/o \ 
 
 v/o (i 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
Bench Work in Wood 
 
 A COURSE OF 
 
 STUDY AND PRACTICE 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 W. F. M. GOSS, 
 
 Professor of Practical Mechanics, Purdue University, 
 Lafayette, Indiana. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 oi^c 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PUBLLSIIED BY GINN & COMPANY 
 
 1888. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by 
 
 W. F. M. GOSS. 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston. 
 
 Presswork by GiNN & Co., Boston. 
 
 ^-- '^/t^o>1 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To avoid confusion, tlie subject herein treated is con- 
 sidered in three divisions. Part I. contains the essen- 
 tial facts concerning common bench tools for wood ; it 
 describes their action, explains their adjustments, and shows 
 how they may be kept in order. Part II. presents a course 
 of practice by which ability to use the tools may be ac- 
 quired ; and Part III. discusses such forms and adaptations 
 of joints as will meet the requirements of ordinary construc- 
 tion. It is not expected that the student will complete Part 
 
 I. before entering upon Part II., or that he will finish Part 
 
 II. before commencing Part III. He will find greater profit 
 in using them together. For example, a shop exercise involv- 
 ing the chisel (Part II.) should be accompanied or preceded 
 by a study of the chisel (Part I.) ; again, the various forms 
 of mortise and tenon joints (Part III.) will be better under- 
 stood and more easily remembered, if considered during the 
 time when types of such joints are under construction in the 
 shops (Part II.). In the writer's experience with classes of 
 students, one hour has been given to class-room work for every 
 five hours given to shop work. By this apportionment, Parts 
 I. and III. can be mastered in the class-room while Part II. 
 is in progress in the shops. 
 
 The equipment necessary for carrying out the course of 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 practice given in Part II. is much less expensive than may at 
 first appear. Besides a bench, a pair of trestles, and a bench- 
 hook, the following-named tools are needed : — 
 
 I 2-ft. Rule. 
 
 I Framing-Square. 
 
 I 7-inch Try-Square. 
 
 1 8-inch Bevel. 
 
 2 8-inch Marking-Gauges. 
 I Chalk-Line, with Chalk. 
 I Lead-Pencil. 
 
 I Scriber. 
 Firmer-Chisels, i each, |", i", 
 
 I", A", f", f , i", and I J". 
 Gouges, I each, |", I", |", and 
 i". 
 I 22-inch Cross-cutting-Saw, 8 
 teeth. 
 
 I 24-inch Ripping-Saw, 6 teeth. 
 
 I lo-inch Back-Saw. 
 
 I 8-inch Drawing-Knife. 
 
 I Fore-Plane. 
 
 I Jack-Plane. 
 
 I Smooth-Plane. 
 
 I Set Auger-Bits, \" to i" by 
 
 i6ths. 
 
 I Bit-Brace. 
 
 I Brad-Awl. 
 
 I Carpenter's Hammer. 
 
 I Mallet. 
 
 I Nail-Set. 
 
 I Oilstone. 
 
 pair 8-inch Dividers. 
 
 pair I -inch Matching- Planes. 
 
 j\-inch Beading-Plane. 
 
 i-inch Beading-Plane. 
 
 Plow. 
 
 I Hand-Scraper. 
 
 \ doz. (Jiiill Bits, assorted from \" 
 
 down. 
 I Miter-Box. 
 I Grindstone. 
 
 if provision is to be made for more than one student, the 
 items printed in small type need not be duplicated. One set 
 of these will suffice for any number less than thirty. 
 
 The writer is indebted to Mr. M. Golden, of the School 
 of Mechanics and Engineering, Purdue University, for the exe- 
 cution of many of the drawings and for valuable suggestions. 
 
 W. F. M. G. 
 
 Purdue University, 
 Lafayette, Ind. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. — INTERPRETATION OF 
 MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 I. Mechanical Drawings Defined. — 2. Plans. — 3. Elevations. — 
 4. Method of showing Parts Obscured from Sight. — 5. Sections. 
 Section Lines. Cross-hatching. Incomplete Sections. — 6. Bro- 
 ken Drawings. — 7. Scale. — 8. Dimensions. Dimension Lines, 1-6 
 
 PART I. — BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 9. Bench. — 10. Bench-Stop. — 11. Vise. — 12. Bench-Hook.— 
 
 13. Trestles y-9 
 
 Measuring and Lining Appliances. 
 
 14. Early Standards of Length. — 15. English Standard Yard. — 16. 
 United States Standard of Length. — 1 7. The Troughton Scale. 
 
 — 18. Rules. — 19. Framing-Square. — 20. Board-measure Table. 
 
 — 21. Brace-measure Table. — 22. Try-Square. — 23. Bevel. — 
 24. "Miter-Square." — 25. Try-and-" Miter " Square. — 26. Di- 
 viders. — 27. Scribing with Dividers. — 28. Combining Square 
 and Rule. — 29. Combining Square and Bevel. — 30. Setting 
 the Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees. — 31. Setting the Bevel at 
 any Given Angle. — 32. Marking-Gauge. — 33. Mortise-Gauge. 
 
 — 34. Panel-Gauge. — 35. Cutting-Gauge. — 36. Chalk-Line. 
 
 — 37. Scriber. — 38. Pencil . 9- 20 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 
 
 39. Firmer-Chisels. — 40. Framing-Chisels. — 41. Corner-Chisels. — 
 42. Gouges. — 43. Chisel Handles. — 44. Drawing-Knife. — 45. 
 Action of Cutting Wedges. — 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in 
 Chisel and Gouge. — 47. Grinding. — 48. Whetting . . . 20-26 
 
 Saws. 
 
 49. Efficiency. — 50. Form. — 51. Set. — 52. Size of Teeth. — 53. 
 Ripping-Saw and Cross-Cutting-Saw Defined. — 54. Teeth of 
 Ripping-Saws. — 55. Teeth of Cross-Cutting-Saws. — 56. Back- 
 Saw. — 57. Compass-Saw 26-36 
 
 Appliances for Filing and Setting Saws. 
 
 58. Files. — 59. Sets for Bending the Tooth. — 60. Sets for Swedging 
 
 the Tooth. — 61. Clamps 36-38 
 
 Saw Filing and Setting. 
 62 Top-Jointing. — 63. Setting. — 64. Filing. — 65. Side-Jointing, 39-41 
 
 Planes and Plane-like Tools. 
 
 66. Description of Planes. — 67. Length of Stock. — 68. Plane-Iron. 
 Angle of Cutting Wedge. — 69. Outline of Cutting Edge. — 70. 
 Use of Different Bench Planes. — 71. Action of Smooth-Plane 
 and Fore- Plane Compared. — 72. The Cap. — 73. Narrowness of 
 Mouth. — 74. Adjusting the Iron. — 75. Jointing a Plane. — 76. 
 Iron Planes. — 77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined. — 78. 
 Circular-Planes. — 79. Block-Planes. — 80. Spokeshaves. — 81. 
 Rabbeting- Planes. — 82. Matching-Planes. — • 83. Hollows and 
 Rounds. — 84. Beading- Planes. — 85. Plows. — 86. Combina- 
 tion Planes. — 87. .Scrapers 41-52 
 
 Boring Tools. 
 
 88. Augers. — 89. Auger-Bits. — 90. Sharpening Augers and Auger- 
 Bits. — 91. Center-Bits. — 92. Expansive Bits. — 93. Small Bits. 
 — 94. Bit-Braces. — 95. Angular Bit-Stock. — 96. Automatic 
 Boring Tool , 53-59 
 
CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 Miscellaneous Tools. 
 
 97. Winding-Sticks, — 98. Hand Screw-Driver. — 99. Brace Screw- 
 Driver. — 100. Hammer. — loi. Hatchet. — 102. Mallet. — 
 103. Sand-Paper. — 104. Wooden Miter-Box. — 105. Iron 
 Miter-Box. — 106. Clamps. — 107. Grindstone. — 108. Use of 
 Water on a Grindstone. — 109. Truing a Grindstone. — 1 10. 
 Truing Devices for Grindstones. — in. Oilstones. — 112. Oil 
 for Oilstones. — 113. Form of Oilstones. — 114. Oilstone Slips. 
 — 115. Truing an Oilstone . 59-69 
 
 PART II. — BENCH WORK. 
 
 116. Good Lines a Necessity. — 117. Location of Points. — 118. 
 
 Jointed Face. — 119. Working-Face 71-73 
 
 EXERCISE No. i. — Measuring and Lining. 
 
 120. Material. — 121. Spacing: Pencil and Rule. — 122. Lining: 
 Pencil, and Framing-Square. — 123. Chalk-Lining. — 124. Lin- 
 ing: Pencil, and Try-Square. — 125. Lining: Pencil and Bevel. 
 — 126. "Gauging" Lines: Pencil and Rule. — 127. Spacing: 
 Scriber and Rule. — 128. Lining: Scriber, and Try-Square. 
 129. Lining: Scriber and Bevel. — 130. Gauge-Lining. — 131. 
 Lining for Exercise No. 3 73-79 
 
 EXERCISE No. 2. — Chiseling and Gouging. 
 
 132. Chiseling by Hand. — 133. Chiseling by Use of Mallet. — 134. 
 
 Gouging 80-83 
 
 EXERCISE No. 3. — Sawing. 
 
 135. Handling the Saw. — 136. Guiding the Saw. — 137. Correct- 
 ing the Angle of the Cut. — 138. Rip-Sawing. — 139. Cross- 
 cutting 83-86 
 
 EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing. 
 
 140. Handling the Plane. — 141. Why n Plane Clogs. — 142. Joint- 
 ing. — 143. Planing to a Square. — 144. Method of Performing 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Similar Operations. — 145. Smooth Surfaces. — '■ 146. Sand- 
 Papering 86-91 
 
 EXERCISE No. 5.— -Box. 
 
 147. Jointing to Width. — 148. Sawing to Length. — 149. NaiUng. 
 — 150. Hammer Marks. — 151. .Setting Nails. — 152. With- 
 drawing Nails. — 153. Fastening the Box Bottom. Finishing 
 the Box. — 154. Planing End Grain 91-96 
 
 EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook. 
 155. Lining and Sawing. — 156. Using the Auger-Bit .... 96-98 
 
 EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice. 
 
 157. Lining. — 158. Value of Working-Face Illustrated. — 159. Cut- 
 ting the Joint. — 160. Sawing a Fit. — 161. Toeing Nails . 99-102 
 
 EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 
 162. Lining. — 163. Cutting and Finishing the Joint .... 103, 104 
 
 EXERCISE No. 9 — Simple Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 
 
 164. Lining. — 165. Cutting the Mortise. — 166. Cutting the Tenon. 
 
 167. Making a Pin. — 168. Drawboring 104-110 
 
 EXERCISE No. 10. — Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 
 169. Lining and Cutting. — 170. Key 1 10, ill 
 
 EXERCISE No. 11. — Plain Dovetail. 
 
 171. Lining and Cutting. — 172. Gluing. — 173. Short Method of 
 
 Lining and Cutting the Joint 112, 113 
 
 EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap Dovetail. 
 174. Lining and Cutting 114, 115 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 PAGES 
 
 EXERCISE No. 13. — Blind Dovetail. 
 175. Lining and Cutting. — 176. A Modified Form of the Joint . 11 5- 11 7 
 
 EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel. 
 
 177. Panel Door Described. — 178. Maicing the Joint between Stile 
 and Rail. — 179. Cutting Chamfers. — 180. Keying the Joint. 
 — 181. Finishing the Panel. Fastening Panel to Frame. — 
 182. Inserting Screws. — 183. Using the Brad-Awl . . . 117-121 
 
 EXERCISE No. 15. — Frame and Panel 
 
 184. Making Joint between Stile and Rail. — 185. Plowing. — 186. 
 
 Beading. — 187. Forming the Panel 121-124 
 
 PART III. — ELEMENTS OF WOOD CON- 
 STRUCTION. 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 188. Timber Defined. — 189. Felling. — 190. Seasoning. — 191. 
 Shrinkage. — 192. Swelling. — 193. Warping. — 194. Eftect of 
 Shrinkage on Cross-section. — 195. Effect of Shrinkage on 
 Length 124-129 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 196. Work of Carpenter and Joiner Compared. — 197. Compres- 
 sional, Tensional, and Cross-Strain Defined. — 198. Effect of 
 Cross-Strain. Neutral Axis. Relation between the Depth of a 
 Timber nnd its Resistance to Cross-Str-iin. — T09. Rankine's 
 Principles concerning joints and lastenings . ... 130-132 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Joints Connecting Timbers in the Direction of their Length. 
 
 200. Lapped Joint. — 201. Fished Joint. — 202. Scarfed Joints. — 
 203. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Compression. — 204. Scarfed 
 Joint for Resisting Tension. — 205. Scarfed Joint for Resisting 
 Cross-Strain. — 206. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and 
 Compression. — 207. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and 
 Cross-Strain I33-I35 
 
 Joints Connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 
 
 208. Halving. — 209. Notching. — 210. Cogging. — 211. Mortise- 
 and-Tenon Joints. — 212. Mortise and Tenon Joining a Vertical 
 to a Horizontal Timber. — 213. Mortise and Tenon Joining 
 a Horizontal to a Vertical Timber. — 214. Mortise and Tenon 
 Joining One Horizontal Timber to Another. Tusk Tenon 136-139 
 
 Miscellaneous Joints. 
 
 215. Oblique Mortise and Tenon. — 216. Bridle-Joint. — 217. Tie- 
 Joint. — 218. Chase-Mortise 139-141 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 219. Joinery Described 141, 142 
 
 Beads and Moldings. 
 
 220. Beads. — 221. Use of Beads. — 222. Chamfer. — 223. Stop 
 Chamfer. — 224. Moldings Described. — 225. Round Nose. — 
 226. Some Typical Forms of Moldings. Fillet. — 227. Joints 
 
 in Joinery Defined 142-145 
 
 Heading- Joints, or Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of 
 their Length. 
 
 228. Square Heading-Joint. Splayed Heading- Joint 145 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width. 
 
 229. Their Office. — 230. Butt-joint. Filleted Joint. Rabbeted 
 Joint. Matched Joint. — 231. Glued Butt-joint. — 232. Cleat- 
 ing. — 233. Side Cleats. — 234. End Cleats. — ^235. Relieving 
 Cleats from Strain 145-14S 
 
 Joints Uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 
 
 236. Butt-joint. — 237. Miter-Joint. — 238. Strengthening of Miter- 
 Joints. — 239. Dovetail-Joints. — 240. Proportions of Mortise- 
 and-Tenon Joints. — 241. Single and Double Tenons. — 242. 
 Haunching. — 243. Four Tenons. — 244. Mortises and Tenons 
 at an Angle in the Work. — 245. Modifications of Mortise-and- 
 Tenon Joints 148-152 
 
 P.\NEL1NG. 
 
 246. Panel. — 247. Frame. — 248. Joints between Panel and 
 
 Frame 152-155 
 
 FASTENINGS. 
 
 249. Pins. — 250. Wedges. — 251. Blind-Wedging. — 252. Keys. 
 — 253. Dowels. — 254. Nails. — 255. Size of Nails. — 256. 
 Brads. — 257. Tacks. — 258. Screws. — 259. Glue . . . 155-161 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 another set 
 
 trig. 2. 
 
 of 
 
 INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. 
 
 I. Most of the iUustrations presented with the following 
 chapters are in the form of Mechanical Drawings. To the 
 novice, these may appear confusing ; but careful attention to 
 some of the principles underlying their con- 
 struction will enable him readily to interpret 
 their meaning. 
 
 A mechanical drawing, as distinguished from 
 a perspective drawing, or picture, instead of 
 giving all the characteristics of an object at a 
 glance, presents them in detail, giving in one 
 view one set of elements, in another view 
 elements, and so on, until the form of the ob- 
 ject is accurately defined. 
 
 For example. Fig. i is a perspective view 
 of an object which is represented mechanically 
 by Fig. 2. By Fig. i it will at once be seen 
 that the object represented is a cylinder. In 
 Fig. 2 there is first presented a />/an, showing 
 that the object is cylindrical ; and, secondly, 
 an elevation, showing the height of the cylinder. 
 From the combination of these two views, the 
 solid may be as easily imagined as from Fig. i, 
 and the knowledge obtained of it is much more 
 definite. 
 
 A perspective view of an object is that which 
 is had by looking from some one point, as A, Fig. 3, while a 
 view represented by a mechanical drawing supposes the ob- 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 server to be looking from an infinite number of points, and 
 always in parallel lines, as indicated by A, Fig. 4. 
 
 2. A Plan of any object i^^'s- 3 
 
 represents it as it would 
 appear if, standing on its 
 natural base, it were looked A 
 down upon vertically, as 
 indicated by the arrows A, 
 Fig. 5. If the object, as a rectangular block, has no fixed 
 base, any one of its faces may be taken as such. 
 
 TTiK. 5 
 
 <— 
 
 < 
 
 ' < — 
 
 < 
 
 < — 
 
 3. An Elevation of any object represents it as it would 
 appear if, standing on its natural base, it were looked upon in a 
 horizontal direction, as indicated by 
 arrows B, Fig. 5. 
 
 The elevation is always at right 
 angles to the plan. There may be 
 several elevations of the same object, 
 each differing from the others as the 
 point of observation changes. For 
 example, the plan and elevation of the object rep- 
 resented by Fig. 6, are usually made as shown by 
 Fig. 7, but they may be made as shown by Fig. 8 or 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 
 B 
 
 III,,, 
 
 1 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
 These angular views, indeed, cannot be avoided when the form 
 they represent is so compHcated that its faces are neither par- 
 allel, nor at right angles to each 
 other. Fig. lo is a perspective 
 view of an object which is repre- 
 sented mechanically by Fig. ii. 
 It is evident that if one face of A 
 is shown in the elevation, two 
 faces of B will appear ; if one 
 face of B is shown, two of A will 
 appear. 
 
 In the representation of simple 
 objects, the plan is in some cases 
 omitted, and two elevations em- 
 ployed. These may be designated as side elevaticn and end 
 elevation, which terms signify an elevation of a side and an 
 elevation of an end. For 
 
 JTi-. lO 
 
 example, if we consider the 
 
 surface A the base of Fig. 6, 
 
 a side elevation would be 
 
 equivalent to the elevation 
 
 Fig. 7, and the end elevation 
 
 would become equivalent to 
 the plan of the same figure. 
 
 4. Method of showing Parts obscured from 
 Sight. — The outline of details, which in any 
 view of an object are hidden, is frequently 
 shown by dotted lines. Thus, in Fig. 12, the 
 general outline of the plan and elevation shows a rectangular 
 block ; if the circle in the plan is associated with the dotted 
 lines in the elevation, it is not difficult to imagine a round hole 
 extending through the center of the block. If the hole pene- 
 trates to only half the depth of the block, dotted lines will be 
 placed as shown by Fig. 13; if the hole is larger at the top 
 
4 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 than at the bottom, the drawing will appear as shown by Fig. 14 ; 
 if smaller at the top, as shown by Fig. 15. In Fig. 16 dotted 
 
 Kis- ^3 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 
 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 A- 
 
 PLAN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 1 
 
 ELkVATICpN. 
 
 
 L 1 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 
 ELEyAx/oN. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 i<'ig. le 
 
 lines indicate the diameter of a bolt holding the two pieces A 
 and £ together. 
 
 5. Sections. — In complicated drawings, the use of dotted 
 lines to indicate hidden parts is more confusing than helpful. 
 In such cases it is customary to imagine the 
 object cut, as if it \vere sawed asunder, and 
 
 ^ the surface thus produced exposed. Such 
 
 '-^^ ^ a surface is called a " section." 
 
 Complete sections show not only the sur- 
 face produced by the cut, but the outline of other portions of 
 the object which may be seen beyond. See lines a, a. Fig. 17. 
 
 Thus, section AB, Fig. 17, is that which 
 would appear if the ring were to be cut on 
 the line AB (Plan, Fig. 17), and the cut 
 surface made to appear in elevation. 
 
 Section lines on a drawing show the loca- 
 tion of sections. They are usually made in 
 color (red or blue), or in dotted black, with 
 a colored line on each side. Each section 
 is designated by the letters of its section line, 
 
 Ecc. A B. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5 
 
 TTis. 1-8 
 
 Cross-hatching is a term applied to the uniformly spaced 
 parallel lines which are employed to indicate the cut surface 
 of a section. See Fig. i8. 
 
 Different pieces of material appearing in the 
 same section are cross-hatched at different 
 angles, as in Fig. 19, which represents a cross- 
 section of a lead-pencil ; and different kinds of 
 material are frequently indicated by cross-hatch- 
 ing in different colors. '''"°" * "' ""• "• 
 Incomplete sections show only the cut surface, to the 
 exclusion of all other portions of the object. It is 
 common to place such sections on the section lines, 
 and omit the letters. See Fig. 20. 
 A single view of a symmetrical object may be made partly 
 in section, and partly in elevation, as in the drawing of the 
 goblet. Fig. 21. 
 
 Ki^. so I 
 
 6. Broken Drawings. — To economize 
 space in representations of simple objects, a 
 portion of the drawing 
 is sometimes omitted. 
 In such cases, that which 
 is given indicates the 
 character of the omitted 
 portion, and the dimen- 
 sion figures show its ex- 
 tent. An example is 
 given in Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
 -^- 
 
 ELEVATION.i SECTION 
 
 7. Scale. — Drawings are made either "full-sized" or "to 
 scale." A full-sized drawing is one in which every dimension 
 agrees exactly with the similar dimension of the object it repre- 
 sents. A drawing to scale is one in which every dimension 
 bears the same fractional relation to the similar dimension of 
 the object it represents. AVhen a drav/ing is ^^\)^ the size of 
 
BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 l^iji. 23 
 
 the object, it is said to be on a scale of ^ inch to the foot, or, 
 as frequently written, i in, = 1 ft. j if ^th the size, as 2 in. = i ft., 
 and so on. The scale 6 in. = i ft. is often expressed as "half 
 size." 
 
 8. Dimensions. — The various dimensions of an object repre- 
 sented are shown on the drawing by appropriate figures, which 
 express feet when followed by ', and inches 
 when followed by ". Thus 2' should be read 
 as two feet, and 2" as two inches. 12' yf" is 
 
 the same as twelve feet and seven and three- 
 quarters inches. 
 
 The figures always show the dimensions of the thing repre- 
 sented ; they do not agree with the dimensions of the drawing 
 except when the latter is full-sized. See dimension figures in 
 Fig, 23. 
 
 Dimension lines. — Dimension figures are always placed on, or 
 near, lines along which they apply. In drawings these lines are 
 usually in color (red), but may be dotted, black, as in Fig. 23. 
 When convenient, they are placed within the outline of the 
 drawing ; but if the drawing is small or crowded, they are placed 
 at one side, and are connected with the parts they limit by per- 
 pendicular, colored or dotted lines. Two arrow-heads, one on 
 each side of the dimension figure, locate the points between 
 which it applies. Several dimensions may be given on the same 
 line, each being limited by its own arrow-heads. 
 
PART 1 
 
 oi^c 
 
 BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 g. Bench. — A simple form of bench is shown by Fig. 24. 
 Its length A may vary from 6' upwards, according to the length 
 of work to be done. Its height B should also be regulated by 
 the character of the work — high for light work, and low for 
 heavy — as well as by the height of the person who is to use it. 
 Carpenters' benches are usually about 33" high, while those of 
 cabinet and pattern makers are from 2" to 4" higher. 
 
 N jI 
 
 'ri'+k-.-.?. 
 
 Scale, 1^ = 1 
 
 END ELEVATION. 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION. 
 
 The surface of the bench, particularly of the thick plank that 
 forms the outer edge of it, should be perfectly flat — a true 
 plane. When in use, care must be taken to protect it from 
 injury. It should never be scarred by the chisel or cut by the 
 saw. If oiled and shellaced, it is likely to be better kept. 
 
 10. The Bench-Stop a is intended to hold the work while 
 it is being planed. It may be simply a piece of wood about 
 2" X 2", projecting through a mortise in the top of the bench ; 
 
8 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Fift-. 3 5 
 
 II. 
 
 poses 
 
 but it is far better to have some form of iron fitting, many of 
 which are suppHed by the trade. The char- 
 acteristics of all of them are well illustrated 
 by the one shown in Fig. 25. The frame 
 A is let into the bench even with its sur- 
 face. The hook C is held in position at 
 any height above the bench by the action 
 of the screw B. C may be fastened even 
 with the surface of the bench, or removed 
 entirely. 
 
 The Vise (/, Fig. 24, is of a form that, for general pur- 
 has long been in use. To hold the work well, the jaw d 
 should be as nearly as possible parallel to the face g, against 
 which it acts. If it is not parallel, the space between should 
 ^. „^ be less at the top than at the bot- 
 
 tom — an arrangement which in- 
 sures a much better grip upon the 
 work than the opposite conditions. 
 Adjustments for parallelism are 
 made by changing the pin c from 
 one hole to another. There are 
 various mechanical appliances for 
 preserving automatically the paral- 
 lelism of this vise, but none are in common use. Iron vises can 
 be had which are adapted to the same uses as the one just 
 described; they maintain their parallelism, and are easier and 
 more perfect in action. 
 
 An iron bench vise, such as is shown by Fig. 26, is extremely 
 useful for small work, and, if expense is not to be considered, 
 should supplement the vise d, in which case it may be located 
 on the bench at H. 
 
 The holes, e, in the bench are for the reception of a plug, 
 which may be used to support one end of a long piece of work 
 while the other end is held by the vise. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 12. A Bench-Hook, Fig. 178, applied to the bench as 
 shown by Fig. 167, provides a stop to prevent work from 
 shding across the bench. The flat faces which rest on the 
 bench and receive the work, should be true planes and par- 
 allel. A length of from 14" to 16" is convenient, though 
 bench-workers fretiuently have several of different lengths. 
 
 13. Trestles, or "horses," are used in various v/ays to sup- 
 port material, and also pj^, ^^ 
 
 to take the place of the fz 
 bench when large pieces 
 of material are to be 
 operated upon. A con- 
 venient form is shown 
 by Fig. 27. 
 
 Measuring and Lining Appliances. 
 
 14. Early Standards of Length. — To meet the earliest 
 need of units of measure, it was natural to adopt the means 
 nearest at hand, and common consent, no doubt, brought into 
 use the pace, the forearm, or cubit, the foot, the hand, the nail, 
 etc. These were certainly convenient enough, for wherever he 
 might go, every individual carried his units of measure with him. 
 Variations in their length, however, were inevitable, and many 
 attempts were made to reduce them to a standard. An old 
 English statute, the substance of which has descended to 
 American arithmetics of modern date, enacts " that three 
 barleycorns, round and dry, make an inch, twelve inches make 
 a foot, three feet a yard, etc. ; and there seems to be no doubt 
 that this mode of obtaining a standard was actually resorted to. 
 But setting aside the objection due to the varying size of the 
 individual grains, — unless the average of a large number be 
 taken, — it is so difficult to know how much of the sharp end 
 of a grain of barley must be removed to make it ' round,' that 
 
lO BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the definition is not of much value. Nevertheless, in spite 
 of numerous attempts at legislation on the subject, this, down 
 to the year 1824, was the only process by which the standard 
 yard of this country [England] could, if lost, be legally re- 
 covered." ^ 
 
 Previous to the institution of a national standard of lengtli 
 in Great Britain, influential men and prominent societies pro- 
 vided themselves with so-called standards, which were accepted 
 and used in different localities. By comparison with many of 
 these, the present standard of length was made, and its length 
 defined by law as the British standard yard. From this, about 
 fifty copies have been made. Two of these copies were in 1855 
 sent to the United States, and have since been in the keeping 
 of the Coast Survey. They are described as follows : — 
 
 15. " Each standard of length is a solid bar 38 inches long 
 and I inch square, in transverse section. One inch from each 
 extremity a cylindrical well, one-half inch in diameter, is sunk 
 one-half inch below the surface. At the bottom of the wells, 
 in each bar, is a gold pin about o.i inch in diameter, upon 
 which are drawn three transversal and two longitudinal lines. 
 The wells are protected by metal caps. The length of one 
 English yard at a specified temperature is defined by the dis- 
 tance from the middle transversal line in one well to the middle 
 transversal line in the other, using the parts of those lines which 
 are midway between the longitudinal lines." - 
 
 16. The United States Standard of Length. — " The stand- 
 ard yard of Great Britain was lawful in the colonies before 
 T776. By the Constitution of the United States the Congress 
 is charged with fixing the standard of weights and measures, 
 but no such enactment has ever been made by Congress, and 
 
 1 Shelley's *' Workshop Appliances." "* 
 
 2 Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. I I 
 
 therefore that yard which was standard in England previous to 
 1776 remains the standard yard of the United States to this 
 day." ^ 
 
 17. "The Troughton Scale is a bronze bar with an inlaid 
 silver scale, made for the survey of the coast of the United 
 States by Troughton, of London. The bar is nearly 86 inches 
 long, 2^ inches wide, and one-half inch thick. A thin strip of 
 silver, a little more than o.i inch wide, is inlaid with its surface 
 flush with the brass, midway the width of the bar. It extends 
 the whole length of the bar, save where it is interrupted by two 
 perforations, one near each end. Two parallel lines about o.i 
 inch apart are ruled longitudinally on the silver. The space 
 between them is divided transversely into tenths of inches. 
 
