:.kijju>!i' Class. Book. ^AOA COPYRIGHT DEPOSm | H t Q COLUMBUS LANDING IN THE NEW WORLD ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY THOMAS BONAVENTURE LAWLER, A.M., LL.D (I AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF COLUMBUS AND MAGELLAN AND "A I'KIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES" WITH ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS BY N. C. WYETH " Let us raise a standard lo which the wise and the honest can repair ; the event is in the hand of God." RF.VISED EDITION GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON . NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1902, 1918, BY THOMAS BONAVENTURE LAWLER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 318.9 tCbe gtbeneeum jgretfg GINN AND COMPANY- PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. DEC 21 I9i8 ©aA508645 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION This work has been prepared to give as thorough a knowledge of the political, industrial, and territorial development of our country as the limits of a grammar-school textbook will allow. It endeavors to show the part played by all the elements, racial and religious, that have made contributions to American history. The upbuilding of the United States is indeed a wonder- ful stor\-. From the days of the Vikings onward the long procession of valiant Spanish, English, French, and Dutch voyagers, missionaries, and colonizers appears on its pages. The Indian tribes are seen in the woods or on the plains, along the rivers and on the Great Lakes. The scenes of our great historic actions were enacted on a stage made up of mighty areas, unrivaled waterways, primeval forests, boundless plains, and towering mountain systems. Through all the story we can see the slow development of a representative form of government, which, checked — now here and now there — by royal prerogative, at last burst its bonds and emerged a free people. While the path of progress of the Republic has ever led onward, it was not without, now and then, a mighty struggle, as in the great Civil War, when the nation had to decide whether a government constituted as it was would con- tinue to exist. The Republic rendered its decision, and then and there entered on a career of advancement unequaled in the history of mankind. In the last decade and a half many new viewpoints have been brought to light as the result of intensive study by historical scholars. To aid the pupil and teacher in making iv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY use of at least a small part of this research, references to histories, to the sources, and to historical fiction have been given in the present volume. In addition, review questions are frequently presented. These questions are designed to compel thought and to aid in securing a better grasp of the causes and results of historical events. The ever-widening share of the United States in world affairs has ushered in a broader national and historical view- point. The Atlantic and Pacific no longer bound our horizon ; we are direct, active participants in affairs to the uttermost reaches of the world. This will be a sufficient reason for the larger treatment of European affairs. Every effort has been made to bring the entire work thoroughly in touch with the epoch-making events of to-day. T. B. L. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. The Great Navigators i II. The Explorers 26 III. The Early Missionaries 46 IV. The Indians 53 V. Permanent Colonial Settlements 62 \T. French E.\PL(Mt.A.TiONS 121 VII. The Wars of the English and the French in America 131 VIII. Life in the Colonies in 1763 151 IX. The Period of the Revolution 167 X. Physical Features of the United St.vtks .... 225 XI. The Period of Union 229 XII. The Period of Disunion 353 XIII. The Period of Reunion 386 XIV. The Period of Industrial Development .... 404 XV. The United States as a World Power 440 APPENDIX Declaration of Independence (with Notes) . . . i Constitution of the United States (with Notes) . v Digest of the Constitution xxi Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents .... xxv Table of St.a.tes and Territories xxvi Leadi.ng Dates in Connection with the History of the United States xxvii Topical Analysis xxxi IXDEX xlvii 1^ -^^^ ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I " During the Middle Ages the life of Europe and western Asia was still grouped about the Mediterranean. ... Of all the changes which mark the transition from ancient and mediaeval to modern history, none is so pro- found as that which has regrouped human life about the Atlantic as a new and grander central sea."' — Bourne, " Spain in America," p. 3 THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 1. Early Voyages to America. The Northmen. In ver}- early days it is probable that America was visited by many people. There are vague reports of visits by Arabians, Chinese, Japanese, \li;nALLION OF ST. HREN Welsh, French, and Irish. On maps drawn as late as the six- teenth century we can see an island, marked St. Brendan's Isle^ 1 On old maps may be seen an island named Atlantis, which had been described by Plato four hundred years before Christ. Other islands which were believed to exist in the Atlantic Ocean were named Brazil and Antilla. For years English and Portuguese sailors sought these islands in vain. ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY after an Irish monk who was beheved to have settled on an island in the middle of the Atlantic. The first Europeans to visit North America of whom we have any actual historic records were the Northmen, or Norse- men. They were so named because they lived in the north of Europe, in Denmark, Norway, or Sweden. Some of these dar- ing sailors in their dragon- shaped boats, without a compass and trusting to the stars, cruised along the coasts of Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea, and even pushed as far east as the city of Constantinople ; others sailed westward to Iceland, where they established prosper- ous settlements as early as the year 874. Trading was carried on between these colonies and the continent of Europe. About a century later (985) the North- men began to build villages along the coast of Greenland, which in the meantime they had discovered. 2. Leif Ericson discovers Vin- land, A.D. 1000. The Norse spirit of adventure was not yet satisfied. About the year 1000 Leif Ericson ^ resolved to go westward in search of a land of which he had heard from Norse navigators. With thirty- five men he sailed from Greenland to the west and reached an unknown land, beautifully and thickly wooded. Cruising along the coast, he cast anchor in a favorable bay and, landing, called the country Vinland, from the large quantity of grapes, or perhaps wild cranberries, which he found there ^ Leif Ericson (life er'ik son). A VIKING CHIEF One of the Northmen THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 3 and from which a kind of wine was made. Ericson made no permanent settlement and left on our shores no record of his visit. The exact site of his landing has therefore never been discovered.^ While these settlements were being made, Catholic missionaries had converted the people of Norway to Christianity. Among the converts was Lcif Ericson, who had come from Greenland to Norway on a brief visit. On return- ing home he took priests with him, and Iceland and Green- land were soon converted to Christianity.- It is probable that two other voyages were made to the shores of Vinland, but at length these journeys ceased.'^ The explorations of the Northmen in Vinland produced no lasting effect even among the Northmen themselves, as no colonies were founded, and X'inland was soon forgotten. 3. Europe in the Fifteenth Century. The latter half of the fifteenth century is a period of the greatest importance in the world's historv. France, which had been waging war with England for one hundred years, was at last at peace with that 1 Leif Ericson is supposed to have landed in the vicinity of Narragansett Bay, but there is nothing to prove that this is true. For a time it was thought that the old mill at Newport, Rhode Island, was built by the Northmen. It is now known that it is a stone windmill built by Governor Arnold in early colonial days, probably about 1675. I" his will Arnold writes about his " stone- built windmill." The Arnold family came from Leamington, England. Near this place is an old windmill built along the same lines as that of Newport. It was doubtless from this stone mill in England that Arnold got the plans for his mill here. The pupil should read Longfellow's " Skeleton in Armor." Although this poem is entirely incorrect in the facts of history, it gives a good idea of the spirit of the Norse voyagers. 2 Early in the twelfth century Eric Gnupson was appointed Bishop of Gardar, a diocese in Greenland. For almost four, hundred years the Church was maintained in this country, with a regular succession of bishops ; but disasters befell the people. Pestilence swept away many of the colo- nists, Norway neglected her colony, and the settlements were attacked re- peatedly by Eskimos and finally destroyed by them. The churches fell into decay, and at last all traces of Greenland passed from the knowledge of Europe. 8 The stories of these voyages are told in the so-called " sagas," or tales, of Iceland. These sagas are partly true and partly fictitious, and it is difficult to tell what is truth and what is fiction. 4 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY country. She was at the beginning of a stronger and nobler national life — the opening of an era of remarkable progress. Spain had been gradually driving back the Moors,^ who at one time held three quarters of the country. At this time only the extreme southern part remained in Moorish hands and Spain held the first place among European nations. The kings of France, Spain, England, and Portugal had during these years secured greater authority by reducing the armies of their nobles. With their strong royal power established, these kings were now ready to embark on enterprises be- yond the limits of their kingdoms. 4. The Two Routes to the Indies. At this period the trade of Europe was largely wath the East, and was in the hands of two Italian city republics, Genoa and Venice. This trade was es- pecially valuable, as the East supplied Europe with dyestuffs, shawls, spices, precious stones, ivory, and silks. In exchange the East secured from the West woolen goods, metals, and min- erals. The Genoese, taking the so-called northern route, sailed to Constantinople. From this great city their vessels sailed northward and crossed the Black Sea to meet the caravans that came overland from the East. The Venetians controlled the southern route, with Alexandria in Egypt as their chief port. This route through the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean was, of course, almost entirely by water. A VEXETIAN GALLEY 1 The Moors were Mohammedan Arabs. From Arabia they had overrun Asia as far east as India and had also conquered northern Africa. In 711 they entered Spain, overthrew its kings, and for almost eight hundred years ruled a large part of the country. THE (IRKAT NAVKIATORS A middle route led by way of Antioch, Damascus, and Bagdad ihrough the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the Persian Gulf. After reaching Genoa or Venice large quantities of the Eastern goods were sent northward through tKe passes of the Alps to northern Europe. 5. The Fall of Constantinople. The wealth of this trade was so great that the two republics of Genoa and Venice for two hundred years waged bitter warfare for the supremacy of the sea. ROUTE mOtH.E ROUTE NORTHERN ROUTE ROUTES OK TKAUK liKTWEEX INDIA AND CITIES OK SOL'THERX EUROPE In 1453 a great disaster occurred in the East. A barbaric Tartar tribe, called the Ottoman Turks, that had overrun Asia Minor for two liundred years, and for a century had been estab- lished in southeastern Europe, appeared before the w'alls of Constantinople. They besieged the mighty city with two hun- dred thousand men, and it fell in 1453 after a short resist- ance. The cross, the emblem of Christianity, on the church of St. Sophia was replaced by the crescent, the emblem of Mohammedanism. Thus the gateway to the Black Sea was in the hands of the barbaric Turks, the route of the Genoese ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY traders was closed, and commerce by the Venetian route through Alexandria was made extremely difficult and unprofit- able by the levy of excessive transit dues in Egypt. To add to the disasters and dangers, Turkish pirates infested the Mediterranean Sea, seizing the vessels of the Christians and killing the crews or selling them into slavery. 6. Knowledge of the East. The Franciscans. Men now sought anxiously a new route to the Indies and China. While the people of western Europe had some knowledge of oriental lands, it was rather vague, as the trade with the East had been carried on by means of middlemen. Through the Crusades,^ as early as the eleventh century, the people of western Europe had become acquainted with the lands bordering the eastern Mediterranean and with the peoples beyond as far as India. They had also developed a need for the goods of Eastern lands, especially silks, spices, and luxuries of all kinds. Another source of knowledge was the travelers who related the stories of their travels in the East. In the middle of the thirteenth century Franciscan priests had visited the Great Khan, or emperor, of China and had told the people of Europe of the great ocean which formed, they declared, the eastern boundary of Asia. 7. Marco Polo. In 1295 Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, returned with his father and uncle to his native city after an A CRUSADER ^ The Crusades were eight great religious military expeditions which for about two hundred years (1096-1270) were led against the Mohammedan Turks to recover the sacred places of the Holy Land. Although, after severe hardships and terrible loss of life, they failed finally to drive out the Turk, they had a marked influence in giving Europe a knowledge of western Asia and its peoples and in developing trade. THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 7 absence of twenty- four years. He had spent these long years in travehng in the East, going overland through Asia to farthest China, where he lived for seventeen years at the court of the (ireat Khan near the present great city of Peking. He returned by water around southern Asia to the Persian Gulf and thence overland to his native city. When he and his two companions arrived no one knew them after so many years. Their clothes were ragged and worn. Presently they drew forth precious stones and gold of great value and related the story of their wonderful exploits. In a book which appeared later (1299) Marco Polo described India and China, and told of what he had heard of the island of Cipango, probably Japan, as well as of the marvelous riches of the East. This book was destined to have a wide influence, as it aroused in the middle of the fifteenth centur)^ a great interest in geography when men needed to find new commercial routes. 8. Great Inventions. About this time there were four great in- ventions. The first was that of printing with movable l\pc, about 1454, "the most important discovery," says Hallam,^ "recorded in the annals of mankind." Up to this time books had been slowly written by hand with the pen.^ Through this invention it was possible to print books cheaply and quickly. These printed books sent broadcast information about the discov- eries of the past and gave a marked stimulus to the study of geography and history. The development of the compass and astrolabe '"^ were epoch- making events. These instruments, simpler forms of which had been in use for centuries, enabled men to take long 1 Ilallam, The Middle Ages, Vol. III. p. 1S3. 2 In the monasteries was a room called the scriptorium. In this room the monks by slow handwork copied the books of ancient learning and preserved them to the world. In connection with the monasteries were schools where boys were taught. 3 The astrolabe was used in navigation for taking the altitude of the sun and stars above the horizon. Its place was later taken by the quadrant and the sextant. 8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY voyages in safety out of sight of land, as they could now know fairly accurately the true position of their vessels at sea. Another very important invention was gunpowder, which in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries changed entirely the nature of warfare and finally rendered the castles of the feudal nobles useless as fortresses. The foot soldier with his gun was now more powerful than the knight on horseback with his lance or spear. While these great inventions were being developed, Genoa and Venice were studying plans to find a new route to the Indies and the Spice Islands ^ which would avoid entirely the power of the Turks. No one, however, was successful until the great discoverer Christopher Columbus announced his belief in a ivcstivard route to the Indies.^ 9. Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born about 1446 in the city of Genoa, which was at this time the center of seafaring life. He was the son of a humble weaver, and in the midst of the sailor life around him developed an earnest love of the sea. It is said, upon rather doubtful authority however, that he attended the University of Pavia for two years, where he studied Latin, geography, astronomy, mathematics, and drawing. At the age of fourteen he became a sailor, voyaging far to the south till he had reached the equator and northward even to Iceland. For twenty-three years he lived the perilous life of the mariner — at times fighting the pirates of the Mediterranean, at times battling with the Turks. 1 " It is hard for us to understand this enthusiasm for spices, for which we care much less nowadays. One former use for spices was to preserve food, which could not then as now be carried rapidly, while still fresh, from place to place ; nor did our conveniences then exist for keeping it by the use of ice. Moreover, spice served to make even spoiled food more palatable than it would otherwise have been." — Robinson, " Introduction to the History of Western Europe," p. 350 ^ " The discovery of the New World was the direct result of European interest in the Far East, an incident in the charting of new highways for the world's commerce." — Becker, " Beginnings of the American People," p. 2 THE GREAT NAVIGATORS About 1473 he reached Lisbon in Portugal. Through the zeal of Prince Henry the Navigator^ this city was at that time the chief center of the spirit of discovery in Europe. The sailors e.xcited the interest of the people by the tales of their perilous journeys along the west coast of Africa ; the state spent large sums of money in spreading geographical knowledge; the African slave trade offered large profits ; and the science of navi- gation was studied in an earnest endeavor to find a new and shorter route to the Indies. Columbus suggested a solution of this problem. 10. Columbus pro- poses to sail West. "The world is round, quite like a ball," said Colum- bus, "and by sailing di- rectly west you can reach the East Indies and Spice Islands." At that > hki^ioi-hkr colimki's time people in general believed the earth to be fiat, but astronomers and other learned men knew and taught that it was round. They had watched the vessels sink beneath the horizon ; they had seen the shadow of the earth in the eclipse of the moon ; and they showed that 1 Prince Henry the Navigator was a son of King John I of Portugal. Under Henry's direction expeditions were sent southward along the west coast of Africa. Henry died in 1460, but his work was carried on by other members of the royal family. In the exploration of the coast of Africa, however, the Italian sailors had preceded the Portuguese by many years. lO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the old Grecian philosophers and astronomers had declared the world to be round. Columbus studied the subject deeply and read as many books as he could secure. He had often heard that strange objects had been washed ashore on the Cape Verde Islands and other places by the waves of the Atlantic — pieces of carved wood, huge trunks of pine trees, gigantic reeds, and the bodies of two copper-colored men.^ Columbus declared that two thirds of the world had been already explored, that is, from the eastern borders of Asia, by Marco Polo, to the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean, by the Portuguese.''^ Only three or four thousand miles of ocean would have to be crossed, he believed, to reach the Indies. Columbus had reckoned the size of the world to be about two thirds as large as it really is, an error common to men at that time. 11. Motives of Columbus. Columbus was deeply religious. While he had made earnest studies in the sciences, the leading motive of his life was the hope of seeing the Catholic religion believed by all the peoples of the world. He desired to spread the truths of the Gospel among the heathen nations and to plant the Cross in distant lands.^ 1 While in Lisbon, Columbus had earned a living by making maps and charts. He himself says, " God hath given me a genius and hands apt to draw his globe and on it the cities, rivers, islands, and ports — all in their proper places." In 1474 he wrote, it is believed, to a great Florentine geogra- pher, Toscanelli, for a map which Toscanelli had made, showing the route to Asia and Japan. The map was sent with a letter of explanation, saying, "' So through the unknown parts of the route the stretches of sea to be traversed are not great." This map would have been singularly -correct had not the continent of America been directly in the way. On this map we can see the mythical islands Antilla, Brazil, and St. Brendan's Isle. These would serve, it was thought, as stepping-stones to the Indies, and it is fortunate that they were believed to exist. ^ Many believed the legend that monsters lived in the Atlantic and would devour anyone venturing far into that ocean. It was also declared that a great belt of heat would consume any vessel sailing to the far south. Columbus re- jected these beliefs as nonsensical. 3 " He freely asserted his conviction that he had been chosen by God from his earliest years to carry out two great undertakings : the discovery of a westward route to the Indies and, as a crusader, to recover the Holy Sepulchre from the Turks." — Tarducci, "Columbus" (edited by Brownson), p. 215 THE GREAT NAVIGATORS II In 148 1 John II ascended the throne of Portugal and Columbus unfolded to him his plans. The king referred them to a learned council of his court, but they were rejected. In despair Columbus now left Portugal. It is thought he visited Genoa and Venice, but both of these republics rejected his plans. 12. He seeks the Aid of Spain. He finally started for Spain to seek the aid of Ferdinand and Isabella. In i486 he arrived at the royal court in Cordova. At this time Spain was pre- paring for the last battles against the Moors, and the prepara- tions for the war and the excitement of the times delayed his reception by the king and queen. Mnally, through the aid of Cardinal Mendoza, he was invited to appear before them and to unfold his plans for the new route to Asia. The Spanish sovereigns called a council of learned men in the city of Salamanca ^ to examine the charts and plans. They rejected the scheme as visionary. At length in 1491, five years after his arrival, Columbus resolved to leave Spain ^ and seek the aid of France. With his little son Diego '^ he started on his drearv journey. 13. Columbus and Queen Isabella. A short distance from Palos'* Columbus saw the Franciscan monastery of La Rabida.'^ Footsore and hungry he asked for aid and had the good fortune to meet the prior, P^ather Juan Perez,^ who was the confessor of Queen Isabella. He listened eagerly to the story of Columbus and believed so fully in his projects that he wrote to the queen at once. A short time later he went to the court and 1 It is said this council met at the famous University of Salamanca. There is, however, no record of such a meeting in the archives of the university. 2 So well known but so little understood was Columbus that the boys ran after him in the streets and called him a madman. 8 Diego (dee ay'go). * Palos (pah'loce). '^ La Rabida (lah rah'bee dah). The full name of the monaster)^ was Santa Maria de la Rabida, or St. Mary of the Frontier, as it was less than thirty miles from the boundary of Portugal. " Juan Perez (whan pay'rayth). 12 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY persuaded the queen to accept the proposal of Columbus/ who was now recalled.^ At last his plans were accepted and he was ready to prepare for his great voyage. 14. Beginning of the Great Voyage. Many difficulties still beset the daring navigator. Sailors were afraid to cross un- known seas, a distance of two thousand five hundred miles,^ as Columbus believed ; inhabited, they had been informed, by fearful monsters. After great efforts he gathered ninety men for his three small vessels, which he called the Santa Maria,^ the Pinta, and the Nifia. On the third of August, 1492, all was ready for the great journey. At sunrise, while the whole population crowded the shore, Columbus received the final blessing of his devoted friend, the prior of La Rabida, hoisted sail, and with his three little vessels went forth on the most momentous journey of history. 1 In return for the service he would render, Columbus was to be made viceroy and governor-general of any lands he might discover, and was to receive one tenth of the profits of any expedition as well as of the pearls, gold, and other valuables found. Columbus vowed to devote his fortune to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher from the Turks. No mention is made in the contract of any route to the Indies. 2 In his efforts Columbus was especially aided by Cardinal Mendoza, Bishop Deza, the Duke of Medinaceli, and Talavera, afterward- Archbishop of Granada. Washington Irving, in his " Life of Columbus," says that Isabella "was one of the purest spirits that ever ruled over the destinies of a nation. . . . Her fair name will ever shine with celestial radiance in the dawning of '" the history of America. The pupil might well study with care the wonderful picture by Brozik of Columbus before Isabella. The original is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. A copy can be obtained in the Perry Pictures or similar school aids. ^ It is indeed fortunate that Columbus did not know how far av.fay India really was. Had he known it was ten thousand miles distant from Spain, it would probably have been impossible to secure ships and men even if he himself would have had the courage to face such a journey. * The Santa Maria (mah ree'ah), the largest vessel, was single-decked and was the flagship of Columbus. Neither the Pinta (peen'tah) nor the Alha (neen'yah) was decked amidships. The cost of the expedition was about eighty thousand dollars in the money of to-day. Columbus paid about one eighth of the cost and the crown of Castile the remainder from money loaned by the Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) through its treasurers, Santangel and Pinelo. TIIK GREAT NAVIGATORS 13 15. Perils of the Journey. The first point reached was the Canary Islands, where they were delayed three weeks for re- pairs. On the sixth of September they sailed directly west- ward, and the sailors were terrified as the land disappeared behind them, leaving only the unknown waste of waters around them on every side. New terrors constantly arose. They feared they might meet the monsters said to inhabit these regions ; they believed if the world were round they could not sail up its sides again. C'oluml^us had to cheer their spirits, overcome their fears, and rule with a firm hand the crews, who might % ■■' ^--. Columbus sailecl Aug. Left Canaiii l.tlaml Sri.t.r.ll, _..^^ .MAP (>!■ ((M.r-MlUSS KorXI-. OX HIS FIRST VOYAGE Otherwise have become mutinous.^ Day after day they sailed westward, borne onward by the strong trade winds and the ocean currents. This constant easterly trade wind caused grave fears in the minds of the sailors, as they believed they could not 1 On October 7 Pinzon, noticing a flock of birds flying to the southwest, beUeved these birds were headed toward land and urged Columbus to change" his course in that direction. As the Portuguese had made many discoveries by following the flight of birds, Columbus finally consented. It is probable, had he not made this change, he would have drifted with the Gulf Stream northward and sighted the stormy coasts of the Carolinas instead of the Bahamas. By making this change in his course he had only five hundred miles to travel before land was sighted ; had he continued on a straight course, at least seven hundred miles would have had to be covered and dire results might have arisen from mutiny and other causes. Another important result would have been that Spanish colonization would have been established on our Atlantic seaboard in a temperate climate instead of in the tropical West Indies and Central .\merica. 14 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY return against it. They also noticed that the compass changed its direction to the west of the true north, which was to them another bad omen. Fortunately after about four weeks they saw signs indicating that land must be near, and on the evening of October ii, 1492, Columbus saw a moving light in the dis- tance. On the following morning the welcome cry, " Land ! " arose. A new world had been discovered. 16. The Landing of Columbus, October 12, 1492. Holding in his hand the banner of Spain, Columbus landed on the shore and took possession in the name of the Spanish sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. He called the land San Salvador VESSELS OF COLUMBUS CROSSLNG THE OCEAN (Holy Redeemer).! It was one of the Bahamas, perhaps Wat- ling Island. The natives were unlike any people he had ever seen. Believing he had reached the East Indies, he called the natives Indians. He now sailed southwestward and quickly reached the large island of Cuba. Changing his course to the eastward, he reached the island of Haiti, which he named Espanola, or Hispaniola. Here his best vessel, the Santa Maria, was wrecked. Desiring to return to Spain, he built here a fort, and, leaving a small colony of about forty men, sailed on his homeward journey. 1 " To the first [island] I discovered, I gave the name of San Salvador, in commemoration of His Divine Majesty, who has wonderfully granted all this." — Letter of Columbus to Santangel THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 1 5 17. Return of Columbus. After a stormy voyage he reached the coast of Europe, where he was obhged on account of severe storms to seek shelter in the harbor of Lisbon (March 4). The king of Portugal received him with marked honor and fur- nished him with cverytliing lie needed to finish liis journey. Columbus arrived at Palos on March 15, 1493. The fame of his wonderful discoveries spread far and wide, aided by the newly discovered printing press. He was summoned to Barce- lona to the presence of the king and queen and was received in triumpli. lie presented to them some of the wonders of the New World — gold, birds, beasts, plants, and a few Indians whom he had brought back with him. A solemn Mass and Te Deum were sung in thanksgiving for his great achieve- ments, and the king and queen fell on their knees in homage to God for the benefits granted to their kingdom. On Columbus were showered most signal honors. He was appointed admiral and the king's viceroy in the New \\'orld. 18. Later Voyages of Columbus. In September, 1493, only six months after his return, he set out once more across the Western seas. This expedition w^as made up of seventeen ships. They were loaded with horses, cows, vines, tools, fruit trees, and seeds for use in the New World. Those who had scoffed at his first voyage now sought to accompany him on his second journey. He founded a colony on the present island of Haiti and discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, and the islands of the Caribbean Sea.^ P'ive years later (1498) he made a third vovage, discovering the island of Trinidad, the mainland of South America, and the mouth of the Orinoco River. His efforts to find a way into the Indian Ocean had been unsuccessful, 1 After the settlements in the islands had been made, the unfortunate natives, by a system of slavery, were kept by the Spaniards in the mines at hard labor until they perished by thousands. Bartolome de las Casas, the noble Dominican, with all his power tried to better the condition of the natives. In this noble work he was assisted by Father Antonio Montesino, another Dominican. The names of Las Casas and Montesino will ever be remembered by those whose hearts beat for a suffering humanity. i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The popular discontent at the failure to find gold increased daily, and the cost of the voyages was so great that the court lost interest in him.^ He made one more attempt. In 1502 he sailed westward, visiting Honduras and the Isthmus of Panama. He died un- noticed in Valladolid on May 20, 1506. To the hour of his death he believed he had reached Asia by the best and most direct route. He never knew he had given to mankind a new world, 19. John Cabot's Voyage. In the meantime the discoveries of Columbus stirred other adventurous spirits. There resided in England an Italian, John Cabot by name, who was commis- sioned by Henry VII, king of England, to seek a northern route to the Spice Islands for the spice trade. Cabot sailed from Bristol in May, 1497, with a single vessel and dis- covered the continent of America, probably on the coast of Labrador, June 24. Believing he had discovered Asia, he landed and, erecting a large cross bearing aloft the flag of England, claimed the entire country in behalf of the English king. A year later, in April, 1498, with his son Sebastian Cabot, he returned and explored the coast as far south, perhaps, as Cape Hatteras. These voyages are most important, as they gave England a claim to the Atlantic seaboard and the right to colonize North America. One hundred years were allowed to pass, however, before a permanent settlement was made, as the English at this time were more • interested in the affairs of Europe. 20. Division of the World. After the return of Columbus from his great voyage Spain and Portugal began to disagree 1 While Columbus was trying to establish orderly government in his colony in Santo Domingo, a new governor arrived from Spain, who arrested him on false charges and sent him home in chains. The captain of the ship desired to remove the irons ; but Columbus refused, and wore them till he reached the port. Queen Isabella cordially received the old admiral and with tears in her eyes bestowed honors upon him. Full justice was not done him, however, as he never again obtained in full the powers granted in his contract. THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 17 as to the ownership of lands yet to be discovered. As both of these countries professed the CathoHc faith, the matter was referred to His HoHness Pope Alex- ander \'I by the sovereigns of the two nations. To settle the conflict- ing claims the Pope ^ finally divided the world by an imaginary line drawn very nearly midway through the Atlantic one hundred leagues west of the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. He granted to Portugal all pagan lands discovered by the Portuguese east of this line and to Spain all pagan lands ^ west of it. The king of Portugal was not satis- fied with this line, and in 1494^ it was moved to a distance of three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This change later gave Brazil to Portugal. MAP SHOWING THE DIVISION OF THE WORLD MADE IN 1494 1 " As between the Christian nations, the Sovereign Pontiff was the su- preme arbiter of conflicting claims ; hence the famous bull issued by Pope Alexander \'l in 1493-" — Wheaion, "Elements of International Law," Vol. II, chap, iv At this time practically the entire Christian world was in communion with the See of Rome, and all the early great discoverers — Columbus, Cabot, Vespucius, Da Gama, Magellan, Cabral, and Balboa — were Catholics. - Franciscan missionaries came with Columbus to the New World. From time to time their numbers were increased, until they had preached the Gospel from Florida to the Pacific and from the Colorado to Patagonia. 3 This was the so-called treaty of Tordesillas. As a matter of fact neither Spain nor Portugal was ever satisfied with this demarcation line. Twenty- seven years later, when Magellan's expedition reached the Philippines and the Moluccas, the question became acute as to whether, if the demarcation line were continued through the poles around the earth for the full perimeter of the circle, these lands would belong to Portugal or Spain. In 15^9 the king of Portugal, to clear his title to the Moluccas, paid Charles V of Spain three hundred and fifty thousand ducats (equal to about eight hundred and twenty- five thousand dollars) for any rights Spain might claim in the Moluccas. Spain was allowed to keep the Philippines, as spices did not grow there. Even after this settlement there was constant friction until the boundaries of the Philip- pines in the East and Brazil in the West were amicably adjusted in 1779. 1 8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 21. Voyage of Vasco da Gama to India. Cabral's Journey. Meantime the Portuguese had not been idle. Bartholomew Diaz^ in i486 reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497, five years after the discovery of America, the Portuguese found their long-coveted route around Africa, when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached India (1498) after a voyage of ten months. The following year he returned in triumph with his vessels laden with spices, silks, bronzes, ivory, and precious stones. Da Gama had found the sea route which Columbus had sought in vain.^ This discovery proved that Africa was a continent. It turned the attention of European navigators to the new route to the Indies, and for some time no further voyages were made to North America. Within a few months, however, in 1500, a Portuguese navi- gator, Cabral,^ sailed with a fleet of thirteen ships for India. He put out boldly to sea and drifted so far from the African coast that, to his amazement, he saw land to the west one April morning in the year 1500. It was that part of the coast of South America now called Brazil. If it were east of the Line of Demarcation, it belonged to Portugal. He soon discovered that it was east, and sent a vessel back to Lisbon with the -news of his good fortune.'^ 22. Americus Vespucius. The king of Portugal acted promptly, fitting out a fleet of three ships in May, 1501. With the expedition sailed a Florentine merchant and traveler, Americus Vespucius.^ The fleet reached South America at Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, and skirted the coast as far south as the La Plata River. It later turned southeastward to keep 1 Diaz (dee'ahth). ^ In his epic poem called " The Lusiad " Camoens sings the glory of Da Gama and other Portuguese explorers and colonizers. 3 Cabral (cahbrahl'). * Cabral named the country Santa Cruz, or Holy Cross. It was later named Brazil from the dyewood found there. ^ Americus Vespucius (a mer'i cus ves pu'cius) is a Latinized form of the navigator's name, the Italian form being Amerigo Vespucci (ah may ree'go ves poot'chee). THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 19 east of the Line of Demarcation, and sailed until the Antarctic ice fields blocked its way, when it returned to Lisbon. 23. The Name of America. Vespucius made another voyage to the southern continent, and in 1 504 published an account of what he had seen in the New World. His voyages were of great importance. They proved the existence of a new continent, secured Brazil for the Portuguese crown, and re- sulted in giving the name America to the Western Hemisphere. A copy of a letter which he had written on the New World fell into the hands of a German, Martin Waldseemuller,^ a teacher of geography in a little college at St. Die,^ in eastern France. In 1507 the letter of Vespucius was printed by the college press as an appendix to a new edition of a geography. The geography contained the suggestion that the newly found land should be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, as Waldseemiiller supposed Vespucius had discovered it.^ The name was placed on the maps of that time ; at first it was given only to Brazil, later to South America, and still later to the whole Western Hemisphere.'* Thus Columbus was deprived of the great honor of having his name given to the new world he had discovered. 24. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean, 1513. In the year 1513 Balboa, a Spanish planter and adventurer, set forth to repair his broken fortunes by seeking the wealth of the New World. While exploring the Isthmus of Panama, he was told by an Indian chief of a great sea to the west beyond the mountains and of lands whose shores were filled with gold and silver. Balboa thereupon pushed eagerly onward and, gaining the crest 1 Waldseemiiller (valt'zay muhl ler). - St. Die (san decay'). 3 Waldseemiiller dropped the nante "America" from his globe in 151J, when he learned the real facts, and called South America by the name " Terra Incognita" (Unknown Land). * Mercator, the Flemish geographer, was the first to apply the name to the entire continent of America. The first geography of America was issued by Enciso at Saragossa, Spain, in 1519. 20 ' ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of the heavily wooded ridge, saw before him the Pacific, the greatest of the oceans. "" Falling on his knees," says Helps, " he gave thanks to God " for the great discovery. On reaching the shore he waded into the sea and claimed possession of this vast body of water, together with all the bordering lands, for the crown of Spain. As the sea was south of the Isthmus of Panama, where he stood, he called it the South Sea. Balboa little dreamed that the great ocean he was looking upon stretched ten thousand miles westward to the shores of Asia. 25. The Voyage of Magellan, 1519. Six years later a na- tive of Portugal, Ferdinand Magellan, having had some differ- ences with his king, offered his services to the king of Spain. He declared he could find a shorter route to the rich Spice Islands than was known to the world. A fleet of five ships was fitted out and sailed westward. Believing that there existed south of the La Plata River a passage which would lead to the South Sea, Magellan skirted the coast of South America. Thirteen months after leaving Spain he discovered and entered the strait that has since borne his name. He soon reached the great waste of waters named by Balboa the South Sea ; he named it the Pacific because it was so calm. Sailing across this broad ocean, after incredible hardships, he discovered (March 16, 1521) the islands to which later the name Philip- pines was given in honor of Philip II of Spain. In an encounter with the natives of the Philippines, Magellan soon lost his life. 26. Results of Magellan's Voyage. The journey was con- tinued under one of Magellan's captains, Sebastian del Cano.^ He rounded the Cape of Good Hope in the only vessel that remained out of the five and reached Spain in 1522, bearing with him Magellan's written report of the expedition as far as the Philippines and also a map of the route. This was the first voyage around the world. It proved beyond question five great facts : (i) that the world was round; (2) that, contrary to 1 Sebastian del Cano (say bahs tee ahn' del cah'no). ^W"''> " Cf- '! '- "^- 'All; i " * ^X^J:^ 22 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY general belief, the area of the water far exceeded that of the land of the globe ; (3) that South America was a continent ; ^ (4) that a great ocean lay between America and Asia; (5) that Columbus had discovered not Asia, but a new world. In A. D. 1000 Leif Ericson, with a party of Northmen, visited the coast of New England. No permanent settlements were made and the Norse voyages were soon forgotten. The Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator made many voyages down the west coast of Africa. Under the lead of Bar- tholomew Diaz they reached the Cape of Good Hope in i486. Vasco da Gama arrived in India in 1498. This voyage determined the first all-water route to the East. In 1492 Christopher Columbus, an Italian, sailing under the flag of Spain, in trying to find a westward route to the Indies, discovered America. He made the following discoveries on his four voyages : First voyage, 1492 : the Bahamas, Cuba, and Haiti (Espanola). Second voyage, 1493: the islands of the Caribbean Sea, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. Third voyage, 1498 : Trinidad, mainland of South America, mouth of the Orinoco River. Fourth voyage, 1502 : coast of Central America, Isthmus of Panama. In 1497 John Cabot, an Italian, sailing under the patronage of England, discovered the mainland of North America. This discovery gave Great Britain a title to this country. In 1504 Americus Vespucius, an Italian, after a number of voy- ages to the New World, wrote a description of what he had seen. His letters led to his name being given to the Western Hemisphere. In 1 5 13 Balboa, a Spaniard, explored the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. In 15 19 Magellan began his voyage under the flag of Spain. He found the strait, named for him, sailed around the southern part of South America, crossed the Pacific Ocean, and discovered the 1 In 1728 Bering, a Danish navigator, discovered the strait that bears his name and for the first time proved that America was really detached from Asia. THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 23 Philippine Islands. One of his vessels returned around the world by way of the Cape of Good Hope. This voyage proved that the world was a globe and that America was a continent.^ Dates to be remettibered : 1 000 (a. d.). The Northmen reach America. 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus. 1497. John Cabot discovers North America. 1 5 19. Beginning of Magellan's voyage. Impoiiant dates for reference : 1453. Turks capture Constantinople. 1454. Probable date of invention of printing. 1494. Line of Demarcation. 1507. America receives its name. Persons to know about : Leif Ericson, Marco Polo, Columbus, John Cabot, Vasco da Gama, Americus Vcspucius, Balboa, Magellan. Map 7Vork : Look up on a map Norway, Sweden. Denmark, Iceland, (ireenland, Labrador, Genoa, Venice, Constantinople, Lisbon, Cape of Good Hope, Isthmus of Panama, Strait of Magellan, the Philippine Islands. Trace on a map the first voyage of Columbus. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Give an account of Europeans who are said to have visited the Western continent several centuries before Columbus. 2. Before the discovery of America what was the general belief in regard to {a) the shape of the earth ? (b) the size of the earth ? Show how one of these beliefs was a hindrance to Columbus. 1 No American should ever forget the debt of gratitude \vc owe to Spain for her early efforts in discovering and civilizing America. " The Spanish . . . built the first cities, opened the first churches, schools and universities ; brought the first printing presses, made the first books, wrote the first diction- aries, histories and geographies. ... By 1575, nearly a century before there was a printing press in English America, many books in twelve different Indian languages had been printed in the City of Mexico . . . and three Spanish universities in America were nearly rounding out their century when Harvard was founded." — C. F. LuM.Mis, "The Spanish Pioneers," p. 23 24 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Explain why the invention of the mariner's compass aided the discovery and exploration of the New World. 4. Describe two trade routes between Europe and Asia in the fifteenth century and show why other routes were sought. 5. Give an account of the early life of Columbus. State how he obtained his knowledge of the sea and how he came to believe in a shorter route to India. 6. Describe the first voyage of Columbus to America, mentioning (a) one motive that prompted him to attempt the journey ; (l?) one difficulty that he encountered in securing aid; {c) the place where he landed in America ; (d) the people that he found. 7. Name the principal lands that Columbus discovered on each of his four voyages. 8. Mention three navigators who made explorations in the New World soon after its discovery by Columbus, and name the particular territory explored by each. 9. What explorer laid the foundation for England's colonial empire ? 10. Give an account of the first voyage around the globe. State (a) what it proved in regard to America; (d) the direction in which it turned the attention of explorers. READINGS Histories. Atkinson, A. M., Introduction to American History. Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vol. I. Bourne, E. G., Spain in America. Essays in Historical Criticism. Channing, Edward, History of the United States, Vol. I. Cheyney, E. P., Eiiropean Back- ground of American History. Fiske, John, The Discovery of America, Vol. I. Guillemard, F. H. H., Magellan. Helps, A., Spanish Conquest of America. Irving, Washington, Life of Columbus.- Lawler, T. B., The Story of Columbus and Magellan. Lummis, C. F., The Spanish Pioneers. McCarthy, C. H., Columbtts and his Predecessors. McMurrv. C. A., Pioneers on Sea and Land. Polo, Marco, Travels (Everyman's Library). Prescott, W. H., Ferdinand and Isabella. Reeves, A. M., The Finding of Win eland the Good. Thatcher, J. B., Christopher Columbus. Sources. American History Leaflets, No. 3 {The Norse Sagas). Hart, American History told by Conteinporaries, Vol. I, p. 28 (Norse Voyages). Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 10 (Balboa's Discovery of the Pacific Ocean); No. i, p. 12 (Pizarro's Conquest of Peru). MuzZEY, D. S., Read- ings in American History, p. 3 (Geography before Columbus); p. 6 (The THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 25 "Capitulation" of Columbus); p. 7 (Letter of Columbus to Santangel); p. II (Magellan's Voyage). Old South Leaflets, No. 32 {Marco Polo's Description of Japan and Java) ; No. 33 {Letter of Columbus on his Voyage)-, No. 35 {Corte's's Account of the City of Mexico). Olson and BoUKNic, T/ie Northmen, Columbus and Cabot. Fiction. Arnold, Matthew, St. Brandan. Irving, W., The En- chanted Island {^ story of St. Brendan's Isle). Liljencrantz, O. A., The Thrall of Leif the Lucky (a tale of Viking days). Longfellow, The Skele- ton in Armor. Miller, Joaquin, Columbus (an excellent poem on the great discoverer). Wallace, Lew, The Fair God (a story of the Aztecs). CHAPTER II " The achievements of the Conquistadores have scarcely a parallel in the annals of conquest." — Becker, " Beginnings of the American People," P- 31 THE EXPLORERS I. Spanish Explorations 27. Europe and the New World. At the beginning of the sixteenth century Spain, Portugal, England, France, and Hol- land were the leading nations of Europe, and it was of course probable that they would all soon seek a share of the vast ter- ritory of the New World. Under the law of nations it was necessary, however, to colonize lands as well as discover them, if a lasting title was to be obtained. Because of the discovery of Columbus, Spain at this time led in the work of exploration, and the Spaniards, to secure the territory of the New World, began a series of expeditions to the newly discovered country. 28. Ponce de Leon, 1513. The first Spanish expedition into North America was led by Ponce de Leon,^ a Spanish noble- man who had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage and had later been governor of the island of Porto Rico. Hear- ing from the Indians of a country to the north of the Bahamas which possessed large quantities of gold, he formed plans to ex- plore and colonize it. The Indians also told him, it is said, of a spring or fountain which would restore youth to the aged.^ He sailed from Porto Rico in March, 15 13, and reached on 1 Ponce de Leon (pon'thay day lay ohn'). '^ While this is the general opinion, it is interesting to note that there is no mention whatever of this spring in the charter granted to Ponce de Leon for this enterprise by the king of Spain. 26 THE EXPLORERS 27 roaster Sunday the southeast coast of North America, near the present site of the city of St. Augustine. He called the land Florida, ft-om Pascua Florida,^ the Spanish name for F^aster. After cruising around the peninsula he returned to Porto Rico. lught years later (1521) he sailed to make a permanent set- tlement, taking with him missionaries. The expedition was attacked by the Indians. Ponce de Leon himself was mortally wounded and was brought to Cuba, where he soon died.^ This was the first attempt to found a colony within the present limits of the United States, and it ended in disaster. 29. The Conquest of Mexico, 1519. Tlie Spanish voyagers had heard stories from time to time of an Indian confederacy, the Aztecs,^ in Mexico, and an expedition under Hernando Cortes ■* set out from Cuba to conquer their country. Landing on the site of the present city of Vera Cruz in the spring of 1 5 19, with only four hundred and fifty men, Cortes started on his march of more than two hundred miles through an unknown country filled with hostile foes.^ The Aztecs had won the undying hate of neighboring tribes because of their cruelty, a fact that saved Cortes and his little band. He soon made an alli- ance with the enemies of the Aztecs, and after two years of desperate fighting, in which the Spaniards suffered many 1 Pascua Florida (pahs'quah flo ree'dah). In Spanish, Florida is accented Flori'da. For years Florida was the name given by the Spaniards to all the country claimed by them north of the Gulf of Mexico. - He was later buried in San Juan, Porto Rico. In 191 1 his remains were removed to the San Juan Cathedral, where they now rest. '^ The Aztec Confederacy consisted of three tribes. The Aztecs had no domestic animals except the dog, and did not know the use of iron. With revolting cruelty they offered human sacrifices of prisoners whom they had captured, and hence they were feared and hated outside their own territory. The descriptions so often given of the " empire of the Montezumas " are misleading, as no such empire existed. * Hernando Cortes (air nahn'doh cortace'). ^ To prevent a rebellion among his troops, he sank all his ships. The only hope of safety for the men now lay in conquering the country. Cortes was helped by the tradition among the .Vztecs that a white god would some day come out of the west. When the Spanish ships with their white sails appeared the natives believed the long promised deity had arrived. 28 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY reverses, the power of the Aztecs was broken and Spain took possession of the country. Here was estabhshed the first Spanish colony on the mainland of North America.^ 30. De Ayllon's Expedition, 1526. While the voyage of Magellan had shown a westward water route around the southern end of South America, it was too long and dangerous a journey for ships to take, A search was therefore made for a water- way through the continent in higher latitudes. De Ayllon, a Spanish judge in Santo Domingo, determined to seek this strait and also plant a colony on the Atlantic coast. Sailing north- ward, in June, 1 526, with three vessels, containing six hundred colonists,^ he reached the James River. He called his colony San Miguel^ (St. Michael). The terrible winter that followed killed many of the colonists ; others were tomahawked by the Indians ; mutinies arose on every hand ; and De Ayllon himself died in October, 1526. In the following spring the survivors, one hundred and fifty in number, embarked for Santo Domingo. This was the only attempt of the Spaniards to found a settle- ment north of St. Augustine. 31. De Narvaez's Expedition, 1528. In 1528 Panfilo de Narvaez,^ hoping to rival the brilliant exploits of Cortes, set CHARLES I, KING OF SPAIN (Known also as Emperor Charles V) 1 In 1532 the Spaniards under Pizarro conquered Peru with its vast treas- ures of gold and silver. In Lima was founded in 1551 the University of San Marcos, the oldest existing university in the New World. - The king of Spain, Charles I, ordered De Ayllon (day ah eel yohn') to carry missionaries with him at the expense of the crown. The king wrote : " Our principal interest in the discovery of new lands is that the inhabitants and natives thereof, who are without the light of the knowledge of faith, may be brought to understand the truths of our holy Catholic faith." 3 San Miguel (sahn mee gale'). * Panfilo de Narvaez (pahn'fee lo day nahr vah'ayth). THE EXPLORERS 29 out to conquer the land to the north of the Gulf of Mexico. Indians had been seen at Mobile Bay wearing ornaments of gold, which had come, they said, from a country to the north. With four ships and four hundred men Narvaez sailed from Cuba and soon reached Tampa Bay. Leaving the ships for a short exploration he marched inland ; but disasters quickly overtook him. Ilis treatment of the Indians was so cruel that they attacked him at every point. Narvaez tried in vain to find the ships again and wan- dered hither and thither along the coast. Some of the expedition at last built boats and rowed along the shore to one of the mouths of the Mississippi where \ar\aez was drowned ; the ex- pedition was scat- tered, and four survivors, one of them an officer named Cabeza de Vaca,i fell into the hands of the Indians. They wandered from tribe to tribe until, after nine years and a journey of two thousand miles, they reached the western coast of Mexico. Cabeza de Vaca told wonderful stories of the immense herds of buffaloes he had seen and of the fabulously wealthy cities in the interior, 32. Coronado's Expedition, 1540. The Spanish viceroy of Mexico, Mendoza, hearing the wonderful tales told by Vaca and his companions, determined to find these rich cities, and sent a Franciscan monk. Father Mark, a native of Nice, to ' Cabeza de Vaca (cah bay'thah day vah'cah). SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 30 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY search for them. He penetrated probably as far north as the Zuni pueblo of New Mexico, which he saw from a distance. His little force was attacked, and he returned to Mendoza with an account of his journey. Believing they had found the famous "seven cities of Cibola,"^ Coronado was dispatched with one thousand one hundred men to conquer them and bear away their treasures. He attacked and ransacked the- first of these cities, but nothing valuable was found. The DE SOTO S EXPEDITION IN THE EAST, AND CORGNADO S IN THE WEST rude houses were made of sunburnt clay, and the poverty of the natives showed that gold was an unknown article. He now roamed over those vast deserts and plains covered with buffaloes.^ One of his parties discovered the canyon of the 1 Cibola (thee'boh lah). It was a tradition that on tiie conquest of the Spanish peninsula by the Moors, in the eighth century, a Bishop had fled from Lisbon with his followers across the sea and founded seven rich cities. The Spaniards believed they had now found these cities. ■■^ " In nine days' march I reached some plains so vast that I did not find their limit anywhere that I went, although I traveled more than three hundred leagues through them. And I found such a quantity of cows [buffaloes] that it is impossible to number them." — Letter af Coronado THE EXPLORERS 31 Colorado River. Coronado penetrated as far north as the Platte River, where he erected a cross bearing the inscription, " Thus far came the General Francisco Vasquez de Coro- nado."^ He returned to Mexico in 1542, bitterly disappointed at his failurc- 33. De Soto's Expedition, 1539. In the meantime another Spaniard, Hernando de Soto,-^ who had been appointed gov- ernor of Cuba, decided to try his fortunes in the search for UE SOTO REACHES THE MISSlSSH'l'I the gold country. In May, 1539, he landed at Tampa Bay with about five hundred and seventy men and two hundred horses. He advanced slowly northward through the swamps and jungles, suffering bitter hardships. The journey led him ' Francisco \'asquez de Coronado (frahn thees'coh vahs'kayth day CO ro nah'doh). - Forty years later (1582) the Spanish Franciscans founded Santa Fe. the second oldest city in the United States. Some historians give the date of this foundation as 1605. 8 Hernando de Soto (air nahn'doh day soh'toh). 32 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY among the warlike Indian tribes, — the Seminole, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw. In the course of a year, after travers- ing the states of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, they reached in 1541 the Mississippi River. ^ Crossing this river, they marched westward through the present state of Arkansas. Finding nothing of value, they turned southeastward, and after great suffering again came in the present state of Louisiana upon the Mississippi at the point where the Red River enters it. Here De Soto died, and to conceal his death from the Indians, who feared him, he was buried in the waters of the great river. Nearly half of the expedition had died of fever and of wounds inflicted by the Indians. The survivors built rude boats and sailed down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, where they made their way to the Spanish settle- ments in Mexico. Another attempt at colonization had failed, and half a century after Columbus's discovery of America not a permanent Spanish settlement existed north of the Gulf of Mexico. II. French Explorations 34. Verrazano's Voyage. For some time after the division of the world between Spain and Portugal, France did nothing of importance in the way of exploration. In 1523 Francis I, king of France, desiring to obtain a share of the territory in the New World and to find a passage to the rich countries of the East, sent Verrazano,'^ a native of Florence but now in the French service, on a voyage of discovery. Sighting land near Cape Hatteras in 1524, he cruised along the Atlantic coast northward. He soon entered the present harbor of New York, which he compared to a beautiful lake. After cruising 1 The first European to see the Mississippi River was Alvarez de Pineda (ahl vah'rayth day pee nay'dah), who discovered its mouth in 1519 and spent six weeks cruising upon it. He named it Rio de Espiritu Santo (River of the Holy Ghost). Some authorities now claim, however, that it was Mobile Bay that Pineda entered. ^ Verrazano (vai rah tsah'noh). THE EXPLORERS 33 along the shores of what is now Long Island, he discovered and entered Narragansett Bay and sailed along the coasts of Massachusetts and Maine — probably the first European to trace the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Chesapeake to the Bay of Fundy. On his return he wrote a letter to the F"rench king describing his voyage, which is believed to be the earliest description of the coast of the United States. 35. Cartier's Explorations. The war which was now being waged between I^'rance, Italy, and Spain prevented further explorations for some years. In 1534 the ancient town of St.-iMalo was the scene of preparations for an expedition which was destined to be of the greatest importance to France. In April of that year Cartier^ sailed to- the west and discovered the land since called Newfoundland. Passing through the Strait of Belle Isle, he sailed into a gulf which he thoroughly explored. It was the great Gulf of St. Lawrence, a name given to it by Cartier on his second voyage. As the winter was approaching, Cartier and his fleet returned to France. Cartier prepared at once for another voyage, and on the morning of May 16, 1535, he assembled the officers and crew of his three vessels in the cathedral of St.-Malo, where they received the blessing of the Bishop and sailed for the St. Lawrence. Entering this mighty river, he sailed onward, passing the mouth of the Saguenay and afterwards the tower- ing promontory where later rose the fortifications of Quebec. Cartier with his Indian pilots pushed on up the river until they reached Hochelaga, as their chief town w^as called by the Indians. Cartier named it Mont Royal, or Royal Mountain, and claimed possession of the country for the king of France. 36. Founding of Port Royal, 1605. Cartier made another voyage in 1541, but founded no permanent colony. War with Spain, as well as civil wars, so disturbed the kingdom of F"rance that seventy years elapsed before another expedition was fitted out for colonization purposes, although hundreds of vessels 1 Cartier (car tee ay). 34 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY sailed for fish every year to the Banks of Newfoundland and to secure also the furs which the Indians brought from the forests to the coast. In 1604 a French nobleman, Sieur de Monts,^ obtained a grant to colonize Acadia, a name given to the region from the fortieth to the forty-sixth parallel of north latitude, or from Philadelphia to the northern limits of Nova Scotia. The ex- pedition sailed in the spring of 1604, cruised along the coast, explored the Bay of Fundy, and finally established a settle- ment at Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia, but it was abandoned in 1607. In 16 10 it was again founded.^ 37. Champlain founds Quebec, 1608. Among De Monts's companions was a captain of the royal navy, Samuel de Cham- plain, a brave soldier, a tireless and scientific explorer, whose love of France was equaled only by his desire to Christianize and civilize the Indians. He has been rightly named " the Father of New France." Sailing up the majestic river, past the wooded banks where the Indian camps sent up their curl- ing wreaths of smoke, Champlain landed on the site of Quebec, and here was established, in 1608, a trading colony, tJie first permanent French settlement in America? 38. Discovery of Lake Champlain. Soon after his arrival Champlain joined the allied army of the Hurons and the Algonquins, who were at war with the fierce Iroquois. Mov- ing up the river called Richelieu from the great Cardinal of France, Champlain saw before him the beautiful-' lake that now bears his name. It was dotted with islands ; its banks v/ere 1 Sieur de Monts (see ur' de mong). 2 In 1613 an English expedition from Jamestown utterly destroyed Port Royal. Another settlement, St. Sauveur, on Mount Desert Island, had been destroyed a short time before by the English. Fathers Biard and Masse, the first Jesuit missionaries on American territory, were seized, the latter being put adrift at sea in an open boat, but was afterwards rescued. Father Biard was taken to Jamestown and later reached France. 3 The attempt made to found a settlement at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605 was, as we have seen, a failure. Five years later a permanent settlement was made, but Quebec had already been founded two years. THE EXPLORERS 35 covered with dark hemlocks and pines ; on the eastern hori- zon rose the Green Mountains, and to the west stretched the Adirondacks, where roamed the Iroquois. The forces met at the head of the lake, and the Iroquois, panic-stricken at the FKENXH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS noise of Champlain's guns, fled for their lives. This victory of Champlain was a costly one for France. From this time the Iroquois, the strongest Indian confederation on the conti- nent, were the relentless, cruel enemies of the French.^ 1 This enmity to the French was abated only when the military power of New France brought the Iroquois to terms. 36 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY During the next twenty-seven years Champlain journeyed over the vast northern wilds from the Kennebec to the Strait of Mackinac, with the aid of the Franciscans and the Jesuits estabhshing missions and trading posts along the rivers and lakes. "Peaceful, benign, beneficent," says Parkman,^ "were the weapons of this conquest. France aimed to subdue, not by the sword but by the cross ; not to overwhelm and crush the nations she invaded but to convert, to civilize and embrace them among her children." In 1629 an English fleet appeared before Quebec and demanded its surrender. As Champlain could not defend his little post, he was compelled to haul down the flag of France. For three years the English controlled Quebec, but the post was restored to France by the treaty of 1632. 39. The French in Florida. In 1562 Coligny,^ the leader of the Huguenots, or French Protestants, decided to found a colony on the south Atlantic coast of America, and John Ribaut^ led an expedition to South Carolina, where a fort was built at Port Royal. Leaving thirty settlers, Ribaut returned to France. The setdement was a failure. The colonists mutinied, put to sea in a worthless, leaky vessel, and would have perished prob- ably, had they not been picked up by an English slave vessel, which took them to London. The following year, 1564, a second party of three vessels, under the leadership of Laudon- niere,^ built a fort on the St. Johns River in Florida, and called it Fort Caroline in honor of the king of Franc?, Charles IX. Here they were joined later by Ribaut with reenforcements. 40. Menendez destroys the French Settlement. Spain claimed Florida by right of the discovery of Columbus and Ponce de Leon's exploration. Accordingly an officer of the royal navy, 1 Parkman, Pioneers of France, p. 451. 2 Coligny (co leen'yee). Coligny's plan was to found a settlement on the Florida Strait, from which he could plunder the Spanish treasure ships on their way homeward to Spain. This settlement would also serve as a base to attack Havana and the Spanish ports on the Caribbean Sea. 3 Ribaut (ree bo). * Laudonniere (low don nee air'). THE EXPLORERS 37 Pedro Mencndcz,^ was sent to drive out the French. The P'rench saw with alarm the Spanish \-essels off the mouth of the river, and at once preparations were made by both forces for an attack. Menendez, however, sailed down the coast a short distance and, landing, built a fort, which in honor of the day he called St. Augustine (1565), St. Augjtstinc ivas the first permanent Span- isli settlctncnt in the V)iited States. It was also the first permanent settlement of Europeans within the present limits of our country, Ribaut followed a few days later, hoping to catch the Spaniards unprepared. Just as the French ships were bearing down on the enemy a hurricane scattered the squad- ron in all directions. Menendez, in the mean- time, had hurried to P'ort Caroline and easily captured it, changing its name to San Mateo. OLD SPANISH CATllEDKAL IN ST. AUGUS- TINi:, KLUKIDA Some of the soldiers escaped, but most of the garrison were put to death. Ribaut and the sur- vivors of the hurricane later fell into the hands of Menendez and were executed.^ 1 Pedro Menendez (pay'dro may nen'dayth). 2 The history of these times is filled with the stories of heartless cruelties. When the French took Havana they put all the inhabitants to the sword, while the English corsairs always put to death the Spanish sailors they captured. Tlie shipwrecked mariners of the Armada were butchered in attempting to save themselves on the coast of Ireland. This, however, is no justification for the inhuman barbarities of Menendez. 38 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 41. De Gourgues's Revenge. To avenge his countrymen, a Frenchman named Ue Gourgues ^ fitted out, at his own ex- pense, a secret expedition of three vessels. Sailing for Florida, he surprised the Spanish garrison that guarded Fort San Mateo and hanged every man within it. As no further attempts at colonization were made by France in that section, Spain kept possession of Florida. III. English Explorations 42. Drake's Voyage, 1577-1580. For almost one hundred years after the voyages of the Cabots, the English appeared to lose interest in the work of ex- ploration. In 1576 Sir Martin Frobisher attempted in vain to find a northwest passage to Asia. In the following year, 1577, Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth with five vessels toward South America. He lost four of his vessels, but with the remaining one, the Pelican, he sailed through the Strait of Magellan. He journeyed north- ward along the western shore •of South America and the coasts of Mexico -and California, robbing the rich Spanish ves- sels and plundering the Spanish towns. He sailed as far north as Oregon, and then, returning because of the cold, made a landing near the present city of San Francisco and took possession of the country- in the name of the British crown, calling it New Albion.'^ He returned by ^ De Gourgues (de goorg'). - England was called Albion because of the white (Latin albus) cliffs of Dover. As the coast here resembled the English shore, Drake named it New Albion. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE THE EXPLORERS 39 way of the Cape of Good Hope, and thus made the second circumnavigation of the world. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained from Queen Eliza- beth a charter which granted to him any new land, not already occupied by any Christian prince, that he might discover in America. In the colony which he intended to found he hoped to give a refuge to the persecuted Catholics of England. In 1583 he touched Newfoundland, and claimed it for the queen, but he and one of his ships were lost at sea on the return voyage.^ 43. The Raleigh Colo- nists, (jilbert's grant was now transferred to his half-brother, the famous Sir Walter Ra- leigh, and in 1584 he obtained from Eliza- beth a charter to found a setdement upon any territory not already occupied by any Chris- tian power. The ex- pedition was sent out under Amadas and Barlowe and landed at Roanoke Island, off the coast of the present state of North Carolina. So favorable were the reports that Elizabeth called it Virginia, in honor of herself. In the following year, 1585, emigrants from England landed and a town was founded. It was a signal failure and ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS ' John Davis, an English navigator, attempted in three voyages (15S5-1587) to find a northwest passage. He discovered the strait that bears his name. It was not until 1854 that the Northwest Passage, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, was discovered by Sir Robert McClure, an Englishman. Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian, was the first to push a boat through the pas- sage, which he did in 1906. Amundsen was later (1911) the discoverer of the South Pole. 40 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the colonists were glad to return with Sir Francis Drake, who happened to be sailing homeward that way. Among the articles brought by Raleigh's colonists to England were dried tobacco leaves and potatoes. He planted the latter on his estate in Ireland. Potatoes did not come into general use, however, before the eighteenth century. 44. The Lost Colony of Roa- noke. In 1587 Raleigh deter- mined to send out another colony, this time to Chesapeake Bay, under John White as governor. The settlement was, however, made again on Roa- noke Island, and White re- turned to London for supplies, leaving with the colonists his daughter and his granddaugh- ter, Virginia Dare, the first child born of English parents in America. He was detained in England for three years, because of the war with Spain,^ and when he finally reached the site of the settlement not a trace of the colonists could be found. They had disappeared, and the mystery has never been solved.^ Raleigh's funds were now exhausted. He had spent an equivalent in our money of one million dollars. SIR SALTER RALEIGH 1 The leading event in this war was the destruction in 15S8 of the Spanish Armada, a powerful fleet of warships sent by Spain against England. The defeat of the Armada is considered one of the decisive battles of the world. It practically gave control of the sea to England and allowed that nation to found numerous colonies in America during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. - The only trace of the lost colony was the word Croatoan cut in the bark of a tree. This was the name of a small island near by, but nothing was found there to show the fate of the colonists. THE EXPLORERS 41 and his interests were assigned to a stock company.^ Raleigh was the first promoter of EngUsh colonization in America. 45. The Voyages of Gosnold and Pring. In March, 1602, an luiglish navigator, Bartholomew (iosnold, sailing westward directly across the Atlantic from the Azores instead of following the long, tiicuitous route by way of the West Indies and Florida, reached a cape which he called Cape Cod from the large number of codfish found in the waters thereabout. Gosnold accom- plished nothing except, perhaps, that he showed a short route across the, Atlantic. In 1603 Martin Pring, on a voyage of trade and exploration, visited Plymouth harbor, calling it Whitsunday Bay. Two years later, 1605, George Weymouth cruised along the coast of Maine. SUMMARY I. The Spanish. Ponce de Leon, in 15 13, visited Florida and gave it its name. His attempt to found a colony eight years later was a failure. Corte's, in 15 19, sailed for Mexico, which he conquered two years later, destroying forever the power of the Aztec Confederacy. De Aylldn, in 1526, founded a colony on the James River in X'irginia. In the following year the colony was abandoned. De Narvaez, in 1528, led an expedition to conquer the lands north of the Gulf of Mexico. All the members except four perished, in- cluding Narvaez. De Soto, in 1539, attempted to conquer Florida. He reached the Mississippi (1541), but his expedition was a failure. ^ Raleigh visited South America, but never came to the shores of North America. Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 and was succeeded by James I, who caused Raleigh to be arrested for high treason. After many years in prison- he was executed in 1618. 42 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Coronado, in 1540, explored the Southwest as far north as Nebraska. One branch of his expedition discovered the canyon of the Colorado. In 1565 St. Augustine was founded. This was the first permanent Spanish settlement in America. II. The French: in the North. In 1524 Verrazano explored the coast of North America, from Cape Hatteras to the Bay of Fundy. Jacques Cartier, in 1534, discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the following year he discovered the St. Lawrence River and gave the name Mont Royal to the site of the present city of Montreal. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in America. The French: in the South. In 1562 Ribaut attempted to found a setdement, Port Royal, iij South Carolina. In 1564 Laudonniere built Fort Caroline, in Florida. The garrison was destroyed by Menendez. III. The English. In 1 577-1580 Sir Francis Drake made the second circumnavigation of the world. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a charter and made two fruitless voyages. Sir Walter Raleigh took up the work and attempted to colonize Virginia. His efforts were a failure. In 1587, under Raleigh's patronage, a colony was established on Roanoke Island, with John White as governor. White went back to England for supplies, and on his return after three years' absence no trace of. the colony could be found. In 1602 Gosnold explored the north Atlantic coast; in 1603 Pring visited the harbor of Plymouth ; in 1605 Weymouth visited the coast of Maine. These three voyages accomplished little of importance. Dates to be remembered : 1519. Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. 1535. Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence River. 1565. Foundation of St. Augustine, first permanent Spanish set- tlement in the present limits of the United States. 1608. Champlain founds Quebec, first permanent French settle- ment in America. Persons to kiunv about : Cortes, De Soto, Cartier, Champlain, Raleigh, Drake. THE EXPLORERS PERIOD OF EXPLORATION (1492-1565) 43 Spanish Fre.vch English Portuguese 1492 Columbus discovers America 1497 Cabot dis- covers the continent of North America .501 Vespucius explores the coast of South America '5'3 Ponce de Leon dis- covers Florida. Bal- boa discovers the Pacific Ocean 1519 Magellan sails on his great voyage; Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico 1522 One of Magellan's ships reaches Spain. It was the first to sail around the world 1524 Verrazano explores the coast of North America . 1532 Pizarro begins the conquest of Peru '535 Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence '541 De Soto reaches the Mississippi 1564 The French settle in Florida 1565 St. Augustine founded The French colony ' in P'lorida is de- stroyed 44 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Map ivork : On a map find St. Augustine, Vera Cruz, the City of Mexico, the can- yon of the Colorado, Quebec, Montreal, Nova Scotia, Roanoke Island. Trace the route of De Soto and that of Coronado. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Show how each of the following was identified with the exploration or settlement of the New World : Ponce de Leon, Coronado, Cartier, Champlain, Raleigh. What was the purpose of each ? 2. Connect an important event with each of the following : Cortes, De Soto, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Verrazano, Menendez. 3. Account for the following names : Florida, Virginia, St. Augustine, St. Lawrence, Montreal. 4. Name the first permanent settlement in the present limits of the United States. By what nation was the settlement made.'' 5. Give an account of French explorations in America, touching on the services of {a) Verrazano ; {b) Champlain. 6. Who is often called the first great promoter of English colonization in America? When and where in America was the first English colony planted } What became of it .'' READINGS Histories. Bourne, E. G., Spain in A?/ienca. Ch.\nning, Edward, History of the United States, Vol. I. Cheyney, E. P., A Short History of England. Doyle, J. A., The English in America, Vol. I. Fiske, John, The Discovery of America. Thwaites, R. G., France in America. Tyler, L. G., England in America. I. Spanish Explorations. Bandelier, A. F., Cabeza de J'aca. CoMAN, K., Economic Beginnings of the West. King, Grace E.. /)' Soto and his Men in the Land of the Floridas. Lowery, W., SpanisJi Settlements within the United States. Lii.MAtis, C. F., The Spanish I'io- neers. MozANS, H. J. (J. A. Zahm), Following the Conqnistadores. Pres- COTT, W. H., Conquest of Mexico. Conquest of Peru. Shea, J. G., in WiNSOR, America, Vol. II, pp. 231-254. Wixship, G. P., fourncy of Coronado. Zahm, J. A., The .Search for El Dorado. II. French Explorations. De Costa, B. F., Verraza/io the Explorer. Parkal\n, Fraxcls, Pioneers of France. Sedgwick, H. D., Jr., Samuel de Champlain. Stei'HENS, H. B., facques Cartier. THPr FA'PLORERS 45 III. English Explorations. Eggleston, Edward, Beginners of a Xalion. l-'isKi:. John, Old Virginia and her Neighbors. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. I, p. 40 (Bull of Pope Alexander \'I); p. 49 (The Name of America); p. 49 (Cortes in Mexico); p. 53 (Con- quest of Peru). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 15 (De Soto's Journey); p. 19 (Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Patent). Old South Leaflets, No. 35 {Cortes' s Accotmt 0/ the City of Mexico); No. 36 {Death of De Soto); No. 89 {Founding of St. Augustine); No. 91 {Founding of Quebec); No. 119 {Raleigh's J'irst Roanoke Colony). Fiction. Longfellow, .SVV- Humphrey Gilbert (poem). Muxroe, Kirk. Flamingo Feather (an interesting tale of the early settlements in Florida). ScoTT, Kenilivorth (a picture of court life in England under Elizabeth). CHAPTER III " The fascinating history of [the] remarkable and widespread Indian missions . . . furnishes some of the most brilliant examples on record of self-sacrificing and heroic devotion to an exalted cause." — Thwaites, "France in America," p. 157 THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 46. The Religious Orders in Florida. While the Spanish settlements were being founded, the religious welfare of the Indians was not overlooked. In 1565, as we have seen, the city of St. Augustine had been founded and a church built there. In the following year the Jesuit Fathers Pedro Martinez ^ and John Rogel were sent by Francis Borgia, General of the Jesuits, to found a mission in Florida. On arriving off that coast Father Martinez landed to explore the shore. Scarcely had he done so when a gale arose, driving the vessel out to sea. Father Martinez was quickly surrounded by the savage Indians and put to death. Ten years later other Jesuits arrived to establish missions ; they learned the Indian language and opened schools. An attempt to found a mission on Chesapeake Bay was made by the Jesuits under Father Segura.^ Scarcely had their vessel departed when they were killed by the Indians. The remaining Jesuits throughout Florida were thereupon (1572) recalled and sent to Mexico. The Franciscans now took up the missionary work in Florida, and Father Pareja^ translated many religious books into the native dialects. Fearful persecutions broke out from time to time ; the missions were destroyed, and the missionaries 1 Martinez (mah tee'nayth). ^ Segura (say goo'rah). 3 Pareja (pah ray'ha). 46 THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 47 fell victims to the fury of the savages. ^ When Florida was ceded to England by Spain, in 1763, missionary work came to an end. 47. The Missionaries of New France — the R6collets and the Jesuits. In 161 5 four Recollets,"'^ a branch of the Franciscans, arrived in New France to assist Champlain in his noble efforts to civilize the savage tribes. They were the first priests to settle in Canada. They established missions along the St. Lawrence .'^-"^^^„ •-1 1^ " /^^, [I . 