars and stripes 18 
 
 Station of baptism 110 
 
 Stole, when used 86 
 
 on head of baptized 113 
 
 why changed 117 
 
 Subdeaconship, origin of 317 
 
 duties of. a30 
 
 not a sacrament 3.30 
 
 definition of. 3^31 
 
 when it became a sacred 
 
 order 333 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 in the early Church. . .370, 372 
 Succession , the Apostolic, still in the East . 50 
 
472 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Succession l()i«t among the Protestants.. . . 51 
 
 Supper, the Lord's 168, 175 
 
 among all Protestant 
 
 Churches 171 
 
 Suspension of clergymen in early times. . 
 
 2G5, 207, 269 
 the East 269 
 
 Tabernacle, the 
 
 what kept in the 224 
 
 Theophania among the Greeks 90 
 
 Time before Christ, in three epochs 17 
 
 Titles of ordination, origin of. 96 
 
 Tonsure, the 332 
 
 way of conferring at various 
 
 tmies 335 
 
 age of receiving 364 
 
 time and place of conferring. 367 
 
 Tramps, marriage of 452, 453 
 
 Transubstantiation 181, 182 
 
 Unction, the vcrticle 146 
 
 Unity of marriage 411 
 
 Vessels, the holy 207-209 
 
 Vestments among the Greeks 86 
 
 at baptism 109 
 
 Veil, the, at weddings 425 
 
 Veils worn by girls at confirmation 163 
 
 Vespers 268 
 
 Viaticum 195, 205, 218 
 
 given the dying 196 
 
 once given the dead 198 
 
 burned with the dead 199 
 
 words or formula of. 206 
 
 when not gi ven 206 
 
 preparations for 220 
 
 how carried 220 
 
 rules relating to 221, 310 
 
 Violet color, meaning of. 86 
 
 Vocation 359, 364 
 
 Vocation, necessity of 863, 364 
 
 signs of 364 
 
 Vow of chastity, when made 372 
 
 effect of 440 
 
 Washing required for baptism 76 
 
 Washings among the Mohammedans 55 
 
 Water represents the birth of man 56, 97 
 
 chosen by Christ 57 
 
 the wonders of 57 
 
 matter of baptism 74 
 
 used in baptism 74-78 
 
 why poured three times 117, 119 
 
 three kinds of 75 
 
 origin of holy 75 
 
 Waters, sacred 55, 56 
 
 Wedding, origin of the word 392 
 
 Wesley, John and Charles, establish the 
 
 Methodist Church 48 
 
 While color, meaning of 86 
 
 robe at baptism 120 
 
 robes on a child 114 
 
 at confirmation 160, 161 
 
 worn once seven days 163 
 
 Widowers and widow.«, the marriage of. . . 411 
 in the early 
 
 Church 417 
 
 the Greek Church 
 
 on 418 
 
 Wife signifies the Church 390 
 
 instincts of a 391 
 
 Will, the, in penance 229 
 
 Wine, chief drink of man 169 
 
 material part of Eucharist 169 
 
 of grapes, used by all churches 189 
 
 for the Eucharist 207 
 
 Witnesses of marriage 450 
 
 Woman, weak 392 
 
 the image of God 395 
 
 Works, living ana dead 273 
 
 Wounds made in the soul by sin 15 
 
"A REMARKABLE BOOK." 
 
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 The Church— Its Rites and Services Explained 
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THE FESTAL YEAR; 
 
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 The Origiij, Ijistory, Ceremonies and f^Ieaijiijgs of the Suijdays, Sea- 
 
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^ ^UAUIII'ITL ^OOK! 
 
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