 "The zero mark of the graduations is about 3.2 inches from 
 one end of the bar. Immediately over it is engraved an eagle, 
 surmounted by the motto, £ Plurihiis Uuiiiii, and thirteen 
 stars. Below the 38 to 42-inch divisions is engraved 'Troughton, 
 London, 18 14.' The bar is also perforated by a hole above 
 the scale and near the 40-inch division, and by one below it, 
 between the words ' Troughton ' and ' London.' . . . 
 
 "The yard of 36 inches, comprised between the 27th and 
 63d inch of the Troughton scale, which was found by Hassler's 
 comparison to be equal to the average 36 inches of the scale, is 
 the actual standard yard of the LTnited States, having been 
 adopted by the Treasury Department as such in 1832, on the 
 recommendation of Mr. Hassler.-"" 
 
 18. Rules are measuring strips, and are 
 usually made of boxwood. Their size is 
 expressed by their length in inches or feet, 
 as a " 6-inch rule," a " 2-foot rule." 
 
 For convenience, they are made to fold, 
 
 ^ Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 
 2 Hassler was the first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey. 
 
12 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 
 17^ 
 
 Eig. SD 
 
 and one is said to be "two-fold" when made of two pieces, 
 " four-fold " when made of four, and "six-fold" when made of 
 six pieces. Fig. 28 shows a four-fold rule. 
 
 To preserve the rule from wear, the better class are "bound" 
 by a strip of brass which covers each edge ; others are " half- 
 bound," hav- 
 ing only one 
 edge covered; 
 and still others 
 are " unbound," having no edge protection. 
 
 Carpenters' rules are usually graduated to eighths 
 of inches on one side, and to sixteenths on the other. 
 Besides the regular graduations, other numbers are 
 frequently represented ; but their purpose is so varied 
 that their interpretation cannot be given here. 
 
 19. The Framing-Square, Fig. 29, as its name 
 implies, is intended primarily for use in framing, and 
 would seem to belong to the builder rather than to 
 the bench-worker ; but its range of usefulness makes 
 it valuable to any worker in wood. 
 
 All but the very cheapest are of steel, and many are 
 nickel-plated. The nickel prevents rust, and gives 
 clearness to the lines and figures. The figures of the 
 graduations along the several edges, begin at the angle 
 and extend to the ends of the legs. In addition to 
 these, there is on one side a line of figures beginning 
 at the end of the long leg and extending to the angle. 
 On the reverse side, represented by Fig. 29, there is 
 on the long leg a board-measure table, and on the 
 short leg a brace-measure table. 
 
 20. The Board-measure Table. — Lumber is sold by the 
 square foot, and the value of the table lies in its giving the area 
 of a board, or of any surface, in square feet, when its length in 
 feet and its breadth in inches are known. 
 
Bench tools. 13 
 
 The figures that belong to the outside graduations, i, 2, 3, 
 and so on up to 24, are employed to represent the width of the 
 board to be measured, and all the lengths included in the table 
 are given in a column under the figure 1 2 belonging to the out- 
 side graduations. On this square, Fig. 29, they are 14, 10, 
 and 8. To find the surface of any board, first look in the 
 column under 12 for a number representing its length, and 
 having found it, run the finger along in the same line until it 
 comes under that figure of the outside graduations that corre- 
 sponds to the board's width. The figure nearest the finger in 
 this fine represents the area of the board in feet. 
 
 Example i. — How many square feet are there in a board 
 10' long and 7" wide? 
 
 Under 12 of the outside graduations, in Fig. 29, the 10 is 
 in the second line, and the figure in this line most nearly 
 under 7 of the outside graduations, is 6, which represents the 
 area required, in feet. 
 
 ExaDtple 2. — What is the surface of a board whose length 
 is 8' and whose width is 21"? 
 
 As in Example i, look under 12 of the outside graduations 
 for 8 ; in this line, under 2 1 of the outside graduations, will be 
 found the 14 which represents the area reciuired. 
 
 The reason that the column under 12, forming, as it does, 
 a part of the body of the table, is taken to represent the length, 
 will be clear when it is remembered that any board 12" wide 
 will contain as many surface feet as it contains linear feet ; that 
 is, a board 12" wide and 14' long will have an area of 14 square 
 feet. The figures given under 12 correspond to the usual 
 length to which lumber is cut, and on most squares they are 
 8, 10, 14, 16, and 18; and, since the figure representing the 
 area differs from the figure representing the length only be- 
 cause the width varies, we must go to the right or the left 
 of the column under 1 2, when the width is greater or less 
 than 12. 
 
H 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Fig, 30 
 
 v^ 
 
 
 h 
 
 /c/ 
 
 A 
 
 c „ , 
 
 '(^ 
 
 21. The Brace-measure Table gives the length of each side 
 of several right-angled triangles. A brace in carpentry is a 
 
 timber inserted diagonally between two other 
 timbers which usually are at right angles to 
 each other. If it is required to insert a brace 
 C between A and B, Fig. 30, its length may 
 be determined by using the table on the 
 framing-square, which, within certain limits, 
 gives the carpenter the length of C when the 
 lengths A and B are known. 
 
 Taking the group of figures nearest the end of the short 
 leg for the illustration, suppose A (length ad)=^'j" and B 
 (length ac):= 57", then C (length />c)= 80.61". By the next 
 group, it will be seen that if A and B each equal 54" or 54', 
 C will equal 76.31", or 76.31'. The two figures representing 
 the length of the two short sides of the triangle, are always given 
 one above the other, and the figure representing the length of 
 the third side, to the right of the other two. 
 
 22. A Try-Square is shown by Fig. 31. The beam A in 
 this case is of wood, faced by a brass strip C to protect it from 
 
 wear. The blade B, at right angles 
 to the beam, is of steel. The gradua- 
 tions on the blade, together with its 
 thinness, make this square more con- 
 venient for short measurements than 
 the rule. 
 
 Try- squares 
 
 are made from 4" to 12", their size 
 
 being expressed by the length of the 
 
 blade. 
 
 23. The Bevel, often improperly 
 called " bevel-square," is made up of 
 parts similar to those of the try-square, 
 
 Kia. 31 
 
 77 
 
 1 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 15 
 
 as will be seen by Fig. 32. The blade is adjustable to any 
 angle with the beam ; the thumb-screw C fastens it when 
 set. 
 
 The size of a bevel is expressed by the length of its beam in 
 inches. 
 
 24. "Miter-Squares" derive their 
 name from the purpose they are in- 
 tended to serve. A "miter" in con- 
 struction is one-half of a right angle, 
 or an angle of 45 degrees. In the 
 " miter-square " the blade, as in the 
 try-square, is permanently set, but 
 at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown 
 by Fig. II. 
 
 The bevel, while neither so con- 
 venient nor so accurate, is often 
 made to answer the purpose of the 
 
 ' miter-square. 
 
 25. A Combination Try-and-" Miter " 
 Square is shown by Fig. 34. This, while 
 
 perfect as a try- 
 square, is trans- 
 formed into a "mi- 
 ter-square " when 
 the face of the 
 beam AB is placed 
 against the work- 
 ing-face (iig) of the material. 
 
 26. Dividers are much used in spacing 
 and in laying off circles and arcs of circles. 
 The form shown by Fig. 35 is known as "arc and set-screw 
 dividers." The two points are held at any desired distance 
 from each other by the action of the set-screw A upon the 
 arc B. In setting, the final adjustment may be made more 
 
i6 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 delicate by use of the thumb-nut C, which, acting in opposi- 
 tion to the spring D, shortens the arc B or allows the spring to 
 lengthen it, as may be required. 
 
 Fig. 36 
 
 27 . Scribing with Dividers : Example i . — The four legs 
 of a table are of unequal length, and prevent it from standing 
 even. Scribe the legs to length. 
 
 First, by means of blocks or wedges under the shorter legs, 
 make the top of the table to stand parallel to some plane sur- 
 face, as a bench top, or even the floor if 
 it is in good condition, either of which 
 may be designated as F, Fig. 36. Set 
 the dividers equal to or greater than the 
 height of the thickest blocking, so that 
 while one point, a, touches the leg, the 
 other, b, will rest upon F in the same vertical line. Move the 
 dividers, keeping b on F, and producing by a a line on the leg, as 
 ca, which, if the dividers are properly handled, will be parallel 
 to the surf'ice F. Without changing the dividers, mark at least 
 two adjoining faces on each leg, and cut the legs to line. 
 
 It is e\ ident that lines thus scribed will all be at an equal 
 distance from the surface F ; and the table top, having been 
 j^i„_ 3^ made parallel to F, it 
 
 follows that the lines 
 scribed are parallel to 
 the top, or that the 
 length of the four legs, 
 as defined by the lines, 
 is the same. 
 
 Example 2. — It is required to fit the end of a board B to 
 the outline abed oi A, Fig. 37. Place the board in the position 
 shown, and set the dividers at a distance equal to .v. With 
 one point at a and the other at e, let them be moved together, 
 one following the outline abed which the other produces on B, 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 17 
 
 as shown. Cut to line, and the board will fit. When sharp 
 angles, as at /, enter into the outline, greater accuracy will 
 be attained if the point / is located by measuring from the 
 base line hi. 
 
 28. Combining Measuring Appliances. — To find the hypot- 
 enuse of a right-angled triangle when the other two sides are 
 known, use the rule and framing- 
 square, as shown by Hg. 38. 
 Suppose in Fig. 30 the length 
 ab = 5I-", and the length ac 
 = 9^" ; to find the length be, 
 apply one end of the rule to 
 the 9^" mark on one leg of the 
 square, and bring its edge to / 
 coincide with the 5-^" mark on 
 the other leg, as shown by Fig. 38. The reading of the rule 
 where it coincides with the 5^" mark, or io|", will be the length 
 be. The length thus found will be sufficiently accurate for 
 many purposes. If the distance to be measured is in feet, 
 imagine every inch on the sc^uare to be equal to a foot, and 
 read the result in feet. 
 
 If the proportions of the triangle are very large, the figure 
 may be drawn at full size on the shop floor, and the extent of 
 each part determined by direct measurement. 
 
 Fig. 30 
 
 29. Setting the Bevel. — To 
 
 set the bevel at a miter (an angle 
 
 of 45°), place the beam against 
 
 one leg of the square and adjust 
 
 the blade so that it will agree with 
 
 equal distances on both legs, as 
 
 4" and 4", Fig. 39. Any distance may be taken, but it must be 
 
 the same on both legs. 
 
BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 The carpenter frequently describes an angle to which the 
 bevel may be set, as " i in 2 " or " i in 4," by which is meant 
 that while the beam is applied, as shown by Fig. 39, the blade 
 corresponds to the 1" mark on one leg, and the 2" mark on 
 the other; or to the i" mark on one leg, and the 4" mark on 
 the other. 
 
 30. To set the Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees. — In 
 
 Fig. 40 the board .J has a jointed edge a ; from this, square the 
 ^. ,^ line dc. With any radius. 
 
 Fig. -to ■' ' 
 
 use the dividers to strike 
 the arc be ; with the same 
 radius, strike from l> the arc 
 / Place the beam of the 
 bevel against the working- 
 face a, move the blade till 
 it coincides with the points 
 b and / and the bevel is set at an angle of 60 degrees with one 
 side of the beam, and 1 20 degrees with the other. 
 
 31- 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 To set the Bevel at any given Angle. — If an attempt 
 
 is made to set the bevel di- 
 rectly from lines on paper, it 
 will be found difficult to de- 
 termine when the tool agrees 
 with the parts of the drawing. 
 It is better, therefore, to 
 transfer such an angle to a 
 board, from the working-edge 
 of which the bevel may be 
 set. Thus, if it is required to 
 set the bevel at the angle 
 abc, Fig. 41, a board as A, 
 should be lined as follows : 
 from the working-edge gauge the line a'b' ; with the dividers, 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 19 
 
 1^-ifr. -43 
 
 at any convenient radius, describe from ^' the arc e^d' ; with the 
 same radius describe from b the arc ed ; set the dividers so that 
 with one point on e the other will fall on/, and lay off this dis- 
 tance on e\f , locating /' ; connect b^ and /' ; the angle «'^'r' 
 will be equal to abc. As a'b^ is by construction parallel to the 
 working-edge of the board, the angle between the working- 
 edge and b'c' is ecjual to the angle abc. If, then, with the beam 
 of the bevel on the working-edge, the blade is made to coin- 
 cide with b'c' , the bevel will be set at the angle abc. 
 
 32. Marking-Gauges. — Fig. 42 shows the usual form of a 
 marking-gauge. The steel point, or "spur," e, should be filed 
 to a narrow edge, so that it 
 will make a sharp line. 
 
 The graduations along the 
 length of the beam B, are 
 not to be depended on un- 
 less it is known that the 
 zero line is exactly opposite ^^"'"'■^^'^ 
 the spur. When the zero mark and the spur do not agree, as 
 is frequently the case, it is necessary in setting the gauge to 
 measure from the head A to the spur c. A when set, is pre- 
 vented from moving on B, by the screw C. 
 
 33. A Mortise-Gauge, shown by Fig. 43, has two spurs, a 
 being fastened to the beam, and b to a brass slide which works 
 in a groove in the beam. The 
 
 spur b may be set at any dis- 
 tance from a by the action of 
 the screw c. The gauge may, 
 therefore, be set to line both 
 sides of a mortise at the same time. 
 
 34. Panel-Gauges, Fig. 44, are for use in making lines at a 
 considerable distance from the working-edge. 
 
20 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 The length of the head A is sufficiently increased to receive 
 good support from the working-edge, which guides it. 
 
 35. Cutting-Gauges, having a long, thin blade in the place 
 of the usual spur, are in form similar to that shown by Fig. 42. 
 They are useful in cutting strips of thin material. 
 
 36. Chalk-Lines are very seldom used in bench work, but 
 are often convenient in applying such work to larger structures. 
 The cord used in lining should be as small as is consistent with 
 strength. On most surfaces blue chalk is more easily seen than 
 white. 
 
 37. The Scriber, as known to the trade, takes a variety of 
 forms, from that of an awl to that of a peculiar short-bladed 
 knife. A well-kept pocket knife of convenient size will be 
 found a good substitute for any of them. 
 
 • 38. The Pencil used in lining on board surfaces should be 
 soft, and kept well-pointed by frequent sharpening. 
 
 Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 
 
 39. Firmer-Chisels have blades wholly of steel. They are 
 fitted with light handles and are intended for hand use only. 
 
 40. Framing-Chisels have heavy iron blades overlaid with 
 steel. The handles are stout and are protected at the end by 
 ferrules. This chisel is used in heavy mortising and framing, 
 and is driven to its work by the mallet. 
 
 1 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 21 
 
 Compare Fig. 45, which shows a firmer-chisel, with Fig. 46, 
 which shows a framintr-chisei. 
 
 mr 
 
 The size of chisels is indicated by the width of the cutting 
 edge, and varies from ^" to i" by sixteenths, and from i:^" to 
 2" by fourths. 
 
 41. A Corner-Chisel is shown by Fig. 47. Its two cutting 
 edges are at right angles to each other, and this form renders 
 
 it useful in making inside angles, as, for example, the corners of 
 a mortise. Its handle is like that of a framing-chisel. The size 
 of a corner-chisel is indicated by the length of one cutting edge. 
 
 42. Gouges have blades that, throughout their length, are 
 curved in section, as shown by Fig. 48. When the bevel forming 
 
 the cutting edge is on the concave side, they are called "inside 
 gouges " ; when on the convex side, " outside gouges." For 
 general purposes the outside gouge is most convenient, and the 
 carpenter, with his limited facilities for the care of tools, can 
 more easily keep it in order. The size of a gouge is indicated 
 by the length of a straight line extending from one extremity of 
 the cutting edge to the other. 
 
22 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 43. Handles for chisels, gouges, and similar tools, are of two 
 general classes, light and heavy ; the former are intended prin- 
 cipally for hand use, and are shown in connection with the firmer- 
 chisel and gouge ; the latter, which are re-enforced at the end 
 by a ferrule that they may withstand blows from the mallet, are 
 illustrated in connection with the framing-chisel and the corner- 
 chisel. 
 
 Handles may be shank-litted, like the one shown oy Fig. 48, 
 or socket-fitted, as shown by Fig. 47. The better class of tools 
 have socket-fitted handles. 
 
 44. The Drawing-Knife, shown by Fig. 49, is in reality a 
 wide chisel, though it is tjuite different from a chisel in form. 
 
 The handles are so attached as to stand in advance of the cut- 
 ting edge, which is drawn into the work, instead of being pushed 
 into it, as is the case with a chisel. The drawing-knife is very 
 effective on narrow surfaces that are to be considerably reduced. 
 The size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. 
 
 45. The Action of Cutting Wedges. — Every cutting tool 
 is a wedge more or less acute. In action it has two operations 
 to perform : first, cutting the fibers of the wood ; and, secondly, 
 widening the cut in order that the tool may penetrate into the 
 material, and thus allow the cutting edge to go on with its 
 work. To widen the cut, the fibers of the wood must be pressed 
 apart (the wood split), or the fiber ends crushed, or the mate- 
 rial on one side of the wedge must be bent, thus forming a 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 23 
 
 shaving. It is evident that a unit of force tending to drive the 
 edge forward will, under like conditions of material, always 
 result in the same amount of incision. But much less force is 
 required to carry the tool forward when the cutting edge is just 
 entering the material, than when it has advanced to a consider- 
 able depth, and, hence, it is fair to assume that this difference is 
 due solely to the resistance that the material offers in opening 
 to make way for the tool, this resistance increasing as the tool 
 goes deeper. The resistance offered to a tool by a bending 
 shaving, therefore, may be many times greater than that offered 
 to the cutting edge by the wood fibers. 
 
 An obtuse-angled wedge will cut as easily as a more acute- 
 angled one, but the more obtuse the angle is, the more abrupt 
 must be the turning of the shaving ; and since the latter factor 
 is the more important, as regards the absorption of force, it 
 follows that the more acute the cutting edge is, the more easily 
 it will accomplish its work. 
 
 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in Chisel and Gouge. — The 
 
 acuteness of the angle cannot be defined in degrees since, 
 being limited only by the strength of the steel, it must vary as 
 the duty required of it varies. For example, a more acute 
 angle may be used in soft than in hard wood ; again, a chisel 
 handled as shown by Figs. 147 and 148, is not so severely 
 strained as when used in the manner illustrated by Fig. 149. 
 If the maximum degree of delicacy were insisted on under 
 every condition of use, the cutting edge would need to vary 
 with every turn of the chisel, and almost with every shaving it 
 cuts. This would be impracticable, and wood workers reduce 
 all these requirements to a single principle which may be 
 expressed as follows : let the cutting edge be as acute as the 
 metal will allow without breaking, when fairly used. A little 
 experience with a given tool is the readiest means of finding 
 the angle suited to a given class of work. Carriage makers, 
 
24 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 who work almost wholly in hard woods, are in the habit of 
 using what pattern makers, who work principally in soft woods, 
 would style blunt chisels. 
 
 47. Grinding. — A new chisel, or one that has become con- 
 siderably dull, must be ground. With the handle of the chisel 
 
 Fig, SO 
 
 in the right hand, and the fingers of the left hand resting on 
 the blade near its cutting edge, apply the chisel to the stone, 
 Fig. 50, as shown by the dotted outline a, and then raise the 
 right hand until the proper angle is reached, a position indi- 
 cated by the full outline Ik See that there is a good supply of 
 water, and, as the grinding progresses, move the tool gradually 
 from one side of the stone to the other. 
 
 Assuming that the stone is in fairly good order, the tool 
 should be applied relative to its motion, in the manner shown 
 by a and />, Fig. 50, the motion being in the direction of the 
 arrow d. If the stone is not round or does not run true, there 
 is danger that the cutting edge may dig into it, to the injury of 
 both stone and tool. Under such conditions, it will be best for 
 the operator to move round to the other side, and hold the tool 
 in the position indicated by c. The first position is preferable, 
 chiefly because of two reasons : first, the tool may be held 
 more steadily ; and, secondly, there is less tendency toward the 
 production of a " wire edge." As the extreme edge becomes 
 thin by grinding, it springs slightly away from the stone, and 
 allows the chisel at points still farther from the edge to become 
 thin, thus resulting in an extremely delicate edge which must be 
 removed before the tool can be made sharp. In the effort to 
 remove thij wire edge, it frequently breaks off farther back than 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 2$ 
 
 is desired, and the process of whetting is prolonged. With the 
 chisel held at r (instead of l>, the proper position) the direc- 
 tion of the motion relative to the tool aggravates this tendency 
 of the light edge to spring away from the stone. 
 
 The grinding process is complete when the ground surface 
 reaches the cutting edge — a condition readily determined by 
 holding the tool to the light. If it is still dull, there will be a 
 bright line along the cutting edge. When this line has disap- 
 peared, the tool is as sharp as it can be made by grinding, 
 which, if persisted in, will only result in a wire edge. The 
 action of the grindstone, however, is too severe to produce a 
 good cutting edge, and the chisel, after being ground, must be 
 whetted (107 -no). 
 
 48. To whet the 
 chisel, apply it to 
 the oilstone A, Fig. 
 51, in the position 
 shown by the dot- 
 ted outline /^, and 
 as it is moved back 
 
 and forth along the length of the stone, as indicated l)y the 
 arrows, gradually bring it to the position shown l)y //. That is, 
 the angle between it and the stone is to be increased until the 
 cutting edge c comes in contact with the stone ; this ])()silion 
 can be recognized by the sensation imi)arted to the hand, and 
 the behavior of the oil with which the stone is lubricated. At 
 
 first thought, it may seem that 
 
 c 
 the bevel a/', Fig. 52, which was «<v r^iix. 'r: 
 
 produced by the grinding, should 
 
 be maintained in whetting ; but 
 
 to do this would require so much 
 
 time that one corresponding very 
 
 nearly to a/>, as af, is taken. 
 
 Great care is necessary on the part of one unskilled to avoid giv- 
 
26 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 ing the tool a rocking motion on the oilstone ; if this is indulged 
 p,.„ j_3 in, the edge will appear rounded, as 
 
 ^/ ^ shown by Fig. 53, and will be no 
 
 sharper than if it had the form 
 indicated by the dotted outline 
 a/>c. When sufficiently whetted, the cutting edge, if held to 
 the light, will show a dull, grayish hue. If a bright line appears 
 along the edge, it is not yet sharp. The whetting turns a light 
 wire edge over on the flat face, an exaggeration of which is 
 
 shown by a, Fig. 54. This can- 
 not always be seen, but may be 
 
 detected by the finger ; it is re- 
 moved by a single stroke of the 
 blade with the flat face on the 
 stone, as shown by a', Fig. 51. It is necessary, however, that 
 every precaution be taken to prevent the production of a bevel 
 indicated by the dotted line c, Fig. 54, and opposite that 
 already existing. To guard against this, the chisel should be 
 applied to the stone in the manner illustrated by the outline a, 
 Fig. 51 (111-H5). 
 
 A tool must be whetted often enough to keep the edge in 
 good condition ; it is dull whenever it fails to cut well. When, 
 by frequent whetting, the whetted surface becomes so broad as 
 to require considerable time in the production of the edge, it 
 should be reground, and the process just described repeated. 
 
 This method of sharpening the chisel will, in general, apply 
 to the gouge, drawing-knife, and all similar tools. 
 
 Saws. 
 
 49. The efficiency of any saw is measured by the amount of 
 force it absorbs in making a given cut or " kerf." For example, 
 if one saw severs a 4" x 4" timber with half the force required 
 by another, it is evident that the second saw is only one-half 
 as efficient as the first. Almost every element that enters into 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 2^ 
 
 saw construction has its effect on the efficiency of the tool. 
 Chief among them is the thickness of the blade, which, of 
 course, determines the width of the kerf ; for a wide kerf will 
 recjuire the removal of more material than a narrow one, and 
 the force absorbed in each case must bear some relation to the 
 amount of material removed. In recognition of this fact, the 
 people of some eastern countries use saws designed to cut 
 when drawn towards the operator, a method of handling that 
 allows great thinness of blade — too great to stand the thrust by 
 which our saws are driven into the work. But the result is 
 that the Chinese saw, for example, Fig. 5-5 
 
 which is represented by Fig. 55, B 
 accomplishes its work with re- *^'- 
 markable ease. The shape of such a saw, however, and the 
 awkward manner of applying force to it, probably more than 
 neutralize the advantage gained from its delicacy, although in 
 the abstract^ the thinner the blade the better the saw. 
 
 50. The form of our own saws is not the result of chance, 
 but, on the contrary, has been developed after a careful study 
 of the conditions under which they are required to work. 
 Other things being equal, pushing a saw gives better results 
 than pulling it. Under a thrusting force, it is found necessary 
 to make the blade sufficiently thick and strong to resist bend- 
 ing tendencies, but with no surplus material to add unneces- 
 sary weight. In view of these facts the outline of the blade is 
 tapered, as shown by Fig. 56. The blade is thicker also at the 
 handle than at the point. To assist in giving it clearance in 
 
 ITig. 56 
 
 the kerf, it is tapered from the teeth to the back. This differ- 
 ence in thickness is accomplished in the process of manufacture, 
 
28 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 by grinding the rough blade after it has been hardened. Im- 
 perfections left by the hardening or the grinding process, may 
 be detected in the finished saw by bending the blade, as shown 
 by Fig. 57. If it is uniformly ground and hardened, the curve 
 will be regular as shown ; if it is thick in spots, or if it varies in 
 hardness, the curve will be uneven, as indicated by the dotted 
 hne. 
 
 51. Set. — The thinning of the blade back from the cutting 
 edge will not, in most cases, prevent the sides of the kerf from 
 pressing against the saw. To meet this difficulty, the saw teeth 
 are bent — one to one side, the next to the other side — so as to 
 make the width of the kerf greater than the thickness of the 
 blade. The amount of such bending, or " set," as well as its 
 uniformity, can readily be seen by holding the saw to the light 
 with the back of the blade next the eye ; it will then appear as 
 
 Fig. 58 shown by Fig. 58. 
 
 In very hard material the sides of 
 the kerf are left smooth and even, and 
 scarcely any set is required ; sometimes even none. But if the 
 material is soft and spongy, the fibers spring away from the 
 advancing teeth, and then come back again on the blade after 
 the teeth have passed ; hence, a large amount of set is required. 
 For most purposes at the bench, however, the set is sufficient 
 when it can be easily and clearly seen. 
 
 52. Size of Saw Teeth. — For proper action, each tooth 
 should begin to cut when it enters the work, and continue cut- 
 ting until it leaves the kerf, and, since the space in front of 
 each tooth must contain the material removed by it, the capa- 
 city of the space must be increased in those saws which are 
 required to work through a considerable depth of material. A 
 two-handed cross-cutting-saw for logs, therefore, has the teeth 
 widely placed, thus making the intervals large. 
 
 In panel-saws, such as are used at the bench, except in spe- 
 
BENCH TOOr.S. 
 
 29 
 
 cial cases, the space is of the same size and form with the 
 tooth. When the spaces are large, the teeth must be large, 
 and, since the size of the spaces has a direct relation to the 
 amount of material removed, it may be said that the size of 
 the teeth depends on the size of the material in which the saw 
 is to work. 
 
 The size of saw teeth is expressed by the number contained 
 in an inch. Thus " 6 teeth " means that the distance from 
 one point to another is ^ ". 
 
 53. Ripping-Saws and Cross-cutting-Saws. — A ripping-saw 
 is one that is used in cutting with the grain of the wood, as on the 
 line rt'/^. Fig. 59. Across-cutting-saw j^.^^, _j^ 
 
 is intended for use at right angles to 
 the grain, as indicated by cd, Fig. 
 59. An oblique kerf, such as is 
 shown by ef. Fig. 59, may in soft '' / 
 
 wood be cut with the ripping-saw, which will work faster than 
 the cross-cutting, but the work will be more smoothly done 
 by the latter. A large knot in the course of the ripping-saw 
 may make it best to substitute the cross- cutting-saw until the 
 knot is passed through, after which the ripping-saw may be 
 used again. A cross-cutting-saw for the bench should have 
 
 ^^e^ - __^- ^j^ ^^^.^ ■ 
 
 Sec. A B. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 a 22" or 24" blade with 7^ or 8 teeth to the inch; a rip- 
 ping-saw should have a 24 " or 26" blade, with 6 or 6^ teeth. 
 
30 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 54. The Teeth of Ripping-Saws. — Fig. 60 shows a plan, 
 elevation, and section of three teeth as they are usually made 
 for a ripping-saw. The following paragraphs present a consid- 
 eration of the action of an individual tooth. 
 
 All wood is fibrous, and any tool which is to produce a cut 
 along the length of the fibers, as the saw kerf ab. Fig. 59, must, 
 at each period of action, take something from the ends of such 
 
 fibers as may lie in the path of the proposed opening. In fulfil- 
 ling this condition, the action of a ripping-saw's tooth is not 
 unlike the action of a chisel when used as shown by Fig. 149. 
 Each tooth in its turn removes its share from the fiber ends over 
 which it passes, just as the chisel at every change of position 
 takes its slice and lengthens the cut. The cutting edge of 
 a saw tooth, however, is bounded, by a more obtuse angle than 
 that of a chisel, and as a cutting tool is inferior. Thus, if one 
 of the three teeth shown by Fig. 60 is applied to a saw kerf in 
 the position it would occupy as part of a complete saw, it will 
 appear as represented by Fig. 61, its motion being in the direc- 
 tion of the arrow. It is defective as a cut- 
 __ ting tool, because of the position of the 
 / ,-, V'Y: lii^*^ '^i^, the advancing face of the tooth. 
 ^^ ^ ^^^ ^ This defect is more clearly illustrated by 
 Fig. 62 ; this shows how a chisel would look if its edge were 
 made to cut in the same manner as that of a saw tooth. 
 But the fact is that a great discrepancy exists between the 
 form of the saw tooth and that of the chisel, for it has 
 been demonstrated that a chisel, to give good results, must 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 3 I 
 
 be at least as acute as is indicated by the dotted line a ; 
 and it would seem that the former might be improved by 
 bringing it more nearly to the outline of the latter. Sup- 
 pose this be attempted, and that the face of the tooth in- 
 dicated by the line cd, Fig. 60, be changed to cl>'. Such 
 a change must result either in removing material from the 
 tooth, and thereby weakening it, or in changing the line cd 
 to a position cd'. In other words, if the tooth is not weak- 
 ened, the space between it and the next will be reduced. 
 Again, if to make the advancing face still more acute, the line 
 ^■//' is accepted, and the tooth is not made smaller (that is, 
 weakened), there will be no space between it and the next 
 tooth. Having no spaces, there can be no teeth, and conse- 
 quently the attempted change is impossible. It will thus be 
 seen that the angle of the advancing face of the ripping-saw 
 tooth cannot, unless it is weakened, be much more acute than 
 is shown by Fig. 60 and Fig. 61. 
 