1^- l-OUXDING A SETTLEMENT IN CANADA River, and preached to the tribes of the Algonquian family from Cape Breton Island to the headwaters of the Ottawa. One of their number, Father Le Caron, discovered (161 5) Lake Huron. In 1625 the Franciscans invited the Jesuits to share with them the glorious work of the missions. The 1 " Proceedin<; to the town of Topequi. the Indians burst into the house of Father ]ilas Rodriguez. The missionary endeavored to show them the wicked- ness and folly of their conduct, which would entail punishment here and here- after, but finding his words of no avail, he asked the Indians to allow him to say Mass. They granted his request, moved by a respect which they could not understand ; and the good priest, with his expectant murderers for his congregation, offered the Holy Sacrifice for the last time and then knelt down before the altar to receive the death blow." — Ur. J. G. Shea, "The Catholic Church in the United States," Vol. I, p. 154 - Recollets (ray co lay'). 48 ESSExNTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Jesuits accepted the invitation and were soon carrying the gospel far and wide in the wilderness and along the lakes and rivers.^ In 1629 the English captured Quebec, and the Recollets and Jesuits were transported to England. Canada did not re- main long in the hands of England, for the treaty of peace in 1632 secured Canada again to France. The Jesuits resumed missionary labors in Canada the same year. When Montreal was founded, in 1642, the Sulpicians established themselves and soon founded schools and seminaries in and near Montreal, but the Jesuits had practically entire charge of the great tracts of land to the north and west. 48. The Huron Missions. Father Jogues and the Iroquois. Under the zealous Fathers Erebeuf,''^ Lalemant, and Daniel — all three destined to suffer martyrdom under the most horrible tortures — the Huron tribe was visited and a central mission was established at Sainte Marie of the Hurons near the east- ern borders of Georgian Bay. Fathers Raymbault^ and Jogues visited Sault Sainte Marie,^ where a great gathering of Chip- pewa and other tribes was held. The Jesuits also made plans to journey to the great plains of the Far West. On one of the expeditions Father Jogues was returning to his missions from Quebec with his companion Rene Goupil,^ when they fell into the hands of the ferocious Mohawk. They were treated with inhuman cruelty. Their nails were torn out, some of their 1 "They penetrated the Indian towns, hved with the savages, bore unpar- alleled hardships, ministered to the wretched, instilled the teachings of Chris- tianity into the minds of any who would give them a hearing, and thought no danger or sacrifice great enough to deter them from carrying on their work. The Indian world was their parish. Wherever they went they made keen observation of all they saw, and reported to their superior in France in a re- markable series of letters called the Jesuit Relations. They carefully mapped the scenes of their labors ; they journeyed all over the valleys of the St. I>aw- rence and Mississippi ; they discovered all the important lakes and tributary streams of the great valley. Although the Fathers served so faithfully, most of them met violent deaths at the hands of the savages whom they had come to help." — Thorpe, " History of the American People," p. 27 2 Brebeuf (brayboof). ^ Raymbault (ram bo'). * Sault Sainte Marie (soo saint ma'ry). '" Rene Goupil (re nay 'goo peel'). THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 49 fingers sawed off, their bodies burned and hacked, and they were finally compelled to undergo the terrible journey to the Indian settlement on the Mohawk River. Here Rene Goupil was killed, but Father Jogues made his escape to a Dutch vessel and was hospitably received in New York, whence he irmmB THE GREAT INDIAN CONFEREXCE AT SAULT SAINTE MARIE sailed for France, Two years later he returned to Montreal and was sent to the Mohawk to ratify a treaty of peace. I le again returned to Montreal ; but his desire to establish a mis- sion among the savage Mohawk led him to again journey into their country, where he was treacherously seized and killed October i8, 1646. A shrine at Auriesville, New York, marks the spot of his martmlom. The Iroquois now spread death and destruction on every side; their war parties (in 1649) swept along the Great Lakes 50 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and the St. Lawrence River, cutting off the trade of the French with the West and rendering the journeys of the missionaries impossible. Many Jesuits were captured. Fathers Brebeuf and Lalemant were burned at the stake, and Fathers Garnier, Daniel, and Chabanel fell beneath the tomahawk. In the meantime dissension arose in the Iroquois confederacy, and the Onondaga sought a treaty of peace with the French in 1653. They asked for the establishment of a French mission. The other Iroquois tribes, except the Mohawk, also made a treaty, and accordingly a colony was founded on Lake Onondaga by the French. Jesuits accompanied the settlers, founding chapels and traveling through the tribes preaching the word of God. The missions prospered, and a bright future was open- ing before the faithful colonists, when an Indian plot to destroy the entire settlement was discovered. By a stratagem ^ the French were enabled to withdraw and reach Quebec in safety. The work among the Iroquois had been apparently unsuccessful, but the Jesuits were not discouraged. After some severe defeats at the hands of the French regular troops, the Iroquois sought peace, and in 1667 the Jesuits were again in the Iro- quois country. Missions were established among each of the five tribes, but the rivalry between the French and English destroyed to a great extent the work of the good missionaries. One by one the missions were closed, and the country of the Iroquois was again left a prey to the warring tribes of the confederacy. It was not until 1666 that De Courcelles,^ the new governor of Canada, decided to wage war in earnest on the Iroquois. The country of the Mohawk was overrun, and their towns and crops destroyed. For twenty years the Mohawk tribe never dared to go again on the warpath against the French. 1 The Indians were invited to a banquet, at which they so gorged them- selves that they soon fell into a deep sleep. The French took advantage of their helplessness and fled from the Indian encampment down the Oswego River to Lake Ontario. ^ De Courcelles (day cour sell')- THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 51 49. The Ottawa Missions. In 1660 Father Rene Menard set out on liis missionary labors to the lands of the Ottawas. After incredible hardships he reached the bay, now called Keweenaw, on the south shore of Lake Superior. " The nearest altar of the living God," says Dr. John Gilmary Shea, "to that raised by this aged and intrepid priest was that of the Sulpicians at Montreal, yet the altars of Santa Fe and St. Inigoes (Mary- land) were but little more remote. The aged priest stood alone in the heart of the continent, with no fellow priest and scarcely a fellowman of European race within a thousand miles of him." The following year, in attempting to reach an Indian tribe near the headwaters of the Mississippi, he strayed from his companions and was never again heard from. In 1667 Father Claude Allouez,^ Superior of the western missions, car- ried the gospel through the present state of Wisconsin and the upper part of Michigan. On the south shore of Lake Superior, La Pointe mission was founded and was named Saint Esprit, or Holy Ghost. The first mission on Lake Michigan was estab- lished in 1669 at Green Bay and named St. Francis Xavier. Allouez built up also the mission of Sault Sainte Marie. These were the three chief Jesuit missions of the Northwest. In 167 1 Father Marquette founded the mission of St. Ignace on the Strait of Mackinac. This place became an important fur-trading point, until Cadillac founded Detroit thirty years later on the strait which connects Lake Erie with Lake Huron. Over the Indian trail at Detroit the Indians from the east passed in great numbers on western journeys. In every direction the tireless, faithful Jesuit penetrated the forest, preaching the gospel, instructing the children, and teaching the Indians the ways of civilization. 50. The Maine Missions. Fathers Biard and Masse had established in 161 3 a mission on Mount Desert Island, but it was destroyed by an English expedition sent out from the Jamestown colony in Virginia. 1 Allouez (al 00 ay'). 52 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY In 1633 the Capuchin Fathers, aided by Cardinal Richeheu^ of France, estabUshed missions and schools for the Indians along the coast from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Kennebec. In 1646 Father Druillettes was sent to the Abnaki on the Kennebec River. He was also intrusted with the duty of visit- ing the authorities of the English colonies in New England to secure a compact for trade and an alliance against the Indians, especially the Iroquois. He was hospitably received in Boston, although the most bitter penal laws were in force against the Jesuits. The following year he visited New Haven to meet delegates from the New England colonies, but his mission was not successful. He soon returned to Canada, and during the next thirty-six years there was little or no missionary work among the Abnaki. In 16S8 the Jesuits returned and had scarcely resumed their labors when war broke out in Europe between England and France. At once the horrors of Indian warfare swept like a forest fire from the St. Lawrence south- ward. The Indian settlements along the Penobscot were burned and the churches destroyed by the English colonists and their allies. In August, 1724, Norridgewock was captured by the English, and brave Father Rale,^ the faithful friend of the Abnaki, fell at the first onset. The church was plundered and destroyed, and the English returned in triumph from their errand of destruction. READINGS Campbell, T. J., Piotieer Priests of North America.'' Pioneer Laymen of iXorth America. Laut, A. C, Canada, the Empire of the jYorth. Parkmax, Half-Centmy of Conflict. Plie fesnits in North America. Thwaites, R. C, Father Marquette. Hww XWY.'i (¥.6..\ fesuit Relations. 1 Richelieu (reesh le uh'). - Father Rale came to America at the age of thirty-two and, after a journey in the West, spent twenty-five years among the Abnaki. He wrote a dictionary of their language, which is now in the library of Harvard University. He was one of the most heroic of the many brave Jesuits who faced death hourly for the faith. Though he knew there was a price of one thousand pounds sterling on his head, he never fled from danger, and at last fell at his post of duty. CHAPTER IV THE INDIANS 51. Families. Appearance. Let us now glance at the bar- barous tribes that occupied, at the discovery of America, prac- tically the whole country. These natives were called Indians by Columbus, as he believed the newly discovered land was a pait of India. Incor- lect as the name was ound to be, it has lemained to this day. m^ \o one knou^ how Ion<^^ the Indians had been in America be- fore the white man found them or where they came from. The Indians of North America, north of Mexico, were for the most part members of six great families.^ These families ^ The basis of the family division of Indians is a common language. It has been estimated that there were between fifty-five and sixty distinct Indian linguistic families north of Mexico. 53 54 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY were the Algonquian, the Iroquoian, the Muskhogean, the Siouan, the Shoshonean, and the Athapascan. On the map may be seen the territory occupied by these famihes. As a rule the Indians were copper-colored and were there- fore called the red men. They had small black eyes, straight black hair, and high cheek bones. The men had beardless faces. When Columbus arrived the Indians were spread over all the Western Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to Cape Horn. INDIAN PICTURE WRITING 52. Indian Homes. The homes of the Indians varied to a marked degree in different parts of the country. The Indians of the West and Northwest, who were of a ferocious nature, lived in wigwams, or tepees. These tepees were circular in shape, made with poles drawn together at the top. They were covered with skins or bark and could be set up easily and carried from place to place. These Indians moved frequently from one hunting ground to another and lived on game and fish. They cultivated the soil very little and made scarcely any progress in the arts except in the weaving of baskets. THE INDIANS 55 In the Southwest lived the Pueblo Indians, who had made great progress toward civilization. Their houses of sun-dried brick were built on the plateaus or in the cliffs of the vast canyons ; hence they were called Cliff Dwellers.^ They made cloth and pottery and tilled the soil.^ East of the Mississippi River the development of the Indians was more marked. Except the Iroquois they lived in wigwams grouped together in villages surrounded by palisades of wooden LONG HOUSE OF THE nmi)ig of pop2tlai% represejitative government} 65. Virginia loses its Charter, 1624. King James, how- ever, had become displeased with the, London Company and brought a suit to annul its charter. The suit was decided in the king's favor (1624), and Virginia became a royal province, passing under the direct control of the king. Nevertheless, the people continued to make most of their own laws. Before James I had effected a change in the government of the colony, he died (May, 1625) and was succeeded on the throne by his son, Charles L Seven years after his accession the king diminished the territory of Virginia by a grant of Maryland on the north and of the Carolinas on the south. Civil war soon broke out in PLngland, and in 1649 Charles I was beheaded.^ 66. Grant of Virginia. The Navigation Acts. When his son, Charles II, finally obtained the throne in 1660, he granted for thirty-one years to two favorites. Lord Culpepper and Lord Arlington, " the entire tract of land and water commonly called Virginia," with all the rents and revenues. This grant, however, 1 It was composed of the governor and two houses — the council forming the upper house, and the representatives of the burgesses forming the lower house. It corresponded in this respect somewhat with the English Parliament or our own Congress. After the London Company was dissolved in 1624, the governor and council were appointed by the king, but the House of Burgesses was still elected by the freemen. 2 At this time many sympathizers of the unfortunate king, called Royalists, or Cavaliers, emigrated to America and settled in Virginia. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 71 (■449) A N A CT FOR Incrcafe of Shipping) AfiJ tncourigcmcnt of ihc N A V I GAT 1 O N NATION. was soon annulled. In the meantime the people were suffer- ing from a series of oppressive acts, chief of which were the Navigation Acts, which were enacted between 165 1 and 1663. These laws gave a monopoly of the colonial commerce to Eng- lish merchants who, protected from competition, charged High prices on goods to the colonists and paid low prices on goods sold by the colonists. The Navigation Acts, as we shall see, were one of the great causes of discontent which finally led to the American Revolution.^ 67. Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. Another grievance was that al- though Indian attacks were fre- cjucnt, the royal governor, Berkele\', would not allow the colonists to march against them, as he was gathering a fortune from the In- dian fur trade. Determined at last to take stringent measures against the Indians, Nathaniel Bacon asked Berkeley's permis- sion to enlist volunteers. His request was refused, and he there- upon organized companies and cliastised the Indians. The governor called it treason, but in view of Bacon's popularity with the people he pardoned him. A new assembly met and repealed many of the un- popular laws, passing others for the relief of the people. Civil war, however, broke out, with Bacon in charge of the forces against Berkeley, who was soon defeated and fled. Jamestown was thereupon utterly destroyed by Bacon. ^ The original purpose of the Navigation Acts, which were enacted by Cromwell, was to drive Dutch shipping from the sea. IDtaUl), Be itCii Oi tilt 3iiurcarc oE ttic S>l)ippiiig Ai\&tlje ciuouTascmciit o( tl)c /^rtDigatiDii of tins j'^atioii, iDDitbtinDcr tlic gooo pjobiociicc aiiiip!Otcrfioiiof(?oD, IS fo great a means of tlicn9tifatcanDS>afc= t\' of tins Commons taby tl)isp:crciitparlia= jiitiit, aiiD ilK 'autDoiitp tl)ctcof, HDatfcom aiiDaftrtthc Jriraoapof Di.cirbcr, One tl)ou-. fanblitl)uiiB!tDfifti' one, anD ftoin tticnccfo!; ibaiDs , p.o OooDs 01 £oinnioDitics ilJliatro' CDtt, of tilt CioHJtl), pioDuction 01 ©aniifa ttOtC of Mu.AlInci D! Amcnci, OJ Of an}' patt ifitteofi 01 of anpJQaiiDs belonging to them. M anj> of tlitni , O! ttiliul) art otictiDcD o; laif oovbn In tlic iifual ©aps oj (faros of ilioic places, asuitiiof thtfingiirti plantations as otljits, MHJcSmpojtco o;b:ongljt inioifi'S Com- K.VCSI.MILE OF THE NAVIGA- TION ACT OF 1 65 I 72 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY In the midst of his successes Bacon died, and the rebelhon fell to pieces. Berkeley thereupon returned and punished with death a large number of the rebellious leaders. ^ Bacon's rebel- lion was a protest against the class legislation and the corrup- tion" of Berkeley's government. He attempted to secure for the people their rights against the ever-increasing tyranny of the aristocratic party, which tried to evade taxation while plundering the public treasury. Berkeley was at last recalled to England, peace was established with the Indians, and some abuses were remedied. The rebellion taught the colonists to act together against despotic authority and paved the way for the later resistance to the power of England. SUMMARY In 1607 the first permanent English settlement in America was made in Jamestown. In 1 619 was held the first legislative assembly in the New World. The same year marked the introduction of negro slavery in Virginia. In 1676 Nathaniel Bacon rose in rebellion against the unjust laws and lax administration of the colony. New Netherland, or New^ York, 161 4 68. Henry Hudson and the Dutch. At the beginning of the seventeenth century the Dutch were one of the foremost com- mercial peoples of the world,^ and their country, Holland, was one of the most prosperous in Europe. Their sails were upon every sea, and they were anxious for a short route to the Indies,^ where they could secure the spices, silks, and precious 1 Said Charles II of Berkeley : "The old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father." Charles II had executed only six of the fifty-nine judges who had voted for the death sentence of his father, Charles I. 2 The Dutch in the seventeenth century had one half of the carrying trade of Europe, and Amsterdam was one of the greatest marts in the world. 3 The Dutch used the route around the Cape of Good Hope. As this was controlled by the Portuguese, they sought a route around Asia or America. PERMANENT (^()LONL\E SETTLEMENTS 73 stones so eagerly desired in the markets of Europe. In 1609 the Duteh East India Company, the most successful trading corporation in the world, sent Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to find this route to the East. He sailed northeast, but as his way was soon blocked by ice he changed his course to the westward. He came in sight of the Maine coast and cruised southward to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. Turning north- ward again, he entered the present harbor of New York and explored in 1609 the mighty river that now bears his name.^ In his vessel, the Half Moon, he sailed as far north as the site of Albany, explor- ing the banks and looking for an entrance to the Pacific. He re- ceived parties of Indians, whom he treated with great kindness. They were Mohawks of the Iroquois league, the strongest Indian power in America, and ever afterward the Dutch and Iroquois preserved ties of the strongest friendship. From the narrowing width of the river, Hudson knew he had not found the route to the East. On his return he sent to Amsterdam a glowing account^ of the country he had visited and of the 1 Verrazano on his great voyage (see sect. 34) discovered the mouth of the Hudson in 1524. Estevan Gomez, sailing from Spain, visited it in 1525, naming it River of Saint Anthony. Hudson was the first to explore it thoroughly, calling it River of the Mountains. It was also called the Mauri- tius in honor of Maurice, stadholder of the Dutch Republic. Later, however, it was justly given the name Hudson in honor of the great explorer. 2 Of the country he wrote : " The land is the finest for cultivation that I ever in my life set foot upon and it also abounds in trees of every description." THE HALF MOO.X ON THE HUDSON 7A ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY great possibilities of the fur trade. ^ At once traders poured in from all parts of Europe,'^ and numerous posts were established for dealing with the Indians. 69. Settlement of Manhattan. The Dutch West India Com- pany. Along the Hudson River, called by them the North River, the Dutch built trading places, — one, in 1614, on Manhattan Island, which became the present city of New WATER FRONT IX EARLY NEW YORK York, and another at Fort Orange,^ on the present site of Albany. Southward they pushed their trading posts, one being- built near the present site of Camden, New Jersey, on the 1 England sent Hudson later to find a northwest passage. He discovered the bay and strait which bear his name, but he and his crew suffered fearfully from the intense cold. At length the crew mutinied and put Hudson with eight companions in a boat and set them adrift. Tlie unfortunate explorer was never again seen nor heard from. 2 Furs were of the greatest value to the Dutch traders because of the severe winters in northern Europe. Russia had supplied most of the furs up to this time. ^ This place was so named in honor of the ruling house of the United Netherlands. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 75 Delaware. This river was called by them the South River. They named the whole country New Netherland and claimed all the territory from the Delaware to the Connecticut. A new corporation called the Dutch West India Company took the place of the Dutch East India Company in 162 1. The chief objects in the establish- ment of this Dutch West India Company were the pillage of Spanish settle- ments and fleets and the extension of profitable commerce. Its field was the west coast of Africa, America, and the islands of the Atlantic. 70. Purchase of Man- hattan. The Patroons. In 1626 a colony under (Governor Peter Minuit was sent out to the rude trading post on Man- hattan Island, where a settlement was estab- lished. The officials were appointed by the com- pany and no local self-government was allowed. The Indians sold the island for trinkets worth about twenty-four dollars.^ A fort was established, and the Indian name Manhattan was first given to the settlement, but it was later named l-'ort Amsterdam. This was the beginning of the present great city of New York. Three years later (1629) the company offered a grant of land on any river or bay except on Manhattan Island to the 1 This was at the rate of about two cents an acre. The present assessed valuation of Manhattan Island with its buildings is over five billion dollars. OCEAN ni'TCH COLONIAL CLALMS ^6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY founder of a settlement of fifty persons over fifteen years of age. The grant gave to the founder of New Netherland, who was to be called a patroon/ a tract of sixteen miles frontage on one side of a river or eight miles on each side. The patroon was given practically absolute power over his estate and tenants. He had the right to appoint officers and magis- trates and to act as judge in civil and criminal courts, which he was permitted to establish on his lands. The patroon was required to clear the land, put up buildings for the tenants, and provide cattle and tools. The settler, on his part, could not leave the estate to become the tenant of another. He also THE BOWLIXG GREEN agreed to bring his grain to the patroon 's mill and pay for the grinding ; to cultivate the patroon's land for ten years ; to use only cloth made in Holland ; to neither fish nor hunt on the patroon's property without his permission. If the tenant died without will, the patroon secured all his property. In 1638 the Dutch West India Company found the patroon system to be in general a failure, as it led colonists to go to New Eng- land. The company therefore abolished the monopolies and gave settlers the right to secure land for themselves. ^ 71. The Dutch Governors. Peter Stuyvesant. Under a series of incompetent and corrupt governors the colony fared ill. In ^ Patroon means " protector " or " benefactor," like our English word patroti. - Father Jogues, the Jesuit, visited Manhattan Island in 1643 and found eighteen different languages spoken there even at that early date. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 77 1647 Peter Stuyvesant arrived as governor. He was a tyran- nical, dictatorial man who had no faith in the people. ^ He resolved to rule with absolute authority, and generally suc- ceeded as there was no representative government in the colony. He declared that his oath of office forbade him to allow any religion except the Dutch Reformed, and he insisted on maintaining this church at the public expense. Dissenters were severely punished. Stuyvesant, in fact, threatened to hang any man who appealed from his decisions to the rulers in Holland.^ In 1655 he attacked the Swedish settle- ments'^ on the Del- aware and annexed them to New Nether- land. He also at- tempted to annex Connecticut, but was unsuccessful. The English claimed the entire coast by virtue of Cabot's exploration. and saw with a jealous eye this Dutch settlement thrust in between the Virginia and the New England colonies. In spite of the Navigation l>aws Dutch vessels carried tobacco from the English colonies to Europe, and goods from New Ncthcrland were easily carried over the borders to the English PETER STUYVESANT 1 Stuyvesant had lost a leg in the wars of Holland and was called "Old Silver Leg" by the English and " Ilard-Headed Peter" by the Dutch. 2 New Netherland was one of the few places in the New World where torture could be and legally was used on prisoners. ' These settlements had been made in 1638 by Swedish colonists who built a fort named Fort Christina in honor of the Queen of Sweden. This fort occupied the site of the later city of Wilmington. The Swedes named the country New Sweden. 78 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY colonies. This loss of revenue was a source of great irri- tation to the English government. King Charles, therefore, resolved to take possession of the colony of New Netherland. As a first step he granted, in March, 1664, to his brother James all eastern Maine and at the same time all the land between the Connecticut River and the Delaware. This grant covered, of course, the entire Dutch colony of New Netherland. 72. The English capture New Netherland. No time was lost, for five months later (August 1 8, 1 664) a fleet appeared before New Amsterdam and. demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant stormed with great rage and declared he would never sur- render. The town, however, was in no condition for defense. The people were weary of Stuyvesant's despotic rule, and the flag of Holland was hauled down without a shot's being fired. The colony of New Amsterdam received the name of the Province of New York in honor of James, brother of the king, who was both Duke of York and Duke of Albany. ^ With the cession of the Dutch colony, the English now con- trolled the Atlantic coast from the Bay of Fundy to Florida. 73. The Duke's Laws. New laws, called the " Duke's laws," were enacted in 1665. They were drawn up by Governor Nicolls and a convention of representatives of the people. They were applied at first only to Long Island, but later to the whole province. These laws assured trial by .jury, equal taxation, election of town officers by landholders, tenure of lands from the Duke of York, and a recognition of negro slavery. No representative assembly was granted, however, to the people. In 1673 war again broke out between Holland and England, and New York surrendered to a Dutch fieet, but it was returned to the English at the signing of the treaty of peace in 1674. At this time Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of New York. 1 The West India Company's trading-post on the upper Hudson was named Albany from James's second title. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 79 74. Governor Dongan. In 1683 Thomas Dongan, a native of Ireland and a Catholic, was appointed governor,^ and under his direction the first legislative assembly held in New York met in October of that year. A Charter of Liberties was drawn up,^ guaranteeing freedom of conscience and religious liberty ^^Hv'.,^»rvk to all Christians. Trial by jury i(f . was assured, and no tax could be k i^^' c - ■ ■■ 1 levied without the consent of the |lr"^ .- assembly, Dongan settled the '^ ' - : boundary dispute with Connecti- \ ' ^ cut, made a peace treaty with the ''• ,v ''^\ Iroquois Indians who acknowl- - \_. ' y \ edged themselves as subjects of England, and did all in his power x, /. *- - -^^ to prevent the southward exten- ^'x^y//^-^^\ sion of French power.-'^ ''« ^ 75. Leisler's Rebellion. After james n the departure of Dongan strife broke out in the colony. On the flight of James II, in 1688, from the throne of England a merchant named Jacob Leisler seized the government of the colony on the pretense of holding it for William and Mary, the new king and queen of England. 1 " Saturday, the 25th of August, 1683, was a memorable day in the history of America, for it was then that Colonel Thomas Dongan arrived in New \'ork. . . . With his coming a new epoch opened in the history of the province of New York, in the history of English-American colonies, and in the history of the international relations of England and France. . . . To him must be given the credit for first seeing the importance of the position of New York and the Iroquois in the international politics of North America." — Chaxning, " United States," Vol. II, p. 143 - The Charter of Liberties was sent to England for the approval of the Duke of York. Before it was signed Charles II died, and his brother, the Duke of York, became king. He repealed the Charter of Liberties, and finally annexed New York to New England under a single governor. Sir Edmund Andros. The consolidation of all the colonies north of Pennsylvania under Governor Andros took place in 1686. 3 The first Latin school in New York was opened by the Jesuits in 1683. 8o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY He proceeded at once to vent his hate on the Cathohcs. Many of the ablest and noblest men in the colony who had refused to acknowledge his authority were thrown into prison on the charge of making alliance with the Catholics. Believing that there was danger of an invasion by the French from Canada, Leisler, in 1690, called a congress of the American colonies to attack Canada. This zvas the first of the congresses that finally resjdted in the Congress of Philadelphia, where onr indcpoidencc %vas proclaimed. On the arrival of British troops Leisler refused to give up the fort and fired on the king's soldiers, killing a number. He was soon abandoned by the people and, being captured, was tried by court-martial for murder and treason. He was found guilty and was executed (May 16, 1691). 76. Persecution of Catholics. Royal Colony. A new assem- bly met after Leisler's death and reenacted Dongan's charter of 1683, giving New York a permanent representative assem- bly. This new charter granted by William and Mary had one important change, — the right of worship according to the Catholic religion was denied. In 1700^ and 1701 laws were passed expelling Catholic priests from the colony ; if any re- mained they would be punished with imprisonment for life. Any priest coming into the province of his own accord would be hanged. To. Catholic laymen was denied the right to vote for any office.^ In 1 74 1 a new persecution broke out. A depraved woman claimed to have discovered a plot on the part of the Catholics and negroes to burn the town. The latent bigotry now burst 1 " Throughout the colonies," says Stille, in Ponisyhania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. X, p. 365, " at the beginning of the eighteenth century the man who did not conform to the established religion of the colony ... if he were a Roman Catholic, was wholly disfranchised. To him there was not even the legal right of public worship." 2 In 1734 occurred the famous Zenger trial. Zenger was a publisher and in his newspaper had called attention to the corruption of the government of the colony. He was at once arrested, tried for libel, and acquitted. The Zenger case is the corner stone of the freedom of the press in America. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 8 1 into flame, and before the panic had ceased four whites were hanged ; of the negroes, seventy were transported, eighteen were hanged, and fourteen burned at the stake. From 1685, when the Duke of York ascended the Enghsh throne, until the Revokition New York remained a royal colony. In 1 609 Henry Hudson, in the Half Moon, explored the Hudson River and gave to the Dutch possession of the country. They called it New Netherland. In 16 1 4 New Amsterdam was founded on Manhattan Island. In 1 664 the English captured the Dutch colony, naming it New York. In 1683 the first legislative assembly was held under Governor Dongan. The Charter of Liberties passed by this assembly guaran- teed religious liberty and trial by yxvj. In 1690 Leislcr assembled the first American colonial congress. REVIEW EXAMLNATION 1. Mention three European nations that made settlements in North America, and the first permanent settlement made by each. 2. Mention and explain : {a) three inducements that tended to bring settlers to the American colonies ; {b) two difficulties they had to face. 3. Give an account of the efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh to plant colo- nics in America, and state the results of these efforts. 4. Give two reasons for the interest taken by Englishmen in coloniza- tion in the early seventeenth century. 5. Give a brief account of the settlement of Mrginia. What two ■forms of government did it have? 6. Write on the topics : (a) first Navigation Act ; (b) Bacon's Rebellion. 7. Show how the colonists of Virginia secured a representafive government. 8. Give an account of the settlement of New York by the Dutch, covering {a) the purpose of the first settlers ; {b) the location of the first two settlements ; {c) the introduction of the patroon system. 9. Describe the setdement of New Amsterdam and its capture by the English. 10. Give an account of the rule of Peter Stuvvesant. 82 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY New Jersey, 1617 77. Settlement by the Dutch. Grant to Berkeley and Carteret. In 16 17 Dutch fur traders built a fort at Bergen on the west bank of the Hudson River and claimed the country as a part of New Netherland. This claim, however, was denied by the English. When, therefore, the English had obtained control of the province of New Netherland, the Duke of York, in 1664, gave the land between New York Harbor and Delaware Bay to two court favorites. Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Berkeley took the southwestern portion, called West Jersey, while the northeastern portion, called East Jersey, was given to Carteret. Carteret had been governor of the island of Jersey, off the English coast, and had gallantly defended the island against the Puritan forces during the Civil War in England. The province was therefore called, in his honor. New Jersey. The constitution under which the settlers lived gave them a voice in the lawmaking, as no tax could be levied without the consent of the assembly of their representatives. Freedom of worship was promised ; but, as was the case in most of the colonies, it was not practiced in regard to Roman Catholics. In Newark only members of the Congregational church could vote. A party of settlers under Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George, founded, in 1665, Elizabeth, the first permanent Eng- lish settlement in the state. A short time later Newark was founded by emigrants from the New Haven colony. ^ 1 These colonists emigrated because of the union of the New Haven colony with Connecticut. ^ V ml a s s ' 21 2: J 7>A [ ^ / \Elljabeth'/lf?„ Bradford a bundle of arrows which were tied together by canopy over Plymouth rock the skin of a rattlesnake. Without the least fear Bradford filled the skin with powder and ball and sent it back. Canonicus became frightened and decided it was best to leave the colonists in peace. The military leader of the colony was Myles Standish, the brave, energetic, heroic warrior who spread terror among the hostile Indians. 82. The Town Meeting. One of the most famous institu- tions founded in the New World by the Pilgrims was the " town meeting." Here the freemen who were members of the local 1 A plague, probably of smallpox or measles, had swept away most of the Indians around Plymouth a short time before the Pilgrims arrived. The Pilgrims used their deserted cornfields. Squanto could speak English, as he had been kidnaped and taken to Europe but had been returned. ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY churches met together and voted directly on all questions in- stead of thVough representatives. It was the purest form of democratic government. The Plymouth colony grew slowly. Nine years after its establishment it had only three hundred members, and it was finally (1691) absorbed by the Massachu- setts colony. The Plymouth colony has an important place in our history since " as the first successful colony on the New England coast, it was the cause and the beginning of the other SAMOSET WELCOMES THE ENGLISH colonies of New England and the second step in founding the great republic of the United States." ^ 83. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans in England now followed the example of the Pilgrims. They obtained a tract of land stretching from three miles north of the Merrimack River to three miles south of the Charles and westward to the Pacific Ocean. Through fur trading, fishing, and agriculture it was hoped to make the colony profitable. An expedition led by John Endicott sailed with sixty colo- nists and founded Salem in 1628. In the following year a royal charter was secured from King Charles I which established 1 Tyler, England in America, p. 182. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 89 the corporation as the " Governor and Company of Massachu- setts Bay in New England." It was to be managed in England by a governor, deputy governor, and a council of eighteen assistants to be elected annually by the members or freemen of the company. In 1629 the management decided to move to New England that the colony might be better governed. COLONIAL NEW As the Puritan idea was to establish a state on the basis of the Old Testament, only Puritan church members were allowed to vote in the new corporation which ruled the colony. The colonists under Endicott shortly after their arrival in Salem separated from the Church of England. They established independent churches after the model called Congregational, where each parish was an independent, self-governing church. The General Court of the colonv ordered that " for the time 90 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY to come no man should be admitted to the freedom of this body poHtic but such as are members of some of the churches within the Hmits of the same." ^ In June, 1630, John Winthrop, who had been elected governor, reached Salem with one thousand Puritans. He moved later to Charlestown, and still later to a place the Indians called Shawmut. The English named it Tri-mountain,. or Tremont, because of its three hills. This name was later changed to Boston, after the English town whence many of the settlers came. A throng of immigrants now poured in, no less than twenty thousand arriving in ten years.^ Among the settlements were Roxbury, Dorchester, Watertown, and Newtown, or Cambridge as it was later called.^ The settlers at once engaged in farming, cod-fishing, and the building of ships. 84. Roger Williams founds Providence. In 1633 Roger Williams, pastor of a church in Salem, advocated the separa- tion of Church and state and full freedom of religious belief. He also declared that the Indians, not the king of England, owned the land, and from the Indians the land must be bought if they would have an honest and valid title. He also denied the right of the magistrates to punish for failure to follow Puritan customs as to church attendance, dress, or amusements. For these and other opinions he was finally ordered to sail for 1 "Not only was citizenship based on church membership, but the Bible was the only law-book recognized by the Court of Assistants. Of this book the [Puritan] ministers were naturally thought the best interpreters, and it thus became the custom for the magistrates to consult them on all questions of importance. Offenders were not merely lawbreakers, but sinners, and their offenses ranged from such as wore long hair to such as dealt in witchcraft and sorcery." — Tyler, " England in America," p. 202 " This migration was caused largely by the troubles in England where King Charles I, having dissolved Parliament in 1629, was ruling and taxing the people as he chose. Through lack of funds he was at last compelled to call Parliament together in 1640. Civil war followed, and King Charles was beheaded in 1649. See Montgomery's "Leading Facts of English History," p. 244, or Cheyney's " Short History of England," Revised Edition, p. 442. ^ It was changed to Cambridge because most of the college graduates in the colony had been educated at the University of Cambridge in England. TERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 91 England, but he escaped (1635) into the forest, where he secured shelter from friendly Indians. At the head of Narra- gansett Bay he bought land from the Indians and founded (1636) the city of Providence. At the same time Mrs. Anne Hutchinson was driven out of the Puritan colony of Massachu- setts Bay for her peculiar religious beliefs. She and her friends bought the island of yXcjuidneck, — afterward called Rhode Island. 85. The New England Confederation, 1643. In 1643 the four colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven organized a military league or federal union. ^ It was called " the United Colonies of New England," but is generally known as the New England Confederation, and was designed for pro- tection against the ,,,„,,,„,„, ,,,,,,1,., .^ m.ssachls.iis Indians, the French, and also the Dutch, who were still claiming the fertile Connecti- cut River valley. Another reason for the union was the Civil War in England and the necessity of being prepared for the result of that struggle. Still another reason was the desire to maintain the absolute rule of the Puritan Church in the New England colonies. Maine and Rhode Island were refused admission because they did not agree with the authorities of the .Massachusetts Bay colony on either government or 1 At this time it is estimated that there were about twenty-three thousand five hundred people in these four colonies, Massachusetts having fifteen thousand, I'lymouth three thousand, Connecticut three thousand, and New Haven two thousand five hundred. There were eight commissioners, two from each colony, elected annually, and all members of the Puritan Church. They were given very large power, such as declaring war or peace, admitting new members, adjusting Indian affairs, securing justice to each member of the Confederation, and returning fugitive slaves. Each colony, however, managed its own local affairs. 92 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY religion.^ The Confederation lasted for forty years, and is of importance as it was an early experiment in united action by the American colonies and may be called the first step toward the Constitution of the United States. In 1652 Massachusetts issued its own coinage. One of the coins was the famous Pine Tree Shilling, on which the name of England and its king nowhere appear. 86. Persecution of the Quakers. In 1656 the first Quakers appeared in Massachusetts. Because of their independent reli- gious views they had already been a source of grave trouble to the English authorities, who had tried in vain to crush them. No less than four thousand were in English jails at one time. Their appearance in Massachusetts created great alarm, and they were at once shipped back to England. A law was enacted against them which provided for flogging and imprison- ment. These laws did not deter the Quakers in the least. They poured into the colony, denounced the magistrates, and defied the Puritan clergy. In 1657 another law was enacted, that Quakers should have their ears cut off and their tongues pierced with red-hot irons. In 1658 the Massachusetts General Court passed a law pro- viding the death penalty for returning Quakers, and in 1659 four of them were hanged on Boston Common, while others were flogged from town to town, imprisoned, starved, and otherwise maltreated. A reaction soon set in. While the magistrates, led chiefly by Endicott and the Puritan clergy, endeavored to keep up the persecution, the people revolted, and gradually the Quakers enjoyed the rights that belonged to them as free-born English subjects. 87. King Philip's War, 1675-1676. The treaty which had been made with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag tribe, had 1 According to \Yinthrop, Maine was rejected because Agamenticus, or York, the leading place, had elected a tailor as mayor and an unorthodox preacher as minister. Of Rhode Island, Winthrop said : " We have no con- versing with them, nor desire to have, further than necessity or humanity may require." PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 93 been strictly kept until his death in 1660. Massasoit left two sons, who had been given the names Alexander and Philip.^ Alexander died in 1662 after a visit to Plymouth. Philip believed he had been poisoned and at once set out to make war on the English, who were gradually settling around him nearer and nearer and compelling him to give up more of his land year by year and destroying the hunting grounds. In 1675 Philip let loose his warriors, and for two years the horrible warfare was carried on throughout Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. At length he was hemmed in in a swamp near Mount Hope, Rhode Island, and was killed August 12, 1676. His hands were cut off and sent to Boston, and his head was set up on a pole in Plymouth. The war had cost the colonists six hundred fighting men and heavy war debts. A vast amount of property had been destroyed, but the Indian power in New England was broken forever. 88. Loss of the Massachusetts Charter, 1684. When Charles II regained, in 1660, the throne of his father, he was beset by the Quakers, Baptists, Episcopalians, and others who complained of the intolerance of the Massachusetts authorities. It was represented to him that I"2nglish subjects had been executed illegally ; that the king's name did not appear in the writs ; that Episcopalians were not allowed to appeal to the KING PHILIP S WAR ^ Philip's Indian name was Metacom. He was called Philip by the white settlers. The position of the Narragansett tribe under their chief Canonchet was in doubt, so the colonists attacked them (December 19, 1675) ^""^ utterly defeated them. 94 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY king's courts ; that money had been coined illegally ; that the Navigation Laws had been broken ; and that hundreds of other illegal acts had been committed. Charles had no love for Massachusetts, and gladly accepted the opportunity which was now given him to withdraw the charter. In spite of all protests this action was taken in 1684. Before he could form a new government for Massachusetts, Charles the Second died, and his brother, James the Second, the new king, appointed (1686) Sir Edmund Andros ^ as viceroy or governor-general -: .<=?^^ aM *P ifei4t'^«* ' "■'"- •^;if;.f^^ 4, .^:^^.,^^ ^ INDIANS ATTACKING A VILLAGE over the Dominion of New England, which now included New England, New York, and New Jersey. In 1691 a new charter was given by the English king, William III, who had driven King James from the throne of England. By this charter Maine, Massachusetts, and Plymouth became one prov- ince. • The religious qualification for voters gave way to a property qualification. Liberty of conscience and of worship 1 The appointment of Andros destroyed at one blow all the political liber- ties that the colonists had secured. As viceroy he was an absolute ruler. He abolished the General Court and the town meetings and levied taxes without reference to the people. The revolution of 1688 drove King James the Second from the throne of England and installed William and Mary. The fall of Andros immediately followed the news of the revolution in England. He was imprisoned and later (1690) sent to England. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 95 was granted to all except Catholics. ^ The governor was ap- pointed by the king and the House of Representatives was elected by the colonists. The governor had full veto power over any law that might be passed by the colony. This led to repeated conflicts between the people and the royal governors, and aided in building up the spirit of revolt which resulted later in the Revolution. 89. The Salem Witch- craft, 1692. There had been recurring witchcraft panics in Europe since the fifteenth century, and in England and Scotland there were several in the seven- teenth century. In various parts of Massachusetts the delusion appeared, but the most violent outbreak was in Salem in 1692. The children of a Puritan min- ister claimed to be be- witched by an old colored woman. She confessed, and with the children brought accusations against many people in the parish. This soon produced a reign of terror throughout the colony. No one was safe, and before the panic ended, twenty persons had suffered death.'-^ At length a reaction set in, those in j)rison were released, and a day of fast was appointed. ' Some of the most severe penal laws on the pages of history were enacted during the first years of the reign of William and Mary. They may be seen in detail in Hlackstone's " Commentaries," Book IV, pp. 55-5S. - " It seemed as though the bonds of society were dissolving ; nineteen persons had been hanged, one had been pressed to death, and eight lay con- demned ; a number had fled, but their property had been seized and they were beggars ; the prisons were choked, while more than two hundred were accused and in momentary fear of arrest; even two dogs had been killed." — Brooks Adams, " Emancipation of Massachusetts," p. 227 ^^v^>^^ E 3?" ^ 0. ^ A 'V,Baltjmo(-eo4ERSEY ^ V i> ^ ANDROS S nOMIXIOX OF XKW KXGLANI) 96 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY In 1620 the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the Mayflower. In 1628 the Puritans reached Salem and later settled Boston. In 1633 Roger Williams was driven from the Puritan colony and founded in 1636 the city of Providence. In 1643 a confederacy of four colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven) was formed for defense against the Indians, the French, and the Dutch. In 1656 the Quaker persecution was begun. In 1676 the war with King Philip ended in his death and the overthrow of the Indian power forever. In 1686 Andros was appointed viceroy over the Dominion of New England. His power ended in 1690, after James II had lost his crown. In 1 69 1 a new charter consolidated the colonies of Maine, Massa- chusetts Bay, and Plymouth into one colony. In 1692 the Salem witchcraft delusion spread terror throughout the colony. New Hampshire, 1623 90. Grant to Gorges and Mason. As early as 1603 Captain Martin Pring, with two vessels, explored the harbor now called Portsmouth and sailed up the Piscataqua River. In 1622 Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason obtained from the Council for New England a grant of land between the Merrimack and the Kennebec and extending from the Atlantic to the great river of Canada. This ti'act was called Laconia " because of the great lakes therein." 91. Settlement of Dover and Portsmouth. Settlements were planted at Dover and at Portsmouth, but little progress was made for many years, the chief occupations of the people being fishing, hunting, and trading with the Indians. In 1629 Mason and Gorges divided their territory. Mason received the portion between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers and called it New Hampshire, after Hampshire in England, where he had lived many years. Gorges took the territory between the Piscataqua PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 97 and the Kennebec and called it Maine. To his colony Mason sent over farming tools and cattle; but he died in 1635, and for many years the colonists were neglected. In 1638 Reverend John Wheelwright, who had been banished from Massachusetts for his sympathy with Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, settled Exeter. Among the immigrants into this colony were large numbers of Irish, who founded Londonderry (i 7 19). Here the making of linen was introduced. In 1 64 1 New Hampshire was annexed to Massachusetts. They were separated and joined a number of times, until in 1679 New Hampshire became a royal province. Henceforth the king ap- pointed the governor, and all laws made by the colonists were subject to the approval of the king. In 1741 New Hampshire became once more a sep- arate colony. In respect to Maine, Gorges had obtained in April, 1639, a charter from King Charles which con- ferred on him the title of " Lord Pro- prietor of the Province or County of Maine." This charter gave him almost unlimited power and established in the colony the Church of England. The province was divided in two counties, Agamenticus, or York, being the principal settlement of one, and Saco of the other. As early as 1625 a settlement had been made at Pemaquid, where a fort was later erected. In 1632 Portland was founded. Gorges never visited' America, and his province was neglected. After 1652 Maine came gradually under the rule of Massachusetts. In 1677 Massachusetts bought the claims to Maine from the heirs of Gorges for about six thousand dollars. By a new charter granted by William and Mary in 1691 Maine was united to Massachusetts and was controlled by that state until Maine was admitted into the Union in March, 1820. 98 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY SUMMARY In 1603 Martin Pring explored the coast, and in 1622 Gorges and Mason were granted the territory between the Merrimack and the Kennebec. It was called Laconia. In 1629 it was divided, and Mason called his share New Hampshire. Gorges called his territory Maine. In 1 641 New Hampshire and Massachusetts were united. In 1679 New Hampshire became a royal province. * In 1677 Maine passed under the control of Massachusetts and in 1 69 1 was united to it by a new charter. In 17 19 Londonderry was founded by Irish settlers. In 1 741 New Hampshire became a separate colony. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Explain the division of Jersey into West Jersey and East Jersey. What was the first permanent settlement in the state .'' 2. Give an account of the first settlement of the Pilgrims in America, touching on location, date, and first agreement as to government. 3. Distinguish between the Pilgrims and the Puritans. What reasons led the Pilgrims to leave Holland? 4. Mention the names of the first two settlements made by the Massa- chusetts Bay colony. What was [a) the character of the settlers ; {b) their chief reason for coming to America ? 5. Give an account of the London Company and the Plymouth Company, and of the settlements made in America under the auspices of each. 6. Mention two facts that show the religious intolerance of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and state two effects of this, intolerance on the settlement of New England. 7. Explain the New England Confederation, and state its object. What colonies were denied admission ? Why ? 8. Compare the Jamestown colony with the Massachusetts Bay colony in respect to {a) character of the setders ; (/') reason for settlement; ((•) religion. 9. After its foundadon was New Hampshire always a separate colony? 10. Explain how Maine for some time belonged to Massachusetts. In what year was it finally separated? J'KRMANKNT COLONIAL SErrLKMP:NTS 99 Cambridfe }|PSTON Roiburj Dj^+cjter JC.Cod Bi^kield t' t>Mt.Il(ilK; J< ' Urn CoXNIXTICLT, 1634 92. The Dutch at Hartford. Foundation of Saybrook. While the Dutch had been extending; their settlements to the north on the Hudson and to the south on the Delaware, they were also lookin<^ for territory to the eastward, and in 1633 they built a fort where Hartford now stands. In 1634 W'ethersfield, the oldest town in Connecticut, was founded by emigrants from Watertown, near lk)ston. l\vo years afterwards John W'inthrop, Jr., son of the governor, acting as agent of two Puritan noblemen who had obtained a grant of this section, estab- lished a fort at the mouth of the ri\-er to shut off the Dutch vessels. He called the fort Saybrook in honor of his patrons, Lord Sav and Lord SOUTHERN' NEW EN'GLAXD Brooke. 93. Emigration from Massachusetts. The intensely narrow spirit of the Puritan leaders, the unrestrained power of the magistrates, and the lack of religious freedom in Massachusetts had become distasteful to many of the members. Accordingly, in 1636, a large body of colonists set out from Massachusetts. With their families and household goods they drove the cattle before them and reached the fair and fertile valley of the Con- necticut, where the\- built up the towns of Hartford and Windsor. Saybrook was later (1644) ixuxhased by the Connecticut colony. 94. The Fundamental Orders, 1639. A general convention of the planters of the three towns of Hartford, W^indsor, and Wethersfield was held at Hartford, January 14, 1639, and adopted a plan of government called the F"undamental Orders. This union of towns formed the Connecticut colony. lOO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Fundamental Orders were modeled on the government of Massachusetts, except that the right of voting was not limited to church members, but could be enjoyed by all approved freemen who would take the oath of allegiance. The governor was elected by the freemen, but had to be a member of one of the Congregational churches. The Fundamental Orders were drawn up in a written con- stitution, said to be the first popular written constitution in history formed by a people through their representatives as a basis of government. It is important to note that in this con- stitution there was no mention made either of the king of England or of the English Parliament. 95. The New Haven Settlement. In 1638 another colony was founded by a Puritan minister of the strictest type, John Davenport, assisted by a wealthy London merchant, Theophilus Eaton. Their plan was to establish a colony to be governed on scriptural principles. The place where they settled was called Quinnipiac, and a year later New Haven. The laws of Moses were adopted at the outset for the colony. Only mem- bers of the Congregational church could be voters or magis- trates. Trial by jury was not allowed, and it was decreed that " the Word of God shall be the only rule in ordering the affairs of government." ^ Several towns were established near New Haven, and in 1643 New Haven, Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were united in one political community called the • New Haven colony. In 1662 this colony was absorbed by Connecticut under a charter from Charles 11.^ 1 Under these laws there were twelve offenses punishable by death. In England there were over one hundred and sixty, and the number increased until the criminal-law reform early in the last century. 2 Two of the judges who had condemned Charles I to death had found refuge in New Haven. When Charles II ascended the throne, he ordered them to be delivered up to his officers; but they were concealed by the peo- ple, and the search for them was fruitless. This incensed Charles and may have assisted the Connecticut colony in its successful attempt to absorb the New Haven colony. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS loi 96. The Pequot War, 1637. The colonists in the mean- time had been exposed to a serious danger. In the valley of the river Thames dwelt a powerful tribe of Indians called the Pecfuot, which repeatedly attacked the settlements in the Con- necticut valley. In 1637 a company from Connecticut and Massachusetts, with friendly Mohican and Narragansett Indians, marched to the Pequot fort and attacked it. The Pequot tribe was completely destroyed. The other tribes were so terrified by this crushing defeat that forty years elapsed before the Indians again raised the war cry against the colonists. 97. The Charter and Governor Andros, 1687. The charter of Connecticut had been granted in 1662 by King Charles II. In this charter he had given New Haven to Connecticut. Although the affairs of the Connecticut colony were prosper- ous, its charter was taken away by King James II when he reached the throne of England. Andros, the royal governor, visited Hartford in October, 1687, to obtain the charter. Ac- cording to the tradition, the charter had been placed on the table, and while the matter was being discussed, the lights were suddenly extinguished. When the candles were relighted, the charter could not be found. It had been hidden in the hollow trunk of an oak tree, w'hich has since been known as the " Charter Oak." Andros, however, overthrew the charter government. On his downfall the charter was again produced, and under it Connecticut was governed until the Revolution. SUMMARY In 1633 the Dutch built a fort at Hartford. In 1634 VVethersfield, the oldest town in Connecticut, was founded. In 1635 Hartford and Windsor were settled. In 1637 the colonists of Connecticut and Massachusetts attacked and completely destroyed the Pequot tribe. In 1638 New Haven was founded by English Puritans. In 1639 the Connecticut Constitution, or Fundamental Orders, was drawn up at Hartford. I02 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Maryland, 1634 98. The Position of the Catholics in England. After Virginia became a royal province, Charles I cut off a territory to. the north and gave it in 163 1 to George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. He was a rich nobleman who had been Secretary of State under James I, but had resigned his position in 1625 on his conversion to the Catholic faith. ^ Knowing the fearful hardships of his fellow religionists, he sought to secure a refuge in America for the Catholics of England. Dur- ing these years the Catholics under the Brit- ish crown were subject to a se- ries of the most stringent and inhuman penal laws. According to these laws any priest discovered celebrating Mass would be fined two hun- dred marks ^ and imprisoned for one year, while any person discovered hearing Mass would receive the same imprisonment with a fine of one hundred marks. Persons who refused to attend the services of the Church of England were forbidden to hold any office, to bear arms, or to come within ten miles of London. They were also forbidden to travel more than five miles without a special license or to come into court under a THE MARYLAND COLONV 1 The king continued him as a member of his Privy Council and regranted to him the estates which he had forfeited when he became a Catholic. He also raised him to the peerage under the title of Baron Baltimore of Baltimore, a town in the southern part of Ireland. ^ The old English mark was worth about three dollars and twenty-three cents. i'J'lRMANKN'r COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 103 penalty of five hundred dollars. No Catholic could enter the legal profession, the universities, or teach school under penalty of perpetual imprisonment, while any Catholic who sent his child abroad to be educated lost all his legal rights and real estate and was required to pay a fine of five hundred dollars. Any priest or Bishop, born under the British crown, who returned to Knfrland from abroad and failed to renounce his >A^ *<- ■^ 1111 SIllLIMlM 1)1 \IVk\LVNU religion within three days was guilty of high treason, the punishment of which was death. 99. The Grant of Maryland. To give a place of refuge to his persecuted fellow Catholics, George Calvert tried to found a settlement in Newfoundland, but it was too cold. Later he attempted to settle in X'irginia, but the colonists there drove him away on account of his Catholic faith. Still determined to carry out his plans, he returned to England and obtained in 1632 from King Charles' I a grant of that part of Virginia lying between the Potomac and the fortieth parallel of north latitude. At the request of the king the territory was called [04 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Maryland in honor of his queen, Henrietta Maria. ^ With the active cooperation of the king, it was hoped to build up at once a flourishing colony. 100. The Maryland Charter. Lord Baltimore was given the most extensive rights and privileges ever conferred by a sover- eign of England on an English subject. Maryland in fact was almost a limited monarchy, with the proprietor as virtually a king. He was required to pay to the king each year, in token of homage, two Indian arrows and a fifth of all the gold and silver mined. He could coin money, grant titles of nobility, make war and peace, establish courts, appoint judges, and pardon criminals. He was required, however, to summon an assembly of the freemen, who alone could levy taxes, as the charter provided that they could never be taxed by the king ; all enactments needed only his signature, and not that of the king, to have the binding effect of law. No law or ordinance, however, could be made contrary to the existing laws of England. Baltimore gave lands to the tenant on very easy terms, requiring as rent only a shilling for fifty acres.^ 1 Henrietta Maria was a daughter of Henry of Navarre, the first Bourbon King of France. She was a CathoHc and sympathized with Calvert's efforts to aid her co-religionists in England. - The Maryland colonists were able to secure cleared land, because the local tribes, on account of the attack of the Susquehannock Indians, were about to move to Virginia and were glad to sell their land. The colonists secured, therefore, in that mild climate a good crop of corn and wheat the first season, and Maryland never suffered from famine as did Virginia and Plymouth. GEORGE CALVERT, FIRST LORD BALTLMORE PERMANExNT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 105 101. Settlement at St. Marys, 1634. Lord Baltimore died before the charter was signed, and his son, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, carried out his father's plans. With two vessels, in charge of Leonard Calvert (brother of the proprietor), the colonists, two hundred and twenty in num- ber, with two Jesuits (Fathers White and Altham), entered Chesapeake Bay and sailed up the Potomac. At St. Clements Island they landed and took possession. Father White con- secrated the soil, and the first Mass in English America was celebrated March 25, 1634. A settlement which they named St. Marys was founded two days later. Land was purchased from the Indians, and this gained their good will at the outset. 1 102. Claiborne's Rebellion. Virginia claimed that Maryland was a part of her territory. On Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, Claiborne, a Virginian, had established a post for trading with the Indians. He refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's title, and quarrels constantly arose between the followers of Claiborne and the Maryland colonists. This led to bloodshed, until the king of England decided (1638) in favor of the claims of Lord Balti- more. Peace now followed for some years. In 1643 civil war broke out in England between King Charles I and Parliament, King Charles was defeated and executed in 1649, and the Puritans in triumph ruled England under Oliver Cromwell. To destroy the Catholic colony of Maryland the Puritans under Claiborne invaded Maryland, overthrew the government, and drove out (1644) Governor Calvert, the representative of Lord Baltimore. Two years later Calvert returned, defeated the Puritans, and regained the colony. 103. The Toleration Act, 1649. Lord Baltimore had in- structed his brother on setting sail to found the colony "to be very careful to preserve unity and peace and to suffer no scandal nor offense to be given to any of the Protestants." ^ Plantations of a thousand acres were granted as manors. The lord of the manor had certain rights such as nobles enjoyed in England. io6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY That this instruction was followed to the letter is evident from the toleration and peace among the colonists. In 1649, however, it was deemed best to put the principle of religious freedom in the form of law, the first enactment in the land that gave equal rights in religion to all Christians. The act read as follows : And whereas the enforcing of the conscience in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequence in those commonwealths where it hath been practiced, and for the more quiet A LAW MAR Y L AND Conctrning RELIGION. ^L^^adOtf Tiuch IS ia awellgoverned and Chnftiao Commonwealth. Marwrs conctrning Religion and the Honoqr of God ought to be in the firft- 1 13 f^In pl* "^ t<^ be taken into leriouiconfidcrattoat and endeavoured lobe fettled. Be it therefore Ordatned and Eoadcdby the Right Honounble ^S 3^[^ Cu^C /LluS Lord B^ron of 5i/«* '■c.abfotiitcLord andPxaprietiry of this Province, with ihcj^dvice aotJ Confcnt of the Upper and E3 0^2 l-owerH.iuleofihii General Affemblj', That whatfocvcrpcrfon or perfons within this Province ind ihelflandj thereunto belonging, (hall ft^^oSS ftoinhencefonhblarphemeGOD.ihaiiicurfehim; or Diall deny our Saviour JESUS CHRHT tQhethoSonofCod j orftialldeny Ihe Holy Trinity,thc Father, Son, & Holy Ghoftior the Godhead of any of the raidThreePerfooi of (hcTrinity,or the Unity of the God head,, or fhaUureor utter any reproachful rpccches, words, or lancuage, concerning the Huly Trinity, or any of the fjid three PerfoDS thereof, Qiall be pu- niChed with death, and confifcation or forfeiture of ill his or her Lands and Goods to the Lord Propricrary and his Heirs. And be it alfo enacted by the Authority, and wvh the advice and alTcnt aforcfaidiThat whailocrer perfbn orperfons IbaU from !ienceforth ufc or utrer any rcproachfgl words or fpecohes concerning the bleffcd Virgin MJRr.tht Mother ofour Saviour, or the holy Apoflles or EHoeelifts, or any of them, firft Olfcncc forfeit to the faid Lord Proprietary and his Heirs, Lords and Proprietaries of this Province, the Tum of Five pounds ch cafe for the firft Olfcncc forfeit to the faid Lord Proprietary and hit Heirs, Lords and Proprietaries of this Province, the fum of Five pounds ""'"'' ■- ■ ■ ■ 'onthcgoodsandchattelsofeicry fuch pcrfoQ foofFcodiog: butincafcfochofiender or ofenders fliall not then rjtisfyingcffuchlorfeitDrc, orihat the famebe not oiherwifc fpeedily &iii6ed, thai then fuch offender or offend- ers fhallbepublicklywhipt, and be impnfoncd during the pieafurc of ihc Lord Proprictary.or the Lieutenant or Chief Governor of eime being; And that every fucli offender and.offendcrs for every fccond offona (hall forfeit Ten Pounds Sterling, or the value therBof to be levied as afore- faiJi or in cafe fuch offender or offenders (hall not then have goods andchattels within this Province fufficicot for that puipofcjlheDto be pubhckly an* fcvcrtiv whiptand imprifyned as before is cjtprcfftd . and that every perfon or perfons before mentioned, ofinding herein theihird time, Ihall for fueh* third offence, forfeit all his lands and goods, and be forever banifht and expelled out of thu Province. FIRST WORDS OF MARYLAND ACT OF 1649 and peaceable government of this province, and the better to pre- serve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ,^ shall be in any ways troubled, molested, or discountenanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof. Under these humane laws the colony greatly flourished. Lord Baltimore invited the oppressed of all lands to join his colony, and in answer to his invitation, says Bancroft, '' from France came Huguenots, from Germany, from Holland, from Sweden, 1 This provision excluded Jews from the suffrage. It was not until 1S26 that they were allowed to vote and to hold office. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 107 from Finland, I believe from Piedmont, the children of mis- fortune sought protection under the tolerant scepter of the Roman Catholic." ^ 104. Puritan Rule in Maryland. Another civil war broke out in 1655, and the Puritans were successful. The Toleration Act was repealed, and Catholics, Quakers, and Baptists were for- bidden to practice their religion. Oliver Cromwell, who had become Lord Protector of Eng- land, restored the province to Lord Baltimore and reestab- lished the Toleration Act. After the death of Cromwell (1658), his son succeeded him, but he was too weak to rule and after a year resigned. Charles II re- turned from Holland, where he had been in exile, and took the throne of England in 1660. He died in 1685, and his brother James, Duke of York, became king, James II ruled only three years, when he was overthrown, in the English Revolution of ^ CHARLES 11 1688, by William of Orange, who had married Mary, the daughter of James II. William and Mary were crowned king and queen of England in 1689. 105. Repeal of Toleration Act. William and Mary ignored the charter of Maryland and made it a royal province. The pro- prietary, the third Lord Baltimore, was stripped of practically England came to Maryland in such numbers that they secured 1 " Calvert deserves to be ranked among the most wise and benevolent lawgivers of all ages. He was the first in the history of the Christian world to seek for religious security and peace by the practice of justice and not by the exercise of power." — Bancroft, "United States" (old ed.), Vol. I, p. 244 lo8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY control, and the Toleration Act was permanently abolished. The persecution of the Catholics at once began. They were forbidden to vote or to hold any office ; they were denied the privilege of hearing Mass or holding any religious services.^ The Church of England was established (1692) by law, and all the inhabitants of the colony taxed for its support. This tax remained in force until the American Revolution. The land taxes of the Catholics were doubled, and they were compelled to pay tithes amounting to forty pounds of tobacco for the support of the Church of England. The capital was removed to its present site and called Annapolis, which became a city in 1708. In 1 7 14 Benedict Leonard Calvert, the fourth Lord Balti- more, renounced his Catholic faith, and to his son, Charles Calvert, the fifth Lord Baltimore, a Protestant, the province was restored in 171 5. In 1729 the city of Baltimore was founded. Maryland remained a proprietary colony until the Revolution, Lord Baltimore in 1634 founded a colony in the New World for the oppressed Catholics of England. Claiborne, a Virginian, rebelled against the Baltimore proprietary, but the rebellion failed (1638). In 1649 the Toleration Act was passed, which granted freedom of worship to all Christians. In 1655 the Puritans secured the province. It was restored to Lord Baltimore by Cromwell. Under William and Mary Lord Baltimore lost practically all his rights, and the Toleration Act was repealed. In 1 7 1 5 the province was restored to the fifth Lord Baltimore. In 1729 the city of Baltimore was founded. 1 " Maryland presented the picture of a province founded for the salvC of rehgious opinion by the toil and treasure of Roman Catholics, in which of all who called themselves Christian, none save Roman Catholics were denied toler- ation." — H.\WKS, " Ecclesiastical History of the United States," Vol. II, p. 1 17 PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 109 Rhode Lslaxd, 1636 106. Founding of Providence. We have already seen that Roger Williams was compelled, in 1635, to flee from the Massachusetts Bay colony. Near Narragansett Bay he began to build a home on the Seekonk River. Scarcely had he done this when the governor of Plymouth requested him to leave, as he was in the territory of that colony. Williams pushed on and, reaching a favorable site, cstab- lished a settlement which he called Providence. 107. Settlement of Portsmouth and Newport. In 1638 friends of Anne Hutchinson bought from the Narragansett tribe the island of Aquidneck, afterwards called Rhode Island. Dissensions, however, soon arose, and some of the colonists moved to the southern end of the island and founded a colony which was named Newport. The old settle- ment was called Portsmouth. These different colonies were united after- Kiiom: island wards by a charter which Roger Williams secured (1643) in England, under the title of "The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." In 1662 King Charles II granted a new charter which founded firmly the rights of the colonists. 108. Religious Toleration. Roger Williams had suffered so much for his religious opinions that he established his new colony along broad religious lines. The state, he declared, was similar to a ship at sea on which there are many passengers. As on shipboard every passenger is allowed to use his own judgment as to attendance at the ship's prayers, so in the state no one should be compelled to attend religious services against no ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY his will, but should be obedient to the orders of the majority only in civil things. The laws of 1663, therefore, declared " that all men professing Christianity . . . who are obedient to the civil magistrate, though of different judgments in religious affairs, shall be admitted freemen and shall have liberty to choose and be chosen officers in the colony." From 1 7 19 (when a new arrangement of the laws was made) until the Revolution the Catholics, together with the Jews, were denied the rights of citizenship. SUMMARY In 1636 Roger Williams, exiled from Massachusetts, founded the city of Providence. A short time afterward Portsmouth and Newport were founded by the friends of Anne Hutchinson. Roger Williams believed in freedom of worship, and the colony shares with Maryland the honor of establishing the principle of religious freedom. New Sweden, or Delaware, 1638 109. The Swedes on the Delaware. In 1623 the Dutch West India Company established a trading post on the banks of the Delaware, just below the present site of Philadelphia, and called it Fort Nassau. About the same time Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, formed a company to trade with America. In 1638 the Swedes, though they had no title to the land, erected Fort Christina — named in honor of the queen of Sweden — on the present site of Wilmington, Delaware. This territory was claimed by the Dutch, and in 1655 Stuyve- sant, governor of New Amsterdam, appeared with an army of seven hundred men before the fort, which at once surrendered, and New Sweden was at an end. 110. The English Conquest of Delaware. In 1665 the Eng- lish, who had taken New Netherland from the Dutch, captured Delaware. In 1682 Penn, who desired to give his colony an outlet to the sea, bought Delaware — called also The Three PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS III Lower Counties — from the Duke of York. For many years there was friction between Pennsylvania and Delaware, but after 1703 Delaware was allowed a separate legislature, although it had the same governor as Pennsylvania until the Revolution. SUMMARY Li 1623 the Dutch established a trading post on the Delaware. In 1638 the Swedes made the first permanent settlement and named it Christina. The Dutch captured the colony in 1655 and annexed it to New Amsterdam. It was later (1665) taken by the English. The C.\kolixas, 1663 111. Grant of Carolina. South of Virginia, St. Augustine was the only thriving settlement on the Atlantic coast. In 1663 Charles II made a grant to eight noblemen, among them being his friends George Monk, Duke of Albemarle, and Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. This grant embraced the fertile tract of land stretching from Virginia to Florida and extending westward to the Pacific. As this land had been called Carolina by Ribaut in honor c^f Charles IX of PVance a hundred years before, the new proprietors allowed the name to remain in honor of the king of England. Under their patent the pro- prietors were given most sweeping powers. 112. Early Settlements. Foundation of Charleston. The early settlements which had been made on the Chowan Ri\er were formed (1663) into a colony and named Albemarle. In 1665 a wealthy planter, Sir John Yeamans, founded a colony on the Cape P'ear River. It was called Clarendon, after one of the proprietors, but it was soon abandoned. In 1670 emigrants sent by the proprietors settled near the junction of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, but ten years later, in 1680, they moved to the tract of land between these rivers and established the city of Charleston, 112 ESSENTIALS Of AMERICAN HISTORY 113. Locke's Fundamental Constitutions. Among the pro- prietors was Ashley, later known by his title of Lord Shaftes- bury. His secretary was John Locke, afterwards famous as an English philosopher. Locke drew up a constitution for the colony which was called the Fundamental Constitutions, or Grand Model. This scheme of government hoped to transplant to America the aristocratic ideas of Europe. In order to avoid K. CHARLESTON IN 1673 "erecting a numerous democracy" it provided for a carefully graded society from the higher nobility down to Serfs attached to the soil. It decreed that no colonist could vote unless he owned fifty or more acres of land, and that no settler could leave the land without permission of the proprietor. It pre- tended to give religious freedom, while it denied that freedom to Catholics and established the Church of England as that of the state. 1 The settlers, breathing the free air of the New 1 By the Act of 1704, to be a member of the assembly one must belong to the Church of England. The proprietors ordered the new city founded here to be called Charles-Town. rilRMANKNT COLONIAL SKTrLKMKN'l'S 113 World, laughed at the scheme, and the Grand Model was a dismal failure. Its only effect was to inspire contempt for all forms of government. Some years later the colonists obtained the right to make their own laws, while the jiroprietors were to receive an annual rent of a halfpenny per acre. As slaves were, especially valuable for the cultivation of rice and indigo,^ the two leading products of southern Carolina, the slave trade in this part of the colony became very active. Large plantations were developed in the fertile rice lands. This section became in consequence very prosperous, and Charleston was the seat of many wealthy homes. In northern Carolina the land was not adapted to rice and there were few large plan- tations. Small farms were common with less w^ealth and prosperity, h'rom the pine forests of this section large quan- tities of turpentine and pitch were secured. The principal settlers in the Carolinas were English, French, Irish, Scotch, and Germans. Under Baron de (iraffenried the Germans settled Newbern. After Charleston was founded, a separate governor generally ruled the northern and southern parts of Carolina. Troubles constantly arose, as the colonists rebelled against the rule of the proprietors and their governors. Mnally, in 1729, Carolina came under the control of the king, and being divided into North and South Carolina, the two parts became separate royal colonies, subject to a royal governor, appointed by the king of England. In 1663 King Charles II granted to a body of noblemen the tract of land named Carolina. The constitution framed for the colony and called the Grand Model was written by Locke, the philosopher. The plan was a failure. In 1729 North and South Carolina were separated and became royal colonies. ^ South Carolina has continued to be a great rice center. Indigo, however, is no longer cultivated. 114 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Pennsylvania, i68i 114. The Grant to Penn. One of the foremost men among the Quakers in England was Wilham Penn, who had for some years been keenly interested in colonization in America.^ His father had been a distinguished admiral, to whom King Charles owed about eighty thousand dollars for his services to his country. After his father's death Penn asked from the king the grant of a tract of land in America to balance the debt. The king gladly consented to free himself in this easy manner, and granted, in i68i, a charter for a tract forty-eight thousand square miles in extent, fronting on the Delaware River and practically comprising the present state of Pennsylvania. To this province the name Pennsylvania (Penn's woods), after Admiral Penn, was given. Penn desired to establish a free commonwealth where not only the persecuted Quakers^ but other colonists might enjoy freedom, at the same time rendering strict obedience to the civil authorities. " Liberty without obedience," declared Penn, " is confusion, and obedience without liberty is slavery." 1 While a student at Oxford, Penn, being a Quaker, had refused to attend the rehgious services of the University. In consequence he was expelled. '- The movement of the Quakers at this time is accounted for by the stringent laws which Parliament passed in the early years of the reign of Charles II to enforce uniformity in attendance at the Church of England. THE PENNSYLVANIA COLONY I'KRMANENT COLONIAL SETTLP:MENTS 1 15 115. Penn's Frame of Government. In 168 1 l^enn drew ujd a "Frame of Government" for his province. Although he was the owner of all the land, he declared that the govern- ment should be for the benefit of all the people. He gave the colonists, therefore, very large powers of self-government through a Council and an Assembly of the freemen. Each settler obtained one hundred acres of land for fifty dollars. It was provided that no person believing in one God should be molested on account of religion, but only those who were Chris- tians could take part in the government. The test oaths against their religion made it impossible for Catholics to take part in the government. Complete religious liberty never existed in colonial Pennsylvania. It also provided that the Indians should be treated with justice and kindness, that every child should be taught a trade, and that criminals in jails should be employed in some useful occupation. He abolished the death penalty except for murder and treason. In October, 168 1, three shiploads of Quakers left England, and in 1682 Penn himself sailed with a hundred emigrants. He landed at Newcastle, in the territory which is now Dela- ware, but which had been purchased by him from the Duke of York in 1681. He was cordially welcomed by the Swedes and Dutch who had settled there. 116. Philadelphia founded. Treaty with the Indians. A city was marked out on the Schuylkill, in 1682, to which was given the name Philadelphia, a Greek word which means " brotherly love." Penn's high character and the rather liberal laws regard- ing religion attracted settlers in great numbers from various countries of Europe. Among the settlers were Welsh, Swedes, Germans, and Irish.^ 1 The Welsh settled west of Philadelphia, and many names, like IJryn Mawr, Merion, and Radnor, show the so-called Welsh Tract. The Germans were largely Mennonites from the Rhine country. About 1683 Pastorius founded Germantown. Here, in 16S8, was drawn up what is claimed to be the first public protest against slavery in the present limits of the United States. The Irish went farther westward beyond the Welsh and German settlements. i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Soon after his arrival, Penn, mindful of his Quaker beliefs, made a visit to the Indian wigwams to secure the good will of the red men. In 1682 a treaty of peace was made with the Delaware Indians. Stand- ing under a wide-spreading elm, Penn and the Indians clasped hands and made solemn promises of friend- ship. F'or sixty years, while the Quakers had control of Pennsylvania, this peace re- mained unbroken, and Penn was always loved and trusted by the red men. The Indian record of this treaty is a belt of wampum, which may be seen to this day in Phila- delphia. So rapidly did the colony grow that three years after Penn's arrival it con- tained almost eight thousand inhabitants, and Philadel- phia was the largest city in the colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution. Penn made two visits to his colony, leaving for the last time in 1701. Although troubles constantly arose between the colonists and the gov- ernors, the colony prospered. penn's meeting with the INDIANS SUMMARY The colony of Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn, a Quaker, by Charles II, king of England.^ In 1681 the first colonists arrived, and Philadelphia was founded in 1682. A treaty was made with the Indians and faithfully kept while the Quakers were in power. 1 The boundary line of Pennsylvania and Maryland became the famous " Mason and Dixon's line." It was so called from its surveyors. PERMANENT COLONLVL SETTLEMENTS 117 Georgia, 1733 117. The Grant to Oglethorpe. General James Oglethorpe, an English soldier, obtained from George II a grant of land between the Savannah and the Altamaha rivers to establish a home for the poor debtors of England. Under the English law, for a debt of even one shilling a man could be imprisoned until the debt was paid, and the jails were filled with the unfortunates who had I U G I N I A ^^^ _<■ X O Pv T^H SC%f ~^t^*^ gT'a R O L\I n\a<^ ^^ffT^^— Layettcville.U,,, ^^^ not the means to jxiv. Thousands died before relief came. Oglethorpe formed a company and made arrangements to pay these debts, to free the debtors, and to send them to Amer- ica. He was assisted by hundreds of chari- table people in Eng- land and by a grant of fifty thousand dollars from Parliament. 118. Settlement of Savannah, 1733. In November, 1732, Oglethorpe sailed with one hundred and twenty persons to the Savannah River, where he laid the foundation of a town, which he named Savannah. A treaty was made with the Indians, the land ])urchased from them, and their good will secured. The laws of the colony provided that the trustees should make all the laws and should rule the colony for twenty-one years, at the end of which time the king should decree what form of government it w-as to receive. The laws forbade negro slavery and the importation of spirituous liquors. They permitted each colonist to rent fifty acres of land. THE SOUTHERN- COLONIES Ii8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY No one, however, could secure more than five hundred acres of land. Catholics were forbidden to settle there, and the Church of England was established, the people being taxed to support it. 119. War with Spain. -A second reason for the settlement of Georgia was the desire to check any northward movement of the Spaniards from Florida. In 1739 war was declared between England and Spain, and Oglethorpe led an expedition into Florida against the Spaniards, but he was defeated. The Spaniards then took the offensive and, entering Georgia, at- tacked Oglethorpe at Frederica in 1742, but they were repulsed. Oglethorpe led another invasion of Florida, but it was without important results. While the English military movements were not successful, they had at least established Georgia securely as an English colony, and the Spaniards were never able to push their boundary northward beyond Florida. Under Oglethorpe's laws Georgia made slow progress. Discontent was apparent everywhere, as the land laws were unsatisfactory. In 1752 the trustees surrendered the colony to the crown and it became a royal colony. Georgia was the last colony planted by England in the present limits of the United States. SUMMARY In 1733 Georgia was founded by Oglethorpe, partly as a refuge for the debtors in English prisons and partly as a check to the Span- ish in Florida. Catholics were forbidden to enter the colony. Savannah, the first settlement, was made in 1733. In 1752 the trustees surrendered the colony and it became a royal colony. It was the last colony founded by the English in the present limits of the United States. Dates to be re?nembered : 1607. Founding of Jamestown, first permanent English settlement in America. 1 619. First Representative Assembly in America. Introduction of negro slavery into English America. 1620. Foundation of the Plymouth colony. PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 119 Important dates for reference : 1 630. The Massachusetts Bay Company founds a colony at Boston. 1634. St. Marys is settled by Lord Baltimore. 1636. Connecticut is settled by emigrants from Massachusetts. Roger Williams founds Rhode Island. 1638. New Haven colony founded by Puritans from England. 1643. The New England Confederation. 1649. The Maryland Toleration Act. 1664. English conquest of New Netherland. 1670. Charleston is founded by the proprietors of the Carolinas. 1 68 1. Settlement of Pennsylvania by the Quakers. 1688. The Revolution in England. 1733. Georgia is founded by Oglethorpe. Persons to knoiu about : John Smith, Myles Standish, Roger Williams, Hudson, Stuyvesant, George Calvert (Lord Baltimore), Penn, Bacon, Dongan, Leisler, Andros, King Philip, Massasoit, Powhatan, Oglethorpe. Map work : On a map show in different colors, or by different markings, Spanish, French, Dutch, Swedish, and English spheres of influence in America. Locate Jamestown, Chesapeake Bay, Scrooby, Plymouth (Eng- land), Amsterdam (Holland), Cape Cod, Plymouth in New England, Providence, Boston, Hudson River, Fort Orange (Albany), New Amsterdam, St. Marys, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, Philadel- phia, Hartford. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Show by a map the territory in what is now the United States claimed in 1 640 by each of the following nations : English, French, Spanish, Dutch. Swedish. 2. State how each of the following aided in the settlement of the Amer- ican colonies: (^/)John Winthrop ; (^) Lord Baldmore ; (f) William Penn; {(i) James Oglethorpe. 3. Name {a) the charter colonies ; (/;) the proprietary colonies ; (c) the royal colonies. I20 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY 4. Explain the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. Why are they so important ? 5. Account for the following names : Florida, Pennsylvania, Baltimore, Virginia, Carolina. 6. Give an account of the settlement of Maryland, touching on (a) name and purpose of its founder ; {d) the Toleration Act ; (c) Claiborne's Rebellion. 7. Explain the difference between the government of \'irginia and that of Maryland. 8. State in regai-d to the Quakers (a) why they were persecuted ; ((^) what colony they founded. 9. State with reference to the setdement of Pennsylvania (a) the pur- pose of its founder ; (i) kind of government established ; (c) results of the " great treaty." 10. Explain how negro slavery began in the colonies. Why did it increase more rapidly in the South than in the North.'' READINGS Histories. Andrews, C. M., Colonial Self-Govertvment. Eggle.ston, Edward, Beginners of a Nation. Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors. Beginnings of New England. Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. Greene, E. B., Provincial America. Tyler, L. G., England in America. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries., Vol. I, p. 145 (The Condition of the English in 1577); p. 209 (Founding of Virginia, by Captain John Smith); p. 218 (First Representative Assembly in America); p. 252 (First Impres- sions of Maryland, by Father White); p. 501 (A Story of Indian Captivity); p. 529 (The Founding of New Amsterdam). Muzzey, Readings in Amer- ican History, p. 46 (The Revolution of 1689); p. 50 (Early New York, fesuit Relations) \ p. 72 (The First Navigation Act, 1660). Fiction. Barr, A. E., The Bow of Orange Ribbon (a story of early Dutch New York). Butterworth, H., WatnpwJt Belt (a fascinating tale of Penn and the Indians). Cooke, J. E., My Lady Pocahontas (a tale of early Jamestown days in Virginia). Hemans, F., Laiiding of the Pil- grims (poem). Longfellow, H. W., Courtship of Miles Standish (poem). MuNROE, Kirk, Flamingo Feather {a story of the early Florida settlements and the Seminole Indians). O'Reilly, J. B., The Pilgrijn Fathers (poem). Tappan, E. M., Letter's of Colonial Children (imaginary letters describing life in the early days). CHAPTER VI FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 120. The Missionaries. Wc have already seen (see sect, ly) how the French estabhshcd a settlement on the St. Lawrence in 1608 and called it Quebec. It was a point of the greatest military value, on the highway to the Great Lakes and the valley of the Mississippi. Champlain, recognizing the impor- tance of gaining the sympathy of the Indians, invited the F"ran- ciscans from France to establish missions among the tribes. One of these Franciscans, Father Le Caron, penetrated as far as Lake Huron,^ where he established a mission in 1615.''^ In 1625 the Jesuits came to New France. They traversed the forest and established missions during the next fifty years at Sault Ste. Marie, Green Bay, St. Ignace, Kaskaskia, and many other places.'^ Father Menard, in 1661, explored the southern shore of Lake Superior. He lost his life in attempt- ing to visit some Christian Hurons. Father Allouez^ at once took up the work and established a mission at La Pointe, on one of the Apostle Islands, near the present site of Ashland, Wisconsin. He was later joined by Father Dablon, superior of 1 Lake Huron and Lake Ontario were discovered in 1615. Lake Superior in 1616. and Lake Michigan in 1634. Lake Erie was probably discovered in 1640. - Jean Nicolet, a brave Norman, who came to New France in 1618, explored the region around Lake Huron and Lake Michigan from 1634 to 1640. 3 " Thus did the religious zeal of the French," says Bancroft, " bear the cross to the banks of the St. Mary and the confines of Lake Superior and look wistfully toward the homes of the Sioux in the valley of the Mississippi, five years before the New ?:ngland Eliot had addressed a tribe of Indians that dwelt within six miles of Boston Harbor." * In 1899 the State Historical Society of Wisconsin erected a tablet at I)e Pere to the memory of Father Allouez, the founder of Wisconsin's first Indian missions. The place was originally named Rapides des P^res (Rapids of the Fathers). 121 122 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the Canadian missions, and by the great missionary whose name will forever adorn the pages of our history — Father James Marquette. 121. Jolliet and Marquette explore the Mississippi, 1673. Frontenac, the governor of New France, desired to have the Mississippi River explored and to find perhaps in this river the route to the South Sea. He chose Louis Jolliet,^ a Montreal trader, for the enterprise. In May, 1673, Jolliet, with Father Marquette (the Jesuit missionary) and five companions, left St, Ignace Mission in north Michigan to seek a great river to the west, of which they had heard many wonderful stories from the Indians. Dragging their light canoes up the rapids of the Fox River, they crossed Lake Winnebago and soon discovered the Wisconsin River, Drifting down its beautiful waters, on June 17, 1673, a month after their departure, at the spot where Prairie du Chien now stands, they entered the great river called by the Indians Mississippi, but named Conception by Father Marquette. They sailed the majestic river, passed the Ohio, and on the way told the native tribes the truths of Christianity. One month after entering the Mississippi they reached the spot where, according to tradition, De Soto had died one hundred and thirty-one years before. Fearing to fall into the hands of the Spaniards or of hostile Indians, they set out on the return journey. They now felt assured that the Mississippi River emptied into the Gulf of Mexico and did not wish to run the risk of having the fruits of their expedition lost through their death or capture. Ascending the Illinois River, Father Marquette ministered to the Kaskaskias. Thence pushing onward, they entered Lake Michigan and reached Green Bay in September, having traveled no less than two thousand five hundred miles in their light canoes ,2 1 The explorer himself wrote his name Jolliet. The city named in his honor is spelled Joliet. 2 The return route of Jolliet and Father Marquette was up the Illinois River to the Des Plaines. Paddling up this stream they came to a portage, about a mile and a half in width, which led them to Lake Michigan. This portage is the site of the present city of Chicago. It is interesting to note FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 123 JoUiet and a few companions returned to Montreal. ^ One year later Father Marquette set out again to establish a mission among the Kaskaskias. Scarcely had he reached their village when he fell ill, and desiring to pass his last hours among his faithful companions at St. Ignace, he started homeward. But the days of the saintly explorer and missionary were numbered. JOLLll'.T AM) .MARQUETTE OX THE MISSISSH'l'I While his companions were trying to hurry him upon his journey, he died on the shore of Lake Michigan- on the 19th of May, 1675, thanking God that he was permitted to die in the wilderness, a member of the Jesuit Order, that Father Marquette wrote : " It would only be necessary to make a canal by cutting through but half a league of prairie to pass from the foot of the Lake of Illinois (Michigan) to the River St. Louis (Des Plaines)." Two hundred and twenty-five years later this canal, called the Chicago Drainage Canal, was dug. 1 Jolliet's canoe was upset in the Lachine Rapids, and he barely escaped with his life. All his papers and maps describing his great journey were lost, but Father Marquette wrote a narrative which appeared in Paris in 1681. 2 His death occurred near the present site of Ludington. Later his body was tran.sferred to the mission of .St. Ignace, where a monument marks his last resting place. A statue of Father Marquette has been placed in the Capitol at Washington by the state of Wisconsin. 124 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 122. Frontenac's Plans. In 1673 the new governor of Canada, Count de Frontenac, took decisive steps to control for France the fur trade of the Great Lakes and the West. With a large force of French and Indians he went to the out- let of Lake Ontario on the site of the present city of Kingston, where he erected a fort, which he called Fort Frontenac. Here he met a delegation of sixty Iroquois chiefs, whom he had in- vited to make a treaty. A great feast was spread and the treaty was made. The tireless Frontenac now set on foot plans to con- trol Lake Erie, and selected as the leader of the expedition La Salle, who was commander of Fort Frontenac. 123. La Salle journeys Westward. In 1679 La Salle erected a blockhouse near the mouth of the Niagara River. Dragging tools, ropes, and canoes up the steep bank around the falls, he built on Lake Erie a vessel which he named the Griffin} It was La Salle's purpose not only to secure the fur trade but also to explore the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.2 La Salle sailed through Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan and touched at St. Ignace. Passing on to Green Bay, he stocked the Griffin with furs and despatched the vessel back to Fort Frontenac for provisions. La Salle sent one of his companions, Accau, with Father Hennepin, a Franciscan, to explore the upper Mississippi River. In a few weeks they fell into the hands of the Sioux Indians, who led them captive to the site of the present city of St. Paul.^ Father Hennepin named the raging cascade here Falls of St. Anthony in honor of the great saint of his Order ; "* here, about one hundred and sixty 1 Amid the booming of cannon and the singing of the Te Deum by the Franciscans the first ship to sail the Great Lakes rode proudly upon the waters of Lake Erie. - The English founded, in 1670, the Hudson Bay Company, which gradually established posts throughout the wilderness of the North. This action was the first step in heading off the growing power of New France. 3 Father Galtier here erected (1841) a little chapel dedicated to St. Paul. It was from this chapel that the city of St. Paul received its name. * St. Anthony of Padua. It was named. Father Hennepin says, " in gratitude for the favors done me by the Almighty through the intercession of that great saint." FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 125 years later, the great cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis arose. P"ather Hennepin and his companions were soon rescued by ENGLISH POSSESSK > AND THE rRENCII EXPLORATIONS AXD SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST Route of FatUr Harijutlle and JoOitt Route af Father Ucmvitin SCALE OF MILE8 100 SOO the fur trader Du Lhut (or Duluth as the name is now spelled) and finally reached Montreal in safety. La Salle, with fourteen men in four canoes, sailed southward and built a fort at the mouth of the St. Joseph River, which he called Fort Miami. Ascending the St. Joseph River to the 126 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY portage at South Bend,i he crossed to the Kankakee, drifted down this stream, and built a fort, which he called Crevecoeur.^ Here he waited for tidings from the Griffin, but they never came.^ He determined, therefore, to leave Crevecoeur in charge of his friend, Henri de Tonty, and to return to Fort Frontenac, a thousand miles away. In the midst of winter, with only five companions, he turned backward on his fearful journey. He reached the fort in May, gathered new supplies, and returned with twenty-five companions. He found Fort Crevecoeur in ruins and no trace of Tonty and his companions. After search- ing in vain for his friend, he sailed down the river to the mouth of the Illinois, and before him spread the great Mississippi, which Jolliet and Marquette had explored seven years before. He left a letter tied to a tree and hoped that Tonty might find it. Then returning to Fort Miami, he was compelled to spend the winter there. During this time he made friends among the Indian tribes. In May he returned to St. Ignace, where, to his inexpressible delight, he met Tonty. 124. Further Explorations of La Salle, 1682. His Death. La Salle was not yet satisfied. He pushed on to Montreal, secured new supplies, and returned to Fort Miami. With fifty- four companions he again sailed down the Illinois. Entering the Mississippi, he passed the mouths of the Missouri and the Red River, and in April, 1682, reached the mouth of the Mis- sissippi. Here he erected a cross and a column to which he fastened a metal plate bearing the arms of France and the date. Claiming all the land drained by the river for the king 1 Near this place was founded, in 1842, the University of Notre Dame by the Fathers of the Holy Cross. Here in the early days was a center of missionary work among the Potawatami and the Miami tribes of Indians. 2 Crevecmcr (krave kerr') means "heartbreak" in French, but this fort was probably so named in honor of Fort Crevecoeur in the Netherlands, that had been captured by the king of France eight years before. ^ The Griffin was lost with all its crew and its valuable cargo of furs. As if to add to La Salle's misfortunes, a vessel with supplies for him was wrecked with total loss in the lower St. Lawrence River. La Salle, alone of his country- men, realized the wonderful agricultural possibilities of the Mississippi Valley. I.A SALLK Al- THK MOUTH UK THE MISSISSIPJ'I 127 128 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of France, he named this vast region Louisiana in honor of his sovereign, Louis XIV. " New France was now founded with its two heads, one in the canebrakes of Louisiana and the other in the snows of Canada," says Parkman (" La Salle," p. 287). La Salle soon sailed for France to tell the king of the won- derful country he had explored and the necessity of colonizing it. The king agreed with him, and La Salle returned in 1684 with an expedition of four ships. Li passing he missed the mouths of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay in Texas, four hundred miles west of that river. For two years he searched in vain for the Mississippi and was murdered by some of his followers, March 19, 1687, while trying to go overland to Canada. Most of the colony perished later at the hands of the Indians. 125. Founding of Mobile and New Orleans. In 1699 Iber- ville, ^ who had obtained permission from the king of France to found a city at the mouth of the Mississippi, built a fort at Biloxi. He entered the Mississippi and explored its course for several days. In 1702 Mobile was founded. In 1718 Bienville, a brother of Iberville, founded the city of New Orleans. The building of this city controlled for France the great Mississippi River system.^ 126. Settlement of Duluth and Detroit. In the meantime the French had been active in the North. Du Lhut founded a post which has since been named Duluth in his honor. In 1 70 1 Cadillac built a fort on the strait which connects Lake Erie with Lake Huron and called it Detroit, or the " Strait," as the word means in French. Inside the fort houses were built. The Indians were invited to live near by, that the 1 Charles le Moyne, a captain of militia of Quebec, had two sons, — Pierre le Moyne, commonly known as Iberville, and Jean Baptiste le Moyne, who was called Bienville. Iberville had fought with great ability against the English. - In 1727 there was founded by the Ursuline Nuns in New Orleans the first school under the direction of Sisters in the United States. The Ursuline Academy is probably the oldest female school in the present limits of the United States. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 129 fort might become a center of fur trade. A year later Vincennes was founded. The French pushed beyond the Mississippi. In 1743 Verendrye went as far westward as the present state of Montana and, first of white men, saw the towering snow-capped peaks of the Rocky Mountains. It was, however, the estabHsh- ment of mihtary posts throughout this vast territory of the Mississippi basin that eventually brought on a life and death struggle between the English and the French. 127. French and English Colonization. In this struggle the two systems of colonial government — the French and the English — would be brought to a test. In the English colonies the settlers were increasing by thousands yearly. They brought from England with them their families, took homesteads, and to a certain extent enjoyed self-government through their rep- resentative colonial assemblies. As few measures were offered to England for the approval of the king, the colonists became more and more self-reliant and independent. Without realizing it they were preparing the way for the American Revolution. In New France the king of France was the sole master. Through the governors and other officers appointed by him he ruled with absolute power, and the French colonists never secured even to the smallest degree a share in the government of New France. In the vast area from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the delta of the Mississippi there were only twelve thousand Frenchmen. Few families had come from France to make their homes in the New World. 'The French settlements outside the missions were merely forts and trading posts, and the inhabitants for the most part were soldiers and fur-traders. In the next chapter we shall see how the widely scattered French forces were brought face to face, with fatal results in war, with the rapidly growing permanent settlements of the English colonies. In these colonies there were at this time almost two hundred thousand colonists, settled in a com- pact territory sixteen times as many as in the entire widespread area of New France. I30 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY SUMMARY In 1673 Jolliet and Father Marquette explored the Mississippi, proving that it emptied into the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle launched the first vessel on the Great Lakes in 1679. La Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682 and claimed its entire basin for France. He named it Louisiana. Iberville founded Mobile in 1702. In 1 7 1 8 New Orleans was founded by Bienville, a brother of Iberville. Persons to knoiv about : Jolliet, Marquette, La Salle, Hennepin, Frontenac, Bienville, Cadillac. Map work : Trace the route of La Salle from Montreal to the mouth of the Mississippi River. Find on the map Mackinac, Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, Des Plaines River, St. Paul, Duluth, New Orleans. READINGS Histories. Baldwin, J., The Disco^icry of the Old Northwest. Camp- bell, T. J., Pioneer Priests, Vol. Ill, p. 165. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. Thwaites, R. G., Father Marquette. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. II, p. 316 (Danger to English from French Mississippi Settlements); p. 320 (The Fur Trade). Fiction. Catherwood, M. H., The Story of Tonty. Romance of Bollard (interesting tales of La Salle and French Canada). REVIEW EXAMINATION c 1. Cartier explored the St. Lawrence in 1534, but the first permanent French settlement was not made until 1608. Mention the circumstances that delayed French settlement in North America. 2. What was the importance of La Salle's expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi ? Describe briefly the ceremony of taking possession of the Louisiana country. 3. What important fact was established by the expedition of Jolliet and Marquette? 4. What famous falls were discovered by Father Hennepin ? Why was the city of St. Paul so named ? 5. Who explored the Far West? Where were missions established? CHAPTER VII " The firing of a gun in the backwoods of North America brought on a contlict which drenched Kuropc in blood."' — Macaulay THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 128. King William's War,i 1689-1697. It will be remem- bered (see sect. 62) that in the charters the grants of most of the colonies stretched from sea to sea. The French had now taken possession of the Mississippi Valley, a territory which was claimed by the English. There could be only one result from disputes about this territory, — war, which was declared in 1689. Another cause for war was the fact that James II, who had fled from England, had taken refuge in France, and the king of France was striving to replace him on the throne. Count Frontenac was sent to America to look after the French interests. He at once planned to capture New York. The Iroquois were bitter foes of the French, while the Algonquin were their stanch friends. On his arrival Frontenac learned that the Iroquois had invaded Canada, besieged Montreal, and had burned captives at the stake with fiendish cruelty. It w^as now the turn of the French and their Indian allies. In February, 1690, they swept southward, surprised 1 So called from William III, who at that time sat on the throne of I'"ngland. As stadholder of Holland, William had fought Louis XIV of P' ranee. Louis took up the cause of James 11, the deposed king of England. As soon as William secured the crown of E'ngland he sought to curb the rising power of P'rance by forming an alliance of England, Holland, Spain, and the Cicrman Empire and declaring war on France. This war was waged largely in the Netherlands, on the seas, and in North America. After about seven years it ended in the Peace of Ryswick, so called from a town in Holland. Both sides gave up whatever territory they had gained. William was acknowledged as king of England. Spain now left the alliance with England and soon joined with France. 131 132 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and captured Schenectady, burned the town, and massacred the inhabitants.^ Now followed a period of the most horrible warfare. Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, York and Fort Loyal (now Portland) in Maine, Groton and Haverhill in Massachusetts were attacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. In 1690 New England organized an expedition of two thousand militia ^^W^^y'^r'f "' ^ f' T w^^ COLONISTS CAI'TURED BY THE INDIANS under Sir William Phipps, which captured Port Royal, Acadia, but it was recaptured the following year by the French. The war closed in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick... Neither side had gained or lost any valuable territory. 129. Queen Anne's War, or the War of the Spanish Succes- sion,'-^ 1702-1713. King William died in 1702, and Anne, his 1 In this year (1690) the first colonial congress ever held in America met in New York City under Leisler to arrange an expedition against the French in Canada. This congress is important, as it marked the beginning of colonial cooperation (see sect. 75). 2 This war was so called because the European nations objected to the attempt of Louis XIV to place his grandson on the throne of Spain, which was vacant. England, Holland, Spain, and the German States were allied against Louis, who was defeated and signed a peace treaty at Utrecht in 17 13. WARS OF THE KXGLISII AND THE FRENCH 133 English French lliiiilliillll Spanish NORTH A.MKKICA AT THE IJEGINM.NC; OF THE WARS OE THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH IN NORTH AMERICA sister-in-law, became queen of rLngland.! War was renewed between France and England. The Indians spread death and destruction on all sides. They attacked Deerfield in 1704 and 1 [averliill in 170S. putting to death the inhabitants. Two years ^ King William had married Mary, the daughter of James II. On the death of King William, Anne, who was the second daughter of James II, succeeded to the throne. 134 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY later an expedition from Boston captured Port Royal (which had been returned to the French at the close of King William's War) and changed its name to Annapolis in honor of the queen. A force was led in 171 1 against Quebec. Many of the ships were wrecked in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the expedition returned an utter failure. The war ended in 171 3. In the treaty of peace signed at Utrecht (1713) the French gave up Acadia, which passed for good to the English. They named it Nova Scotia. This cession was the first permanent step toward the final conquest of New France. To the English were ceded also Newfoundland and the Hud- son Bay territory. The French also agreed that all the Indians of the Iroquois confederation should be con- sidered subjects of Great Britain .1 130. King George's War, or the War of the Austrian Succes- sion,^ 1744-1748. Peace lasted for thirty years, when war was again declared, George II was now king of England. The principal point of attack was Louisburg, a strong fortress on the southeast coast of Cape Breton Island. A union of forces from New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massa- chusetts, to the number of four thousand, sailed against this massive granite fortification. After a siege of a few weeks it 1 This provision gave England an opportunity later to claim the entire country over which the Iroquois roamed as English territory. In 1744, at a great council held at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the Iroquois made a grant to the English of all the Ohio valley north of the Ohio River. 2 In 1740 Emperor Charles VI of Austria died and his daughter, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, laid claim to her father's domains. Holland, Hanover, and England were united on the side of Maria Theresa. France, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Spain opposed her and sought to divide the empire of Austria. In this war was fought the celebrated battle of Fontenoy. QUEEN ANNE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 135 was captured in June, 1745. Three years later, by the treaty of peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisburg was returned to the French,^ to the great disappointment of the colonists, who felt their inter- ests had been sacrificed to those of England. 131. The French and Indian War, 1754-1763. We now approach the last great conflict between the French and Eng- lish in the New World, which was but a part of the world-wide struggle between these great nations/'^ The French had command of the great waterways, the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. A chain of forts had been established along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, on the Wabash and Illinois rivers, and down the Mississippi to its mouth, where the flag of France waved over the city of New Orleans. That line of forts — Detroit, St, Joseph, Vincennes, Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Chartres, New Orleans — gave the French control of the vast tract called Louisiana. They were now taking possession, as we shall see, of the Ohio valley in the name of Louis XV, and were building forts along the headwaters of the Ohio, beside the Allegheny River, on Lake Erie, and at Niagara. The French had the sympathy and support of the entire Algonquian family, but the Iroquois were held for the English by Sir William Johnson.'^ The English- speaking colonists at this time (1750) numbered a million and a quarter, while there were only eighty thousand in all New France. The English were settled for the most part along the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to Florida, hemmed in between 1 Louisburg was exchanged for Madras in India, which had fallen into the hands of the French. England paid back to the colonies the amount they had spent in the expedition. As a result of this war the power of Spain in world affairs was broken and her fleets annihilated. England became the world's greatest naval power. - This conflict was called in Europe the Seven Years' War, and was waged by France, Spain, Sweden, Russia, Austria, and Poland against Frederick the Great of Prussia, who was aided by England. 3 Sir William Johnson was of Irish birth and had settled near Schenectady to manage his estates. His dealings with the Indians had so endeared him to them that the Mohawk had adopted him into the tribe with the rank of sachem. 136 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. They had now begun to turn their eyes across the Alleghenies, but the French line of settlements and forts seemed to present an unbroken front, preventing their westward progress. 132. The Ohio Company. George Washington. In 1749 a number of Virginians organized the Ohio Company for the purpose of opening up lands along the Ohio. They obtained from the king a grant of five hundred thousand acres of land, mainly along the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and sent surveyors to mark out the land. The French took alarm at this in- vasion of their territory and immediately erected a fort at Presque Isle (now Erie, Pennsylvania) on Lake Erie. Directly south they built a second fort, called Le Boeuf,^ and a third, named Venango, on the Allegheny. Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia sent a young man only twenty-one years of age, an adjutant general in the Virginia militia, to order them to cease build- ing these forts on English territor)-.'^ This )oung man was George Washington, whose name appears in this enterprise for the first time in the pages of history.-'^ 133. The French at Fort Duquesne.^ The French promptly and firmly declined to yield to Dinwiddle's order. The latter, seeing there was no time to be wasted or the Ohio valley would be lost, sent a force to build a fort at the juncti®n of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. This point Washington had marked as of great military value. The P>ench came up as the English were at work, and compelled tHem to leave. Finishing the fort themselves, they called it Fort Duquesne in 1 Le Boeuf (le biif). 2 The demand was made on the ground that James I had given this territory to Virginia in his " sea-to-sea " grant. Dinwiddie declared it was universally known to be the property of the crown of Great Britain. ^ In 1 75 1 occurred in England the important event of the change from the Julian calendar, which had been arranged by Julius Caesar, to the Gregorian calendar, recommended by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. There was an error of eleven days at this time, and September 3 was called September 14. This change was made also in the American colonies. * Duquesne (du kane'). UNITE OR DTE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 137 honor of the governor of Canada. Washington, with seventy- five men, hastened to the assistance of the Virginians, but was informed of their surrender before he had traveled far. He decided to push on, however, and after journeying some days, built a stockade, which he called Fort Necessity. Hearing of the approach of a body of French and Indians, he sallied out and killed and captured many of them ; but the main body of the French now appeared, and Washington, besieged in b'ort Necessity, was compelled to sur- render, July 4, 1754. Virginia now voted a gift of land to every man who would go to the front, and fifty thousand dollars were appropriated for military operations on the Ohio. 134. The Albany Convention, 1754. illlstkahox usi:d in The English government now real- franklin's paper ized that strong steps must be taken or the French would control all the country west of the Appa- lachian Mountains. It requested, therefore, the governors of the various colonies to meet in Albany in a convention to make a treaty with the Iroquois Indians and to form a union of the colonies to advance their own interests and those of the king. Twenty-five delegates answered the call to this convention, which began June 19, 1754. Benjamin Franklin proposed here a " Plan of Union " ^ for the colonies against the French. 1 In the Pennsylvania Gazette of this time appeared a device representing a snake cut into pieces. Each piece represented a colony, and beneath were the words " Unite or Die." Its author was Benjamin Franklin. Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He was the youngest of seventeen children. His father was a candle-maker and wished Franklin to follow that trade, but Franklin preferred to be a printer. He went to New York and later to Philadelphia, where he finally settled. He was soon known throughout the colonies through his '" Poor Richard's Almanac." In 1753 he became deputy postmaster of all the English colonies in America. He invented the Franklin stove and the lightning rod, and proved the identity of electricity and lightning. He signed the Declaration of Independence, aided materially in bringing about the alliance with France, and sat in the convention that drew up the National Constitution. He died in 1790. 138 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 135. The Plan of .Union. Under the Plan of Union there was to be a confederation with a president for all the colonies. He would have veto power and would be appointed by the king of England, A council was to be elected by the colonies to make treaties with the Indians, to lay taxes, and to regulate the defenses of the colonies by land and sea. Although the Plan of Union was adopted by the convention, it was rejected by the colonists. They feared that, as it removed the power of taxation from the colonial assemblies, it yielded too much power to the king. The king vetoed it because it promoted the idea of union among the colonies and granted, he thought, too many rights to the colonists. Nevertheless the convention was of great impor- tance, as it gave the colonies a groundwork for future union. At the same time it made the leading colonists better ac- quainted with each other and paved the way for the later united action against PZngland. 136. Plan of Campaign. The English king now sent over two regiments of regulars under General Braddock, On his arrival Braddock summoned the colonial governors to Alexan- dria, Virginia, to discuss plans for carrying on the war. It was proposed to send an expedition against Fort Duquesne ; a second force planned to take the forts on Lake Champlain, opening that route to Quebec and Montreal, while a third army was to sail up the Hudson, to pass along the Mohawk valley, and, skirting the shores of Lake Ontario, to attack the forts near the Niagara River. Lastly, a fourth army was to cut off BEN'JAMIN FRANKLIN WARS OF rilE KN(nJSH AND THE FRENCH 139 Acadia from New France and prevent raiding by the Indians on the New England settlements.^ 137. Braddock's Defeat, July 9, 1755. Braddock commanded in person the expedition against lu)rt Duqucsne. Ignorant though he was of Indian warfare, he scorned advice and, looking with contempt on the skill of the Indians in war, pushed his way through the woods toward Fort Duquesne. When within eight miles of the fort, his troops were attacked by the enemy, who were hidden in the bushes. From every side poured in the bullets of the French and Indians. His forces were cut to pieces, he himself was mortally wounded, and Washington with difficulty saved the retreating troops by his masterly skill.^ 138. The Expulsion of the Acadians, 1755. The province called Acadia — the territory now included in the peninsula of Nova Scotia — had been under the rule of France for a cen- tury, but in 171 3 it was transferred to the English, and for many years there were endless disputes about the territory. In 1755 an expedition was directed against the French forces that held military posts there, which were quickly taken by the English. The inhabitants were nearly all French Catholics, who had prosperous farms and happy homes. The English, claiming that the Acadians as Frenchmen were constantly plotting against them and in favor of France, offered them in 1755 for the last time the oath of allegiance to the king of Eng- land. They again refused to take it. The English thereupon 1 The French line of defense extended in a great semicircle. Its left flank was the St. Lawrence, defended by Louisburg ; its center was Lake Champlain, defended by Ticonderoga ; its right flank was Lake Ontario, protected by Fort Frontenac, and the Ohio River, controlled by Fort Duquesne. The weakness of France was twofold : first, the necessity of sending large bodies of troops from France to the German front against Frederick ; second, the lack of cooperation between the French authorities in America. '■^ In this battle the English and the colonists lost fourteen hundred men killed and wounded, while the French and Indians lost only twenty-five. Far greater in its influence than the loss of men was the loss of prestige by the British among the Indians. The defeat opened the entire frontier from Penn- sylvania to South Carolina to the raids of the French and Indian war parties. 140 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY resolved to expel them from the country. The cruel measure ^ was successfully carried out, no less than six thousand men, women, and children being placed on vessels and dropped along the coast from Massachusetts to Georgia among colonists who, while they did not welcome them, treated them kindly. Many of the exiles finally reached Louisiana, The torch was applied MAP ILLUSTRATING THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS to the homes of the unfortunate people, and the fair fields of Acadia were for years a waste. 139. Battle of Lake George. Fall of Fort William Henry. The bitter struggle had been in progress two years before the formal declaration of war between England and France. In September, 1755, Dieskau, the French commander, marched with fourteen hundred troops against F"ort Edward, near the 1 AH the men, young and old, were ordered to meet at the village church of Grand Pre on the afternoon of Friday, September 5, 1755, to hear the intentions of the king in regard to them. The unsuspecting natives gathered and heard the fearful judgment. All their possessions except money and household goods were forfeited, and they were prisoners of the king. Before they could realize their position the church was surrounded by troops. Longfellow hastold the pitiful story of their sufferings in his poem " Evangeline." WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 141 head of navigation on the Hudson. The Enghsh, marching to meet him, fell into an ambush and suffered terrible losses. They fell back to their camp at Lake George, where, defended by a barricade of trees and wagons, they successfully resisted the assault of the enemy. After a fight of five hours the French retreated. Dieskau was severely wounded and fell a prisoner into the hands of the English. In the following year (August 14, 1756) Montcalm attacked the forts at Oswego that commanded the entrance to Lake Ontario. They fell easily into his hands and were demolished. The French were now masters of the Great Lakes. In August, 1757, Montcalm turned his attention to Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. With seventy-six hundred men, including two thousand Indians, he besieged this important point. For days his batteries rained shot and shell on the fort till it surrendered, August 9, 1757. It was destroyed, and the French were now masters of Lake George and Lake Champlain.i 140. William Pitt. French Reverses. Affairs became brighter for England when William Pitt, in 1757, became the ruling power there and threw all his energy toward carrying on the war. He planned three expeditions, the first against Louisburg, the second against Fort Duquesne, and the third against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In July, 1758, Louisburg was attacked by fourteen thousand men and surrendered July 27, 1758, with fifty-six hundred prisoners of war.^ In the meantime Montcalm, in his defenses at Ticonderoga, with only four thousand soldiers, was attacked July 8, 1758, by Abercrombie, with sixteen thousand men, the largest army of 1 As the English troops were leaving the fort they were attacked by the Indians and sixty or seventy were massacred, despite Montcalm's attempts to restrain his savage allies. About four hundred were kidnaped by the Indians and were later ransomed by Montcalm. - In 1760 Great Britain ordered the total destruction of the fortifications, and nothing remains of Louisburg except the ruins and the huts of a few fishermen. Halifax became the stronghold of the English for this section. 142 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY white soldiers that had ever been gathered on the continent. The English were repulsed, losing almost two thousand men. On November 25, 1758, Fort Duquesne was captured by General Forbes and named Pittsburgh in honor of William Pitt, the English statesman. A succession of defeats weakened the French. Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario fell August 27, 1758, and its capture gave the English control of Lake Ontario, one of the two gateways QUEBEC to the West. About a year later Niagara was captured (July 25, 1759) by Sir William Johnson, and the route to Lake Erie passed into the hands of the English. 141. The Plains of Abraham, 1759, The English in 1759 continued their general forward movements. One army moved up Lake George to Lake Champlain, and the French were com- pelled to abandon Ticonderoga (July 26, 1759) and Crown Point. General Wolfe, who had distinguished himself before Louis- burg, led an expedition against Quebec, the strongest fortress in America. Montcalm, with a strong army, defended the citadel, which was built on a rocky bluff, carefully guarded on every side except one, where a steep ravine seemed to defy any WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 143 approach. After four months' attempt to draw Montcalm into a fight, Wolfe resorted to stratagem. One dark night, Septem- ber 12, 1759, he led his forces up the ravine to the Plains of Abraham behind the city.^ When day broke, the French were amazed to see the glittering ranks of the English, five thou- sand strong, drawn up in battle array. A fierce battle ensued in which the French were defeated, and both Montcalm ^ and Wolfe were mortally wounded. Quebec passed into the hands of the English, September 17, 1759, and the power of France in America was doomed.'^ "With the triumph of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham began the history of the United .States," says Greene."* 142. The Treaty of Paris, 1763. While the war was in progress between T' ranee and England, Spain had made an alli- ance with France. England thereupon declared war upon her and caj^tured Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippine Islands. 1 While in his boat on his way to the attack Wolfe is said to have repeated this verse from Gray's " Elegy " : " The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power. And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave." When he had finished he said, " I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec to-morrow." - Montcalm died on th.e day after his defeat. He was buried in the chapel of the Ursuline convent. When told that his wound was mortal he said, " I am happy that I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." 8 On the monument to Wolfe and Montcalm in Quebec are Latin words which read in translation : " Valor gave them a united death, History a united fame. Posterity a united monument." As a result of this victory, Parkman says : " England blazed with bonfires. In one spot alone all was dark and silent; for here a widowed mother mourned for a loving and devoted son, and the people forbore to profane her grief with the clamor of their rejoicings." — " Montcalm and Wolfe," Vol. II. p. 324 .After the fall of Quebec there was continued fighting between the English and French until Montreal surrendered. September 8, 1760. ■* " History of the English People," Vol. IV, p. 197. 144 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY In the treaty of peace made in Paris in 1763, at the end of the French and Indian War, three nations were involved. Under the terms of this treaty, I. France ceded to Eng- land the whole of Canada except two small islands.^ The French retained the right of drying their fish on the coast of Newfound- land. France also ceded to England all her posses- sions east of the Missis- sippi River except New Orleans and a near-by strip of territory .2 I I . France ceded to her ally Spain, to recompense her for losses during the war, all the territory west of the Mississippi River including New Orleans. III. Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana and Manila, which had been captured during the war.-^ 143. The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763. For some time the Indians of the West had been growing discontented. A con- spiracy was formed by an Ottawa chief, Pontiac, a man of great ability and daring, who had brought eighteen Indian nations 1 These islands were St. Pierre and Miquelon, which were held to serve as a shelter for French fishermen. 2 England also received from France the West Indian islands of Tobago, . Dominica, Grenada, and St. Vincent. , ^ Florida was ceded back to Spain in 1783. WOLFE S IMEN CLLMBIX(J TO THE PLAIXS OF ABRAHA.M WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 145 under his rule. His plan was to attack all the English forts on the same day, May 7, 1763. Although the conspiracy finally failed, the Indians captured practically all the forts ^ in the West with the exception of Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. Along the entire Western frontier the settlers were murdered and scalped, and towns and plantations were destroyed. 144. The Proclamation Line of 1763- When the vast- terri- tory of the West came under the British flag as the result of the treaty of peace of 1763, a grave question arose in England as to its future. Some wished to throw the whole territory open to settlement ; others preferred to keep it as an Indian reservation by drawing a line beyond which settlers could not go. This would prevent, it was hoped, Indian wars like that of Pontiac. Others preferred to keep Guadalupe in the West Indies, which had been captured from the French. They would hold the sugar fields of Guadalupe and leave the West to the French. This would secure the much needed tropical products, while the West, they said, was good for nothing except to pro- duce furs. By this plan also they believed the PVench would hem in the English colonists and thereby keep them in need of English protection. After much discussion in Parliament it was decided to draw a line along the ridge of the Alleghenies and to forbid settlement beyond this line. As need arose new settlements would gradually be formed under regulation by the government and with the consent of the Indian tribes. In this plan no attention was paid to the claims of the colonies to Western lands under the "' sea-to-sea " charter. In 1763 this so-called Proclamation Line was drawn. 1 The forts captured by Pontiac were Fort Sandusky, P^ort St. Joseph at the head of Lake Michigan, MichiHmacinac, Ouiatanon on the Wabash, Miami on the Maumee, Presque Isle on the site of the city of Erie, Venango, and Le Boeuf, while Fort Pitt was besieged. At MichiHmacinac the Indians played a ball game, driving the ball nearer and nearer the fort, whose gates were wide open while the soldiers looked at the game. Suddenly the ball was driven inside the wall, and the Indians, rushing in as if to recover it, raised the war whoop, and, drawing tomahawks from under their blankets, butchered the Eng- lish with horrible cruelties. Pontiac was soon defeated and sued for peace. 146 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The English ministry also decided to maintain a standing army of ten thousand soldiers in America to hold Canada and the new territory which had been ceded by France and Spain. To pay for this standing army the ministry decided to levy a tax on the colonies. This tax became so great a source of dis- content that it was one of the causes, as we shall see, leading to the American Revolution. 145. The Quebec Act. In 1774 Parliament established a system of government for Canada. By the new act the Province of Quebec was extended to the Ohio and to the Missis- sippi rivers and northward to Hudson Bay. When Canada was ceded by France to England, the inhabitants, who were nearly all Catho- lics, were promised, so far as religious freedom was concerned, "all the rights of the subjects of Great Britain." At this time, how- ever, the Catholics in Great Britain had practically no legal rights. As a result the French inhabitants of Canada found themselves shut out of all franchises, offices, and even from the privilege of -'practicing in the courts. To remedy this intolerable condition the Quebec Act was passed. A reason for extending the Province of Quebec to the Ohio was the fact that there were large numbers of PVench settlements there which would be under no law or government, as that territory had been closed to lawful settlement by the Proc- lamation Line decree. By extending the territory of Quebec the governor of that province could enforce order over the territory. The English colonists objected strongly to the Quebec Act. as it closed the West to them. A more active reason was I r?""^- NORTH AMERICA AT CLOSE OF FREN'CH WARS, 1763 WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 147 the religious intolerance of the English colonists, who protested against this act of justice to the French Canadian settlers. The Canadians remembered this bitter antagonism, and when later the colonists sought their aid against England, they refused to betray the nation that had treated them so justly. SUMMARY King William's War (i 689-1 697) was largely Indian warfare, and neither side gained or lost valuable territory. Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). The usual Indian war raged along the outlying districts of New England. Port Royal was cap- tured by the English and named Annapolis. In the treaty of peace, signed at Utrecht in 17 13, the French ceded to England Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory. This cession marked the first step in the final conquest of New France. King George's War (i 744-1 748). Louisburg was captured, but was returned to France in the treaty of peace of 1748, signed at Aix-la-Chapelle. The French and Indian War (i 754-1 763) resulted in the over- throw of French power in America. Canada was ceded (1763) to Great Britain. RESULTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, OR SEVEN YEARS' WAR In Aiiiericii : 1 . Through it France lost practically all her possessions in the New World. 2. It severed the alliance between Canada and the savage Indians. 3. It taught the colonists to unite for a common purpose. 4. It left only England to be conquered in the war for independence. 5. It created an enormous debt, and with the establishment of a stand- ing army to protect England's newly acquired territory, caused the levying of new taxes, the direct cause of the American Revolution. 6. _ It removed from the colonies the danger of Indian wars. /// Europe : 1. It was the beginning of the colonial empire of Great Britain. 2. It marked the rise of England as the world's greatest sea power. 3. It began the establishment of British rule in India. 148 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Dates to be remembered : 1754. Albany Convention. Opening of the French and Indian War. 1759. Fall of Quebec. 1763. Treaty of Paris and cession of Canada to England.^ Persojis to know about : Montcalm, William Pitt, Wolfe, Pontiac, Braddock, Washington. Map work : Draw a map showing the possessions of the Spanish, French, and English after the Treaty of Paris of 1763. Find on a map Pittsburgh, Schenectady, Louisburg, Detroit, Lake Champlain, Ticonderoga. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Draw an outline map of the territory held by the French and the English in 1 754 and on it locate, with names, four principal points of attack and defense in the French and Indian War (i 754-1 763). 2. Mention an essential particular in which the French colonies in America differed from the English colonies in (a) government ; (/;) indus- tries. How was each of these differences an advantage to the French in war ? a disadvantage ? 3. What territory did the English gain by the French and Indian War.? How did the war prepare the colonists for the Revolutionary War.'' 4. Why would not the Iroquois fight for the French in the French and Indian War? What was the decisive batde in this war.? 5. Who was the founder of the French power in America.? What European nations held control of North America at the close of the French and Indian War? 6. Just before the French and Indian War, what was done to bring about a union of the colonies? What motto was printed by Franklin to show the need of union ? What was the Plan of Union ? 7. Explain why it was important for the English in the French and Indian War to capture each of the following French strongholds : Fort Duquesne, Crown Point, Quebec. ' ^ " The Seven Years' War left Great Britain the most powerful state on the globe, and heralded the rise of an English nation in the Western Hemi- sphere. Scarcely any other military struggle has produced so many events of de- cisive interest to mankind." — Howard, " Preliminaries of the Revolution." p. 3 WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 149 8. Give two results of the French and Indian War. Give an account of Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne and Wolfe's victory at Quebec. 9. Give the location of Acadia. Write a brief account of the expulsion of the Acadians. 10. Give an account of the wars between the French and English in America, showing {a) general causes ; {p) special causes of the last war ; {c) comparative strength of the French and English colonies: ( ' IV By the Romm Chcoiioloijy By tlicjwj^' KabSics Wh're/i: rs covTaiveJ The Lunarions, EcHpfes, Judgment cf ■lie V\ c..:licr, SpMniT Tia s riai^fts Mo(il>^si/ ii'.utual AlpciK, Siin un.) Moon\ Hifing aid Scl finj!;, Lcn-th nf Days, Ti.nc of High Water, Fairs, Courts, aiu) oSr-rv.ihlff Days I'ittccitorhe Latitude of jorry Dc'rces, ■and a Mc.idjin oHmv-- Ho.ns W.'l Um^ irr.-V-,, l>ur nuy witlvr.u rcnfihlc Error (ervcallthi- a:.!hnj to Sa,!h. By RICHARD S^JUNDERS, Philotn P H I L A D E r. P Fl I A : .Intrd and twl.! I>v H. FlUNKL/N. u Uif NVw Priniifig OScc ncjr llic lA'.aikct The TJ>ifd ImprcflioH ITI.KI'AfiE FKOM FRANKLIN POOR RICHARD'S ALMANAC l62 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 163. Government. Social Life. Local political affairs in the southern colonies were regulated by county officers, who were appointed by the governor of each colony. The ever-increasing size of the plantations removed the planters farther and farther from one another, and in consequence there were few towns. The plantation was a village in itself. Vessels sailed up the rivers and touched at its wharf ; it had its own blacksmiths, carpenters, coopers, tailors, and shoemakers. It had its own mills for grind- ing corn and , warehouses for tobacco. The stately home of the planter was generally built of wood or brick. With its score of servants it was the abode of wealth and hos- pitality. Christ- mas was cele- brated with great festivities. Here and there were grouped the cabins of slaves. As a rule the planters were well educated. Their study of history and politics gave them an'' insight into the direction of political affairs which made them leaders in the American Revolution. The laws regarding the descent of property varied greatly in these colonies. In Virginia, on the death of the owner, the estate passed to the eldest son, as was the law in England, This prevented the division of estates and aided in building up a landed aristocracy. There were, in consequence, so few towns that the Virginia legislature at one time ordered towns to be built, but the law had little effect. NEGRUliS KOLLI.XG TOBACCO LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 163 In all the southern colonies the Church of TLngland — that is, the official state Protestant church of Great Britain — was estab- lished by law, and fines and imprisonment were sometimes imposed for refusal to support this church, 164. Education. The English colonial governors were in- different to the establishment of schools or the spread of edu- cation in the South. So extensive were the plantations that schools could be established only with great difficulty, and the children of the poor in consequence received very little education. %J^- < 5 DOUGHOREGAN MANOR Home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton Printing was forbidden by law in Virginia in the seventeenth century. Governor Berkeley said, in 1670, " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing [presses] in Virginia and I hope we shall not have [them] these hundred years." Private teachers were employed by the planters to instruct their chil- dren. The only college in the South, William and Mary, was established in 1693. The sons of the planters were generally sent abroad to be educated. lM)r the poorer classes there were no schools. 165. General View. The life of colonial days would seem a great hardship to us. The houses had no system of steam, hot-water, or furnace heating. In the kitchen was a large fireplace, wide enough to hold logs five feet long. Here the 1 64 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY cooking was done. Only from the fireplace could the kitchen and living room be heated. There was no heat in the sleeping rooms. Churches were generally without heat, as was the case with many of the schools. It was not until 1742 that Franklin invented his open-front stove. Coal was not in use at this time ; in fact, the first hard, or anthracite, coal brought to Philadelphia arrived in 1803, and it was many years before its use became general. As matches had not been in- vented, fire was obtained by striking a flint and catch- ing the spark in tinder. At times a boy was sent to borrow a few live wood coals from a neighbor. There was no system of bringing water into a house by pipes from a general reservoir. Each house had its own well in the yard and the water was drawn up in the " old oaken bucket." Gas, kerosene, or electricity had never been used. ■- A tallow candle or whale-oil lamp furnished the unsteady light. Children frequently read by the light of the fireplace. The clothing, except for those who imported it from Europe, was homespun and deerskin. Every house had a spinning wheel and it was constantly in use. Boots were made of cow- hide. The wealthy colonists, however, were gorgeous in suits of silk and velvet, decorated with lace and gold. The wealthy social leader of those days carried a gold-headed cane and an elaborately carved snuffbox. He wore shoes with large silver COLONIAL COSTUMES OF THE SOUTH LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 165 buckles, knee breeches, and a tall beaver hat. Very many of the fruits and vegetables we now use daily were unknown in the early days. Travel was slow, dangerous, and uncomfortable as the coaches were heavy, the streams often without bridges, and the roads poor. Frequently the passengers were compelled to get out and help to draw the coach from the mud into which it had sunk. In winter travel was a serious matter as the coach generally started at three in the morning and had of course no heat in it. Surgery was pain because anesthetics had not been discovered. There were no telephones or telegraph to carry the news with the speed of lightning. The steam engine had not been in- vented, neither had the trolley nor the automobile. Most people traveled on horseback, or used boats if it was possible to go by water. In New England a common sight was the blockhouse of the village, where the colonists could seek shelter in case of Indian attack. At times the whole village was surrounded by an enclosure called a stockade. Battling with the Indians and, in a large part of the colonies, with a rigorous climate, the colonists built up hardy constitutions which stood thcni in good stead in the arduous labors of their daily life. READINGS Histories. Earle, A. M., Costu»ie in Colonial Times. Home Life in Colonial Days. Stage Coach and Tavern Days. EociLESTOX, Edward, Household History of the United States. Our First Century. Fassett.J. H., Colonial Life in New Hampshire. Fisher, S. G., J/^//, Women, and Mantiers in Colonial Days. Hart, A. B., Colonial Children. iRVixfi, The Sketch Book. Scudder, H. E., Men and Manners in America a Hundred Years Ago. Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago. Sources, Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. II, p. 173 (A Colonial Legisla- ture); p. i92(The Zenger Trial); p. 2 14 (A Town-Meeting); p. 224 (Travel in New England, 1704); p. 235 (Society in Virginia); p. 244 (Official Pro- tection of Pirates); p. 266 (A College Student's Life, 1758); p. 291 (First Slavery Protest, Germantown, 1688). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 50 (Early New York); p. 75 (Observations of Two Foreign Visitors). 1 66 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Write on the following: The manners and customs of the Dutch colonists as contrasted with the manners and customs of the southern colonists. 2. Mention five articles com- monly found in the homes of colo- nial days that are not found in the homes of to-day. 3. Draw an outline map of the United States and on it indicate where the following made explora- tions : La Salle, De Soto, Verrazano, Marquette, Hudson. 4. What reasons are there for calling Benjamin Franklin a great American ? 5. Compare the home life in a New England town during colonial times with the home life on a south- ern plantation during the same period. 6. Tell why manufacturing and commerce were not carried on more extensively in the colonies. 7. Trace the progress made in lighting houses since colonial days. 8. If you had been one of the early settlers in colonial times, in which of the colonies should you have preferred to settle ? Give reasons for your answer. 9. Of what material were the houses of the early settlers generally built.'* Describe the methods of cooking in colonial homes. Mention two articles of food in general use among the colonists. 10. What do you understand by blockhouse, stockade, spinning wheel, colonial fireplace? THE THIRTEEN COLONIES CHAPTER IX " The great event in the history of the continent . . . that prodigy of modern times, at once the wonder and the blessing of the world, is the American Revolution.'" — Wi-:i5sti;k, " Bunker Hill Address" THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 166. Reasons for Colonial Taxation. Tlie expenses of the wars between the French and EngHsh in America and Europe were so great that the national debt of England had been doubled.^ The British statesmen, therefore, decided to compel the American colonists to pay part of the cost of administer- ing the colonics. They gave as a reason that the French and Indian War had been waged to drive the French out of the valley of the Ohio River for the benefit of the colonists and therefore the colonists should bear part of the cost of defense. England decided at this time also to maintain a small stand- ing army of about ten thousand men in America to protect Canada and ward off organized Indian attacks such as that of the great chief Pontiac. It was especially to meet the expense of this new standing army that the new taxes were proposed in Parliament for the American colonies. 1 The debt increased from about seventy million pounds to nearly one hundred and forty millions. King George III came to the throne of England in 1760. He found the Whig ministers and Parliament in control of the affairs of the nation. Stubborn and self-willed to a marked degree, he wished to rule as he pleased, and to this end gathered around him men of the Tory party who would follow his bidding. The troubles in America aroused his deepest anger, and he was resolved to break the will of the colonists and bring them under his absolute control. By bribery and corruption he was able to control Parlia- ment. He was at times insane, and a regency ruled in his place. In the last years of his life his mind was entirely clouded by insanity. It is said of him that " he inflicted more profound and enduring injuries upon his country than any modern English king." .67 i68 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 167. The Navigation Acts. From the very beginning Eng- land had looked on the colonies, especially as they increased in wealth, as a good field for the raising of revenues for the British crown. She also looked to them as a means of enrich- ing her own home merchants and manufacturers by securing from the colonies cheap raw materials for manufactures and by selling to the colonies at a high price her manufactured articles. In brief, England believed at that time, as did all other European nations, that colonies existed merely for the good of the mother countr)\i With this view, and in pursuance of a policy of protection and monopoly of English commerce and industry, the Navigation Acts were enacted, the first in 1660 and others in 1663 and in 1672. The object of the Navigation Acts was to protect English shipping against for- eign competitors (especially the Dutch, who were now sending their ships to every port), to give English merchants a monopoly of the commerce with the American colonies, and to give to the manufacturers of England complete control of the trade of the American colonial market. The first of these acts provided that colonial trade could be carried on only in ships owned in England or in the colonies, that all goods must be brought directly to the British Isles from the place where they were produced, that the coasting trade should be closed to all foreign vessels. Later it was provided that certain specified or enumerated articles — tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, ginger, dyestuffs. — could be carried only to English ports, even English or colonial vessels being forbidden to bring these articles elsewhere. Articles other than these could be sent anywhere, provided they went in English or colonial vessels. 1 During the nineteenth century the view, with shght modifications, that colonies were expected to be a source of profit for the mother country again became common except for Great Britain, whose colonies have either free trade or a very low tariff. To foster the idea that " trade follows the flag," colonies under the rule of France, Germany, Holland, and the United States have been subjected to heavy import duties against foreign competition. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 169 The act of 1663 required all European goods to be first landed in an English port, and finally that of 1672 forbade the colonies to trade directly with one another unless they paid duties. Rice, molasses, copper, furs, and naval stores were added to the list of goods that must be sent only to England. 1 The colonists were forbidden (1699) to manufacture the wool 2 raised in America. It was necessary to export it to England, where it was woven into cloth and returned to the colony. It was forbidden to manufacture iron, except in its crude forms, in the colonies, and grain exported to England was heavily taxed to aid the British farmer. Although the Navigation Laws had been enacted a century before this time, they had seldom been enforced. In 1761 the British decided to strictly enforce them and thereby obtain greater revenue. 168. Writs of Assistance. To enforce the acts, British cus- toms officials asked the Superior Court of Massachusetts for permission to use writs of assistance.'^ The application for these writs aroused the most intense excitement. James Otis was the advocate general, and it was his duty as an officer of the crown to plead in favor of them. Rather than do so he resigned, and for five years opposed the granting of them. "' Every one with this writ may be a tyrant," 1 Of all the acts in restraint of colonial trade and activity one of the most objectionable to the colonists was the Molasses and Sugar Act of 1733. This act was passed solely to aid the British planters in the West Indian sugar islands and placed so heavy an import duty on molasses and sugar that the trade between the colonies and the French, Spanish, and Dutch West Indies would have been destroyed if it had been enforced. It was against the Molasses Act that the first outspoken resistance to Great Britain, a forerunner of the Revolution, developed. 2 It was forbidden to export any machinery or patterns of machinery from England. It was intended that this law would aid in preventing the growth of manufactures in America. 8 A writ of assistance was a general search warrant to enter any house or to board any ship and search for smuggled goods. Its great dangers lav in the fact that the officer could make his search at any time, entering by force, if necessary, without specifying previously what goods he was searching for. 70 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY he thundered. 1 In spite of the eloquence of Otis the writs were granted. The colonists knew no way of resisting them, as they were perfectly legal ; but the spirit of revolution was now beginning to show itself, and it broke out in full vigor when the ministry of England decided to lay a direct tax on the colonies and secure revenue to pay one third of the cost of maintaining the new standing army in America. 169. The Stamp Act, 1765. This direct tax was called the Stamp Act. It provided that legal paper, licenses, written contracts, advertisements, and newspapers must bear stamps. The cost of these stamps ranged from one cent to fifty dollars ^ according to the value of the paper to which they were attached. One of the provisions of the act was that all offenses against it might be tried in any part of the the scene of the offense, and in an a jury. This was in effect a direct ^r•SHIlLI.lLS■(SS/ REVENUE STAMP USED IN THE COLONIES kingdom instead of at admiralty court without blow at the right of trial by jury. The Stamp Act was passed in the British Parliament with- out any noteworthy opposition ; but when the intense feeling of the colonies was known, their part was taken by several 1 " Then and there was the first scene of the first act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Independence was born. In fifteen years, namely in 1776, he grew to manhood and declared himself free." — John Adams, " Works," Vol. X, p. 247 2 It was estimated that the Stamp Act would provide about five hundred thousand dollars a year in revenue. As a rule the taxes in America were less than those levied in England at this period. Franklin and other colonial agents were in England at this time and did not realize the storm the Stamp Act would arouse in the colonies. The English ministry was willing to change the plan of a stamp tax if any other plan of raising revenue would be more agreeable to the colonies. The plan was laid over for a year, but no other plan was proposed by the colonial agents, and the Stamp Act was thereupon passed. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 171 prominent statesmen, including Pitt, Barre, and Edmund Burke. The opposition to the act in England was led by the Whigs and the merchants. Those who sustained the act were the Tories, the friends of the king, who declared that " obedience first and conciliation afterwards " must be the ]X)licy of Parliament. 170. Opposition to the Stamp Act. The passage of the Stamp Act aroused the utmost indignation in America.^ It was something almost undreamed of in American history. As each colony elected its own assembly or legislature, this as- sembly, according to the colonial idea, was the only power that could levy taxes on the people. Added to this was the fact that the colo- nies were already paying a heavy share of taxation to Great Britain. Virginia was the first colony to raise its voice in pro- test. A young lawyer, Patrick Henry,^ presented the following resolutions : Resolved, That the taxation of the people by themselves or by persons chosen by themselves to represent them, who can only know what taxes the people are able to bear, ... is the distinguishing characteristic of British freedom. WILLIA.M HITT ^ In his speech Pitt said : " The gentleman tells us that .America is obsti- nate, America is almost in open rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted." Pitt denied the right of Parliament to pass the law. Burke acknowledged the right, but declared it was not expedient to do so. William Pitt, who became prime minister in 1783, was the second son of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (see sect. 139). - In Wirt's " Life of Patrick Henry "we read : " It was in the midst of this magnificent debate that he exclaimed in a voice of thunder, ' Csesar had his Brutus ; Charles the First, his Cromwell ; and George the Third [' Treason I ' cried the Speaker. ' Treason ! ' ' Treason ! ' echoed from every part of the house] — may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it.'" 172 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Resolved, therefore, That the general assembly of this colony has the only and sole exclusive right and power to levy taxes upon the inhabitants of this colony. In Boston Samuel Adams, who has been sometimes called the Father of the Revolution, attacked the measure at a meet- ing in the famous old Fanueil Hall, the Cradle of Liberty. 171. The Stamp Act Congress, 1765. At the suggestion of the General Court of Massachusetts a letter was sent (June 8, 1765) to all the colonies calling for a congress. In answer to this letter delegates from nine of the colonies met in New York, October 7, 1765, and wrote a declaration of rights and grievances, which was sent to the king and to both of the houses of Parliamerit in England.^ The declaration said, among other things, that as the colonists had no representation in Parliament, only their own representative colonial assemblies could impose taxation and that the right of trial, by jury could not lawfully be denied. ^ The struggle had now begun, and the war cry was, " Taxation without representation is tyranny." 1 The colonists might have had a higher opinion of Parliament did they not know that, owing to the unjust system of the franchise through property requirements and " pocket boroughs," the majority of the House of Commons was elected by only fifteen thousand voters ; in fact, one hundred and fifty- four persons selected three hundred and seven members. Seats in Parliament were openly bought and sold like merchandise. " It is important to remember that the colonists did not ask to be repre- sented in Parliament, but merely demanded that any money needed by England from them should be voted by their own colonial assemblies. PATRICK HENRY THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 173 On the first of November, the day on which the act was to go into effect, the colonists showed their violent opposition by forming a club called the Sons of Liberty. The members of this society pledged themselves to wear no goods made in England. They went about the streets mobbing and burning in effigy the officers and destroying the stamp offices to the cry of " Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " The colonists agreed not to buy, sell, or use the articles that had been stamped and to cease using English goods. To the merchants of London the loss of their colonial trade meant dire disaster, as one third of the foreign trade of England was with the American colonies. They gladly joined with the colonists for the repeal of the law. So great was their influence that the law was repealed March 18, 1766, "an event," says Burke, "" that caused more universal joy throughout the British Dominion than perhaps any other that can be remembered." 172. The Townshend Acts, 1767. Although the Stamp Act was repealed, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act,i assert- ing its right in all cases to tax the American colonies. The next year, 1767, as if to enforce this right, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts,^ three in number : the first prohibited the New York legislature from passing any more laws until it had made provision for furnishing barracks and supplies to the royal troops in the city ; the second enforced more strictly the laws relating to trade by establishing a Board of Commis- sioners of the Customs ; the third placed taxes or import 1 The Act declares that Parliament '' had, hath, and of right ought to have full power and authority to make laws and statutes of sufficient force and validity to bind the colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown of Great Britain in all cases whatsoever." It also declared that all resolutions, votes, orders, and proceedings denying this right of Parliament are null and void. 2 These acts received their name from Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer. William Pitt was now Earl of Chatham, but he had to retire as prime minister because of illness. Townshend died in 1767. before all the acts that bear his name became laws, and his place was taken by Lord North, a favorite of the king. 174 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY duties on glass, paper, tea, lead, and painters' colors. ^ This was taxation without representation again, and once more the colonists rebelled. Merchants refused to import English goods. British dealers found their orders canceled and their vessels returning with the goods sent to America. The legislature of Massachusetts sent (February ii, 1768) a circular letter to the other colonies, inviting them to a conference to oppose the new taxes. At the command of the king. Governor Bernard ordered the legislature of Massachusetts to recall the letter. Upon its refusal to do so the legislature was dissolved. The other colo- nial legislatures were ordered by their governors to ignore the letter, and upon their refusal to do so they were also dissolved. 