 The form of the tooth may be wholly changed, however, to 
 the outline shown by Fig. 63, and some advantage may thus 
 be gained in respect of the cutting angle ; but such a tooth, 
 while suitable for machine-saws of considerable size, is too 
 complicated for small saws. 
 
 Nothing remains, then, as a possible means of improving the 
 cutting edge of the saw tooth, except a modification of the 
 angle f>cd, Fig. 60. If it could be shown that there is an excess 
 of strength in the tooth, above what is needed to perform its 
 work, the angle might be changed to d'c(f, or even to i>'^cd, and 
 the value of the tooth as a cutting tool be increased. More- 
 over, it does not at first seem unreasonable to attempt such a 
 change, for it is evident that the cutting wedge of the chisel 
 (which we have regarded as the typical cutting tool), while 
 much more acute than the angle /n-d, is yet strong enough to 
 be entirely satisfactory. 
 
 A more carefiil comparison of the saw and chisel, however, 
 
32 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 discloses the following facts : first, a saw tooth must be softer 
 than a chisel in order that it may be set and filed, and being 
 softer, is therefore weaker in its substance ; secondly, the width 
 of the saw tooth is less than half the width of the narrowest 
 chisel made, and, in this respect also, it is at a disadvan- 
 tage ; and, thirdly, in using a chisel the operator's atten- 
 tion is given entirely to its one cutting edge, and if at any 
 time it is likely to receive too much strain, it is at once re- 
 lieved ; while each saw tooth, on the contrary, forms but a 
 small part of a tool that receives little attention and much vig- 
 orous handling while it is being driven through straight grain, 
 crooked grain, or hard knots, as the case may be. From a 
 consideration of these points, it seems clear that the cutting- 
 angle of a saw tooth must be less acute than that of a chisel. 
 But the degree of acuteness can be determined only by use. 
 Fig. 60 shows the form which years of experience have proved 
 the most practicable for general work, and while some bench- 
 workers do file their saws " under," producing a tooth similar 
 to dch\ as many more go to the other extreme and use a tooth 
 similar to dcf. The typical form given is easily kept in order, 
 and, when in that condition, will cut freely and well. 
 
 55. The Teeth of Cross-cutting-Saws. — If a ripping-saw 
 
 is used directly across the grain, the fibers of the material will 
 
 Kij?. G-i ^^ torn from each 
 
 other without being 
 properly cut ; hence 
 the necessity for a 
 saw that will " cross- 
 cut." Fig. 64 shows 
 by its three views a 
 representative form 
 of tooth for this saw. 
 It will be seen by the figure that the tooth terminates in a trian- 
 
P.ENCH TOOLS. 
 
 33 
 
 gular point ; and also, that while the point a is formed on one 
 side of the blade, the next, a', is formed on the opposite side ; 
 thus throughout its length, the points of any two adjacent teeth 
 being on opposite sides of the blade. This arrangement makes 
 the end view of the blade show two parallel lines of points, and 
 between them a triangular depression, which, when exaggerated 
 by the "set," will appear as shown by 
 section AB, Fig. 64. 
 
 In action, the points a and a', Fig. 65, 
 score the work, and the friction between 
 the teeth and the cut fibers breaks up 
 the latter, and they are carried off by 
 the saw. 
 
 Assuming that it is a matter of convenience to have these 
 teeth, as well as those of the ripping-saw, equal to the space 
 between any two of them, there are three questions which may 
 be considered concerning their proportions. First, what shall 
 be the inclination of the advancing edge or " face " of the 
 tooth, as represented by the line al) compared with the line bd. 
 Fig. 64? Holly, in his little work on "The Art of Saw-Filing," 
 shows the similarity of action between the advancing edge ab 
 and the edge of a pocket knife when made to cut across the 
 grain, and asserts that a knife with its cutting edge perpen- 
 dicular to the surface upon which it acts (a position equiva- 
 lent to bd) will make a rougher cut, and require more force 
 to carry it forward at a given depth, than when it is inclined 
 in a position similar to that of the line ab. The result obtained 
 from such an experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive, 
 because of the great difference in the character of the cutting 
 edges compared. But, if it is found that the knife with its 
 keen cutting edge behaves more satisfactorily at an inclination 
 to the work, it seems reasonable to conclude that the rougher 
 edge of a saw tooth will give the best results when much more 
 inclined. A consideration of these points justifies the belief 
 
34 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 that an angle of 60 degrees with the work, that is, with a Une 
 passing through the points a ' and a, is none too great, and all 
 practice goes to show that teeth so formed not only do very 
 smooth work, but cut with ease and rapidity. 
 
 Secondly, what shall be the angle of the advancing face of 
 the tooth, as represented by lines e'e and ef, Sec. £F, Fig. 64? 
 Since this angle forms the cutting wedge of the tooth, it should 
 be as acute as is consistent with strength. Greater strength 
 being required for action in hard wood than in soft, it follows 
 that this angle should be varied with the material in which it is 
 used. For general work it may correspond to the angle e'e/. 
 
 Thirdly, what shall be the acuteness of the point as indicated 
 by the angle iaj, Sec. AB, Fig. 64? This, also, is determined 
 by the character of the material to be cut. It should be more 
 obtuse, as iak, for hard wood than for soft wood, not only be- 
 cause additional strength is required, but also because, if too 
 acute, the scoring will be done so easily that the fibers be- 
 tween the scores will not break out, and the saw, being unable 
 to pass down into new work, will slide along on the old. 
 
 Kiir. 66 
 
 Fi 
 
 ?• 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 
 —i 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 zi 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 Under such conditions, the bottom of the kerf will appear 
 as shown by Fig. 66. A more obtuse angle will not pene- 
 trate the work so readily, but it will break up the fibers better, 
 and thus leave the kerf in proper form as shown by Fig. 67. 
 The softer woods break out more easily than the harder ones, 
 and, consequently, a keener point may be used in working in 
 them. 
 
 56. The Back-Saw is used only where accurate cuts are 
 required. Its teeth, in form, are similar to those of the cross- 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 35 
 
 cutting-saw, except that the Hne of the advancing face is 
 
 brought forward as indicated by bkl, Fig. 64, to increase their 
 
 efficiency when used with the 
 
 grain. They are, however, 
 
 much finer, there being usually 
 
 as many as sixteen to the 
 
 inch. This saw cuts slowly as 
 
 compared with a panel-saw, but may be used in very delicate 
 
 work. It is used to cut in any direction relative to the grain 
 
 of the wood. The bur left by the file after sharpening, forms 
 
 a sufficient set. 
 
 The blade A, Fig. d^, is in itself too thin to withstand the 
 thrust necessary to drive it into the work, and is strengthened 
 by an iron "back," B. This, being thicker than the blade, will 
 not allow the saw to penetrate beyond a depth represented by 
 the distance C. For this reason the blade is uniform in width 
 instead of tapering. 
 
 Vis- GO 
 
 Sec. AB 
 (.Enlarged) 
 
 57. The Compass-Saw, shown by Fig. 69, is intended for 
 sawing in curved lines. Its blade is extremely thick, and the 
 
 teeth are given an enor- 
 mous amount of set. See 
 sections AB and CD, 
 Fig. 69. If the curve in 
 which it is to be used is 
 very small, only a short 
 portion of the blade's 
 length next the point can 
 be used. With a curve 
 of longer radius, a greater length of blade may be brought into 
 action. 
 
 Its teeth are of the form shown by Fig. ^.^ 
 70, having the square face of the ripping- 
 saw, and the point of the cross-cutting-saw. 
 
 i^^i^r. ro 
 
36 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 They are thus adapted for use in any direction relative to the 
 grain of the wood. 
 
 Appliances for Saw Filing and Seti'ing. 
 
 58. A "Triangular Saw File"' is of the form shown by 
 Fig. 71. A " shm " saw file is represented by Fig. 72 ; it is 
 Fig. n n-ic.. ra 
 
 Fig. rs 
 
 REGULAR. 
 
 two inches longer than a "regular" saw file of the 
 same cross-section. A " double ender " is shown by 
 Fig. 73, and a cross-section of all saw files, on an en- 
 larged scale, by Fig. 74. 
 
 59. Saw Sets. — Fig. 75 shows a simple form of set. 
 The tooth to be bent is placed on the surface A, with 
 
 Frequently called " three-square saw file." 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 37 
 
 Thus placed, the 
 
 the adjacent teeth in contact with B, B 
 
 blade is allowed to rest 
 
 on the screw C. A blow 
 
 from a hammer on D 
 
 bends or "sets" the tooth, 
 
 and a spring returns D to 
 
 the position shown. ^ The 
 
 amount of set is regulated 
 
 by the position of the 
 
 screw C, and is greater, 
 
 the lower C is fixed. If C 
 
 is raised to coincide with 
 
 the dotted line AE, the 
 
 tooth will not be set. B, B can be adjusted to the depth 
 
 the tooth to which the set is to take effect. 
 
 60. Swedge Sets for Ripping-Saws, illustrated by Fig. 
 are in general use on large 
 saws and, occasionally, on 
 small ones ; generally speak- 
 ing, they do not concern the 
 bench-worker. The set is 
 
 76, 
 
 ^ Z> is not well shown in the engraving. Since it must act on only one 
 tooth at a time, the end A' is wedge-shaped. 
 
38 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOIX 
 
 driven against the edge of the tooth, as shown by Fig. 77 ; by 
 using one opening the center of the tooth is forced back, as 
 at H ; and by use of the other opening the points are spread, 
 completing the work, as at G. A tooth thus set is more 
 perfect in its action than when bent, since it cuts the full width 
 of the kerf. 
 
 61. Saw Clamps are convenient for holding the saw during 
 
 Fig. rs 
 
 the filing process. Carpenters frequently make for themselves 
 clamps similar to that represented by Fig. 78. It consists of 
 two pieces of hard wood joined face to face by two screws 
 (one near each end), by means of which the clamp may be 
 p"ig. TO fastened rigidly to the blade of 
 
 the saw. It may then be fast- 
 ened in the vise or held on 
 the knee while the saw is being 
 filed. A much better device is 
 the saw clamp shown by Fig. 
 79, which, while fastened to the 
 bench, so holds the saw that it 
 may be turned in almost any 
 direction, thus enabling the 
 workman to obtain a favorable 
 light. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 39 
 
 To File and Set a Saw. 
 
 62. Top- Jointing^. — With the saw clamped teeth up, joint 
 !t by running a file along the tops of the teeth, as shown by 
 Fig. 80. This is done to bring all the teeth to the same height, 
 and also to maintain the form of the saw, which, along the 
 line of the teeth, should be slightly con- Fig. so 
 
 vex. The jointing should leave a small 
 facet on each tooth, which will be rec- 
 tangular in a ripping-saw and triangular 
 in a cross-cutting-saw. 
 
 PI AN. 
 
 63. Setting^. — Beginning at one end, bend outward every 
 second tooth, then turn the saw and bend the remaining teeth 
 toward the opposite side of the blade. In the case of the rip- 
 ping-saw, if the swedge set is used, the setting should be done 
 before jointing. 
 
 64. Filing. — It is of great importance that the saw be 
 properly supported during the operation of filing. An unusual 
 amount of noise shows that the blade is not properly clamped, 
 or that the file is not being properly handled ; it is also a sure 
 indication that the filing is not going on as fast as it might, and 
 that the file is being injured. If the file is new, let the pres- 
 sure be very light. Carry it across the work with a slow, steady 
 movement. Never take short, quick strokes, as but little will 
 be done in this way, and the file will suffer beyond repair. In 
 filing a ripping-saw, the movement should be ^^^ ^^ 
 exactly perpendicular to the plane of the blade, 
 as indicated by plan, Fig. 81, and the outline 
 of the teeth maintained by an even contact, as 
 shown by the elevation in the same figure. But 
 if the form of the teeth is to be changed, the file 
 must be turned either in the direction indicated ^^''' 
 
 by the arrow, Fig. 81, or in the opposite direction. 
 
 In filing a cross-cutting-saw, the angle between the file and 
 
40 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Fig. 83 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION. 
 
 the blade must be varied in accordance with the following con- 
 siderations : first, the outline of the teeth may be preserved 
 or changed in the manner just described in connection with 
 the ripping-saw ; secondly, the angle of the advancing face 
 {eUf, Ing. 64) is determined by the inclination of the file 
 
 to the blade, as shown 
 by the plan. Fig. 82 ; 
 thirdly, the angle of the 
 point {iaj, Fig. 64) is 
 determined by the incli- 
 nation of the file to the 
 blade, as shown by the 
 end elevation. Fig. 82. 
 The form of the teeth 
 
 END ELEVATION. j^^^^j^^^ ^^^^ dCCided 
 
 upon from principles already given, it may be produced without 
 difficulty by attending to the foregoing directions. 
 
 In filing any of the teeth herein discussed, the file should 
 always be in gentle contact with the face of one tooth, as h, 
 Fig. 81, while most of the cutting is done on the back of the 
 next one a, which, as usually considered, is the tooth that is 
 being filed. This tooth should be one which, by its set, bends 
 away from the operator. Beginning at one end of the blade, 
 he files every second tooth until the opposite end is reached, 
 when the blade is turned, and the remaining teeth filed from 
 the other side. 
 
 No saw, even though the teeth are not bent, should be filed 
 wholly from one side, for the file turns a slight edge, or bur ; 
 and, since this increases the set, it should be evenly distributed 
 on both sides of the blade. 
 
 The filing on each tooth should continue until the facet 
 produced by the jointing disappears. After this is accom- 
 plished, a single stroke will make the tooth receiving it lower 
 than the others. To avoid this, it will be found best to leave 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 41 
 
 the teeth filed from the first side a Httle dull, for, in filing the 
 intermediate teeth after the saw has been turned, the advancing 
 faces of the others (the teeth first filed) are somewhat reduced. 
 After every tooth has been passed over, if dull points are still 
 to be seen, they may be sharpened from either side as their 
 proportions may dictate. Regularity in the size and form of 
 the teeth, and a similarity of appearance when viewed from 
 either side of the blade, are the tests of good workmanship. 
 
 65. Side-Jointing. — Usually, when the fil- 
 ing is finished, the saw is ready for use, but it 
 will cut more smoothly if it is jointed on the 
 sides of the teeth. In Fig. 83, B is side- 
 jointed, the surfaces produced agreeing with 
 the dotted fines ; A is not side-jointed. 
 
 Side-jointing may be accomplished by use 
 of either a file or an oilstone. It is always 
 necessary after a swedge set has been used. 
 
 Planes and Plane-like Tools. 
 
 66. The plan and the section, Fig. 84, show a smooth-plane. 
 The stock a, when of wood, is usually of beech. In it is an 
 opening, or " throat," b, which receives the i^ig- ^-^ 
 
 iron c ; this is held in place by the wedge d. 
 The lower part of the opening is called the 
 mouth ; and, as shown by the figure, the shav- 
 ing passes into the mouth, and out through 
 the throat. The bottom of the plane, which rests upon the 
 work, is called its '' face." The iron usually stands at an angle 
 of 45 degrees with the face. 
 
 The bench-worker's set of planes comprises a smooth-plane. 
 Fig. 85, which is about 8" in length; a jack-plane. Fig. 86, 
 which is from 12" to 14" in length; a fore-plane. Fig. 87, from 
 22" to 26" in length ; and a jointer, from 28" to 30" in length. 
 
42 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Similar purposes are served by the jointer and the fore-plane, 
 the former being unnecessary except tor large surfaces that are 
 to be planed with accuracy. 
 
 IPig. 83 
 
 Fig. 8G 
 
 Fig. ST 
 
 67. The Length of the Plane-Stock determines, in a measure, 
 the straightness of the work. Thus, a smooth-plane, if used on 
 
 Fig. 88 an uneven surface, will, 
 
 as shown by Fig. 88, rise 
 
 over elevated portions and 
 
 settle in hollows, taking its shaving without interruption, and 
 
 producing no great change in the outline of the surface, while 
 
 jj.j„_ go a fore-plane or jointer 
 
 similarly applied will, as 
 
 shown by Fig. 89, cut 
 
 only on the higher parts, 
 
 and by so doing, produce an even surface. 
 
 The stock of a smooth-plane is made short so that, by its use, 
 a surface may be smoothed without incurring the necessity of 
 straightening it. 
 
 The fore-plane will smooth as well as the smooth-plane, but 
 not until it has first straightened the surface. 
 
 The jack-plane is used for cutting heavy shavings, and its 
 length bears no relation to the character of the work expected 
 of it, but is such as will enable the workman to grasp it easily 
 and firmly. 
 
 68. A "Plane-Iron"^ for a wooden plane is of iron overlaid 
 in part with steel. Its cutting edge is maintained in precisely 
 the same way as that of a chisel. See 47 and 48. The angle 
 
 1 Known also as " plane-bit." 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 43 
 
 of the cutting wedge, however, for all except the jack-plane 
 may be more acute. 
 
 69. The outline of the cutting edge, unlike that of the chisel, 
 is never straight, being for the jack-plane slightly curved, as 
 shown by Fig. 90, and for the smooth-plane rrip.. 01 
 and fore-plane (also for the jointer) of the 
 form shown by Fig. 91. Being used for 
 heavy work and frequently removing shav- 
 ings as thick as one-sixteenth of an inch, 
 the jack-plane, if its cutting edge were 
 straight, would produce in the work at 
 each stroke a rectangular channel from 
 
 which the shaving must be torn as well as cut. Such 
 a shaving would be likely to stick fast in the throat 
 of the plane, or, under most favorable conditions, 
 would require a large amount of force for its removal. 
 A shaving removed by the iron represented by Fig. 
 90, however, is not rectangular in section, but thick 
 in the middle, tapering gradually to nothing at the edges. 
 This form of iron is best adapted to the removal of a large 
 amount of material at a stroke, but it leaves a succession of 
 grooves upon the work which must be smoothed off by another 
 plane. 
 
 70. The form of the cutting iron in the smooth-plane and 
 the fore-plane, as shown by Fig. 91, is straight throughout the 
 greater portion of its width, and slightly rounded at the corners. 
 The objections urged against the use of such an iron as this in 
 the jack-plane, do not apply to its use in the smooth-plane or 
 the fore-plane, because the jack-plane, to fulfil its office, must 
 remove a heavy shaving ; the smooth-plane or the fore-plane, 
 unless the surface upon which it acts is very much narrower 
 than the width of the plane, is required to remove a shaving 
 whose thickness rarely exceeds that of a sheet of paper. The 
 
44 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 groove caused by the removal of so delicate a shaving, is suf- 
 ficiently blended with the general surface of the work, b)'^ the 
 rounded corners of the iron. 
 
 71. If a rough board is to be made smooth, or if a consider- 
 able amount of material is to be removed to bring a piece of 
 wood to size, most of the surplus stock should be taken off by 
 the jack-plane, after which the smooth-plane should be used to 
 give the surface desired. If the finished surface is to be straight 
 as well as smooth, the fore-plane should follow the jack-plane. 
 It is never necessary to follow the jack-plane with both the 
 smooth-plane and the fore-plane. 
 
 72. The Cap. — A supplementary iron, or "cap," shown by 
 
 Kig. 02 ^, I^ig- 92, is fastened to 
 
 most plane-irons. Its use 
 is well illustrated by the 
 two sections. Figs. 93 and 
 94. The single iron will 
 do smooth work as long as 
 the grain of the wood is favorable, as shown at a. When the 
 
 grain becomes obstinate, as at d, the shaving, by running up on 
 the iron, acquires a leverage which causes it to split in advance 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 45 
 
 of the cutting edge, below the reach of which it breaks, leaving 
 a surface extremely rough. The office of the cap is to break 
 the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut, Fig. 94, and thus 
 prevent a gain of leverage on its part. 
 
 The distance at which the cap is set from the edge of the 
 iron, must vary with the thickness of the shaving taken. For a 
 smooth-plane or a fore-plane, a thirty-second of an inch is fre- 
 quently not too close, while for a jack-plane an eighth of an 
 inch may not be too great a distance. 
 
 A cutting iron and cap together are frequently spoken of as 
 a " double iron." 
 
 73. Narrowness of Mouth in a plane is the chief element 
 in the production of smooth surfaces. If, in Fig. 94, that por- 
 tion of the stock in advance of the iron, marked c, were want- 
 ing, the shaving, having nothing to hold it down, would rarely 
 be broken, notwithstanding the presence of the cap. A wide 
 mouth would produce a similar effect. This being true, what- 
 ever other conditions there may be, the wider the mouth is, 
 the less frequently the shaving will be broken and, in obstinate 
 grain, the rougher will be the work. 
 
46 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 74. To Adjust the Iron. — To set the iron deeper, so that 
 a heavier cut may be taken, strike it a Hght blow, as indicated 
 by the arrow e, Fig. 84. If a hghter cut is required, strike the 
 stock as indicated by the arrow /. When the iron is in the 
 right position, a Hght blow will tighten the wedge. To remove 
 the iron and wedge, turn the plane over so that the face is 
 uppermost, grasp the iron and wedge with the right hand, hold 
 the back end of the plane between the thumb and finger of the 
 left, and strike the stock at f upon the surface of the bench. 
 A single blow is usually sufficient. 
 
 Never strike the plane while it is resting on the bench or any 
 support that is firm. It should be held in the hand clear of 
 everything ; but, if this is not convenient, one end may rest on 
 the knee. 
 
 To set the iron in a wooden plane, hold the stock in such a 
 way that, while the face rests on the hand, the end of the fore- 
 finger may extend across the mouth. Put the iron in place, 
 allowing its cutting edge to rest on the forefinger, which should 
 keep it from projecting. Insert the wedge, push it down with 
 the thumb, and by a light blow with the hammer drive the iron 
 down until its projection beyond the level of the face is equal 
 to the thickness of the shaving that the plane is to take ; a sin- 
 gle tap on the wedge will then tighten the iron in place. The 
 distance that the iron projects, can easily be determined by 
 sighting along the face of the plane. 
 
 The wedge must not be driven too hard, for a plane may be 
 so distorted by a hard-driven wedge as to make it incapable of 
 doing good work. The iron will be held in place even when 
 the wedge is so loose that it may be drawn out with the fingers. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that wooden plane-stocks are made 
 from material little affected by atmospheric influences, they 
 will warp enough, especially when nearly new, to bring the face 
 considerably out of a true plane. When, from this cause, the 
 plane fails to do good work, it must be jointed. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 47 
 
 05 
 
 7^ 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 75. To Joint a Plane, fasten it in a vise with the face up 
 and the front end to the right. The iron should be in place, the 
 cutting edge well back within the mouth, 
 and the wedge driven as for work. It is now 
 necessary to determine whether the plane 
 to be jointed is twisted or not (97). Ap- 
 ply two parallel strips, or "winding-sticks," 
 (the longer legs of two framing-squares will 
 answer), one across each end of the plane, 
 as indicated by Fig. 95. After making 
 sure that they are parallel, sight across one 
 to the other. As the eye is lowered, if the 
 one farther away is lost sight of all at the 
 same time, the plane is "out of wind," and 
 needs only to be straightened ; but, if one 
 end of the straight-edge that is farther 
 from the eye, disappears before its other 
 end, as in the elevation. Fig. 95, it is evident that the two 
 corners a and l>, diagonally opposite, are high, and more must 
 be taken from them than from the other corners. With this 
 understanding, the fore-plane or the jointer may be applied 
 until the plane is jointed, that is, until the face is a true 
 plane. 
 
 During the planing process, frequent tests must be made 
 with the parallel strips, to make sure that the high corners 
 are being brought down properly. In the early stages of 
 the work, the try-square may be used occasionally to keep 
 the face as nearly as may be at right angles to one side, 
 and the straightness of the face may be determined either 
 by sighting or by use of the framing-square as a straight- 
 edge. A true face having been produced, the sharp angles 
 between it and the two sides should be changed to slight 
 chamfers, inasmuch as the sharp edges, if not removed, are 
 likely to splinter off. 
 
48 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 A few drops of lubricating oil rubbed on the newly- 
 planed surface, will prevent wear and keep shavings from 
 sticking. 
 
 Wooden bench planes have had their day, and are going out 
 of use. 
 
 76. Iron Bench Planes possess the general characteristics of 
 the wooden ones, but are superior 
 to them in several respects. They 
 are always perfectly true and, there- 
 fore, never require jointing. The 
 cutting " iron," which, in this case, 
 is not of iron at all, but of steel, is much thinner than that in 
 wooden planes, and is, therefore, more readily sharpened. Its 
 greater thinness is made possible by the thorough manner in 
 which it is supported. It may be set and accurately adjusted 
 in a very short time. 
 
 The arrangement of parts in Bailey's iron planes may be 
 understood by reference to Fig. 96, which represents a jack- 
 plane. The " wedge " A is of iron of the form shown ; it 
 admits the screw E through an enlargement of a short slot, and 
 drops down, allowing E to take effect. By a movement of the 
 clamp B, the wedge A is made to press upon the iron near its 
 cutting edge, while the clamp presses against it at F. The 
 screw E is never moved. The cutting iron is adjusted for 
 depth of cut by the action of the thumb-screw D, which, when 
 turned in one direction, moves the iron downward, and when 
 its motion is reversed moves it upward. 
 
 Thus a single mo\'ement of B releases the wedge and iron, 
 and a reverse movement secures them again, while D furnishes 
 a ready and positive means for adjusting the cutting edge with 
 a degree of delicacy which it is impossible to attain in wooden 
 planes. These planes, all having the same adjustments, are 
 made in every size. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 49 
 
 77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined 
 
 may be had, made up of the Bailey move- 
 ments mounted in a suitable frame, to which 
 a wooden face is fastened. Fig. 97 shows 
 a Stanley combination smooth-plane. 
 
 78. A 
 
 Circular-Plane has a thin steel face, straight when 
 free, but capable of having its ends thrust 
 down or drawn up, thus making the 
 face concave or convex, and adapting it 
 to work on an outside or an inside curve. 
 Fig. 98 shows a Bailey's adjustable cir- 
 cular-plane. 
 
 79, Block-Planes are small, and are intended for use chiefly 
 on end grain. They generally have a single inverted iron, 
 which turns the shaving on the bevel 
 instead of on the face of the iron. 
 They have many different forms, from 
 among which Fig. 99 has been selected 
 as a type. In this plane the throat may be made narrow 
 or wide as is desired ; the adjustment is controlled by the 
 
 I<"ijr. 00 
 
 screw A. 
 
 Fis. 100 
 
 ■cction A B. 
 
 (EntargcS) 
 
 80. Spokeshaves have the action 
 of planes, but are not usually classi- 
 fied with them. A simple form is 
 shown by Fig. 100. By the cross-sec- 
 tion it will be seen that it has almost 
 no guiding surface corresponding to 
 the face of a plane. This feature 
 adapts it to work of irregular outline. 
 
 81. Rabbeting-Planes have narrow stocks. The cutting 
 edge is set in the face of the plane obliquely, and the iron is 
 wide enough to extend beyond the sides of the stock, as shown 
 
50 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 by Fig. loi. Rabbeting-planes are designed for use in interioi 
 angles, as Imk, Fig. 146. The oblique position of the iron 
 produces a shearing cut which pro- 
 motes smoothness in action. 
 
 The shaving of the rabbeting-plane 
 instead of passing through the stock is 
 turned in such a way as to be dis- 
 charged from one side ; an arrange- 
 ment common to matching-planes, beading-planes, molding- 
 planes, and plows (82, 83, 84, and 85). 
 
 Via. 103 
 
 82. Matching-Planes are used to form a tongue and a 
 groove, as shown respectively by a and b, Fig. 102. 
 
 Wooden matching-planes, Fig. 102, are 
 sold in pairs, one plane being fitted with a 
 single cutting edge, to form the groove, the 
 other with a double cutting edge, to form the 
 tongue. Both are guided by the " fence " 
 C, which moves in contact with the working 
 face of the piece operated upon. The 
 groove and the tongue should both be car- 
 ried to as great a depth as the plane will 
 cut. 
 
 An iron matching-plane, designed to serve 
 the purpose of the two wooden ones, is now in general use. 
 Its fence is pivoted to the face in such a way that it can be 
 turned end for efid ; in one position two cutters are exposed 
 103 and the plane is adjusted to form the tongue ; 
 when its position is reversed, the fence covers one 
 of the cutting edges, and puts the plane in shape 
 for making the groove. 
 
 The size of matching-planes is indicated by the 
 tliickness of the material they are intended to 
 match. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. lOG 
 
 83. Hollow and Round are terms applied to such planes 
 as are shown by A and B, Fig. 103. They are used, as their 
 forms suggest, in producing hollows and in rounding projecting 
 edges. Their size is indicated by a number, or by the width of 
 the cutting edge. 
 
 84. Beading-Planes are used in forming beads (220), and 
 they may be single or double, that is, form one or two vi-^. 10-i 
 beads at a time. For beading on the edge of work, 
 they are provided with a fence, A, Fig. 104. For 
 use away from the edge, they are made to form three 
 
 or more beads at the same time, and have 
 no guide, in which case they are known as 
 reeding- planes, Fig. 105. The first three 
 beads are made with the jjlane guided by a straight- 
 edge temporarily fastened to the surface of the work ; 
 the remainder are formed by using those already 
 made as a guide, the plane being moved into new 
 work at the rate of only one bead at a time. Other 
 beading-planes, more complicated than those described, are con- 
 structed on much the same principle as a plow. The size of a 
 beading-plane is indicated by the width of the bead it will form. 
 
 85. Plows are used in making rectangular slots or " plows " 
 of any width, depth, and distance from the working-edge of 
 the material. The width of the cut is 
 
 ordinarily determined by the width of 
 the iron used. A set of irons is sup- 
 plied with the tool, which is shown by 
 Fig. T06. A plow wider than the 
 widest iron can, of course, be made 
 by going over the work a second time. 
 The depth of the cut is regulated by 
 a little shoe (not shown), which is raised or lowered by the 
 screw A. When this is adjusted, the tool can be used until 
 
52 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 
 
 the lower surface of the shoe comes in contact with the face 
 of the work, after which the cutting ceases. Care should be 
 taken that the full depth is reached at all points along the 
 length of the work. The distance between the groove and the 
 working-edge is regulated by the fence B, which is adjusted 
 by nuts C acting on the screws D. When ready for use, the 
 fence should be parallel to the narrow iron face-piece E. 
 
 86. Combination Planes whicli may be used in place of the 
 plow, beading-plane, rabbeting-plane, etc., are found on the 
 market, and many of them are serviceable tools. 
 
 87. Scrapers. — Hand-scrapers are made of saw-plate — ma- 
 XPiR-. loT terial of about the thickness of a panel- 
 saw blade, and having the same degree of 
 hardness. They are usually rectangular, 
 and about 4" x 5", but may be of almost 
 any size and shape. The cutting edge is 
 most easily formed by the production of 
 
 _.5 a surface at right angles to the sides, 
 as indicated by ab, Fig. 107, thus giving 
 two cutting angles, ccf and dfe. When a more 
 acute cutting edge is desired, the form shown by ^"' 
 Fig. 108 maybe adopted; but, as a rule, there 
 is little gained by the keener cutting edge, and 
 double the labor is required to keep it sharp. 
 Scrapers are sharpened by filing or grinding. If 
 smooth work is to be done, the roughness of the 
 edge may be removed on an oilstone, but the 
 rougher edge will cut faster and, generally, will 
 be more satisfactory. 
 
 Fig. 100 Fig. 109 shows a scraper mounted some- 
 
 what like a plane. The scraper blade A, by 
 means of the two nuts B, B, may be changed 
 from a position inclined to the face, as shown, 
 to one perpendicular to the face. 
 
BEN'CH TOOLS. 
 
 53 
 
 Boring Tools. 
 88. Augers. — Fig. no shows a double-twist spur auger, 
 
 Fiy.llO 
 
 3SSXiXSZz 
 
 a form generally used Ijy carpenters. 
 
 They are made in sizes varying from 
 
 ^" to 4" (in diameter), but are not 
 
 much used below i". The spur A, 
 
 Fig. Ill, is in the form of a tapered 
 
 screw, which, besides centering the auger in its motion, draws or 
 
 "feeds" it into the work. The two nibs B, B score the work, 
 
 and the lips C, C cut and remove the shavings, which are carried 
 
 I< ig. Ill 
 B 
 
 to the surface by the screw-like action of the body of the tool. 
 
 Fig. 112 shows part of a single-twist auger which, as will 
 
 be seen, has but a single nib B, and a single cutting lip C. 
 
 The cuttings are thrown into the center of the hole, and de- 
 
 Ki^c. 11-^ 
 
 livered easily by this auger, and, in tliis respect, it is superior 
 
 to the double-twist, which crowds the cuttings to the outside 
 
 of the hole, where they are likely to become jammed between 
 
 the tool and the work. This characteristic of the single-twist 
 
 auger particularly adapts 
 
 it to the boring of deep 
 
 holes. " Ship augers " are 
 
 of this kind, and have 
 
 handles like the one shown by Fig. 113. This form of handle 
 
54 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 has the advantage of allowing the use of both hands, without the 
 interruption experienced in using the one illustrated by Fig. no. 
 Augers are seldom required by the bench-worker, but are 
 presented here because of their relation to other boring tools. 
 
 89. Auger-Bits. — The auger-bit most in use is shown by 
 Fig. 114. It is sold in sets of thirteen bits each, varying in 
 
 size by sixteenths, from \" 
 ^^* to i". Each bit is marked 
 
 by a small figure on the 
 shank, which indicates its 
 size in the scale of sixteenths. Thus the figure 9 is to be inter- 
 preted as y\". 
 
 go. Augers and auger-bits are sharpened by filing. The 
 scoring nib B, Figs, in and 112, which is usually the first part 
 to become dull, should be filed wholly from the inside. If 
 filed on the outside, the diameter of the cut it makes will be 
 smaller than that of the body of the bit. The cutting lip C 
 should be sharpened from the lower side, the file being inclined 
 to preserve the original angle. With the spur in good order, 
 whenever the tool refuses to " feed," it is clear that the bit 
 needs sharpening somewhere. 
 
 91. Center-Bits are convenient for boring holes of large 
 diameter in delicate material, such as would be likely to spht 
 under the action of an auger-bit. By reference to Fig. 115, it 
 
 will be seen that the spur A, 
 
 B -^ =^ which centers the bit m the 
 
 "^^IKr :-y ' "" "" work, is triangular in section. 
 
 ^^^ This form allows the bit to feed 
 
 rapidly, or very slowly, in accordance with the degree of pres- 
 sure applied to it. The point, or "nib," B cuts the fibers about 
 the proposed hole, and the cutting lip C removes the material. 
 The center-bit does not work well in end grain. When dull it 
 may easily be sharpened by whetting. 
 
BENXH TOOLS. 
 
 55 
 
 92. Expansive Bits are so constructed as to be adjust- 
 able for holes of any size, within certain limits. There are 
 several forms in use, one of which is shown by Fig. 116. 
 This, without the 
 movable cutter C, 
 will bore a hole 
 
 Fi-. IIG 
 
 f " in diameter, the 
 screw A centering 
 and feeding it into the work, B scoring, and a cutting lip in 
 advance of B (not shown) removing the shavings. When C is 
 inserted as shown in the figure, in addition to the action just 
 described, there is a supplementary action on the part of C, its 
 nib, B', scoring, and its cutting edge removing the chips. The 
 cutter C is held in place by the screw D. By loosening D, C 
 may be moved from or towards the center of the bit, or taken 
 out altogether, and replaced by a cutter of different length. By 
 using a short cutter in the place of C, a hole of any diameter 
 from I" to 2" may be bored, and with the cutter shown, any 
 hole from 2" to 3" may be bored. The range of the bit, there- 
 fore, is from |" to 3". 
 
 93. Small Bits. — Bits for boring holes less than \" in diam- 
 eter are of many forms, but by far the most satisfactory is the 
 
 "quill " bit shown by Fig. 
 ' '°' 117. It has no delicate 
 
 it will not split the mate- 
 rial ; it enters the work rapidly, makes a round, smooth hole, 
 and when dull can easily be sharpened by whetting or grind- 
 ing. It will not, however, work with the grain. Quill bits as 
 small as y^g" in diameter are in common use. 
 
 Gimlet-bits are illustrated by Fig. \ 1 8, which represents one 
 of the best forms. Most ■^. ,,„ 
 
 bits of this class are too 
 weak to render the ser- 
 
$6 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 vice expected of them, and soon become bent or broken. They 
 are Ukely to split the work and are not easily sharpened. 
 
 94. Bit-Braces. — The well-made wooden brace, which for 
 a long time ornamented the walls of the cabinet-maker's shop, 
 has disappeared, and the lighter and more convenient iron 
 brace is used in its stead. A simple form of iron brace is rep- 
 resented by Fig. 119. To insert a bit, grasp the sleeve A and, 
 holding it firmly, turn the brace out by using the other hand on 
 B. When the jaws, C, are opened sufficiently to admit the bit 
 shank, put it in place, reverse the motion of the hand on B, and 
 the bit will be fastened. 
 
 Fid. 110 
 
 A ratchet brace is shown by Fig. 120. Its office is to turn 
 the bit forward while the brace itself, instead of making a com- 
 plete revolution, has only a forward and backward movement. 
 As represented by the section AB, the frame c is fastened to 
 the body of the brace of which it becomes a part, d is a spindle 
 which terminates in the socket c, and / is a ratchet-wheel, 
 which is fastened to d. On each side of the ratchet-wheel there 
 is a pawl which, when free to move in response to the action of 
 a spring, engages the notches in the ratchet-wheel /. With the 
 pawls thus engaged, the brace may be used in precisely the same 
 way as the one already described. But, by turning the ring 
 g, one of the pawls is disengaged, and the other acting alone 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 
 
 57 
 
 will move the spindle d only when the brace is moving in one 
 direction, the pawl simply slipping over the notches of the 
 ratchet-wheel when the motion is reversed. In this way, a 
 bit may be driven to any depth although each movement of 
 the brace may be less than half of a complete turn. By a 
 proper movement of the ring g, the motion of the bit may be 
 reversed. 
 
 Kig. 120 
 
 Section A B, 
 
 (Enlarged) 
 
 The ratchet-brace is useful in boring holes near walls, or in 
 corners where it is impossible to turn a common brace. 
 
 The size of any brace is indicated by its " swing," that is, 
 by the diameter of the circle described by B, Fig. 119. The 
 better class are nickel-plated, and are thereby prevented from 
 rusting. 
 
58 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 95. A "Universal, Angular, Bit-Stock," such as is repre- 
 sented by Fig. 121, is, for many purposes, more useful than 
 
 the ratchet-brace. The bit is inserted at A, and a common 
 brace is apphed at C. The mechanical arrangement of the 
 parts is such, that, when the brace turns the spindle C, the part 
 A which holds the bit is also turned, notwithstanding the in- 
 clination of one part to the other.' Compared with the ratchet- 
 brace, this has the advantage of producing a continuous motion 
 of the bit. By its use a hole may be bored in the corner as 
 easily as in the middle of a room. 
 
 The angle of the joint may be changed from that shown to 
 one of 180 degrees, by an adjustment at D. 
 
 96. Automatic Boring Tool. — A convenient substitute for 
 a brad-awl is represented by Fig. 122. The drill, or bit, A is 
 
 1 Considered as a mechanical movement, this is known as Hooke's joint. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 59 
 
 held in a suitable chuck C, at the end of the bar Z>, which 
 runs in B. The drill is brought into contact with the work, 
 and pressure in the direction of the arrow, slides B down upon 
 D, and this movement causes D with the drill to revolve. The 
 full extent of the movement having been reached, a relaxing of 
 pressure leaves D free to return to its first position, as shown, 
 the rotary motion of A, meanwhile, being reversed. These 
 impulses can be imparted to the drill with great rapidity, and 
 the work is quickly done. The dots below the figure, 122, 
 indicate the full diameter of the different drills which are fur- 
 nished with the tool. 
 
 Miscellaneous Tools. 
 
 97. Winding-Sticks, or "parallel strips," are wooden strips 
 of any convenient length, the edges of which are straight and 
 parallel. When applied to a surface, they increase its breadth 
 in effect, and by thus giving a better opportunity of compari- 
 son, show whether the surface is " in wind," or twisted. For 
 an illustration of their use, see 75. 
 
 98. Hand Screw-Drivers are in form similar to that shown 
 by Fig. 123. The part which is to engage the screw should 
 have parallel sides, as shown by Fig. 1 24, and never be wedge- 
 
 ITio-. 123 
 
 shaped. Fig. 125. In the latter case, it will be seen that force 
 applied in an attempt to turn a screw, will have a tendency 
 toward lifting the screw-driver from its place. 
 
 A set of three or four screw-drivers, having blades varying in 
 
6o 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 size to suit different-sized screws, so that a fairly good fit may 
 always be made, are indispensable to good work where screws 
 are much used. 
 
 Fig. lJ2o 
 
 99. Brace Screw-Drivers, instead of having 
 wooden handles, are provided with shanks for 
 use in a brace. A good form is shown by 
 Fig. 126. The brace gives a continuous mo- 
 
 tion, and 
 
 the screw 
 
 may be 
 set much more rapidly by 
 its use than with the hand screw-driver, 
 however, in which a brace is useless. 
 
 Ki^. IQG 
 
 There are many cases, 
 
 100. Hammers. — Fig. 127 shows a carpenter's hammer. The 
 head A is wholly of steel. The face B is hardened so as not 
 to be injured by repeated blows upon the nail, w^hich is com- 
 paratively soft, but the idea prevailing among inexperienced 
 workmen, that the hammer is indestructible, is a false one. 
 When two bodies are brought together forcibly, as a hammer 
 
 and a nail, the softer body yields, and a change takes place in 
 its form. If the nail were harder than the hammer, it would not 
 be injured, but the hammer would show an impression of the 
 nail head. Careless or ignorant workmen sometimes take an 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 6l 
 
 old file for a punch or a nail-set, and use a hammer upon it. 
 The file is harder than the hammer, and the result is that the 
 face of the latter is badly scarred. 
 
 The claw C makes the hammer a very effective tool for 
 withdrawing nails. 
 
 Hammers vary in size from seven to twenty ounces ; the 
 bench-worker usually employs one weighing from fourteen to 
 sixteen ounces. 
 
 loi. The Hatchet is a useful tool for bringing large pieces 
 
 of material to size roughly, and in skillful hands it may be 
 
 used with accuracy as well as effect. When it is compared 
 
 with the hammer, it will be seen that a blade C, Fig. 128, takes 
 
 B 
 
 the place of the claw C, Fig. 127. As an instrument for driv- 
 ing nails it is clumsy, and the opening d, for withdrawing nails, 
 amounts to but little. In sharpening, the hatchet is ground on 
 both sides of the blade, and whetted on an oilstone. 
 
 102. Mallets. — The difference in effect between a blow 
 given by a hammer and one given by a mallet is so great that, 
 although similar in many respects, the two tools are adapted to 
 widely different uses. A blow from a hard, elastic hammer is 
 sharp and decisive, and its force is absorbed almost as soon as 
 it is received. Comparatively speaking, therefore, its effect 
 must be local. If such a blow is received on a chisel handle, 
 for example, a large part of its force is wasted in affecting the 
 
62 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 handle, a part only being transmitted through the handle to 
 the cutting edge, the only place where it can be of use. A 
 blow from a soft, less elastic mallet, on the contrary, is more 
 general in its effect. Much of the force remains for an instant 
 stored in the mallet, by which it is given out somewhat grad- 
 ually, allowing time for the impulse to pass beyond the point 
 where it is received. The effect of two different explosive 
 agents will serve as an illustration. As compared with nitro- 
 glycerine, powder burns slowly, and, when put into a rifle barrel, 
 gradually develops its force upon the bullet until, when the lat- 
 ter reaches the end of the barrel, it has gained velocity enough 
 to carry it a mile or more. But if a charge of nitro-glycerine, 
 
 having a total explosive force no greater than that of the pow- 
 der, be substituted, the result will be very different. The rapid- 
 ity with which nitro-glycerine burns — the suddenness of the 
 impulse — is such that, before the bullet can respond to its influ- 
 ence, the breach of the barrel is destroyed. 
 
 The blow of a mallet on a chisel resembles the action of 
 powder on a bullet. It is a. pushing a.c\.\or\, and, in this respect, 
 is unlike that of the hammer. A chisel, therefore, will be 
 driven deeper into the work by a blow from a mallet than by 
 one of the same force from a hammer, while a chisel handle 
 which has withstood blows from a mallet for years, may be 
 shattered in a single hour by use under a hammer. 
 
 An excellent form of mallet is shown by Fig. 129. 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 63 
 
 103. Sand-Paper is neither a tool nor an appliance, strictly 
 speaking, but, on account of its tool-like action, it should be 
 mentioned with them. The "sand" used in making sand-paper 
 is crushed quartz, and is very hard, angular, and sharp. It is 
 graded as to degree of coarseness, by precipitation, and then 
 glued to paper. The finest sand-paper is marked 00, from which 
 the gradations run o, 4^, i, i^, 2, 2^, and 3, which is the coarsest. 
 
 104. Miter-Boxes are useful in cutting the ends of light 
 strips of wood at an angle of 45 degrees ; they are fretjuently 
 adapted to cutting at other angles. When of wood, like the 
 one represented by Fig. 219, they are usually made by the 
 workman himself. 
 
 A wooden miter-box is composed of three pieces — a bot- 
 tom and two sides. It is necessary that the bottom piece 
 be uniform in width and thickness, and have jointed edges, and 
 it is well to prepare the other pieces in the same way. After 
 the box is nailed, the sides should be square with the outside 
 face of the bottom piece ; this surface may now be used as 
 a working-face. Lay off across the working-face two lines at a 
 distance apart equal to the width of the face, thus forming with 
 the outside edges of the box, a square. The diagonals of this 
 square will represent the two oblique cuts, one marked c, and 
 the one taken by the saw, Fig. 219. Project up the sides such 
 lines from the points thus fixed, as will be useful in making the 
 cuts ; the sawing is then done with the back-saw. No special 
 directions are required for laying off the cut t/. 
 
 105. Iron Miter-Boxes are ,^ ^ fi-. iso 
 now in general use. The ac- 
 curacy with which work may 
 be done by the use of one 
 will more than compensate any 
 bench-worker for the money 
 invested in it. Fig. 1 30 may be taken as a type ; the work A 
 
64 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 is supported by the frame as shown, while the proper position of 
 the saw is maintained by the uprights B, which, in the sawing 
 process, slide down into the standards C. The saw may be set 
 at any angle with the back of the box D, by swinging the frame 
 E, which supports the standards C; ^ is held in position by a 
 suitable fastening operated by F. 
 
 io6. Bench Clamps are useful in holding two or more pieces 
 of material together temporarily. They are particularly valu- 
 able for keeping pieces that have been glued, in place until they 
 are dry. 
 
 Wooden clamps, or hand-screws, are of the form shown by 
 Fig. 131. The whole length of the jaws, AB and A^B\ may 
 be made to bear evenly upon the work, or to bear harder at 
 certain points, as AA^ or BB\ 
 
 Iron clamps are illustrated by Fig. 132, but the mechanical 
 arrangement differs in different makes. Such clamps are very 
 
 Fis. 13S 
 
 Fig. 131 
 
 useful in many kinds of work, but, all things considered, it is 
 doubtful whether they are as serviceable to the bench-worker 
 as the wooden ones just described. 
 
 107. Grindstones are selected with reference to their "grit." 
 A coarse, soft-grit stone will remove material much more rap- 
 idly than one of finer grit, but the surface produced will be 
 very rough compared with that produced by the other. Thus, 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 65 
 
 when it is necessary to remove material for the purpose of giv- 
 ing shape to a casting or forging, the coarse, soft-grit stone is 
 better ; but if a smooth cutting edge is required, one of fine 
 grit should be used. For wood-working tools, a stone rather 
 fine and soft is found best. The speed of a power grindstone 
 must vary from 500 to 1000 circumferential feet a minute, de- 
 pending upon its diameter, and the accuracy and steadiness 
 with which it runs. It may not be well to run a 20" stone 
 beyond the minimum limit, while one of 4' or 5' may give good 
 results if run beyond the maximum. As a rule, a stone for 
 tool=grinding is at its maximum speed when, if run faster, it 
 would throw water from its face. 
 
 By circumferential speed is meant the speed of the circumfer- 
 ence of the stone. This is found by multiplying the diameter 
 of the stone, in feet, by 3. 14 16 (ratio of diameter to circum- 
 ference), which will give the circumference of the stone, in feet, 
 and this product by the number of revolutions per minute.' 
 
 ^ Example /. — A 4' stone is run at 30 revolutions a minute; what is its 
 circumferential speed? 
 
 The circumference of a 4' stone is 
 
 4' X 3.1416= 12.56'. 
 
 This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make but i revolution 
 per minute; but, since it makes 30 revolutions, its speed is 
 
 12.56' X 30= 376.80' or 377' (nearly). 
 
 Example II. — It is desired that a 30" stone should have a circumferen- 
 tial speed of 280' per minute. How many revolutions should it make? 
 30" =2.5'. 
 The circumference of a stone 2.5' in diameter is 
 2.5' X 3-1416= 7.85'. 
 
 This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make i revolution per 
 minute. But the circumferential speed is 280' per minute, and therefore 
 the number of revolutions made must be 
 
 280' H- 7.85 = 36 (nearly). 
 
66 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 1 08. Water is used on a stone as a means of carrying off 
 the heat resulting from friction between stone and tool ; it also 
 washes away the particles of stone and steel that come from 
 the grinding, and which, without the water, w^ould fill the inter- 
 stices between the cutting points of the stone, and make the 
 surface so smooth as to be useless. 
 
 A grindstone, when not in use, should not stand in or over 
 water. Water softens a stone, and one unequally exposed to 
 moisture will be found softest in such places as are most 
 exposed. When brought into use, the softer parts wear away 
 more rapidly than the others, causing the stone to become "out 
 of round." Water is best supplied from a tank, or from service 
 pipes, so arranged that it may be shut off when the stone is not 
 running, the drip-pan under the stone being at all times per- 
 fectly drained. After every precaution has been taken, the 
 stone will in time become untrue and need attention. 
 
 109. To True a Grindstone. — When a stone becomes 
 untrue, or the outline of the face, which should be slightly con- 
 vex, becomes concave, it may be corrected by using a piece of 
 soft iron as a turning tool, the stone being run dry. The action 
 of the tool may be explained as follows : the soft iron allows 
 small particles of the stone to imbed themselves in its surface, 
 from which position they act against the revolving stone, and 
 the cutting is done by these imbedded particles and not by the 
 iron. The latter is worn in the process, however, and, as its 
 cutting surface becomes enlarged, it should be turned to bring 
 a new angle or face into action. This operation is easily per- 
 formed by using a piece of gas pipe (about i ") for a turning tool. 
 
 no. Truing Devices are now generally attached to power 
 grindstones. They are of several forms, of which that shown 
 by Fig. 133 may be taken as an example. The base of this at- 
 tachment is secured to the grindstone frame as near the stone as 
 may be convenient. A is a hardened steel screw v/hich revolves 
 
BENCH TOOLS. ^y 
 
 freely on its bearings B. The frame in which B runs is pivoted 
 
 at C, in such a way that by a movement of the hand-wheel 
 
 D, B will move forward in the direction of the arrow. By 
 
 adjusting the hand-wheel D, A is brought into contact with the 
 
 face of the moving stone, and at once 
 
 begins to revolve. The action of its 
 
 thread would move it endwise, were 
 
 it not prevented by its bearings. The 
 
 effect of this angular advancement of 
 
 the thread, which is not met by a 
 
 corresponding lateral movement of 
 
 the parts in contact, is a shearing cut across the face of the 
 
 stone. When the screw becomes dull it may be softened and 
 
 recut. 
 
 111. Oilstones. — The most useful of all oilstones are 
 found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. They are divided into two 
 classes, known to the trade as the Arkansas stone and the 
 Washita stone. The former is of very fine grain, appearing 
 much like white marble. It is used in sharpening the most 
 delicate instruments, and produces an edge of remarkable 
 keenness. The Washita stone is much coarser in grain, with a 
 color sometimes almost white, but more frequently shaded by 
 lines of a reddish cast. It cuts with rapidity, and with much 
 greater delicacy than would be expected of so coarse a stone. 
 Probably no better oilstone exists for sharpening wood-working 
 and similar tools. 
 
 112. Oil is used on an oilstone for the same reason that 
 water is used on a grindstone. To be serviceable, it should be 
 as free as possible from all tendency to become thick or gummy. 
 A good quality of sperm oil, or even lard oil, may be used ; olive 
 oil is frequently recommended. 
 
 113. Form of Oilstones. — It is evident that if oilstones 
 could be made round, and mounted like grindstones, they could 
 
68 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 be used more effectively than when only a small block is avail- 
 able. The reason they are not so mounted is that, in their 
 native bed, the whetstone layers are traversed in every direction 
 by veins of hard quartz, which, if allowed to enter into a finished 
 stone, would destroy the cutting edge of any tool that might 
 be applied to it. It is so uncommon to find large pieces of 
 whetstone free from the quartz, that disks above 4" or 5" in 
 diameter can be afforded only by those to whose work they are 
 indispensable. 
 
 For bench purposes, Washita stones are about i" x 2" x 7" ; 
 
 but no attempt is made to have them 
 
 Fig. 134 qJ- ^^j^y uniform size. Such a stone, when 
 
 set into a block and provided with a 
 
 cover to keep out the dust, is ready 
 
 for use. See Fig. 134. Its surface 
 
 should be kept as nearly as possible straight, in the direction of 
 
 its length, and should never be hollowed across its breadth. 
 
 When out of shape it must be trued. 
 
 114. Slips of Washita stone whose cross-sections are round, 
 
 s(iuare, triangular, etc., are supplied 
 i^'i ^-. i:jo ^ i)y i\^Q trade. A wedge-shaped slip 
 is represented by Fig. 135 ; it is a 
 form extremely useful to the bench- 
 worker. 
 
 115. To True an Oilstone, mix water with sharp sand until 
 the mixture is thin enough to run. Apply a quantity of this 
 to the surface of a flat board or plank, and, with the face that 
 is to be trued in contact with the saud-covered board, move 
 the stone about, frequently changing the direction of its motion. 
 Under this treatment, the surface of the stone will be evened 
 up rapidly. If the sand that is first applied becomes dull, it 
 may be replaced by new. 
 
 7 
 
BENCH TOOLS. 69 
 
 Another, and usually a more convenient way, consists in sub- 
 stituting for the sand a sheet of sand-paper tacked over the 
 edge of the board. Coarse paper may be used at first, and 
 afterwards a finer grade selected for finishing the work. 
 
PART II. 
 
 oi*;o 
 
 BENCH -WORK.i 
 
 Ii6. No work at the bench (9-13) is more important than 
 that relating to the location and production of lines. Careless- 
 ness or want of skill in this will always be manifest in the fin- 
 ished work. To the beginner it may seem monotonous, and 
 even hard, to stand at the bench several hours before turning 
 a shaving ; but he must understand that a scratch cannot be 
 called a line, and that patience and accuracy are the chief 
 requisites in skillful manipulation. 
 
 117. Location of Points (14-17). — All measurements must 
 begin somewhere. The greater the number of points from which 
 to begin, the more chances there are for mistakes. Thus in 
 
 1 Note. — The material, or "stock," needed for the exercises of the 
 course should be straight-grained, free from knots, well-seasoned, and 
 machine-dressed. A good quality of either white pine or yellow poplar is 
 to he preferred. Good work cannot be done in poor material. 
 
 By easy steps the operations to be performed become more and more 
 difficult. The student should not advance to a new exercise until the pre- 
 ceding one has been completed in a good, workman-like manner. A fail- 
 ure, unless the result of accident, should invariably be followed by another 
 trial of the exercise. Otherwise, a careless habit is encouraged. 
 
 The course may appear brief, but experience has demonstrated its com- 
 pleteness as a preparation for constructive work in any of the lines to 
 which it leads. After the fifteen exercises have been finished, if time 
 remains, any ordinary piece of bench work may be undertaken. 
 
72 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 measuring from E to F, Fig. 136, there is one chance for a mis- 
 take. If G is located by measuring from F, then in the loca- 
 
 Fig. 13G 
 
 
 E F G 
 
 d ^ 
 
 
 ,c 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION (FACE A) 
 
 END ELEVATION 
 
 tion of G there are two chances for a mistake, — one in locating 
 F, another in locating G ; but if G is located by direct meas- 
 urement from F, there is, as in the case of F, but one chance 
 of error. 
 
 In locating a point by measuring from a point or line already 
 fixed, it is necessary to make some kind of mark to indicate 
 the distance. Haste in such work frequently results in a mark 
 similar to that shown at F, Fig. 136, a "point" through which 
 a line may be drawn with ease but with doubtful accuracy. A 
 dot from a sharp pencil, as shown at F, Fig. 136, is much 
 better ; but if by reason of roughness of surface such a dot is 
 too indistinct, two hnes meeting each other at an angle may 
 be used, G, Fig. 136, the point of juncture indicating the 
 required location. 
 
 118. A Jointed Face is a surface that has been made a true 
 plane. The necessities of practice so often require jointed 
 faces at right angles to an adjoining face, that to many the 
 term has come to mean not only a true plane, but such a sur- 
 face at right angles to another, from which it is said to have 
 been "jointed." 
 