173. The Boston Massacre, 1770. In October, 1768, two regiments of English troops arrived in Boston to enforce the new tax laws. The people resented the presence of the troops. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a quarrel arose, a large throng gathered, and the soldiers fired on the people. They killed four and wounded seven ^ of the citizens, two of whom died from their wounds.'^ The following day there was an im- mense gathering of the people in the Old South Meeting House,* 1 From the money thus raised governor, judges, and crown attorneys were to be paid instead of by the colonial assemblies, as had been the custom. This would render these officials independent of the colonial legislatures ; an army was to be supported, and, in addition, pensions were to be paid if any money was left. The people saw in this an attempt on the part of the British king to compel the colonists to pay the salaries of men who might be hostile to them and might work solely for the benefit of the king. Another cause of discontent was the belief that the English government intended to establish a Bishop of the Church of England in America and to compel all the colonists to pay tithes for the support of that church. - Among those killed was Crispus Attucks, a mulatto. A monument to him and his companions who fell stands on Boston Common. ^ The soldiers were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy. All were acquitted except two, who received slight punishment. * They had first gathered in Faneuil Hall. This famous building was built in 1740 by Peter Faneuil, a merchant, as a market house for the town. It con- tains a spacious hall and has always been called the Cradle of Liberty because of the numerous meetings held there to protest against the acts of Great Britain. THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLLJTION 75 and Samuel Adams demanded the removal of the troops. That evening they were transferred to an island in the harbor. The Boston Massacre, as it was called, aroused the whole country. The Revolution was rapidly approaching. THK liOSTON MASSACRE From Paul Revere's engraving 174. The North Carolina Regulators, 1771. The Westward Movement. In no section was the iron hand of British officials more heavily felt than in the upper counties of North Carolina. Here the Irish and Scotch farmers, who comprised the greater part of the population, arose in revolt against Tryon, the royal governor. Under the name of " Regulators " they fought at Alamance a bloody battle with the colonial militia. The Regu- lators were badlv defeated. 176 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY In disgust at the conditions that had existed in the southern colonies, and which could not be remedied under royal rule, large numbers of settlers had crossed the Allegheny Mountains. They were leaders in the great Westward movement that later settled the Ohio and Mississippi valleys.^ 175. Burning of the Gaspee, 1772. A daring event occurred in 1772 which showed still further the independent spirit of the colonists. To enforce the revenue laws an eight-gun schooner, the Gaspee, was stationed in Narragansett Bay, The commander overhauled vessels and acted in so tyrannical a manner that the colonists resolved to take a decisive step. In June, 1772, the Gaspcc, while chasing an American ship, ran aground. On the following night she was surrounded by a party of disguised men in eight boats and burned to the water's edge. Although a large reward was offered for the arrest of the guilty persons, they were never discovered. 176. Repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston Tea Party. On the day of the Boston Massacre a bill was introduced into the British Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts, except the tax of six cents a pound on tea. This was retained that the right of Parliament to impose taxes could be maintained. Although it was a small tax,^ the principle involved was the point at issue. If Parliament could legally tax tea, it could also levy any taxes it saw fit.'^ 1 These early settlers had spread rapidly into the territory along the Ohio. As a result, at the Treaty of Paris of 1763 the United States received all the territory as far as the Mississippi River, instead of to the Alleghenies as might have been the case had not these settlements been made. 2 This tax was so small that the royal treasury would not have received more than fifteen hundred dollars a year. ^ " It is doing nothing to repeal a few scraps of paper or pieces of parch- ment called'' Acts of Parliament,'" said William Pitt, "but our business is to repeal the ill-will and the animosity unfortunately now subsisting between Great Britain and North America." Pitt, however, was absolutely opposed to anything that tended toward indepe?ide?ice for the colonies. In fact, his last speech in the House of Lords (April 7, 1778) was an earnest protest against American independence, which, he said, " would bring about the dismember- ment of this ancient and most noble monarchy." THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 177 The colonists therefore refused to buy or use the tea, even though under the new law it was cheaper in America than in England. Ships full of tea were sent to Charleston, Philadel- phia, Boston, New York, and other ports. The people of Philadelphia and New York would nor allow the vessels to land and sent them back. In Annapolis the Peggy Stczvaj't, loaded with tea, was burned. In Boston the British officers would not allow the vessels to be sent back. On the night of December 16, 1773, a party of men, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, ripped open three hundred and forty-two chests, worth about ninety thousand dollars, and spilled the tea into the harbor. This was a direct affront to the king, and Parliament at once resolved to punish Massachusetts. This was done by passing the so-called Five Intolerable Acts, 177. The Five Intolerable Acts, 1774. The first act, called the Boston Port Bill, ordered the port of Boston to be closed until the people had paid for the destroyed tea. The customhouse was removed to Marblehead.^ and the seat of government to Salem. The second act changed the charter of Massachusetts and deprived the people of practically all their political rights. It provided for a military governor and forbade town meetings without permission of the governor, except for the purpose of electing officials. The third act provided that an\- magistrate, soldier, or officer of the crown arrested for murder should be tried in England. The fourth act made it legal to quarter troops on the people .- ' Instead of seeking profit by the affliction of Boston, .Salem and Marble- head generously offered their wharves to Boston merchants. South Carolina sent rice, and New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut sent either supplies or money. * That is, the colonies where soldiers were stationed were required to furnish them not only with shelter but also with firewood, drink, bedding, soap, and candles. 178 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The fifth act arranged a new province of Quebec ^ and estab- Hshed the old French laws in the territory. This prevented all representative government. It granted, however, freedom of worship to the Catholics in the province. This act included all that part of Canada which had been ceded by the French. It also included the Northwest Territory ; that is, the land west of the Alleghenies to the Mississippi and north of the Ohio. This territory to-day embraces practically all the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota. (See sect. 145.) 178. The First Continental Congress, 1774. The other colonies came to the assistance of Massachusetts. Led by Patrick Henry, ^ Virginia passed a resolution ordering the day on which the Boston Port Bill was to go into force to be a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer.^ When the governor heard of this resolution he dissolved the legislature. Committees of Correspondence were now named to write to the other colonies, urging the necessity of another congress. All the colonies except Georgia approved, and September 5, 1774, fifty-five delegates met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia. TJiis was the First Continental Congress. This Congress presented a declaration of the rights of the colonists and a list of their grievances. It declared that as they could not properly be represented in Parliament, it was only right that their own provincial assemblies should make all local laws and lay all taxes. It was, they declared, unlawful for Great Britain to tax the people without their consent, to try persons without a jury, to dissolve the legislative assemblies, to refuse the right to hold 1 The Quebec Act was really passed witfiout reference to the action of the colonies. As it extended the province of Quebec southward to the Ohio, the colonies of Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts claimed it violated their charters, which gave them the territory from sea to sea. 2 In his famous speech, made in the Virginia Convention,' Patrick Henry, in a burst of patriotic fervor, exclaimed : " There is no longer any room for hope. We must fight. I repeat it, sir ; we must fight." ^ The other colonies also observed this date as a day of fasting. The bells in Philadelphia were muffled and tolled, and similar evidence of intense feeling was shown in other places. / ■''' ^LaN\V X( -f \Tk\]?^ "vis ^ I -*« XHF. REVOLUTION THE NEW ENGLAND STATES CiLE OF MILES 10 20 40 THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 179 public meetings, ^nd to quarter troops on the people in time of peace. An address was issued to the people of Great Britain and to the English king. The delegates agreed not to trade with England until the objectionable laws were repealed. It was voted to meet again on May 10, 1775, and take action on the answer of the king to their petitions. 179. Capture of Fort William and Mary, 1774. One of the delegates to the First Continental Congress was John Sullivan of New Hampshire. Learning from Paul Revere (December i 3, 1774) that a force was coming to seize the gunpowder and sup- plies in Fort William and Mary at Newcastle, New Hampshire, he assembled a company and surprised the fort, hauled down the flag, and carried off the supplies. These supplies were later sent to Bunker Hill just in time for use by the patriots in that battle. "" J^'or the first time in American history, the British flag was torn down in armed rebellion." 180. The Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. General Gage, seeing the warlike feeling of the people, began to erect fortifications around Boston. The colonists collected ammunition and trained soldiers. Twenty thousand " minute men," citizens ready for duty at a minute's notice, were enrolled. Cieneral Gage heard of these preparations, and as he learned that a large quantity of military supplies had been gathered at Concord, sent a force of eight hundred regulars to seize these supplies. They were ordered to go by way of Lexington and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who were visiting there. The scheme was discovered, and by the aid of lanterns hung in the belfry of the Old North Church Paul Revere learned of the route of the troops. He rode furiously forward, warning the inhabitants and also Adams and Hancock, who fled. When the British troops reached Lexington in the early morning (April 19, 1775), they saw the minute men drawn up on the Common to oppose them. " Disperse, you rebels ! " shouted Pitcairn, the British com- mander, and on their refusal to do so, he ordered his soldiers i8o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY to fire. Eight of the minute men fell dead and ten were wounded. From Lexington the British marched to Concord, where they again met the minute men, who " fired the shot heard round the world." 1 The English were repulsed. After destroying what few military stores they could find, they began the retreat to Boston. But the journey was a diffi- cult one. On every side the minute men flocked in and poured a deadly fire on the retreating British. Man after man fell from the ranks and had not a fresh body of twelve hundred men met them at Lexington, the entire command would probably have been destroyed. 181. Ethan Allen at Ticon- deroga, May lo, 1775. On the shores of Lake Cham- plain, guarding the route to Canada, were two forts, Ti- conderoga and Crown Point. They were well supplied with all kinds of military stores, but were feebly garrisoned. Ethan Allen, with a band of vigorous youths called the Green Moun- tain Boys, resolved to surprise and capture the forts. On the night of May 9 he crossed Lake Champlain in the darkness with eighty-three followers, among them being Benedict Arnold. OLD NORTH CHURCH IN BOSTON 1 Emerson has immortalized this battle by his famous lines " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood. And fired the shot heard round the world." THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION iSi At daybreak he appeared before the fort, rushed into the quarters of the commandant, and demanded the surrender of the fort. " In whose name? " asked the bewildered commandant. " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " shouted Allen. The fort surrendered, and two days later Crown Point, with its immense military supplies, fell. The patriots now controlled Lake Champlain and Lake George and the route between New York and Canada. 182. Second Continental Con- gress, 1775. George Washing- ton, Commander in Chief. The Second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, May 10, 1775, the day of the surrender of Ticonderoga, For the next six years it was the central gov- erning body of the nation.^ The most important act per- formed by this Congress was the appointment (June 15, I775), i-ni.w .aluc.n by unanimous vote, of George Washington as commander in chief of the Continental army. 183. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. In the mean- time stirring events were taking place in Boston. General Gage, the British commander, had been joined by reenforcements and now had ten thousand men. He therefore decided to seize Bunker Hill, which overlooked the harbor and his camps. The Americans under Prescott also recognized the value of the position, and on the night of June 16 quietly seized the \ WM w-^ ~ V . ^0^-- "^^^^^ '* '. H^ ^^ ^7'^''^!. I ^\^i j| \ 'A Ml; '' ^! • While the First Continental Congress was merely an advisory body, the Second Continental Congress gradually took to itself the powers of sovereignty. It assumed the defense of the colonies, raised armies, directed foreign affairs, and issued money for the troops. ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY hill and threw up intrenchments. When the surprised British saw the heights occupied by colonial troops, they at once pre- pared to assault them. The British column moved up the hill. As the Americans had very little powder they were ordered not to fire till they saw the whites of the eyes of the enemy. They waited, and at the signal, in a blaze of musketry, the Americans with deadly aim swept the British line away. A second line came up and under the deadly aim of the colonists was cut to pieces. A third time the British charged, and as the Americans had no powder left they were compelled to withdraw. The British loss was more than one thousand, the American less than half that number. While the Americans were compelled to retreat, the battle was of the greatest benefit to them, for it showed the w6rld that the colonists could and would fight to the end for their liberties. 184. Expedition against Quebec, 1775. Washington soon arrived in Cambridge and took command of the army, which numbered about sixteen thousand men. It was decided to send an expedition against Quebec, and the command was given to Richard Montgomery. He was ordered to march from Ticonderoga and, after capturing Montreal, to move eastward against Quebec. Another force, under Bene- dict Arnold, was sent through Maine to join Montgomery. Arnold's soldiers suffered fearful hardships in the Maine woods, but he and his brave men pushed onward. At last they reached Quebec, where Montgomery, who had taken Montreal, met them. On December 31, 1775, they attacked the strongest fortification in America and would, perhaps, have captured the city had not the brave Montgomery fallen mortally wounded. BUNKER HILL MONUMENT ON THE WAV TO THE FRONT IN /O THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLUTION 183 The expedition failecV and the soldiers returned in the follow- ing spring to Crown Point. It had important results, however. It drew to Canada soldiers that Howe had expected, and divided his troops. This prevented him from opening his campaign against New York until August, 1776. Congress now determined to win the Canadians if possible from the British allegiance, and to that end resolved {Feb- ruary 15, 1776) to send to Canada an embassy composed of Benjamin Frank- lin, Samuel Chase, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Rev- erend John Carroll, later the first Catho- lic Bishop in Amer- ica. The mission was not successful, for the bitter at- tacks made upon the Quebec Act and the intolerant laws of the colonies respecting religion led the Canadians to expect fairer treatment from England than from the American colonists. 185. The Evacuation of Boston, March 17, 1776. Victory at Fort Moultrie. Washington, while drilling his raw troops, was tightening the chain of soldiery around Boston. Seeing the advantage of holding Dorchester Heights, which over- looked the city, he suddenly seized the hill (March 4, 1776) and during the darkness of night threw up earthworks. In the morning the British saw the Americans above them, with their cannon firmly planted to sweep their camp as well as their ships. Fearing to attack the intrenched colonists, they sailed away March 17, with all their troops, to Halifax. They took 1 Richard Montgomery was born in Ireland, December 2, 1736. A tablet on the rocks at Quebec marks the spot where he fell. SIEGE OF BOSTON 1 84 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY with them nine hundred Loyalists, or Tories/ a name given to those who preferred to remain subject to the king of England. " It was," says Edmund Burke, " more like the departure of a people than the retreat of an army." Three months later the English fleet, under Sir Henry Clinton, appeared off Charleston harbor, where Colonel Moultrie, with his brave troops, had built a fortress of pal- metto logs on Sullivan's Island. The British at- tacked with land forces, while their ships opened a heavy fire on the fort (June 28, 1776). The British troops were cut to pieces, while their vessels were so badly damaged that only one of the whole fleet escaped unharmed. While the battle was raging, the flag shaft was broken and fell outside the breastworks. Sergeant Jasper leaped over the walls and, amid the flying bullets, planted the flag of South Carolina again upon the ramparts. The fort was now named Fort Moultrie in honor of its brave commander. ^ The Loyalists maintained that the grievances of the colonists were not sufficient to cause a separation from Great Britain. They were most numerous in New York and Pennsylvania and comprised large numbers of the aristoc- racy or wealthy citizens and the professional classes. After the Declaration of Independence those who remained Loyalists were generally looked upon as traitors, and severe laws in all the states were enacted to imprison them and confiscate their property. Many, therefore, fled to Nova Scotia and England. The Loyalists were frequently called Tories, because that was the party in England that supported the king. SERGEANT JASPER SAVES THE FLAG THE PERIOD OF J'llE REVULL' ri(JN 185 Clinton placed his men on transports and sailed with them back to New York, where he was welcomed by the Tories. 186. Declaration of Independence. In the meantime Con- gress saw that an absolute separation from Great Britain was inevitable,^ and steps were now taken to that end. Ameri- can ports were opened for free trade with all nations except Great Britain. Measures were at once taken to disarm the Loyalists. On May 15, 1776, Congress decided to suppress every kind of authority under the crown, and the colonies were asked to make for themselves new state governments. Nine states at once drew up new constitutions."-^ On June 7 Richard Henr)' Lee offered in Congress this resolution : " Rcsolird, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- pendent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown ; and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The motion was seconded by John Adams, and a committee of five, with Thomas Jefferson as chairman, was appointed to ^ A pamphlet by Thomas Paine, called " Common .Sense," was issued (Janu- ary, 1776) with the approval of P'ranklin, Samuel Adams, and Dr. Benjamin Rush. This pamphlet boldly declared that the time had come for a separation from Great Britain. The writer maintained that it was absurd for a vast continent like America to be ruled by a little island three thousand miles away. He boldly attacked even the idea of rule by kings. " Common Sense " was " a firebrand," says Van Tyne (" American Revolution," p. 61), "which set aflame the ready political material in America. It said what many men were thinking but had no words to express." Over one hundred thousand copies were sold, and it paved the way for the Declaration of Independence. - With few exceptions each of these new state constitutions had as a pre- amble a " bill of rights," which declared that the government established under it could not refuse freedom of speech, right of trial by jury, or freedom of worship. Provision was made for a governor, legislature, and judges. Only taxpayers or property holders could vote, and, contrary to the spirit of the " bill of rights " itself, belief in certain religious faiths would prevent a man from either voting or holding office. This is especially true in regard to the Catholics, who could not. for instance, be members of the House of Repre- sentatives in \ew Hampshire, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, or Georgia. 1 86 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY ^.^^T draw up the declaration. ^ Action was postponed for three weeks to learn the opinion of the colonies. On July 2 it was carried by the vote of all the states except New York. It received, therefore, the votes of twelve states. On July 4 the Declaration of Independence, the immortal document written by Jefferson, was adopted by Congress, and the colonists "with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence " pledged to each other their lives, fortunes, and sacred honor.^ The colo- nies, now the United States of America, were declared to be absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown. The joy of the people at the news of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence was unbounded. It was read to Washington's army and in all the cities and towns throughout the colonies. Bells were rung and bonfires lighted ; in Philadelphia the royal arms in the room where Congress was sitting were cast out, and the great CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON ^ The five members were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Jefferson wrote the entire Declaration, and it was adopted virtually as he presented it except a clause denouncing the slave trade. The Declaration was adopted July 4, 1776, but it was not signed until almost a month later (August 2). '■^ One of the signers was Charles Carroll from Maryland. The story that someone remarked that there were many Carrolls in Maryland and that he added the words "of Carrollton" that he might bear the full responsibility of his act has no historic basis, as that was his usual way of signing his name. Charles Carroll was born in Annapolis, September 19, 1737, and was educated abroad. On his return to this country he took up the fight against the taxation of the people for the Church of England. In 1776 he represented Maryland in the Continental Congress. He was the last surviving signer of the Declara- tion of Independence. He died in Baltimore, November 14, 1832. INDEHKNIJEXCK HALL 187 188 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY bell rang forth joyfully ; in New York the gilded leaden statue of George III which stood on Bowling Green was pulled down and melted into bullets.^ 187. The Articles of Confederation. The Continental Con- gress in jthe meantime had set to work to draw up a form of government which would join together all the new states in a firm bond of union. This new form of government was proposed in June, 1776, and was called the Articles of Confederation. So great was the opposition to certain features of the Articles that they were not finally ratified until 1781. The Continental Congress in the meantime carried on the war merely by the common consent of the various states. 188. Plan of the British. Battle of Long Island, August 27, 1776. At the departure of the British from Boston, Washington believed they intended to strike New York, capture the Hud- son, and thus cut off New England from the other colonies. Washington was right in his judgment, for early in July, 1776, a few days after the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed. General Howe arrived with twenty-five thousand men and encamped on Staten Island. His brother, Lord Howe, who had been made admiral by the British government, arrived on July 12. General Putnam, with nine thousand Americans, was intrenched on Brooklyn Heights, a point which overlooked and commanded New York City. General 1 The following digest has been given for the causes of the Revolutionary War : " I. The independent spirit of the colonists. a. They believed in the right to think as they pleased. /'. They had sacrificed much for the sake of freedom. c. They had founded the colonies unassisted. II. The military spirit aroused by the French and Indian War. a. Many had been trained to fight by British officers. b. The colonists found they were as brave as, and were better marks- men than, the regular British soldiers. III. British oppression. a. The Navigation Acts. b. The Stamp Act. c. The tea tax." THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 189 Sullivan guarded, with four thousand men, the approaches to the Heights, Lord Howe attacked the American forces, and the battle of Long Island was fiercely fought* (August 27, 1776). The Americans, outnumbered by the British five to one, were defeated with heavy loss, General Sullivan being taken prisoner. The British, aided by their war vessels, now endeavored to hem in the Americans by land and sea. The position of the patriots was indeed perilous, when fortunately a heavy fog fell over Long Island and the waters of the harbor. Washington took advantage of it and with the utmost secrecy removed his troops to the mainland of New York City.^ 189. Howe's Offer of Peace. Lord Howe now endeavored to establish peace between the new states and England. He bore, he said, both the sword and the olive branch. He sent a letter to General Washington, addressed to George Washington, Esq., which Washington refused to receive, as Lord Howe gave him no official military title. Howe, thereupon, asked Congress to send a committee to treat of peace with him. Adams, Rutledge, and Franklin were sent as the committee. Howe promised full redress for all grievances and full pardon for all offenses if the states would return to their former allegiance to Great Britain. The request was refused by the committee. The L^nited States was free, they declared, and resolved to remain so. 190. The British occupy New York. Washington retreats Northward. In a few days the British crossed over from Long Island '-^ to the city of New York and occupied it. Washington had taken a position at Harlem Heights, where Howe attacked him (September 16, 1776) but was repulsed. 1 At the first embarkation of the American troops the wife of a Tory sent her negro servant to inform the British. He met a German sentinel who could not understand him and locked him up as a suspicious character. In the morn- ing a British officer examined him, and hearing his story, rushed off to examine the American outposts. The army had disappeared, and the last boats were then halfway across to New York. - To learn the plans of the British, Captain Nathan Hale went into their lines. He was recognized and hanged as a spy. His last words were, " I only regret I have but one life to lose for mv country." IQO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Hoping to attack Washington in a less advantageous posi- tion, Howe moved into Westchester and again attacked the patriots at White Plains (October 28, 1776), gaining a slight victory. Washington, thereupon, fell back to the intrenched camp at Northcastle and later entered New Jersey, THE WAR IN NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, AND NEW JERSEY Howe now turned his attention to Fort Washington, which commanded the Hudson River. Washington had advised the abandonment of the fort to save its military stores and the three thousand troops in its garrison. General Greene, how- ever, who was in command, believed he could hold it success- fully. On November 16 the British attacked and took it after a heroic resistance on the part of the patriots, who lost as prisoners almost the entire garrison. 191. Battle of Lake Champlain. In the meantime the British under Carleton were moving with their army and boats from THE KEVOLUTION THE MIDDLE STATES SCALE OF MILES THE PERK)]) OE THE REVOLUTION 191 Canada. Benedict Arnold fell back with his forces as Carleton drove him southward. Reaching Lake Champlain, Arnold hastily constructed eighteen boats and attacked (October 1 1 , 1776) Carleton's fleet off Valcour Island. Though his boats were finally lost, Arnold delayed Carleton's progress and reached Ticonderoga in safety. When Carleton arrived before the fort, he doubted his ability to take it and returned to Canada. ^ 192. Retreat across New Jersey. At the capture of Fort Washington, Cicncral Washington was at Pfackensack on the west side of the Hudson with seven thousand men. General Charles Lee, with an equal number of men, was on the east side of the Hudson at Northcastle. Washington ordered Lee to cross the river, join forces with him, and face the enemy with the full strength of the army. Lee, hoping by a brilliant stroke to be raised to the supreme command, disobeyed and marched his troops slowly to Morristown. Washington was therefore compelled to retreat through New Jersey and to cross the Delaware. Cornwallis, in full pursuit, reached this river as the Americans landed on the opposite side. Not a boat could be found to transport the British troops, Washington having captured every boat for seventy miles up and down the river. With keen disappoint- ment Cornwallis was compelled to encamp until he could cross the river on the ice. In the meantime General Lee had been captured by the British. General Sullivan assumed command of the troops at Morristown and immediately pushed on to join Washington. 193. Battle of Trenton, December 25, 1776. Washington now determined to strike a decisive bk)w. Three regiments of Hessians under Colonel Rail were stationed at Trenton. ^ " This strange conduct delayed the campaign of the following year, and thus Arnold's skill and wonderful energy were rewarded. But for this delay Burgoyne would have succeeded, there would have been no surrender at Sara- toga, and there probably would have been no F"rench alliance. This seemingly petty conflict set going vast forces which soon involved in war half the civilized nations of the world." — Van Tyne, " American Revolution," p. iiS 192 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY On Christmas night, while the Hessians^ were celebrating the holiday, Washington crossed the Delaware, with two thou- sand five hundred men, through the floating ice. It was bitterly cold, and a blinding snowstorm was raging. After innumerable difficulties he reached the east bank and marched nine miles to Trenton, where he fell upon the Hessians and completely routed them. One thousand men and thirty-two pfficers were taken prisoners. Colonel Rail was mortally wounded. The Americans lost only four men. With his prisoners and military stores Washington now recrossed' the Delaware. 194. Robert Morris's Great Aid. Distress of the Troops. The brilliant victory at Trenton aroused new courage in the hearts of all the patriots. The American troops now saw the people everywhere pulling down the red rags which had been fastened to their doors to secure British good will and pro- tection. Hessians were marched through the streets of Phila- delphia to convince the people of the victory, and a Hessian flag was sent to Congress at Baltimore. The rejoicings of the people were unbounded. Congress bestowed on Washington (December 27) almost unlimited military power for a period of six months, that he might raise and maintain a larger army. This was indeed necessary, for new dangers now beset the patriot army. The enlistments of many of the regiments were expiring, and they desired to return home. They had been without suitable clothing for months, while the paper money was constantly falling in value, till it becarri'e practically worthless. Washington saw it was necessary to have " hard " money. He wrote to his friend Robert Morris in Philadelphia to help him, — "If you could possibly collect a sum, if it were but one hundred and fifty pounds, it would be of service." 1 The king of England, not being able to secure troops in his own country to wage war in America, sought to purchase them in Europe. He asked Russia to sell him twenty thousand men, but Russia declined. At length the prince of Hesse-Cassel and other German princes sold him thirty thousand troops. Since that time the word Hessian has been a term of contempt. Nothing enraged the Americans more against George III than this action. THE PERIOD ()!• THE REVOLUTION 193 On New Year's morning Morris went from door to door in Philadelphia, waking up his friends and asking for money. By noon he had raised fifty thousand dollars, which he sent to Washington. The soldiers reenlisted, and the name of Robert Morris deserves a place among the saviors of his country. 195. Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777. Cornwallis, hearing of the disaster at Trenton, now rushed on with eight thousand men to attack Washington, who had again crossed the Delaware. The Americans had taken a position near Trenton on the south bank of a small stream — the Assanpink — that flowed into the Delaware. Cornwallis arrived late in the day and postponed his attack until the next morning. With the Delaware full of floating ice, Washington's retreat was cut off and his position was extremely dangerous. Corn- wallis, viewing the situation, exclaimed with jov, "At last we have run down the old fox and we will bag him in the morn- ing." But Washington did not intend to be caught. While his men were apparently throwing up intrenchments, and the camp fires were burning brightly, Washington slipped up the little creek, passed behind Cornwallis, and fell on his rear guard at Princeton. The roar of cannon in his rear awoke Cornwallis to his danger. The British were defeated (January 3, 1777). Washington took a strong position at Morristown Heights, and as this threatened his line of supplies, Cornwallis ordered a general retreat of the British to New York, Philadelphia was safe, and Washington spent the winter un- disturbed at Morristown. The brilliant military skill shown by Washington excited the greatest admiration in Europe. Many nations, especially the P^rench, now desired to give secret or open aid to the struggling patriots. A young nobleman of France, Marquis de Lafayette, seeking in vain to get help from his country, secretly fitted out a ship at his own expense and came to America to join the forces of Washington without pay. His historic words were, " When first I heard of American independence mv heart was enlisted ! " 194 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY At this time a number of German and Polish officers arrived to aid the patriot cause ; among them were Baron de Kalb,^ Baron von Steuben,^ Pulaski/^ and Kosciuszko.^ Von Steuben rendered very valuable service in drilling the American troops. 196. The British Plan of Campaign. The British plan of campaign for 1777 was as follows : 1. General Howe was to seize the city of Philadelphia, the capital of the "rebel govern- ment," and thereafter move northward to join his forces with those of General Burgoyne. 2. General Burgoyne, with nine thousand men, was to come down from Canada, open- ing the route to the Hudson, thus completely cutting off PULASKI New England from the other colonies. 3. Colonel St. Leger, with two thousand men, was ordered to ascend the St. Lawrence to Oswego and then, coming down the Mohawk valley, to take Fort Stanwix with the aid of the Iroquois Indians and the Tories. When this had been done, he was expected to march eastward and join Burgoyne at Albany. 1 Ue Kalb was born in Germany and later served in the French army. Coming to America in 1777, he was appointed a major general by Congress, and was killed, fighting bravely, in the battle of Camden. - Von Steuben was born in Prussia. At the close of the Revolutionary War he received from Congress a large grant of land in New York and remained in America until his death (1794). 2 Casimir Tulaski was born in Poland. He served on Washington's staff and fought bravely at Brandywine and Germantown. While in command of the celebrated Pulaski's legion he fell, gallantly fighting, before Savannah in 1779. * Thaddeus Kosciuszko was a native of Poland and was an engineer of great skill. He erected the fortifications of West Point. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 195 197. Battle of Brandywine. To carry out his part of the cam- paign, Howe intended to march across New Jersey and, captur- ing Philadelphia, turn northward to aid Burgoyne. Washington prevented this movement, and Howe decided to go by water to Philadelphia. On July 23, with eighteen thf)usand men, he sailed from New York and a week later appeared off the entrance to Delaware Bay. Signal fires along the coast told the patriots the position of the fleet. Washington marched quickly south with eleven thousand troops. Howe did not sail up Dela- ware Bay, but put again to sea and appeared next at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. Washington marched to Wilmington (Delaware), and Howe, landing his troops, hurried to meet him. They met at Chadd's Ford on the Brandywine River (September 11, 1777). The Americans were defeated and driven back. 198. Howe takes Philadelphia. Battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777. Howe marched on Philadelphia, which he entered two weeks later. Washington, although driven back, had succeeded in delaying Howe so long that cooperation with Burgoyne was impossible. Washington gave the British no peace. A short time later (October 4, 1777) he made an attack on their camp at Germantown, a suburb of the city of Phila- delphia. In a dense fog two of our divisions fired at each other. In consequence Washington was defeated and went into winter quarters at \'alley P'orge.^ General Howe went into winter quarters at Philadelphia. 1 The sufferings of the American army at \'al!ey Forge were indescribable. The soldiers in their rude huts were exposed to the severe winter weather and were compelled, many of them, to sleep on the frozen earth. They were without suitable clothing, many being barefooted. Their food was flour mi.xed with water. Near-by farmers supplied the British in Philadelphia with ample provisions, while they left the patriotic .\merican soldiers to starve. Agents of the British were constantly trying to bribe the soldiers to leave the patriot army and return to the king. A conspiracy was formed against Washington to displace him from his command. From its leader it was called the Conicay Cabal. It failed in its purpose, and Washington rose higher than ever in the esteem of his countrymen. 196 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 199. Burgoyne's Expedition. Battle of Bennington. Let us see how Burgoyne had fared in the meantime. Leaving Montreal in June on his eventful march southward with an army of eight thousand men, composed of English, Hessians, and Indians, and a splendid train of artillery, he quickly captured forts Crown Point and Ticonderoga. When King George heard that the powerful fortress of Ticon- deroga had fallen, he exclaimed with great glee, "I have beat all the Amer- icans." He was soon to be griev- ously undeceived. Burgoyne pushed on towards Fort Edward. General Philip Schuyler, in command of the American forces, made his journey a difficult one. By burning bridges, felling trees across the paths and high- ways, choking up the rivers, and carrying off all the cattle, horses, and foodstuffs, Schuyler caused Burgoyne so much delay that he did not reach Fort Edward until the latter part of July — twenty-four days to march twenty-six miles. Hearing that the Americans had collected large military and other stores at Bennington, in the present state of Vermont, Burgoyne dispatched one thousand men under Colonel Baum to seize them. The brave New Hampshire militia and Green Mountain Boys, under Colonel John Stark, were waiting for them. On the i6th of August, 1777, the Americans met the BURGOYNE S EXPEDITION THE I'ERIOU OF THE REVOLUTION 197 British. When Stark saw the enemy, he cried : " See, men ! There are the redcoats ! We must beat them to-day, or Molly Stark is a widow." The patriots were successful and took about seven hundred prisoners. The American loss was only fifty-six men, killed and wounded. This victory enabled the patriots to get in the rear of Burgoyne and cut off his sup- plies from Canada. Thousands of armed farmers now poured in from all parts of New England to aid the patriot cause. 200. Fort Stan- wix. Battle of "^ « i » * Oriskany. In the meantime St. Leger had landed at Os- wego and, pushing eastward, besieged Fort Stanwix, or Fort Schuyler as it was at this time called. This fort was the site of the present city of Rome, New York. General Nicholas Herkimer, with eight hundred militia — largely German settlers — marched to the aid of Fort Stanwix. At Oriskany, a few miles west of the present city of Utica, Herkimer was attacked by a force made up of Mohawk Indians under Brant and Tories under Johnson and Butler. A desperate battle followed (August 6, 1777) in which the Indians and Tories were finally defeated. Herkimer, how- ever, was fatally wounded. After St. Leger had been besieging Fort Stanwix for three days, the patriots in the fort suddenly rushed out and captured five British flags, as well as arms and provisions. They hoisted these flags upside down over the ram- parts, and above them raised a flag made of a piece of blue jacket. -%fi^' A" (;i:.\i:kal herkimer at okiskaxv The Red Ensign, or Meteor Flag, was the commercial flag of England in 1775. It consisted of a red field, a blue canton, the red cross of St. George of England, and the white cross of St. Andrew of Scotland. When Ireland was joined to the Union in iSoi, the cross of St. Pat- rick was added, making the Union Jack of the present day. The American colonists in 1775 laid six white stripes on the red field of the Meteor Flag, making thirteen stripes to represent the colonies. The canton was retained to represent the empire. This flag was raised by Washington at Cam- bridge, January 2, 1776. It was the first distinctive flag representing colonial On June 14, 1777, Congress removed the crosses from the canton and replaced them by a circle of thirteen white stars. Congress resolved "that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alter- nate red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep- resenting a new constellation." This flag was probably raised for the first time at Fort Stanwix, New York, August 3, 1777. At first a new stripe and a new star were added for each new state. It was seen, however, that this would make the flag too large, and in 18 18 Congress voted to return to thirteen stripes but to add a new star for each new state. The additional star is added on the fourth of July next suc- ceeding the admission of the new state. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLAG 198 THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 199 a white shirt, and some red flannel. In June Congress had adopted as our national flag the Stars and Stripes, and at Fort Stanwix it was for the first time thrown to the breeze. In the meantime General Schuyler had heard of the distress of the fort and sent Benedict Arnold with a force to relieve it.^ On the \ .-iy-M-.J-^y ^ C-^) /,7\ O SURRENDER OF BURGOVNE approach of Arnold, St. Leger fled to Oswego, abandoning his tents and munitions, and another blow was given to Burgoyne's hopes. 201. Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17, 1777. Schuyler was now removed from the command, and Gates took his place. Burgoyne saw the enemy drawing around him, while 1 Arnold resorted to a stratagem to frighten the Indians who were with St. Leger. A half-witted Tory boy who had been condemned to death as a spy was promised his life if he would go to the British camp and report the advance of a large body of Americans. Filling his coat with bullet holes, he rushed headlong among St. Leger's Indians. When asked how many Ameri- cans were coming, he pointed to the leaves of the trees. The Indians, thor- oughly terrified, threw down their arms and, after sacking the camp, scattered through the woods in all directions. During St. Leger's retreat these Indians, his former allies, hung on the flanks of his army, killing and plundering the British with true savage glee. 200 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY his supplies became scarcer every day. His Indian allies de- serted him, and he heard nothing from General Howe, who, he expected, was on the way north up the Hudson to aid him. He resolved, therefore, to attack the Americans, and a battle was fought at Bemis Heights near Saratoga, September 19, 1777. The result of the battle was indecisive, but it was in effect a victory for the Americans, as Burgoyne never advanced further southward. On October 7 Burgoyne again attacked the Americans, but was badly defeated. Benedict Arnold fought bravely here, his leg being shattered by a musket ball. Giving up all hope of assistance from Howe, hemmed in on all sides, Burgoyne sur- rendered, at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, his whole army of six thousand men and his military stores. The battle of Saratoga is considered to be one of the decisive battles of the world. ^ It had most important results for the American cause : 1. It completely destroyed the English plan of the war. 2. It prevented control by the English of the Hudson River and the state of New York. 3; It weakened the prestige of the English with the Iroquois confederacy. 4. It secured the invaluable aid of Erance with its army and navy .2 5. It encouraged Erance and Spain, the enemies of England in Europe, to open warfare, thereby weakening British power in America. 1 " No military event can be said to have exercised more important influ- ence on the future fortunes of mankind than the complete defeat of Burgoyne's expedition in 1777 ; a defeat which rescued the revolted colonies from certain subjection and which, by inducing the courts of France and Spain to attack England in their behalf, insured the independence of the United States." — Creasy, '" Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World" - As early as May, 1776, France had sent two hundred thousand dollars to aid the American cause and in July of the same year merchandise to the value of almost six hundred thousand dollars. At the same time she allowed American privateers to fit out in her ports. Spain also secretly loaned money and furnished supplies in great quantities to the American colonists. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 201 6. By the capture of an entire English army the enthusiasm of the colonists was aroused everywhere. 7. It induced the English to seek once more reconciliation with the United States.^ 202. The French Alliance, 1778. The British Retreat to Philadelphia. Battle of Monmouth. In the autumn of 1776 Congress had sent a commission, of which Benjamin Franklin was a member, to Paris to seek the aid of the king of France. For a long time the commission was unsuccessful, as the finances of France were at this time in a very low condition and she did not wish war with England. The surrender of Burgoyne and the renewed attempts by the king of England at reconcil- iation with the revolted colonies induced the king of France to sign a treaty, February 6, 1778. By this treaty the Americans were bound to accept no terms of peace until the British government should recognize the independence of the United States. The United States and France agreed that neither should make peace without the consent of the other. Spain, in 1779, ^rid Holland, in 1780, joined France and declared war on England. A French fleet was dispatched to our assistance. Lord Howe had been superseded in the command of the British by Sir Henry Clinton. Hearing of the approach of the French fleet, Clinton abandoned Philadelphia (June 18, 1778) and marched to New York. Washington pressed behind him and overtook the British rear guard at Monmouth, where he attacked 1 On February 17, 1778, Lord North proposed in Parliament a bill of recon- ciliation, granting to the former colonies everything they asked except inde- pendence. Free pardon was offered to all ; every act of Parliament passed after 1763 to which objection had been raised was repealed; every duty, tax, or assessment whatever, except for the usual regulation of commerce, that had been levied in the colonies was annulled. It was provided that all money collected in the colonies should be expended in the colonies. Commissioners were sent to America to put these proposals into effect at once. Had these laws been passed earlier, there is little doubt that the colonies would have accepted them, but Congress now refused " to consider propositions so derogatory to the honor of an independent nation." The failure of these peace negotiations led to a change in warfare. From this time the war was waged with bitter severity. ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY it, June 28, 1778. At the moment of victory Charles Lee,^ who had been exchanged and had again received a command, ordered a disgraceful retreat. Washington fortunately came up in time to save his army, and the British, having lost two thousand men, hurried on to New York.^ 203. Military Operations at Newport. Capture of Stony- Point. Washington now hoped to take New York City with the aid of the French ships under Count d'Estaing, but the sand bars at the entrance to the harbor prevented their ap- proach. He dispatched the fleet, therefore, to attack New- port, which was held by the British. A severe storm scat- tered the French vessels and they withdrew for repairs to Boston. The British later abandoned Newport. New York City was the only point north of Virginia held by them until the war closed. Hoping to draw General Washington away from New York, Clinton sent expeditions of Tories to ravage unprotected places. Martha's Vineyard and New Bedford .-were swept by fire ; Portsmouth and Norfolk, in Virginia, were burned and the defenseless citizens murdered. In Connecticut the towns of 1 For his cowardice or treachery in this battle Lee was tried by court- martial and suspended from the army. For insulting Washington he was later expelled, and died in obscurity. 2 While carrying water to the tired soldiers Molly Pitcher saw her husband shot down at his cannon. She at once took his place and loaded and fired the gun during the battle. Washington, in recognition of her bravery, made her' a lieutenant, and Congress gave her half pay for life. She died in 1832, and her grave at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, is marked by a monument erected by a grateful people in her honor. GENERAL ANTHUNV WAYNE THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 203 New Haven, Fairfield, and Xorvvalk were destroyed. These raids were marked with a trail of blood and cruelty resembling more the warfare of savages than of civilized men. Washington, however, had other plans in view. He "quietly sent (July, 1779) General Anthony Wayne — called "Mad Anthony " because of his bravery — up the Hudson to capture Stony Point. This was an important post in tlic river below West Point and had been captured by Clinton six weeks before. With twelve hundred men, at midnight, July 16, Wayne silently stole up the hill towards the fort. Before the garrison was aware of their presence they sprang over the out- works and carried all before them at the point of the bayonet. Wayne destroyed the fort, as he was not strong enough to hold it, and withdrew, taking with him all the militarv stores. 204. Indian Warfare. The Massacres in Wyoming and Cherry Valleys. The Indians were now let loose on the frontier settlements. The Seneca tribe and a regiment of Tories, led by Colonel John Butler, invaded the Wyoming Valley in Penn- sylvania. Fighting against overwhelming numbers, the brave American patriots were surrounded, July 3, 1778, and defeated. The Indians put their captives to death with the most horrible tortures. The Tories rivaled in ferocity their savage allies. The beautiful valley was left a smoldering desert, and the women and children, driven to the woods, perished miserably. Another band of Tories and Indians, under the infamous Joseph Brant,^ came up the Mohawk valley and fell on Cherry Valley (November 10, 1778), where they put to death men, women, and children. Washington determined to stop these massacres and sent General Sullivan against the Indians, whom he met and overwhelmed at Newtown, on the site of the present city of Flmira. With fire and sword Sullivan now swept like 1 Joseph Brant was a Mohawk Indian, who had been well educated and became later a missionary for the Church of England. At the outbreak of the Revolution he placed himself at the head of the Mohawk, as thorough a savage as the most bloodthirsty of his followers. With his Tory allies he spread death and destruction wherever he waged his inhuman warfare. 204 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY a whirlwind through the territory of the Iroquois, utterly destroying forty villages. The power of the Indian confed- eracy was broken forever. 205. War in the West. Western settlements had been made by pioneers from New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, who had pushed westward wherever a favorable route opened before them. The British government attempted at first to stop this westward movement by the Proclamation Line of 1763 (see sect. 144), but later it favored the movement, as it was unable to check it. In 1768, by the treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Iroquois ceded the lands claimed by them between the Ohio and the Tennessee rivers, throwing open to settle- ment Kentucky and a lafge part of Tennessee. Large land companies were formed to open up the territory, but the outbreak of the Revolution de- stroyed the plans. In the mean- time Daniel Boone had penetrated into Kentucky in 1769 and James Robertson had founded settlements in Tennessee. The Kentucky villages were attacked by the Shawnee Indians, When these Indians were later defeated (October 10, 1774), on the Great Kanawha River, they ceded (1774) all their lands south of the Ohio, In 1776 the Cherokee attacked the Tenn- essee settlements, but they were finally overcome and gave up the territory between the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, 206. George Rogers Clark. Father Gibault. The British commander at Detroit, Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton, now ur^ed the Indians to a united attack on the American DAXIEL BOOXE THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 205 frontier settlements.^ A young Virginian, George Rogers Clark, was commissioned by Patrick Henry, governor of Virginia, to lead an expedition into the West and seize the English forts north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi rivers, l-jiibarking (June 26, 1 7/8) at I'ort Pitt, he sailed with his force ',1 ' 4 1, if;i ;] / ^- :^i5:. ^^.^---- '-^- ^er « CLARK S EXPEDITION down the river to a point forty miles above its mouth. Here he landed and began his perilous journey across swamps, through forests and thickets, at times without food or shelter. Kaskaskia fell into their hands (July 5, 1778), and a little later Cahokia, without firing a shot. Here Clark met Father Peter Gibault,- 1 To encourage them in their murderous work, Hamilton paid the Indians bounties only on scalps. As they received nothing for prisoners, they took none. - Father Gibault himself, like Clark, had reason to complain of his later treatment. " At one time," says Roosevelt, " he was suffering from poverty, due to his loyal friendship to the Americans ; for he had advanced Clark's troops both goods and peltries for which he had never received payment. In a petition to Congress he showed how this failure to repay him had reduced him to want." " Next to Clark and Vigo," says Judge John Law, " the United .States are more indebted to Father Gibault for the accession of the states com- prised in what was the original Northwest Territory than to any other man." Fran9ois Vigo was an Italian who aided Clark on many occasions. 206 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY the pastor of Kaskaskia, who joined himself to the American cause. Setting out at once for Vincennes, Father Gibault in- duced the French and the Cathohc Indians to yield to Clark, who, in consequence, easily took the fort. The British later took the fort, but could hold it only a short time, for Clark marched two hundred and thirty ^fx miles through snow and swamps, amid fearful hardships, and again captured it. This territory was an- nexed to Virginia and was called the Illinois country. This heroic march of Clark and the friendly offices of Father Gibault gave us the title to this section.! The Great Lakes, in- stead of the Ohio, became, in con- sequence, the southern boundary of British possessions at the conclusion of the war. 207. War on the Ocean. Barry and Jones. At the outbreak of the W'ar the patriots were greatly ham- pered by the lack of a naval force. While no regular navy was available to destroy British shipping, private cruisers were built, and during the next four years did great damage to English vessels. These cruisers crossed the sea, hovered around the coasts of England, and captured in three years six hundred vessels. Congress, in the meantime, had appointed Esek Hop- kins of Rhode Island commander of a little navy of five ships, JOHN BARRY 1 At this time England was at war witli Spain and planned to seize the Spanish settlements on the Gulf of Mexico. With the aid of a force which she intended to send from Canada down the Mississippi, she would control that great river from its source to its mouth. Before these plans could be carried out by the English, Galvez, the Spanish governor of New Orleans, seized Baton Rouge, Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola, and completely destroyed the English plan of campaign. This action rendered it possible for George Rogers Clark to hold his conquests: The city of Galveston is named in honor of this Spanish governor. THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLU'I'ION 207 but this navy was soon destroyed or dispersed. Another attempt at the formation of a navy was made by the purchase of several merchant vessels. The command of one of these vessels, the Lexington, was given to Captain John Barr}'.^ The Lexington, which was named in honor of the hrst battle of the Revolu- tion, soon met and captured the British man-of-war Ed- li'ard, after a vigorous contest. Barry fought battles every- where along the coasts, inflict- ing severe losses on the enemy. In March, 1794, Captain Barry was placed at the head of the list of commanders, with the rank of commodore. lie has been called the Father of the American Navy. In Captain Barry's squadron, when it first set out to maintain our flag upon the sea, was John Paul Jones,^ a lieutenant on \\\ii Alfred. Later Jones made his name forever illustrious in naval annals. With three vessels he sailed JOllX PAUL JONKS ^ Commodore John Barry was born in Wexford, Ireland, and came to America at the age of thirteen. He rapidly rose in the merchant marine and at twenty-five was captain of one of the finest packet ships of the day. At the outbreak of the Revolution he gave up the best ship in America to serve the 'patriot cause. Lord Howe offered him command of the best frigate in the English navy and fifteen thousand guineas if he would join the British forces. Barry answered, " I have devoted myself to the cause of .America and not the value and command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from it." - John Paul Jones was born in Scotland, and entered the American service in 1775. ^^^ made many cruises and received for his victory over the Serapis a gold medal with the thanks of Congress and a gold sword from the king of France. After the Revolution he became a rear admiral in the Russian navy, and died in Paris in 1792. He was a man of remarkable courage and daring. In one of Jones's maneuvers during the great sea fight the British captain asked, " Have you struck ? " " Struck 1 " replied Jones ; " I have not begun to fight ! " 208 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY boldly for the English coasts. His vessel, the BonJwTitvic Richard, had been a French merchant vessel and had been given to him by the king of France. Off Flamborough Head, a bold promontory on the east coast of England, he met a fleet of English merchantmen bound for the Baltic Sea under the conduct of two men-of-war, the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough. Although the odds were against him, Jones at once made an attack, and after a hand-to-hand struggle cap- tured both vessels. He transferred his men and stores to the Serapis just in time, for his own vessel soon sank beneath the waves. 208. The War iu the South. Savannah taken. Fall of Charleston. In 1778 the war was transferred to the South, the British hoping to capture each state in succession. Georgia passed first into the hands of the English through the surrender of Savannah (December 29, 1778) and the defeat of the Anier- icans at Augusta. The royal governor was again placed in office. The Americans under Lincoln, aided by the French fleet, attempted (October 9, 1779) to recapture Savannah, but were badly defeated. They lost one thousand men, among them being the gallant Polish officer Pulaski and the hero of Fort Moultrie, Sergeant Jasper. The French fleet sailed for France and Lincoln withdrew to South Carolina. Clinton now came down from New York by sea with eight thousand men and was later joined by three thousand others. Encouraged by their successes, they now pushed northward and surrounded Charleston, where Lincoln had intrenched himself. The British prepared to assault the city with overwhelming numbers, and Lincoln, seeing how hopeless his position was, surrendered (May, 1780) his army of three thousand men with his military stores. It was a fearful blow to the patriot cause.^ The British could now overrun South Carolina ; but the militia, under the 1 The English statesman Horace Walpole exclaimed on hearing of the surrender, " We look on America as at our feet." But he was sorely mistaken, as events soon proved. THE PERIOD OE 11 IE REVOLUTION 209 brave Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Clark, kept up an inces- sant warfare, striking first here, then there, until the British forces left the state. 209. Battle of Camden. King's Mountain, 1780. Congress now placed Gates in command of the army in the South against the recommendation of Washington, who had no faith in him. He pushed into South Carolina, where the British under Cornvvallis were intrenched at Camden. Gates attacked the enemy (August 16, 1780), but was completely routed. The brave De Kalb was mortally wounded, and Gates saved himself by fieeing on horseback till he was in safety, sixty miles from the battlefield. This was perhaps the darkest hour of the Revo- lution, for the three Southern colonies were now in the hands of the British. Two American armies had been crushed, and no force apparently remained to withstand the onward march of the British to Virginia. But the patriots were not yet conquered. A short time later (October 7, 1780) a force of British regulars and Tories under General Ferguson was attacked in the highlands of South Carolina at a point called King's Mountain. The patriots were the backwoodsmen, who with deadly aim cut to pieces the British force. Ferguson was killed and his command annihilated. 210. The Treason of Benedict Arnold, September 22, 1780. About this time a heavy blow fell on the patriot cause. Bene- dict Arnold, who had fought so bravely at Ticonderoga, Quebec, and Saratoga, formed a plot to deliver up the most important post in America, — West Point. Two years previously Arnold was in command of Philadelphia and was involved in troubles of various natures. He was sentenced to be reprimanded by Washington. Remembering Arnold's bravery and moved by deep pity for him, Washington's reprimand was of the mildest sort. Arnold was stung, however, by the disgrace and sought revenge. Six months later he asked Washington for the com- mand of West Point, and obtaining it, at once entered into correspondence with Clinton to betray it. Major John Andre 210 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY was selected to carry out the details. He met Arnold at West Point, but on his way back^ was captured with the fatal papers concealed in his boots. He was tried and hanged as a spy. Arnold escaped to the British vessel, the Vidtiirc. He received for his infamy about thirty-two thousand dollars and a position on the staff of General Clinton. 211. General Greene in the South. A third army was now raised in the South, with General Nathanael Greene ^ in com- mand. He immediately began a series of maneuvers that showed him to be the most skillful general in the American army except Washington. Knowing he had not a sufficient force to attack Cornwallis in the open field, he resolved to wear him out. With the aid of Daniel Morgan (the sharpshooter), William Wash- ington, Kosciuszko (the brave Polish engineer), Henry Lee, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other equally able officers he began a series of the most brilliant military operations. 212. Battles of Cowpens, Guilford Court House, Hobkirk's Hill, Eutaw Springs. Morgan attacked Tarleton, who had been sent against him by Cornwallis at Cowpens (January 17, 1781), and completely destroyed his forces, thus cutting off one third of Cornwallis's army. That general now started in pursuit of Greene, who desired to lead him further and further into a 1 While riding along the wooded road near Sleepy Hollow, Andre was startled by three men, who suddenly confronted him. These men were Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams. One of the party wore a Hessian coat, and Andre, mistaking him for one of the British allies, asked him if he did not belong to the lower, or British, party. They answered Yes, and Andre at once told them he was a British officer on important business. They then declared themselves to be Americans, and Andre's heart sank. They ordered him to dismount, found the papers, and led him away to the nearest military post. Andre offered the patriots bribes of all kinds, but they scorned them. Con- gress voted them a medal and a pension of two hundred dollars a year for life. Read the description of this locality in " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " in Irving's " Sketch Book." 2 General Nathanael Greene was born in Rhode Island in 1742. During the Revolution he took part in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Germantown. His wonderful campaign against Cornwallis in the South gave him a place in our military history second only to Washington. He died in 1786. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 211 hostile country, far from his base of supplies. The chase was maintained for two hundred miles, when Greene suddenly turned around and fought Cornwallis at Guilford Court House (March 15, 1781). Greene was defeated, but Cornwallis's forces were so badly cut up that he turned and retreated. Greene now became the pursuer, but Cornwallis hurried on to join the British forces in Virginia. Greene, leaving Cornwallis to go his way, hastened southward to clear- the British out of South Carolina. At Hobkirk's Hill, two miles from Camden, he was attacked by Rawdon (April 25, 1781) and defeated, but, as usual, fell back in such good order that Rawdon gave up Camden to save his army.^ Lee and Marion gained victories in many small contests, and Greene, pushing onward, met the British again at Eutaw Springs (September 8, 1781), where he was defeated. The British now held themselves in Charleston under the protection of their fleet. In thirteen months Greene had practically recovered the Carolinas and Georgia from British rule. 213. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19, 1781. As we saw above, Cornwallis had abandoned the Carolinas and marched into Virginia, where a British force under Phillips and the traitor Arnold was plundering the country. Lafayette with three thousand men was at Richmond, and Cornwallis resolved to capture him ; but Lafayette was too clever and retreated skill- full)- with his weak force. At length Cornwallis, desiring for the sake of his supplies to be near the sea, marched down the peninsula and with seven thousand men took position at York- town. Lafayette, who had been recnforced by Steuben, pressed him with five thousand men. Now occurred the supreme moment of the long struggle. In August news reached Wash- ington that the magnificent and powerful French fleet of twenty- eight warships and six frigates, under Count de Grasse, had sailed from the West Indies for Chesapeake Bay. Washington 1 Greene's report of his operations is singularly graphic: "We fight, get beat, and fight again." ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY decided on the daring plan of marching four hundred miles to Virginia, joining Lafayette, and hemming in Cornwallis by land, while the French fleet cut off his retreat by sea. Pretending he was preparing to attack New York,i Washington, with two thousand Americans and five thousand French soldiers under Rochambeau, who had joined him from Newport, left the Hud- son and hurried southward. ^ Before the British knew what he was about, he had reached Philadelphia and, embarking at the head of Chesapeake Bay, was approaching Yorktown. There he soon joined Lafayette. Sixteen thousand men, two thirds of whom were French- men, were now encamped across the narrow peninsula to cut off Cornwallis. In the meantime the French fleet ap- peared. An English squadron followed from the West Indies and attacked the French fleet, but was repulsed. Cornwallis had no hope of escape left. For two weeks shot and shell fell on the British camp from American and French guns. Day by day the lines' were moved nearer and nearer to the British camp. Cornwallis, seeing the hopelessness of his position, surrendered on the 19th of October, 1781, His army of seven thousand two hundred and forty-seven men and eight hundred and forty-seven seamen 1 Washington wrote letters which he knew would fall into Clinton's hands. These letters described plans for an attack on New York. Clinton was deceived and did not learn until too late what Washington was really doing. ^ At this time Robert Morris again came to the aid of Washington with money. Rochambeau furnished twenty thousand dollars and from France arrived supplies and half a million dollars. /^^ tF^^S \^ ^m I'^^h^^^ , '^-^^^^^!^^ ''i'^^fW 1 ^'' / - A ' V ' i. i "- ^ ^\ ROCHAMBEAU THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 213 threw down their arms. The allied troops were drawn up, Americans on the right, French on the left, with Washington and Rochambeau at their head.^ Between these lines the captured army marched out.^ 214. Independence acknowledged. Treaty of Peace at Paris, September 3, 1783. The news of Vorktown was received < jf ' ^ ■/4 c 4-. rill-: SLKREXOER AT VORKTOWX everywhere in the colonies with transports of delight. From the hilltops bonfires told the glad news, and fast riders hurried on to the most distant points with the cheerful tidings. In Paris the houses were illuminated and a Te Deum was sung in Notre Dame. In England the news created the utmost con- sternation. When Lord North, the prime minister, heard of 1 Cornwallis claimed to be ill and sent his sword by General O'Hara. It was delivered to General Lincoln, who had surrendered at Charleston. A statue to Rochambeau was dedicated May 24, 1902, in Washington. - " The catastrophe at Vorktown was due to four causes : to the conflict of opinion between Clinton and Cornwallis ; to the untenable position which Cornwallis selected ; to the fact that Clinton allowed himself to be deceived by Washington ; and to the failure of the British admirals to secure the command of the sea." — Cross, " England," p. 776 214 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the surrender, he threw up his arms and cried, " It is all over! " While the defeat of Cornwallis was not in itself perhaps suffi- cient to end the war,, it was not possible to continue it in view of the strong opposition in Parliament by the Whig party that was favorable to American independence. This party, led by Rockingham, Burke, and Charles James Fox, carried through Parliament (February 27, 1782) a motion for peace. Lord North was therefore compelled to resign, and the Whigs came into power. They forced the king at last to recognize the in- dependence of America, and the preliminary treaty was signed at Versailles, near Paris. On April 19, 1783, the eighth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, the army was disbanded by Washington and the heroic patriots returned to their homes. By the final treaty of peace, signed September 3, 1783, at Paris, the United States embraced the country between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. Plorida was ceded to Spain by Great Britain. Spain also claimed the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi. The area of the territory ceded to the Ll^nited States was about eight hundred thousand square miles. 215. The Northwest Territory, 1787. Scarcely was the war over when the various states claimed title to lands in the West. We have already seen that under the charters of many of the colonies the grants extended from sea to sea. A glance at the map will show that Massachusetts claimed a large part of the present states of New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin ; Con- necticut claimed a strip across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and also a part of Pennsylvania ; New York claimed the terri- tory over which the Iroquois had ruled, extending into the Ohio country ; Virginia through her charter and George Rogers Clark's expedition claimed an enormous area stretching beyond Lake Superior ; North and South Carolina claimed as far west as the Mississippi River. Maryland insisted that all this land should be ceded to the national government for the benefit of all the states and that this vast area should be later formed into THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 215 self-governing states. The states who claimed the land at last generously gave it up to the national government, and it was organized as the Northwest Territory in 1787. This cession had most important results. It bound the newly formed states together at a time when through dissension the confederation was in danger of falling to pieces.^ 216. The Ordinance of 1787. The ordinance provided that Congress should appoint a governor, secretary, and three judges; that a legislature should be elected ; that no less than three nor more than five states might be formed from the territory, and as soon as any division had sixty thousand free inhabitants it would be admitted as a state with representation in Congress.^ The ordinance also provided that freedom of worship should be allowed ; that trial by jury should be granted ; that slavery should be forever prohibited ; and that schools and the means of education should be forever encouraged. The provision against slavery was of the greatest importance, as it prevented that system from gaining a foothold in these great states.-'^ By a contract with Congress the Ohio Company was granted one and one half million acres at the junction of the Ohio and 1 " We are accustomed," says Daniel Webster. " to praise the lawgivers of antiquity . . . but I doubt whether one single law of any lawgiver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked, and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787." The ordinance followed in many respects the Virginia Ordinance of 17S4, which had been drafted by Jefferson. - The states that have been formed are Ohio. Indiana, Illinois. Michigan, and Wisconsin. A part of a sixth state. Minnesota, was also made from this territory. In 17S5 Congress had arranged the land system, which was later fol- lowed in disposing of Western lands. Townships were marked off six miles square. Each township was subdivided into thirty sections one mile square. One lot in every section had to be reserved for the support of schools. ^ The land south of the Ohio was claimed by Virginia. North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. South Carolina resigned her claim in 1787. In the section of North Carolina west of the mountains an independent state was organized by the inhabitants. Finally, in 1790, North Carolina ceded Tennessee to the United States. In 1792 Kentucky was formed into a sepa- rate state with the permission of Virginia. Alabama and Mississippi in 1802 were ceded by Georgia to the national government. 2i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the Muskingum rivers. New England settlers crossed the Alle- ghenies. They built boats and floated down the Ohio to the mouth of the Muskingum River, where Marietta was founded in 1788. 217. Shays's Rebellion, 1786. The United States were now independent, but dangers beset them on every hand. They were heavily loaded with debt,^ and the armies were still unpaid. The paper money was practically worthless, and every- where there was great distress. In western Massachusetts the farmers were unable to pay their debts. Seeing their cattle seized for debt and their homesteads sold because of the heavy land taxation, they arose in rebellion in 1786 under Daniel Shays, a captain in the continental army. They attacked the courthouses in Worcester, Springfield, and other places, but were finally defeated and dispersed. 218. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. It was now seen that the Articles of Confederation, under which Congress was acting, were too weak to sustain a strong government. Under these Articles Congress had no power to enforce its laws ; it could not levy taxes for any purpose ; it could not regulate commerce, as it could not enforce any of its own regulations. There was, therefore, no freedom of trade be- tween the states, one state passing tariff laws against another. Trade was prostrate, owing to the condition of the currency through the widespread use of paper money which the states printed at will.^ There was no president, the head of Con- gress being merely the member who was presiding at the time. There was no organized system of Federal courts. There was one House of Congress, elected by the state legislatures and therefore not directly in touch with the people. Each state 1 It has been estimated that the total debt contracted by the colonies in the war was one hundred and forty million dollars. France spent directly sixty million dollars in our service, besides very large sums elsewhere in her war with Great Britain. The debt of England was increased about five hundred and sixty million dollars. 2 One dollar of paper money at this time was worth about one or two cents in good money. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 217 cast only one vote in Congress, whatever the number of its members there. ^ A unanimous vote was required to amend the Articles, and it was found in fact practically impossible ever to secure a unanimous vote. In brief, the national government was not a federal state but merely a league of states, or confeder- ation, acting through a body of delegates in the Continental Congress.'-^ In 1785 delegates from Virginia and Maryland met at Alexandria. With the assistance of George Washington they endeavored to settle disputes that were constantly arising over the navigation of the Potomac River. The meeting led to a discussion of the larger subject of the general commercial regu- lation of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. The Virginia legislature (January 21, 1786) asked the states to send delegates to a conference at Annapolis in September, 1786, to consider trade relations among the states. As only five states responded, little was accomplished. Madison, Hamilton, and John Dickin- son were present and declared there must be some central authority to carry out trade agreements if any were made. Another invitation was thereupon sent to the colonies for a convention to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation in order that a stronger govern- ment mijrht be secured.^ 1 According to the size of the state, the membership from each state could be no less than two nor more than seven members. The members of each state determined how the one vote from that state should be recorded on any question in Congress. 2 To add to the difficulties of the situation Congress was so deeply in debt that it could not pay even the interest on the public debt. This period has often been called " the Critical Period of American History." ^ " The Congress of the Confederation, made up of delegates from states, could not pass effective laws or enforce its orders. It could ask for money but not compel payment; it could enter into treaties but not enforce their stipulations ; it could provide for raising of armies but not fill the ranks ; it could borrow money but take no proper measures for repayment ; it could advise and recommend but not command. In other words, with some of the out- ward seemings of a government, and with many of its responsibilities, it was not a government." — McLaughlin, " Confederation and Constitution." pp. 50-51 2i8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 219. The Constitutional Convention. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 was composed of fifty -five members/ appointed by the legislatures of the several states. All the states were finally represented except I^hode Island, which sent no delegates. George Washington was chosen as the pre- siding officer. Four months of discussion followed, and it was seen that the Articles of Confederation would have to be entirely thrown aside and a new constitution formed, even though the Convention had been called merely to revise the Articles. 220. Compromises of the Constitution. There were many compromises necessary in the Convention to secure the adop- tion of the Constitution. The first question arose over repre- sentation. The small states feared lest the large states would be able through greater representation to deny them their rights. It was finally arranged that in the House of Repre- sentatives the members should be elected according to popu- lation ; in the Senate every state, large and small, should have two votes. This satisfied the smaller states. A second question arose on the basis of representation. Should slaves who could not vote be enumerated when the population was taken as the basis of representation ? It was finally agreed that in the enumeration to determine the number of representatives to which a state was entitled, five slaves should count as three freemen. The third question touched the slave trade, and it was forbidden to prohibit this trade before i8o8."-^ 1 The number of delegates that attended the Convention was fifty-five. Sixteen did not sign. The signers were therefore only thirty-nine. Among the members were George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, John Dickinson, Rufus King, John Rutledge, George Mason, Charles Pinckney, and Charles C. Pinckney. The meetings of the Convention were secret, but James Madison kept full notes of the proceedings and they are of the greatest value in telling us the story of the Convention. They were not published, however, until 1840. 2 " While the last members were signing," says Madison, " Dr. Franklin, looking toward the president's chair, at the back of which a rising sun hap- pened to be painted, observed to a few members near him that painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. ' I have,' THE PKRIOI) OF THE REVOLl-TION 219 221. The New Constitution. The new Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787, with these six objects as given in the preamble : 1. To form a more perfect union. 2. To estabhsh justice. 3. To insure domestic tranquilhty. 4. To provide for the common defense. 5. To promote the general welfare. 