 119. A Working-Face is one selected as a guide for opera- 
 tions to be performed on an adjoining face. For accurate work 
 the working-face must be jointed. At this face, all measure- 
 ments have their beginning, and by it all lines are produced. If 
 a piece of material is to receive lines on two opposite sides, as 
 A and C, Fig. 136, either B or D may be used as a working- 
 
BENCH WORK. 73 
 
 face, but not both ; if it is to receive lines on four faces, as A, B, 
 C, and D, two of them, as A and B, for example, must be work- 
 ing-faces ; if on six faces, three must be working- faces. For 
 example, suppose lines are to be made on the surface A, Fig. 
 136, from ^ as a working-face ; those running across the piece, 
 as ad, will then be made perpendicular to B, and those running 
 lengthwise, as rd, parallel to B. If, on the contrary, the work- 
 ing-face is disregarded, and some of the lines are made from 
 B and some from D, their truth will depend not only on the 
 truth of B and D as individual surfaces, but also upon their 
 parallelism, and hence there is a double chance of error. Only 
 one face, therefore, should be used from which to do the lining 
 for a given surface. If lines are to be made on all four sides, 
 as A, B, C, and D, and A and B are the working-faces, all 
 lines on A and C can be made from B, and all lines on B and 
 Z> can be made from A. It will be seen, therefore, that in 
 making a piece a true square in section, it is necessary to use 
 the beam of the square on only two faces. 
 
 EXERCISE No. r. — Measuring and Lining. 
 
 120. The stock required is i| inches thick, 4 inches wide, 
 and 4 feet long, or, as usually written, if" x 4" X 4'. Fig. 137 
 shows the completed exercise.^ To aid in following directions, 
 it will be well to letter the four faces of the work A, B, C, and 
 Z), respectively, as indicated by Fig. 137 (End Elevation), and 
 to mark two of them, as A and B, working-faces. 
 
 Operations to be performed on Face A, from ^ as a 
 Working- Face, Fig. 137. 
 
 121. Spacing with Pencil and Rule (i8). — By use of 
 pencil and rule, lay off points a, 1" apart along the whole 
 
 1 Fig. 137 is broken in accordance with the principles given in 6. 
 
74 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 length of the piece, the Hne of points being kept straight by 
 preserving a uniform distance between them and the working- 
 face B. This distance may be anything that is convenient, 
 and will be sufficiently accurate if determined by the eye. 
 
 2), 
 
 Y I I I I 1— —J ^ III I I 1 II 
 
 a ft ft ft ft ft ft (( K ka a <i a <i 
 
 , Working Face B. 
 
 Face A. 
 
 n 
 
 L 
 
 4 
 
 -id- 
 
 END ELEVATIOr 
 
 Face B. 
 
 Face C. 
 
 122. Cross-lining with Pencil and Framing-Square (19- 
 21). — The points having been located, draw through each a 
 line, as <r/> (Face A), using the framing-square and pencil. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 75 
 
 While a line is being produced by the outside of the shorter 
 leg of the square be, Fig. 138, allow the longer leg ab to drop 
 down so that its inside edge may be firmly pressed against the 
 working-face, as indicated by the arrows d. When the progress 
 
 Fig. 138 
 
 JIT 
 
 of the lining causes the leg ab to project beyond the work so 
 much as to be imperfectly guided by the working-face, as 
 shown at a'h\ Fig. 138, its position should be reversed as indi- 
 cated by the dotted outline. This method must be observed 
 in using any similar tool, as the try-square, bevel, etc. 
 
 123. Chalk-Lining (36). — Lay off points on lines ab and 
 ad 1^" apart, the first point in each case being |" from the 
 working-face. Through the points thus located, chalk-lines are 
 to be made, as shown by face A, Fig. 137. 
 
 Insert the awl at the first point on the line ab, and drawing 
 the cord tight with one hand, apply the chalk with the other, 
 
 beginning at the awl. Care must be taken that the cake of 
 chalk is not cut to pieces by the cord. A little practice will 
 make it easy to hold the cord under the thumb in such a way 
 as to form a small shoulder on the chalk, Fig. 139, which by 
 
7^ 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the friction of the cord will be gradually carried across the face 
 of the cake ; another is then formed to take its place. When 
 the cord has been chalked, stretch it over the point on the line 
 
 Fig. 140 
 
 ad that corresponds to the point on the line ab at which the 
 awl is inserted. Then raise the cord near the middle as shown 
 by Fig. 140, and by suddenly releasing it, cause it to " snap " 
 on the surface of the work. In snapping, the cord should be 
 drawn up vertically, for if drawn at an inclination as shown by 
 a, Fig. 141, a wide blurred line will 
 be produced. Repeat this operation 
 for each of the points, finishing face 
 A as shown. Each line should be 
 clear and well-defined. Try to make 
 each one better than the preceding. 
 Never snap more than once be- 
 t\veen the same points. 
 
 S. 141 
 
 Operations to be performed on Face B, from ^ as a 
 Working- Face, Fig. 137. 
 
 124. Lining with Pencil and Try-Square (22). — Hold 
 the beam of the scjuare firmly against the working-face, and, 
 using the outside edge of the blade as a guide, continue across 
 face B the lines on the working-face which were made by use 
 of the framing-s(iuare. If the work has been well done, the 
 lines will be sharj), straight, and parallel, as shown by ab, cd, 
 etc., Face B, Fig. 137. 
 
BENCH WORK.. 
 
 77 
 
 125. Lining with Pencil and Bevel (23-25). — The bevel 
 is to be set at an angle of 45 degrees, and the lines ag, fg, 
 etc., drawn from the points made by the intersection of the 
 lines already drawn and the working-face, Face B, Fig. 137. 
 Let the beam of the bevel bear firmly on the working-face. 
 
 126. "Gauging" Lines with Pencil and Rule. — These 
 lines, as ik, hi, etc., are to be spaced \" apart, as shown by 
 Face B. 
 
 Grasp the rule at a proper distance from its end, in the left 
 hand, and press the forefinger against the working-face, to 
 which the rule is perpendicular, as shown by Fig. 142. With 
 the right hand apply the pencil to the work, and at the same 
 time press it against the end of the rule. In this way, the 
 pencil against the rule, and the fingers of the left hand against 
 the working-face, move along the length of the work, thus pro- 
 ducing a line parallel to 
 
 . Fig. 142 
 
 the working-face. It is 
 not necessary to lay off 
 points, since the distance 
 between the pencil and 
 the edge can always be 
 known by obserx'ing the 
 graduations of the rule. 
 In making a line, the 
 pencil will be more easily 
 kept in position if con- 
 siderable force is used in pressing it against the rule ; to 
 prevent this force from displacing the rule, it must be met 
 by a greater force acting in the opposite direction. See arrows 
 c and d. 
 
 This is a rapid method of producing lines parallel to the 
 working-face, where exactness is not demanded. 
 
78 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Operation to be Performed on Face D from ^ as a 
 Working- Face, Fig. 137. 
 
 127. Spacing by Use of Scriber (37) and Rule. — Points 
 and lines made with a pencil, while accurate enough for many 
 purposes, are too inexact to define the proportions of different 
 parts of a joint. Where good fitting of any kind is required, 
 the pencil should not be used, but all points and lines be 
 made with a scriber. The scriber should be sharp, and should 
 make a clearly-defined cut, not a dent. 
 
 Using the rule, then, to determine the distances, substitute 
 the scriber for the pencil, and, following the dimensions given 
 (Face D, Fig. 137), lay off points along the length of the work 
 through which the lines ah, cd, etc., are to be drawn. 
 
 128. Lining with Scriber and Try-Square. — Through the 
 points already placed, scribe lines, as ab, cd, etc., with the try- 
 square. 
 
 Care must be taken that the advancing edge of the scriber 
 is not turned out from the scjuare blade ; in such a case, 
 it is likely to " run out " from the square and give a crooked 
 line. Neither should the scriber be turned in so much as to 
 crowd the square from its position. After a little practice, lines 
 can be scribed easily and rapidly. 
 
 129. Lining with Scriber and Bevel. — Set the bevel at an 
 angle of 45 degrees and, using it as before, scribe lines from 
 the ends of the try-square lines, as shown by he, ad, etc. 
 
 130. Gauge-Lining (32- 
 35). The gauge provides the 
 most ready means for the ac- 
 curate production of lines 
 parallel to a working-face. 
 As shown in Fig. 143, the 
 beam of the gauge B carries 
 
BENCH WORK. 79 
 
 a steel spur C, which does the marking. B also carries a 
 head D, which is adjustable on the beam. 
 
 To use the gauge, adjust the head so that the distance be- 
 tween it and the spur C is equal to that between the working- 
 face and the required line ; then close the fingers over the 
 head and extend the thumb on the beam towards the spur, as 
 shown by Fig. 143. Holding the gauge in this manner, bring 
 the head against the working-face, move the gauge along the 
 work, and the line will 
 be produced. To pre- ^^^p^"^^' 
 
 vent the spur from stick- 
 ing, the first stroke 
 should make a light line, 
 
 which may be strength- r ^.:- ' :^ n^ f_2: JL- -^-—^—-^-^^^^j'-y 
 ened by a second, and ^Ig^;:g?^-r^--=;^37^~ -— --Jj^^^.^ ^^Xp 
 even a third passing of 
 
 the gauge. The depth of the line in each case is regulated by 
 turning the gauge as indicated by the relative position of Y 
 and X, Fig. 144. It is obvious that no spacing is necessary 
 when this tool is to be used. 
 
 By use of the gauge, lay off the lines _//;, eg, etc.. Face D, 
 Fig. 137- 
 
 Operations to be performed on Face C, from j5 as a 
 Working- Face, Fig. 137. 
 
 131. The lines on this face are to be used in Exercise No. 3. 
 By applying the principles already developed (121, 122) locate 
 the lines as shown by the drawing. Face C, Fig. 137. This 
 work may be done with the pencil, the lines ab and a^b' being 
 " gauged " by use of the rule (126). The line cd. End Eleva- 
 tion, may be made in the same way. 
 
Bo 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 
 
 H » 
 
 if 
 
 I, ' 
 
 li 
 
 IP 
 
 / 
 1 
 
 1 I \ 
 
 I / 
 
 iihi 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 ' / 
 
 / 11 1 
 
 ' 1/ ' 
 / ! 
 
 I! 
 }!( 
 
 (ill 
 
 I \ 
 
 'f' 
 
 ^,/ 
 
 \ I 
 
 1 1 
 
 If 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 8i 
 
 EXERCISE No. 2. 
 Practice with Chisel and Gouge (39, 40, and 42). 
 
 The stock required is |" X 4V' X 8". 
 
 Fig. 145 shows the Hnes that are needed, all of which are 
 produced as explained in the foregoing exercise, except the 
 arcs of circles, which must be put in with the dividers (26); 
 A and B are working-faces. An end elevation of the finished 
 piece is represented by Fig. 146. 
 
 Fig. 146 
 
 :;. 14=r 
 
 132. To remove the Portion abc, Fig. 145. — It is always 
 best, in removing surplus wood with the chisel, to cut across 
 the grain, as any attempt to carry the cutting edge along 
 the grain is quite sure to result in a splitting action, the 
 chisel following the grain of the wood, 
 \Mtiich splits ahead of it, and pre- 
 vents the operator from controlling its 
 course. In removing the portion abc, 
 the work should be held in the vise with 
 the working-face A toward the operator. 
 A i" chisel will be found of convenient 
 size. Beginning at one end, make suc- 
 cessive cuts with the chisel, as shown 
 by Fig. 147. Each stroke of the chisel 
 should cut almost to the full depth re- 
 quired [i.e. remove a shaving from the 
 face of nearly the whole triangle abc), 
 the thickness of the cutting varying with 
 the character of the material and the 
 
82 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 KMs. 14=8 
 
 Strength of the operator. It is best, however, to go slowly, for 
 the chisel will not be properly guided if the workman's whole 
 strength is required to push it through 
 the wood. The surface thus produced 
 will not be smooth, but it will be true to 
 the line. To smooth it, a wide chisel 
 should be used, as shown by Fig. 148, 
 and a longitudinal movement imparted 
 to it at the same time it is being pushed forward. 
 
 It will be noticed that both chisels are applied to the work 
 in such a way as to turn the shaving from the bevel, and not 
 from the flat face. This is done that the flat face may be avail- 
 able as a guiding surface, which, when kept in contact with the 
 solid material back of the cut (see b, Fig. 148), will insure 
 straightness in the forward movement of the cutting edge, and, 
 consequently, accuracy of work. 
 
 133- 
 
 Kisr. 1-tO 
 
 To remove the Portion defg^ Fig. 145. — With the 
 work flat on the bench, face A 
 uppermost, place a f " chisel so 
 as to bring its cutting edge in 
 the position occupied by the 
 line hi, which is about |^" from 
 the end of the work. With the 
 mallet, drive the chisel verti- 
 cally downward, as indicated by 
 r. Fig. 149. When down to the 
 depth of the required cut, the 
 chisel should be pushed over to 
 the position a, to make room 
 for the next cut, after which it 
 may be withdrawn and placed 
 Se^iimiAB. j^^ position again at e. This 
 
 operation is to be repeated until the whole length of the piece 
 
BENCH WORK. 83 
 
 has been passed over, making the work appear as indicated, in 
 part, by Sec, AB, Fig. 149. The cuttings may then be re- 
 moved. The sides of the opening will be even and fairly 
 smooth. The distance the chisel is advanced (/) must de- 
 pend on the material, and the depth to which it is driven ; it 
 should never be so great as to risk the breaking of the chisel 
 when it is moved from position c to d. 
 
 To remove the portion jkon, Fig. 145. — Using the chisel as 
 in the last exercise, remove the portion jklm, and afterwards 
 the portion Imon. 
 
 134. To remove the Portion pqr, Fig. 145. — This is done 
 with the gouge, which, unhke the chisel, may be used with the 
 grain, as indicated by Fig. iso, the 
 
 concave surface of the work allow- 
 ing its individual fibers to give 
 greater support to one another in 
 resisting a splitting tendency. It 
 will be seen that the bevel of the 
 gouge is its only guiding surface. This being necessarily short, 
 the tool is a difficult one to use. Light cuts should be taken, 
 especially when the grain of the wood is not favorable. 
 
 To finish Exercise No. 2. — Round the part between the 
 lines fg and no, and also the part between the point m and the 
 line ks, to agree with the finished form shown by Fig. 146, and 
 smooth all chiseled surfaces not already finished. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 3. — Sawing (49-55). 
 
 The stock required is the finished piece from Exercise 
 No. I ; it is to be cut as indicated by the lining on Face C, 
 Fig. 137- 
 
 135. Handling the Saw. — The saw should be grasped 
 firmly with the right hand, a better control of it being secured 
 
84 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 by extending the forefinger along the side of the handle. In 
 starting a cut, the side of the saw should be pressed against the 
 thumb of the left hand, which then acts as a guide, as shown 
 by Fig. 151. The saw must not be crowded against the work, 
 but, on the contrary, to prevent the teeth from penetrating too 
 deeply, its forward movement should be accompanied by a lift- 
 ing action of the wrist. The saw should always be moved with 
 a long stroke, bringing as many teeth into action as possible. A 
 short, jerky movement is at no time necessary or desirable. It 
 is good practice for the beginner to keep up the proper motion 
 of the saw, while maintaining a very light contact between it 
 and the work. Success in this exercise is to be measured by 
 uniformity of contact throughout all points of the stroke. 
 
 There are two errors which are likely to be made in sawing : 
 first, sawing off the line ; and, secondly, sawing at a wrong angle. 
 
 Kis. 151 
 
 Fig. 1G2 
 
 136. To guide the Saw. — If the saw tends to run off the 
 line, the blade may be slightly twisted in the direction it ought 
 to take, as shown by Fig. 152. It will immediately respond by 
 a change in its course. The correction should be made as 
 soon as the error is discovered. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 85 
 
 Kig. 1G4 
 
 137. To correct the Angle of the cut, the saw should be bent, 
 as shown by Fig. 153, and at the same time moved vertically, 
 as shown by Fig. 154, instead of in the usual direction, which is 
 indicated by the dotted line ab in the same figure. 
 
 138. Eip-sawing on the line ab and a^b\ Face C, Fig. 137. — 
 Start the saw on the lines ab and cd (the latter shown in End 
 
 Elevation). By following 
 
 the first line the proper 
 
 direction of the cut will be 
 
 insured, and by keeping 
 
 on the second the piece 
 
 will be cut square with the 
 
 working -face. The saw 
 
 once started, the truth of 
 
 the angle may be occasion- 
 ally tested by the try-square 
 
 applied as shown by Fig. 
 
 155. Attention given to 
 
 this matter at first, will 
 
 soon make the operator 
 
 sufficiently skillful to judge 
 
 the angle accurately 
 
 enough for most work. 
 After cutting on the line 
 
 ab, cut also on the line 
 
 a'bK 
 
 In sawing a piece from 
 
 one end to the other in 
 one cut, the saw, in coming out, should not 
 be allowed to injure the trestle. This danger 
 may be met by slanting the board so that it 
 will be supported by one corner, thus leav- 
 ing an open space between the trestle and the point where the 
 cut will end, as shown by Fig. 156. 
 
 Fig. 155 
 
 Fig. 15G 
 
S6 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 139. Cross-cutting on the lines e/ axidg/i, Face C, Fig. 137. 
 — Observe the general directions that have already been given. 
 
 When the piece that is being cut is almost divided, there 
 is danger that the uncut portion may break and splinter. This 
 tendency must be guarded against by properly supporting the 
 work, either by the hand or by a suitable arrangement of the 
 trestles. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing (66-74). 
 
 The stock required is the pieces resulting from Exercise 
 No. 3. 
 
 140. In grasping a plane, there is always shown a disposition 
 to place the thumb of the left hand on the right side of the 
 plane. This should not be done ; for, as will be seen by Fig. 157, 
 when the plane is drawn back, the arm, by contact with the 
 body, becomes stiffened, and the motion of the plane restricted. 
 The hand, therefore, should be so turned as to bring the thumb 
 on the left side, as shown by Fig. 158. Held in this manner, 
 the plane may be easily carried well forward and well back. 
 
 Kij;. 157 
 
 T^iu-.loS 
 
 When the surface of the work is large, begin to plane at its 
 right-hand end. With a series of easy strokes pass across the 
 face of the work, then step forward and take a second series of 
 
BENCH WORK. 8/ 
 
 Strokes, and so on until the whole surface has been passed over. 
 In the first series of strokes it is necessary to draw the plane off 
 the work, as shown by Fig. 159. In doing this, sufificient 
 pressure must be exerted in the direc- 
 tion of the arrow to overcome any 
 tendency to tip, as indicated by the 
 dotted outhne ; in the last series of ._ , 
 
 strokes the wrist may, for the same 
 
 reason, be rested easily on the back of the plane. To make 
 the strokes between the ends properly, the plane should be 
 lifted so that the shaving may be finished before the forward 
 movement of the plane ceases. The plane need not be lifted 
 bodily from the work. The natural, slightly-upward move- 
 ment of the arm when stretched out, as shown by Fig, 160, 
 will accomplish all that is necessary. 
 
 Fig. 160 
 
 If the plane is allowed full contact with the work on the 
 backward stroke, a dulling effect on the cutting edge is pro- 
 duced, especially if the work is rough and gritty. Under 
 such circumstances, it is better to raise the plane from the 
 work entirely, or turn it on its edge, or draw it back in the 
 position shown by Fig. 160. On small, clean surfaces, how- 
 ever, it is best to disregard this caution, since sharpening 
 
88 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 ITig. 161 
 
 takes less time than placing the plane before beginning each 
 
 stroke. 
 
 In planing a narrow surface, for example, the edge of a 
 board, difficulty in keeping the plane 
 on the work may be overcome by 
 grasping it in such a way that the 
 fingers of the left hand, while press- 
 ing against the face of the plane, may 
 maintain a light contact with the 
 work, as shown by Fig. i6i. 
 
 141. The mouth of a plane sometimes becomes clogged, 
 and, as a result, the cutting ceases. This may be caused 
 by a dull cutting edge, which scrapes off fibers which it can- 
 not cut; or by the low set of llie cap on the iron; or by a 
 bad fit between cap and iron, which allows a shaving to find its 
 way between them, thus forming an obstruction to the passage 
 of other cuttings. In new planes, the stoppage may be due to 
 narrowness of the mouth, which will not allow a thick shaving 
 to pass. It should be remembered, however, that narrowness 
 of mouth is an element in the production of smooth work, and 
 for this reason the opening should be no wider than is abso- 
 lutely necessary. 
 
 To preserve the face of the plane, apply occasionally a few 
 drops of lubricating oil. 
 
 142. Jointing the sawed edge of the i|" X 3" x 16" piece 
 from Exercise No. 3, to finish at i|" X 2|" X 16". Set the 
 
 Fig. 1G3 
 Scale, U = l' 
 
 16" i 
 
 1~ 
 
 2r' 
 
 B 
 
 ^B 
 
 gauge at 2|" and from the working- face /?, Fig. 162, gauge 
 

 BENCH WORK. 89 
 
 lines all around the piece, as if/" and />g. Fasten the piece in 
 the vise with the sawed edge up ; plane nearly to line with the 
 jack-plane and finish with the fore-plane. 
 
 143. Planing to a Square each of the four if" x 2" x 16" 
 pieces from Exercise No. 3, their finished size to be if" x if" 
 X 16". Select a straight face, or, if none is exactly right, cor- 
 rect the best and mark it as a working-face. Let this be done 
 on each of the four pieces. Suppose Fig. 163 to j^.„ -j^g 
 represent an end of one of the pieces, and let A d 
 
 be its working- face. With the fore-plane, joint B '^'' 
 from A, and mark ^ as a second working-face. 
 Repeat this operation on each of the other pieces. 
 Set the gauge at i|" (the width to which each side is to finish), 
 and from the working-face A gauge a line on B. From work- 
 ing-face B joint C to line, and perform this operation on each 
 remaining piece. From B as a working-face with the gauge 
 set as before, produce lines on A and C, and plane £> to these 
 Hnes. This done, the four pieces should be of the same size, 
 and true squares in section. 
 
 144. Whenever a series of similar operations is to be per- 
 formed on two or more pieces, the method developed by the 
 foregoing exercise should always be followed. By carrying all 
 the pieces along together, the work will be more easily and 
 more rapidly accomi)lished than if each is finished as a separate 
 piece. 
 
 145. Smooth Surfaces cannot always be produced by a 
 plane. The presence of knots or a crooked grain causes the 
 work to split in advance of the cutting edge, and a rough sur- 
 face results. A sharp plane set to take a fine shaving, will 
 do much to remedy this evil, but it cannot be entirely over- 
 come. Surfaces, such as a table top or a door panel, which 
 are not required to be true, may be made as smooth as possible 
 
90 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 with a plane, and the rough spots reduced afterwards by means 
 of a hand-scraper, appHed as shown by Fig. 164. A surface 
 Fi" ie4 ^^^^ ^^ required to be true as well as 
 
 smooth, is best smoothed by a scraper 
 mounted like a plane-iron. Such a 
 scraper may be made to act uniformly 
 over an entire surface, whereas the hand- 
 scraper is useful on rough spots only. 
 The requirement of both truth and 
 smoothness, however, is very unusual. 
 True surfaces are necessary about a 
 joint, but the parts of a joint are smooth enough as left 
 by a plane. On the other hand, a surface that is required 
 to be perfectly smooth, is one which is made to be seen, 
 and will be sufficiently true if the eye does not detect its 
 inaccuracy. 
 
 146. Sand-Papering (103). — The use of sand-paper should 
 be confined to the removal of the minute fiber which is raised 
 and left by the plane. This fiber is usually invisible, but its 
 presence may be detected by comparing a surface newly-planed 
 with a similar surface upon which sand-paper has been judi- 
 ciously used ; the latter will be much smoother. In applying 
 sand-paper, the motion should be " with the grain." To pre- 
 vent the destruction of sharp corners or delicate features of any 
 sort, the sand-paper should be held about, or fastened to, a 
 block of wood corresponding somewhat to the form of the 
 work — a flat block for a flat surface, a curved block for a 
 curved surface. A piece of thick leather is sometimes used 
 instead of the wooden block, and is often more convenient, as 
 it may be bent to fit almost any surface. 
 
 Sand-paper will not satisfactorily reduce irregularities in a 
 surface, and should never be substituted for the scraper. As 
 has been implied, it will simply remove the fiber, and a few 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 91 
 
 Strokes arc generally found to be sufficient ; more are likely to 
 result in injury. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 5. — Box. 
 
 The stock required is |^" x 6"x 24V' ; it must be lined as 
 shown by Fig. 165, and cut into five pieces. The finished box 
 is shown by Fig. 166. 
 
 Fig. 165 
 Scale. l} = l' 
 
 -I ^10-- 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 lO'-l- 
 
 J_ 
 
 JFig. 100 
 Scale, li — 1' 
 
 147. If on each of the five pieces there is a surface 
 ciently true for a working-face, it should be marked as 
 otherwise, a working-face should 
 be made. From the working- 
 face joint one edge on each 
 piece and mark it as the work- 
 ing-edge. Set the gauge at 2f " 
 (the inside depth of the box) 
 and gauge the side and end 
 pieces to this depth, after which 
 joint them to line. From the 
 working edge, with the try- 
 square, scribe on the working- 
 face of all the pieces, including 
 the bottom, a fine about 5" from 
 one end. With the back-saw 
 (56) cut these ends, being care- 
 ful to keep on the outside of 
 may be held on the 
 
 suffi- 
 such ; 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 the line (148). The 
 bench-hook, as shown by Fig. 
 
 3i" 
 
 work 
 167. 
 
92 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 
 
 In starting the cut, the saw may be made to act across the 
 angle of the work in the direction of the Hne ab, but should 
 gradually be brought to the position shown, its motion being 
 parallel to the face of the work, and its stroke long enough to 
 bring every tooth into action. The position of the saw in Fig. 
 167, together with the dotted outline, shows a proper range of 
 movement. 
 
 The ends, when sawed, should be square with the work- 
 ing-face and working-edge. If the cut is a poor one, a 
 second may be taken by removing just enough material to 
 hold the saw ; if it is only a little " out," it will be best, in 
 this case, to pass the error for a time. One end of each hav- 
 ing been squared, the pieces may now be brought to length. 
 On one of the two pieces which are to form the ends of the 
 box, lay off and scribe a line 4" from the squared end. Meas- 
 ure the second end piece by the first to insure the same length 
 for both, whether the measurement is just 4" or not. Next, on 
 one of the two side pieces, 9!" from the squared end, scribe a 
 line for sawing and, using the first piece as a measure, lay off a 
 similar line on the second side piece and also on the bottom 
 piece. All the pieces having been thus lined, they may be cut 
 with the back-saw, after which all but the bottom piece will be 
 of the dimensions required. 
 
 148. Sawing " outside of the line" may be illustrated as fol- 
 lows : if two lines are made on a piece of work just 12" apart, 
 and the portion between cut out by sawing exactly 07i the lines, 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 93 
 
 it is obvious that the piece will be less than 12" long by half 
 the width of the saw kerf at each end, or, adding the two de- 
 ficiencies, by the width of one kerf, Jg " or more. 
 The appearance of an end when cut outside of a ^^°' 
 line will be that shown by Fig. 168. The smooth ^l^^^^l 
 line along the upper surface, represents the cut 
 made by the scriber in lining the material ; the rest shows the 
 work of the saw. 
 
 149. Nailing (254-256). — The side and end pieces are to 
 be nailed, as shown by Fig. 169, three 6-penny casing nails 
 being used at each angle. When brought together, the pieces 
 must be flush — pretty nearly right will not do. 
 
 Nails, when seen in a certain position, appear equal in width 
 throughout their length. A, Fig. 1 70 ; while a view at right 
 angles to the first, shows them wedge-shaped, B, Fig. i 70. In 
 
 Fi-. IGO 
 
 Fi-.iro 
 
 A 
 
 WORKING EDGE 
 
 
 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 Starting a nail, the line represented by a must be placed across 
 the grain of the wood, so that the point will cut the fibers 
 which are displaced. If the line /> is placed across the grain, 
 a few only of the fibers will be severed, ajid the others will be 
 simply pressed apart by the inclined sides of the nail, an action 
 which is quite likely to split the work. 
 
94 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 150. Hammer Marks on the work must be avoided. One 
 who is skilled in the use of a hammer, can drive a nail slightly 
 below the surface of the work without leaving a scar ; but it is 
 better to stop driving before the hammer head touches the 
 work than to risk damage. 
 
 151. Setting Nails. 
 
 Fig. in 
 
 — When the nail has been driven as 
 nearly "home" as possible, "set" it 
 until the head is at least Jg- " below the 
 surface of the work. In applying the 
 set, rest the little finger of the left hand 
 on the work, as shown by Fig. 171, and 
 press the set firmly against it ; there 
 will then be no trouble in keeping the 
 set on the head of the nail. 
 
 152. Withdrawing Nails. — It sometimes happens that a 
 nail, when partially driven, is found to be tending in a wrong 
 direction, in which case it must be withdrawn. If the hammer, 
 when used for this purpose, is allowed to get into the position 
 shown by Fig. 172, it will mar the work, the nail is likely to 
 splinter the wood around the hole in coming out, and an 
 unnecessary amount of force on the hammer handle is required 
 to draw it. A better way is to keep the hammer from contact 
 with the work by a block of wood, as a, Fig. 173. The block- 
 
 Eig.lTa 
 
 FiK.irS 
 
 ing should be increased in thickness as the nail is withdrawn. 
 If the work has been well done, the nail will not be bent. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 95 
 
 Never attempt to start a *nail in a hole froni which one has 
 been withdrawn. The second nail will either follow the first 
 or, prevented from doing this, will take an opposite course no 
 nearer right. 
 
 153. Fastening the Box Bottom. — The side and end pieces 
 of a box, when nailed together, may not be exactly rectangular, 
 although each piece has the required length, and the fastening 
 cannot be depended on to retain them with certainty in any 
 given form. But when the bottom piece is added, all parts be- 
 come fixed. It is, therefore, important that the rest of the box 
 be in proper form when the bottom is nailed. 
 