6. To secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity. As soon as the Constitution was adopted by the Con- vention it was laid before Congress, which was asked to refer it to the people of the states for ratification. The favor- able vote of nine states was necessary to adopt it. There was an exceedingly bitter contest in some of the states, especially Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York. While this contest was pending, a series of eighty-five brilliant essays appeared in defense of the Constitution. They were written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, These essays have been published under the title "' The Federalist." "The Federalist" had a profound effect on public opinion and undoubtedly aided greatly in securing the adoption of the Constitution. The ninth state necessary to ratify the Constitution was secured June 21, 1788, amid great rejoicing and booming of cannon. The new Con- stitution was at last adopted. " Now the thirteen clocks all struck together," exclaimed John Adams. The new Constitution differed radically from the old Articles of Confederation. Under these Articles, as we have seen, there was one House of Congress but no president and no developed system of federal courts. The great weakness of the national government lay in the fact that it could not le\y said he, ' often and often in the course of this session looked at that behind the president without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting; but now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun.' " 220 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY taxes or enforce its decrees. The new Constitution provided for three departments : 1. The Legislative, to consist of a Congress made up of two houses, — a Senate and a House of Representatives. ^ This department was created to make the laws. 2. The Executive, to consist of a president and officers to carry out these laws. 3. The Judicial, to consist of Federal courts to interpret the laws. While the legislature of each state could still enact laws for its state, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the national and state governments and by the people. 222. Effects of the New Constitution. The new Constitution effected the following important results : 1. It brought into existence our strong national government. 2. It established the presidency of the nation. 3. It founded the Supreme Court and the Federal courts. 4. It gave Congress power to raise money by taxation. 5. It conferred on Congress the right to regulate foreign and domestic commerce and thereby established freedom of trade between the states. 6. It laid broad and deep the foundations of our national life. Many of the states had desired a Bill of Rights as a part of the Constitution and had accepted that instrument only when assured amendments would be added covering the idea of a Bill of Rights as soon as action could be secured. In 1791 the first ten amendments were therefore ratified and added to the Constitution. These amendments safeguarded the rights of the people by securing the freedom of religion, of speech, of the person, and of property. (See digest of the whole Consti- tution in Appendix.) 1 The members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives were to be paid out of the national treasury instead of by the states, as was the case under the Articles of Confederation. It was thought that this would give the members a broader national viewpoint on national questions. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION The American Revolution was begun because of the repeated attempt of the British Parliament to levy taxes on the colonists without their consent. On July 4, 1776, independence was proclaimed by the colonists. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered. France thereupon openly aided us with money, men, and a fleet. On October ig, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered. In 1783 the king of England acknowledged our independence. In 1787 the new Constitution was adopted by the Constitutional Convention. In 1789 the Constitution went into effect, and we became one of the nations of the earth. Dates to be remembered : 1774. First Continental Congress. 1775. Batdes of Lexington, Concord (April 19). 1776. Declaration of Independence (July 4). 1777. Surrender of Burgoyne (October 17). 1778. France acknowledges the independence of the United States. 1 781. Surrender of Cornwallis (October 19). 17S3. Treaty of Peace with Great Britain. 1787. The Constitution adopted. Ordinance of the Northwest Territor)'. 17S9. Beginning of our government under the Constitution. Persons to know about : George Washington, James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Adams. John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Hamilton, Patrick Henry, Burgoyne, Nathanael Greene, John Barr\', Cornwallis, Lafayette, Steuben, Pulaski, Kosciuszko, John Paul Jones, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Map work : Locate Boston, Lexington, Concord. Locate Mount Vernon, Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, Fort Duquesne. 222 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Draw the route of Burgoyne. Locate Trenton, West Point, Valley Forge, Yorktovvn, Savannah. Locate Vincennes, Detroit, St. Louis. Locate Oriskany, Saratoga, Ticonderoga, Bennington, Montreal, Lake Champlain. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Mention three attempts made before 1776 to unite the English colonies in common action, and tell how far each was successful. 2. Give four important reasons for the success of the Americans in their revolution against so formidable a power as England. 3. The American Revolution was begun with hardly a thought of independence. What changed the attitude of the revolutionists and made possible the Declaration of Independence.'' 4. Explain why the defeat of Burgoyne was so important to the American cause. 5. Why is Washington regarded as a great general, although he was more often defeated than victorious in the open field 'i 6. By what authority was the United States governed {a) from 1776 to 1781 ? (b) from 1781 to 1789? By what authority has it been governed from I 789 to the present time ? 7. Explain three great compromises made in the Constitutional Convention. 8. Point out three leading defects in the Articles of Confederation. State provisions in the Constitution that remedied these defects. Show why the Articles of Confederation marked an important step in our political history. 9. Give five reasons that make it justifiable to apply.-to the period of Confederation the title, " The Critical Period of American History." 10. Mention four things which the Constitution accomplished. READINGS Histories. Baldwin, J., Conquest 0/ the Old A'orthwest {C\ax\Cs Ex- pedition). Channing, E., United States, Vol. II. Creasy, E. S., Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (Burgoyne's Surrender). Fisher, S. G., The Struggle for American Independence. FiSKE, J., The Atnericati Revo- lution. Critical Period of American History. Griffix, M. I. J., Z//"^ ^y" THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 223 Captain John Barry. Hapgood, H., Paul Jones. Hinsdale, B. A., The Old Northiuest. Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution. McLaughlin, A. C, The Confederation and the Constitution. McMaster, J. B., With the Fathers. McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley (Boone, Robertson, Sevier, Clark). Roosevelt, T., Wintting of the West. Smith, J. H., Arnold's March to Quebec. Thwaites, R. G., Daniel Boone. Trevelyan, G. O., American Revolution. Van Tyne, C. H., American Revolution. Loyalists in the American Revolutio7t. Wilson, Woodrow, Life of Washington. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. H, P- 383 (Adventures of Daniel Boone); p. 402 (Action of the Stamp Act Congress); p. 404 (Pitt's Protest against Colonial Taxation); p. 387 (Settlement of the West); p. 407 (Franklin before the House of Commons); p. 434 (John Adams on the First Continental Congress) ; p. 449 (Tyranny of George the Third) ; p. 458 (A Loyalist's View); p. 537 (Drafting the Declaration of Inde- pendence); p. 568 (Life at Valley Forge); p. 574 (The Treaty with France); p. 579 (Conquest of the Illinois Country); p. 609 (The War in the South); p. 615 (^Surrender of Cornwallis). Muzzey, Readings in American Histo7y, p. 133 (Final Petition to King George III); p. 138 (Paine's Argument for Independence); p. 141 (The French Alliance); p. 148 (Capture of Vincennes); p. 153 (The Tories). Old South Leaflets, No. 97 {Lafayette in the American Revolution); No. 152 {Jones's Account of the Battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis); No. 47 {Washington at Cambridge); No. 68 {Boston Tea Party). Fiction. Bryant, W. C, Green Mountain Boys (poem). Song of Marion's Men (poem). Campbell, T., Gertrude of Wyoming (poem). Churchill, W., The Crossing (a story of Louisiana after the Purchase). Emerson, R. W., Concord Hymn (poem). Ford, P. L., Janice Meredith (a story of the leading characters in the American Revolution). Frederic, H., /// the Valley (a story of Dutch life during the Revolution in the Mohawk valley). Jewett, S. O., The Tory Lover (a story of John Paul Jones and his career). Kennedy, J. P.. Horseshoe Robinson (a tale of the Southern Tories). Lanier, S., Lexington (poem). Longfellow, H. W., Paul Revere' s Ride {poem). Lowell, J. R., Under the Old Elm (poem). Mitchell, S. W., Hugh Wynne (a story of Philadelphia in the Revolu- tionary period). Porter, J., Thaddeus of Warsaw (treats of the stirring times of Kosciuszko). Simms, W. G., The Partisan (a tale of the Revolu- tion in the South). Thompson, D. P., Green Mountain Boys (a story of Ethan Allen and his times). Whittier, J. G., Yorktown (poem). 224 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY < ~ " "* "" o t; S^tyos"^: 2 _ 3 Y?^. « G ^ < ►^ O ;? ^= D. ^5^t i I ^^^ ^-1 ^sl i^ «-^i^ |«3^ ^ > ^-> co2 Sg<« Si i^^i;; oSOS3 Ji S S>^S oOg. -^Sm g-^ S^U^ mo m M u u ►S, o u ranm mm kkxh CO o o f-* P* — r^pH^"_^ *~~> o (-1 o n f„^feH£omm^^^.o2ris c gc5'^>-"'r'°°°°°u.i£®'^^° ^.^^^ s o i ^ ti -^ I S " 2 ^ s E Ji -,ijQ.[S'u^;pt;t:^'5S'S'5'5a^'5 1:= St; mo u Q mu t:: ^ ^ ij^ (^ mmmmmu mc«>fem 00 t^ cS o „? M c^iJ-*; 0,^5 bc-o" o^rtS ^_,£xi o ^ ^ I O I < I I o ^^^< ^ ^ g 1^ III ^ ^ - g I O 1^ i"^ i 2 o ^ - ^ II - g m ^,o o ^ 2 ^ 5 ° >. g § aj^cjD.4j .h — V .ii "^ V — ^'^ ■" 3 g W-cj hpHH&iHHmummtiHtt, hJcai c^ ui> «►-; < z CHAPTER X " America has a natural base for the greatest continuous empire ever established by man." — Gladstone PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE UNITED STATES 223. The Three Great Geographical Regions. The condition of any people is affected to a greater or lesser degree by their physical surroundings. The geography of a country, which means its mountains, rivers, plains, coast-line, rainfall, soil, and mineral deposits, has a vital influence on its history. ^ The principal relief features of our country consist of three great geographical regions. These regions are, first, the Eastern Highland, which includes the Atlantic Slope and the Appala- chian Highland ; second, the Central Plain ; third, the Western Highland. The Eastern Highland extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the crest of the Appalachian Mountains. Good harbors are numerous ; many rivers furnish abundant water power ; in the Middle and Southern states the bays and rivers afford water- ways to the interior. The settlement of the Atlantic Slope proceeded very slowly and at the time of the Revolution it was under the rule of Great Britain. The Central Plain comprises the territory from the crest of the Appalachians westward to the crest of the Rockies, — an area of wondrous fertility, traversed by the rivers of the great Mississippi system. Intrepid Erench explorers and Catholic 1 Scientific discoveries during the past two centuries have, however, modi- fied physical disadvantages. The steam engine, canals, and railroads have overcome distances and brought markets and cities close together. Scientific irrigation is changing deserts into gardens, and engineering projects are changing swamp lands into thriving homesteads. 225 226 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY missionaries discovered most of this region, and over the greater part of it waved the fiag of France until the downfall of P^rench power in America as the result of the French and Indian War. The Western Highland comprises the territory extending from the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific Ocean. Alexis h.. trye RELIEF MAP OF THE UNITED STATES 224. The Effect of Physical Features on the Settlement of the Country. The English made their earliest settlements along the Atlantic seaboard, as this was the region most ac- cessible to voyagers from Europe. Forests and mountains and tribes of hostile Indians tended to prevent them from moving westward to the great Central Plain. ^ This compact grouping of the colonies led to a well-ordered system of government and a harmony of ideas which at the proper time resulted in securing independence, from Great Britain. 1 In fact, George III in 1763 drew a line around the sources of the rivers which flow into the Atlantic. This was the so-called " Proclamation Line." The country west of this line was set apart for the Indians, and the colonists for the time were forbidden to settle there. (See sect. 144.) PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE UNITED STATES 227 Through the passes of the Appalachians and along the waterway of the Ohio a great westward movement began soon after the War of Independence. Emigrants from Europe seek- ing homes on the vast Central Plain swelled the number of the colonists. Cities were built, governments were organized, and states were formed until the entire Mississippi basin became the scene of a prosperous civilization. The Western Highland was less fertile, not having sufficient rainfall except in certain parts of the Pacific coast, but the discovery of gold, silver, and other metals in 1848 caused a tide of immigration to this region. 225. The Resources of the United States. The United States is wonderfully endowed with all the physical requirements of a great civilization. Thus, by means of the water power of the East manufacturing was begun, and this was later developed by protective laws ; the fields of the South produce an abun- dance of cotton, sugar, and rice ; in the great upper Mississippi basin grow wheat and corn, more than enough for the entire nation ; coal, iron, and other valuable minerals abound ; the waters along the coast, as well as the rivers, abound in fish ; fruit grows in abundance in almost every section ; the Hudson River, the Erie Barge Canal, and the Great Lakes form a continuous water route from New York to the heart of the country, while the Mississippi and its tributaries furnish a waterway for thousands of miles ; railroads in every direction overcome any natural obstacles that would impede the pathways of commerce. P2xcept Alaska and the tropical possessions, the United States has a temperate climate, ^ — the climate of the countries that lead the world's progress. The rainfall, except on parts of the Western plains and Western Highland, is abundant. 1 The climate of the United States is. in its general features, like that of the European countries from which our immigrants have come. These countries are, in general. Norway, Sweden, Great Britain. Ireland, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands. France, Austria-Hungary, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Russia. 228 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The products of the farms, forests, and mines ; the deep waterways of the bays, rivers, and lakes ; the excellent water power of the streams, — all have helped to make the United States the richest and most progressive nation of the world. With settlers drawn from every country of Europe, the United States enjoyed during the nineteenth century the most wonderful progress recorded in the pages of history. There are in the United States three great geographical regions : first, the Eastern Highland ; second, the great Central Plain ; third, the Western Highland. In physical resources the United States has almost everything for its own needs. For food it has wheat, corn, meat, fish, potatoes, rice, sugar, and fruits ; for manufacturing it has water power, coal, lumber, cotton, oil, and minerals. Its coasts have excellent harbors ; its rivers and the Great Lakes furnish waterways to the heart of the continent. Its climate is that of the temperate zone, which develops activity and enterprise. It has for much of its area a sufficient rainfall. These resources and advantages, added to the enterprise of the settlers, have produced the most wonderful political development in history. READINGS Brigham, a. p., Geographic Influences in Ame-ricatt History. Farraxd, L., Basis of American History. Frve, A. E., Geog?-aphy. Gregory, Keller, and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geography. Hinsdale, B. A., Old Northwest. Hulbert, A. B., Historic Highways of America. Semple, E. C, Americati History atid its Geographic Con- ditions. Shaler, N. S., United States, Vol. I. Van Hise, C. R., Co?!- servation of A^atnral Resources in the United States. Winsor, J. (Ed.), A'arrative and Critical History of America, Vol. IV. CHAPTER XI " A rising nation, spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all the seas with the rich productions of their industry, . . . advancing rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye. . . . May that Infinite Power which rules the destinies of the universe lead our councils to what is best and give them a favorable issue for your peace and prosperity." — Jefferson, " First Inaugural Address "' THE PERIOD OF UNION Washington's Administrations, i 789-1 797 226. The Inauguration ; Political Parties. George Wash- ington ^ was unanimously elected first president of the United States and John Adams was chosen vice president. Washing- ton's journey from his home in Virginia to New York, which was at that time the national capital, was a triumphal progress. As there were no railroads it was necessary to make the jour- ney by stagecoach. Everywhere the people, with banners, music, and fiowers, welcomed him. He was inaugurated April 30, 1789, on the balcony of the Federal Building, which occupied the site of the present Subtreasury on Wall Street in New York City. The oath was administered by Robert R. Living- ston, Chancellor of the State of New York, who turned to the vast populace assembled below and cried, " Long li\e George Washington, the president of the United States! " 1 George Washington was born in Virginia, February 22, 1732. In his early life he was a surveyor and at nineteen was appointed major by Governor Din- widdle. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was chosen commander in chief of the American army by the Continental Congress. He was elected president in 1788 and reelected in 1792. Me is by common consent the leading figure in our national life. He died at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799, loved and respected by the entire nation. 229 230 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Washington belonged to no political party.^ Two parties had now arisen in the country, however, the Federalist and the Republican, or Democratic-Republican as it was frequently i^^li- im T (i/.p^[^^:';-;.;;iy!i"ii FEDERAL BUILDING, WALL STREET, NEW YORK called. The Federalists were led by Hamilton and believed in a strong central government ; the Democratic- Republicans, with Jefferson as their leader, would give the greatest possible power to the individual states. 1 Washington's first cabinet consisted of Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox, Secre- tary of War; and PIdmund Randolph, Attorney-General. In this cabinet were men of entirely different political beliefs. Hamilton was a strong Federalist, while Jefferson was an equally strong Democratic-Republican. From these Democratic-Republicans descended the present Democratic party. The Re- publican party of to-day did not come into existence until 1854. Washington's nonpartisan cabinet existed until 1795. After that day his cabinet was made up only of Federalists. As a rule since that time a cabinet is composed only of members of the same party as the president. There was much discussion at first as to the title to be given to the president. It was suggested that he be called " His Highness, the President of the United States of America and Protector of their Liberties." Finally, it was agreed that no title should be given by law, and he has always been called " Mr. President." n :4^ ' GEORGE WASHINGTON 231 232 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 227. Loose and Strict Construction. The differences between the Federahsts and the Democratic-RepubUcans gave rise to two views of the Constitution, that of the loose constructionists and that of the strict constructionists. The loose construction- ists were the Federalists, who believed that Congress should have authority to do anything not absolutely forbidden it by the Constitution under Section 9. They held the Constitution to be an instrument of not only expressed powers but also of wiplicel powers. They would have the strongest possible cen- tralized Federal government, superior to the states. The strict constructionists were the Democratic-Repub- licans, who would limit the powers of Congress to those given it by the Constitution under Section 8. They held the Constitution to be an in- strument of express eel powers only, as is shown by the Ninth and Tenth amendments. All powers, therefore, not expressly granted to the Federal govern- ment remained with the states. The issue was not finally settled until the Civil War won a triumph for the loose constructionists and the idea of national supremacy over state rights. 228. Payment of the Debts, 1790. The first great achieve- ment of Washington's administration was the arrangement for the payment of the public debt. On account of the extraordi- nary expenses of the war vast sums had been expended by the Continental Congress and also by the various states. To foreign countries, especially France, Spain, and .Holland, we owed more than eleven million dollars. The home debt which was owed by the nation to citizens of the states was about ALEXANDER HAMILTON THE PERIOD OF UNION 233 forty-two million dollars, while the states had contracted obli- gations to the amount of nearly twenty-five million dollars. The total debt, therefore, was nearly eighty million dollars. Hamilton ^ proposed that the United States should pay off all the indebtedness. There was no objection to the payment of the foreign and domestic debts. There was, however, the strongest opposition to the payment of the state debts by the Federal government. It was maintained by many that the states should pay off their own debts, Congress having no authority to do so."-^ The measure became a law finally through the efforts of Hamilton, who made a compromise with Jeffers6n. The Democratic-Republicans, having in their party many Southerners, desired the national capital to be built on the shores of the Potomac River ; the Federalists desired it to be built on the Delaware. As a result of the compromise between Hamilton and Jefferson the Federalists agreed that Philadelphia should be the seat of government for ten years, from 1 790 to 1800. After 1800 the permanent national capital should be located on the Potomac River. As the leader of the Democratic-Republicans Jefferson induced his followers to accept the compromise and enough Democratic-Republicans voted for the payment of the debts to carry the measure. This placed our national credit on the strongest foundation. 229. The Tariff and Internal Revenue Tax. The national revenue was now largely increased by a tariff laid on imports ; that is, a tax or duty was placed on foreign goods arriving at ^ Alexander Hamilton was born in the island of Xevis in the West Indies in 1757. Coming to the American colonies he served in the Continental army under Washington. He was admitted to the bar and was a member of the Continental Congress in 1782 and the Constitutional Convention of 17S7. He was one of the authors of " The P'ederalist." For si\ years (1789-179;) he was Secretary of the Treasury in President Washington's cabinet. He died July 12, 1S04, as the result of a duel with Aaron Burr. - Hamilton maintained that as the Federal government now collected the customs duties that formerly had gone into the treasuries of the states and by which they paid their debts, it was only right now for the national government to assume the state debts. 234 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY our ports. ^ A little later an internal revenue tax was placed on whisky and other liquors. This tax was levied directly by the Federal government on distillers and brewers. It caused trouble for a time, as we shall see in the Whisky Rebellion. The protective tariff showed the right of the Federal gov- ernment to tax foreigners ; the internal revenue tax showed its right to tax its own citizens. 230. Establishment of a Federal Bank. The United States Mint. Hamilton - also proposed the establishment of a national, or Federal, bank to act as financial agent of the government. This, he believed, would build up the public credit and would help to provide a uniform currency. After considerable oppo- sition the bank which was known as the First Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791 for twenty years. It was located at Philadelphia. This bank issued currency which was accepted everywhere in place of the old state bank notes issued by the different states, which people frequently refused to take. Provision was also made for a mint to issue gold and silver coins with a system of decimal currency which had been pro- posed by Jefferson. This system took the place of the PLnglish method of reckoning in pounds, shillings, and pence, which had been in use in America, The dollar was made the unit. It was divided, as we so well know to-day, into ten dimes, or one hundred cents. 1 This tariff (enacted July 4, 1789) was both a revenue' and a protective tariff. It secured revenue by the tax laid on goods made in foreign factories. It was protective because it tried to protect the American manufacturer against the competition of foreign goods by placing so high a duty or tax on them that they could not be imported with profit. It was thought this would allow Americans to start factories here and manufacture most of the goods needed in the United States. The Northern states, as a manufacturing section, in general favored a protective tariff, the Southern states, being agricultural, opposed it, as they had to buy manufactured goods and the tariff raised the prices on all goods. - Daniel Webster, in recognition of Hamilton's great work in establishing the national credit, said, " He touched the dead corpse of public credit and it sprang upon its feet." THE PERIOD OF UNION 235 231. The Appointment of Bishop Carroll. Until 1784 the Catholic Church in America had been subject to the Vicar Apostolic of London. Steps were now taken to make the church in America a distinct body from that of England by the appointment of a Bishop. In 1789 the first Episcopal See in America was erected in Baltimore, and Reverend John Carroin was consecrated the first Bishop. In 1789 he founded Georgetown College, which was transferred sixteen years later to the Society of Jesus. 232. The Admission of Vermont, 1791. The first state to be admitted after the formation of the government was Vermont, which became a member of the Union in 1791. The territory of this state had been claimed by Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire, and especially by New York. In 1777 the people in convention declared themselves to be an independent state. They fought gallantly during the Revolution. An adjustment of the difficulties with her neighbors was finally made by Ver- mont, and she became the fourteenth state of the Union in 1 79 1. Vermont was the first state to abolish slavery within its limits. 233. The Admission of Kentucky, 1792. Kentucky had been a common hunting ground for the Indians when Daniel Boone and other famous hunters entered the territory and made a settlement (1775) at Boonesborough. The territory belonged to Virginia. The people of Kentucky asked (1784) for separa- tion from Virginia. It was later granted to them by that state, and in 1792 Kentucky became the fifteenth state of the Union. ^ Most Reverend John Carroll was born in Maryland in 1735 ^^'^ ^^''^^ edu- cated for the most part in Belgium. At the age of eighteen he entered the Society of Jesus. In 1773. on the suppression of the Order, he went to Eng- land. Just previous to the outbreak of the Revolution he came to America. He was a member of the Embassy sent by Congress to Canada in 1776. In 1784 he was appointed Vicar Apostolic of the United States. Five years later he was consecrated Bishop, and in 1808 was named Archbishop with four suffragan dioceses: Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Bardstown (Kentucky). 236 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 234. The Admission of Tennessee, 1796. The territory of Tennessee belonged to North CaroHna. Hunters and settlers under Robertson and Sevier crossed the mountains from North Carolina and formed (1769), in the territory of the Cherokee Indians, the Watauga Association on the Watauga River, which is one of the headwaters of the Tennessee. These settlers later formed the state of Franklin, a fact that led to armed A PIONEER KENTUCKY SETTLEMENT difficulties with North Carolina, which refused to recognize the new state. In 1790 North Carolina ceded the disputed territory to the United States, and under the name of Tennessee it was admitted to the Union as the sixteenth state in 1796. 235. The First Census, 1790. The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. It showed a population of nearly four million inhabitants. In rank of population Virginia led, followed by Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Connecticut. About one fifth of the population were slaves. The largest city was 'i'lli: Pl'RIOD OF UNION 237 Philadelphia (with only forty-two thousand people), followed by New York (with thirty-two thousand), Boston (with eighteen thousand), Charleston, and Baltimore. Travel was exceedingly slow and costly. It required eight days to go from Boston to New York and cost twenty-five dollars. From New York to Washington required ten days. In westward travel the roads were even poorer and the time required much greater to cover each mile. Wherever possible sailing vessels were used to carry passengers and goods. 236. Battle of the Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, 1794. The westward movement of the population, especially across the Ohio River, aroused the hostility of the Indians, who were already incited against us by the English military and civil officials. Several expeditions were sent to overawe the Indians. The first, under General Harmar, destroyed Indian villages and supplies, but brought about no permanent results. General St. Clair then marched against them with two thousand troops (1 79 1). Heedless of* Washington's advice to guard against a surprise, he was led into an ambush and his army was destroyed. As a result of these disasters the Indians became more active than ever. General Wayne was now sent to command an ex- pedition. He met the Indians (August 18, 1794) at the Maumee River, not far from the present city of Toledo. Here the battle of the Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, was fought. The Indians were so completely defeated by the "chief that never sleeps," as they described Wayne, that they signed a treaty in 1795 at Greenville, ceding a territory of about twenty-five thousand square miles of territory, now comprising southern and eastern Ohio, to the United States. Wayne's victory opened the large area now embraced in the state of Ohio to peaceful settlement. 237. The Admission of Ohio. Prince Gallitzin. In the mean- time a steady stream of pioneers had been pouring into the Ohio valley from beyond the Alleghenies. One stream was made up of emigrants from New England and New York. They settled in the so-called Connecticut Reserve. Here the 2 38 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY city of Cleveland was founded in 1796. Another stream com- ing from Virginia entered southern Ohio. Towns were founded along the Ohio, the earliest among them being Marietta and Cincinnati ^ in 1788. In 1800 the state of Connecticut ceded the Connecticut Reserve to the United States, As Virginia threw open to set- tlement her military lands, the two streams of immigrants joined to form one community, which became the state of Ohio. Only seven years after Wayne's treaty with the Indians, so great had been the flood of settlers, Ohio was admitted (1803) into the Union as the seventeenth state. At this time a Russian nobleman, Prince Gallitzin,"^ was ordained to the priesthood and began his missionary labors in the wilds of Pennsylvania and Maryland. He founded (1799) the settlement of Loretto in western Pennsylvania and ministered throughout that unbroken country. 238. The Whisky Rebellion, 1794. From the time of their settlement in western Pennsylvania the farmers had been ac- customed to make whisky from grain in their stores and on their farms. They could carry the whisky over the bad roads to the Eastern cities more easily than they could transport the bulky quantities of rye and corn from which it was made and they could always secure a good price for it. When, therefore, the government placed an internal revenue, or excise tax, on whisky, they resented it and refused to pay the tax. They drove away the officers sent to collect the tax and defied the government. President Washington decided to show once for all that the acts of the national government could not be defied at will. He called out the militia, and fifteen thousand ^ Cincinnati received its name from the society formed by the officers of the Revolution at the close of that war. Cincinnatus was a Roman noble who was called from the plow to serve his country and returned to the plow after the danger was over. The formation of the society aroused great opposition, as many claimed it was a plan to establish hereditary titles here. - On September 29, 1899, a statue was erected to Gallitzin's memory at Loretto, Pennsylvania. THE PERIOD OF UNION 239 troops were sent to the scene of the riots. As soon as the troops appeared the rioters laid down their arms. The lessons of this rebellion were valuable ones. The people everywhere saw that the acts of Congress must be obeyed and that the authority of the national government was supreme over state and citizen. 239. The Cotton Gin, 1793. In the year 1 793 Eli Whitney of Massachusetts, a school teacher who was on a visit to the South, conceived the idea of a machine for separating cotton and its seeds. It was, up to this time, a day's work for a man to clean four pounds of cotton. Hence cotton cloth was ver)^ expensive. Whitney's gin from the first enabled a man to clean fifty pounds in one day, and later improvements greatly increased its capacity. As a result of this invention cotton growing, which had been unimportant, became at once one of the leading in- dustries of the country, the exports reaching enormous figures within five years, especially to England, which had up to this time secured its cotton from the East and West Indies.^ Im- mense cotton mills were erected in the North to weave cotton into cloth. This invention had an unexpected result, however. ELI WHITXEV 1 " In 1790," says Draper, " no cotton was exported from the United States. Whitney's cotton gin was introduced in 1793. ^^^ next year about one and a half millions of pounds were exported and in 1795 about five and a quarter millions; in i860 the quantity had reached two thousand millions of pounds." To-day the production of cotton reaches the enormous amount of thirteen to sixteen million bales of five hundred pounds each. The invention of the gin came at the very time when rice and indigo had fallen to so low a price that they scarcely repaid the expense of cultivation. 240 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Before the invention of the cotton gin it was generally believed both by the North and by the South that slavery would pass away, as it was not profitable. The cotton gin, however, made slave labor very profitable to the cotton planter 'm^^!^^^M^m^£^^m^<^ A COTTON FIELD of the South. At the same time it enlisted the sympathy and active support of the Northern mill owners in maintaining the slave system, as they could thereby secure more and cheaper cotton.^ The cotton gin, therefore, not only helped to fasten slavery on the country but prevented its peaceful abolition. ^ The cotton industry received a wonderful impetus from some great English inventions of this period. John Kay invented the fly-shuttle, a machine to drive the shuttle to and fro. Hargreaves devised the spinning jenny, by which eight or ten strands of wool, cotton, or flax could be spun into thread at one time. Arkwright invented a machine for drawing out threads by rollers. Crompton combined the best features of the spinning jenny and roller machine into a new machine called the " mule." Cartwright invented a power loom for weaving. The looms were run by water power or horses. James Watt, by his improvement of the steam engine, revolutionized the industry when the looms were driven by steam power. These inventions led to the factory system, which replaced the method of manufacturing in the homes, which had been the custom up to that time. They made England at that time the greatest manufacturing nation of the world. THE PKRIOI) OF UNION 241 240. The First Cotton Mill, 1790. In 1790 Samuel Slater opened a mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had been em- ployed in an English factory where the new spinning machin- ery was used. The British Parliament had forbidden anyone, under heavy penalties, to make for foreign countries or to send out of England any spinning machinery, or drawings or models of the machinery. Slater came to America and from memory made the machin- ery. Slater's mill was the beginning of the wonderful cotton and woolen mills of our country that produce to- day hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of goods. 241. The French Rev- olution. In 1789 a revolution broke out in France. This revolution was caused partly by the revolution in America, but more largely by the unequal systems of tul; toTTox (;ix taxation ^ then in use in P'rance. The nobility and the wealthy classes practically escaped the payment of taxes, while the peasant farmers were weighed down by the fearful burden of taxation which they were com- pelled to bear. Although P^rance had in theory a representative assembly, it had not been called together in one hundred and seventy-five years. During this time the kings of France had ruled and taxed as they pleased. In 1789 the National Assembly was called together and demanded a new constitution. This began the revolution, which gradually carried all before it. The king, Louis XVI, and the queen, Marie Antoinette, were beheaded, 1 This taxation was especially heavy because of the numerous wars in which France had been engaged for almost two hundred years. 242 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and also hundreds of the leading nobles. Others fled for safety to foreign countries. The old laws were swept away, property was confiscated, and a reign of terror was begun. In a short time the revolutionists turned on each other, and thousands were beheaded in the fearful civil war. The mon- archs of Europe, taking alarm for their thrones, joined together to reestablish royalty in PVance. War broke out between France and England in 1793, and soon Spain, Austria, Holland, and Prussia took up arms against France. 242. Citizen Genet. As France had been our ally in the Revolution, most Americans were in sympathy with her in her plan to establish a republic and to overthrow royalty. At this time Edmond C. Genet ^ was sent as minister from the Republic of France to secure the cooperation of the United States against England and to detach the Floridas and Louisiana from Spain. Genet arrived at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1793 and began to fit out privateers against English commerce. Washington believed the United States was not in a position to interfere in European quarrels, even if it wished to do so. He therefore issued a proclamation of neutrality, refusing to take part in the war on the side either of France or of England. This course enraged the Democratic-Republicans. Believing that France had been our steadfast friend, while England had frequently been hostile to us, they called meetings to express their sympathy with France. Arriving in Philadelphia, Genet endeavored to stir up the people against the president. Genet's recall was requested, and the French government complied, 243. Jay's Treaty, 1794. To make matters worse at this time, England continued to refuse to give up the Western posts held by her soldiers. She seized our seamen who were natu- ralized American citizens, as she maintained that no English- man could change his nationality. She declared, also, that many British sailors were enlisted in our navy. 1 Genet (zhe nay')- As France had abolished all titles, they n'ow used the term citizen in addressing each other. [jL.i C I F ^J C THE PERIOD OF UNION 243 To remedy this intolerable condition of affairs, President Washington sent John Jay, the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, as special envoy to England to negotiate a treaty. By this treaty the king of England agreed to withdraw his troops by 1 796 from the posts they still occupied, — Detroit, Oswego, Niagara, Mackinaw, — and to pay for damages to our shipping.^ The treaty allowed American vessels of a certain small size to trade with the British West Indies, provided the United States would forbid its vessels to carry molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton to any part of the world except the United States.^ Jay consented to this clause, not realizing the remark- able future of the export of cotton from the United States. The treaty was most unpopular everywhere. Jay was hung in effigy. Washington was abused, and Hamilton was stoned while endeavoring to justify it. With the exception of the West India clause, which prohibited the exportation of cotton, however, it was ratified by the Senate (1795). Practically the only good result of the treaty was the postponement of war with England for seventeen years, during which time our population doubled and we were better able to enforce our rights. 244. Treaties with Spain and Algiers. An important treaty was made in 1795 with Spain. By this treaty the Florida boundary was agreed upon and the Mississippi River was opened to trade. We were also given permission to use New Orleans as a port of deposit, which meant we were allowed to land goods there free of duty while the goods were awaiting transshipment. The opening of the Mississippi was hailed ' As France had thrown open her West Indian ports to us our ships were trading there by the hundreds, and many had been captured by EngHsh war vessels. We claimed that as " free ships made free goods " they were exempt from seizure, but England denied this doctrine. ■- The treaty was in other respects most favorable to Great Britain. It allowed British ships to trade with the United States without discrimination, permitted to England free navigation of the Mississippi, and provided that privateers should not be allowed to fit out in our ports. The treaty said noth- ing about the right of search or the impressment of seamen. 244 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY with great joy by the settlers of the West, who wished to use the great waterway to reach the world's markets with their goods. The same year a treaty was signed with Algiers, To release thirteen American seamen who had been held as captives for ten years by these pirates, eighty thousand dollars were paid and an annual tribute of twenty-three thousand dollars was promised to the rulers of Algiers for the protection of American shipping. ,/,_ ^ ^-2^ WASHINGTON AND LAFAYETTE AT MOUNT VERNON 245. Washington's Farewell Address. As his second term ^ of ofifice was closing, Washington declined election for a third time and issued a farewell address. In this noble document he asked his fellow citizens to hold aloof from permanent alli- ances with any portion of the foreign world, but to preserve " harmony and a liberal intercourse with all nations." He warned the country against the dangers of party spirit and advised respect for law, for the national credit, for public and private virtue, for religion and morality. " Of all the disposi- tions and habits," said Washington, "which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports." 1 Washington had been unanimously reelected in 1792 with John Adams as vice president. THE PERIOD OF UNION 245 He left the presidency to return to his beautiful home at Mount Vernon. On leaving the high office Washington could indeed look with pride on the advance of his country during the eight years of his administration. The Constitution was firmly established, the laws were well administered, the pub- lic credit was secure, the revenues were increasing daily, and we were extending our commerce on all sides. On returning to private life Washington was hailed by all the people with the proudest title a patriot may enjoy, '" The r^ather of his Countn,-." SUMMARY The leading events of Washington's administrations were as follows : Our government was begun in 1789 under the Constitution. The payment of our debt, foreign and domestic, was provided for in 1790 and our national credit established at home and abroad. A tariff law was passed (1789) with protecdve features. An excise law placed internal revenue taxes on distilled liquors. A national bank was established in 1791. In the war between France and England Washington preserved the peace of the United States by a neutrality proclamation. In 1789 the French Revolution broke out in France. Genet, a minister of the new French Republic, sought (1793) to enlist the United States on the side of France, but he was recalled. The states of Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Tennessee (1796) were admitted to the Union. The first ten amendments to the Constitution were adopted (i 789V The Whisky Rebellion of 1794 was quickly ended by W'ashington. A treaty with England made in 1794 by John Jay was confirmed, except as to certain clauses, by the Senate. It caused widespread dis- satisfaction in the country, but for a time it averted war. By a treaty with Spain in 1795 we adjusted the northern boundar\- of Florida and secured the free navigation of the Mississippi. In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which revolutionized the cotton industr\- and fastened slaver)' on the country. The first cotton mill in the United States was opened in 1790 at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 246 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY John Adams's Administration, i 797-1801 246. Election of Adams. The Federalists nominated John Adams for president ; the Democratic- Republicans chose Thomas Jefferson. Adams received seventy-one votes ^ and was elected president, while Jefferson had sixty-eight votes and was elected vice president.^ On March 4, 1797, Adams was inaugurated.^ 247. Trouble with France, 1797. X Y Z Papers, 1798. The Jay treaty had aroused the indignation of the French gov- ernment, which sent its war vessels to capture our merchant- men. It also refused to receive our minister, Charles C. Pinckney, until the grievances of France had been redressed. To settle our difficulties. President Adams sent (1797) two special commissioners to join Pinckney, who was still in France. The French government did not receive them, but three envoys from Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, promised to stop these attacks on our shipping if the commissioners would give fifty thousand dollars to each of the five members of the French Directory, which was then the ruling power in France. The envoys also demanded that we assist France with a loan of money and disavow some expressions of President Adams towards the French government. 1 As the Constitution then provided, the largest number of electoral votes elected the president and the next largest number of electoral votes elected the vice president. This provision has since been changed by the Twelfth Amendment. - " While the election was still in doubt, Jefferson wrote to Madison authorizing him in case of a tie between himself and Adams to solicit votes for the latter, as he was the senior and had always preceded him in the march of public life." — Channing, " United States," Vol. IV, p. 173 3 John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. He was elected a mem- ber of the First and Second Continental Congresses and aided materially in the adoption of the Declaration of Independence by Congress. From the first he advocated separation from Great Britain. After our government was established, he worked with great perseverance and success to secure the good will of Europe towards our new republic and was appointed minister to Great Britain. He died July 4, 1S26, with the words, " Thomas Jefferson still survives." But he was mistaken, for that illustrious statesman had passed away a few hours before. THE PERIOD OF UNION 247 This proposal was sent to Adams, who submitted it (March 5, 1798) to Congress. Instead of the names of Talleyrand's three agents, the letters X, Y, Z were used. Hence the documents were called the X Y Z papers. This infamous proposal caused a burst of indignation through- out the land, and we were on the brink of war with France. The immortal words of Pinckney were on every lip, " Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." 248. Preparations for War. In his message to Congress Adams said, " I will never send another minister to France without assurance that he will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a great, free, powerful, and independent nation." The treaties with France were sus- pended ; a provisional army was raised, and Washington was made commander in chief. A navy department was created, and our vessels, fitted out for war, sailed to the French West Indies to destroy French commerce. The Constellation, under Commodore Truxtun, captured the French frigate hisnrgente. In the following two and a half years the Americans captured eighty-four French vessels. So vigorous a warfare did our little navy wage that the French Directory requested us to send another commission. Adams, anxious to avoid war, sent the commission, which made a treaty in 1800 with Napoleon, who had replaced the Directory in the control of France. 249. Alien and Sedition Laws, 1798. The Federalists, aided by the excitement of the times and by the feeling against France, passed the so-called Alien and Sedition Laws. By the Alien Law the president had the power for two years to expel any foreigner from the country. This law was never in fact enforced, but many French refugees fled from the country.^ 1 In i79Sthe Eleventh Amendment was added to the Constitution. A citizen of South Carolina had brought a suit against Georgia ( Chisholm against Georgia) for the payment of a debt. The United States Supreme Court asserted its right to hear the suit and entered judgment against the state of Georgia. The Eleventh Amendment was promptly passed, and a state cannot now be sued by a citizen of another state. 248 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Sedition Law provided that any person, native or foreign, who unlawfully opposed any measure of the government or abused the president, Congress, or any member of the national government could be fined and imprisoned. This act was to be in force for three years. A few persons were fined and imprisoned under it. 250. Action of Virginia and Kentucky, 1798. The Demo- cratic-Republicans strongly denounced these acts.^ Jefferson wrote a series of resolutions which were adopted by the legis- lature of Kentucky. Madison did the same for the legislature of Virginia. These resolutions were the first actual declaration of "state rights." They protested that the Alien and Sedition Laws were unconstitutional and that it was the duty of the states to interpose. In an additional Kentucky resolution of 1799 nullification ^ was declared to be the rightful remedy. This doctrine of nullification, held so generally both by the North and by the South, was destined later to bear fruit and eventually to end in the Civil War. 251. Death of Washington. The New Capital. On Decem- ber 14, 1799, George Washington died, after a brief illness, at his home at Mount Vernon. The entire nation was bowed with grief at the death of him who had been " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." Napoleon ordered all the flags of France to be draped in black for ten days. 1 The Democratic-Republicans maintained that the Alien Act violated the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed freedom of the person and a trial by jury. The Sedition Act, they declared, violated the right of freedom of speech and of the press as guaranteed by the First Amendment of the Constitution. 2 The idea of the Kentucky resolution was, however, not the right of nullification by a single state but by a convention of the states. The Virginia resolutions did not suggest nullification, but implied the right of a state to pass on the constitutionality of an act of Congress. The nullifica- tion idea was not by any means confined to the Southern states. A few years later (1808) the legislature of Massachusetts declared that the Embargo Act is " in many respects unjust, oppressive, and unconstitutional, and not legally binding upon the citizens of this state." The same ideas obtained in Penn- sylvania in 1809 and in the Hartford Convention of 1814. THE PERIOD OF UNION 249 John Adams had been inaugurated in Philadelphia, to which the seat of government had been moved from New York in 1 790. During his administration the new capital on the banks of the Potomac was occupied by Congress (November, 1800). To the territory was given the name District of Columbia. It was a tract of land ten miles square, given by Maryland and "^-SfeC^.... 'i\^ THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON Virginia. The new city was named Washington, and was laid out on a spacious scale by a French engineer, Major I'Enfant. The corner stone of the Capitol was laid September 18, 1793. In October, 1800, the government offices were trans- ferred from Philadelphia to Washington.^ 252. Election of Jefferson. At the close of Adams's adminis- tration the P'ederalist party was rent by internal quarrels and weakened in the nation by the passage of the Alien and Sedi- tion Laws. Hamilton, though a P'ederalist, used all his great ability to defeat Adams, who had been nominated for reelection. 1 A second census was taken this year (1800), which showed that the United States contained 5,308.438 inhabitants. 250 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Democratic-Republicans nominated Jefferson and Burr. When the electoral votes were counted, it was found that all the Democratic-Republican electors had written Burr's name on the ballot with that of Jefferson. Each received, therefore, seventy-three votes. As there was no election, it was thrown into the House of Representatives, which thereupon elected Jefferson president and Burr vice president. This difficulty brought about a desire for a change in the method of electing a president. The Twelfth Amendment was passed (1804), and provided that the electors should cast a separate and distinct ballot for president and a separate and distinct ballot for vice president. It also provided that in case no candidate for the presidency should receive a majority of all the electoral votes cast for president, the House of Repre- sentatives, voting by states, should elect one of the three having the highest number of votes. One of the most important acts of Adams's administration was the appointment of John Marshall of Virginia as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. For thirty- four years he held this dignified office. Largely through his influence the Supreme Court rendered many far-reaching decisions sustaining the "broad " construction idea of the Con- stitution. He has been called by an eminent American jurist " a second maker of the Constitution." SUMMARY At the outset of Adams's administration, trouble with France (1797-179 8) aroused the country. The X Y Z negotiations brought us to the verge of war with France. The Alien and Sedition Laws were passed in 1798 and were generally condemned. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions brought forward the idea of state rights and nullification. Washington died at his home at Mount Vernon in 1799. The capital was moved in 1800 from Philadelphia to the District of Columbia. THE PERIOD OF UNION 251 Jefferson's Administrations, i 801-1809 253. The Democratic-Republican Party. On entering the presidency Jefferson 1 showed a democratic spirit. On the morning of his inauguration he walked to the Capitol surrounded by a few friends in- stead of riding in a coach with six horses as had been the custom. He desired the cordial friendship of all the people. The dress of former days was largely changed ; he himself discarded to a great extent the wigs, short breeches, silk stockings, and buckled shoes ; his motto was, "A vote for every man, whether he owns property or not." immma^ jiin :ks,,x He was in favor of freedom of speech and low taxes, and was a firm advocate of peace. He was opposed to the rapidly increasing power of the ' Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, April 13, 1743. He studied law, was elected to the House of Burgesses of Virginia, and became a member of the Continental Congress. With brilliant intellectual gifts he quickly rose to a leading position in national affairs. He was the author of the Declaration of Independence and of our decimal system of coinage. During the Revolution he served as governor of Virginia. He drafted the Religious Toleration Law. He was elected president in iSoo and reelected in 1S04. From his Virginia home he was called the Sage of Monticello. He died July 4, 1S26. 252 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Federal Government, Jefferson represented the new ideas of the times and was deservedly popular. The Democratic-Republicans began many reforms. They cut down the army and the navy and began to pay off the national debt, which was reduced one third in eight years, besides paying for Louisiana and the war with the Barbary pirates. They re- pealed many objectionable laws and conducted the government on lines of the strictest economy, the entire expense being less than four million dollars a year. 254. War on the African Pirates. For many years the Bar- bary States on the north coast of Africa — Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli — had made a trade of piracy. Practically all the nations of Europe paid them immense sums of money to leave their vessels alone. These pirates had given us a great deal of trouble by capturing our shipping and imprisoning our sailors. We had paid them a million dollars in tribute to allow our vessels to sail the Mediterranean, but they constantly demanded more, until in 1801 the ruler of Tripoli declared war against us. In 1803 a fleet was sent against these pirates. So vigorously did our brave sailors wage the war that the ruler of Tripoli asked for peace with us in 1805. 255. Ohio admitted, 1802. West Point. The Northwest Territory in 1800 had been divided into the territory of Ohio and the territory of Indiana. In 1802 the territory of Ohio was admitted to the Union, being the first state formed from the Northwest Territory. Ohio had at this time- only forty-five thousand inhabitants. To the settlement around Fort Washing- ton was given the name of Cincinnati, As the boats multiplied on the Ohio River, Cincinnati became the leading city on this river. To secure officers for the army the national government decided to found a military school. The beautiful site of West Point, New York, at a spot where it overlooks the Highlands of the Hudson River, was selected, and the United States Military Academy was founded there in 1802. niL iJ'^^^^Qf^^ ^-M H /-''V%f WEST POINT 254 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 256. The Louisiana Purchase, 1803. The greatest event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana, the vast territory extending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf of Mexico to British America. In 1763 Spain received this territory from France as a reward for her aid in the war with England. Spain held it for thirty-seven years and in 1800, by a secret treaty, ceded it back to France. The West relied upon the Mississippi to carry its products to the sea, and one fourth of all our products passed down that great waterway in flatboats from Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee. Even with a weak power like Spain in possession of New Orleans, there was danger, as was seen when the Spanish governor of New Orleans refused, in 1802, to allow us any longer the right of deposit there. This cut off our Western products from the world's markets and aroused the entire West. Even at this time the Western settlers hoped to see the United States occupy the territory beyond the Mississippi. What Jefferson especially feared was the establishment of a strong power like F'rance at the mouth of the Mississippi. Speaking of New Orleans, he said, "There is one spot the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy." ^ Jefferson sent an envoy to France to buy New Orleans and that part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi.^ As a matter of fact Napoleon had already planned the reestablishment of an American colonial domain for France ; but, having failed in recovering control of 1 Jefferson had grave doubts as to his right under the Constitution to buy territory. He took advantage, however, of his doubts and was sustained by the country. The Federalists opposed the purchase, as they feared the West would in the future put them in a minority. Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts advised the secession of New England and New York if Louisiana was admitted to the Union. 2 In 1803 Chief Justice Marshall rendered the first of a series of decisions that have profoundly affected our national life. In that year the Supreme Court decided, in the case of JSIarbury against Madison, that the Supreme Court could set aside an act of Congress if that act, in the opinion of a majority of the justices of that Court, conflicted with the Constitution. THE PERIOD OF UNION 255 the French colony of Saint Dominique,^ where the slaves had revolted, he lost his interest in this colonial project and sold Louisiana to the United States for fifteen million dollars.^ The acquisition of Louisiana doubled our national domain. Napoleon said, on signing the treaty, " This accession of terri- tory establishes forever the power of the United States and gives to Eng- land a maritime rival destined to humble her pride." 257. The Exploration of Lewis and Clark, 1804- 1806. As nothing was actually known of this vast territory, Jefferson sent an expedition under Meriw^ether Lewis and William Clark to explore it. Leaving St. Louis (May 1 4, 1 804) with forty- five picked and trained men, they pushed their three boats up the Mis- souri halfway to its head- waters, to the village of the Mandan Indians near the site of the present city of Bismarck, North Dakota. Here they decided to go into winter quarters for five months. Along the route they had secured plenty of food, as there was an abundance of 1 Now Haiti. The leader of the revolt, which began in 1795, was Toussaint L'Ouverture. Read Wendell I'hillips's celebrated oration on this daring leader. - From this territory have since been formed the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Oklahoma, a large part of the states of Minnesota and Colorado, and parts of Wyoming and Montana. E LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION AT THE SUMMIT OF THE ROCKIES 256 ESSENTIALS OE AMERICAN HISTORY deer, wild turkeys, elk, buffalo, geese, and fish. In the spring (April, 1805) they resumed their journey up the river and after twenty days reached the Yellowstone. Late in May they saw the snowy peaks of the Rocky Moun- tains on the distant horizon. 1 After endless toils they crossed the mountains '^ and embarked on the Columbia. They reached the mouth of the Columbia (November, 1805) after a journey of four thousand miles and saw the Pacific stretching before them. On their return to St. Louis (September 23, 1806) they published an account of their wonderful journey. In the entire two years, notwithstanding the hardships and dangers, only one man had died. 258. Russia on the Pacific. In 1725 Peter the Great gave a commission to a Dane named Vitus Bering to cross Siberia and explore the north Pacific. During the next sixteen years Bering was engaged in this work. He discovered the strait that now bears his name and explored the shores of Alaska and the coast of the present British Columbia. Bering's ex- plorations led to great Russian activity in the hunt for the valuable sea otter that swarmed in these waters. The Russians pushed down the Pacific coast, founding Sitka in 1 800.^ A post w^as built on Bodega Bay in 181 3, where they came in touch with the Spanish missions of California. A few miles north- ward they built a fort (1820) which they named P^ort Ross. The Russians now claimed all of the Pacific coast north of the Spanish territory for their flag. 1 The French fur trader La Verendrye and his sons had seen the Big Horn chain of the Rocky Mountains seventy-five years before Lewis and Clartc. - The expedition was greatly aided by an Indian squaw, Sacajawea, a Snal IKOX.S I />KS) vessels, carrying four hundred and forty-two guns and about five thousand men. England, "the mistress of the seas," at the same time had ten hundred and forty-eight ships, carrying twenty-seven thousand eight hundred guns and one hundred and fifty thousand men. On the American coast alone England had one hundred and seven ships. Despite such odds, our brave sailors went forth to strive for victor)\ On August 19, 18 12, the Constitution, under Captain Hull, nephew of General Hull, captured the Gncrrihr. Erom that time the Constitution was known as Old Ironsides. During this year the British frigate Macedonian was captured by the United States, and the Frolic was captured by the Wasp. While the war was in progress President Madison was re- nominated by the Democratic- Republicans and elected. 270 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 271. The Chesapeake and the Shannon. The Privateers. The British ship Shannon fought (June i, 18 13) the American frigate Chesapeake outside Boston Harbor and captured her. Captain Lawrence fell ; his dying words were, " Don't give up the ship." Privateers were commissioned by the President to prey on English commerce. In seven months over three hundred British vessels were captured by them, and during the war over seventeen hundred ships were taken. 272. Raisin River Mas- sacre, 1813. Fort Meigs. In the new plans for the inva- sion of Canada the army was organized in three divisions. It was intended that the first should retake Michigan Terri- tory ; the second, the Niagara district ; the third, the Lake Champlain valley. All three divisions were then to invade Canada. General Harrison, in charge of the western division, moved northward towards Detroit. A part of his forces, under Winchester, was defeated (January 22, 181 3) on the Raisin River (near the present site of the city of Monroe, Michigan) by the British and Indians. The British general, Proctor, did not adequately protect the American prisoners from the Indians, and many were massacred. Only forty were saved from the battle. Henceforth the war cry of the Americans was, " Remember the River Raisin." In the spring of 1813 Proctor, with the aid of Tecumseh, besieged General Harrison at Fort Meigs on the Maumee River. Two attacks were made without success ; thereupon the British turned and attacked P'ort Stephenson on the lower Sandusky. The attack was an utter failure, and the enemy OLIVER HAZARD PERRY THE PERIOD OF UNION 271 retreated. Michigan, however, was still in the hands of the British. These reverses led the Indians to lose faith in British prowess, and many promptly deserted. 273. Battle of Lake Erie, 1813. The navy, which had won so many victories at sea, now achieved a most signal triumph on Lake Erie. It was seen that it would be necessary to control the Cireat Lakes before any expedition into Canada could be success- ful. On September 10, 181 3, Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, with nine vessels, many of them built on the lake shore, attacked the Britisli fleet, which was made up of six vessels larger than Perry's and having greater gun power. The battle was a com- plete defeat for the British. Perry sent to General Harrison this message : " W^e have met the enemy and they are ours : two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." As we now controlled Lake Erie*, the Brit- ish were compelled to abandon Detroit, and the territory sur- rendered by Hull was recovered. 274. Battle with the Creek Indians. Harrison's Victory on the Thames. The Creek Indians in the South now went on the warpath. They had been aroused by Tecumseh and supplied with arms by British agents. Eort Mimms, forty miles from Mobile, was attacked (August 30, 181 3) and all its occupants, two hundred and fifty men, women, and children, massacred. With troops from Georgia, Mississippi, and Ten- nessee, General Andrew Jackson marched against the Indians. He attacked them (March 29, 1S14) at Horseshoe Bend, or Tohopeka, on a branch of the Alabama River. The Indians were completely defeated and their power broken. Many fled into Spanish territory, and the United States took "^V( y ^ n"^ \ nM C-^ cN^ De .•oit^A(^«;2:J^ s ^ ^^•"^^ -iS-l '"^Battle of J A Lake trie J- ^ K E I E ^ / \^ <~» /P?M^n^ -f H / I Aj UK WAR I.\ TIUC NORTHWEST 272 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY possession of a large portion of their lands under a treaty which Jackson compelled them to make (August 9, 18 14). In the meantime General Harrison took advantage of Perry's victory to invade Canada, On the banks of the Thames (October 5, 18 13) he routed the English forces under Proctor and Tecumseh. By these victories of Perry and Harrison we controlled Lake Eric, Michigan, and Upper Canada, Ohio was freed from the danger of invasion, and the Indian confederacy was destroyed. 275. Battle of Lake Cham- plain, September 11, 1814. The American army under General Brown crossed the Niagara River, captured Fort Erie, and defeated the English at Chippewa (July 5, 1 8 14). Three weeks later the Americans attacked the strong position of the British at Lundy's Lane (July 25) within sound of Niagara Falls and won a partial victory. The British now planned an expedition down Lake Cham- plain, following the route taken by Burgoyne thirty-seven years before. Sir George Prevost, with a land force of eleven thousand men, marched southward to Plattsburg, while a naval force of seventeen vessels sailed down the lake to support him. The British fleet met (September 11, 1 8 14) the American squadron of fourteen vessels under Commodore Macdonough, The fight lasted two and one-half hours, when the whole British fleet surrendered. In the meantime the British land forces met General McComb, who had taken a position with two thousand men on the bank of the Saranac River. The British tried in vain to cross, the fire of the Americans sweep- ing their ranks at every point. At last, hearing of the disaster THE WAR IN THE SOUTHWEST THE PERIOD OF UNION 273 to the fleet, they retreated in such haste that the sick and wounded, as well as large military stores, were left in the hands of the Americans. 276. Burning of Washington, 1814. The overthrow of Napoleon allowed the British to send thousands of well- trained troops to America. In retaliation for a raid into Canada, during which the Parliament buildings at York (or Toronto) were destroyed, Vice Admiral Cochrane gave orders to lay waste the coast towns. As a result of this order the British turned their attention to Chesa- peake Bay. Landing their forces, the British, under General Ross, marched without difficulty against the capital of the nation. On August 24, 18 14, General Ross entered Washington and burned the Capitol and other pub- lic buildings. He next marched to Baltimore, while his fleet sailed up the bay and bombarded Fort McHenry, which guarded the approaches to that city. For twenty-five hours shot and shell rained on the fort in vain. At the end of the bombardment " the flag was still there." ^ The land forces attacked the city, but were repulsed. Ross was killed and the British retreated. 277. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815. The English now gathered a large force under Sir Edward Pakenham to attack New Orleans and secure control of the Mississippi. The British hoped to win the aid of the French and Spanish THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 1 Francis Scott Key was detained that night on one of the British ships, whither he had gone to secure the release of some prisoners. By the flash of the guns, while watching eagerly the flag still flying over Fort Mc Henry, he wrote our national hymn, "The Star- Spangled Banner." 274 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY inhabitants of this section, as these inhabitants were not kindly disposed to American rule. By controlling the Mississippi the British hoped to secure in the treaty of peace the entire Louisiana country for themselves. General Andrew Jackson marched to meet them. Besides a fleet of fifty vessels the English had twelve thousand trained S-^-1 ^^ .< ^^ JACKSON SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS soldiers, many of them having fought against Napoleon. Jackson had six thousand men behind breastworks, mostly undisciplined troops but superb marksmen. The British ad- vanced (January 8, 1815), but were completely defeated with a loss of twenty-six hundred men. The American loss in killed and wounded was only seventy-one. 278. The Treaty of Peace. The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium (December 24, 18 14), but the news of this action did not reach the United States until after the battle of New THE PERIOD OF UNION 275 Orleans, as the telegraph did not exist at this time and the news was brought in sailing vessels. In the peace treaty nothing was said about the matters that caused the war. The impressment of our sailors, neutral rights, or blockades were not mentioned, and ICngland did not bind herself to give up the right of search. Our naval victories, however, had rendered that proceeding so dangerous that for the future our ships were not molested. Other questions, such as boundaries and the ending of the Indian Wars, were referred to arbitration. 279. Results of the War of 181 2. While the war cost two hundred millions of dollars and the lives of thirty thousand men. it produced beneficial results. ICurope learned that we were well able to take care of our- selves, and our ships and sailors could hereafter cross the seas in peace. Another effect of the war was tlie development of manufactures. The war tariff, the embargo, the non- intercourse laws, and the high price of freights had turned the capitalists from commerce to manufactures, which had increased to a wonderful extent, especially in cotton goods.^ In 1 8 14 Francis C. Lowell established at Waltham, Massa- chusetts, a cotton mill, where for the first time all the processes of spinning, weaving, and finishing were carried on under one roof. Other large factories were built at Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River. To protect these industries from English competition at the close of the war, a duty of twenty-five per cent was laid on cotton and woolen goods imported from abroad, and the protective system was thereby established. ^ During the war the necessity for better communication by means of good roads and canals between the sections of the ' There were only four cotton factories in the United States in 1S03. In 1S15 there were no less than five hundred thousand spindles in operation, while the consumption of cotton had risen from five hundred bales in 1800 to ninety thousand bales in 181 5. 2 This was the tariff of 1S16, practically the first of our purely protective tariffs. It was bitterly opposed bv Daniel Webster, who felt that it imperiled the commercial interests of New England. 2/6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY country was plainly seen. This need led to a renewed demand for "internal improvements," with money to be raised from increased tariff rates, and further developed the growing protective system. The War of 1812 has been called the Second War of Independence.. We were at last becoming independent of Europe not only in political ideas and theories but also in our industrial life. Since the termination of the War of 18 12 over a century has elapsed, during which time the United States and England have been at peace. Along the entire boundary line of Canada and the United States, a distance of three thousand miles, not a fort exists, nor has there been an armed squadron on the Great Lakes. This is in striking contrast to conditions in Europe, where the boundaries of practically all the countries bristle with fortresses, manned day and night, year after year, by armed men. This condition has virtually turned Europe into a military camp. 280. The Hartford Convention, 1814. While the war was in progress it had been violently opposed by many of the New England Federalists. Massachusetts and Connecticut had withdrawn their militia from the national service at the moment of the nation's greatest peril. The Federalists obstructed the loan of money to the national treasury, and the English troops and ships received large supplies from the New England states. Under the influence of 'the Federalist leaders the legislature of Massachusetts invited the states of New England to send delegates to a convention. Twenty- seven' delegates met at Hartford, December 15, 18 14. The meetings were secret ; and it was believed that the delegates were plotting a disruption of the Union, for the convention resolved it was the right and duty of a state under certain circumstances to nullify an act of Congress. The convention also suggested amendments to the Constitution, designed to diminish the influence of the South in national THE PKRIOI) OF UNION 277 politics and to make the suspension of foreign commerce or the declaration of war by Congress more difficult.^ The bitterest feeling was aroused throughout the country against the Federalists. Nothing resulted from the conven- tion, -as peace soon followed, but it brought about the ruin of the Federalist party. 281. Admission of Louisiana, Indiana, and Mississippi. In 18 1 2 the southern part of the Louisiana Purchase, which was called the Territory of Orleans, was admitted to the Union as the state of Louisiana. It was the first state made from the vast tract purchased from LYance. In 1805 Michigan Territory was formed from the northern part of Indiana Territory, Your years later Illinois Territory was formed from the western part. These cessions reduced Indiana Territory to its present limits, and it was admitted as a state in 18 16. In the following year Mississippi was added as a state to the Union, Settlements which were destined to become great cities now began to be made. In 18 18 Solo- mon Juneau founded Milwaukee on the west shore of Lake Michigan, The leading events of Madison's administrations (1809-1S17) were as follows : The second war with Great Britain began in 18 12 and ended in 18 1 5. It was caused mainly by the impressment of our seamen and by the violation of our rights of commerce as neutrals. Our national hymn, " The Star-Spangled Banner," was written during this war. The Hartford Convention of 18 14 aroused great indignation in the nation and brought about the downfall of the Federalist party. Louisiana (1812), Indiana (1S16). and Mississippi (1817) were admitted to the Union. 1 Other amendments were proposed to require a two-thirds vote of both Houses of Congress to admit a new state, or to interdict foreign commerce. Other amendments were designed to prevent a second term for a president, to prohibit the election of successive presidents from the same state, and to forbid naturahzed citizens to hold any office under the government. 278 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY James Monroe's Administrations,^ i8 17-1825 282. Era of Good Feeling. James Monroe, the fifth presi- dent, ushered in the "era of good feehng." The country was beheved to be entering on a period of peace and prosperity. Roads were built, canals were dug, the great fields of the West began to attract numer- .^^^^^^ ous settlers. In 18 17 Monroe visited New England and many of the Northern states. His journey was a triumphal progress and was of the greatest benefit in break- ing down sectional lines and uniting the country. 283. The Cession of Florida, 1819. At this time Spain still had pos- session of Florida. There were very few settle- ments, and the Indians, runaway slaves, and out- laws who roamed through the land caused endless trouble for the neighboring states. In 18 17 Andrew Jackson took command of the forces of the United States. Acting with his usual vigor, he seized a number of Spanish forts and towns, executed two British traders who were accused of furnishing arms to the Indians, and in three months had the country virtually under his control. His actions ^ James Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He was a member of the Congress of the Confederation, senator, Minister to France, Great Britain, and Spain, twice governor of Virginia,*and Secretary of State. Nominated in 1816 by the Democratic-Republicans for president, he was elected, and was reelected in 1820. He died in 1831. JAMES MONROE THE PERIOD OF UNION 279 threatened to bring on war with Spain and England. Fortunately Spain was induced in 18 19 to sign a treaty with the United Stales. 15 V this treaty Spain (i) ceded Florida to us and thereby adjusted our southern boundary, (2) arranged for drawing the boundary line between the United States and Mexico from the (iulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, and (3) agreed to the payment by the Ignited States of the claims held by American citizens against Spain to the amount of five million dollars. Sixty thousand square miles, were added to our domain by the Florida Cession.^ While these stirring events were taking place in the Southeast, the great westward migration was going on, aided by better roads and bridges and bv the steamboats on the Ohio River. As a result the territory of Illinois increased its population to fifty thousand, and in 18 18 it was admitted as a state to the Union. ' 284. The Question of Slavery. Slavery existed in all the thirteen colonies which belonged to Great Britain. At the adoption of the Constitution in 1787 slavery did not exist in Massachusetts (which included Maine), New Hampshire, and W^rmont. Later, however, it was gradually abolished in all the Northern states. By the Ordinance of 1787 slavery was pro- hibited in the Northwest Territory, and in consequence the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which had been formed from the Nortliwest Territory, were admitted as free states. During this time Kentuck\', Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana had been admitted as slave states. In 1820, therefore, there were in the Union eleven slave states and eleven free states, giving to each section exactly the same power in the national Senate.^ In the House of Representatives, 1 At this time all the Spanish-American colonics were in revolt against the flag of Spain. Spain was unable to conquer these colonies, and from this time the Spanish colonies of Central and South America became one by one inde- pendent republics. - In 1S21 the American Colonization Society carried out its project of founding in Africa a colony made up largely of free negroes from the United States. This colony is the present Republic of Liberia. 28o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY however, the free states, because of their rapidly increasing population, were obtaining the mastery, having at this time ninety-eight members to eighty-one for the slave states. In population the North now outnumbered the South by more than half a million. The slave states, therefore, resolved to hold their power in the Senate by refusing to admit a free state unless a slave state was admitted at the same time. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 182O Up to this period the new states, except Louisiana, had been established in territory entirely east of the Mississippi. The large emigration, however, had now crossed that ri\'er, and the settlers, who were mostly from the South and favored slavery, asked the admission of this new section as the state of Missouri. 285. The Missouri Compromise, 1820. This request brought on a crisis. Should Missouri be admitted as a free or slave state ? Upon the decision of that question practically depended the fate of slavery and freedom in the entire Louisiana Pur- chase. Other questions were involved in this problem, llie South, in raising tobacco, cotton, and rice, felt the necessity of THE PERIOD OF UNION 281 slavery to secure cheap labor. It also desired to buy its goods where they cost least ; in other words, they desired free trade with Europe. The North, in consequence of the War of 18 12, had given up the carrying trade by sea to some extent, had established manufactories, and desired a tariff placed on foreign goods. This would largely prevent their importation and would build up home industries. There was thus a conflict of interests between the North and the South. In the North, too, gradual emancipation was rapidly bringing about the extinction of slavery, and the disposition to, prevent its intro- duction into new territory was growing. Most of Missouri is n()rth of the lower Ohio River, which was the boundary between the slave and free states. As the prohibition of slavery in Missouri would give the free states a majority in the Senate and would be a discrimination against the right to hold slaves, the South vigorously opposed any such restriction. At this critical point a compromise was proposed by Senator Thomas of Illinois and pushed through by the great ability of Henry Clay.^ It was suggested that Missouri should be admitted as a slave state and Maine ^ as a free state, 1 Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. He was very poor and was called " the Mill Boy of the Slashes," the " Slashes " being the low swampy lands near the South Anna River in Virginia. He moved to Kentucky and was at various times senator and representative. He was Secretary of State under President John ()uincy Adams. He was called "the Great Pacificator." He was nominated for the presidency in 1824, in 1S32, and in 1S44, but was defeated each time. He died in 1852. 2 Maine had been a part of Massachusetts since 1691. With the consent of the latter state she now applied for admission to the Union. HE.NRV CLAY 282 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY thus maintaining the equahty of power in the Senate ; also that slavery should be prohibited forever in all the rest of the Louisiana Purchase (or Missouri Territory, as this area was now called) north of 36° 30' except the proposed state of Missouri. This plan, known as the "Missouri Compromise," was finally accepted (1820), and the question of slavery was to a great extent settled for nearly twenty-five years. 286. The Holy Alliance. Spain had lost as the result of revolutions her continental colonies in the New World.^ They had become independent republics. In 181 5, after the overthrow of Napoleon, the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, France, and Austria formed a union, called the Holy Alliance, to uphold "religion, peace, and justice." In 1822 this was supplemented by a secret treaty, by which they agreed to act together to put an end to representative insti- tutions in Europe, to suppress the liberty of the press, and to reestablish everywhere reactionary and despotic govern- ments. In 1823 they intervened to restore absolute rule in Spain and planned to recover the revolted colonies for the Spanish king. It is believed that France expected to secure Mexico and that Russia had plans on foot to seize California, We had at this very period a question to settle with Russia on the Pacific seaboard, for she claimed that coast from Bering Sea to the fifty-first parallel.^ If her claims were good we were in danger of being shut out entirely from the Pacific coast, as Mexico extended to the forty-second- parallel and England claimed Oregon, which at that time included all the area from the Mexican boundary of 42° to the Russian boundary on the North. 1 Mexico, Colombia, Buenos Ayres (later Argentina), Peru, Chile, and Venezuela were the colonies that had successfully rebelled and were acknowl- edged as independent republics by the United States in 1822. 2 This parallel is about two hundred miles north of the northern boundary of the United States. Two years previous to this time the Czar of Russia had forbidden foreign navigators to come within one hundred miles of the Pacific coast north of 51°. TIIK PERIOD OF UNION 283 287. The Monroe Doctrine. At this juncture President Monroe declared, in his message to Congress in ICS23, "that the American continents, by the free and independent con- dition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." This was aimed at Russia, which, as we have seen, had designs on California. It was also directed at France, which, it was feared, was planning to secure control of Mexico. President Monroe further declared that as the United States did not propose to meddle with European affairs, he expected that the Holy Alliance would not meddle with American affairs. He therefore boldly said to the Holy Alliance : " We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations exist- ing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety," and that any hostile interference with the South American republics would not be regarded "" in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." This message, reenforced by the opposition of England to intervention in South America, produced the desired effect, and the republics of Mexico and of South America were allowed to work out their own destiny. "The era of European colonization in the New World had passed away." In the fol- lowing year Russia made a treaty with us, abandoning all her claims to the Pacific coast south of 54° 40', which is the southern limit of Alaska. The United States agreed to make no settlements north of that line. 288. Reelection of Monroe. Visit of Lafayette. /\t the end of his first term President Monroe was reelected without opposition, receiving the electoral vote of every state. In 1824 Lafayette arrived as the guest of the nation, to visit again after an absence of forty years the land for which 284 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY he had fought so vahantly. He was received everywhere with the cordiahty his bravery and generosity merited. At Bunker Hill, exactly fifty years after the battle, he laid the corner stone of the monument which marks that glorious height. Congress voted him two hundred thousand dollars and twenty- four thousand acres of land in Florida to repay him for the SCENE ON THE NATIONAL ROAD money he had expended in the American Revolution, He visited Mount Vernon to pay his affectionate respects to the memory of his beloved friend Washington. 289. Emigration to the West. The National Road. The West was now attracting the attention of the nation, and over the mountains poured a stream of settlers. Steamboats began to ply on the large rivers. Towns were built on the banks, and forests cleared away for farms and plantations. This movement was aided by the influx of settlers from Europe. In the desire to render easier the communication between the East and the West, a highway was begun by the national government in 1 8 1 1 at Fort Cumberland on the Potomac River. This great highway was called the Cumberland, or THE PERIOD OF UNION 285 National, Road. The road was about eighty feet wide, paved with stone and covered with gravel. It was marked every quarter of a mile. The road reached Wheeling in 1820 and was later (1836) built as far as Vandalia in Illinois, when its further construction ceased with the greater public interest in railways. Along this road passed an endless stream of pack- horses and of wagons with settlers seeking the fertile fields of the West. On reaching the Ohio River many sailed down in steamboats or flatboats to find new homes in the river valleys. THE CUMI5ERLAND, OK NATIONAL, ROAU The leading events of Monroe's administrations (1817-1825) were as follows : Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. The slavery debate, which opened with great vigor, was settled for a long time by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. In 1823 the Monroe Doctrine was proclaimed. The northwestern boundary dispute with Russia was adjusted. The visit of Lafayette occurred in 1S24, when lie was received willi joy by all the nation. At this time began a great emigration to the West, aided by tlie building of the National Road, wliich reached Wheeling in 1S20. Dates to be remembered : 1812. The second war with England. 1S19. The purchase of Florida. 1 8 20. The Missouri Compromise. 1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 286 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Important dates for reference : 1814. Peace treaty with Great Britain. 18 1 5. Battle of New Orleans. 18 1 6. First protective tariff act. 18 1 9. First steamship crosses the Atlantic. Map ivork : Study on the map the location of Detroit, Lake Champlain, Niagara River, Raisin River, Sandusky, Chesapeake Bay, Washington, New Orleans. Study carefully the result of the compromise of 1820, tracing the free and slave territory and the area opened to freedom. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. "The War of 1S12 has been often and truly called the second war of independence." Explain the meaning of this statement and give three concrete results of the war. 2. Write a brief biography of two of the following : Alexander Hamilton, Lafayette, Robert Fulton, Thomas Jefferson. 3. What is the Monroe Doctrine.'' Under what circumstances was it proclaimed.'' 4. Give an account of the acquisition of territoiT during Monroe's administration, showing (a) the circumstances and events that led to it ; (/') the three chief conditions of the treaty. 5. Give an account of each of the following: («) the causes of the second war with England ; (b) the burning of Washington. 6. State the objections raised by the Northern states against the admission of Missouri into the Union. How and in what year was the matter compromised.'' 7. Show how the United States was affected by the W'ar of 181 2 as to {a) standing among nations ; {b) domestic relations ; (r) new industries ; (d) commerce ; {e) improvement of internal communications. 8. Mention the first five presidents of the United States and connect an important event with the administration of each. 9. Trace the history of Louisiana from the earliest times to its admission to the Union. 10. Relate the circumstances that led to the following famous utterances: " Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." " We have met the enemy and they are ours." THK TKRIOI) OF UNION 287 John Ouixcv Adams's Admixistkatiox, 1825-1829 290. The Election of Adams. At the close of Monroe's administration Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay were the candidates for the presidency. All were members of the Democratic-Republican party. In the election no one had the required majority of the electoral votes,^ and the House of Representatives elected John Ouincy Adams.- John C. Calhoun had been elected vice president with practically no opposition.^ 291. The Tariff Question. The question of the tariff became one of the leading problems of Adams's administration. The advocates of protection believed that the tariff should be placed so high that foreign goods could not compete with domestic manufactures. This, they claimed, would keep our mills and factories running at full speed, would maintain a high rate of wages, and w^ould make the countr)- prosperous and independent of foreign markets. In opposition to this view were those who believed in "free trade" — that one should be allowed to buy his goods where he could get them cheapest. Another class believed in a '" tariff 1 Jackson received ninety-nine votes, Adams eighty-four, Crawford forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. As the House of Representatives, voting by states, was compelled under the Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) to choose from the three highest candidates. Clay could not be voted for. He used his great influence as Speaker of the House of Representatives, however, for Adams, who was elected. 2 John Quincy Adams, the son of President John Adams, was born in Massachusetts in 1767. He served the country abroad as minister to Holland, (}ermany, Russia, and England. He was senator and served as Secretary of State under Monroe (1S17). He was elected president in 1S24 and was de- feated for reelection. After his presidential term had expired Adams was elected as an independent to the House of Representatives, where he was an earnest defender of the right of petition and a strenuous opponent of slavery and secret societies, earning the title of " Old Man Eloquent." He was stricken in his seat with apoplexy and died February 23, 1S4S. His last words were: "This is the last of earth. I am content." 3 With the exception of Washington and John Adams, candidates for the presidency up to 1824 were nominated by a caucus of congressmen. From 1824 to 1832 the legislatures of many of the states made nominations. The national convention system began in 1832 and has since been followed by all parties. 288 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY for revenue only ' ' — that a tariff should be levied only to raise money to carry on the government and should not have for its principal object the protection of any industry. In 1816 a pro- tective tariff had been passed to protect from foreign competi- tion coarse cotton and woolen goods. This was in reality the first of the tariffs that were levied for protection instead of for revenue. Two years later (18 1 8) another tariff act placed heavy protective duties on iron and iron manufactures. The great struggle was begun be- tween the friends and opponents of protection that continues until the present day.^ In 1824 a still higher tariff was levied. Henry Clay was an earnest advocate of high pro- tection, which he called the American System. The South, however, was gradually chang- ing its earlier ideas and was now opposed to a protective tariff, while the North was strongly in favor of it. The South, being an agricultural section with no factories, believed that the high tariff diminished foreign trade, thus cutting down the market for cotton in Europe, and that it also compelled them to pay higher prices for the goods they bought ; the North maintained that a protective tariff established a home market where cotton would bring a higher price. Believing the tariff of 1824 did not give them sufficient 1 In 1S16, while John C. Calhoun favored a protective tariff to encourage domestic industry, Daniel Webster opposed the tariff as hostile to the ship- ping interests of his state of Massachusetts. Webster also opposed the tariff act of 1S24. lie declared freedom of trade to be the general principle and restriction the exception. In 1S2S the positions of these statesmen were exactly reversed, Webster advocating protection and Calhoun opposing it. JOHX C. CALHOUN THE I'ERIOI) OF UNION 289 protection, a bill was introduced by the high-tariff advocates, raising still higher the duties on imported goods. This has been called the Tariff of Abominations, — "a result," says Professor Sumner, "of the scramble of selfish, special interests." This bill was passed, nevertheless, in 1828, and was signed by President Adams. ^ 292. The Erie Canal. Steam Railroads. The year 1825 witnessed the opening of tlic l-'.ric Canal by De Witt Clinton, EARLY TRAVKL OX THE ERIE CANAL governor of New York. This canal was begun July 4, 18 17, and its successful completion was due to the energy and deter- mination of Clinton, who despite ridicule and discouragements kept to the work. The canal, three hundred and sixty-three miles in length, extended from Albany to Buffalo. It was a stupendous undertaking. It traversed forests, crossed rivers, and by means of locks overcame the differences of level of six 1 John C. Calhoun now laid down in a document called " Kxposition and Protest" the doctrine that this tariff was unconstitutional and that a state could nullify it. It asked for a convention of the state of South Carolina to settle the question, and it was suggested that a confederation of the states of the South might well be considered. This movement, if carried on, was ominous for the perpetuation of the Union. 290 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY STACECOACH hundred feet; it revolutionized the carrying trade,i reducing the price of transportation of a ton of goods between Albany and Buffalo from one hundred and twenty to fourteen dollars. The canal cost seven and a quarter million dollars, but the tolls paid the entire expense in nine years. The canal allowed the West to get at a much lower price the goods they so sorely needed, such as plows, axes, clothing, and medi- cine. New York merchants could now sell goods to the distant West as cheaply as they had sold them to Buffalo. The vast fertile tracts that were of little value because of their distance from markets became at once attractive to settlers, and they flocked in from all sides. The building of the canal built up the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, and made New York City, which had been second in population and third in commerce, the first city in the country and its leading seaport. 293. The Pennsylvania Canal System. To prevent New York from securing all the traffic to the West, Pennsylvania built a system of canals and roads from Philadelphia westward. From Philadelphia to Colum- bia there was a horse rail- road, from Columbia to Hollidaysburg a canal. The section over the Allegheny Mountains from Hollidays- burg was made up of a portage railway. By this peculiar railway a boat placed on wheeled cars was hauled up by a series of inclined planes and levels across the mountains to Johnstown on the opposite side of the 1 At the opening of the canal a boat carried a load of thirty tons. The new Barge Canal, which was opened in 1918, accommodates large lake barges. EARLY TRAMWAY THK PERIOD OF UNION 291 range.^ Hence the boat could travel by canal to Pittsburgh. Using the Ohio and Mississippi rivers it could go on to St. Louis and New Orleans. In the states of Ohio and Indiana, canals were built to con- nect the Great Lakes with the Ohio River. The Chesapeake OPENING THE FHtST KAU.WAV and Ohio Canal was planned to connect the Potomac with the Ohio, but it was never finished beyond Cumberland. 294. The Steam Railroad. At this time a rival for the canals appeared in the steam railway.'-^ With great enterprise Baltimore took up the railway idea, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton^ turned (July 4, 1828) the first spadeful of earth 1 The state built the railway and the canal, and each individual furnished his own horses to draw the cars, paying the state merely for the use of the railway and canal. Later steam and horses were both used at the same time, but the horses, being slower, had to give way, and finally only steam was used. - The first steam engine was designed by George .Stephenson of England. ^ Charles Carroll remarked on this occasion : " I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second to that." The Baltimore and ()hio was extended to Cumberland in 1S35 and reached the Ohio River at Wheeling in 1S53. 292 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the first passenger railway in the United States. The first steam locomotive built in America was designed by Peter Cooper in 1830, sixteen years after Stephenson had invented the steam engine in England. The steam locomotive produced a wonderful change, as the train was now longer and could go much faster than with horses. Every year saw new developments. Railroads were soon built from Albany to Schenectady in the Mohawk valley and from Charleston to Hamburg in South Carolina. Many states gave aid in building rail- roads. The Western Rail- road (which later became the Boston and Albany), the Boston and Provi- dence, and the New York MODERN RAILROAD ^ud Lake Erie were all opened at this time. At the end of 1830 the extent of railways in operation was twenty-three miles ; in 1840 it had risen to two thousand eight hundred and eighteen miles. In 1853 the first railroad from the East reached Chicago. At the present time we have about two hundred and sixty thousand miles of operated railway. In 1828 Andrew Jackson was elected by the Democratic- Republicans, or the Democrats as that party was hereafter named, easily defeating President John Ouincy , Adams, who was a candidate for reelection. The leading events of John Quincy Adams's administration were : The tariff discussion of 1827 and 1828. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 and the general movement for canals in many of the states of the Union. The building, in 1828, of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad — the first regular passenger railway in America. THE PERIOD Ol" UNION 293 Andrew Jackson's Administration, 1829-1837 295. Jackson's Strong Personality. The election of Andrew Jackson ^ showed a marked change in the pohtical thought of the country and foreshadowed the leading part which the young and growing West was destined to play in national affairs. Unlike his predecessors, Jack- son had had no early advan- tages. From Washington to John Ouincy Adams the presi- dents had been well educated, while many of them had ample fortunes. Jackson's early educa- tion had been brief ; his success had been obtained only by the most strenuous efforts. Ills triumph at New Orleans, his victories in the Seminole War, and his rugged, sterling, honest character had endeared him to the people. They felt he had come from among themselves. He was especially beloved throughout the South and the new West, and in his case a Western man was for the first time elected president. 296. Removals from Office. Jackson began his administra- tion by removing many officeholders. To turn out his foes • Andrew Jackson was born of Irish descent, March 15, 1767, on the border of North and South Carolina. I lis early life was spent in the direst poverty. At the age of thirteen he was in the army fighting Great Britain. He studied law and later moved to Tennessee. In 1796 he was elected to Congress. lie soon resigned and was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of his adopted state. In the War of 1812 he became famous throughout the land by his victory at New Orleans and later (1818) by his campaign in Florida against the Indians. " Old Hickory." as he was called, reached the presidency in 1S2S, and was reelected in 1S32. lie died June 8, 1845, at his home "The Hermitage," near Nashville. ANDREW JACKSON 294 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and reward his friends seemed to him a laudable action, and he removed about two thousand persons during the first year of his presidency. Rewarding the friends of a party by turning out its oppo- nents is called the spoils system^ from a speech in the United States Senate by Senator Marcy of New York, in 1832, in which he declared that he could " see nothing wrong in the rule, that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy," The spoils system was the policy of our government until the Pendleton Civil Service Law of 1883 made a slight beginning in establishing the merit system. 297. Nullification. The Webster and Hayne Debate, 1830. The tariff acts of 1824 and 1828 aroused the South and brought to the front, through John C. Calhoun ^ and other South Carolinians, the idea of nullification, or the right of a state to declare null and void any act of the Federal Congress which was believed to be unconstitutional. In 1830 Senator Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina ably proclaimed this doctrine in the United States Senate. He maintained that the Constitution was a compact, formed by sovereign states which could not only withdraw if they wished but could set aside a law of Congress. This was the so-called "compact" theory of our government. He was answered by Daniel Webster, who, in a masterly oration, upheld the Constitution and the Union, winning for himself the title of " Defender of the Constitu- tion." Webster declared that the government was national and that states could not secede. He maintained that the Supreme 1 Jackson did not originate the " spoils system," as it had been in use from the beginning of the RepubUc, but he greatly developed it. "The spoils system," says Channing, in "United States," Vol. IV, p. 50, "instead of being an invention of Jacksonian Democrats or Jeffersonian Republicans was an inheritance from the Federalist presidents and by them had been built up on colonial and English precedents." 2 John C. Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 17S2. He studied law and served many terms in Congress. He was also vice president and Secretary of State. From his advocacy of state rights and nullification he was called " the Great Nullifier." He was the stanchest upholder of slavery. He died in 1850. THE PERIOD OF UNION 295 Court of the United States alone had power to set aside as unconstitutional a law of Congress. This doctrine was called the " national " theory. The Civil War, as we shall see, finally settled the question in favor of the national theory. In 1832 a state convention was called in South Carolina. This convention declared the tariff acts of Congress to be null and void unless Congress gave relief. It also prohibited the payment of the duties and threatened to secede if force were used to collect them. Calhoun resigned the vice pres- idency and was elected to the Senate in 1833 to oppose Webster's doc- trines. President Jackson acted promptly and decidedly. "' The laws of the United States must be executed," he said in a proclamation to South Carolina ; and at once General Scott was sent to Charleston, and Lieutenant b'arragut with a naval force to Charleston Harbor, while the collector was ordered to collect the duties. Henry Clay, desirous of maintaining peace, suggested a compromise in 1S33. He proposed a gradual lowering of the tariff of 1832 Wor ten years, until the duty should be as low as it had been in the tariff- of 18 16, — twenty per cent of the value of all imported goods. This compromise became a law in 1833, and South Carolina, having secured a lower tariff, as it had desired, at once repealed its Ordinance of Nullification. 1 This act modified the tariffs of 1S28 and 1S30 and brought the duties back to the rates of 1S24. DANIEL WliliSTKK 296 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 298. The Abolition Movement. In 1829 Benjamin Lundy began a movement for the entire emancipation of the slaves in all the states. In 183 1 the Liberator, a weekly paper pub- lished by William Lloyd Garrison, appeared in Boston. The Liberator advocated the immediate abolition of slavery in all parts of the Union. Antislavery societies began to be organized ^ and increased rapidly. The spread of the antislavery movement caused the great- est alarm not only in the South but also in the North, where the mercantile and manufacturing interests were opposed to political or social agitation that would exasperate the South or diminish its prosperous development. 299. Social Reforms. The abolition movement began at a time when there were arising loud demands for a reform in the method of administration of hospitals, jails, and asylums for the blind and insane. At this time imprisonment for debt was gen- erally abolished and the modern cell system was introduced into prisons. The so-called Washingtonian societies led the move- ment for temperance in the use of liquor. This movement grew rapidly and was later greatly aided by the visit to America of the famous temperance advocate Father Theobald Matthew, who had accomplished wonderful results from his crusade in Ireland. This general reform spirit no doubt aided the abolitionists in their crusade against slavery. 300. Nat Turner Rebellion, 1831. In 1831 an insurrection under a slave named Nat Turner broke out among the slaves of Virginia, during which sixty whites were murdered. The re- sponsibility for this massacre was unjustly placed by the South 1 These societies were aided by the fact that Great Britain, in 1833, had passed an emancipation act to free the negro slaves in her colonies in the West Indies at a cost of one hundred million dollars. After seven years Eng- lish territory throughout the world would be free from slavery. The new Latin republics of Central and South America emancipated their slaves as soon as their independence was established. Slavery still existed at this time in Brazil under the Portuguese and in the colonies of Spain in the New World. France abolished slavery in her West Indian islands in 1848. Cuba began emancipation in 1870, and Brazil abolished the slave system in 1888. THE SITE OF CHICAGO IN 1S32 297 298 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY on the abolitionists. As the agitation continued and increased, popular indignation was more and more stirred, and in 1835 Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston with a rope around his waist, and his life was barely saved. ^ 301. The Right of Petition. Petitions now began to pour into Congress asking for the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the District of Columbia.^ The Southern leaders asked Congress to refuse to receive such petitions, and after prolonged discussion the House of Representatives so voted in 1836. John Quincy Adams, after leaving the presidency, had been elected to the House of Representatives. He protested strongly, but in vain, that the right of petition was secured to any citizen by the first amendment to the Constitution. This action by the House of Representatives was called a " gag resolution " and was intended, it was claimed, solely to shut off all debate on the slavery question. At this time the abolitionists began to send their publications in large numbers through the mails to the Southern states. The South asked the Federal government to refuse to for- ward such literature, as it was incendiary and tended to inflame the slaves to rebellion and violence. The postmaster-general ruled that he had no authority by law to exclude such matter from the mails, and on the other hand he would not instruct postmasters to forward or to deliver abolition documents. 1 It was this sight which led Wendell Phillips into the ranks of the aboli- tionists. Whittier, Bryant, Emerson, and Longfellow aided the movement by poems against slavery. Many prominent men in the North opposed slavery, but felt Garrison went too far and therefore refused to join the movement. Anti-abolitionist mobs destroyed the printing presses of the abolitionists in Philadelphia, Utica, Cincinnati, and Alton, Illinois. In the latter city Elijah Lovejoy was killed in the attack on his office. Many abolitionists dissenting from Garrison's policy of abstaining from political action decided to form a party called the Liberty party, and in 1840 they nominated for the presidency James G. Birney, who was born in Alabama but was a strong abolitionist. 2 One of the petitions from Pennsylvania declared that the District of Columbia was " one of the greatest marts for the traffic in the persons of human beings in the known world notwithstanding the principles of the Constitution declare that all men have an unalienable right to the blessing of liberty." THE PERIOD OF UNION 299 The opponents of slavery thereupon claimed that two sacred rights under the Constitution were attacked, — the right of petition and the freedom 6f the press. Antislavery ideas spread more rapidly than ever ; new abolition societies were formed throughout the Northern states, and the North and South drew ever nearer to the final struggle between freedom and slavery. 302. The National Bank Question. The first bank of the United States had been organized by Hamilton in 1791 and had been granted a charter for twenty years. In 181 1, when the charter expired, Congress refused to renew it. State banks at once sprang up on all sides. In the crisis of the War of 18 1 2 many of these state banks failed, and a charter for a second bank of the United States was granted at the sugges- tion of President Madison. This charter was to run for twenty years. The bank was located at Philadelphia and witli its twenty-five branches in many cities transacted the financial business of the government. 303. Jackson and the Second Bank of the United States. President Jackson was at first friendly to the bank, but he came later to believe with many of the people, especially in the West, that the bank was an un-American monopoly, unsafe, badly managed, and unconstitutional. He also believed it had taken an active part in politics in opposition to him. He was deter- mined, therefore, to overthrow it. Although the bank's charter would not expire until 1836. the friends of the bank introduced and passed a bill in 1832 through both houses of Congress to renew the charter for another twenty years from 1836. Presi- dent Jackson promptly vetoed it. The bank charter therefore became an active issue in the presidential election of 1832. In this campaign the friends of the bank, under Clay, opposed Jackson. Jackson defeated Clay and the bank was doomed. 304. Pet Banks. End of the Second Bank of the United States. In the following year the Secretary of the Treasury was ordered to remove the government deposits from the bank 300 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and to distribute these deposits among the state banks, or "pet banks" as they were called because it was said the administration favored them. A' bitter contest arose over this action, but President Jackson was successful and the second bank of the United States ceased to be a government bank.i 305. Jackson's Specie Circular, 1836. The opening' up of the fertile lands of the West had caused great activity through- out that section. Hundreds of thousands of acres of land were purchased for farms and hundreds of towns were laid out. A wild speculation arose in lands, timber, and cotton. Much of the payment for the public lands, purchased from the Federal government, was made in paper bank notes of the state banks instead of in gold and silver. President Jackson feared that so much of this state bank money had been printed that it would soon be of little value. He therefore issued his famous Specie Circular order (July 11, 1836) in which he directed that only gold and silver would thereafter be accepted in payment of public lands. This created a panic among the speculators and in the crash that followed thou- sands were ruined. This was the beginning of the crisis of 1837, which came to a head in the next administration. 306. Jackson's Indian Policy. It was President Jackson's policy to secure the removal of all the Indians to the west of the Mississippi River by the purchase of their lands through treaties. In 1834 Congress passed a law creating the Indian Country, or Territory, which under the law included all the territory of the United States west of the Mississippi not included within Missouri, Louisiana, and Arkansas. The Cherokee, who owned valuable lands in Georgia, strongly resisted removal for a time but at last sold their property and joined the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole tribes in the Indian country of the West. In the Northwest most of 1 The bank received a new charter from the state of Pennsylvania, but it failed in 1841. THE PERIOD OE UNION 301 the tribes had been pushed across the Mississippi. The Sauk and Fox tribes had given up in 1804 valuable land in western Illinois and Wisconsin. In 1832, in an attempt to regain this land, under their chief Black Hawk, they went on the warpath and spread destruction and death far and wide among the frontier settlements. They were finally overwhelmed on the banks of the Mississippi. 307. Indian War in the Southeast. War broke out also in Morida, where some of the Seminole leaders had returned from the Far West and, joining with the Creek, began under Chief Osceola to burn and ravage the settlements. It was not until 1842 that they finally yielded and agreed to go again to the West. After the Indians had been finally removed, Wisconsin, Illinois, Alabama, and Mississippi filled the vacated Indian lands with settlers. They became the basis of great states, and the entire territory east of the Mississippi was freed of Indian wars. In 1836 Arkansas was admitted to the Union, and in 1837 Michigan became a state. 308. American Literature. W^hile there had been remark- able political and industrial developments in the country, there was also growing up an American literature.^ In 1828 Noah 1 About this time English travelers in America presented rather unflattering views of this country on their return home. This led to a general belittling and abuse of America in the English reviews, accusing Americans of an entire lack of culture and an abundance of conceit and self-laudation. Sydney Smith, in the Eiiinburgh Kit'/ew, wrote in 1820: "In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book ? or goes to an American play ? or looks at an American picture or statue? What does the world yet owe to American phy- sicians or surgeons ? What new substances have their chemists discovered } or what old ones have they analyzed ? What new constellations have been discovered by the telescopes of Americans ? What have they done in mathe- matics ? Who drinks out of American glasses ? or eats from American plates ? or wears .American coats or gowns ? or sleeps in American blankets ? Finally, under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is ever\' sixth man a slave, whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell and torture ? " The answer was soon given by Irving in literature, by Story in art, by Morton and Wells in medicine, by Francis C. Lowell in industry, by Peter Cooper and Cyrus McCormick in mechanics, and by the long line of American inventors, thinkers, and industrial captains. 302 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Webster's Dictionary of the English Language appeared. The Webster Dictionary aided in giving us an American standard of spelhng and to a certain extent a pronunciation of our own. It also included many of the newer words which were being coined so rapidly in the new life of the West. Washington Irving was writing his delightful tales of the Hudson valley he knew so well, and James Fenimore Cooper was holding the -jpa^ LONGFELLOW S HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE youth of the land spellbound with his Indian and scout stories, Bryant, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, and Holmes were writing spirited poems ; Hawthorne gave the country the charming prose of which he was so able a master ; Lowell and Brownson were writing their thoughtful essays ; and Simms presented pen pictures of Revolutionary times in his interesting novels. The historians — Bancroft, Motley, Pres- cott, and Parkman — were already at work on the histories which made them so famous, American literature was at last beginning to win for itself a well-deserved place in the world's classics. THE PERIOD OF UNION 303 SUMMARY The. leading events of Jackson's two administrations (1829-1837) were : The removals from office and the further development of the spoils system. The growth of the abolition movement and the bitter debates in Congress on the slavery question. The Webster-Hayne debate on the Constitution in 1830. The Nat Turner rebellion in Virginia in 183 1. The rise of the nullification question with South Carolina in 1832 and President Jackson's firm defense of the Union. The overthrow, in 1832, of the second bank of the United States. The establishment of Indian Territory in 1834 and the removal of the Indians to the W^est. The beginning of the Black Hawk and Seminole wars of 1832. The discussion in Congress of the right of petition. The Jack.son Specie Circular of 1836, which paved the way for the crisis of 1837. Dates to he remembered : 1832. The nullification question with South Carolina. Important dates for reference : 1833. The foundation of Chicago. 1836. The independence of Texas. • IMakti.n Van Biki:x's Admixistkatiox,^ 1837-1841 309. The Era of Speculation. In the administration drawing to a close Van Buren had been vice president. He was Jackson's intimate friend and adviser, and it was through Jackson's in- fluence that he was elected. A New Yorker by birth, he was the first Democrat from the North to be elected president. 1 Martin Van Buren was born of Dutch ancestry in Kinderhook. New York, in 1782. lie was an able lawyer and guided for many years the politics of the state of New York so skillfully that he was called "the Little Magician." lie served as senator, governor of New York, Secretary of State, and vice presi- dent. He was elected president in 1S36, defeating Harrison, but was defeated in 1S40 by Harrison. He died in 1862. 304 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The last years of Jackson's administration had witnessed an astonishing growth in the nation : the development of the great West and the wonderful industrial progress and prosperity of the country had aroused to a fever pitch the spirit of specu- lation, especially in government lands ; towns were laid out on all sides, sometimes even in the wilderness ; great enter- prises were undertaken without regard to cost or reason, and the entire nation seemed to be rushing on in a mad race for wealth. The causes of this mania for speculation were two- fold : the United States in 1835 had become free from debt,^ and at the same time money above expenses to the amount of thirty-five million dollars was flowing into the national treas- ury through the customhouses and land offices from the large sale of public lands.^ As the opponents of the administration believed that the deposit of the public money in the state, or " pet," banks might well be a source of more or less political corruption, they proposed a plan of distribution of the surplus to all the states. 310. Deposit of National Funds in State Banks. A com- promise was, however, proposed by Calhoun by which the surplus, to the amount of twenty-eight million dollars, was " deposited," as it was called, with the several states. This really meant a gift of the money. The money was at this time in the " pet," or state, banks, and it was recalled from them. This request staggered the state banks, which in turn called in their loans. The money which was now deposited with 1 The national debt of seventy-five million dollars was created in 1790 under Hamilton's plan for funding the foreign, national, and state debts. It rose to one hundred and twenty-seven million dollars in 181 6 as a result of the War of 181 2. It decreased until 1835, when it ceased to exist. After the Crisis of 1837 ten million dollars was voted by Congress to meet the needs of the government. This created the national debt anew which, largely increased, has remained to the present time. 2 The administration did not feel that it could reduce the revenue from customs, as the tariff was being gradually reduced under the compromise of 1833, 3"d no one wished to disturb that settlement and bring on sectional trouble again. THE PERIOD OE UNION 305 the states was used b\' them for education, for internal im- provements, and in some cases as outright gifts to the voters. During these years the states had been borrowing immense sums of money from abroad and had been carrying on exten- sive enterprises such as canals, roads, and railroads. Relying on the increase of wealth to come from these improvements, they had recklessly contracted enormous debts. 311, The State Banks and Wildcat Money.' A second cause of this wild speculation was the ease with which money or loans with which to buy public lands were obtained from the state banks. We have seen that the second bank of the United States had failed to secure a renewal of its charter. This led to an increase in the number of banks established under charters from the states. Many of these new banks had little capital. It was in banks of this kind that the money formerly deposited in the l^ank of the United States or its branches had been placed by President Jackson, as the national government had no vaults in which to keep it. Many of these state banks had at once issued large amounts of bank notes or promises to pay gold or silver when they reall}' had neither gold nor silver. As the bank notes were used to pay for gov- ernment land, President Jackson became alarmed and, as we have seen, demanded specie, or in other words gold or silver, in all purchases of public land. This stopped the speculation, and men tried to sell the lands for what they could get. 312. Crisis of 1837. As a result a widespread crisis ensued at the very outset of \'an Uuren's administration. Ikuiks sus- pended everywhere ; mills and factories were closed ; and tens of thousands of workingmen were thrown out of employment. Man}' states and territories which had borrowed money from foreign countries were unable to pay their obligations. Seven ' A bank in Michigan issued notes witli a picture on them of a wildcat, or panther. When this' bank failed, its notes were called wildcat notes, and hence banks that were either insolvent or likely to become so were called wildcat banks, and their notes wildcat money. 3o6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of them failed to pay the interest to their foreign creditors, and one refused to pay either principal or interest. For many years afterward Europeans looked with disfavor on American securities. 313, The Independent Subtreasury Plan. To bring about a better state of financial affairs Van Buren favored a plan to establish a subtreasury for the money of the United States. Instead of depositing its money in state banks, the government now proposed to keep its own deposits in its own vaults. To this end there was finally (1846) established the Independent Treasury of the United States, in the Treasury Building in Washington, with branches in various cities. 314. The Anti-rent Agitation in New York. Under the patroon system, as we have seen (sect. 70), vast estates came into the hands of a few families. The tenants on these estates were given perpetual leases by the patroons. Many of the tenants, however, believed that the War of the Revolution had destroyed the title of the patroons to this property, and they failed for years to pay their rent. Wljen it was finally demanded they rose in arms (1840) and drove out the rent collectors. THE PERIOD OF UNION 307 For ten years discontent and disorder prevailed throughout these districts. Finally, after the courts had recognized the titles of the patroons as valid, a compromise was effected (1850) iiy which the proprietors sold the lands to the tenants at a reasonable price. 315. The Mormons. At this time a new religious sect arose in western New York. Joseph Smith, the leader, announced in 1S23 that he had received from an angel a book composed of golden plates. He declared that this book told the story of the early inhabitants of America and the truth of a new gospel. He called it the Book of Mormon, from the name of the alleged writer of the book. Smith and his followers moved from New York west- ward, where they came in conflict with various state authorities. While not a part of their original belief, polygamy soon became an article of their faith. Their peculiar doctrines soon aroused their neighbors, at that time plain backwoodsmen. The Mormons at last determined to get a new home in the Far West. Under the leadership of Brigham Young they reached the beautiful valley of the Great Salt Lake, Near its banks they founded (1848) Salt Lake Citv. 316. Development of the Express Business. William V. I larnden, who had been a conductor on the Boston and Worcester Railroad, announced (1839) that he had arranged to carry money, valuables, and packages between Boston and New York. For some months a valise or two sufficed to carry the r m; POXV EXPRESS 3o8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY goods intrusted to him, but in a year the business had grown to goodly proportions. Alvin Adams and P. B. Burke estabhshed (1840) a rival express under the name Burke & Co., which became later (1854) the great Adams Express Company. Twenty years later the pony express was established to reach the Pacific coast. Stations were located ten miles apart between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. Mounted on a fast pony, the messenger started across the plains to the first station, where a fresh horse was taken and the journey continued. At every third station a fresh rider took the mail. In eight days these riders traversed two thousand miles of prairies, deserts, and lonely mountain passes. It cost five dollars to send a letter by this express. The building of the telegraph lines to San Francisco put an end to the pony express, and the Wells- Fargo Express Company developed the express business of the Pacific coast. This period witnessed interesting and vital movements. Many of the new states on admission to the Union established state universities from funds provided from the sale of public lands. The University of Michigan was founded in 1837. The ques- tion of "women's rights" first came to the front with a demand for the education of women in the public schools and colleges. In 1833 Oberlin College admitted women on the same terms as men. It was not until 1856, however, that a state university (Iowa) opened its doors to women. The leading events of Van Buren's administration (1837-1S41) were : The great crisis of 1837. The establishment of the subtreasury in 1840. The anti-rent agitation in New York, which ended in 1850. The rise of the Mormons and the settlement, in 1848, of Salt Lake City. The beginning, in 1840, of the express business. THE I'KRIOl) nv UNION 309 Harrison's Administration, 1841. Tvlkr's Administration, i 841- 1845 317. The Election of Harrison and Tyler, 1841-1845. As \'an Buren's term drew to a close the Whigs ^ determined to take advantage of the distress of the times and ^ ' ^ prevent, if possible, his reelection. They nomi nated as their candidate SB for president William ^ ~^~^#^ ^ Henr)- Harrison,^ the ^ 4^ ^ ^ Si^'t^ hero of Tippecanoe, and „^ ' '"' *^ "^ / j^ /]^ ^^ for vice president John " Tyler. The contest was a most spirited one. A Democratic paper had contemptuously referred to Harrison as being better fitted to live in a log cabin, drinking hard cider and skinning coons, than in the White House. The Whigs at once took M HARRISON'S ELECTION 1 After Jackson's administration his supporters, who had been called Demo- cratic-Repubhcans, dropped the latter word and became known as Democrats. Their opponents took the name of Whigs. The Whigs in England were op- posed to the king. In this country the enemies of Jackson claimed he was as tyrannical in his methods as any king could be, and hence they opposed him under the name of Whigs. They had nothing in common with one another except antagonism to Jackson, his policies and friends. The Whigs were in reality merely an anti-Jackson party. - William Henry Harrison was born February 9, 1773. in Virginia. His father was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and governor of \'irginia. Harrison served in the army and was appointed (iSoi) governor of Indiana Territory. He was later elected to the House of Representatives and to the Senate of the United States. He was defeated for president by Van Buren in iS36and was elected over Van Buren in 1840. He died .April 4, 1841. 3IO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY up the cry and called him the log-cabin candidate. Log cabins were erected as the headquarters of the Whigs. With cheer- ings for '" Tippecanoe and Tyler too," processions filled the streets, bearing models of log cabins with coon skins hanging at the door ; immense meetings were held out of doors, at which thousands of people gathered. The enthusiasm of the people carried Harrison to victory.^ 318. Death of Harrison. Tyler and the Whigs disagree. In the midst of the Whig rejoicings Harrison suddenly died, a month after his inauguration, and Tyler ^ became president. It was the first time in our history that a president had died in office. Tyler was a states'-rights Democrat. He had been nominated by the Whigs to secure some of the electoral votes of the South. His views were in practically all respects entirely different from those of the Whig party that had elected him. The Whigs desired to pass a new high tariff act and to spend large sums of money for internal improvements. They wished above all to reestablish the Bank of the United States, and a bill was drawn to this end. It passed Congress, but President Tyler vetoed it on the ground that it was unconstitutional. Another bill, framed, it was claimed, to meet the president's objections, was passed, but President Tyler vetoed that bill also, as he found grave objections to it. 1 The Democratic and the Whig parties refused to take up the slavery question. Therefore in this year the Liberty party, made up of antislavery men, nominated James G. Birney for president. He polled only seven thou- sand votes, but the increase in the number who in general believed in the ideas of this party gave them gradually the balance of power between the Democrats and the Whigs, which they used to advantage in the next twenty years. ■-John Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790. His father was governor of that state for some years. Tyler was a lawyer, served in both Houses of Con- gress, and was governor of Virginia. He was elected vice president in 1840 and succeeded to the presidency in 1841. In 1861 he tried to bring about peace between the North and the South, and when these measures failed he followed his native state out of the Union. He died in 1862, while attending the sessions of the Confederate Congress in Richmond. TIIK I'KRIOI) OK IINION 311 President Tyler was thereupon deserted by the Whig party, and his entire cabinet resigned with the exception of Daniel Webster, who remained to conclude his labors on the new treaty with England. 319. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842. The treaty of peace signed at the close of the Revolution had left in ques- tion a large territory — twelve thousand square miles — on our northeast boundary. England and the United States both claimed it, and war was imminent, as Maine had sent troops into the disputed territory. England now sent a commissioner. Lord Ashburton, to arrange a new treaty with Daniel Webster, Secretary of State. The boundaries were satisfactorily adjusted in 1842, Maine securing about seven thousand miles and Eng- land the remaining five thousand. The northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase in the Northwest was also determined by accepting the line agreed upon in 18 18, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 320. The Dorr Rebellion, 1842. The people of Rhode Island had been living under a constitution, granted as far back as the time of Charles II (1663), which allowed only landowners and their eldest sons or persons renting property to vote. Unless a man owned real estate he could not act as a juror nor bring a suit in any court of law until a property holder indorsed it. The representation in the legislature was absolutely unjust, as a struggling village had as great a repre- sentation as a flourishing city. Having tried in vain to secure a change in the constitution, the people rebelled, formed a convention, and elected (1842) Thomas W^ Dorr governor. As most of those who voted for Dorr were not legally voters, the existing state government refused to recognize him. Both sides took up arms, but little bloodshed ensued. Dorr was finally arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, but he was soon pardoned. As a result of his work a new constitution was later adopted. 312 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 321. The Electric Telegraph. In 1837 S. F. B. Morse secured a patent for sending messages by electricity. Few believed in its worth, and the inventor struggled on in poverty for years. In 1843 he asked ^if _^ Congress to appropriate thirty (" ' "• thousand dollars for a tele- '■^gfe ' "f:S\ graph line between Washing- . ' ' ton and Baltimore, a distance ^\ '~'~ of forty miles.i There was bitter opposition to the bill, one member remarking that a railroad to the moon would be as reasonable. At midnight on the last day of the session the bill was carried, and the work was soon begun. Professor Morse sent the first message SAMUEL F. B. MORSE (^^7 24, 1 844) /rom the Chamber of the United States Supreme Court. This message read : "What hath God wrought." It was sent to his assistant in Baltimore, who at once repeated it to Morse, while the onlookers were dumb with astonish- ment. The first news received over the telegraph was the nomination of Polk by the Democratic convention in Baltimore. w r o II g h t. THE FIRST TELEGRAPHIC MESSAGE 322. The Packet and Clipper Ships. After the War of 1 8 1 2 American merchants and shipbuilders started lines of small quick-sailing packet boats to Liverpool. This packet service, 1 The first electromagnetic telegraph in the world was set up on the campus of Princeton College. It connected Nassau Hall with the residence of Professor Joseph Henry, the scientist. THE PERIOD OF UNION 313 wrote Charles Dickens in 1842, was " the finest in the world." One of these packets, the Dreadnought, covered the distance from Sandy Hook to Oueenstown in nine days and seventeen hours, — up to this day the world's record for a sailing vessel. In the meantime the clipper-ship era came in. They carried an enormous spread of sail and raced along before the wind. A CLIPPER SI UP The tea trade of China and the discovery of gold in California created a great demand for quick-sailing vessels to San Francisco. This opened the way for the wide use of the quick-sailing Amer- ican clipper ship. The clipper-ship era began to pass away when iron vessels, driven by steam, appeared on all the oceans, and the American merchant marine virtually disappeared when the Alabama and other Southern cruisers swept the United States flag from the seas. After the Civil War the attention of Amer- ican business men turned to railroad building and manufacturing, and the American merchant marine passed to foreign flags. 314 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 323. Texas secedes from Mexico. The burning question during Tyler's term was the annexation of Texas. In 1821 Mexico granted a tract of land in Texas to Moses Austin on condition that he would found a settlement. Many colonists poured in, especially from the Southern states. The Mexican government foresaw trouble over slavery and tried to stop American colonists from coming in, but without success. In 1835 Mexico was changed by President Santa Anna from a federal to a centralized republic, by which the states lost their state rights and became mere departments, as is the system in France. Difficulties arose with Texas out of this change^ and the Texans rebelled. Under General Sam Houston they attacked the Mexicans at San Antonio (December 10, 1835) and defeated them. Three months later Santa Anna led a strong force against the Alamo, a fortified church and monastery at San Antonio. Here one hundred and seventy men were besieged. After eleven days the Mexicans captured the Alamo ^ and put to death all within it. This act so enraged the Texans that the war cry became " Remember the Alamo! " The decisive battle was fought at San Jacinto ^ April 21, 1836, when the Mexicans were utterly routed. 324. The Republic of Texas. Texas thereupon became a republic, with a new constitution ^ which legalized slavery. Her independence was recognized by the United States, England, Belgium, and France. At once she applied for admission to the Union as a slave state. She was unsuccessful. In 1844 LONE STAR FLAG 1 The Texans did not look for independence at first. They merely desired to become a separate state within the Mexican Republic. ^ Alamo (al'a mo). 3 San Jacinto (sahn ha theen'toh). * It was called from its flag the " Lone Star Republic." The Texans declared their independence March 2, 1836. THE PERIOD OF UNION 315 President Tyler negotiated a treaty with Texas providing for annexation, but it was rejected by the Senate. ^ The South desired the annexation of Texas, that siie might increase the slave territory ; the North opposed it, believing from this vast tract sufiicient slave states would be formed to give the slave power control of the republic. 325. The Annexation of Texas. The Texas question was a leading issue in the next presidential campaign. Polk was nominated by the Democrats, Clay by the Whigs, and Birney by the Liberty party. Birney polled just enough of the votes which would normally ha\-e gone to Clay to defeat the latter, and Polk was elected. The result of the election President Tyler interpreted as a verdict of the people in favor of the annexation of Texas. He proposed to Congress that Texas be treated like a territory applying for, admission to the Union and be admitted by a joint resolution. This was done, and Texas, having accepted this method, became a state December 29, 1845, with the pro- vision that with her consent four other states might be formed from her territory. The Texans, however, refused to divide up their state, and it gave the South, therefore, only two votes in the Senate. Te.xas was the last slave state admitted to the I'nion. The leading events of Harrison and Tyler's administrations were: The death of President Harrison in 1841. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island in 1842. The invention, in 1S37, of Morse's electric telegraph. The annexation of Texas in 1845. 1 I lenry Clay had declared, " Annexation and war with Mexico are identical." Mexico had officially warned us that the annexation of Texas would be con- sidered a cause of war. The United .States government replied that it regarded Texas as an independent nation and could therefore deal with it without consulting any other nation. 3i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Write a brief account of the following : (a) the first railroad ; (/>) the first steamboat ; (r) the first telegraph ; (d) the first canal. 2. Give an account of the financial crisis of 1837 and state two results of this crisis. 3. What changes of sentiment in regard to taxing imports took place in the North and in the South between 1814 and 1S35? What tariff troubles occurred in Jackson's administration? 4. What was the doctrine of nullification ? What was President Jackson's attitude toward it? 5. What is meant by the phrase, " To the victor belong the spoils "? Did Jackson originate the doctrine? 6. What were the two chief political topics of Jackson's administration ? 7. What was the effect of the Black Hawk War of 1832? 8. What was the occasion of the Webster-Hayne debate of 1 830 ? What was the main point at issue in this debate ? What position did each statesman take on the main issue ? 9. What important invention was first used in Tyler's administration? 10. What steps led to the admission of Texas to the Union ? READINGS Histories. Babcock, K. C, T/ie Rise of American Nationality. Bassett, J. S., Life of Andrew Jackson. Brigham, A. P., Froin Trail to Railway throitg?i the Appalachians. Channing and Laxsixg, The Story of the Great Lakes. Curtis, G. T., Life of Daniel U'c/'sfcr. Drake, S. A., Making of the Ohio Valley States. Egglestox and Seeley, Tecnmseh and the Shawnee P7-ophet. Howells, W. D., Stories of Ohio. Hulbert, A. B., Historic Highways of America. Hl'xt, G., fohn C. Calhoun. LossiNG, B. J., Pictorial Field Book of the liar of 1S12. Madisox, Memoirs a9td Letters of Dolly Madison. Mahax, A. T., Sea Power iti its Relations to the War of 1S12. MacDoxald, Wm., Jacksonian De7nocracy. Mo\\'RV, W. A., American Lirc'cntions and Lnvcntors. ScHURZ, Carl, Hc/ny Clay. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the Ajnerican People. Turxer, F. J., Rise of the A'ew West. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries^ Vol. HI, p. 410 (A New England Secessionist) ; p. 422 (Battle of New Orleans) ; p. 467 (An Indian's Opinion of the White Man); p. 475 (Chicago in 1833); p. 479 (The Holy Alliance) ; p. 512 (Who Reads an American Book.?); p. 520 (Domestic Manners of THE PERIOD OF UNION 317 the Americans); p. 561 (The First American Steam Railroad); p. 571 (First Telegraph Line). iMuzzEV, Kcaifi/igs, p. 222 (British and French Aggressions); p. 239 (The Florida Dispute, 181 6- 181 9); p. 244 (The Monroe Doctrine); p. 258 (Plea for the Occupation of Oregon;; p. 278 (Early Anecdotes of the Railroad). Fiction. ALTSiiELiilt, J. A., Herald of the U'es/ {a. story of the War of 1 81 2). Barton, W. E., Prain'e Scliooiier (treats of the Black Hawk War). Cooi'EU, J. F., The Prairie. Garland, H., Boy Life on the Prairie. Male, E. E., East and West. Henderson, W. J., Straui^e Stories of 1S12. HoL.MES, O.W., Old Ironsides. \k\\\g,'W ., Adventures of Captain Bonneville. Kev, F. S., The Star-Spangled Banner. Munrof., Kirk, Midshipman .Stuart. Pvlk, H., Within the Capes. Rociii:, J. J., 'J'he Constitution's Last J-'ij^ht. Se.vwell, M. E., Decatur a/id Soniers; Little faf^'is; Midshipman Paulding. Tomlinson, E. T., Search for Andrcio Field. Tourgee, A. W., Figs and Thistles (a story of life in pioneer Ohio). Polk's Ad.mixisika riox,^ 1S45-1849 326. The Settlement of Oregon. By a treaty made in 1 8 1 8 the United States and Great Britain agreed to occupy Oregon as a joint possession, free and open to the subjects of both countries for a term of ten years, to be renewed if both parties so wished.^ As we have seen, Captain Gray of Boston discovered and named the Columbia River in. 1792. Lewis and Clark later explored this territory, and John Jacob Astor established here his fur-trading colony, which was named Astoria. The Hudson l^ay Company had posts throughout the terri- tory, especially north of the Columbia River. Their principal ^ James K. Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. Eleven years later his family moved to Tennessee. Polk studied law and was elected to Congress in 1S24. lie was chosen governor of Tennessee in 1839. Because he favored the annexation of Texas he was nominated for president by the Democrats. In the election he defeated Henry Clav, who had been nominated by the \N"higs. Polk died in 1S49, three months after his term as president had expired. - I!y the treaty of 1S19 with Spain the forty-second parallel was the northern limit of Spanish territory. Oregon therefore covered the area between 42° and 54' 40' north latitude. 3i8 ESSExNTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY station was Fort Vancouver, nearly opposite the mouth of the Willamette. Here resided Dr. John McLoughlin/ the "chief factor" or agent for the company in the Pacific Northwest. The Canadian settlers and Indians had asked for priests to minister to them, and in 1838 Fathers Blanchet and Demers left Montreal for the Oregon country, where they established many missions. it ^^■^^Ai^^^^im^hJ^-uti THE NAVAL ACADEMY Two years later Father De Smet, the famous Jesuit missionary, started from the Missouri River with a large party of emigrants. He founded (1841) his first mission among the Flathead Indians on the Bitter Root River, and later established many others.'^ 1 Dr. McLoughlin was born in Quebec of Irish parentage and was thirty- nine years of age when he arrived in Oregon. " White men and red alike revered him," says H. H. Bancroft. 2 Father De Smet went to Europe in 1S43 to secure missionaries and teachers. He returned with several priests, and Sisters of Notre Dame of Namur, who opened a school for girls. So rapid was the spiritual growth in Oregon that Father Blanchet was appointed Bishop December i, 1843. Father De Smet " was well fitted to make a favorable impression upon the savages and to succeed in a field which others had either shunned or a"bandoned." — H. H. Bancroft, "Oregon," I, 323 Father De Smet's " Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Moun- tains " may be read in Vols. XXVIII-XXIX of " Early Western Travels." THK PERIOD OF UNION 319 327. Founding of the Naval Academy, 1845. Through the efforts of George Bancroft, the historian, who was at this time Secretary of the Navy, the Naval Academy was founded in icS45 to train ofificers for the navy of the country. This famous school is located at Annapolis, Maryland. 328. The Adjustment of the Oregon Question, 1846. The resources of the Oregon country in the years following 1842 attracted thousands of settlers, who in long caravans toiled through the passes of the Rockies.^ Throughout the West the people began to demand the absolute posses- sion of Oregon ; that is, all the territory from California as far as the southern boundary of Russian America (Alaska), which was 54° 40' north latitude. "-^ England, on the other hand, claimed that Drake had dis- covered this coast and that settlements had been made by English colonists. She declined to yield up this vast tract of rich country and thereby cut herself off from the Pacific coast. She finally proposed, as a compromise, a division of the territory at the forty-ninth parallel. This was our northern boundary from the (jreat Lakes to the Rocky Mountains, and it was now extended to the Pacific. An agreement was reached on this basis, and Oregon was made a territory with the prohibition of slavery (1848). 1 Professor E. G. Bourne in his " Essays on Historical Criticism " shows that the story of Marcus Whitman and his visit to Washington to save Oregon has no historic basis. Whitman came East to prevent the closing of his missions, and he had nothing to do with saving Oregon, the value of which was well known. 2 Hence arose the famous cry, " The whole of Oregon or none ! Fifty-four forty or fight ! " THE OREGON COUNTRY 320 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 329. The War with Mexico, 1846-1848. Battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Buena Vista. Texas, on her admission to the Union, claimed the Rio Grande ^ as her southern and western boundary, while Mexico maintained that the Nueces 2 River formed the boundary,^ President Polk, however, agreed with the Texans"* and ordered General Zachary Taylor to seize the disputed territory. Taylor did so, advancing to the north bank of the Rio Grande, where he built Fort Brown, Directly opposite was the Mexican city of Matamoros. The conflict was not long postponed. The Mexi- cans crossed the river and attacked a band of United States soldiers. Taylor at once attacked the Mexicans and in the battles of Palo Alto^ (May 8, 1846) and Resaca de la Palma^ (May 9, 1846) defeated them. He thereupon crossed the Rio Grande and took Matamoros. A few days later war was declared (May 13, 1846) against Mexico, and fifty thousand volunteers were called for. 330. The Plan of Campaign. The plan of campaign was threefold : General Taylor was to control the Rio Grande and move southward ; General Stephen W. Kearny, who was at 1 Rio Grande (ree'o grahn'day) means "great river." President Polk sent Slidell of Louisiana to Mexico to negotiate for the purchase of New Mexico and CaHfornia, but the Mexican government refused to receive him. In 1S47 another attempt at peace was made when President Polk sent another envoy, but this mission also failed. 2 Nueces (noo ay'thayce). 3 The southern boundary of Texas when it was part of one of the states of the Republic of Mexico was the Nueces River. As part of the Louisiana Pur- chase, however, the Rio Grande was assumed to be the southern boundary. * General Grant, who served in the Mexican War, said in his Memoirs, p. 37 : "I was bitterly opposed to the measure [the annexation of Texas] and to this day regard the war which resulted as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It is an instance of a republic's following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory. . . . The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican War. Nations, like individuals, are pun- ished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times." 5 Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to) means " tall tree." " Resaca de la Palma (ray sah'cah day lah pahl'ma), " ravine of the palm." THE PERIOD OF UNION 321 Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was to conquer New Mexico and California ; General Winfield Scott, the commander in chief, was to advance from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. In the autumn of 1846 Taylor captured the town of Matamoros and THE MEXICAN WAR then moved against the city of Monterey,^ which he won after a three days' battle (September 23, 1846). He was now ordered to send all but five thousand of his troops to General Scott. In this weakened condition he was attacked at Bucna Vista '^ by the Mexican general, Santa Anna, who had a vastly superior force. Taylor won a decided victory (February 23, 1847). ' Motitcn-v (mon tay ray'ee) means " king's mountain." - Ihicua I'istii (bway'nah vces'tah) means "beautiful view." 322 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 331. New Mexico and California. In the summer of 1846 General Kearny had marched from Fort Leavenworth to con- quer New Mexico and Cahfornia. He easily made his. way to Santa Fe,^ which surrendered (August 18, 1846) without opposi- tion, and New Mexico passed under our rule. In the meantime the American settlers at Sonoma in the Sacramento valley declared California to be an independent republic. They raised the Bear flag of the new republic. Commodore Sloat took Monterey on the Pacific coast for the United States (July 7, 1846), and raised the Stars and Stripes Jobo'O" __^ Cerro Gordo - Chaico \ ^^^ Vera CruzV ~--_Et, OF^^^ San Juan de mloa"^ ROUTE OF GEXERAL SCOTT of the Union. Sloat ordered Captain Montgomery, of the United States sloop of war PcnisjiiontJi, to seize San Francisco, which was at once done. The Sonoma republic now lowered its Bear flag and raised instead the flag of the Union. Commodore Stockton captured Los Angeles,^ and soon the United States colors were floating over all the territory. 332. Scott's March to the City of Mexico, 1847. After his defeat at Buena Vista, Santa Anna hastened to attack Scott, who had landed at Vera Cruz.^ This port was defended by a 1 Santa Fe (sahn'tah fay) means " holy faith." It had been founded probably in 1582 and is the second oldest town in the United States. "^ Los Angeles (Spanish pronunciation, loce an'hell ace ; American pro- nunciation, 16s an'jel es) means " the angels." Its full Spanish name was Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Angeles, " Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels." ^ Vera Ctiiz (vay'rah croos) means " true cross." Its full name was Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, " The Rich City of the True Cross." It was founded by the intrepid explorer Cortes, whose route to the city of Mexico was followed by Scott. THE PERIOD OF UNION 323 fort called San Juan de UUoa/ at that time a position of great strength. For four days Scott rained shot and shell upon it, until it surrendered (March 29, 1847). Scott now started for the city of Mexico, about two hundred and sixty miles away. The road led through mountain passes. At Cerro Gordo,^ one .'^. %Mri-#-^-lTr: SCOTT ENTERING MEXICO of the higher spurs, the Mexicans, fifteen thousand strong, awaited Scott, but he defeated them (April 18, 1847). The city of Puebla ^ next fell into his hands. He waited here almost three months and then started for the capital. He soon met the Mexicans and defeated them (August 20) at Contreras."* They thereupon fell back the same day to Chu- rubusco,'' where they fortified themselves in and around the old monastery. Here another battle was fought, ending in the 1 San Juan de Ulloa (sahn whahn day ool yo'ah). - Cc/yv Gordo (ther'ro gor'do) means " large hill." 8 Puebla (pway'lDlah). * Contreras (con tray'ras). ^ Churubusco (choo roo boos'co). 324 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY defeat of the Mexicans. Our troops pushed steadily onward, fighting the battle of Molino del Rey ^ (September 8). At last they reached the strongly fortified height of Cliapultepec,^ which overlooked the city of Mexico. Chapultepec fell (Sep- tember 1 3), and the next day our army entered the city of Mexico. The fall of the capital ended the war. We had won every battle. 333. The Peace Treaty, 1848. A treaty of peace was signed F'ebruary 2, 1848, at Guadalupe-Hidalgo,'^ by which Mexico ceded New Mexico and California to the United States. As we already possessed Texas, with the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, an area about nine hundred thousand square miles in extent was added to our domain, — a territory nearly five times the size of France and twenty times as large as Pennsylvania. In return we paid Mexico fifteen million dollars and assumed the claims of our citizens against Mexico, amounting to three and a quarter million dollars. We also assumed the debt of Texas, amounting to seven and one-half millions. An impor- tant result of the war was the education of many officers who were later to' figure prominently in the Civil War.^ 334. The Wilmot Proviso, 1846. During the Mexican War, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, proposed (1846) a measure called after him the Wilmot Proviso.^ It sought to exclude slavery from all the territory to be acquired from Mexico. As Mexico had already (1829) abolished slavery 1 Molino del Key (mo lee'no del ray'ee) means " king's mill." This was a grain mill, strongly garrisoned and surrounded by a wall. 2 Chapultepec (chah pool tay pek') means " the hill of the grasshopper." 3 Guadalupe-Hidalgo (gwah dah loo'pay-ee dahrgo) is a suburb of the city of Mexico and contains the famous shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. * Grant, Lee, Thomas, Sherman, McClellan, Beauregard, Shields, and Jackson were some of the officers trained in this war. 5 A bill had been introduced into Congress appropriating two million dollars for the purchase of the disputed territory from Mexico. To this bill Wilmot moved to add his Proviso, "that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory except as a punishment for crime." THE PERIOD OF UNION 325 throughout the rcpubHc, except in Texas, Wilmot desired to prevent the reintroduction of the slave system into the area that Mexico might cede to us. The Proviso led to earnest and bitter debates on the slavery question, the North warmly favoring the measure, the South as strongly opposing it. It passed the House of Representatives, but failed in the Senate. ^^ 1 f '* '-■i *y^ PI . •f^ijaL ^ " ^7^ ~Jgv^^^' ' 'V' ^4 J'{ ^ 1 ' V V MCCORMICK AM) THE REAPER f .^'^ m^ 335. Great Inventions. The Reaper and Sewing Machine. During this and the following administrations a number of great inventions ushered in a new industrial era. Obed Hussey of Maryland patented (1833) a reaper. Six months later Cyrus H. McCormick of Virginia secured a patent on his reaper. For some years McCormick tried in vain to sell his machines. At last the farmers of the great West recog- nized the value of the new invention, and the reapers came 326 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY into general use. They have rendered possible the profitable cultivation of the Western wheat fields and greatly reduced the price of bread. Elias Howe, who lived in the direst poverty, watched his wife one day while she toiled with her needle and conceived the idea of building a machine to do the arduous work of sew- ing. He toiled for many years and took out his first patent in 1846. Howe's ideas were developed by others until sewing machines were in practically every household. They were introduced (1862) into shoe factories, under McKay's patent, and brought about a great reduction in the price of shoes. 336. Goodyear 's Discovery. The Use of Ether. The year 1849 witnessed the great discovery of Goodyear 1 in the perfecting of the treatment of India rubber.^ For years various at- tempts had been made to manufac- ture goods from rubber, but they were unsuccessful, as the heat melted the goods in summer and the cold cracked them in winter. Goodyear, after working for years, at last accidentally discovered vulcanization, a process by which sulphur is mixed with the rubber gum and then subjected to great heat. In this way rubber can be made rrot only hard or soft but durable, and the secret was thus discovered by which rubber goods became so important a part of man's life. The greatest boon in the history of the world for the relief of suffering humanity came in the years 1844 to 1846. Dr. Wells of Hartford, in 1844, had nitrous oxide gas (laugh- ing gas) administered to himself for the extraction of one of ELIAS HOWE 1 It has been said that the rubber shoe has done more to preserve the heahh of the human family than any other single article of apparel. ' India rubber is the juice or sap from a certain tropical tree. A CALII'UKMA MISSION THE PERIOD OF UNION 327 his teeth and discovered that it produced insensibiUty to pain. Dr. Morton, a dentist in Boston, and Dr. Jackson, a chemist, discovered in 1846 the value of ether for producing absolute insensibility with safety. This wonderful discovery rendered possible the most delicate and vital operations while the patient remained in j^rofound unconsciousness.^ 337. The Great Immigration from Europe. In 1848 and 1849 revolutionary ideas began to spread through Europe, The king of France w'as driven from his throne ; in Germany there were uprisings in almost all the states. In Austria- Hungary the Hungarians rebelled and drove out the Austrians. As a result of these revolutions, especially in Germany, many Germans came to America and founded new homes here. A great famine occurred in Ireland (1847-1848) through the failure of the potato crop and thousands of Irish men and women came to America. This large stream of immigrants added to the population, took up unoccupied lands, and fur- nished the labor so necessary to carry on the work of building railroads, canals, and cities. 338. The Early Explorations of California. An event now occurred that was destined to exert a great influence on our history, — the discovery of gold in California, Before con- sidering this event a brief sketch of the early history of Cali- fornia is necessary. The fearless explorer Cortes explored (1535) the gulf and peninsula of Lower California. Seven yeaiS later Cabrillo^ explored the Pacific coast of California, entering the harbor of San Diego -^ (1542). In 1602 Sebastian Vizcaino,'* with three vessels, sailed from Acapulco, explored the Bay of San Diego, and discovered the Bay of Monterey, In 1697 the Jesuits began the work of spreading the Gospel and 1 Among the other inventions about this period were the Iloe printing presses, Colt's revolver, Ericsson's screw propeller, the steam fire engine, the eccentric lathe, the friction match, the daguerreotype, and the planing machine. - Cabrillo (cah breel'yo). 3 s,/>i Dii-go (dee ay'go) means " St. James." * Vizcaino (veeth cah ee'no). 328 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY civilization among the native Indians.^ Mission after mission was founded in Lower California, until the society was expelled from the Spanish dominions in 1767. For many years Cali- fornia had been neglected by Spain. Two causes at last served to awake the mother country : first, the fear that the coast would be seized and occupied by another power ; second, the need of harbors whither the richly laden ships coming from the Philippines could seek safety from storms or pirates. 339. Foundation of the Missions. Spurred on by orders from Spain, the viceroy of Mexico now determined to push the occupation and civilization of California. The Franciscans were invited to extend their aid in converting, civilizing, and educating the Indians.^ The superior of the order. Father Junipero Serra, personally led in the good work. San Diego was the first of the California missions established (1769), and " the pilgrims there sang the first Christian hymn heard on [Upper] California's shores." Immediately following the foun- dation of San Diego an expedition under Don Caspar de Portola went northward and discovered (1769) the Bay of San Francisco. Monterey was founded in 1770, and in rapid suc- cession San Francisco (1776), Santa Clara (1777), San Jose^ {1797), Los Angeles (1781), Santa Barbara (1786), and many 1 This work was planned and carried out under Father Salvatierra, assisted by other Jesuits. " Father Salvatierra taught," says Blackmar, in " Spanish Insti- tutions of the Southwest," p. 80, " the natives to till the soil, to construct houses, to learn trades ; and he practised them in the observances of the Church. Their children were instructed in the rudiments of learning. He lo"'oked out for their physical comfort, endeavoring to make them happy and contented as he taught them the arts of a new civilization." The money necessary for carrying on these missionary plans was contributed by charitable persons. This was the celebrated '" Pious Fund," which later became a cause of dispute between Mexico and the United States. The dispute was the first case settled at The Hague. - The Franciscans had come to Mexico in 1524 and established the mission of San Fernando, that became the mother of all the Franciscan missions in Mexico and California. The Jesuits came in 1572, having already established missions in Havana and among the Seminole Indians of Florida. The Carmel- ites arrived in 1585, and the Benedictines in 1589. To the Dominicans were given later the missions of Lower California. ' San Jose (sahn ho say') means " St. Joseph." THE PERIOD OF UNION 329 Others, until an unbroken line of missions, twenty-one in num- ber, joined San Diego to San Francisco, spreading on all sides the truths of the Gospel and the blessings of civilization. 340. Decline of the Missions. In 18 13 the first step in re- mo\in<^ the missions from the care of the Religious Orders niE EARLY MISSIONS OF CALIFORNIA was taken by the Spanish government, but the decree was not carried out. In 1833 the Mexican government decided to en- force the earlier decree, making the missions state property. It was the beginning of the end of the system. ^ Gradually the 1 Speaking of the work of the Franciscans, Dwindle, in " Colonial History of San Francisco," p. 84, says: "It was something, surely, that over thirty thousand wild, barbarous and naked Indians had been brought in from their savage haunts, persuaded to wear clothes, accustomed to a regular life taught to read and write, .... accustomed to the service of the Church, par- taking of its sacraments, and indoctrinated in the Christian religion." 330 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY missions decayed ; the natives were scattered, until in 1845 the property that had not been stolen or squandered by the officials was actually offered to the highest bidder. Before this step could be carried out, however, the flag of the United States was raised, and General Kearny decreed, in 1847, that the mis- sions and their property should remain in the hands of the Religious Orders until the legal title could be decided. 341. Discovery of Gold, 1848. About this time the whole aspect of affairs in California was changed by the world-famous gold discovery. Some years before, a Swiss settler named Sutter had established an estate and fort on the Sacramento River in California. While one of his workmen, named Marshall, was building a sawmill on a fork of the American River about forty miles from the fort, he noticed (January 24, 1848) shining par- ticles in the mill race. These proved to be gold. The news traveled quickly, and a wild rush began for the mountains. 