 The bottom piece has been cut the same length as the side 
 pieces, and it has a working-edge with which both ends are 
 square ; it is a little wider than is necessary, but this can be 
 made right in finishing the box. 
 
 Place the bottom piece 
 with the working-face inside, 
 and the working-edge even 
 with the outside edge of one 
 of the side pieces, as shown 
 by Fig. 174, and drive the 
 nails a. Now since the angles 
 
 b are right angles, the end pieces of the box, in order to be 
 square with the side, to which the bottom is already nailed, 
 must agree with the ends of the bottom piece. If they do not 
 agree, but shp past, as shown by Fig. 1 74, slight pressure will 
 spring them to place, after which nails may be driven at the 
 points c. 
 
 The nails in the bottom of a box must be so placed as to 
 avoid those which hold the sides to the ends. No nail can be 
 driven at the corners d. 
 
 Finishing the box. — With the smooth-plane take a light cut 
 all over the outside, keeping the sides and ends square with the 
 
96 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 bottom and with each other. The ends of the box, where the 
 end grain of the bottorn and side pieces is encountered, present 
 the most difficulty. 
 
 154. In planing end grain, the cutting edge must be sharp 
 and set to take a fine shaving. If only a little material is to 
 be taken off, the movement of the plane should be so limited 
 that the cutting edge will not extend beyond the work, two 
 cuts being taken in opposite directions, as indicated by A and 
 B, Fig. 175. The motion of the plane in both directions. 
 
 FiK-lTG 
 
 ■F'ig.1'7'6 
 
 EZl 
 
 
 ceases near C. If much is to be removed, and it seems best 
 to carry the plane the entire length of the surface, a bevel may 
 be made which will allow the cutting edge of the plane to leave 
 the work gradually, and at a little distance from the edge, as 
 shown by Fig. 176. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook (12). 
 
 The stock required is if" X 2f" X 16" from Exercise No. 4. 
 It is shown with the necessary lining by Fig. 177, in which 
 figure the Plan, face A, represents the working-face, and the 
 Elevation, face B, the working-edge. The finished piece is 
 shown by Fig. 1 78. 
 
 155. Lay off the lines ab and cd on face B, Fig. 177. Pro- 
 ject ab across face A, as shown by ae, and project cd across 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 97 
 
 face C (not shown), and from these, project on face D Hnes 
 similar to ab and cd, which are already located on B. Lo- 
 cate the point / on lines ab and cd, and also on the similar lines 
 of the opposite face D, measuring in each case from the work- 
 
 Scale !>/= l' 
 
 PLAN fFACE A.) 
 
 ELEVATION fFACE B.) 
 
 ing-face A, as indicated by the dimensions given. By use of a 
 straight-edge, draw ij and ik, and similar lines on the opposite 
 face. 
 
 Cut along the lines iJ and ik with the rip-saw. There are 
 two w.3,ys of starting the saw when the material, as at k, is not 
 sufficient to hold the blade. First, a saw cut may be made 
 along the line eg, and the triangle cqk chiseled out, giving a flat 
 surface, eg, on which to begin ; secondly, a block of wood of 
 the same breadth with the work may be fastened in the vise 
 
98 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 with the latter, as shown by Fig. 1 79, thus, in effect, extending 
 the surface ok. In the case of the hne 
 ik, the second plan is preferable. The 
 block A should bear well upon the work 
 B at k. 
 
 The lines ij and ik having been sawed, 
 cut di and ai with the back-saw. With 
 the chisel produce the bevels repre- 
 sented by mn and op. Bore the hole 
 R., Fig. 178, and the piece is fin- 
 ished. 
 
 156. With reference to R, it may be said that while an auger- 
 bit (89) will cut smoothly when entirely within the material, it 
 is sure to splinter when coming out on the face opposite the 
 starting point. 
 
 To prevent this, the bit may be used from one side until its 
 spur appears on the opposite side, and then withdrawn, and 
 started in the opposite direction in the hole left by the spur ; 
 or the work may be held firmly to 
 another block, as shown by Fig. 180, 
 and the bit allowed to pass into the 
 block as though the two were one 
 piece. 
 
 An auger-bit should cut freely, and advance into the work 
 without much pushing on the brace ; if it does not, it is in poor 
 condition and should be sharpened. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice (202-203). 
 
 The stock required is i|" X i|" X 16" from Exercise No. 4 ; 
 it is shown with the necessary lining, by Fig. 181. The com- 
 pleted piece is shown by Fig. 182. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 f 
 
 Y 
 
 ^.^ 
 
 1 
 li 
 
 T' 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 r 
 
 Is, 
 
 
 
 
 
 157. ^ and B, Fig. 181, were marked as working- faces 
 when the piece was planed, and may be used as such in this 
 exercise. Midway be- 
 tween the two ends on 
 face A, locate the line 
 a, and from a locate d, 
 c, d, and e. Produce 
 each of these lines 
 across all four faces of 
 the piece. Set the 
 gauge at |f" (half of 
 if" the width of the 
 piece), and from the 
 working-face A, gauge 
 a line from b on face 
 B around the end, and 
 back to /' on face D ; 
 also from line d on face 
 B around the opposite 
 end to line d on face 
 D. These lines are 
 shown on face B by 
 fg and ij. The joint 
 is made by cutting out 
 the rectangular pieces 
 bhgf and ijlk. 
 
 158. In cutting a 
 splice, both pieces are 
 not taken from the same 
 face, for the reason that the gauged line may 
 not be exactly in the middle, and in that case g 
 each of the remaining parts would be more ° 
 than half or less than half the thickness of 
 
 s. r: 
 
 r T. 
 
lOO 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the material, and their united thickness, when put together, 
 as in Fig. 182, would be greater or less than the material else- 
 
 ELEVATION. FaCC B. 
 
 where. The pieces cut out, therefore, are from opposite faces. 
 Then if the gauge line is not in the center of the piece, that is, 
 if bhgf\?, thicker than ij/k, the smaller piece will be taken out on 
 one side, and the larger piece on the other ; and the sum of 
 the two remaining parts when put together, as in Fig. 182, will 
 be ec{ual to the full size of the material. 
 
 159. To cut the pieces, first run the rip-saw down the lines 
 gf and ij ; next, with the back-saw, cut the lines bf and /J ; 
 next the hnes c and c, being care- 
 ful in all of these cuts to keep the 
 proper side of the line (148). Finally, 
 cut on the line a, and try the pieces 
 together as in Fig. 182. If the work 
 has been well done, the joint will be 
 good. If it is not good, the faults 
 may be corrected. The cuts gf and 
 ij, if not quite to line, may be brought 
 to it by using the chisel as shown by Fig. 147. To facili- 
 
 Kig.183 
 
 \ 
 
 '"T 
 
 END ELEVATION. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 lOI 
 
 B'iS. 184 
 
 -^^^^ 
 
 
 tate the operation, make chamfers on each side from the 
 hne to the sawed surface, as shown by Fig. 183, to be used 
 instead of the hne. Such chamfers present a twofold advan- 
 tage ; they are both visible from the same point, and they pre- 
 vent splintering on the side on which the chisel comes out. 
 The fitting on the line ab, Fig. 182, having been finished, sup- 
 pose that the heading-joint ac fits, but 
 that hd does not ; or suppose that 
 neither fits properly, as shown by Fig. 
 184. If the discrepancy is not great, ^ 
 
 the joint may be corrected by use of the chisel, or it may be 
 sawed to a fit. 
 
 160. "To saw a Fit," the two pieces should be clamped 
 together, or held by hand in the position shown by Fig. 184, 
 and the joint at c sawed into. This will make c at least as 
 wide as the saw kerf. Without changing the relative position 
 of the pieces, turn the work over and saw d, which will also 
 become at least as wide as the saw kerf, and, consequently, 
 equal to c in so far as the joints have been affected by the saw. 
 If in each case the joint is close enough to hold the saw, the 
 pieces after sawing will come together perfectly. If one saw- 
 ing is insufficient, the pieces may be brought together and 
 sawed a second, and even a third time. 
 
 This method of fitting may be widely apphed. 
 
 When the joint is perfect, the pieces are to be nailed at each 
 
 end with 4-penny casing nails driven obhquely, or " toed," 
 as illustrated by Fig. 185. While nailing, rest the pieces A 
 
ro2 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 and 
 
 y 
 
 c 
 
 B on the bench C, and, to retahi them in position, 
 ^ allow one to bear on 
 
 the block D^ which 
 in turn is held by the 
 bench-stop. The block 
 protects the ends of the 
 work, which would be 
 mutilated by the bench- 
 stop if they were placed 
 in direct contact with 
 it. 
 
 i6i. Toeing Nails. 
 — The advantage to be 
 derived from toeing a 
 nail lies in the fact that 
 it always " draws " in 
 the direction in which 
 it is driven. If driven 
 as shown by a. Fig. 185, 
 it will draw A upon 
 B both in a horizontal 
 and in a vertical direc- 
 tion, and will thus in- 
 sure good contact be- 
 tween the parts of the 
 joint. 
 
 The nails having been 
 driven and set, each of 
 the four sides may be 
 given a final smooth- 
 ing by a stroke of the 
 plane. 
 
 hi' 
 
 •^__,/ 
 
 I •. 
 
 -k 
 
 \ 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 103 
 
 EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 
 
 The stock required is if'x if'x 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
 the necessary lines are shown by Fig. 186. The finished piece 
 is represented by Fig. 187. 
 
 I 
 
 1- 
 I 
 
 W± 
 
 ITi-.lSS 
 
 162. Let the faces A and J? be the working- faces. Lay 
 off on face A Hne a, and from a, the hnes d, c, d, e,f, g, h, and 
 /, and project these Hnes on all four faces of the work. Set the 
 bevel at an angle of 45 degrees ; with its beam on A, as indi- 
 cated by the dotted outline, lay off on B lines dj, bk, gj, and 
 ik, and repeat these lines on face D. Connect points on both 
 B and D, forming lines which on B appear as /'J and ij. The 
 portions marked r are to be removed. 
 
 163. To cut the joint, first use the 
 rip-saw on the lines bj and iJ, and 
 afterwards the back-saw on the short 
 oblique lines gJ and bk. The back- 
 saw can easily be started if, while the 
 piece is held in the vise, a stroke is 
 given in the direction a, Fig. 188, 
 to carry the saw into the work a distance equal to the depth 
 
104 
 
 BENXH WORK IX WOOD. 
 
 of its teeth, after which it may be turned into the desired di- 
 rection b. 
 
 The splayed ends dj and ik may be cut with the work on 
 the bench-hook, Fig. 189. By following the directions given in 
 the previous exercise the joint may be finished, as shown by 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 Kijj. ISO 
 
 EXERCISE No. 9. — Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (211-215). 
 
 The stock required is if" X if" X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
 it is shown with the necessary lines by Fig. 190. The finished 
 piece is shown by Fig. 191. 
 
 164. Let A and B represent the two working-faces. From 
 one end of the piece, on face A, lay off line a, and from a, lay off 
 lines h, c, and d. Measure carefully the width of the piece on 
 line (f, face A, and lay off one-half of the same on each side of 
 the line d, and through the points thus fixed make lines e and/. 
 Project the lines a, c, and d on all four faces of the piece, and th j 
 lines e and / on B and D, the two faces adjoining A. Set the 
 gauge at ^", and from face A, gauge on B the line gh and a 
 similar line on the opposite face D. Gauge the line ij and 
 carry it around the end of the work to the line d on face D. 
 Set another gauge at i^" (|" -|- f ", the width of the mortise and 
 of the tenon), and gauge between the same lines as before, pro- 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 lOS 
 
 ducing g'h', i'f, etc. The 
 by cutting out the por- 
 tions marked r. 
 
 The method of "lay- 
 ing off" the width of the 
 mortise and the tenon 
 is to be especially ob- 
 served. The distance 
 between the two lines 
 which define the width 
 of the mortise, and those 
 which define the width r 
 of the tenon, being I 
 equal to the difference - 
 in the setting of the two •' 
 gauges, must be the ^ 
 same. The result, as I 
 far as the mortise and .t 
 tenon are concerned, 
 would not be different 
 if the piece containing 
 the mortise were twice 
 as thick as that carrying 
 the tenon. It is best to 
 use two gauges to avoid 
 the mistakes which might 
 arise from changing a 
 single one. Then, if it 
 should be found neces- 
 sary to use them after 
 the first lining, precisely 
 the same measurements 
 will be obtained. This 
 process can be short- 
 
 mortise and the tenon are formed 
 
 
 
 «Q 
 
 , «« 
 
 -jj 
 
 ^rtr 
 
 
 -"= — ^ — > 
 
 v: 
 
 *T~ 
 
 ^2S 
 
 '-^ 
 
 "1~ 
 
 r -0 
 
 J^ 
 
 To" 
 
 ,b 
 
io6 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 ened by using a mortise-gauge (33), which makes both lines at 
 the same time. 
 
 165. Cutting the Mortise. — It will be remembered that the 
 lines which appear on face B, Fig. 190, have their counterparts 
 
 '/( 
 
 SIDE. 
 
 on the opposite face D. To cut the mortise, select a chisel 
 having a width as nearly as possible etjual to the space between 
 the gauge lines, and, beginning on face B, near the middle of 
 the mortise, advance toward one end, as shown by Fig. 149. 
 The end of the mortise having been reached, commence at the 
 starting point and advance to the other end. Always loosen 
 the chisel by a backward movement of the handle ; a movement 
 in the opposite direction would injure the ends of the mortise. 
 (See Fig. 149.) After the first few cuts, each deeper than the 
 preceding, the chisel can easily be made to penetrate an inch 
 or more, in pine or poplar. If the depth is equal to half the 
 thickness of the work, no attention need be given to the chips. 
 One side of the mortise having been cut in this manner, turn 
 the work over and repeat the operation on face D, the chisel 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 107 
 
 being driven down to meet the opening made from the first side. 
 After the cutting is finished, the chips may be dug out with a 
 chisel or driven through by use of a wooden plug. Never try 
 to drive them through by using the chisel with its cutting edge 
 parallel to the grain, as such use 
 is very likely to split the work. 
 The chips having been re- 
 moved, the truth of the mortise 
 may be tested by using the flat 
 side of the chisel as a straight- 
 edge, as shown by Fig. 192. 
 The sides of the finished mortise 
 should agree with the chisel, as 
 
 at a. Compare a with b. Remember that at least one-half the 
 thickness of the line should remain on the work. 
 
 # 
 
 ^ 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 =^ 
 
 166. The Tenon may next be cut by using the back-saw, 
 both across the grain and with it. The sawing, if to line, leaves 
 nothing to be done except the pointing of the tenon ; this is 
 accomplished by a stroke of 
 the chisel on each side, which ^ ^°" ^' 
 
 makes it appear as shown b}' 
 Fig. 193. The pointing is 
 necessary, because a square- 
 ended, tight-fitting tenon, if 
 driven to place, will splinter 
 the sides of the mortise. The 
 length of the tenon is suffi- 
 cient to make it project be- 
 yond the mortise a distance 
 more than ecjual to the part 
 
 pointed. After the fitting has been done, the i)rojccting part is 
 cut off". 
 
 When both the mortise antl tenon are finished, cut the piece 
 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
io8 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 
 
 on the line c, Fig. 190, and try the tenon in the mortise. It 
 should enter at a light-driving fit. If the shoulders of the tenon 
 do not make a good joint with the cheeks of the mortise, that 
 is, if the joint at S, Fig. 191, is not good, it may be sawed to a 
 fit, as in the case of the splice. When all is satisfactory, bore 
 the pin hole, insert the pin, cut off the projecting portion of the 
 tenon and of the pin, and take a light shaving from those sur- 
 faces on which a plane may be used. 
 
 167. To Make a Pin (249). — Select a piece of straight- 
 grained material, in this case 4" or 5" long, and, by use of the 
 chisel, reduce it in section to a square whose side is slightly 
 greater than the diameter of the hole it is to fit. Then take off 
 the corners, making it an octagon in section, and point one 
 
 Ki-. 10-4 
 
 Kis. lO'" 
 
 end. All this will be best accomplished if the piece is held 
 by the bench-hook, as indicated by Fig. 1 94. 
 
 168, Drawboring is a term ap])lied to a method of locating 
 
 pin holes so as to make 
 the pin draw the tenon 
 into the mortise. Fig. 
 195 shows the relative 
 position of the holes be- 
 fore the pin is inserted. 
 It is evident that a 
 tight-fitting pin will have 
 a tendency to make the holes in the mortise and tenon 
 coincide, and thus draw the two pieces together. The holes 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 109 
 
 hiay be located on the mortise and tenon by direct measure- 
 ment ; or the cheeks of the mortise may be bored through and 
 
 -r 
 
 -i 
 
 5 t 
 
 S^. 
 
 t\ 
 
 1- 
 
 
 f- 
 
 
 
 the tenon inserted, and marked 
 
 by putting the bit into the hole o^ 
 
 already bored and forcing its 5 
 
 point against the tenon. The ° 
 
 tenon may then be withdrawn ' ^ 
 
 and bored, the point of the bit being placed a little nearer the 
 
 shoulder of the tenon than the mark. 
 
no 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 The practice of drawboring is not to be commended, and, 
 if indulged in at all, great care and discretion must be exer- 
 cised. In many cases, it puts a strain on the joint which is 
 nearly equal to its maximum resistance, and but little strength 
 is left to do the work for which the joint is made. Frequently, 
 the mortise or tenon is spht and rendered practically useless. 
 
 EXERCISE No. lo. 
 
 Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (240-245). 
 
 The stock required is if" X if" X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
 
 it is shown with the ne- 
 cessary lining by Fig. 
 196. The finished piece 
 is represented by Fig. 
 197. 
 
 ^^=^ 
 
 "Fig. isr 
 
 Scale, 3 = 1' 
 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 as indicated by the dotted line /, face A 
 
 169. The lining dif- 
 fers from that of the 
 preceding exercise in 
 the following respects : 
 the position of the line 
 b is changed as indi- 
 cated by the dimension 
 figures, and the position 
 of lines e and /, which 
 extend around the piece, 
 is changed to corre- 
 spond ; the mortise is 
 made longer on face B 
 than on face D, giv- 
 ing one oblique end, 
 
BENCH WORK. I I I 
 
 As regards the tenon, the line g is added at a distance from 
 d equal to the thickness of the piece on the line d, face A ; 
 the point h is located on face A, and on the opposite face C, 
 and the line g/i drawn on both faces. The mortise r' is to be 
 cut as in the preceding exercise, and one end made oblique as 
 indicated by the figure. 
 
 To form the tenon the portions marked r are to be removed. 
 First, beginning at g, cut along the oblique line g/i ; then, be- 
 ginning at k, the two lines k/ ; and, finally, define the shoulders 
 of the tenon by cutting on the line d. This order will save all 
 the lines as long as they are needed. 
 
 170. A study of the finished piece will show that the tenon 
 is inserted from the face D, and pushed over so that the splayed 
 edge of the tenon, g/i, bears on the splayed end of the mortise, 
 /, leaving an open space at the other end of the mortise to be 
 filled by the key. See Fig. 197. 
 
 The key should be planed from a piece 5" or 6" long. It 
 should be uniform in width and nearly so in thickness, there 
 being but a slight taper near the end which is to be driven in 
 advance ; this end should be pointed like a tenon. It is best 
 to drive the key from the inside in the direction indicated by 
 the arrow, Fig. 197. 
 
 The piece is to be finished in accordance with the appear- 
 ance and dimensions shown by Fig. 197. 
 
 EXERCISE No. n. — Plain Dovetail. 
 
 The stock required is two pieces, each |"x3f"X4", 
 edges jointed parallel, and one end squared. (The material 
 may be worked up as one piece ^" x 3 J" X 8", which, after 
 being planed to width, may be cut in two with the back-saw, 
 thus giving the squared ends rec^uired.) The working- faces 
 used in preparing the material may also be used in laying off 
 the lines. To avoid confusion one piece will be called X and 
 
Il2 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the Other K Fig. 198 shows the Hning necessary for Xand Y 
 respectively. The finished joint is shown by Fig. 199. 
 
 171. 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.) 
 
 Lay off on all four faces of each piece, |" from the 
 squared end, the line ad, Fig. 198. 
 Fasten A^ in the vise, and on its 
 squared end lay off lines as g/i, 
 Fig. 198. Remove the piece from 
 the vise, and with the bevel set 
 "i to 4" (29), project on the 
 faces A and C oblique lines as 
 ef. The portions which are to be 
 removed to form the mortises, are 
 marked r. Put the piece in the 
 vise again, and with the back-saw 
 cut down the oblique lines as e/. 
 With a chisel, used as in cutting 
 an ordinary mortise, remove the 
 material between the lines. If 
 preferred, part of it can be re- 
 moved by boring a hole as indi- 
 cated by the dotted outline. The 
 hole will make the chiseling easier, 
 but in so small a piece of work it is doubtful whether there is 
 anything gained. The piece X having been finished, fasten F 
 in the vise, working-end up and working-face outward. Place 
 the working- face of X on the working-end of V, as shown by 
 Fig. 200, taking care that the line a/> on X is in the same line 
 with the working- face of V. Holding the work in this position, 
 and guided by the mortises in X, scribe on the end of V the 
 oblique lines as g/i, Fig. 198. Remove Y from the vise, and 
 with the beam of the square on the working-end, project to ad 
 lines as e/ from the extremities of the oblique lines just made. 
 The portions marked r and r' are to be removed to form the 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 r' 
 
 
 r' 
 
 f 
 
 Y 
 
 
 4- 
 
 7 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 t. 
 
 r' 
 
 D 
 
 END. 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE C.> 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 113 
 
 ELEVATION (B.) 
 
 "pins." Tliose on the outside marked r' may be removed 
 entirely with the saw; those on the inside (r), partly with the 
 chisel, as in the case of the mortises in the piece X. 
 
 172. The joint ought to go together by light driving, and 
 
 be perfectly square on 
 the inside between 
 the working- faces. If 
 it is found to be satis- 
 factory, take it apart, 
 apply a light coating 
 of glue, and drive to- 
 gether again. When 
 the glue is hard, the 
 joint may be smoothed and squared, and 
 the ends of the pieces cut to the dimen- 
 sions shown in Fig. 199. 
 
 173. It will be seen that one part of 
 the joint is made, and the second part is 
 then made to fit the first ; hence, the 
 proportions of the first part need not be 
 determined with great exactness. The skilled 
 bench-worker usually proceeds as follows : on 
 the piece X (if there are several pieces, X, he 
 treats them all at the same time) he lays off 
 the lines ab and cross-lines as gh, the latter 
 without measuring, and then saws obliquely 
 without the use of lines as ef; on Khe lays off 
 the lines ab and oblique lines as gh, and saws without making 
 lines as ef. In this way the joint is soon made, and, al- 
 though not perfectly symmetrical, it may be well-formed and 
 well-fitted. 
 
 ELEVATION (A.) 
 
 Ki-. SiOO 
 
 WORKING FACE-^ 
 
114 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap, or Drawer, Dovetail, 
 
 The stock required is one piece 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.i 
 
 Fig. 202, scribe the line ab, |" 
 (the thickness of X) from the 
 working- end, and continue it 
 across the working-edges. Set a 
 gauge at |", and from the work- 
 ing-face A gauge the line cd on 
 the working- end, and extend it on 
 the edges until it meets the ex- 
 tended line ab, as shown by face 
 D, Fig. 202. From the working- 
 end of X, with the same gauge, 
 make the line ab on the two faces 
 A and C. Produce the remaining 
 lines on X, cut the mortises, and 
 lay off Y by X, as in the last 
 exercise. 
 
 ' X 3f " X 4" and one 
 piece i" X 3I" X 4", 
 edges jointed parallel 
 and one end of each 
 squared. The finished 
 piece is shown by Fig. 
 201. It will be seen 
 that the piece Y does 
 not extend across the 
 full thickness of the 
 piece X, and, consequently, the end grain 
 does not ap- 
 pear in Eleva- 
 tion B, Fig. 
 201. 
 
 174. On y. 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE B.) 
 
 Scale, 3 — 1' 
 
 PLAN (FACE D.)' 
 
 s- — 
 
 A- 
 
 e-C 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.) 
 
 •-C 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.) 
 
 B 
 
 END. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 I '5 
 
 In cutting out around the pins (F), the dehcacy of the work 
 does not demand the most dehcate chisel, but one as large as 
 is convenient should be used. Finish the joint to the dimen- 
 sions given by Fig. 201. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 13. — Blind Dovetail. 
 
 The stock required 
 is two pieces, each 
 I" X 3I" X 4" edges 
 jointed parallel and 
 one end squared. The 
 finished joint is shown 
 by Fig. 203. The 
 ELEVATION (FACE B.) dovctall is wholly with- 
 
 in the square a^cd, and, consequently, no 
 
 end grain shows on any face. 
 
 175. With the square, lay off on the 
 working- faces and two edges of each piece 
 of material, Fig. 204, the lines ^a, at, and 
 cd, dk, and from the working- face A gauge 
 
 ELEVATION fFACE A 
 
 on the ends of each piece the line ef. 
 
 Scale, 8 = l' 
 
 PLAN (FACE D.) 
 d a 
 
 D , 
 
 a I e h 
 
 A-- 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.) 
 
 T, 
 END 
 
 d a> 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 d 0, 
 
 -fi 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
ii6 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Cut both pieces as shown by Fig. 205. Taking one of the 
 pieces, which will be called X, space ^ and lay off on the reduced 
 end surface lines as op, Fig. 206, using the try-square blade 
 as indicated by the dotted outline. Next, produce oblique 
 
 lines as gh, shown in the same 
 figure, and cut the mortises 
 marked ;-. 
 
 With Y in the vise apply X, 
 in which the mortises have al- 
 ready been cut, as shown by 
 Fig. 207, so that points may be 
 
 Scale, 
 
 300 
 
 3 — l' 
 
 aMa 
 
 A- 
 
 ,C 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.; 
 
 n 
 
 END. 
 
 .D, 
 
 r 
 Y 
 
 J — 
 
 located along the exterior angle 
 e' of V, corresponding to the 
 openings in X. Project these 
 points (shown on line e'f, Fig. 
 208) from the exterior angle e', 
 to the interior angle ^', Fig. 
 207. Next apply X to V, as 
 shown by Fig. 209 ; from this 
 position the points shown on 
 the line a'i', Fig. 208, can be 
 secured along the angle a'. 
 These points, when connected, 
 will give lines as gk, V, Fig. 206. 
 From these lines, project on the 
 working-face lines as i)', down 
 to the line d'k'. Cut out the 
 portions marked r, and the dovetail is finished. It now re- 
 mains to make a miter-joint between the two rectangular pro- 
 jections on X and V. Set the bevel at a miter (an angle of 45 
 
 ELEVATION (FACE A.) 
 
 
 1 No dimensions are given for locating the lines similar to o/>, X, Fig. 
 206. They can be found by measuring the drawing, which, as indicated by 
 the scale, is one-fourth the size of the piece it represents. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 117 
 
 degrees) and scribe the dotted line e, Fig. 205, on each piece ; 
 then cut to hne with a chisel. When the joint has been fitted, 
 glue, and finish to dimensions. 
 
 Fig. aos 
 
 a' e'b' 
 
 "Fig. S09 
 
 X 
 
 tWN 
 
 rf'J 
 
 Y 
 
 V I'm' 
 
 FiS. 210 
 
 176. If, instead of cutting out the first and last space of Y, 
 one-half only is cut out, as shown by Fig. 210, 
 the dividing line being on a miter, and, if the 
 outside portions of X, m, ;;/, Fig. 206, are cut / 
 away to a miter to correspond, the joint will 
 appear as a plain miter -joint, instead of that shown by 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel (246-248). 
 
 177. Fig. 211 shows a small panel door. The frame is made 
 up of stiles and rails, which are fastened together by mortise-and- 
 tenon joints ; the spaces within the frame are filled by panels. 
 The lower panel is simply a thin board screwed to the back of 
 the frame. . The upper panel is composed of narrow strips, which 
 are inserted in a groove made in the frame for their reception. 
 The front of the frame, around the lower panel, is chamfered, 
 and around the upper panel is beaded. It is the purpose of 
 this exercise to construct that portion of the door included 
 within the rectangle abdc. 
 
ii8 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 
 
 l^^iy.. C211 
 
 TTig. 212 
 Scale, 3' = !' 
 
 \^/////////^///m'/f 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 sions as follows : for the stile, 
 i|" X 2V' X 9" ; for the rail, 
 li" X 4" X 6^" ; and for the 
 panel i" X 5'' X 5^". The 
 finished work is shown by 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 178. The niortise-and-tenon joint between the stile and rail, 
 both in the size and position of its parts, is shown by Fig. 213. 
 The width of the mortise and the tenon should be equal to the 
 width of the f " chisel' It will be noticed that the lines are 
 so placed as to make the stile extend beyond the lower edge of 
 the rail. This extension, or "horn," as it is called, is for the 
 
 1 The nominnl width of a chisel does nut always agree with its actual 
 width. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 119 
 
 purpose of re-enforcing the end of the mortise during the fit- 
 ting, — a recourse which must ahvays be had when the mortise 
 in the finished work closely approaches the end of the material. 
 After all the jointing has been done, the horns may be cut off. 
 Having laid off the necessary lines for cutting the mortise and 
 the tenon, very light lines, as cd and c^(f, Fig. 213, should be 
 made on both stile and rail to guide in cutting the chamfers. 
 
 "Fig. 213 
 
 Scale, 3= 1 ' 
 
 d 
 
 . !,j--._^j^ 
 
 SIDE OF RAIL. 
 
 SIDE OF ST! LE. 
 
 EDGE .1 OF ST I LE 
 
 Cut and fit the mortise and tenon, and then make both 
 chamfers, as shown in the finished piece, Fig. 212. 
 
 179. Short chamfers (222, 223) like these are best cut by 
 use of the chisel, a spokeshave sometimes being used in finishing. 
 
 Long chamfers may be cut rapidly by the drawing-knife, 
 which may be followed by the smooth-plane. 
 
 180. Before putting the joint together, enlarge the outside 
 end of each mortise, as shown by a and d, Fig. 213, to make 
 room for the wedges c, c, which, after the joint has been 
 
I20 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 driven together, are to be dipped in glue and driven as 
 indicated. This method of wedging forms a very strong 
 joint (250, 251). 
 
 181. Round the edge of the panel on the bottom and side, 
 as shown by a, Fig. 212, and fasten it to the back of the 
 frame by two i" No. 8 screws — one in the rail, and one, b, 
 in the stile (258). 
 
 182. In inserting screws, the outside piece (in this case the 
 panel) must be bored for each screw. The hole should be 
 sufficiently large to allow the screw to pass through easily ; and, 
 if the wood is hard, it must be enlarged at the top, or " coun- 
 terbored," to receive the head of the screw. The piece in 
 which the screw holds (in this case the frame), if of soft wood, 
 need not be bored unless there is danger that it may split, \\\ 
 which case a hole should be made, in diameter about two-thirds 
 that of the screw. The necessity for a hole in hard wood 
 depends largely on the proportions of the screw. A short, 
 large-wired screw will stand almost any service, while a long 
 slender one will frequently be twisted or broken under the 
 strain necessary to drive it into wood which is only moder- 
 ately hard. 
 
 Judgment must determine when the screw is driven suf- 
 ficiently. The head must bed well into the wood ; but 
 there is danger that it may be forced so far as to " strip " 
 the thread, and that, as a consequence, the screw will not 
 hold (96,98). 
 
 Never allow the screw-driver to slip from the slot of the 
 screw while the latter is being driven. 
 
 183. Brad-awls are useful in preparing the way for small 
 screws. The cutting edge should always be placed across the 
 grain so that the fibers will be cut, and not simply pressed apart 
 to close up again when the tool is withdrawn. The difference 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 121 
 
 in effect may be seen by comparing, Fig. 214, A, which shows 
 a proper action, with B. 
 
 Fig. 214 
 
 
 EXERCISE No. 15. — Paneling. 
 
 This exercise consists in making that portion of the panel 
 door, Fig. 211, included within the rectangle efgh. 
 
 Fi{;.ai5 
 
 Scale, 8' l' 
 
122 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 
 sions as follows : stile i^" X 2^" x 9"; rail ii" x 2|" x 6|" ; 
 panel strip |" X if" X 18". The completed exercise is shown 
 by Fig. 215. 
 
 184. In considering the joint between the stile and rail as 
 shown by Fig. 216, three new features will be observed; the 
 groove, or " plow," which is to receive the panel, as shown at 
 a, Fig. 215 ; the beads /,/; and the mitered corner c^/, which 
 allows the parts to be plowed and beaded as shown, without 
 affecting the mortise-and-tenon joint. 
 
 Follow the dimensions, and line for the mortise and tenon as 
 in the preceding exercises, supposing the rail to be of the form 
 indicated by the dotted outline (/'j'c', Fig. 216, and the stile to 
 be of the form indicated by e/d. This done, add the lines ec, 
 
 Scale, i'-l" 
 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 \ 
 
 h 
 
 a 
 
 ■{ 
 
 .^ — 
 
 
 
 
 .-- 
 
 ± — ^ 
 
 
 T 
 
 L-\__ 
 
 _.._.,...^..^ 
 
 J d' 
 
 
 J, 
 
 1 '~ .1 
 
 l\ 
 
 ~stt 
 
 1 a ; '«. 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ' 1 
 
 cd, and ^V/, by means of gauge and bevel. Cut the mortise 
 and the tenon, after which plow the groove a. 
 
BENCH WORK. 
 
 123 
 
 185. No special direction can be given for using the plow 
 (85), except that it is to be used from the working-edge; but 
 it will be safe to practice with it on a piece of waste material 
 before applying it to the work. 
 
 Scale, 
 
 END. 
 
 186. Next, the beads /,/, Fig. 215, are to be formed on the 
 inside edge of both rail and stile, that is, along the edges 
 marked /^, Fig. 216. What has already been said regarding 
 the use of the plow, may also be said of the beading- [)lane 
 
 (84). 
 
 The mitered corners are now to l)e formed by cutting with 
 the back-saw to lines already made, antl then the joint between 
 stile and rail, fitted and wedged as 
 in Exercise No. 14. 
 
 The frame having been made 
 ready, attention may be given to 
 the panel. The panel strip, al- 
 ready jointed, must be "matched" 
 by forming the tongue /' and the 
 groove a, Fig. 217. This opera- 
 tion brings into use the V' match- 
 ing-planes (82), which should first 
 be tried on a piece of waste ma- 
 terial. The bead r. Fig. 217, is 
 to be made with a ^^V" beading- * side. ' end. 
 
 plane. 
 
 Cut the panel strip into lengths suitable for forming the 
 complete panel, Fig. 218, using either the bevel or the miter- 
 
 
 
 
 Fig, i>lS 
 
 
 
 
 Scale, 3- 1' 
 
 t 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 c /\; 
 
 
 \ 
 
 h 
 
 %V 
 
 i. 
 
 \ 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 v'^"^ 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
124 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 box in obtaining the angle of the ends. The fitting of the 
 pieces one to another will be most easily done if they are cut 
 in order, as a, b, <r, etc. 
 
 187. In using the miter-box, Fig. 219, the work a, while 
 resting on the bottom of the box, must be pressed against the 
 side b, in which position, the saw, guided by the box as shown, 
 will cut the piece at a miter. The opposite guide cc may be 
 used in the same manner. By using d the work will be cut off 
 
 square. To hold the pieces of the panel together, and to fasten 
 the panel to the frame, light brads may be inserted in the 
 oblique ends of the panel strips shown at b. Fig. 215, or, 
 what is, perhaps, better, glue may be used. If the door were 
 complete, as shown by Fig. 211, the panel would have perfect 
 support in the frame. 
 
PART HI. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF "WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 TIMBER.^ 
 
 i88. " Timber is that portion of the woody material of trees 
 which is used in carpentry and joinery." " If the trunks of 
 timber-bearing trees are cut, they are found to be composed 
 of concentric cyHndrical layers, whose cross- 
 sections form rings, separated from each Fig. 220 
 other, and evidently quite distinct. These 
 layers [Fig. 220] are formed, one each year, 
 during the period of growth of the tree. 
 They vary in thickness, in density, and in 
 color, according to the rapidity of growth, 
 the length of the season, and other cir- 
 cumstances which may change from year to year. 
 
 "The outer portion of the trunk is called the ' sap-ivood,' and 
 it is usually lighter in color, and less strong and dense than the 
 interior portions, or heart-wood. 
 
 " The circulation of sap through the sap-wood occurs during 
 favorable weather. I-n winter it is supposed to cease, and this 
 period of checked circulation causes the lines of demarkation 
 between successive annual rings." 
 
 1 Quotation marks under this heading refer to Thurston's " Materials of 
 Engineering," Part I. 
 
126 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 "The heart-wood is nearly or quite impervious to sap, its 
 vessels being closed up, and the wood is dense and hard." It 
 is usually far more durable than sap-wood. 
 
 " Different kinds of trees, and different individuals of the 
 same species, have different proportions of sap-wood. The 
 slower- growing trees usually contain the least." 
 
 189. "'Felling' Timber should always, if possible, be prac- 
 ticed at the period of maturity ; if earlier, the wood will not 
 have acquired it greatest strength and density, and will con- 
 tain too great a proportion of sap-wood ; if later, the wood 
 will have become weakened by incipient decay. 
 
 "The oak is said to reach maturity when about too years of 
 age, and it should not be felled at less than 60. 
 
 " Pine timber should be cut at from 70 to 100 years of age, 
 and ash and elm, at from 50 to 100. 
 
 " The season of the year best adapted to felling timber is 
 either midwinter or midsummer. The months of July and 
 August are often selected, as at those seasons the sound trees 
 remain green, while the unsound trees are then turning yellow. 
 Healthy trees then have tops in full foliage, and the bark is 
 uniform in color, while unsound trees are irregularly covered 
 with leaves of varying color, having a rougher, and often a 
 loosened, bark, and decaying limbs." 
 
 After felling, " the trunk should be immediately stripped of its 
 bark, and, when heart-wood only is wanted, the sap-wood re- 
 moved as soon as possible. The bark is often removed from 
 trees in spring, and the felling deferred till autumn or winter. 
 This is probably the best course to pursue, usually." 
 
 190. "Seasoning Timber is simply driving out the sap from 
 its pores by either natural or artificial means. This should 
 always be done as gradually as possible, otherwise the timber 
 is liable to crack or ' check,' from irregular drying. 
 
 " Natural or air seasoning gives the best results. The timber 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 12/ 
 
 should in all cases be squared as soon as cut, and all large logs 
 should be halved, or even quartered. It is then piled in the 
 seasoning yard in such a manner as to be protected as far as 
 possible from the sun and rain. It should be placed where the 
 air may circulate freely on all sides, not only of the pile, but of 
 each log ; bad ventilation is sure to cause rot. After remain- 
 ing thus for some months, the logs may be cut into smaller 
 joists, if needed in such form, or into planks and boards, and 
 again piled for further seasoning. 
 
 " For heavy work two years, and for lighter work, four years, 
 is sufficient time for seasoning boards ; but timber is rarely 
 overseasoned." 
 
 Artificial methods of seasoning by means of high tempera- 
 ture, are much more rapid in operation than the natural method 
 just described. It is not impossible, in this manner, to season 
 one-inch material in two days. 
 
 igi. Shrinkage in timber occurs whenever it loses moisture. 
 In the process of seasoning, shrinkage may reduce the width 
 and thickness of a timber fully "eight per cent," but it has little 
 effect on its length. Wood cannot be so well seasoned as not 
 to shrink whenever the surrounding dryness is increased. It 
 also has a tendency to shrink after having its surface removed, 
 by a plane, for example. This is due to the reopening of the 
 pores, which in the fibers of the old surface had become closed 
 by contraction ; in this way new passages are afforded for the 
 escape of moisture. 
 
 192. Swelling occurs whenever the timber absorbs moisture. 
 Most woods give up moisture more readily than they receive 
 it, and, therefore, a timber will not swell so much when trans- 
 ferred from a dry atmosphere to a moist one, as a similar timber 
 will shrink when transferred from a moist atmosphere to a dry 
 one, the difference in the atmos])heric conditions being the 
 same. A slight change, however, in the amount of surrounding 
 
128 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 moisture is sufficient to produce a perceptible change in the 
 dimensions of a piece of wood. As a rule, the softer a wood is, 
 the more readily it shrinks and swells. 
 
 193. Warping in wood is a change of form resulting from 
 unequal shrinkage or swelling. 
 
 Suppose Fig. 220 to represent the end of a log. It will be 
 seen that, besides the lines defining the annual ring layers, there 
 are others extending from the center in all directions ; these 
 are known to the botanist as medullary rays, and sometimes 
 to the carpenter as silver rays. In some woods, they are very 
 clearly defined ; in others, they are hardly discernible. The 
 medullary rays serve to bind together the annual ring layers, 
 and are not very much shortened by shrinkage. In seasoning, 
 the outer ends draw together, as at A and B, Fig. 221, and 
 
 K'ig. ssa 
 
 Fig. SS3 
 
 produce ragged cracks, which sometimes extend from the ex- 
 terior to the heart-wood, as shown. 
 
 194. If a log is cut longitudinally into five pieces, the mid- 
 dle piece will, in shrinking (by the drawing together of the 
 medullary rays), become thinner at the edges than at the 
 center, as shown by Fig. 222. The other four pieces will 
 warp as shown, the surface of each piece, which in the log was 
 nearest the center, becoming the convex side after shrinking. 
 
 The shrinkage of a square joist will vary according to its 
 position in the log relative to the heart. (See Fig. 223.) Thus, 
 it will be seen that, in the cross-section of a timber, changes 
 
A 
 
 "^--m 
 
 WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I 29 
 
 resulting from shrinkage can be foretold whenever the character 
 of the end grain can be determined. 
 
 195. Timbers also warp in the direction of their length. 
 When not due to the subjection of one part to dryness or 
 dampness to the exclusion of other parts, this can be traced to 
 unevenness in the grain, which exposes a greater number of 
 fiber ends in one part of a surface than another. The more 
 fiber ends there are on a surface, the more readily moisture will 
 pass into or out of the wood, and the more pronounced will be 
 the local shrinking or swelling, 
 and consequent warping. For 
 example, suppose Fig. 224 to 'r-r^-~^ 
 represent the edge of a board '"^ ^" " " 
 having the grain as shown. 
 
 Moisture will escape more readily from the surfaces marked A 
 and A' than from those marked B and B'. The contraction 
 of the surfaces A and A', will force the board into the shape 
 shown by the dotted line. 
 
 The most fruitfiil cause of warping, however, is unecjual 
 exposure. One side of a board may be exposed to the sun 
 while the other is protected from it ; the side exposed will be 
 found concave, both in length and breadth. Heat from a stove 
 or dampness from the ground are common causes of warping. 
 
 If a board newly planed on all its faces, is left flat on the 
 l)ench, it will after a time be found concave in its upper sur- 
 face, a result due to the greater exposure of the upper surface 
 as compared with the lower, which remained in contact with 
 the bench. A piece having reasonably straight grain, and 
 which has been planed all over, should be left on its edge or 
 end. Pieces of irregular shape, that are required to be made 
 to form accurately, are best when cut roughly almost to the 
 required dimensions, and allowed ample time to shrink and 
 warp before being finished exactly to size. 
 
130 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 CARPENTRY.! 
 
 196. It is the work of the carpenter to raise and inclose the 
 frame of a building, to construct its floors and roofs, and to 
 complete all parts which give stability to the structure ; the 
 joiner makes the doors and windows, erects the stairs, and pro- 
 vides such interior woodwork as will finish the building as a 
 habitation. A single mechanic may perform almost every kind 
 of work required in the construction of a building, thus elimi- 
 nating this distinction of trades ; but for convenience in classi- 
 fication, we may imagine the work of the carpenter and that 
 of the joiner to be quite distinct. 
 
 It will be understood that neither carpentry nor joinery 
 is confined to house-building. While all bench work may 
 properly be classed as joinery, it involves forms and principles 
 that are the logical outgrowth of carpentry. For this reason, 
 in the following consideration of joints, there are presented, 
 first, those belonging to carpentry, which will include such as 
 are used in uniting timbers, as in a frame for a building ; and, 
 secondly, those belonging to joinery, which will include such as 
 are used in joining small })lanks or boards. This classification 
 cannot be rigidly adhered to, but it will serve the purpose of 
 the following pages. 
 
 197. Any two timbers may be united in the direction of 
 their length, or they may be united at an angle. 
 
 Timbers united in the direction of their length are usually 
 
 I > \ ' ! 
 
 subject to compressional strain, which has a tendency to reduce 
 their length, as indicated by Fig. 225 ; or tensional strain, 
 
 1 Tredgold's " Carpentry," and " Notes on Building Construction " pub- 
 lished by Rivinglons, have furnished many of the facts presented under 
 Carpentry and under Joinery. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 131 
 
 which has a tendency to increase their length, Fig. 226 ; or 
 cross-strain, which has a tendency to bend them, Fig. 227 ; 
 or to two of these strains at the same time. 
 
 198. A Timber subjected to cross-strain must ahvays bend. 
 
 The fibers forming that surface which is convex or has a 
 tendency to become so (as the lower surface, A, Fig. 227) 
 will be subject to tensional strain, while the fibers forming 
 the opposite surface will be brought under compressional 
 strain. This is shown by Fig. 228, A representing a straight 
 
 Fig. 227 
 C 
 
 Fig. 238 
 
 B 
 
 ^^ 
 
 timber, and B the same timber bent. It follows, then, that 
 somewhere between the compressed surface and the ex- 
 tended surface there will be a line which is subject to neither 
 compressional nor tensional strain ; such a line is called the 
 jieutral axis of a timber, and will be located with sufficient 
 accuracy for the purposes of this work, if drawn midway be- 
 tween the upper and lower surfaces, as shown by the dotted 
 line CD, Fig.. 228. 
 
 In the timber that has been forced into a curved form, Fig. 
 228, the fibers within the neutral axis are under no strain ex- 
 cepting that reciuired to hold the compressed portion to the 
 extended portion ; but the conditions are found to change 
 rapidly as the examination extends to fibers more and more 
 remote from this axis. In other words, the strength of such 
 a timber increases rapidly as its depth increases. For example, 
 if Fig. 227 represents a 2" X 4" timber (2" wide and 4" deep) 
 supported at B, B, and capable of sustaining 200 pounds at C, 
 
132 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 it can be shown that, if the depth is doubled, leaving the width 
 the same, by substituting a 2" X 8" timber, it will sustain four 
 times the original load, or 800 pounds ; while if the width is 
 doubled, leaving the depth the same, by substituting a 4" x 4" 
 timber, it will sustain only twice the original load, or 400 
 pounds. The law is that the strength of timbers subject to 
 cross-strain, varies as the width, and as the square of the 
 depth.* 
 
 igg. Rankine has given five principles to be observed in 
 designing joints and fastenings. They are as follows : — 
 
 1. "To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to 
 weaken the pieces of timber that they connect as little as pos- 
 sible." 
 
 2. " To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as 
 possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit." 
 
 3. "To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure 
 which it has to bear, so that the timber may be safe against 
 injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and 
 to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately, in order 
 to distribute the stress uniformly." 
 
 4. " To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of 
 equal strength with the pieces which they connect." 
 
 5. "To place the fastenings in each piece of timber, so that 
 there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint 
 by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way through the 
 timber." 
 
 Complicated forms of joints are likely to violate Rule 3. 
 
 1 By what has been given, it will be seen that in any body of material 
 the portions most affected in resisting cross-strain are those lying near the 
 upper and lower surfaces, Fig. 227. In view of this fact, parts that are to 
 receive a cross-strain, especially if of iron, are, in important structures, 
 formed to present a large amount of material near these surfaces. A rail- 
 road rail or an I-beam are simple illustrations; a bridge truss is an elabo- 
 ration of this principle. 
 
WOOD COXSTRUCXfON. 
 
 ^33 
 
 Joints connecting Timbers in the Direction of their 
 Length. 
 
 200. A Lapped Joint, shown by Fig. 229, fastened either by 
 straps A or bolts B, is chimsy, but very strong. 
 
 201. A Fished Joint in its simplest form is shown by Fig. 
 230, and is so called because of the two pieces marked A called 
 "■fish-pieces " or "fi's/i-/>/a/es." 
 
 iT'ig. aao 
 
 Fii.-.i230 
 
 — ^j u 1 H^ i^ ^ i^Va v^' 
 
 Fish-pieces may be of either wood or iron, and may be 
 employed to form the fished joint shown in Fig. 230, or appHed 
 to more complicated joints to increase their strength. 
 
 When subject to compressional strain, a fished joint should 
 have four plates, one on each face. When subject to tensional 
 strain, the plates, if of iron, may be indented, A, Fig. 231 ; or, 
 if of hard wood, the ends may be tabled, B, Fig. 231, or keys 
 inserted as shown by A and B, Fig. 232. Other things being 
 
 Viir. '-2:5 
 
 equal, if the number of keys is doubled, the thickness of each 
 may be diminished one-half without reducing the strength of 
 the joint, since the total amount of abutting surface will remain 
 the same. 
 
 Note. —The student should observe carefully the position of the lines 
 in the following representations of joints, so that he may clearly see the 
 reasons for the different methods of construction. lie should first look for 
 the abutting surfaces, and then note their relation to the rest of the joint. 
 
'34 
 
 BENC^H WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 For cross-strain, the fish-pieces should be on the sides of the 
 joim, as shown by Fig. 233. 
 
 
 The bolts used for securing fish-j)ieces, or emi^loyed as fas- 
 tenings for any joint, should be placed checker-wise, Fig. 233, 
 so that no two will cut the same cross-section. 
 
 Fished joints are often used in heavy construction. By a 
 suitable proportion of parts, the joint can be made almost as 
 strong as the timbers it connects. 
 
 202. Scarfed Joints are those in which the two timbers 
 united are so cut and fitted as to make the joint uniform in 
 size with the timbers. In determining the form of any scarf, 
 the principles already given (199) should l)e adhered to as 
 closely as possible. Some scarfs by their form are self-sustain- 
 ing, but, compared with the timbers they unite, are weak, and 
 are seldom used unless strengthened by bolts, or by bolts and 
 fish-pieces. 
 
 203. A scarfed johit for resisting coinprcssion is shown in 
 its simplest form by Fig. 234. When strengthened by bolts 
 and fish-pieces, it forms an exceedingly good joint. 
 
 P'ig.C334 
 
 Fig. 235 
 
 m 
 
 204. A scarfed joint for resisting tension is shown by Fig. 
 235. The key A supplies the abutting surface to receive the 
 strain tending to open the joint ; in thickness it is equal to 
 one-third that of the timber. In practice this joint is not often 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 135 
 
 employed without fish-pieces. Fig. 236 shows a modification 
 of 235, which will serve excellently for tensional strain. 
 
 205. A scarfed Joint for resisting cross-strain is subject 
 to compressional strain in its upper portion, and to tensional 
 strain in its lower portion (198), and must, therefore, embody 
 forms adapted to resisting both, as shown by Fig. 237. A 
 single fish-piece is usually added to the lower side of the joint. 
 
 Fig..S37 
 
 206. A scarfed Joint for resisiifig tension and compression 
 may be made, as shown by Fig. 238 ; or, less complicated, as 
 shown by Fig. 239 ; or, more secure, as shown by Fig. 240. 
 
 Fig. 238 
 
 Kis.aso 
 
 
 207. A scaffed Joint for resisting: tension and cross-strain 
 is sometimes made as illustrated by Fig. 241, but this form is 
 
 Fig. 340 
 
 Fig.,a41 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 ^mm 
 
 not so good as the one shown by Fig. 233, if in the latter case 
 the fish-pieces are indented. 
 
136 
 
 BENCH WORK IX WOOD. 
 
 Joints connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 
 
 208. Halving, Fig. 242, forms a very simple joint, and when 
 well fastened, a strong one. It is frequently employed. 
 
 Beveled-lialving, Fig. 243, is sometimes resorted to with the 
 view of allowing the load imposed upon A in the direction of 
 the arrow, to hold the joint together. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances, this joint is likely to prove weak, because of a lack of 
 material at the shoulder near the letter A. 
 
 I^ig. 244 
 
 Fig. 243 
 
 m 
 
 ITis. 243 
 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 g^^ 
 
 p 
 
 
 .^-—5: 
 
 /iil: 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 J. 
 
 \R-\ ELEVATION. 
 
 -— / 
 
 
 '^'j ELEVATION 
 
 209. Notching. — In placing several timbers upon another 
 which is to support them, in the manner represented by Fig. 
 244, it is usually desired that the tops of the supported timbers 
 be uniform in height. This would not be accomplished by 
 simply placing them in a row, because timbers of the same 
 nominal size vary in their breadth and depth. The ends of 
 the deeper ones must therefore be cut or " notched," as shown 
 by Fig. 244, to make them agree in depth with the lightest 
 timber of all. Properly speaking, this is a preparation for the 
 bearing of one timber on another, and not a joint ; but if the 
 end of the supported timber is allowed to project, as repre- 
 sented by Fig. 245, a true joint is made. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 137 
 
 Double-notching requires a notch in both timbers, Fig. 246. 
 
 X. 
 
 210. Cogging is represented by Fig. 247. It has some 
 advantage over notching in point of strength, inasmuch as the 
 timber B has its full depth over its support. The " cog " A 
 makes the union between the two timbers, as a joint, quite as 
 satisfactory as the double notch. 
 
 If the surrounding conditions require it, the cog may be 
 formed near one edge, instead of in the middle of the timber. 
 
 211. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints. — A tenon is a projection 
 made on the end of a timber to form part of a joint ; a mortise 
 is an opening intended to receive a tenon. In Fig. 248, T is 
 
 a 
 
 the tenon ; M, the mortise ; /?, the root of the tenon ; S, S, 
 its shoulders ; and c, c, are sometimes called the abutting 
 cheeks of the mortise. 
 
 212. When a vertical timber meets a horizontal timber, 
 the object of the joint is simply to prevent displacement ; and 
 a small, short tenon, sometimes called a " stub tenon," is 
 usually employed. In this case, the tenon should not reach 
 the bottom of the mortise, but the strain should be taken by 
 
138 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the shoulders. Sometimes, instead of making a stub tenon, 
 the whole end of one timber is let into another, and the first 
 is then said to be "housed." 
 
 213. When a horizontal timber meets a vertical timber, the 
 joint may be formed as shown by Fig. 249, or made much 
 stronger, if, in addition to the tenon, it is " blocked," Fig. 250, 
 or housed as shown by Fig. 251. 
 
 Fig.G^O 
 
 Fij 
 
 214. ^Vhen one horizontal timber meets another, it is a 
 common practice, if the proportions of the pieces are favorable, 
 to employ a double mortise and tenon. Fig. 252, A being 
 
 I'^is-aSl 
 
 Fig. So3 
 
 supported by B. This method cannot be recommended, how- 
 ever, because B is very much weakened l)y the mortises. 
 With reference to B only, the best place for the mortise is on 
 the neutral axis (in the center of the timber), while with refer- 
 ence to A only, the tenon should be on its lower edge, that it 
 may be re-enforced by all the material al)ove it. If timbers 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 139 
 
 of equal depth are thus joined, they will appear as shown by 
 Fig. 253 ; but this combination, while strong, is not always 
 practicable, because of surrounding conditions. For this rea- 
 son, both mortise and tenon are often placed in unfavorable 
 positions, and the strength of the joint sacrificed. Sometimes 
 the form shown by Fig. 254 is used, but this has little in its 
 
 Fig.SSS 
 
 'if is- 2i34 
 
 I l=r-. 
 
 favor, except the ease with which it is made. A better com- 
 bination is shown by Fig. 255, which, although less perfect as a 
 joint, may serve the purpose quite as well as Fig. 253 if the 
 timber is long between supports. Tusk tenons are used to 
 overcome the difficulties presented by the forms sho^vn al)Ove 
 when employed in heavy construction. This arrangement of 
 surfaces, Fig. 256, allows the mortise to be in the center of the 
 timber, and to be small ; and it also allows the tenon, by means 
 of the tusk T, to present a low abutting surface on the sup- 
 ported timber. Its strength and compactness fully compensate 
 for the difficulty of fitting it. 
 
 inia. 2GG 
 
 F'is.SST 
 
 ■~=^.-^J^-£_ -^:^ 
 
 M1SCEL1.ANEOUS Joints. 
 
 215. Oblique Mortises and Tenons may be used to join 
 two timbers meeting each other at an oblique angle. Fig. 257 
 shows a common form in which the abutting surface, repre- 
 sented by the dotted line A, is perpendicular to the cheeks of 
 
140 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the mortise, and the strain transmitted in the direction of the 
 arrow, is divided between the surfaces represented by the 
 dotted hne A and the full line B. A bearing along the latter 
 line becomes unreliable when the timbers shrink, or when, by 
 the settling of connected parts, the surfaces change their rela- 
 tive position. For this reason it is better to depend mainly on 
 the line A, which is less affected by the causes mentioned. To 
 take the strain wholly, A should be at right angles to the length 
 of the tenon-bearing timber. Fig. 258. This, however, while 
 apparently a well-formed joint, is not a strong one, for the 
 
 TTiK.SGS 
 
 
 tenon, which is usually equal to but one-third the width of 
 the timber, must alone receive the thrust. To relieve the tenon 
 by increasing the area of the abutting surface, the end of A 
 may be housed as shown by Fig. 259, or the joint may be 
 strengthened by bolts or straps. 
 
 The mortise for the joint shown by Fig. 258 is usually made 
 of the outline a/>c, and the triangle a'/'c is not filled. This is 
 done because it is easier to cut down the line be than the line 
 a'c. There seems to be no objection to this practice. 
 
 Ki<;. 2GO 
 
 il 
 
 Fig, S61 
 
 
 3??^^!F7 
 
 216. A Bridle-Joint is represented by Fig. 260. It pos- 
 sesses the advantage of having its parts so exposed that any 
 inaccuracy in the fit is always apparent. An oblique form of 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 141 
 
 bridle-joint, Fig. 261, is certainly worthy of study. The width 
 of the bridle, B, Fig. 260, should not exceed one-fifth the 
 width of the timber. 
 
 217. A Tie- Joint is shown by Fig. 262. The timber A is 
 prevented from falling away in the direction indicated by the 
 arrow, by the insertion of the tie B. The joint illustrated by 
 Fig. 197 may be made to serve the same purpose. 
 
 Fig. 263 
 
 H 
 I i 
 
 *- 
 
 SI! 
 