342. The Emigration to California. From every side, north and south, east and west, the miners poured in. Some came overland across the prairies and deserts, where thousands perished from thirst, the cholera, and attacks of the Indians ; others rounded Cape Horn in sailing vessels, while many came by way of the Isthmus of Panama. San Francisco at the time of the gold discovery was a collec- tion of mud huts, with seven hundred inhabitants. It soon be- came a city of twenty thousand inhabitants. No less than ninety thousand immigrants arrived within two years -of Marshall's discovery. These were the famous "' Forty-niners." So great now became the number of settlers and so desperate were many of the gold seekers that it became necessary to frame some system of laws to protect life and property. At first vigilance committees were appointed, and later a conven- tion was called to frame a state constitution. A clause pro- hibiting slavery was passed unanimously. This constitution was adopted by the people (1849), ^^^ application was thereupon made for the admission of California as a state of the Union. THE PERIOD OF UNION 331 343. Election of Taylor. The question of the extension of slavery was daily becoming more ^troublesome. In 1848 the Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista ; the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan. The platform of neither party made any references to slavery. W' tM-^ \ r-^ - ^^^ ^ -M':. THE SCENE UF THE GOLD DISCUVERV A third party was the Free-Soilers. This party would not interfere with slavery in the slave states, but it was ijnalterably opposed to any extension of slavery into new territory or be- yond the Mississippi. The Free-Soilers nominated Martin Van Buren. He polled enough Democratic votes in New York to cause Cass to lose the state and the election, and Taylor became president. SUMMARY The leading events of Polk's administration (1845- 1849) were : The adjustment of the Oregon question. The Mexican War, 1846- 1848. The Wilmot Proviso of 1846. The discovery of ether and development of great inventions. The discovery of gold in California in 1S48. 332 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Taylor's Administration, 1849-18 50. Fillmore's Administration, i 8 50-1 8 5 3 344. The Compromise of 1850. Scarcely had Taylor ^ been inaugurated when there arose the question of the admission of California, As this state extended both north and south of the parallel of 36° 30', it was proposed that the question be settled by extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific. At this time the balance was evenly maintained between the free and the slave states, each having fifteen.^ The admission of California as a free state would upset that balance and give the free states control of the Senate. They already controlled the House of Representatives. The South, therefore, opposed the admission of all of California as a free state and urged delay or, at least, the extension of the Missouri Compromise line. There were many other difficult problems to be solved. In the territory ceded by Mexico, besides California, some form of government had to be established, and the question of slaveiy there had to be settled in some way. Again, Texas claimed that part of New Mexico which lies east of the Rio Grande, a claim the New Mexicans contested. The North, too, objected to slavery in the District of Columbia, while the South de- manded a better law to regain slaves that had run away to the North. 345. The Omnibus Bill. At length Henry Qay once more appeared as peacemaker and proposed a scheme to settle the 1 Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, and soon removed with his father, who was a Revolutionary officer, to a plantation in Kentucky. lie entered the army, rose to distinction in Indian battles, and in the Mexican War gained fame for his successes. He was loved by his soldiers, who called him "Old Rough and Ready." He took little interest in politics and never voted. He owned a large plantation in Louisiana, where he had many slaves, but he did not desire to see the system extended to territory where the people opposed it. He died July 9, 1S50. 2 Florida, admitted in 1S45, was offset by Iowa (1S46), and Texas (1845) by Wisconsin (184S). 'rm<: period of uniOxX 333 difficulties. His bill, known as the Compromise of 1850, or the Omnibus Bill, was made up of the following provisions : 1. The admission of California as a free state. 2. Territorial governments for New Mexico and I'tah without reference to slavery. ' 3. The pa\-mcnt to Texas of ten million dollars for her claims to part of Xew Mexico. 4. The prohibition of the slave trade, but not of slaverv, in the District of Columbia. 5. A stringent fugitive-slave law. This compromise led to an earnest debate, in which Calhoun, Clay, Webster, Chase, and Seward took leading parts ; the three former favored while the two latter denounced the Com- promise measures.^ While the Compromise Acts were pend- ing, President Taylor died (July 9, 1850). He had been in office only sixteen months. Vice President Fillmore at once took his place. Fillmore was favorable to the Compromise and aided in its passage. In the form of separate bills the Com- promise became a law during August and September, 1850. California, under the Compromise, was admitted to the Union, September 9, 1850, giving the free states now a majority of one in the Senate.'^ 1 This bill provided that the people in each territory should determine for themselves whether their territory would be free or slave. This was called " popular " or " squatter " sovereignty, the word squatter meaning " settler." Lewis Cass of Michigan was the author of this idea. 2 In this debate .Senator .Seward said : " There is a higher law than the Constitution," meaning the moral law, which rejected, he maintained, the very idea of slavery. This " higher law " doctrine became very popular in the North after this time. ' The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and (".reat Britain went into effect in 1S50. It provided that neither country should exercise exclusive control over any Central American ship canal (see sect. 506). In the administration of President Garfield. Secretary of State James G. Blaine tried without success to have this treaty abrogated. A convention signed November 18, 1901, by the United States and Great Britain provided for "a complete abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty and assured to the United States the sole right to construct and maintain " the canal across the Isthmus of Panama. 334 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 346. The Fugitive Slave Law. The passage of the Fugitive Slave Law as part of the Compromise aroused the deepest excitement in the North. ^ According to the provisions of this law United States officers, on the oath of an owner or his agent, could seize a colored person anywhere and turn him or her over to the claimant. Even years of residence in a free state gave the negro no rights whatever. As soon as the law was enacted, thousands of negroes, therefore, fled across the border into Canada. The slave could give no testimony and could not demand trial by jury, while heavy penalties could be inflicted on anyone assisting a slave to escape. The attempts of the officers to arrest runaway slaves provoked the bitterest feelings in many Northern cities. In some places the captured slaves were rescued and sent into Canada. Friends of the slaves secretly helped them from city to city till they reached the northern border. This method of rescuing the slaves was called the " Underground Railroad." One of the worst features of this bill was, it was claimed, the arrest of free negroes and their transfer to slavery again in the South. 347. Personal Liberty Laws. Cheap Postage. The passage of the Fugitive Slave Law led, in practically all the Northern states, to the enactment of laws, called Personal Liberty Laws, to protect the fugitive slaves. These laws in many cases really amounted to nullification, as their object was to defeat a national law. In 185 1 Congress took a long step toward cheaper postage. At this time it cost five cents to send a half-ounce letter to any point less than three hundred miles and ten cents beyond that distance. Congress now reduced the price for each half- ounce letter to three cents for three thousand miles and six cents for a greater distance. Adhesive stamps had been introduced only four years earlier. 1 The Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 was of little value, as it required the aid of the state authorities to carry it out. This new law recognized slavery as a national institution and protected the property in slaves. 335 336 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 348. " Uncle Tom's Cabin." While the return of fugitive slaves under the Compromise of 1850 had deeply stirred the antislavery spirit of the North, this intense feeling was greatly increased by the publication in 1852 of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," a story dealing with life in the South. The sales of this book reached millions of copies. It was translated into twenty languages. More than any other single force its publi- cation stirred up the antislavery feeling and increased the ranks of those opposed to the extension of slavery. The South maintained that the book depicted unusual and extreme cases and was not a true picture of Southern life. 349. The Gadsden Purchase, 1853. As difficulties arose in adjusting our southwestern boundary, a new treaty was made (December, 1853) with Mexico by which the United States purchased the land. This purchase added about forty-five thousand square miles to our domain in the territories of Ari- zona and New Mexico, between the Gila ^ River and our pres- ent boundary. The price paid was ten million dollars. It is called the Gadsden Purchase, after James Gadsden, United States minister to Mexico, who arranged the matter. In the election of 1852 both parties in their platforms endorsed the Compromise of 1850, hoping to end the slavery discussion. Franklin Pierce, the Democratic candidate, received the electoral votes of every state except four. The Whig can- didate was General Winfield Scott. SUMMARY The leading events of Taylor's and Fillmore's administrations (1849-1853) were: The Compromise of 1S50 and slavery discussion. The Fugitive Slave Law troubles. The publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin." The Gadsden Purchase of 1853. 1 Gila (hee'lah). TlIK I'KRIOI) Ol- I NION 337 Pikrck's Admixistkation/ 1H53-1857 350. Another Era of Good Feeling. The sweeping victory of Pierce and the absence of all partisan feeling led the country to believe that his administration would usher in another era of good feeling. The great business development led men to forget for a time the slavery question. Both North and South were apparently in harmony in the belief that the Compromise of 1850 had settled the slavery dispute forever. Besides the remarkable development of manufacturing, an era of railroad building was now coming in. 351. Pushing to the West. Six railroad lines were pushed across the Appalachians to the central West, and in a short time to the Mississippi River. The grain of the West now began to be moved to the East in large quantities and the manufactured goods of the East to go to the West. The pro- duction of cotton in the South reached over two million bales at this time, and the railways aided the river traffic in moving this enormous and valuable product to the eastern seaboard. 352. Reappearance of the Slavery Question. The general calm of the country was not allowed to continue. Within a short time of Pierce's inauguration the slavery question was once more to the front. It will be recalled that under the Missouri Compromise of 1820 slavery was forbidden in the Louisiana Purchase north of 36° 30'. Under this Compromise and the Compromise of 1850, therefore, the free and slave condition of all the territory under the Federal government was now fixed. 353. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. There was, however, no regularly established government for the rich Louisiana Pur- chase, which the people of the frontier states wished to enter and settle. It was now determined to organize, under the ^ Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804. He became a suc- cessful lawyer and was elected to the national House of Representatives and to the Senate. As president he opposed all antislavery measures, being an advocate of the doctrine of states' rights. He supported the Union during the Civil War and died in i86y. 33S ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Colonial 'Period PROGRESS OF HIGHWAY TRAXSPORTATIOX name of Nebraska, a territorial form of government for the entire Louisiana country west of Minnesota Territory, Iowa/ and Missouri. The bill to organize this territory was intro- duced in 1854 by Stephen A. Douglas,^ senator from Illinois. 1 Iowa had been admitted as a state in 1846. ^ Stephen A. Douglas was born in Vermont in 1813, and went to Illinois, where he became a judge of the state supreme court. He was representative in Congress and senator of the United States. He was an able orator, and was called from his small stature the " Little Giant," He died in 1S61. THE PERIOD OF ITNION 339 Douglas's bill provided for the right of the settlers to decide for themselves whether the territory should be slave or free. This was Cass's doctrine of popular, or squatter, sovereignty, which had been applied to New Mexico and Utah in the Compromise of 1850. The Compromise of 1850, Douglas declared, had rendered null and void the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which excluded slavery forever from this territory. He later amended his bill to pro- vide for two territories ; it is therefore called the Kansas-Nebraska Act.^ 354. Effect of Introduction of Kansas-Nebraska Act. The act also declared that tlie Missouri Com- promise of 1820 was repealed. As soon as the act was introduced, a violent debate arose in Congress. Against the act were Chase, Sum- ner, Everett, and Seward. Those in favor of it were led by Douglas and Jefferson Davis. Meetings in pro- test were held in most Northern cities. Douglas was denounced, and he says his entire journey from Washington to Chicago was lighted by the blaze of his own burning effigies. The leaders of the South were entirely willing to see Nebraska a free state, but they claimed that Kansas should be a slave state. With the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act both sides rushed to secure the territory of Kansas before the other side should arrive. 355. Result of Kansas-Nebraska Act. In spite of the most earnest opposition the act became a law (May 30, 1854). 1 Kansas was to extend from 37° to 40^ north latitude, and Nebraska from 40'' to 49^^. It was thought Kansas, as it lay west of Missouri, would become a slave state, while Nebraska, adjoining Iowa, would become a free state. The territories of Kansas and Nebraska under this act were much larger than are the present States of that name, as they both extended westward to the Rocky Mountains. STEPHEN A. DOCGLAS 340 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Missouri Compromise of 1820 had been the law of the land for thirty-four years, and everyone had felt that the area north of the line of ^6° 30' had been dedicated to freedom for all time. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska^ Act upset these ideas, and the whole slavery question was open again for dis- cussion. The great and fertile lands west of the Mississippi were the prize to secure which the North and South now en- tered the contest. An immediate consequence of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was the formation of the Re- publican party at Jackson, Michigan, in July, 1854. This party was made up of Free- Soilers, antislavery Democrats, and antislavery Whigs, and it selected the name " Repub- lican " as standing for human liberty and the rights of man, as the Jeffersonian Republican party had. 356. Ostend Manifesto. The desire, especially on the part of Southern leaders, to secure the rich island of. Cuba for the United States had led to many filibustering expeditions, which 1 " It is safe to say that in the scope and consequences of the Kansas- Nebraska Act it was the most momentous measure that passed Congress from the day that the senators and representatives first met to the outbreak of the Civil War. It sealed the doom of the Whig party ; it caused the forma- tion of the Republican party on the principle of no extension of slavery. . . . It made the Fugitive Slave Law a dead letter at the North ; it caused the Germans to become Republicans ; it lost the Democrats their hold on New England ; it made the Northwest Republican ; it led to the downfall of the Democratic party." — Rhodes, " History of the United States," Vol. I, p. 490 ^ ^3 ^^ "^. w/"^y^^/f /k- WILLIAM H. SEWARD THE PERIOD OE UNION 341 had all failed. In 1854, at the request of President Pierce, the American ministers to Great Britain, P'rance, and Spain — Buchanan, Mason, and Soule — met at Ostend in Belgium and drew up the so-called Ostend Manifesto. They declared that Spain should sell Cuba to the United States, and if she refused to do so, the United States would have the right to seize the °?,>' OP ^0^ %'»°*\ o" y ^'P .Kansas TERRiTORvf'"'-^ L^- V 'b % ) X^-^^rO^ — -■-•— ^ i _ V^- -■"^'^'"' r^' EFFECT OF THE KANSAS-XEBRASKA ACT island by force if necessary. No action was taken by our government on this extraordinary and unlawful proposition, and for forty-four years longer Cuba remained under the flag of Spain. 357. The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1858. The struggle for Kansas had now begun. P>om the neighboring slave state of Missouri settlers armed with rifles poured over the border, hoping by force of numbers to make a slave territory of Kansas, They established the towns of Atchison, Leaven- worth, and Lecompton. The PVee-Soil forces were also thor- oughly aroused. Societies were organized in Northern cities to send settlers to the territory, one of which — the New England Emigrant Aid Society — equipped a number of expeditions. 342 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The towns of Lawrence and Topeka were founded by the Free-Soilers. These settlers came also with rifles. Both sides showed a grim determination to win the territory. 358. Civil War in Kansas. Violence reigned everywhere in " bleeding Kansas," and civil war virtually followed. Both sides were guilty of crimes of violence and bloodshed. The new town of Lawrence was burned by the slavery men, and John Brown made up a party and attacked a small settlement of pro-slavery squatters, murdering five of them. On the elec- tion (November, 1854) of a delegate to Congress the great struggle began. Armed bands of slavery men from Missouri roamed throughout the country taking possession of the polls. A slavery delegate was elected. Congress, however, refused, on the ground of fraud at the polls, to seat the delegate that had been elected. Four months later (March, 1855) the election of members for the territorial government was to occur. This was the crisis of the struggle, as success for the slavery men meant a slave state of Kansas. The slavery forces won, and at a convention held at Lecompton slavery and a most stringent slave code were formally established. The antislavery men held a convention at Topeka, declared the Lecompton convention an illegal body, made an antislavery constitution, and submitted it to a popular vote. As no slavery men voted, this constitution was adopted, and thus two gov- ernments were organized. This strife lasted until 1858, when the numbers of the free men were so great that the slavery men gave up the struggle, and three years later Kansas, under a free constitution, was admitted to the Union. 359. Perry's Expedition to Japan, 1853. One of the great events of Pierce's administration was the opening of commer- cial relations with Japan, At that time the only port open to the outside world was Nagasaki, and even here only the Dutch were allowed to land. In the summer of 1853 Commodore Matthew C. Perry anchored in the waters of Japan not far from THE PERIOD OF UNION 343 the present site of Yokohama, bearing letters to the govern- ment of Japan asking for a treaty and the opening of the ports. The Japanese received his letters and promised to consider the matter. Perry replied that he would return the following year for an answer. He sailed to China and at the appointed time returned to Japan, where his perseverance was rewarded. A treaty was signed (1854) by which certain ports were opened for trade with the United States. This was the beginning of Japan's wondrous development. 360. The Know-Nothings. The year 1854 was marked by the rise to power of the Know-Nothing, or Native American, party. ^ This was a secret, oath-bound organization that was based on hostility to foreigners and especially to Roman Catholics, native or foreign. For some years immigration had been increasing with won- derful strides as a result of the development of ocean steam navigation, of the revolutions in Europe, — especially in Germany and Austria- Hungary, — and of the fearful famine in Ireland. American politics at this time were in a condition of unrest and turmoil. The leaders of the Know-Nothings took advan- tage of this condition to organize a bitter opposition to Catho- lics. A disgraceful period of rioting and bloodshed followed. The Papal Nuncio, who was visiting America at this time, was burned in effigy in Baltimore, and the militia was needed to quell the riots when he visited Cincinnati. A stone sent by the Pope for the Washington monument was destroyed. Catholic churches or convents were burned in Charlestown, Newark, New York, Bath, Philadelphia, and Louisville, while the homes of Catholics were destroyed in many cities. At Ellsworth, Maine, Father John Bapst, the Jesuit missionary, was tarred and feathered. It became necessary to entirely sus- pend public worship in the Catholic churches of Philadelphia. 1 At the outset they conducted all their proceedings in secret. In answer to every question about themselves they answered, "I don't know," whence arose the name of Know-.\othings. 344 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Know-Nothings obtained their first political successes in the national election of 1854.^ In that year they carried Massachusetts and Delaware, polled one hundred and twenty-two thousand votes in New York, and elected seventy-five members of the national House of Repre- sentatives. In the following year they were victorious in Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and Kentucky. In the presidential campaign of 1856 they nominated Fillmore and carried only one state. Lord Balti- more's former colony, Maryland. After this crushing defeat their power began to wane, and they merged themselves with other political parties. 361. Election of Buchanan. As the time approached for the election of a president to succeed Pierce the old parties were radically changed. The support of the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act had turned thousands of Northern Whigs against their party, and Webster and Clay were no longer alive to advance its fortunes. Many of the antislavery Democrats had resolved to leave their party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The new Repub- lican party held its first national convention at Philadelphia, in 1856. John C. Fremont was nominated for president. The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, who was elected. SUMMARY The leading events of Pierce's administration (1853-1857) were: The Ostend Manifesto of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The rise of the Republican party. The struggle for Kansas (185 4- 185 8). Perry's expedition to Japan in 1853. The Know-Nothing movement of 1854. 1 The so-called A. P. A. (American Protective Association) about four decades later attempted to reestablish a party on the earlier Know-Nothing platform. A similar movement has been the recent Guardians of Liberty organization. THE PERIOD OE UNION 345 IUciianan's Admimsikation,! 1857-1861 362. The Dred Scott Decision, 1857. Two clays after Buchanan's inauguration the United States Supreme Court rendered the famous Dred Scott decision. Ured Scott was a slave whose owner, an army surgeon, had taken him from Missouri to Illinois, a free state, where he resided four years. Later he was taken to Minnesota Territory, where slavery was forbidden under the Missouri Compromise. He returned with his master after a time to Missouri. Some years later Scott sued his owner for his freedom, claiming that his residence on free soil had made him a free man. His case reached the United States Supreme Court, which decided that Dred Scott, being a negro slave, was not a citizen and could not become one ; that he could not therefore bring a suit in the United States courts ; that his residence on free soil did not make him free ; ^ that Congress could not prevent slave-owners from taking their slaves with them wherever they desired to go, as they would their cattle or other property ; and, finally, that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and therefore null and void, as it prohibited slavery in that part of the Louisiana Territory which lay north of 36° 30' and conse- quently prevented slave-owners from carrying their property (slaves) into the territory. This decision opened all the territories of the United States to slavery and made Douglas's theory of popular sovereignty a farce. Great indignation arose throughout the North at the decision, while the South believed it had won a great victory, and two years later, in a commercial convention of nine Southern states at Vicksburg, the repeal of all laws, state or Federal, prohibiting the African slave trade was approved by a vote of forty to nineteen. 1 James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. He served in Con- gress, was minister to Russia and England, and was Secretary of State. lie was elected president in 1S56 and died in 1S6S. - After the decision of the Supreme Court. Dred Scott and his family were given their freedom by their owner. 346 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 363. The Crisis of 1857. New States. Five months after Buchanan's inauguration an Ohio bank failed. It was the be- ginning of a widespread crisis, which in the main was occa- sioned by excessive investment in railroad building. Factories were closed, and men by thousands were thrown out of employ- ment. For two years there was great suffering, but at last busi- ness again revived and the country became prosperous. Gold was discovered in Colorado, which caused a great rush of population there. From the large influx of gold-seekers Denver grew quickly to be a city. Gold and silver were discov- ered in Nevada at this time. A most important discovery was that of oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859, which resulted in the boring of thousands of oil wells in Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, and Indiana. From the refined petroleum is obtained kerosene and gasoline, which have had such an important influence on civilization. These discoveries were great factors in restoring prosperity to the Union. At this time Minnesota was admitted to the Union (1858). Oregon became a state in 1859, with a constitution which excluded free negroes from the state. 364. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858. In 1858 the Democrats of Illinois renominated Douglas for United States senator. Abraham Lincoln was chosen by the Republicans as their candidate. He challenged Douglas to a series of seven joint debates. These debates were held in various parts of the state. Treating as they did of popular sovereignty, slavery, and the Dred Scott decision, they aroused the interest of the whole nation. Douglas upheld the doctrine of popular sovereignty, while Lincoln took the side of the Missouri Compromise and the Wilmot Proviso. Lincoln was defeated, that is, the Demo- crats won control of the state legislature, which insured the election of their candidate Douglas as senator ; but the promi- nence which these debates gave Lincoln made him a prominent candidate for the nomination for the presidency in the ensuing Republican national convention. THK I'RRIOI) OF UNION 347 365. John Brown's Raid, 1859. The bitterness of feeling between the slavery and antislavery men was intensified by the John Brown raid. John Brown, who, as we have seen, had taken an active part in the Kansas struggle, arranged a plan to seize the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry and, with the aid of armed negroes, to establish a refuge in the mountains for runaway slaves. From this refuge he planned to wage war on f^ ^^ ^^ 3 Mi/ r [HE LINCOLX-IJOl'GLAS UEHATES the South, using as soldiers the freed slaves. With nineteen followers he seized (October 16, 1859) the arsenal, expecting the slaves would rise and join him. His enterprise was a failure. The arsenal was quickly captured. Brown was taken prisoner. He was tried for murder and treason, found guilty, and hanged. Brown's raid had no support at the North beyond his personal friends, but it created a feeling of bitter resentment in the South, where it was believed to be the beginning of a general movement for the liberation of the slaves. This movement would be aided, they believed, by the national government if the Republicans should come into power. 348 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 366. Election of Lincoln. In 1861 Buchanan's term would expire, and a bitter struggle for the presidency now began. The Democratic convention met (April, i860) at Charleston, South Carolina, but the Northern and Southern delegates could not agree on the slavery question, and the convention dissolved. Another convention, made up of Northern Democrats, met in Baltimore and nominated (June 18, i860) Stephen A, Douglas for president. The Southern delegates a few days later also met in Balti- more and nominated John C, Breckenridge of Kentucky, The remnants of the Whigs and the Know-Nothings nominated John Bell of Tennessee. The Republican convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln and demanded chiefly the admission of Kansas as a free state, the maintenance of freedom in the territories, and a railroad to the Pacific, while they rejected the principles of the Dred Scott decision, Lincoln 1 was elected. 367. The Beginnings of Secession. The election of Lincoln was soon followed by the secession of South Carolina. A con- vention passed (December 20, i860) an ordinance of secession in the following words : " We, the people of the state of South Carolina, in convention assembled, do declare and ordain, . , . that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states, under the name of the United States of America, is hereby dissolved." South Carolina thus declared itself to be an independent nation. Events came to a crisis rapidly ; Mississippi, Florida, 1 Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. His parents were very poor. He moved with them to Indiana and helped to cut the logs for their cabin. For this reason he was often called the " Rail Splitter." The Lincoln family later moved to Illinois. Taking advantage of what opportuni- ties he had, he studied law and was admitted to the bar. He was called by his neighbors " Honest Abe." In 1S46 he was elected to Congress. He was a can- didate against Douglas for the United States Senate in 1858, but was defeated. Two years later he was elected president, with Hannibal Hamlin as vice presi- dent. In 1S64 he was reelected, with Andrew Johnson as vice president. He was assassinated April 14, 1865. THE PERIOD OF UNION 349 Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and Texas seceded, and delegates from six states gathered (I^^ebruary 4, 1861) at Montgomery, Alabama, formed a new government, drew up a provisional constitution,^ and called themselves the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis''^ was elected president, and the Stars and Bars adopted as a flag. United States arsenals and forts had been seized, but Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor was held for the Union by Major Robert Anderson. As he was short of supplies, the Federal government dispatched a steamer. The Star of the West, w-ith supplies for Anderson. The South Carolina batteries at once opened fire upon the vessel (January 9, 1861), and it was compelled to return. Senator Crittenden proposed at this time a compromise that all north of 36° 30' should be free and all south of that line slave, that territories should decide whether to be free or slave, and that the Constitution should never be amended to abolish slavery in the states. The Com- promise failed. 1 The leading features in which this constitution differed from that of the I'nited States were the "sovereign and independent character" of each state; the prohibition of a protective tariff; the recognition of negro slavery; the right of members of the cabinet to speak in Congress ; and the ineligi- bility for reelection of the president and vice president, to whom a six-year term of office was given. -Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in iSoS, and graduated from West Point in iS::8. lie fought in the Mexican War and served in both Houses of Congress. lie withdrew from the Senate when his state, Missis- sippi, seceded. Alexander II. Stephens was a native of Georgia. He was serving his sixth term in Congress when he was elected vice president of the Confederacy. JKFFKKSON I)A\IS 350 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY SUMMARY The leading events of Buchanan's administration (1857-1861) were : The Dred Scott decision of 1857, which opened the free territories to slavery. ' The crisis of 1857. The discovery of gold, silver, and oil. The admission of Minnesota (1858) and Oregon(i859)to the Union. The Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. John Brown's raid in 1859. The beginnings of secession and the formation of the Southern Confederacy. Dates to he remembered : 1846. War with Mexico. 1848. Discovery of gold in California. 1850. The Omnibus Bill. 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. 1857- The Dred Scott decision. i860. Election of Lincoln. Secession of South Carolina. Establishment of the Southern Confederacy Important dates for reference : 1834. McCormick develops the reaper. 1837- The electric telegraph invented. 1846. Discovery of ether. 1853- Gadsden Purchase. 1854. Rise of the Republican party. REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Show how the Missouri Compromise was violated by the Kansas- Nebraska Act of 1854. 2. State the causes and give in detail the results of the war with Mexico. 3. What was the Omnibus Bill ? State its provisions. On this bill what was the attitude of Clay, Webster, Seward, and Calhoun ? 4. Relate the circumstances attending the organization of Kansas and Nebraska as territories. Define squatter sovereignty. Who was the author of the idea.'' THE PERIOD OF UNION 351 5. Give an account of the Dred Scott decision, and show how it affected an important provision of the Missouri Compromise. State the effect of this decision on political parties in the North. 6. Describe the missions of California. What was the result of the discovery of gold in California? 7. What great discovery in 1846 brought epoch-making changes in surgery ? What invention lightened the labor of women .'' 8. Show how the slavery question affected (a) the formation of the Constitution; {d) the admission of Missouri; (c) the annexation of Te.xas; (t/) the admission of California ; (e) the rise and fall of political parties. 9. Mention one American invention in each of the following fields : transportation, communication, domestic work, agriculture, giving {a) approxi- mate date ; (d) name of the inventor ; (c) some account of the benefits derived. 10. Draw a map of the United States and on it show how the country was divided by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. Indicate (a) the slave states ; {l>) the free states ; (r) the territory open to slavery by the principle of squatter sovereignty. READINGS Histories. Brooks, N., Li/c of Abraham Lincoln. Brown, W. G., Stephen Arnold Douglas. Dodo, W. E., Jefferson Davis. Engelhardt, Z., The Missions and Missionaries of California. Garrison, G. P., West- ward Extension. I rvino, W., Astoria. McLaughlin, A. C, Lewis Cass. Park.man, F., Oregon Trail. Rhodes, J. F., History of the UnitedStates, Vols. I and II. Sexton, E. M., Stories of California. Smith, Justin H., Annexation of Texas. Smith, T. C, Parties and Slavery, Stoddard, C. W., With the Padres. Thwaites, R. G., Stories of the Badger State. Williams, S., Some Successful Americans. Wilson, Woodkow. Division and Reunion. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. I\\ p. 11 (California in 1835); p. 28 (Capture of the City of Mexico); p. 43 (A Forty-Niner) ; p. 48 (Calhoun's " Danger of Disunion"); p. 52 (W^ebster's Seventh of March Speech) ; p. 56 (Seward's " Higher Law ") ; p. 80 (The Underground Railroad); p. 97 (Douglas on the Kansas-Nebraska Act); p. 122 (The Dred Scott Decision). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 335 (The Gold Seekers); p. 340 (The Omnibus Bill); p. 378 (Election of Abraham Lincoln); p. 388 (Alexander H. Stephens's Plea for Union): p. 394 (Secession; its Justification). 352 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Fiction. Allen, J. L., A Ke7itucky Cardinal (z. tale of life about 1850 in the central states). Bonner, G., The Emigrant Trail (a story of emi- gration to California). Brooks, N., The Boy Emigrants (describes the trip to the Pacific in the days of the gold discovery). Cable, G. W., Dr. Sevier (a story of New Orleans before the Civil War). Canfield, C. L., The City of Six (describes placer mining in California). Churchill, W., Coniston (a story which pictures the boss system in New York). Eggleston, Edward, The Graysons (a tale of Illinois). Eggleston, George Carv, Two Gentlemen of Virginia (treats of the slave question). Gale and Wheeler, -A Knight of the Wilderness (a story of the Middle West, introducing Lincoln and Davis). Harris, J. C, Free foe (a story of master and slave in Georgia). Kellv, F. F., Rhoda of the Underground (treats of the slave question). Kexxedv, J. P., Swallow Bam (a story of life in Virginia). Miller, L. B., The White River Raft (a tale of life on the Mississippi). Munroe, Kirk, With Crockett and Bowie (an interesting story of the Mexican War period). Smith, F. H., The Fortunes of Oliver Horn (a story of life in Washington and New York about the time of the Civil War). Stowe, H. B., Uncle Toni's Cabin (an abolitionist view of slavery in the South). Watts, M. S., Nathan Burke (a tale of the Mexi- can War). Whittier, J. G., The Angels of Buena Vista (a poem on a battle of the war with Mexico). ' Winthrop, T., fohn Brent (a story of the Mormons). CHAPTER XII "Two questions — that of state sovereignty primarily and directly and that of negro slavery secondarily and indirectly — were the supreme ques- tions involved in the American Civil War." — E. M. Banks THE PERIOD OF DISUNION Lincoln's Administration, i 861-1865 368. Lincoln's First Inaugural, 1861. In his last message President Buchanan had declared that although the right of secession "was wholly inconsistent with the history as well as the character of the F'ederal Constitution," it was his belief that he could not lawfully coerce a state or compel it to stay in the Union. The nation now waited with anxiety for the new president. President Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1861. In his inaugural address he declared : "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." He declared that the Fugitive Slave Law should be executed, but with proper safe- guards for free negroes ; he maintained that the Union of States is perpetual and that " no State upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union ; that rrso/^rs and ordiiiaticcs to that effect are Icgallv void," and he would therefore use all the power of the nation " to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the (Government " of the United States. 369. Fall of Sumter. Lincoln determined to send men and supplies to P"ort Sumter at oncc.^ Hearing of this, General 1 All the forts, arsenals, and public buildings in the South had fallen into the hands of the Confederates except Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens. Sumter fell, but Pickens was never captured during the war. 353 354 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY r .jii|iiii"| i|T|i';;ii7iii,|i]i viiMi'iMi,'|;iinj|;i,,7|iii'n i I ,,,1/ ',.il' !,, iii,liiiil!'i/i,.i i'mI, Beauregard immediately demanded the surrender of the fort. Major Anderson, who was in charge, refused to dehver it up, and before sunrise on April 12, 1861, the Confederate battery fired the first shot at Sumter. For thirty-four hours shot and shell rained on the fort. At last Major Anderson, seeing the uselessness of further delay, as he was without food or powder, surrendered the fort (April 14) and marched out with honors of war. The fearful Civil War had begun. 370. The Strength and Weakness of the South. Let us now consider the resources and ad- x'antages that each side possessed at the outbreak of the war. Of the thirty- four states of the L^nion twenty-three remained loyal to the North and eleven to the South. In the matter of population the South was at a great dis- advantage. There were in the free states nineteen millions of people, in all the slave states twelve millions. As the slave states of Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, with three miL lions of people, remained in the Union, the North had twenty-two millions, while the seceding states had only nine millions, and three million of these were slaves. The South "mm ABRAHAM LINCOLN THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 355 had the advantage of fighting on smaller defensive lines and in a country with which they were thoroughly familiar. They were enthusiastically united because they felt they were fighting for tlicir homes and against invasion. Accustomed to the use of firearms, they were skilled marksmen. They suf- fered great disadvantages because of their industrial condition. They had few manufactories or machine shops, few navy yards, and no seafaring population to draw from in manning any ves- sels they might build. Their coal and iron mines had been undeveloped, and almost every article of food or clothing was imported in exchange for cotton. Cotton was the foundation of the wealth of the South. By cutting off, through the blockade, the export of cotton the North dealt the South a vital blow. The negro slaves tilled the soil, while every white man went to the front. There was practically no reserve force, and the losses in battle told heavily, as coxfkderate flag the places of the men who had been (-phe stars and Bars) killed and wounded could never be filled. 371. The Condition of the North. The North had a great advantage before the world in being in possession of the established government and the historic flag of the United States. It was waging a war for the integrity of its national life, although freedom and slavery were the real causes behind the struggle. It had a large population of free men, almost four times as many as the seceding states. This allowed it to continue uninterrupted its manufactories and to recruit con- stantly the armies in the field. It had numberless machine shops, foundries, gim factories, and shipyards, with a large supply of skilled machinists. Its merchant marine and fish- eries had raised up a race of hardy sailors. It had numerous railroads to move the troops easily from point to point, and soon had gunboats to ply the great rivers and penetrate the heart of the South. It quickly secured vessels of all descriptions 356 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY to maintain an effective blockade. Both sides were mistaken in underrating their opponents. The North thought it would be a ninety days' affair. The South believed that the North would not and could not fight ; that their mercantile life had unfitted them for soldiers ; and that they would never be united in any policy that looked to the coercion of the South. 372, The Border States. European Hostility to the North. The first great problem was the future of the Border States. They were slaveholding states and contained naturally many Southern sympathizers. Possessing the Border States, the South could make the Ohio and the Potomac its northern boundary, a very effectual barrier. Of these Border States, Delaware at once declared for the Union ; Virginia ^ joined the Confederacy ; but Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, for a time doubtful, remained loyal to the Union. The area of the seceding states was equal to the combined area of Belgium, Holland, F'rance, Germany, Spain, and Italy. The South had many sympathizers in England, and from Napoleon III of PVance it received secret support. The French emperor, at that time planning to establish an empire in Mexico, looked upon the success of the South as more favorable to his enter- prise. Russia was favorable at all times to the Union. The Southern leaders believed that the manufacturing nations of Europe would interfere to break any blockade that might be established and to secure the cotton so essential to their exist- ence. In this they were sorely disappointed.'^ President Lincoln sent Thurlow Weed to England and Archbishop Hughes of 1 Forty-eight counties in the western part of Virginia had few slaves and were not in sympathy with the " tidewater " Virginians. When Virginia joined the Confederacy, these Western counties declared for the Union and asked for admission as the state of Kanawha. They were admitted in 1S63 under the name of West Virginia. - The declaration of Alexander H. Stephens at this time, making slavery virtually the corner stone of the Confederacy, may have tended to prevent the nations of Europe that had already abolished slavery from openly aiding the South. Stephens had earnestly opposed secession, but went with his native state of Georgia when it seceded. THK PERIOD OF DISUNION 357 New York to France to influence public opinion by presenting the Union cause from the standpoint of the North, and both rendered great service to the national government. 373. The Plan of the War. A glance at the map will show that the Southern Confederacy was divided in its physical features into three sections by the Alleghenies and the Missis- sippi. The plan adopted by the national government was : first, to blockade the entire Southern coast, thus cutting off all sup- plies and exports ; second, to capture Richmond and the army of Virginia ; third, to force the Union army like a wedge through the Southern lines between the Alleghenies and the Missis- sippi, and thereby dismember the Confederacy ; and fourth, to regain control of the Missis- sippi, cutting off the great West and Southwest and attacking the Confederacy on its left flank. This would cut off a great source of supply of men and goods. Much to the disappointment of the United States, which maintained that the Southern states were merely in insur- rection, Great Britain ^ acknowledged (May 13, 1861) the bellig- erent rights of the Confederacy by issuing a proclamation of neutrality forbidding Englishmen to take part in the war on either side. This proclamation did not acknowledge the in- dependence of the Confederacy, but declared that war existed 1 While England was opposed to slavery, it wished our cotton, and it disliked exceedingly the high Morrill tariff which had recently been enacted and which shut out English manufactured goods. With almost free trade in the Con- federacy. England could buy cotton there and ship in manufactured goods, making it a very profitable arrangement. ARCHBISHOP HUGHES 358 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY between the sections. France quickly followed with a similar proclamation, and was followed by Spain, the Netherlands, and other nations of Europe.^ 374. The Call to Arms. At the news of Sumter the mass of the people in the North, without regard to party, religion, or color, rose for the defense of the Union .^ Throughout the South there was an equal outburst of patriotism for the stars and bars, as the new Southern flag was called. President Lincoln called (April 15, 1861) for seventy-five thousand troops, and three hundred thousand volunteers came to the front. 375. Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas Junction, July 21, 1861. The Confederate government moved from Montgomery to Richmond, and the cry throughout the North became, '' On to Richmond ! " General McDowell was ordered to attack the Confederates, under Beauregard, stationed at Bull Run,''^ or Manassas Junction, about thirty miles southwest of Washington. The battle was fought Sunday, July 21, 186 1. At the outset the Union forces drove back the Confederates, but the latter were rallied by General T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson.'* At the 1 Another reason for the neutrality proclamation was given by the English statesman Lord John Russell, who wrote : " Upwards of five million free men have been for some time in open revolt against the president and Congress of the United States. It is not our practice to treat five millions of free men as pirates and to hang their sailors if they attempt to stop our merchantmen. But unless we meant to treat them as pirates and to hang them, we could not deny them belligerent rights." At this time England was ruled by the aris- tocracy, which looked with fear on the successful establishment of the demo- cratic United States as a menace to their rule and privileges. They had opposed the extension of the Reform Act of 1832. The effect of the triumph of the North was seen in the immediate passage of a further reform act in 1867. 2 Of the former presidents then living, Van Buren, Pierce, and Buchanan stood by the Union. Tyler joined the Confederacy when his native state Virginia seceded (April 17, 1861). The Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas at once pledged his support and that of his followers to President Lincoln. ^ /v'//« means a small stream of running water. * In the thick of the fight a Confederate general, pointing to Jackson, rallied his men, exclaiming, " There stands Jackson like a stone wall ! " From that time he was known as Stonewall Jackson. lie was born in Virginia (1824), graduated from West Point, and served for two years in the Mexican War. 127 122 117 112 107 Longitude 102 W< Approximate limit occupied by • U.S. Troops Julii /, IS6I Sherman's March Railroads [T'rn Union States J- Blockade | " | Early Secession K Forts L I Later " J . ._ __ _^^i ^ Longitude 25 West from 15 Washington 10 THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 359 critical moment fresh troops under General Joseph E. Johnston hurried from the Shenandoah valley, joined the Confederates, and struck the Union forces on the flank. The latter broke and fled, demoralized and panic-stricken, to the defenses of Washington. The defeat caused dismay throughout the North. There was great rejoicing in the South, and many Southerners, believing the war to be over, returned to their homes. 376. Appointment of McClellan. The War in Missouri. The defeat at Bull Run brought for the first time clearly before the North the crisis in its national life that it had to face. It now saw that the war would not be a ninety days' affair, and that the South would not only fight but fight valiantly. Congress voted two hun- dred and fifty million dollars and five hundred thousand men.^ General George B. McClellan,^ who had practically driven the Confederates out of western Virginia, stonewall jackson was appointed general in chief, under the President, of the United States armies. In the West, Kansas had been admitted (January 29, 1 861) and was strongly in favor of the Union. Missouri was held by the loyal citizens, who overthrew the state government, which was strongly in favor of the Confederacy. To alleviate as far as possible the horrors of war a Sanitary Commission was organized. In addition to this commission the Sisters of the various religious communities gave their serv- ices in the hospitals and on the firing line, winning for them- selves the title of "Angels of the Battlefield."^ 1 As there was practically no money in the national treasury. Congress increased the duties on imports and placed taxes on liquors, spirits, tobacco, bank checks, on trades, professions, and, to the amount of three per cent, on incomes of more than eight hundred dollars per year. - General George B. McClellan was born in Philadelphia in iS::6, graduated from West Point, and served in the Mexican War. ^ In 1918 Congress voted permission for a monument to be erected in Wash- ington as a tribute to the Sisters who served on the battlefields of the Civil War. 36o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Chambersburg-,- — ^ i 3for p E N N s^^r^^^ i^^-^r::^.. t A.';_Gettysburg_ THE WAR IX THE EAST The Confederates were attacked (August lo, 1861) at Wilson's Creek by General Nathaniel Lyon, but he was defeated and killed. At Lexington on the Missouri the Confederates attacked Colonel James A. Mulligan, who held them at bay until he was finally overwhelmed. The Confederates now took a stand at Pea Ridge in southwestern Missouri,^ but were defeated (March 7, 1862). Missouri was now safely in the grasp of the Union. THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 361 377. The Blockade. One of the most difficult tasks before the h'cdcral government was the blockading of the Southern coast. In April President Lincoln announced to the nations of the world that the coast from the Potomac to the Rio . Grande was blockaded, and vessels of all nations were forbidden to go in or out. To enforce the blockade armed vessels were stationed along the entire coast. By May, 1862, the blockade was so effective that the entire Atlantic coast of the Confed- eracy was i:)ractically cut off from outside assistance. This measure was of great importance ^ in carrying on the war. It prevented the export of cotton and thereby reduced the revenues of the South ; it rendered difficult the purchase of arms and munitions of war, — a vital blow, as the South had few gun factories or machine shops. To overcome the blockade fast vessels were built. They were called " blockade runners." They were mostly English, manned by English sailors, and made their headquarters at Nassau in the Bahamas. 378. The Trent Affair. In November, 1861, an event occurred which brought us to the verge of war with England. Mason and Slidell, two Confederate commissioners, bound for England and PYance, sailed from Havana for Europe on the British steamer Trent. They were sent to secure the aid of England and P>ance for the Confederacy. Captain Wilkes, of a United States sloop of war, stopped and boarded the Trent and took off Mason and Slidell. Great indignation was expressed throughout England at the act, and war was imminent. President Lincoln disavowed the act, however, as the United States had always strenuously opposed the so- called " right of search." The commissioners were therefore placed upon another English warship and sent to Pmgland.^ ^ " It was the blockade rather than the ravages of the army that sapped the industrial strength of the Confederacy." — Schwai:, "Confederate States of America," p. 236 - By her action in this matter England gave up forever her earlier doctrine of the " right of search." It was therefore a diplomatic victory for Secretary Seward, who managed the affair with great tact and ability. 362 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 379. The Privateers. Public opinion in England, especially among the aristocracy, or so-called "upper classes," in the early days of the Civil War was very hostile to the Federal government. The "middle" and "lower" classes were favor- able to the Union. Many leading English statesmen ^ favored the Confederacy, Gladstone hailing the secession of the South as the birth of a new nation. Although England had abolished slavery throughout her own dominions, her attitude helped to maintain the institution in the Western world. One of the most injurious consequences of the indifference of the English government was the building of privateers in English ship- yards. At the outbreak of the Civil War our merchant vessels were sailing every sea, bearing merchandise to every part of the world. To cripple this source of revenue and strength the Confederate government issued "letters of marque" to priva- teers, who thereupon went forth to destroy Northern vessels. The Sumter, under Captain Semmes, escaped the blockade (June, 1 86 1), and for six months swept the seas. In the Eng- lish shipyards the building of privateers was hurried by the Confederates. The Florida was launched at Liverpool, and the fate of the most famous of all, the Alabama, we shall see later. The battle of Bull Run was won by the Confederates. The Union army was defeated at Wilson's Creek, but Missouri was held in the Union. The blockade was established along the Southern seaboard and became very effective. * Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Europe, were taken (November 8) from the Treiit, and England prepared for war. The Federal government acknowledged its error and returned the commissioners to an English warship. 1 Of the men in English public life or distinguished in the world of letters, John Bright, Cobden, John Stuart Mill, Tennyson, W. E. Forster, and Sir Charles Lyell favored the Union cause. Palmerston, Gladstone, Grote, Dickens, Carlyle, and E. A. Freeman were unsympathetic or openly hostile to the North. THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 363 Tin-: War in 1862 380. The Plan against Richmond. The plan of campaign at the opening of the )-ear 1862 involved chiefly the capture of Richmond and the control of the Mississippi. To carry out the first part of the plan McClellan, with the Army of the Potomac, was directed to march across Virginia to Richmond. By this arrangement the Northern army would always be interposed between the Confederates and Wash- ington. McClellan pre- ferred to move up the James River. Finally, it was decided to station a small force under Banks and Fremont in the Shen- andoah valley to prevent the Southern troops from sweeping through it into Washington. McDowell was ordered to march from Washington to Fred- ericksburg and thence to Richmond. McClellan was to sail up the York River to Yorktown, and marchin the peninsula, join McDowell and capture Richmond. 381. The Peninsular Campaign. McClellan, who had spent many months drilling and organizing his troops, landed at Yorktown to begin his march up the peninsula formed by the York and the James rivers. Here he was confronted by the Confederates, who delayed the progress of the Union forces for a month and then drew back towards Richmond. At Williamsburg (May 4-5) the Confederates under General Joseph K. Johnston again held the Federals in check. The position of the Union army was a most unfortunate one. The SCALE OF MILES THP; WAR 1\ VIRGINIA up 364 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY country was swampy, the rains had swollen the brooks into torrents, and progress was attended with great difficulty. At every step McClellan had to fight his way. With one part of his army on the southern side of the Chickahominy and the remainder on the northern side, McClellan awaited the arrival of McDowell, who was posted at Fredericks- burg with forty thou- sand men to guard the road to the national capital. In the distance McClellan could hear the bells of Richmond and see the spires of the churches. As a result of the heavy rains the Chickahominy suddenly began to rise and widened into a lake. Johnston now fell upon the Union forces south of the river and virtually defeated them at Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines (May 31-June I). In this battle General Joseph E. Johnston was sev'erely wounded, and Robert E. Lee took command.^ In the meantime Stonewall Jackson suddenly appeared in the Shenandoah valley and demoralized the Federal forces, defeating successively Milroy and Banks. Washington was thrown into a panic. McDowell was immediately ordered by President Lincoln, against McClellan's protest, to head off ^ To win the antislavery element in England, President Lincoln early in 1862 made a treaty with Great Britain to suppress the foreign slave trade on the coast of Africa. (,em:ral k THE PERIOD C)l' DISUNION 365 Jackson in the Shenandoah valley. Jackson escaped by defeat- ing Fremont and Shields. The withdrawal of McDowell was exactly what General Lee had hoped for. With Jackson now to aid him he at once attacked McClellan, forcing him to fall back to the James River. It required seven days to carry out this mov^ement, the Union forces losing fifteen thousand men.^ At the last fight, at Malvern Hill (July i), Lee was repulsed with heavy loss. The campaign against Richmond was a failure. 382. Battle of Cedar Mountain. Second Battle of Bull Run, August 30, 1862. President Lincoln (July 2) issued a procla- mation calling for three hundred thousand more volunteers. General Halleck was now in command of all the Union armies in the field. He ordered McClellan to leave the James, and taking his forces to the Potomac, to join them to the army under Pope. Lee, no longer fearing for Richmond, now has- tened to attack Pope, who commanded the Union forces in northern Virginia. Jackson defeated Pope's right wing at Cedar Mountain. McClellan's troops now came up, and against the united force stationed on the old battlefield of Bull Run (August 30) Lee hurled his armv. Pope was defeated and retreated toward Washington, resigning his command, which was again given to McClellan. It was feared Washington would fall into the hands of the Confederates. 383. Battle of Antietam, September 16-17, 1862. Lee now determined to invade the North and, crossing the Potomac, entered Maryland. Stonewall Jackson seized Harper's Ferr)- witli its military stores. Twelve thousand men fell prisoners into his hands. McClellan hastened to head off Lee, and the forces met (September 16-17) at Antietam Creek near Sharps- burg. A bloody battle was fought, each side losing about twelve thousand men, killed and wounded. Although both 1 The Seven Days' Battles were fought at Mechanicsville (June 26), Gaines's Mill (June 27). Savage Station (June 29), Glendale. or Frayser's Farm (June 30), and Malvern Hill (July i). In these battles the Confederate loss was about twenty thousand men. killed and wounded. 366 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY sides suffered equally, McClellan won a partial victory, as he stopped the advance of Lee, who now retired across the Potomac. McClellan 's failure to follow up his victory by pursuing Lee displeased the government, and Burnside was appointed to succeed him. 384. Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. Burn- side now started for Richmond. He reached the Rappahannock and saw before him, on the heights of Fredericksburg, Lee posted in a commanding position. The Confederates were strongly intrenched on a hill called Marye's Heights, and Burnside ordered an attack (December 13). The troops crossed the river and charged over the level plain to the foot of the hill and up the steep height, while the Confederate batteries tore their ranks with shot and shell. Among the assailants was Meagher's Irish Brigade. " Six times," says Longstreet, ' ' in the face of a withering fire, before which whole ranks were mowed down as corn before the sickle, did the Irish Brigade run up the hill — rush to inevitable death." The attack was a disastrous failure, over twelve thousand Union soldiers falling on the field. The Confederates lost about five thousand. Burnside retired across the Rappahannock and later yielded his command to Hooker. 385. The Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9, 1862. When the Union forces abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard at the outbreak of the war, they sank a frigate called the Merriuiac. The Confederates raised it, covered it with plaies made from railroad iron, and named it the Vu'ghiia. She sailed out into Hampton Roads (March 8, 1862), and attacked and sank the Cumberland, whose shot and shell fell harmlessly on her sides. The Congress was next doomed, and the flames, lighting up the sky,, told of her fate. The Mcrrinicie now cast anchor in the channel for the night. The news of the destruction wrought by the Merriinac struck terror to the North. On this very night a strange-looking craft came into the harbor. It was the Monitor, designed by the Swedish engineer Ericsson. She THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 367 resembled, it was said, a cheese box on a raft. She was built of iron, one fifth of the size of the Mcrrhnac. Her turret revolved, and she carried two eleven-inch guns. The next morning (March 9) the Mcrrimac steamed out to complete her work of destruction, when the little Monitor appeared. The Mct-rimac tried in vain to run her down. A fierce battle ensued for four hours, when the Monitor with- drew to the shallow waters offshore. The Merrimac, somewhat damaged, thereupon returned to Norfolk. Neither vessel had THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC been able to destroy the other, but the Monitor had saved the Union shipping from destruction.^ This battle gave the death- blow to wooden warships and rendered necessary the entire rebuilding of the navies of the world.^ 386. The War in the West. Capture of Fort Henry, February 6, 1862, and Fort Donelson, February 16, 1862. The Confederate line of defense stretched along the northern boundary of Tennessee from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi and was commanded by General Albert Sidney Johnston, one 1 Neither of these vessels rendered much further service. The Merrimac was destroyed (May ii, 1862) by the Confederates when Norfolk fell, and the Monitor was lost in a gale off Hatteras. - As early as 1858 France and England had built ironclads. From this time the building of wooden warships ceased. 368 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of the ablest of the Confederate generals. It was the plan of the North to break this line. A point of great importance was Cumberland Gap. To secure this, General George H. Thomas^ attacked the Confederates at Mill Springs (January 19, 1862) and defeated them. The upper Cumberland was now lost to the South. To hold the two great rivers, the Cumberland and SCALE OF Mn-ES 50 100 200 300 THE WAR IN THE WEST the Tennessee, was of the utmost importance to the South, as these waterways penetrated as far south as Mississippi, Ala- bama, and Georgia. A glance at the map will show that the two rivers almost join each other in northern Tennessee and Kentucky. To control these rivers two forts were erected, Fort Donelson on the Cumberland and Fort Henry on the Tennessee, and against these the Union forces were now directed with 1 General George H. Thomas was born in Virginia in 1816 and gradu- ated from West Point. His love for the Union was greater than his devotion to his native state. His commanding talents were of incomparable service to the Union cause. Till-: I'KKIOI) OF DISUNION 369 seventeen thousand men and seven gunboats. Grant and l'\x)te moved up the Tennessee and quickly caj)tured Fort Henry {February 6, 1862). The garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, where they were besieged by Grant and Commodore Foote. At daybreak, February 16, General Buckner asked for the terms of capitukition. (irant answered: "No terms except an uncon- ditional and inuncdiate surrender can be acceptcck I propose to move imme- diately upon your work^.'" ^ Buckner thereupon sur- rendered with fifteen thou- sand men."-^ As the Con- federate Una was now moved southward, Nash- ville was evacuated and practically all Tennessee was opened to the Fed- erals. Andrew Johnson was appointed military governor, and the North rejoiced in its first great victory in the Civil War. 387. The Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, April 6-7, 1862. Grant now took his position on the Tennessee River at Pittsburg Landing, a few miles from Shiloh, to await reenforce- ments from Buell. Johnston, anxious to crush Grant before Buell should arrive, made a sudden attack at sunrise, Sunday, April 6. The Union soldiers, taken by complete surprise, were GEXER.AL U. S. GRANT 1 It was from this answer that Cirant was afterwards called " Unconditional Surrender " (Irant. - " Judfijed by its moral and strategical results, the capture of Fort Donelson was one of the turning points of the war." — Ropes, " Civil War," Vol. II, p. 34 370 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY driven back toward the river, losing three thousand prisoners. Johnston was killed, and Beauregard assumed command. On the following day the battle was renewed. Buell's fresh troops now began to arrive, and late in the afternoon the Confederates fell back to Corinth. The loss of life was great, over ten thousand men being killed and wounded on each side. On the same day as the battle of Shiloh the Union fleet on the Mississippi captured Island Number lo. Fort Pillow fell June 5, and the great river was opened as far south as Memphis. The Union fleet at once attacked and completely defeated the Confederate ironclads here, and Memphis fell June 6. With the 'fall of Memphis the Mississippi was open to Vicksburg. 388. The Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. In the meantime Farragut and Porter had been sent from Fort Monroe to capture New Orleans. This city, with its one hundred and seventy thousand inhabitants, its large workshops, and its com- manding position at the mouth of the Mississippi, was invalu- able to the South. It is about one hundred and ten miles from the Gulf and was defended by two strongly fortified posts. Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip, about seventy-five miles below the city. Under heavy bombardment from his batteries Farragut fought his way through the obstructions across the river, passed the forts, and appeared (April 25, 1862) before the city of New Orleans, which surrendered. Farragut then sailed up to Baton Rouge and Natchez, both of which he captured. The only part of the Mississippi now held by the Confederates was the two-hundred-and-fifty-mile stretch between Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 389. Battles of Perry ville and Murfreesboro. The Con- federates now determined to break through the besieging line and invade the North. In October General Bragg left Chatta- nooga and hurried across Tennessee and Kentucky, threatening Louisville. Buell pursued him, and at Perryville (October 8, 1862) an indecisive battle was fought. Bragg retreated to Chattanooga, and Rosecrans superseded Buell. THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 37 1 Grant had sent recnforcements to Buell, and the Confed- erates, thinking to overvvhehn Grant's left wing under Rosecrans, made an attack at luka (September 19) and at Corinth (Octo- ber 3-4). The Confederates were driven back. Rosecrans was now appointed commander of the Army of the Cumberland to replace Buell. At Murfreesboro (or Stone's River) (December 31. 1S62, and January 2, 1863) Bragg and Rosecrans met, and a fearful battle ensued, Bragg retreated, and the last attempt to recover Kentucky had been made. 390. The Railroads to the Pacific. While the war opera- tions were of the most vital importance during the year 1862, Congress passed two measures that were to have a most endur- ing effect on our history. The first of these measures was the charter for the Union Pacific and for the Central Pacific Rail- roads. Under this act sixty-five million dollars was advanced to the railroad corporations for the construction of the railways. In four years, from 1862 to 1866, Congress gave away to these and other Western railroad companies seventy-four million, six hundred thousand acres of land which belonged to the people of the United States. 391. The Homestead Act. The second important measure was the famous Homestead Act of May 20, 1862. This is the greatest of our land laws. It gave free of charge, except for the slight cost of registering the land, a tract of one hurtdred and sixty acres of public land to any settler who would build a home and improve the land within a certain time. After five years of actual residence a patent was issued to the colonist, giving him the actual ownership of the land. Under the in- fluence of this act twenty-seven million acres were claimed in seven years, hundreds of thousands of settlers secured homes in the West and built up the territories and new states of that section. The act also drew to our shores in enormous numbers colonists from Europe who desired to secure homes here, four hundred and sixty thousand arriving in one year (1873). 372 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Peninsular Campaign, under McClellan, failed of success. Pope was defeated in his efforts to reach Richmond. Lee attempted to invade the North and was repulsed at Antietam. Burnside was defeated at Fredericksburg. Battle between the Monitor and the Merrifnac. In the West the Confederates lost Kentucky and Tennessee. New Orleans fell. The entire Mississippi except between Vicks- burg and Port Hudson was now controlled by the Union fleet. Of the seaboard towns only Mobile, Charleston, and Wilmington, North Carolina, remained under the Confederate flag. Politico / action: (i) the charter for the Pacific Railroad was granted by Congress ; (2) the Homestead Act, the greatest of our land acts, was passed. The War in 1863 392. The Emancipation Proclamation. When the war began, it was not the intention of Lincoln nor of the North to attack the institution of slavery. The purpose of the North was the preservation of the Union. As the war progressed, however, the antislavery feeling in the Northern states became stronger day by day. The slaves were very valuable to the South, as they raised the crops necessary for the support of those at home as well as the soldiers in the field. They were also used extensively in war operations, digging trenches and rais- ing fortifications. To destroy slavery, therefore,.- would greatly weaken the war strength of the South. There still remained the fear, also, that England might interfere in behalf of the South, her mills being closed for want of cotton, while tens of thousands of her operatives were almost starving. In con- sequence there was an increasing pressure upon the British government to intervene to break the blockade. This action would be favorable to the Confederacy. If slavery were now abolished, the issue would be very clearly drawn between the North, establishing freedom, and the South, maintaining slavery. THE PERIOD OK DISUNION 373 England would therefore find it difficult to justify her course in aiding the cause of slavery after she herself had abolished the institution throughout her dominions.^ On September 22, 1862, President Lincoln issued a pre- liminary proclamation. As commander in chief of the armies he announced that as a "fit and necessary measure," if the seceded states did not return to the Union before January i, 1863, "all persons held as slaves within any state . . . the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward and forever, free." The seceded states not having returned, the Emancipation Procla- mation was issued January i, 1863, declaring the slaves in all territory held by the Confederates to be free. The proclama- tion, however, could be carried into effect only as the conquest of the Confederacy advanced.^ 393. The Battle of Chancellors ville, May 1-4, 1863. Soon after the defeat of the I'nion forces at P>edericksburg, Burn- side was removed and 1 looker assumed command of the Army of the Potomac. Both Northern and Southern armies went into winter quarters. In the spring Hooker led his forces against Lee and Jackson, who were posted at Chancellorsville, but he was defeated (May 1-4). The victory was a costly one for the Confederates, as Stonewall Jackson accidental!)- received a fatal wound from his own men. 1 Beginning in 1861 there had been a series of acts of Congress leading up to the Emancipation Proclamation: (i) slaves of disloyal masters, if used in military operations, were confiscated (August 6, 1861); (2) officers of the army were forbidden to return fugitive slaves (March 13, 1S62) ; (3) slav- ery was abolished in the District of Columbia, payment being made to the owners (April 16, 1862); (4) slavery was prohibited in any of the territories of the United States (June 19, 1862); (5) all slaves of disloyal masters were confiscated whether used for military purposes or not (July 17, 1862). - It should be carefully noted that the Kmancipation Proclamation freed the slaves only in the seceded states or those parts of these states which had not been brought under Federal control. It did not affect the slaves in the loyal states nor in any territory controlled by the Federal armies, and it did not affect the institution of slavery. This was finally destroyed by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1865. 374 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 394. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Confident now of victory, Lee hurried past Hooker, entered Maryland, and crossed the Hne into Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington were threatened,^ and the people of the North were thoroughly alarmed. Hooker now resigned from his com- mand, and Meade tooli charge of the army. The forces met at Gettysburg. Here a fertile valley is bordered by two parallel ridges that run north and south. The eastern, or Ceme- tery Ridge, was seized by the Union army, while the Confederates held the western, or Seminary Ridge. The first day's fighting was, on the whole, favor- able to the Confederates. The Federals, however, with ever-increasing new forces, gradually seized the best positions. On the third day (July 3) Lee decided to strike, if possible, a decisive blow. About midday he opened on the Federal lines a terrific cannonade and after an hour and a half ordered a charge of Pickett's brigade, upon the center of the Union line, which was under the com- mand of General Hancock. Onward across the open plain for a mile swept the gray column, while against them cannon and musket poured their deadly fire. Pickett's ranks were torn to pieces. Lee, seeing the hopelessness of trying to break the Union lines, now fell back and retreated across "the Potomac.^ BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 1 On March 3, 1S63, the Conscription Act had been passed, which gave to the Federal government authority to draft men from any section of the Union into the army. Up to this time the various states had been asked to furnish their quota, and they carried it out as they saw fit. As sufficient men had not been obtained, the government decided to force men into the service by draft- ing them. Opposition to the draft resulted in riots in New York City (July 13- 16, 1863), which were finally quelled by the Federal troops after considerable bloodshed and the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of property. ^ To carry on the war President Lincoln had taken measures which it was maintained by many were contrary to the Constitution. To those in the North who opposed these measures was given the name " Copperheads." THE I'FRIOD OF DISI'NION 375 395. The Fall of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. On the following day (July 4) an irreparable loss came to the Southern cause in the fall of Vicksburg. Up to this time Vicksburg and Port Hudson alone prevented Federal control of the Mississippi. Between these points the Red River entered the Mississippi, and through it the great states of Louisiana, l^xas, and Arkansas poured supplies into the Confederacy. Grant had determined to open the Mississippi, but Vicksburg was heavily fortified on a bluff two hundred feet above the river and w-as deemed impregnable. General Pemberton commanded the forces in defense of the town. Grant dropped down on the west side of the river and recrossed below Vicksburg. At Port Gibson he defeated the Southern forces (May i) and then hastened to head off General Joseph E. Johnston, who was marching to the aid of Vicksburg. The armies met at Jackson, Mississippi, and Johnston was defeated (May 14). Pemberton's forces were now besieged in Vicksburg. For seven weeks the besiegers shelled the doomed city. Cut off from food and ammunition, Pemberton at last surrendered (July 4). Port Hudson was now helpless and surrendered four days later. The Union forces now controlled the entire Mississippi River. Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were virtually cut off from the Confederacy. The great supply of foodstuffs from these rich states now largely ceased, and necessar}' military supplies could no longer be brought from Mexico. 396. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20. In the autumn of this year Rosecrans forced Bragg to abandon Chatta- nooga, Receiving reenforcements, however, under Longstreet, Buckner, and Johnston, Bragg turned on Rosecrans at the valley of the Chickamauga, where a fearful battle was fought September 19 and 20. The Confederates defeated the L^nion forces, driving the right wing from the field ; but the left, under General Thomas, from this day called the " Rock of Chickamauga," held its ground. The Union army was saved and fell back to Chattanooga. 3/6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 397. Battle of Chattanooga, November 24-25. Bragg, con- fident of victory, sent Longstreet against Burnside at Knox- ville, but lie was repulsed. Bragg now besieged Rosecrans in Chattanooga, taking his position on Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, cutting off the Union source of supplies by destroying the railroad which connected Chattanooga with Nashville. The Federal army was in a most dangerous position. Rosecrans was now relieved of his command. Thomas was given charge of the Army of the Cumberland. General Grant was appointed to the command of all the armies west of the Alle- ghenies. Sherman's forces were brought from Memphis and Vicksburg. Hooker arrived with fresh troops from Virginia. The Union troops charged (November 24) the heights of Lookout Mountain, where Bragg's forces v/ere posted. The clouds had settled over the mountain, and hence the engage- ment is called the " Battle above the Clouds." The Confederate forces on Missionary Ridge were also attacked (November 25), the Federal soldiers sweeping up the heights and carrying all before them. Bragg was defeated and fell back to Dalton, Georgia, to protect, if possible, the city of Atlanta. Sheridan pursued him and captured thousands of prisoners as well as artillery and munitions of war. Joseph E. Johnston now assumed command of the Confederates in the West. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Lincoln. The invasion of Virginia under Hooker was repelled (May 1-4, 1863) at Chancellorsville. Lee invaded the North and was defeated (July 1-3, 1863) at Gettysburg, one of the decisive battles of the war. Bragg defeated the Union army at Chickamauga, but was later routed by Grant at Chattanooga. Vicksburg fell, and the entire Mississippi passed into the hands of the Union forces. TIIK I'KRIOI) OI' DISUNION 377 Till'. War ix 1864 398. Sherman takes Atlanta. Ihe Confederates had now only two large armies in the held, one under Lee in Virginia, the other under Johnston in Georgia. Grant was appointed lieutenant general in command of all the armies of the United States. Me now determined to push without ceasing the mili- tary operations. While he attacked Lee, Sherman was to attack Johnston, thereby preventing the two Confederate forces from uniting at any time to help each other. On May 6 Sherman began his march. Johnston, who led the Con- federate forces, slowly fell back before him, burning bridges, fighting, and bear- ing off all the provisions. He met Sherman at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Moun- tain, but did not risk a gen- eral engagement. Sherman on advancing was compelled to leave parts of his army to guard his base of supplies from Nashville, three hundred miles away. Johnston's retreat was cleverly planned, but Jefferson Davis did not believe in the policy of constant retreat and removed Johnston, appointing Hood in his place. Hood at once attacked Sherman and was repulsed with heavy loss. Sherman swung around to the rear of Atlanta, and Hood was compelled to withdraw. Atlanta with its vast military stores fell into Sherman's hands (September 2). 399. Admission of Nevada. Besides the military operations, other developments were taking place in our country. Nevada was admitted to the Union in 1864. (iKNKKAL W. 378 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY In the same year a charter was granted to the Northern Pacific Railroad to build a line from Lake Superior to Puget Sound. The company was given forty-seven million acres of public land. 400. The Battle of Franklin. Hoping to draw Sherman again into Tennessee, Hood marched northwestward. Sher- man followed for a short distance and then returned. Hood, however, pushed on and met a division of the Union army under Schofield at Franklin (November 30, 1864), where a stubbornly contested battle was fought. The Union army under Thomas was now intrenched at Nashville, where it was besieged by Hood. As soon as large reenforcements of new troops arrived, Thomas attacked and destroyed Hood's army (December 15-16, 1864). 401. Sherman's March to the Sea. On November 15, 1864, Sherman started on his famous march to the sea, three hun- dred miles distant. The telegraph wires to the North had been cut and the depots and supplies of Atlanta burned. With sixty-two thousand veteran troops Sherman marched forward. His army swept through the country, cutting a swath sixty miles wide. Everything of use to the Confederacy was seized. Railroads were torn up, and the rails heated and bent ; bridges and public property were destroyed. There was no force to oppose the invading column, which early in December ap- proached Savannah. With the aid of the blockading fleet Sherman stormed Fort McAllister, which guarded Savannah, and Savannah fell. Sherman sent a telegram to President Lincoln (December 22, 1864), presenting ""as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition." 