 1362 
 
 1 
 
 ^-'^\ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 218. A Chase-Mortise is a mortise elongated as shown by 
 Fig. 263. Its purpose is to admit a cross- timber between 
 two timbers already fixed. When the cross-timber is in pla:e, 
 that portion of the mortise which is unoccupied may be filled, 
 and the joint thus made secure. 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 219. The work of the joiner, unUke that of the carpenter, is 
 usually where it must bear the test of close examination. It is, 
 therefore, necessary that the several pieces of which a whole 
 work is formed, be united by joints that are neat in appearance, 
 or so made as to be hidden from sight. Such joints must be 
 strong even where there is apparently but little strain upon 
 them. Otherwise, the parts are likely to become loose from 
 shrinking and swelling, and to expose unsightly seams. 
 
 Some of the joints already described, while particularly adapted 
 to uniting timbers in carpentry, may under given conditions be 
 
142 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 equally suitable for the smaller work in joinery. It may also 
 be true that some that are treated in connection with joinery, 
 are quite as useful in carpentry. As already stated, the classi- 
 fication here used only serves to fix in mind a few general 
 principles governing the adaptation of joints ; it cannot be 
 arbitrarily adhered to. 
 
 The rule in carpentry that makes the simplest form of joint 
 best, does not always hold in joinery, because the methods of 
 the joiner admit of greater accuracy, and also because the 
 pieces of material used are smaller, and consequently less 
 affected by shrinkage. 
 
 Beads and Moldings. 
 
 220. Beads. — A single-quirked bead'vi shown by Fig. 264, a 
 being the quirk; a double-qtiirked bead is shown by Fig. 265, 
 
 ; . I ■ 
 \ 
 
 m222i^ 
 
 and a staff, or angle, bead by Fig. 266. The term reeding is 
 applied to a succession of beads, as shown by Fig. 267. A 
 bead is said to be stuck when it is formed on the piece of 
 material on which it is used, and planted when it is formed on 
 
 l^-i-j;. aoG 
 
 iV-*l''rn 
 
 r// •' i^ig. ser 
 
 '~"'^ lyg^S^gl 
 
 a separate piece and glued or nailed in place. The size of a 
 bead is indicated by the distance A, Fig. 264. 
 
 221. Beads are sometimes used wholly for ornament, but 
 they are designed chiefly to conceal cracks by the shadows 
 they cast. It is a principle in joinery, that when two boards 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 143 
 
 are to be joined they must be made as one complete board, 
 with the joint so concealed that no crack is left, either when 
 first made or after shrinkage ; or there should be a very decided 
 crack, which will appear to have been made intentionally. The 
 first kind of joint is made by means of glue ; but, as the boards 
 forming a surface of considerable width must have some free- 
 dom of movement on account of shrinking and swelling tenden- 
 cies, it follows that when large surfaces are to be covered, glued 
 joints cannot be used. Under such circumstances, it is found 
 best to make no attempt at a close joint, but to allow the 
 
 Fig 
 
 . S68 
 
 \w 
 
 \\m\ 
 
 m 
 
 k \ 
 
 IP Ml I'll 
 
 f 
 
 111 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 pieces to shrink and swell as they may, and depend upon 
 beads to conceal the cracks. Thus the joint shown by Fig. 268 
 would seem to have been intended for a close fit ; but since it 
 is not, the opening is allowed to remain, and a bead applied, 
 as shown by Fig. 269. The crack is thus converted into a quirk 
 of a bead, and is not noticeable except on close inspection. 
 
 222. A chamfer is a narrow surface produced, usually, at 
 an angle of forty-five degrees with two other surfaces. Like 
 the bead, it may be used for ornament, or for disguising cracks 
 as shown by Fig. 270. 
 
 223. A stop chamfer is one which does not extend the full 
 length of the piece on which it is formed. See A, Fig. 212. 
 
144 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 224. Moldings, while of the same character with beads, are 
 larger and often much more complex in form. 'I'hcy may be 
 stuck or planted. Among the most simple forms is the ogee, 
 Fig. 271, which is frequently used as a finish for the edge of a 
 projecting board — a table top, for example. 
 
 225. A round ?iose, Fig. 272, is, perhaps, the simplest of 
 all, and is especially useful where a projecting board is subject 
 to usage severe enough to destroy sharp angles or small details, 
 as is the " tread " of a stair. 
 
 226. From a few sim])le forms, of which the two shown are 
 types, have sprung the variety of styles, which, for the most 
 part, have no designation but the number given them by the 
 
 Fig. Qri ITio.. 272 Ii^ig' SVS 
 
 manufacturer. While most of them may be stuck, as is the 
 ogee. Fig. 271, and the common forms shown by Fig. 273, 
 they are generally planted. Fig. 274 shows a molding at A, 
 planted on a plain surface ; at B, one planted in an angle, and 
 
 at C, a rabbeted (bolection) molding which overlaps one of 
 the i)ieces forming the angle. 
 
 A fillet^ is a light strip of material used in a joint as a 
 fastening, or, in connection with beads and moldings, as a 
 means of ornamentation. 
 
 227. In joining boards, use is frequently made of some outside 
 support, which, though not considered a part of the joint, is 
 
 1 Fillet, or thread. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I45 
 
 often the one element that makes the adaptation of the joint pos- 
 sible. For example, two boards of a floor may be joined to each 
 other in a variety of ways ; but they are both supported and 
 retained in position by being fastened to the " flooring joist." 
 A consideration of the joint between the boards, however, need 
 not involve the joist except as a fastening. 
 
 Heading-Joints, or Joints for uniting Pieces in the 
 Direction of their Length. 
 
 228. The length to which boards may be sawed, is, in prac- 
 tice, limited only by man's ability to handle and transport them 
 with economy. For most purposes, the lengths of from ten to 
 twenty feet which are supplied l)y the trade, serve as well as 
 longer ones. They can be handled more easily — in other 
 words, more cheaply — than boards of thirty or forty feet. 
 
 Fig. 275 shows a square heading-joint, which is usually "cut 
 under " a little, as indicated by dotted lines, to insure a close 
 joint on the surface. 
 
 if^ig. ars iTig. are 
 
 NAiy* . / NAIL 
 
 ■ 
 
 i)Wf JOIST 
 
 A splayed heading-joint is shown by Fig. 276. As a joint, 
 this will seem more perfect than Fig. 275, but it is more difficult 
 to make, and the latter is in most places (juite as satisfactory. 
 
 Joints F(m uniting Pieces in thi'. Direction ok their \\'ii)rH. 
 
 229. Joints of this class have two offices to perform : first, to 
 prevent shrinkage from making an oj)en joint ; and, secondly, 
 to distribute to adjoining boards, strain that may be received 
 by any one of them at points between supports. 
 
146 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 230. Fig. 277 shows at A a. plain butt-joint, which has no 
 provision against opening, and in which the boards do not sup- 
 port each other ; it is, really, no joint at all. The same figure 
 shows at B, C, and £>, respectivel)', a filleted joint, a rabbeted 
 joint, and a matched joint. Any of these may be beaded as 
 shown by Fig. 269. The marring of the surface by nail heads 
 may be prevented by "secret nailing," which is shown in 
 Fig. 277. 
 
 ^A^_ B r D 
 
 S JOIST 
 
 Joints of this class which have no support outside of them- 
 selves, must be held by glue. 
 
 231. A Glued Butt-joint, shown by Fig. 278, if well made, 
 will be quite as strong in the softer woods as a glued matched 
 or a glued filleted joint. It is difficult, however, especially if the 
 boards are long, to keep the two pieces forming the plain joint 
 in ])ropcr position while the glue is setting. Even if they are 
 clamped, they are almost sure to slip, so that when the joint has 
 finally become firm, the boards may have assumed a position 
 similar to that shown. Fig. 278. The fillet, and the tongue and 
 
 ? 
 
 groove (B and D, Fig. 277) are useful in keeping the parts in 
 place until the glue has hardened. Dowels may be used for 
 the same purpose, Fig. 279. If they are placed at short inter- 
 vals, and are well fitted, they will add strength to the joint. 
 
 232. Cleating. — A cleat is a piece of material fastened 
 across tlie width of a board to prevent its warping ; if the sur- 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 147 
 
 face is composed of several pieces, the cleat is also designed to 
 hold them together. It may be applied to the back of the 
 pieces, as shown by Fig. 280, or across the ends, as shown by 
 Fig. 281. As the grain of the cleat is at right angles to that of 
 the surface to which it is fastened, and since wood shrinks and 
 swells more across the grain than with it, there is likely to be 
 
 Kig. 280 
 
 7^//.|\\n|l'M'i'l'lM 
 
 i!ul 
 
 '"'III 
 
 
 /|j|l\A|'/i|n'|'/( 
 
 3^CLEAT A 
 
 Kig. 281 A 
 
 l-= 
 
 ^ELFAHiAsfc 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 ^^CtEAT-e?::^ 
 
 
 some movement of one on the other, and the fastenings used 
 to secure the cleat should be of such a nature as to allow it. 
 Other^vise, the edges of the board will be rigidly held, and 
 shrinkage will result in the formation of large cracks, by the 
 splitting of the board somewhere near the center. Screws are 
 undoubtedly the best fastenings, as they will yield, to some 
 degree, without becoming loosened. Nails frequently answer 
 every purpose ; and dowels are sometimes used. Glue is un- 
 serviceable. When it is used alone, the cleats soon drop off; 
 and when used with other fastenings, it either gives way 
 entirely, or breaks at intervals, causing local cracks. 
 
 233. Side-cleatmg, Fig. 280, is the more effective of the two 
 methods, because the cleat may be larger and, for this reason, 
 the fastenings be applied to better advantage. But, when ex- 
 posed to view, side cleats are unsightly, and are often objec- 
 tionable because they increase the thickness of the piece as a 
 whole. The proportions of the cleat may vary with the duty 
 expected of it. Other things being equal, A will be more effec- 
 
148 
 
 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 tive than B. It is more difficult, however, to put screws or 
 other fastenings through A than through B ; either may be 
 fastened by screws inserted from the face of the board. 
 
 234. End cleats are neat in appearance, and, when decided 
 warping tendencies are not to be overcome, do good service. 
 To supplement the fastenings, a narrow tongue may be formed 
 on the board to fit a corresponding groove in the cleat, as 
 shown in connection with B, Fig. 281. 
 
 235. If only one surface of a cleated board is to be made 
 use of, — a drawing board, for example, 
 — the strain on the cleat may be les- 
 sened by a succession of saw cuts on the 
 lower side, extending the length of the 
 board, as shown by Fig. 282. By this 
 means, the warping tendency of a seven- 
 eighths-inch board may be reduced to 
 that of a (juarter-inch, or even a one- 
 eighth-inch board. 
 
 Section A.B. 
 
 Joints for uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 
 
 236. Butt-Joints. — A plain joint of this kind is represented 
 by Fig. 283. The joint may be concealed by a bead, as indi- 
 cated by dotted lines ; and, when the material is thick and it is 
 desirable to prevent an exposure of end grain as much as possi- 
 ble, the joint may be modified, as shown by Fig. 284. This 
 form also may be beaded. When great strength is demanded. 
 
 Kig. 283 
 
 ^is. QB4 
 
 ^m 
 
 2B6 
 
 i 
 
 a housed joint may be made, Fig. 285. The sides and ends of 
 troughs which are required to be water-tight, are frequently 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 149 
 
 made in this way. If there can be no projection, as A, Fig. 
 285, this joint may be modified as shown by Fig. 286, but it 
 will lose in strength. 
 
 237. Miter-Joint. — Fig. 287 shows a plain miter-joint. Its 
 sole recommendation lies in the fact that it exposes no end 
 grain, for, from a mechanical point of view, it is weak and 
 faulty : weak, because difficult to fasten, and faulty, because, as 
 the two pieces forming the joint shrink, each will become 
 narrower on the lines A, A, and produce the change of form 
 shown by the dotted lines B and B'. As a result of this change, 
 either the angle C between the two pieces must become smaller, 
 or the joint must open, forming a wide crack on the inside, 
 which is represented by the triangle BDB'. 
 
 Miter-joints between two pieces of different thickness are 
 
 Fig. L^ST 
 
 Vi'^. 288 
 
 Fis. 289 
 
 made in the form illustrated by Fig. 288. Occasionally this is 
 used when the pieces are of the same thickness, Fig. 289 ; for 
 while it has the advantages of the plain miter-joint, it is stronger 
 and less affected by shrinkage. 
 
 Fig. coo 
 
 -A 
 
 Fig. iiOl 
 
 238. Glue, and brads or nails, the usual fastenings for miter- 
 joints, may be supplemented by a fillet inserted as shown by 
 A, Fig. 290, or by small pieces inserted in saw cuts which are 
 made across the angle of the joint, as shown by A, Fig. 291. 
 
150 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 239. Dovetail-Joints have already been discussed (171-176). 
 They can be made much stronger than any of the other angle 
 joints herein considered. The plain dovetail, Fig. 199, is 
 sometimes objectionable because it exposes end grain, but the 
 checkered appearance of a well-made joint almost counterbal- 
 ances this objection. In the lap-dovetail-joint, however, Fig. 
 201, the end grain disappears from one face, and in the blind 
 dovetail. Fig. 203, from both faces. The blind dovetail cer- 
 tainly combines all that could be desired as far as strength and 
 appearance are concerned ; but it is difficult to make. 
 
 240. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints in joinery are different from 
 those employed in carj^entry, only in the proportions of their 
 parts, and the accuracy with which they are fitted. When the 
 thickness B, Fig. 292, of the pieces joined is the same, the 
 
 thickness A, of a simple tenon may vary from one-third to 
 two-thirds that of the piece on which it is formed, practice 
 tending toward the larger figure ; and its breadth C ought not 
 to exceed seven times its thickness. For the thickness given. 
 Fig. 292 shows a tenon of the greatest breadth allowable. The 
 breadth is thus limited because the sides of the mortise derive 
 their support from the solid material at its ends, and they 
 become too weak for good service when the limit named is 
 
 Fifr. 203 
 
 =^ 
 
 exceeded. Again, the tenon, if too broad, will not stand the 
 pressure of wedging, but is likely to become distorted, thus 
 putting additional strain on the mortise, and frequently causing 
 it to split. See Fig. 293. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 151 
 
 241. When the piece on which the tenon is to be formed is 
 very broad, a single tenon, if employed, leaves wide shoulders, 
 AB, Fig. 294. These are open to objection, because of the 
 tendency of the tenon piece to warp so that its surface at 
 D will not agree with the surface of the piece it joins, at C. 
 Under such circumstances a double tenon. Fig. 295, may be 
 used. This will give the support that is needed, and will not 
 violate the principle laid down in 240. Double tenons, how- 
 ever, while they obviate one difficulty introduce another. The 
 tenons are unyielding, and, if the piece is very wide, its shrink- 
 age is likely to produce a crack between them, as denoted by 
 the dotted lines A, Fig. 295. 
 
 Fig. 295 
 
 Fig. 894 
 
 242. Haunching is a device by which the tenon proper is 
 supplemented by very short tenons, or " haunches," as indicated 
 by the dotted outline. Fig. 296. The entire end of the tenon 
 piece is thus inserted in the mortise piece, and prevented from 
 warping ; the danger of its splitting from shrinkage is not in- 
 creased. If the piece shown by Fig. 294 were haunched, the 
 imperfection it illustrates would be removed. 
 
 Fig. 296 
 
 243. Four tenons may be used in a single joint when the 
 pieces to be united are very thick and wide, Fig. 297. By 
 their use the parts are made small enough to prevent shrinkage 
 from producing a bad joint. 
 
152 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 244. In forming a joint at the extremity of the mortise piece, 
 a single tenon, if employed, must be cut away at one side, as 
 shown by Fig. 298. Such a joint may be haunched. Fig. 299, 
 or if the pieces are sufficiently wide, two tenons may be used, 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 "Fis- aOS Fig. 200 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 245. Mortise-and-tenon joints in joinery are capable of all 
 the modifications of form which they are made to assume in 
 carpentry. They may be housed, for example, or made in any 
 of the obhque forms. 
 
 Paneling. 
 
 246. A Panel is a board, or a combination of boards, em- 
 ployed to fill an opening within a frame. Thus, in Fig. 300 the 
 pieces J^ constitute the frame, and the pieces A, B, C, and D 
 are panels. The primary purpose of this arrangement is to 
 give an extended surface of w'ood so constructed that the 
 pieces of which it is made shall be well and neatly fastened, 
 and, at the same time, the dimeiisions and the general appear- 
 ance of the whole, be unaffected by shrinking or swelling. To 
 enhance the attractiveness of the surface, both frame and panel 
 are frequently embellished, sometimes so richly that we lose 
 sight of the mechanical necessity of the panel, and come to 
 regard it as a means of decoration. 
 
 247. The Frame taken by itself is, in general, made up of 
 vertical and horizontal pieces united by mortise-and-tenon 
 joints. Vertical pieces extending the full length of any frame 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 Kitr. 300 
 
 153 
 
 4— 
 
 a Se c. CD. h 
 
154 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 are called "stiles," and horizontal pieces, "rails." Each of 
 these parts should be as narrow as is consistent with the degree 
 of strength required. The width of a rail should never be more 
 than twice that of the stile, which, as a rule, should not exceed 
 four and a half inches. A consideration of Fig. 300 will show 
 that, although the door is three or more feet wide, the only sur- 
 faces whose shrinkage can affect the width are the two 4-^-inch 
 stiles. Large surfaces are covered, not by increasing the size 
 of the parts, but by increasing their number. 
 
 The fillet e is inserted to cover the end of the tenons, which 
 would otherwise show on the edge of the door. 
 
 248. The panel may be either fastened to the back of the 
 frame, or inserted in a groove, or " plow," made in the frame 
 to receive it. In either case, provision must be made for 
 shrinking and swelling. When fastened to the back, screws 
 are usually found to make a sufficiently yielding joint. When 
 fitted into the frame, no fastening is needed beyond that de- 
 rived from its position. It must fit loosely enough to draw out 
 on shrinking, but not so loosely as to rattle. 
 
 In Fig. 300, ^ is a plain panel screwed to the back of the 
 frame, and the frame about it is stop-chamfered. This is, prob- 
 ably, the simplest combination of frame and panel. In com- 
 mon with all panels fastened in this way, it is best adapted to 
 work that is to be seen from one side only, as a closet door, 
 or the permanent lining of a room. 
 
 B shows a plain panel fastened to the back of a frame which 
 is ornamented by a molding. 
 
 C differs from B only in being let into the frame instead of 
 being screwed to the back. The reverse face c may be orna- 
 mented by a molding in the same manner as C, or by a 
 chamfer. 
 
 D shows a raised panel embellished by a rabbeted molding. 
 The reverse face </ is a plain raised panel. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 1 55 
 
 A panel and frame may be plain on one side and orna- 
 mented on the other, the ornamentation on one side may differ 
 from that on the other, or the sides may be similar ; and any 
 form of embellishment that may properly be applied to board 
 surfaces, may be used in connection with this work. 
 
 FASTENINGS. 
 
 249. Pins are employed principally as a means of holding 
 tenons in mortises. In carpentry one pin, generally, is used in 
 each joint, its diameter varying from one-sixth to one-fourth the 
 width of the tenon. It is commonly placed at a distance from 
 the abutting cheeks of the mortise, equal to one-third the 
 length of the tenon. But to secure the maximum strength of 
 the joint, its exact location in any particular case must be fixed 
 with reference to the character of the material, and also to the 
 relative thickness of the tenon and the cheeks of the mortise. 
 In joinery, it is found best to use two or more pins, and, what- 
 ever the proportions of the joint may be, these rarely exceed 
 three-eighths of an inch in diameter. They are inserted very 
 near the abutting cheeks of the mortise, so that that part of 
 the mortise between them and the shoulder of the tenon, will 
 not shrink enough to make an open joint. 
 
 Square pins are better than round ones, but the latter are 
 more easily fitted and, therefore, more used. 
 Drawboring has already been described (168), 
 
 250. Wedges. — The most common use of wedges is illus- 
 trated by Fig. 213 in connection with Exercise No. 14, which 
 requires wedges to be dipped in glue, and driven between the 
 tenon and the ends of the mortise. Wedges are also driven 
 in saw cuts made in the end of the tenon for the purpose of 
 
156 
 
 BENCH WORK IX WOOD. 
 
 expanding it, as illustrated by Fig. 301, which shows a.t A a. 
 section of a joint before the wedges are driven, and zX B a. 
 section of the finished joint. The saw cut should extend 
 somewhat deeper than the point reached by the wedge. If 
 the tenon is broad, or if a considerable increase in breadth is 
 
 Fig. 301 
 
 required, more than one wedge must be used. When there 
 are more than two, a large one should be inserted in the center, 
 and smaller ones on each side, as shown by Fig. 302, the 
 wedges ready for driving at A, and the joint finished at B. 
 
 251. Blind-wedging is sometimes resorted to when the 
 mortise does not extend through the piece. As shown by Fig. 
 303, the mortise is enlarged at the bottom and the wedges 
 started in ; then, as the pieces are driven together, the ends of 
 the wedges strike against the bottom of the mortise and spread 
 the tenon. When driven, the tenon cannot be withdrawn. 
 
 TTig. .TO-l 
 
 252. Keys differ from wedges in respect of their sides, which 
 are parallel or nearly so. The key may be a single piece, as 
 shown in the joint, Fig. 197, or, what is better, made as two 
 wedges. Fig. 304. These may be put in place when in the 
 relative position shown by A'B, after which, by driving them 
 upon each other, as indicated by A, B, the joint may be tight- 
 ened. The parallelism of the outside edges, which are in 
 contact with the joint, is always maintained. 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 157 
 
 253. Dowels are round wooden pins of small diameter used 
 to strengthen a joint. They should be dipped in glue and 
 driven at a tight fit into holes made for their reception. They 
 may be carried entirely through one piece and into the other, 
 Fig. 282, or inserted as shown by Fig. 279. 
 
 Dowels may be made at the bench by the plane, or they may 
 be turned. When planed, they will be improved in section if 
 driven through a round hole in a piece of iron or steei. They 
 are supplied by the trade, of all ordinary diameters, and in 
 lengths of several feet, so that the consumer has but to cut 
 them to lengths suited to his purposes, and point them. 
 
 Shoe pegs ser\-e well as small dowels. After being dipped in 
 glue, they should be driven in brad-awl holes. 
 
 Whenever fastenings are required to be so placed that sub- 
 sequent operations bring the cutting tools about them, dowels 
 are preferable to brads or nails, since they may be planed off 
 without injury to the tool. 
 
 
 Fig.iro 
 
 A 
 
 254. Nails are classified according to the process by which 
 they are made ; the material used ; their form and proportions ; 
 and the use for which they are intended. Iron and steel are 
 the most common materials, but when 
 305 these would be destroyed by corrosion, 
 copper and "galvanized " iron are used. 
 The forms of most importance to the 
 bench-worker, may be classed as covi- 
 771011 and fi7tishi7ii;; (or easi7ii;-) nails. 
 Their comparative proportions are illus- 
 trated by Figs, 170 and 305, the former 
 representing a common, and the latter 
 J a finishing nail. It is evident that the 
 
 greater strength of the common nail '*"" "'^ 
 makes its use desirable when there is sufficient material to re- 
 ceive it properly, and when the appearance of the head on 
 
15^ BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 
 
 the surface is not objectionable. The finishing nail mav be 
 used in more delicate material, and makes a smaller scar on 
 the work. 
 
 Cut nails are so called because, in the process of manufacture, 
 each nail is cut from a plate of metal. The plate has a width 
 equal to the length of the nail, and a thickness equal to its 
 breadth. Generally speaking, all nails of the form shown by 
 Figs. 1 70 and 305 are cut. 
 
 Wrought, as distinguished from cut nails, are those which 
 without breaking will bend sufficiently for clinching. As the 
 term suggests, such nails were formerly wrought under the 
 hammer, it being impossible to obtain the requisite quality by 
 machinery ; and they were 30 made long after common nails 
 had ceased to be made by hand. In later years, however, 
 wrought nails have in reality been cut, but from better material 
 and by more perfect processes than those which have been 
 technically called cut nails. 
 
 Steel cut nails are now generally introduced in this country, 
 and will in time take the place not only of the iron cut, but also 
 „. „^ , of the so-called wrought nails : for, while less ex- 
 
 P^if?. 30G ° ' ' 
 
 pensive than the former, they are equal in quality 
 to the latter. 
 
 IP'ire flails, Fig. 306, are at this time coming 
 into general use. Their strength and tenacity are 
 unequaled. They are made from drawn wire in 
 sizes varying from that of the smallest brad to 
 that of the largest spike. 
 
 255- The length of nails is indicated by numbers prefixed 
 to the word "penny," as 6-penny, 8-penny, terms ^ which are 
 
 ' It has been suggested that they once indicated the value or price of a 
 given number of nails, 6-penny nails being sold at six pence per hundred, 
 and 8-penny nails for eight pence per hundred. Another explanation is 
 that penny, as here used, is a corruption of pound, 6-penny meaning that 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 159 
 
 now used arbitrarily, l^ough, originally, they were doubtless 
 significant. 
 
 The length of nails of ordinary sizes is given as follows : — 
 
 3-penny nail is one inch long. 
 
 4-penny " one and one-fourth inches long. 
 
 5-penny " one and three-fourths " " 
 
 6-penny " two " " 
 
 7-penny " two and one-fourth " " 
 
 An 8-penny " two and one-half " " 
 
 A lo-penny " two and three-fourths " " 
 
 A i2-penny " three " " 
 
 A 20-penny " three and one-half " " 
 
 256. Brads are small finishing nails, in form similar to the 
 nail shown by Fig. 305, the smaller ones being thicker, and the 
 larger ones more slender. Their size is expressed in inches 
 and fractions of an inch, and ranges from one-fourth of an inch 
 to two inches. 
 
 257. Tacks are useless for fastening pieces of wood to each 
 other, but are indispensable when lighter material, like cloth or 
 leather, is to be fastened to wood. They vary in form and size 
 with the particular use for which they are intended. Their size 
 is expressed by a number prefixed to the word " ounce." ^ The 
 length of the more common sizes varies as follows : — 
 
 A i-ounce 
 
 tack is three-sixteenths 
 
 A 2-ounce 
 
 " one-fourth 
 
 A 3-ounce 
 
 " three-eighths 
 
 A 4-ounce 
 
 " seven-sixteenths 
 
 A 6-ounce 
 
 " one-half 
 
 An 8-ounce 
 
 " nine-sixteenths 
 
 A lo-ounce 
 
 " five-eighths 
 
 a thousand nails weighed six pounds; 8-penny, that a thousand weighed 
 eight pounds, and so on. 
 
 iThis expression may have once represented the weight of 1000 tacks; 
 for example, 1000 tacks ^^^" long, weighed one ounce, and were, therefore, 
 called " one-ounce " tacks. 
 
i6o bp:nch work in wood. 
 
 258. Common Screws are either bright or blued, steel or 
 brass, round-headed or flat-headed. 
 
 Bright screws are finished by polishing. When blued, the 
 luster of the polish has been taken off by heat or an acid, and 
 a deep blue finish produced. Blued screws will not rust so 
 easily as bright screws, and in most work they look better — 
 considerations which apply with still greater force to the use of 
 brass as a material instead of steel. 
 
 Flat-headed screws, shown by Fig. 124, are the most com- 
 mon. When used on finished surfaces, the heads should be 
 sunk below the general level and the hole above them filled. 
 When this is not convenient, round heads, which in the finished 
 work will appear above the surface, are frequently employed. 
 
 The size of screws is indicated by their length in inches or 
 fractions of an inch, and by the diameter of the wire forming 
 the body ; this diameter is expressed by a numl)er which refers 
 to a " standard screw gauge." The sizes of the screw gauge 
 range from No. o, which represents a diameter of a little less 
 than a sixteenth of an inch, to No. 30, which represents a 
 diameter somewhat greater than seven-sixteenths of an inch. 
 The size of a screw two inches long and a quarter of an inch 
 in diameter would be written 2" x No. 15. 
 
 259. Glue is chiefly of two kinds, which are known as animal, 
 and fish glue. Animal glue is a product obtained from the 
 refuse of tanneries (bone, horn, hoofs, and bits of hide), which 
 gives up the glutinous matter it contains when boiled under 
 pressure. Fish glue is extracted from the spawn and entrails of 
 fish. As prepared for the market, both are generally in the 
 form of cakes, varying in thickness from an eighth of an inch 
 to very thin chips, according to the quality and character of the 
 glue. For bench work, these are dissolved in water, and the 
 mixture applied hot. For convenience in dissolving the glue, a 
 glue-pot is used, which is an arrangement of two vessels, one 
 
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. l6l 
 
 within another, the inner being for glue, the outer for water. 
 Heat is communicated in any convenient way to the water, and 
 the water in turn heats the glue. The use of the vessel of 
 water is to prevent the glue from burning. 
 
 Gluing. — When ready for use, the glue should be hot and 
 of the consistency of thin sirup. It must be apphed with a 
 brush, in a thin, uniform coating to both surfaces that are to 
 be joined. Too much glue will prevent the pieces from coming 
 together in the joint. The application should be made as 
 quickly as possible because the glue begins to cool and set as 
 soon as it is taken from the pot ; it will set less quickly if 
 the pieces to be glued are warmed. After the pieces have 
 been put together, they should be rul)bed to squeeze out the 
 surplus glue, and finally clamped in place and allowed to remain 
 until dry — at least twelve hours. 
 
 Liquid glues are supplied by the trade. They require no 
 heating and are, therefore, always ready for use. 
 
 When end grain is to be glued, it must first be sized, that is, 
 coated with thin glue, in order to fill the pores of the wood, 
 and allowed to dry before the joint is made. Otherwise, the 
 glue that is put into the joint is drawn off into the grain and 
 becomes useless as a fastening. 
 
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