402. The Fate of the Alabama. Fall of Mobile. One of the vessels fitted out in England against the protests of the United States government was the Alabama. Handled with great skill by Captain Raphael Semmes, and being a swift vessel, she did enormous damage to Northern shipping, no less than sixty-three THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 379 merchantmen falling into her hands. The United States war- ship Kcarsargc met her (June 19, 1864) off Cherbourg, France. In the battle that ensued the Alabama was sunk, her officers escaping on an English yacht. On August 5, 1864, Farragut, with his fleet of four monitors and twenty-one wooden ships, attacked the Confederate forts and warships in Mobile Bay. He compelled the forts to surrender, and destroyed the war- ships, thus closing the most important seaport still remaining open to the South. 403. Grant attacks Lee. Battles of the Wilderness, May- June, 1864. Let us now see what Grant was doing in the North. According to the plan arranged with Sherman, Grant's force was to move against Richmond the same day that Sherman started towards the sea. Grant crossed the Rapidan (May 4) and entered a desolate region known as the " Wilderness," a tract of country covered with scrubby pines and thick under- growth (see map, p. 360). Here Lee attacked him. The fight- ing was incessant. In two months (May-June), in the battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor, Grant lost almost fifty-five thousand men. Lee's lines were still unbroken, however, and Grant abandoned the direct attack. He now marched his forces around Richmond, across the James, and attacked Petersburg. 404. Sheridan defeats Early. In July General Jubal Early started with his cavalry to make an attack on Washington. He came within sight of the city and then turned into the Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan was sent to attack him. They met at Winchester (September 19), and Early was driven back. On October 19 Sheridan was in Winchester and heard the reverberation of heavy cannonading. Mounting his horse, he hurried to the scene of battle. He arrived just in time to rally his troops that had been surprised and routed by Early, who was now driven out of the valley. Grant ordered Sheridan to completely lay waste the Shenandoah Valley. Everything that could be of any use to the Confederates was gathered up 38o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY or destroyed. It was as desolate as if a wave of flame had swept down the beautiful Valley. " If a crow wishes to fly down the Shenandoah Valley, he must carry his provisions with him," Sheridan is said to have remarked. 405. Grant before Petersburg. In the meantime Grant was besieging Petersburg, twenty miles south of Richmond. Here Lee was intrenched with fifty-four thousand men. As a part of the defenses of Richmond, Petersburg was of the utmost impor- tance. Grant tried to storm it, but in vain. A mine was there- fore secretly dug under the Confederate fortifications. It was exploded (July 30), and the Federals, rushing forward to enter the city, were repulsed with fearful loss. Grant now fell upon the Weldon Railroad, by which supplies entered Richmond from the South. Fierce fighting ensued, but Grant held it firmly. 406. Reelection of President Lincoln. In the fall of 1864 the Republicans, joined by all in favor of prosecuting the war, renominated Abraham Lincoln for president on the Union ticket. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, who had taken an active part in the reconstruction of that state for the Union, was nominated for vice president. The Democrats nominated General George B. McClellan for president. McClellan carried only the states of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. Eleven states that had seceded did not vote. Lincoln was reelected by a large majority of the electoral votes. SUMMARY Sherman drove Johnston before him, defeated Hood, and took Atlanta. He then began his march to the sea, capturing Savannah. Thomas defeated Hood's army before Nashville. Grant began his march through the Wilderness, fighting con- stantly, but gradually drawing in the lines around Richmond. The Alabama fought the Kearsarge off Cherbourg, and was destroyed. President Lincoln was reelected, with Andrew Johnson for vice president. THE PKRIOI) OF DISUNION 381 Tine War in 1865 407. Sherman marches Northward. One month after the capture of Savannah Sherman bc^an his northward march across the state of South Carohna. Columbia, the capital, fell into his hands and was burned. Charleston was abandoned, thus closing the last seaport to the South. Johnston had been again placed in command and tried to block Sherman's onward march. After entering the state of North Carolina Sherman met Johnston at Goldsboro. The end of the Confederacy was now at hand. The Fed- eral government held every seaport. Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan were drawing closer and closer to Richmond. The Union ranks were being filled up daily with fresh troops, while the Southern armies could not replace the men that had fallen. 408. Fall of Richmond. Lee's Surrender, April 9, 1865. Sheridan had now come east from the Shenandoah Valley. He destroyed the canals and railroads that brought supplies to Lee's army. Lee in lengthening his line to defend his out- works weakened it to such an extent that Grant broke through the intrenchments. On April 2 Lee sent word to Jefferson Davis that Richmond and Petersburg must be abandoned, and on April 3 the Federal troops entered Richmond. Lee fled west- ward, hoping to join his forces with Johnston's, but Sheridan outmarched him and planted his troops across the route. Lee, seeing his position was hopeless, surrendered to General Grant his army of twenty-eight thousand men at Appomattox Court House (April 9). The most liberal terms of surrender were given. Lee was not asked to give up his sword, nor his men their horses. "They will need them for the spring plowing," remarked Grant. As Lee's soldiers were on the point of starva- tion, twenty-five thousand rations were issued to them. On April 26 Johnston surrendered to Sherman. Jefferson Davis, with his cabinet, fled southward on the fall of Richmond, but 382 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY was captured (May lo) at Irwinville, Georgia. He was con- fined at Fort Monroe for two years and then released on bail. He was never afterwards disturbed. 409. Cost of the War. Results of the War. It is probable that the war cost the country the lives of one million men. The debt of the nation rose to nearly three billion dollars, to which must be added the debts incurred by states and munici- palities, the amount paid for pensions, and the loss of property and wages. The war settled forever two great questions. The first was the slavery question, for the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted December, 1865, abolished slavery. The second great question was that of secession. No state thereafter can claim the right to secede from the Union. The war, frightful as was the cost, made us a nation, "an indestruct- ible Union composed of indestructible states." 410. Assassination of President Lincoln. On March 4, 1865, President Lincoln was inaugurated for the second time. In his inaugural he hoped for peace, "with malice toward none, with charity for all." Peace soon came, but the joy of the nation at the return of peace was suddenly turned into mourn- ing. On the night of April 14, 1865, President Lincoln, while in his box at Fiord's Theater in Washington, was shot in the head by an actor named John Wilkes Booth. The assassin leaped from the box to the stage, shouting " Sic semper tyrannis ! "^ and although his leg was broken in jumping, he escaped to Virginia, where he was later shot in-a barn.^ Presi- dent Lincoln never regained consciousness after the fatal shot and died the next morning. Secretary Seward was stabbed while on a sick bed by a man who forced his way into the room. The wounds were not fatal, however. 1 Sic sem/t-r tymiuiis (Ever thus to tyrants) is the motto of the state of Virginia. 2 A court-martial sentenced four persons to death for assisting in the plot to assassinate the President, and they were later executed. THE PERIOD OF DISUNION CHART OF CIVIL WAR PERIOD 383 Secession of South Carolina (Dec. 20) Secession of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina Kansas admitted (Jan. 29) Beginning of blockade Formation of the Confederate States of America (Feb. 4) Fall of Sumter (April 14) Battle of Bull Run. or Manassas Junction (July 21) Battle of Wilson's Creek (Aug. 10) Battle of Lexington, Mo. (Sept. 20) Tn'tii affair (Nov.) Fall of Fort Henry (Feb. 6) and Fort Donelson (Feb. 16) .)/<»;///(»;- and Mcrrinnic (March 9) Battle of Shiloh (April 6-7) Capture of Island Number 10 (April 7) Surrender of New Orleans (April 25) Homestead Act (May 20) .Seven days before Richmond (June26-July i) Second Battle of Bull Run (Aug. 30) Battle of Antietam (Sept. 17) Battle of luka (Sept. 19) Battle of Corinth (Oct. 3-4) liattle of Fredericksburg (Dec. 13) Battle of Murfreesboro (Dec. 31) Fmancipation Proclamation (Jan. i) Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-3) West Virginia admitted (June 19) Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3) Surrender of Vicksburg (July 4) Port Hudson surrendered (July 8) Draft riots in New Vork City (July 13-16) Mississippi opened its entire length to Federals Battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20) Battle of Chattanooga (Nov. 24-25) Grant made general in chief of United States armies (March 3) Battles of the Wilderness (May 4-June 3) Sherman begins march to sea (May) Alabama sunk (June 19) Farragut enters Mobile Bay (.Vug. 5) Capture of Atlanta (Sept. 2) Battle of Winchester (Sept. 19) Battle of Cedar Creek (Oct. 19) Nevada admitted to Union (Oct. 31) Battle of P'ranklin (Nov. 30) Battle of Nashville (Dec. 15-16) Fall of Savannah (Dec. 21) Capture of I'etersburg (.April 2) Fall of Richmond (.\pril 3) Surrender of Lee (.April 9) President Lincoln assassinated (.April 14) Johnston surrenders (.April 26) 384 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. Copy the following and after each one write the name of the person to whom it refers : {a) the Father of His Country ; {d) the Great Pacifi- cator ; {c) the Sage of Monticello ; {d) the Expounder of the Constitution ; {e) Old Rough and Ready ; (/) Old Hickory ; {g) Poor Richard ; {Ji) Old Man Eloquent; (/) Honest Abe. 2. Name : {a) the states of the Southern Confederacy ; {b) the slave states that did not secede. 3. Name three important battles of the Civil War, and tell why each is important. 4. Define or explain : {a) blockade runner ; (i^) contraband of war ; {c) draft; {d) Copperhead; {e) "Cotton is king"; (/) Trent affair. 5. Why did not President Lincoln abolish slavery at the beginning of the Civil War.? 6. Write on two of the following : (i^) geographic divisions of the area of the Southern Confederacy ; {b) the effect of the geographic divisions of the Confederacy on the campaigns of the Civil War;.(i-) why Virginia became the great battle ground of the Civil War. 7. Mark on a map the following strategic points in the Civil War: Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Mobile, Richmond, Gettysburg, the Shenandoah Valley, Appomattox. 8. Write on two of the following topics concerning the Civil War : {a) organization of the Confederate States ; {b) relative condition of Northern and Southern states as to readiness for war ; {c) effects of the blockade of the Southern ports ; {d) importance of Sherman's march to the sea. 9. Describe the following causes leading to the Civil War : {a) fugitive- slave law ; {b) Dred Scott decision ; {c) complaints of the South ; {d) com- plaints of the North ; [e) the Free-Soil party. 10. Name three noted Union generals and three Confederate generals. Mention a battle in which each was engaged. 11. What two great questions were settled by the Civil War? What effect has the settlement of these questions had on the growth and pros- perity of this country? READINGS Histories. Baffles and Leaders of the Civil I Var (Century Company). Chadwick, F. E., Causes of fhe Civil U^ar. Davis, Jefferson, 7?ise and Fall of the Confederate Government. Davis, V. ]., fefferson Davis. Grant, U. S., Memoirs. Henderson, G. F. R., Stonewall fackson THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 385 and the American Civil War. Hosmi:r, j. K., T/ie Appeal to Anns. Outcome of the Civil liar. Lee, Fitzhlkjh, General Lee. Rhodes, J. P., United States, Vols. Ill and IV. Schwab, J. C, Confederate States of America. Sheridan, P. H., Personal Memoirs. Shekmax, W. T., Memoirs. Stephens, A. H., War between the .States. Wh.so.n, WooDROW, Division and Reunion. Wise, J. S., End of an Era. Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. IV, p. 2i6(Fall of Sumter); p. 221 (Rising of the People); p. 244 (Home Life of the South); p. 280 (Horrors of War); p. 330 [Monitor and M err i mac); p. 372 (Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg); p. 376 (The Draft Riots); p. 416 (End of the Alabama); p. 440 (Surrender of Lee). Muzzey, Readings, p. 41 4 (The 7>w// Affair) ; p. 421 (Pen Pictures of the War); p. 445 (Tributes to Lincoln). Fiction. Bachellek, I. A., Ebcn Holden (New York during the war). Bryant, W. C, Our Country's Call (poem). Cable, G. W., The Cavalier (the war from a Southern viewpoint). Churchill, W., The Crisis (the causes of the Civil War). Cooke, J. E., Hilt to Hilt. Mohun. Wearing of the Gray. (Civil War stories.) Eggleston, G. C, The Master of War- lock (early days of the war in Virginia). Johnston, Mary, The Lotig Roll (a tale of Stonewall Jackson). Mitchell, S. W., In War Time. Roland Blake. (Civil War stories.) Page, T. N., The Burial of the Guns and Other Stories (the South before and after the war). Ryan, A., The Sword of Robert Lee (an excellent poem on the great Southern leader). Randall, Ma7yland (a stirring poem on the invasion of the author's state by Northern troops). Re.a.d, T. B., Sheridan's Ride (a poem on the famous ride. Spirited, but said to be incorrect as to the facts). Whit.man, W., O Captain, my Captain (a poem on the death of Lincoln). Whittier, J. G., Barbara Frietchie (a poem which introduces Stonewall Jackson). CHAPTER XIII " The development of the original thirteen states into the present Union, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, remains one of the most marvelous achievements of human history." THE PERIOD OF REUNION Andrew Johnson's Administration, i 865-1869 411. Accession of Andrew Johnson. Review of the Troops. On the death of President Lincohi, Andrew Johnson^ took the oath of office as president of the United States. On May 23-24 the armies of Grant and Sherman, a column thirty miles long, were reviewed by President Johnson and his cabinet. These soldiers, to the number of almost one million, at once returned to the quiet pursuits of civil life. An amnesty proclamation was issued by President Johnson (May 29, 1865), offering pardon to all former Confederates, except certain classes, on condition of their taking an oath to support the Constitution of the United States and to abide by the laws and proclamations made regarding slaves. 412. The Thirteenth Amendment. The Emancipation Procla- mation of January i, 1863, had declared the slaves to be free in such parts of the country as were in the control of the Con- federates and had not been recovered by the Union forces. 1 Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808. He was too poor to receive an education and became a tailor. His wife, however, instructed him, and he rose gradually to distinction. He was elected congressman in 1843 and ten years later governor of Tennessee. He was United States senator and opposed secession so strongly that he was appointed military governor of his adopted state in 1862. He was elected vice president in 1864 and suc- ceeded to the presidency on the death of President Lincoln. In 1875 he was elected United States senator. He died July 31, 1875. 386 THE PERIOD OF REUNION 387 It did not, however, destroy slavery, and slaves could again be purchased. Moreover, some of the slave states had never left the Union, ^ and hence the proclamation did not apply to them at all. To abolish slavery everywhere in the Union, the Thirteenth Amendment was adopted December 18, 1865. 413. Civil War in Mexico. While these vital questions were occupying the people of the United States, Mexico was in the throes of civil war. Napo- leon III of France thought to take advantage of this condition and to seize Mexico while the United States was occupied with the Civil War. French armies landed and overran Mexico. In 1864 the French set up Maxi- milian, an Austrian prince, as emperor. Our government pro- tested against this act as a viola- tion of the Monroe Doctrine, and after the end of the Civil War General Sheridan was sent with fifty thousand troops to the Mexican border. The French armies were at once withdrawn, and Maximilian fell into the hands of the Mexicans and was shot ( 1 867). The Mexican Republic was thereupon reestablished. 414. Condition of the South. The South was at this time in a most demoralized condition. War had spread ruin far and wide ; there were practically no state governments, nor revenue collectors, nor courts, and no mail service. President Johnson sought to bring order out of chaos by establishing at once all the I'ederal offices and courts. He also raised the blockade from the Southern ports. The gravest question that faced him was that of reconstruction. ^ Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. ANDREW JOHNSON 388 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 415. Plans for Reconstruction. President Lincoln had main- tained that none of the states had legally left the Union. He was ready to receive them back into the Union if even a small number of loyal citizens should form state govern- ments, and on this basis Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana were recognized by President Lincoln. President Johnson on taking office sought to follow in general President Lincoln's plan. Believing the power of reconstructing the states rested in the president rather than in Congress, President Johnson appointed a governor over each of the seceded states and allowed a convention to be called in each state. These con- ventions repealed the ordinances of secession and agreed never to pay the debt contracted by the Confederacy. They also abolished slavery and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment. State officers and senators and representatives to Congress were elected. 416. The Civil Rights Act, April 9, 1866. When Congress assembled in December, 1865, it refused to recognize President Johnson's plan of reconstruction, as it claimed that it alone had power to reconstruct the states. It denied admission to the representatives and senators that had been elected by the re- constructed states of the South. Congress insisted that the seceded states should not be allowed to return to the Union until the negro had been secured in his rights. What led Congress to this view was the fact that certain Southern states had passed labor laws which Congress feared would allow the negro to be placed in practical slavery again. By the new state constitutions of the South it was provided that only white men could vote or hold office. Congress passed therefore the Civil Rights Act, which gave to the negro the rights of a citizen of the United States with military protection for those rights. It also gave him authority to sue in the P'ederal courts. The act, however, did not make him a citizen of any state, nor did it give him the right to vote. President Johnson believed the South would deal fairly with the "freedmen," as the negroes THE PERIOD OF REUNION 389 were now called, and vetoed the act. It was passed over his veto and became a law (April 9, 1866). Congress and the President were now in open antagonism. 417. The Fourteenth Amendment. To make permanent in the national Constitution the provisions of the Civil Rights Act, Congress proposed (June, 1866) the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment gave citizenship to the negro; forbade, except under certain conditions, the Confederate leaders to hold office; guaranteed the validity of the debt of the United States and forbade the payment of the debts of the Confederacy ; and provided that the refusal of any state to grant the franchise to any of its citizens would result in cutting down its representa- tion in Congress. This amendment was ratified in 1868. 418. The Freedmen's Bureau Act. Congress now passed the Second Freedmen's Bureau Act, as the first had expired by limitation. This act gave military protection to the negroes, and to the whites of the South who had opposed secession. The act planned to place the freed negroes on the abandoned or confiscated lands of the South and to provide for a limited amount of education. The President vetoed the bill and it was passed over his veto (July 16, 1866). 419. The Reconstruction Acts, 1867. The strife between the President and Congress rapidly became very bitter. As the Republican party had two thirds majority of each house of Congress, it could enact legislation regardless of the President's wishes. In 1867 it passed the Reconstruction Acts over the President's veto. These acts provided for the military govern- ment of the ten seceded states, including even Louisiana and Arkansas, which had been reconstructed by President Lincoln and President Johnson. As Tennessee had complied with the requirements of Congress, it had been readmitted (1866) to the Union. Fach of the seceded states was now compelled to make a new constitution. It was required that this constitution should grant the right to vote to the negro, should repudiate the Con- federate debt, should acknowledge the validity of the L^nion 390 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY debt, should renounce all claims for the emancipation of the slaves, and should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. At first all the Southern states rejected this amendment, but finally North and South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas accepted these terms and were readmitted (i868),i Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia refused to accept these terms, but, with Georgia, they did so in 1870, and were thereupon admitted. 420. The Carpetbaggers. Ku-Klux Klan. In the unsettled conditions in many of these states unprincipled men from the North joined with the illiterate negro voters and secured con- trol of political affairs, setting up in many cases governments that were a disgrace to republican institutions. Enormous debts were contracted, and money was spent lavishly and cor- ruptly. Many of these men came to the South with practically nothing except a valise, or carpetbag as it was called. Hence the name "carpetbaggers" was applied to them. The Southern whites who aided or sympathized with the carpetbaggers were called "" scalawags." To overcome the negro rule a secret society was formed called the Ku-Klux Klan. By making use of the negro's in- stinctive fear of ghosts the Klan, dressed in white, at times with hideous masks, moved by night silently from place to place, using if necessary the harshest measures to strike terror into the negro. 421, The Tenure of Office Act. To decrease the power of the President Congress now passed the Tenure -of Office Act. As the consent of the Senate was necessary for the appoint- ment of certain officials, this act required the same consent for their removal. President Johnson declared the act to be unconstitutional and vetoed it, but it was repassed over his veto. Later, disregarding the Tenure of Office Act, President Johnson removed Stanton, Secretary of War, whom he cor- dially disliked. The Senate refused its consent to the removal, but the President would not reinstate Stanton. 1 In 1867 Nebraska had been admitted to the Union as the thirty-seventh state. THE PERIOD OF REUNION 391 422. Impeachment of President Johnson. Congress was now under the control of 'riiadclcus Stevens and the Radicals ^ and consequently impeached Johnson, in I'Y'bruary, 1868, of "high crimes and misdemeanors." The trial lasted from March to May and was exceedingly bitter. Although the Republicans had more than two-thirds majority in the Senate, seven Repub- licans joined with twelve Democrats and refused to vote for the conviction of the President. He was acquitted by one vote. SI l-.M-: IX ALASKA On Christmas Day, 1868, full pardon and amnesty was extended to all who had participated in the war against the Union. 423. Atlantic Telegraph Cable. The telegraph laid under the Atlantic in 1858 failed after a few hundred messages had been sent. Another cable, laid in 1865, parted in mid ocean. Cyrus W. Field, who was the prime mover in these enter- prises, organized another company and successfully laid a cable (1866). The Great Eastern, a mammoth steamship, was used for the purpose. Since that time a dozen cables have 1 Besides Stevens the leading Radicals were Butler, Cameron, Wade, Henry Wiijter Davis. Svjmner, and Chandler. 392 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY been laid to Europe. The completion of the first cable was the cause of great rejoicings as the news of great world events were instantly recorded in both hemispheres instead of requiring weeks as formerly. In 1903 a cable was completed to Manila. Here it met the Asiatic cable, and for the first time a message could be flashed entirely around the earth. 424. Purchase of Alaska, 1867. In 1867 the Russian govern- ment sold Alaska to the United States for seven million, two hundred thousand dollars. The purchase was made to secure as much of North America as possible for our domain, to remove one more monarchical government from the New World, and to show our feeling of gratitude to Russia for her friendliness to the Union cause during the war. About five hundred and ninety thousand square miles were added to our domain. Alaska is rich in furs, especially of the seal, and in timber and gold. It has already yielded hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of products. In the presidential election of 1868 the Republicans nomi- nated General U. S. Grant for president and Schuyler Colfax for vice president. The Democrats' nominated Horatio Seymour, governor of New York, for president. Grant and Colfax were elected. SUMMARY The leading events of Johnson's administration (1865-1869) were : The violent quarrel between Congress and the President. Adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 and the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. Passage of the Civil Rights Act (1866), the Freedmen's Bureau Act (1866), the Reconstruction Acts (1867), and the Tenure of Office Act (1867). The assertion of the Monroe Doctrine in regard to Mexico. Impeachment of the President and his acquittal (1868). Laying of the Atlantic cable in 1866. Purchase of Alaska in 1867. Proclamation of general amnesty in 1868. THE PERIOD OF REUNION 393 Grant's Admixistkatioxs/ 1869-1877 425. The Alabama Claims. The United States, as early as 1863, took up with luigland the Alabama question and con- tended that England should pay heavy damages for allow- ing the Alabama and other cruisers to be built or fitted out in English ports. After years of discussion the matter was referred to a commission. 426. Settlement of Difficulties. This commission met at Washington and concluded a treaty (May 8, 1871). It was decided to settle not only the Alabama claims but also disputes regarding the Newfoundland fisheries and the boundary be- tween the United States and Canada at Puget Sound. As a result of this action England was required to pay to the United States fifteen million, five hundred thousand dollars for damages caused by the Alabama and other cruisers. The fisheries dis- pute was settled by the payment by the United States of five million, five hundred thousand dollars for the privilege of fish- ing on Canadian shores for twelve years. The boundary matter was settled in favor of the United States, which secured the islands lying between the continent and Vancouver Island. The truly great result of this Alabama question, however, was the fact that it was a forward step in the appeal to arbi- tration instead of to war for the settlement of differences between nations. 427. Civil-Service Reform. The first bill for the reform of the civil service became a law in March, 1871. This led to the appointment of a commission to put the law into force. An im- portant step was thus taken toward securing the appointment of worthy men to office through competitive examinations rather 1 General Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio in 1822. In 1843 he grad- uated from West Point and later served in the Mexican War. In the Civil War he rose to be general in chief of the armies of the United States. He was elected president in 1868 and was reelected in 1S72. His friends tried in vain to secure his nomination again for a third term in 1883. He died in 1885. 394 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY than on the recommendation of a pohtical leader. Not until the Pendleton Civil-Service Act was passed (1883), however, did civil-service reform become an established policy of our government. 428. The Transcontinental Railroad. Until four years after the close of the Civil War passage across the plains between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains led along one of two routes : the Oregon trail by the Platte River valley, or the Sante Fe trail along the Arkansas River to the old town of Santa Fe. The former, or northern route, was taken by emi- grants intending to settle on the Pacific coast, especially in Oregon. The southern, or Santa Fe trail, was mainly a route of trade by which all the region from Santa Fe to old Mexico was supplied with goods from the Eastern states, and in return furs, buffalo skins, gold, and silver were brought to the Missis- sippi Valley. The Civil War had impressed strongly on the nation the necessity of some better means of communication between the East and the great West and California. Two companies were formed to build a railroad from the Missouri to the Pacific. The work was begun in 1865 at Omaha on the east and at Sacramento on the west. The great work was finished, and the train from the east met the train from the west (May 10, 1869) near Ogden, Utah. 429. The Great Fires of Chicago and Boston. On Sunday evening, October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in the west division of Chicago and spread with fearful rapidity. It leaped across the Chicago River and until Tuesday morning swept all before it. More than seventeen thousand buildings were destroyed. Not only our nation but foreign countries sent relief to the people of the afflicted city. A little more than a year later (November 9, 1872) the business section of Boston was destroyed by fire. 430. The Fifteenth Amendment. Reelection of Grant. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution made the negro a voter, as it provided that no law should be passed to prevent THK PERIOD OI' RKA^NION 395 citizens from voting on account of race, color, or previous con- dition of servitude. Three fourths of the states having approved it, it was proclaimed March 30, 1870. In the following year all the states that had seceded were again in the Union, with representatives in both Houses of Congress. At the end of his first term of office President Grant was renominated and was elected, defeating Horace Greeley, who had been nominated by the Democrats and liberal Republicans.' 431. An Era of Scandals. The Civil War and the careless and extravagant use of public money developed an era of be- trayal of trust by public officials. The city of New York was robbed of millions of dollars by the infamous Tweed and his associates, while the state of New York was despoiled by the Canal Ring, — tlic country thieves as distinct from the city thieves; government officials- planned with distillers in the West to defraud the United States of the revenues on whisky, no less than a million and a half of dollars being stolen in ten months by this Whisky Ring ; the company organized to build the Pacific railroad was shown to have secured legislation by bribery ; the Secretary of War, Belknap, was impeached for accepting bribes ; the Indian agents in the West robbed the Indians and were even aided in their rascalities by those in Washington who should have protected the Indians. It was a dark picture on the eve of the centennial of our independence. 432. The Weather Bureau. The establishment (1870) of the Weather Bureau was one of the most important events of Grant's administration. This bureau established stations through- out the countrv and is able to forecast with considerable 1 Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was elected vice president. Before the electoral vote was cast Horace Greeley died. '■^ Besides Belknap eighty-six officials under the national government were implicated in this corrupt affair, includingi Babcock, the President's private secretary. Bristow. the honest and brave .Secretary of the Treasury, exposed the ring. " The high-water mark of corruption in national affairs," says Rhodes, in "United States," Vol. VII, p. 191, "was reached during Grant's two administrations." 396 ESSE:NTIALS of AMERICAN HISTORY accuracy the coming of storms, dangerous winds, cold waves, and heavy frosts. By means of signals vessels are warned when gales are expected. The warning that severe frosts and storms might be expected has saved to the farmers and to the shipping interests billions of dollars. Thousands of lives might have been lost at sea were it not for the warning signals displayed along the coast. 433. The Crisis of 1873. The amazing growth of industries of all kinds after the Civil War and the success of the first transcontinental railway led to the building of railways in all parts of the Union far beyond the needs of the country. New enterprises largely on borrowed money were started every- where, although the great fires of Chicago and Boston had rendered necessary the gathering of hundreds of millions of dollars to build up those great marts of trade. Unfortunately just at this time of feverish speculation a prominent Philadel- phia banking house failed (September 18, 1873). At once a panic followed. Banks were compelled to suspend, the doors of factories were closed, workmen were thrown out of employ- ment, and widespread suffering ensued. The crisis lasted for at least five years and was probably the most severe financial depression in the history of our country. 434. The Centennial Exposition. Admission of Colorado. In 1876 an international exposition was held in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, in honor of the hundredth anniversary of our independence. About ten million people Visited the expo- sition. Colorado was admitted to the Union this year, and hence is called the "Centennial" state. 435. The Indian Wars. In 1872 trouble arose with the Modoc Indians of southern Oregon, who had undoubtedly been defrauded by government agents. The Indians went on the warpath, and for a year war was waged in the Far West, until the Indian power \vas broken and these tribes were removed to Indian Territory. In 1876 trouble arose with Sioux (soo) Indians when miners rushed into their territory THE PERIOD OF REUNION 397 on the discovery of gold in the Black Hills. The Sioux were asked to surrender some of their lands and to enter a new reservation. Their leader, Sitting Bull, refused and pre- pared for war. He was encamped on the Little Big Horn River. In an endeavor to surprise him General Custer sepa- rated himself with his regiment from the main body of the army and stole around to the rear of the Indian encampment. But the Indians, informed of his movements, suddenly attacked him with overwhelming force, and Custer and his entire com- mand of two hundred and sixty men perished. Sitting Bull retreated later into Canada and peace was secured. 436. The Electoral Commission. At the close of Grant's administration the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio for president, while the Democrats selected Samuel J. Tilden of New York. At the close of the polls Tilden was apparently elected by a large majority. The Republicans, how- ever, claimed to have carried certain Southern states, which, if true, would elect Hayes. The country was in a turmoil, and at last an electoral commission composed of five justices of the Supreme Court, five senators, and five representatives was appointed. Of the fifteen members eight were Republicans and seven Demo- crats, and by a party vote of eight to seven Hayes was declared elected. SUMMARY 'i'he leading events of Grant's two administrations(i869-r877) were : The Alabama awards. First law for civil-service reform. Opening of the transcontinental railroad. , The great fires in Chicago and Boston. Adoption of the F""ifteenth Amendment. The scandals in national and municipal aft'airs. Establishment of the Weather Bureau. Crisis of 1873. Centennial Exposition. Indian wars. The electoral commission. 398 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Hayes's Administration,^ i 877-1881 437. Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South. Labor Troubles. The war had now been finished for twelve years, and in most of the states of the South the Southern leaders had been able to regain control of the state governments. Federal troops, however, still remained. President Hayes believed no permanent peace could be secured in the South under such conditions, and he promptly ordered the removal of the troops. In the states of South Carolina and Louisiana the carpetbag governments fell with the withdrawal of the Federal forces, and the South was once more allowed to rule itself. Serious labor troubles arose at this time throughout the country among the employees of railroads, caused partly by the reduction of wages. Riots broke out in Chicago, St. Louis, and Pittsburgh, the railroad station and freight houses in the latter city being completely destroyed. The rioters controlled more than six thousand miles of railway. The state authorities of Maryland, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Illinois, believ- ing their force inadequate to quell the trouble, asked the Presi- dent for aid. The troops at last brought the turmoil to an end, but not until many lives had been lost and millions of dollars' worth of property destroyed. The loss in wages was also very great. The strike was unsuccessful. 438. The Bell Telephone. Although for many years the sound of the human voice could be transmitted from one point to another by means of a wire or cord, it remained for this administration to see the idea put into practical use. At the Centennial Exposition a telephone was exhibited. In the following year (1877) a telephone line was put into use 1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822, and was admitted to the bar. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted and rose to the rank of major general. He represented his district in Congress, and was elected governor of Ohio. He was nominated by the Republicans in 1876 for presi- dent with Wilham A. Wheeler for vice president. Hayes and Wheeler were declared elected by the electoral commission. He died in 1893. DRIVING THE LAST SPIKE IN THE TKANSCUMINEM AL RAILROAD THE PKRIOl) OF REUNION 399 between Boston and Salem — a distance of sixteen miles — by Alexander Graham Bell. Another line, operated under the plans of Professor Gray, was erected between Chicago and Milwaukee, a distance of eighty-five miles. These tests showed the practical nature of the telephone, so that it spread rapidly and is now an essential part of our business and our social life. One may now speak with ease from New York to San Francisco. 439. Invention and Develop- ment of the Electric Light. Although the electric-arc light had been produced by the famous English scientist Sir Humphry Davy a century ago, little use was made of the idea. In 1878 Charles F. Brush, an American electrical expert, pro- duced a method of electric-arc lighting which revolutionized the system of lighting by elec- tricity. The first regular public use of this wonderful invention was the lighting of the public square of Cleveland, Ohio, in 1879. The arc light quickly spread throughout the world, lead- ing to the brilliant lighting of streets everywhere. Thomas A, Edison at the same time was at work on a smaller electric light which became the well-known incandescent lamp. American enterprise has developed to a marvelous extent the use of electricity. Trolley cars, trains, engines, and machinery of all kinds are driven by the electric motor. The use of elec- tricity in plating and electrotyping, in the making of alumi- num and carborundum, in the manufacture of chemicals, and in the developing of heat for heating and welding are but a few of the examples of the ever-widening field of electricity. ALEXAXDKK (iKAHA.M HELL 400 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 440. The Eads Jetties. The mouth of the Mississippi was being gradually filled up by the vast amount of mud brought down b)' the river. The loss to commerce was assuming vast proportions when James B. Eads offered a plan to Congress. He proposed to build jetties or banks, through which the river would run with rapidity and by the force of its own current prevent the sand and mud in the water from settling and filling the EDISON AND TWO OF HIS INVENTIONS channel. Congress voted an appro- priation, and the plan was successfully carried out. Large ocean steamers now reach New Orleans with ease. 441. Financial Legislation. From 1862 onward there was no gold or silver money in circulation. Paper money only was in use, and its value rose and fell from time to time. In 1873 Congress passed a law dropping the silver dollar ^ ^ This was called the demonetization of silver ; that is, its withdrawal from use as money, as the United States would no longer coin silver dollars. The silver dollar was used in business, but would not be accepted in payment of customs duties, nor in payment of the public debt or the interest thereon. This act was called the " Crime of '73 " by the silver advocates. THE PERIOD OF REUNION 401 from the coins to be minted and making gold the only stand- ard of the currency. The silver dollar at this time was worth more than gold.^ The discovery of large quantities of silver in the West at this time, however, produced so much silver that its price began to fall. The Western states, therefore, now demanded the recoinage of the silver dollar to use up the supply. Congress refused to grant this request. In 1875 Congress passed an act declaring that on January i, 1879, the greenbacks or paper money issued during the Civil War would be redeemed in gold. This paper money had been worth much less than gold. This action caused the price of the greenbacks to rise to the value of gold. 442. The Bland- Allison Act. A greater demand than ever now arose from the Western states for aid for the cause of silver. In 1878 Congress yielded and passed the Bland- Allison Act, which required the government to coin not less than two nor more than four million silver dollars per month. As the silver dollar was now worth considerably less than the gold dollar, President Hayes vetoed the bill, but 'it was passed over his veto (1878). The silver dollar became legal tender and, despite its lower metal value, would buy as much as a gold dollar. 443. Resumption of Specie Payment. In 1875 Congress had voted to pay in gold all the obligations of the United States January i. 1879. On that day, therefore, Secretary of the Treasury Sherman was ready to pay all demands in gold. Few, however, desired gold w-hen it was worth no more than silver or greenbacks. On account of ease in carrying, paper money is preferred as a rule by the people when its value is certain to be the same as that of gold. Our national credit w^as now so secure that we were enabled to borrow money to pay off our debts at a much lower rate of interest, thus saving millions of dollars to our treasury. ' The metal value of the silver dollar at this time was one dollar and two cents in gold. From this time on. however, there was a steady fall in the value of silver. 402 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY At the close of Hayes's administration the RepubHcans nomi- nated James A. Garfield for president and Chester A. Arthur for vice president, while the Dfmocrats nominated General Winfield S. Hancock. Garfield and- Arthur were elected. LIXE OF THE FIRST TRAXSCOXTIXEXTAL RAILWAY SUMMARY The leading events of Hayes's administration (1877-1881) were: Withdrawal of the Federal troops from the South. Labor troubles in the West. Development of the telephone and electric lighting. Eads's jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi. Resumption of specie payments. Dates to he remembered : 1 86 1. Commencement of the Civil War. 1862. The Monitor and the Merrimac. 1863. The Emancipation Proclamation; batde of Gettysburg; Fall of Vicksburg. 1865. Surrender of General Lee: death of Lincoln; Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery. 1868. Fourteenth Amendment, defining citizenship. 1870. Fifteenth Amendment, granting negro suffrage. THE PERIOD OF REUNION 403 Important dates for reference : 1867. Purchase of Alaska. i86g. Completion of Pacific railroad. 1 87 6-187 7. Development of telephone and electric light. REVIEW EXAMTNATION 1. Tell what was accomplished by each of the amendments to the Constitudon as a result of the Civil War. 2. Relate the circumstances under which the United States first came into trade relations with Japan. 3. On what charges was President Johnson impeached? What was the result of the trial ? How is impeachment of a president brought about, and by whom is the trial conducted.'' 4. Arrange in order of dme the following: Missouri Compromise; Dred Scott decision; beginning of the Mexican War; Emancipation Proclamadon ; Fugitive Slave Law ; invention of the cotton gin. 5. Each of the following pieces of literature refers to an important event in history ; name the event and give the author of the poem : {a) The Star-Spangled Banner ; (b) Barbara Frietchie ; (c) Paul Revere's Ride ; {d) O Captain ! My Captain ! (e) Batde Hymn of the Republic : (/) The Sword of Robert Lee. 6. What is meant by the following terms: Ui) Ku-Klux Klan: i/m carpet- baggers ; (c) scalaw^ags. 7. What was Johnson's plan of reconstruction.' Why did not Con- gress accept it? 8. Give an account of each of the following: (it) the Adantic cable: {h) how Hayes became president. 9. State the important provision of each of the following: (rce Bill, which allowed the Federal authorities to use, if they desired, military forces at the polls, had been the source of so much bitter feeling and strife in the South that it was repealed in 1894. The chief issue in the presidential campaign of 1896 was the demand of the Democratic party for the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen ounces of silver to one of gold.^ William J. ISryan was nominated on this platform. The Republicans opposed the free coinage of silver except by international agreement. They nominated William McKinley, who was elected. SUMMARY The leading events of (."Icveland's second administration (1S93 1897) were : The Wilson Tariff Act. The Columbian Exposition. The establishment of the Republic of Hawaii. The Bering Sea and Venezuela questions. The Crisis of 1893 and the repeal of the Sherman Act. The repeal of the Federal Elecdons Act. 1 Under this plan the government would be required to mint all the silver that was brought to it at the ratio of si.xteen ounces of silver to one of gold. In the world's market at this time it required thirty-two ounces of silver to buy one of gold. The real value of the dollar coined under this plan would be only fifty-two cents, although stamped one dollar. 41 8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY McKinley's First Administration/ i 897-1901 470. The Dingley Tariff. At the beginning of his adminis- tration the new president called a special session of Congress, which passed (July 24, 1897) the so-called Dingley Tariff Act. The principal features of this act were the placing again of duties on wool ; hides, which had been on the free list for a CONGRKSSUJXAL LliiKAKV iSLilLUiM,, W Ai^HlSU iu\ quarter of a century, were again taxed ; higher duties were placed on woolens, flax, silks, and linens. Reciprocity was again provided for, as well as the regulations against " trusts " or combinations in restraint of lawful trade. During this year the Congressional Library Building was opened. Six million volumes can find place on its miles of shelves. The mural paintings that adorn it are world-famous. 1 William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1S43. He enlisted in the army and served through the Civil War, rising to the rank of major. He was later admitted to the bar, and in 1876 was elected to Congress by the Republicans. In 1891 he was elected governor of Ohio and was reelected in 1893. He was elected president in 1S96 and was reelected in 1900. He died September 14, 1901, from the bullet of an assassin. THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 419 471. The War in Cuba. Destruction of the Maine. Trom 1868 to 1878 war had existed in Cuba between the Cubans and their Spanish rulers. In 1895 a new revolt broke out, and the waste of life and property so near our shores led many to ask our government to interfere. Our government refused to take this step, as we were at peace with Spain, a friendly nation. We even tried, frequently in vain, to prevent armed expeditions from leaving our shores to help the insurgents. Key e^oridI 4* •*■ . \ ^ B I THE WKST INDIES Spain in the meantime withdrew the governor to whom the United States had objected and granted a larger measure of self-government to Cuba. To see that American lives and property were secure, how- ever, the battleship Maine was sent to Havana. On the night of February 15, 1898, the Maine was destroyed at her anchor- age. Two of her officers and two hundred and fifty-eight of licr crew went down with the unfortunate vessel. A court of inquiry, after investigation, declared its belief that the Maine was blown up by a submarine mine. The court did not, however, lay the blame on anyone. Spain at once ex- pressed her regret for the sad occurrence, which she believed was caused by an internal explosion of the forward magazine of the ship. She asked for arbitration, but it was refused, and 420 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY President McKinley sent all the papers to Congress. That body had been anxious for two years to recognize the independ- ence of Cuba and, if necessary, to wage war with Spain to bring about that result. 472. Declaration of War against Spain, April 25, 1898. The feeling against Spain in the United States, resulting from the loss of the Maine, became so intense that Congress passed resolutions which declared that " the people of Cuba are and of right ought to be free and independent ; that it is the duty of the United States to demand that Spain should give up Cuba and withdraw its forces from the island ; that the President is directed and empowered to use all the forces of the United States and to call out the militia in order to carry out these resolutions ; that the United States disclaims any intention of control over said island except for the pacification thereof and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people," These resolutions caused the Spanish government to give to our min- ister in Madrid his passports, and April 25, 1898, Congress declared war to exist between the United States and Spain. 473. Battle of Manila Bay, May i, 1898. The United States Asiatic Squadron, under Commodore George Dewey, was at this time in the harbor of Hongkong. Dewey sailed at once for Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands. In Manila Bay he met the poorly equipped Spanish fleet and sank every vessel. The loss of life to the Spanish wSs very great. The Americans lost neither a vessel nor a man. Congress gave Dewey a vote of thanks and a sword, and the President appointed him rear admiral. He was later given the highest rank in the navy — that of admiral. 474. The Santiago Campaign. El Caney and San Juan. Another Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera^ sailed from Spain and safely reached the harbor of Santiago,^ Cuba. At once a large fleet of United States warships gathered before 1 Cervera (ther veh'rah). - Santiago (sahn tee ah'go). THK PFLRIOD OF 1X1)1 STRIAL DFAKLOl'M KNT 421 the entrance to Santiago. In the meantime our army had landed in eastern Cuba and drawn near the city of Santiago, On July I and 2 the Americans attacked the fortified posts of El Caney ^ and San Juan .2 After a gallant defense the Spaniards were driven back and took refuge behind the defenses S. :^^^^ .... .?% , 1 1 ^Z^^ 'f i ,. ,-4^^^ 1^!^^^ L • 1 -•''■.'• "" ■■■..--.•—.-'*•.. -~~"^^^§.' " \\ ~~^'^^Z^~'~^ — . ~^~"- ' X '-#f-'- - -Z '^- -_ ^-?^"-^^ - — --- '— —• SAN JUAN, PORTO RICO of Santiago.3 On the following day (July 3) the Spanish fleet made a sudden dash out of the harbor. They were at once attacked by the American warships and every Spanish vessel was destroyed. Admiral Cervera and twelve hundred of his men were made prisoners, while the loss of life on his vessels had been very great. The American loss was one man killed. 1 El Caney (el kah' nay). 2 San Juan (sahn whahn'). 3 In the Atnerican army was a volunteer regiment of cavalry made up of cowboys, college graduates, adventurers, and expert horsemen. They were in consequence called the Rough Riders. There were only five hundred of this regiment before Santiago, and most of the fighting was done by the regular standing army of the United States. 422 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Not a vessel had been seriously injured. Two weeks later (July 17) the city of Santiago surrendered. Porto Rico was captured with practically no resistance. 475. Terms of Peace. War in the Philippines. The Spanish government now sought terms of peace, and commissioners met in Paris. On December 10, 1898, the treaty was signed. As a result of the war Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philip- pines, and Guam in the Ladrones.^ For the improvements in the Philippines twenty millions of dollars were paid. The treaty was ratified February 6, 1899. The war had cost € United States eight hundred and forty-two million dollars,' although it lasted only a few months. The Filipinos in the meantime had organized a republic under the dictatorship of Aguinaldo,^ their military leader. They declined to recognize the right of Spain to cede their coun- try to the Americans, and war finally broke out February 4, 1 899, between the Americans and the Filipinos. P'or several days the Filipinos presented a strong front to the American troops, until the fall of Malolos,^ their capital. Although for most of the time after this event there was merely guerrilla warfare, the war continued for two years. 476. The Hague Conference. The Czar of Russia invited (1898) the nations of the world t- a conference, to secure if possible the abolition of war and the reduction of standing armies. In answer to this invitation the nations sent represent- atives to The Hague, in Holland, where the conference opened in 1899. Many plans were adopted Tor relieving the horrors of war, and it was decided to establish an International Court of Arbitration, in which most of the greater nations of the world are represented. 477. The Gold Standard Act. The discussion over the rela- tive merits of gold and silver as the standard of value had been the leading question in the presidential election of 1896, 1 Ladrones (lah dro'nace). - Aguinaldo (ah gee nahl'do). ^ Malolos (mah loh'loce). _^^^i4^y-h^f^ ^ ALASKA ^ &■ 190° - Ijjl . i LongituJe 100" We THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 423 Congress finally took up the matter and passed an act making the gold dollar the standard of value and providing for " the maintenance at a parity with that standard of all forms of money issued or coined by the United States." This measure was warmly opposed in both the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, but it became a law March 14, 1900. ^ 478. Freedom of Trade with China. The lead- ing nations of Europe, in their desire for further colonial territory, secured from China on one pretext or another portions of her territory. It seemed probable that all China would be divided among the European nations, who would prob- ably place heavy customs duties on all goods entering the ports 1 There was at this time a large increase in the world's supply of gold through the discovery of gold mines in the Klondike region of Canada. From these mines one hundred and twenty-four million dollars' worth of gold was produced in the next twelve years. The Klondike discovery was followed one year later by the news that gold had been found in large quantities at Cape Nome in Alaska. These discoveries caused the stampede of thousands to the far Northwest. i:.\sTERx .vsi.v .wn the philipimxe islands 424 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY of China under their control. As this would shut out our goods, the United States asked (1899) Great Britain, Germany, Russia, France, Italy, and Japan to grant free trade to all the world in the Chinese ports under their control. In resentment at the action of foreign nations in China an insurrection broke out (1900) called the Boxer Rebellion, which planned to kill all foreigners in China or drive them from the country. The foreign lega- tions in Peking were besieged, and some Europeans were killed. Eight of the leading nations of the world sent troops to relieve the legations. Fortunately these troops were able to fight their way into Peking in time to save the members of the legations. Many of the nations later agreed to the policy of the " open door," by which the dismemberment of China might be averted.^ 479. Reelection of President McKinley. In the presidential election of 1900 President McKinley was reelected. Theodore Roosevelt was elected vice president. The Democratic candidate was William J. Bryan. A leading issue of the campaign was again the free coin- age of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. Another issue was "imperialism." Imperialism means the method of ruling a people without their consent. It was declared by the Demo- cratic party that in maintaining colonies we were doing this and thereby departing from our republican form of government. The Republicans were successful in the election, and President McKinley was reelected, SUMMARY The leading events of McKinley 's first administration (1897- 1901) were: The Dingley tariff. The war with Spain and in the Philippines. The Hague Conference. Freedom of trade with China. 1 By a cession signed by the native chiefs and by a treaty with England and Germany we secured (April 17, 1900) Tutuila, with the excellent harbor of Pagopago, and a few other islands of the Samoan group. •J'lIF. I'KKIOI) OK IXDISIKIAL DKVKLOl'MENT 425 McKiNLEv's Second Administration, 1901 ; Roosevelt's First Administration, 1901-1905 480. The Pan-American Exposition. Assassination of Presi- dent McKinley. In the spring of 1901 the Pan-American l^xpositiun was opened in Buffalo. The purpose of the exposi- tion was to show the development of the states of North, Central, and South America, and to join in bonds of friend- ship the republics of the New World. On September 6, while President McKinley was giving a public reception, he was shot by an anarchist, Leon ¥. Czolgosz.^ He died September 14, and Vice President Roosevelt^ at once assumed the office of president. 481. The Panama Canal. The earliest Spanish explorers recognized the value of a canal that would pierce the Isthmus of Panama and join the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean.-'^ Many years ago a French company began to dig a canal be- tween Panama and Colon, but the enormous cost of the under- taking and the difficulties met in its construction compelled them to stop work. The Congress of the United States at last actively took up the question and voted (1902) to build the canal, buying out the P^rench rights for forty million dollars. Panama at this time was one of the states of the Republic of Colombia. While the treaty between the United States and 1 Czolgosz (chol'gosh). 2 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City in 185S. He served in the legislature of the state of New York and in 1889 was appointed United States Civil Service Commissioner. In 1897 he was made Assistant Secretary of the Navy. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he resigned this office to organize the Rough Riders. In 1898 he was elected governor of New York. Two years later he was elected vice president of the United States and suc- ceeded as president on the death of President McKinley. He was elected president in 1904. lie was a candidate for a third term in 1912 but was defeated. 3 Charles I of Spain (i 516-1556) wished to build a canal and Philip II. his successor, was at first favorable to the plan but later forbade even the dis- cussion of the question. In 1814 the Spanish government voted to cut the canal, but nothing was done. 426 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Colombia was being considered by the Congress of the latter country, the state of Panama rose in rebellion against Colombia and declared itself an independent republic. It was at once recognized as such by the United States and by the great nations of the world. Later the republic of Panama gave to the United States control over the zone through which the THE FIRST SHU' THROUGH THE PANAMA CAXAL canal has been built. So rapidly was the work pushed to com- pletion that the canal was opened in 19 14 to the commerce of the world. 482. The Development of Latin-America. As the building of the canal through the Isthmus of Panama ushers in a new era for the countries of Central and South America, a brief review of their history is necessary. South America was reached by Columbus on his third voyage in 1498. He touched the continent at the mouth of the Orinoco. On his fourth voyage (1502) he explored the coast of Central America. In the meantime Cabral, the Portuguese voyager, reached the coast in 1 500, giving Portugal title to that rich country. In 1 5 1 3 Balboa crossed THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DKVF.LOPMEXT 427 the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. The southern point of the continent was reached by Magellan in 1520, when he discovered the strait which gave passage to ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Within twent3'-eight years, therefore, of the discovery of America, so active had been the Latin spirit of exploration that the whole east coast of South America had been explored. With the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under Cortes in 1 5 2 1 and the triumph of Pizarro over Peru in 1531 the west coast began to pass under Spanish rule, and colonies w^ere set up in all parts of Central and South America. These colonies flourished under the laws of the Indies, drawn up by Spain for the government of her colonies in the New World. The leading colonies were Buenos Aires, New Granada (or Colombia), Venezuela, Chile, . Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Guatemala, Hon- duras, and Costa Rica. 483. The Overthrow of Spanish and Portuguese Rule. In 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the monarchy of Spain and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. This was the signal for revolt in Latin America. Mexico declared her independence in 18 10, and the other colonies followed immediately. Under the leadership of Miranda, Bolivar, and Sucre in the north and San Marti'n in the south the colonies, after many years of bitter warfare, won their independence — Buenos Aires, or Argentina (18 16), Chile (18 18), Mexico, Vene- zuela, Colombia, and Peru (182 1). The colonies of Central America also became independent republics during this epoch. When Portugal, in 1807, was overrun by the forces of Napoleon, the Portuguese king fled to Brazil. Later, when Brazil threw off its allegiance to Portugal, the son of the king of Portugal was elected emperor of Brazil, which remained an empire until 1889, when the empire was overthrown and a republic established. Throughout the Latin republics revolu- tion has followed revolution, but many have at last arrived at a condition of peace and prosperity. 428 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 484. Department of Commerce and Labor. Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition. To cope with the growing foreign and. do- mestic commerce of the United States a national department of commerce and labor was created (1903) and the secretary was given a seat in the president's cabinet.^ The department has greatly advanced the trade and industry of the country. To commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the purchase of Louisiana by President Jefferson the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was held in St. Louis in 1904. The exposition showed the extent and the development of the resources of our country and the skill of its people in arts and trades. 485. The National Election of 1904. In 1904 the Republi- cans nominated for president Theodore Roosevelt, who had filled that high office since the death of President McKinley. The Democrats chose as their candidate for president Alton B. Parker, Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals of New York. Among the leading issues of the campaign were the colonial policy of the country, especially in reference to the retention of the Philippine Islands, the revision of the tariff, and the need of greater economy in the expenditure of the money of the government. In the election the Republicans were successful, and Roosevelt was elected. Leading events of McKinley 's and Roosevelt's administrations (1901-1905): Pan-American Exposition. Panama Canal treaty. Establishment of Department of Commerce and Labor. Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 1 The president's cabinet consists of (i) the Secretary of State; (2) the Secretary of the Treasury; (3) the Secretary of War; (4) the Attorney-General ; (5) the Postmaster-General; (6) the Secretary of the Navy; (7) the Secretary of the Interior; (8) the Secretary of Agriculture (1SS9) ; (9) the Secretary of Commerce (1903); (10) the Secretary of Labor (1913). Only the first seven can succeed to the presidency under the Act of 1SS6 (see sect. 451). THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 429 Roosevelt's Second Administration, 1905-1909 486. The San Francisco Disaster. On the morning of April 18, 1906, a violent earthquake shook the central coast region of California for a distance of hundreds of miles. So violent was the shock at San Francisco that thousands of build- ings were destroyed and the pipes supplying the city with water were broken. Fires broke out quickly in many sections of the city and for two days the flames swept onward. An area of almost four square miles was devastated, with a loss of hun- dreds of millions of dollars. From all parts of the country and even from distant Japan generous aid was sent to the stricken city. 487. Admission of Oklahoma. As early as 1834 Congress set aside a vast tract of country west of the Mississippi River for the use of the Indians. From this great area many states were later formed, until finally only Indian Territory remained. In that year the United States government purchased from the Indian tribes the western portion of this territory. It was given the name Oklahoma, or Beautiful Countr\-, from the great fertility of its soil. Oklahoma was thrown open ta settle- ment in 1889. Cities quickly arose, and within ten years the prosperous territory had a population of hundreds of thousands of people. In 1906 Congress passed an act admitting Oklahoma and Indian Territory into the Union as a state under the name of Oklahoma. Its area is greater than that of all the New Eng- land states combined. 488. Important Legislation. During the session of 1906 Congress passed three important laws, — the Railway Rate Act, the Meat Inspection Act, and the Pure Food and Drugs Act. The purpose of the Railway Rate Act is to give greater power to the Federal government in regulating interstate com- merce. It requires railway corporations and other common carriers to treat all shippers of goods over their lines with equal 430 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY fairness. The law forbids the secret rates and rebates by which the trusts to a great extent have been built up. The Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drugs Act provide for the strict examination and labeling of food products. These laws have raised the standard of our food products and have greatly promoted the health of the people. 489. Intervention in Cuba. At the signing of the treaty of peace with Spain in 1 898 Cuba passed under the military control of the United States. In 1901 the Congress of the United States, under the so-called Piatt Amendment, voted to leave the control of Cuba to the people of that island if they would agree to make no treaty with any foreign power that would endanger their independence ; to contract no debt for which the current revenue would not suffice ; to give to the United States the right to intervene, if necessary, to preserve life, property, or individual liberty ; and to give to the United States two naval stations in Cuba. These conditions were accepted by Cuba, a new Constitution was adopted, and a president and Congress were elected. The United States thereupon formally recognized (May 20, 1902) the new republic of Cuba. In 1906 a revolution broke out against the government of Cuba, and the president of that country resigned. The United States thereupon sent a military force to maintain order and to take control of the island until the revolution should end and a new president should be elected. The new president took his seat in 1909 and the provisional government • of the United States was withdrawn, 490. The Second Hague Peace Conference, 1907. The first Peace Conference of 1899 at The Hague had been so successful that the president of the United States suggested a second conference. This conference met at The Hague June 15, 1907. Forty-four nations were represented. While the conference did not succeed in reducing the armies and the navies of the world, it made provision for the collection of contract debts by peaceful means instead of by the use of an army and navy ; it THE PP:RI0I) of IXDL'STRIAL DKVELOl'.MKM' 43' also established a prize court for neutrals/ and made further provision for the International Court of Arbitration.'-^ 491. The Crisis of 1907. Presidential Election. In the autumn of 1907 a large trust company in New York City failed, and a crisis as severe as any that has ever befallen the country spread through all parts of the Union. Many banks and trust com- panies failed, and there was widespread distress in all sections of the country. In the presidential election of 1908 the Republicans nom- inated William H. Taft for president. The Democrats nom- inated William J. Bryan. The issues of the campaign were the trusts, imperialism, the protective tariff, and the use of the injunction. The Republicans were successful, and Taft was elected president. SinMMARY The leading events of Roost-velt's second administration (1905- 1909) were as follows: The San Francisco disaster. The admission of Oklahoma. The Railway Rate Act. The Meat Inspection Act. The Pure Food and Drugs Act. Intervention in Cuba. The Hague Peace Conference. The Crisis of 1907. 1 The first case before the Hague Tribunal was the so-called " Pious F"und " case. This case arose over the seizure of property belonging to the Roman Catholic Church in California when Mexico owned that territor)-. The Mexican government had promised to pay six per cent of the value of the seized property annually to the Church. Mexico had failed to pay, how- ever, for many years, and the United States asked for the adjustment of the matter. The Hague Tribunal decided in favor of the United States, and Mexico at once paid the debt. - In 1904 war broke out between Japan and Russia. So many lives were lost in the battles of the war that the president of the United States invited the governments of Japan and Russia to send representatives to a confer- ence. The invitation was accepted, the representatives met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and a treaty of peace was signed, putting an end to the fearful struggle in the East. 432 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Taft's Administration,^ 1909-19 13 492. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. Believing that the ever- increasing cost of Hving was due in part to the high tariff duties of the Dingley Act there arose a widespread desire among the people for a downward revision of the tariff. Shortly after his inauguration, therefore, President Taft called a special session of Congress. After a long debate in the House of Representatives and in the Senate, the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act became a law (August 5, 1909). The new tariff was a great disappointment to a vast majority of the people, as it increased duties instead of reducing them. 493. Two Great Celebrations. The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was opened June i, 1909, at Seattle, Washington. The object of this exposition was to show the wealth of the Pacific coast and Alaska Territory and to promote the develop- ment of commerce across the Pacific with the Orient. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration, held in New York City and the Hudson River counties (September 25-October 9, 1909), commemorated two great events."^ . The first Vv'as the three hundredth anniversary of the exploration of the Hudson River by Henry Hudson, in the Dutch ship Half Moon, in 1609. The second event commemorated was the one hun- dredth anniversary of the first successful application of steam navigation by Robert Fulton, in the Clermont, in 1807. The people of Holland built an exact reproduction of the Half Moon, which was presented to the American people for the celebration. The little Clermont was also reproduced. 1 William Howard Taft was born in Ohio in 1857, and in 1880 was admitted to the bar. He was appointed judge of the United States Circuit Court in 1892 and became the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands in 1901. In 1904 he became Secretary of War. In 1908 he was elected president of the United States, and was defeated for reelection in 191 2. ■^ In September, 1909, the news reached the United States that the north pole had been discovered five months before (April 6, 1909) by an American naval officer, Commodore Robert E. Peary. Two years later (December 14, 191 1) Captain Roald Amundsen of Norway discovered the south pole. THE PERIOD OF IXDL'STRIAL DEVELOPMENT 433 491. Process of Naturalization. The United States has ahvays maintained that the subject of a foreign power could, under certain conditions, change his citizenship and become an American citizen. The earUest naturahzation law required five years' residence here. The Federalists changed (179S) the law so that fourteen years' residence was required. Tliis act was repealed in 1802, and five years again made the necessary >, ^-, ' T^"* 4., ^ ^r-i^ :^v-_ -V— — - ■ irU0^i^ THE HUDSOX-FULTON CELliBRATION period of residence. The subject of a foreign power coming to our shores who desires to become a citizen must make a declaration of intention to the Federal or state court. Two years after this declaration a petition for citizenship is made. The person seeking citizenship must prove by two witnesses that he or she has been in the country five years, is of good character, can speak English, can sign his or her name, and has some understanding of the Constitution and of our form of government. When this has been done final papers may be issued and the applicant receives full citizenship. 434 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 495. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona. The area included in New Mexico and Arizona was first visited by Europeans in 1 5 36, when Cabeza de Vaca traversed it. Three years later it was visited by the Franciscan Friar Marcos and in 1540 by Coronado. Upon the revolt of Mexico from Spain it was made (1824) a territory of the republic of Mexico, It became a part of the United States in 1848 and two years later received a territorial form of government. In 1863 the western part of the territory was formed into the territory of Arizona. In 19 10 Congress passed the Enabling Act, admitting the territories of New Mexico and Arizona, and in 19 12 President Taft issued his proclamations admitting them to the Union. 496. The National Census of 1910. In 1910 the thirteenth national census of the United States was taken and showed a population of 93,402,151. If the inhabitants of the Philippine islands, Guam, Tutuila, and the Canal Zone are included, the total number of people under our flag in 19 10 was 101,100,000. 497. Land Laws and Conservation of Natural Resources. It has always been the policy of our government to aid the development of the country by granting to colonists the oppor- tunity of securing homes on the public lands of the West. In 1862 the famous Homestead Act was passed (see sect. 391). The rapid growth of the West under the Homestead Act is one of the most astonishing facts in history. Towns sprang up in all the Western section, territories were organized and quickly became states, railroads were built, millions of bushels of wheat and corn were sent to the Eastern states and to Europe ; where but a few years before the bison had roamed were now to be seen the homes of millions of happy and prosperous American citizens. The passing of the public land area, however, has called the attention of the country to the necessity of preserving our natural resources. By the Reclamation Act of 1902 Congress provided for the building of great dams and ditches to irrigate the arid regions of the West. THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 435 While the arid area in America is great, the area that has too much water is even greater. The bogs, swamps, and marshes of the United States are equal to one twenty-fifth of its entire area. If these swamps were drained, they would give land of the richest value equal in extent to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, These are but a few of the problems that are to be solved in the great conservation movement throughout our nation. t,'iH^^^ SALT KIVKK IKKICATION DAM IN ARIZONA 498. The Development of Canada. As we have seen, Canada was first explored and developed by the French under Cartier, Champlain, Frontcnac, and Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries. In 1629 the Company of New France under Cardinal Richelieu attempted to colonize the country-, but its efforts ended in failure. In 1663 Canada became a royal province with a government on the model of France itself. The wars between the French and English in America, extending from 1689 to 1763, resulted in 436 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the loss of Canada by France. The entire country was ceded to England. In 1774 a government was organized under the Quebec Act. One year later the American Revolution began. The American colonists attempted to capture Canada and separate it from Great Britain. The attempt was a failure, as the Americans were repulsed at Quebec (December 31, 1775) and the Canadians refused to give up their allegiance to Great Britain. Soon after the outbreak of the Revolution the Loyal- ists, or Tories, to the number of forty thousand, fled to Canada and settled there. In 1 79 1 Canada was divided at the Ottawa River into Upper and Lower Canada. Under the Act of Union of 1840 the provinces were again united. Twenty-seven years later, in 1867, the Dominion of Canada came into existence by an act of Parliament of Great Britain. Under this act the Dominion was given virtual self-government; while to each province was granted direction of its own affairs in so far as they did not conflict with the general laws of the Dominion. The Dominion comprised the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The development of the West as a result of extensive railroad building has since added Manitoba, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion in 1873. Newfoundland never entered the Canadian confederation. It remained a province until 191 7, when it was created the Dominion of Newfoundland. 499. Reciprocity with Canada. The Payne Tariff Act of 1909, by its high duties on the necessaries of life, aroused wide- spread discontent among the people. To relieve somewhat this burden of high-tariff taxation President Taft arranged a reci- procity treaty with Canada for closer trade relations which would facilitate the exchange of manufactured goods and food products. Despite the strenuous opposition of the high-tariff advocates the measure was passed by Congress and was later approved for Canada by the Canadian Premier Laurier, who appealed to his country to sustain him in the measure. He THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOl'MEM 43; was defeated, however, and the new Conservative party whicli came into power in Canada dropped the reciprocity treaty. 500. Presidential Election of 1912. In the presidential elec- tion of 1912 tlie Republicans renominated President Taft. Roosevelt tried to secure the Republican nomination, but failed, and was nominated on a so-called Progressive ticket. The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, who was governor of New Jersey. The Democratic platform recom- mended a reduction of the tariff, an income tax, and direct election of United States senators. Wilson secured an overwhelming victory. As the Senate and House of Representatives became Democratic the entire government was now controlled by the Democrats for the second time since the outbreak of the Civil War. SUMMARY The leading events of Taft's administration were : The Payne Tariff Act of 1909. The great celebrations at Seattle and New York. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona to the Union in 191 2. The conservation question. Reciprocity movement with Canada. Dates to be remembered : 1898. War with Spain (beginning of American colonial expansion). Dates for reference : 1898. Battle of Manila (May i). 1900. Gold Standard Act. 1964. Cession to the United States of the Canal Zone. 1906. Admission of Oklahoma. 19 1 2. Admission of Arizona and New Mexico. Map work : On a map trace the route of a United States transport from San Francisco to Manila, with stops at Honolulu and Guam. On a map show the position of San Juan, Porto Rico ; Santiago and Havana in Cuba. 438 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY REVIEW EXAMINATION 1. What are the principal industries of the Pacific coast states? Show the relation of the transcontinental railroad to the development of these states. What advantage comes to the Pacific coast from the Panama Canal? 2. What are the three most important island possessions of the United States? How vi^as each acquired? 3. What did each of the following invent : Morse, Fulton, McCormick, Howe, Ericsson, Edison, Bell, Whitney. 4. What is meant by the Hague Tribunal ? What was the first Ameri- can case before it ? 5. Explain the following terms : protective tariff ; strict and loose con- struction ; naturalization ; internal improvements ; conservation of natural resources. 6. Name two great American philanthropists and tell something each has done. Name two poets, one novelist, and two writers of prose, and tell something each has written in connection with the history of our country. 7. Compare appro.ximately, with reference to area, population, and number of states, the United States at the present time with the United States in 1 790. 8. What do you understand by (a) the initiative ; {d) the referendum ; (c) the recall ; (ef) commission form of government. 9. What advantages for farming has irrigation over natural rainfall and what disadvantages? 10, Explain two of the following: civil service ; Homestead Act; boycott; treaty ; treason ; strike. READINGS Histories. Andrews, E. B., United States in Our Own Time. CoMAN, K., Industrial History of the United States. Dewey, D. R., National Problems. Dunning, W. A., Reconstruction, Political and Economic. Grady, H. W., New South. Hart, A. B., National Ideals. Latan^, J. H., America as a World Power. Oberholtzer, E. P., History of United States since the Civil War. Paxson, F. L., The Last American Frontier; The New Nation. Sparks, E. E., National Devel- opment. Tarbell, I. M., The Tariff in Our Times. Van Hise, C. R., The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States. Sources. Hart, Contempora^-ies, Vol. IV, p. 515 (Completion of the Pacific Railroad) ; p. 547 (Purchase of Alaska) ; p. 608 (Right of Self- Government); p. 617 (Besieged in Peking); p. 658 (American Contribution THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 439 to Civilization). Ml'ZZEV, Keatfi/igs, p. 481 (The Farmer and the Rail- road); p. 518 (The New South); p. 522 (The Hurricane at Samoa); p. 533 (The Venezuela Question); p. 546 (The Spanish War and the Philippines); p. 566 (The Trusts). Fiction. Cooliuoe, I)., Hidden U'ti/er (a. tale of cattle and sheep wars on the ranges of the West). Dixon, Jr., Thos., T/ie Clansman (a story of the Ku-Klux Klan). Foote, M. H., Cceur d\4lene (an interesting story of the silver mines of Idaho). Ford, P. L., The Honorable Peter Stirling (a story of high political ideal in the last years of the nineteenth century). Kei.lv, M.. Little Citisens (a graphic view of life in New York). Long- fellow, \\. W., Revenge of Rain-in-the-Face (a poem based on Custer's defeat). I*A(;i-:, T. N., Red Rock (a story of the period of reconstruction). Parker, G., T/ie Magnetic North (a story of the gold-seekers in Alaska). Richardson, N., The Long Day (a picture of life among the women wage- earners in New York City). White, W. A.. A Certain Rich Man (a story of Kansas life); The Blazed Trail (a tale of logging in Michigan). CHAPTER XV THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER " In the short space of our national life, we have lived more dreams and put more of them into execution for the benefit of the world, acted a more thrilling drama on the stage of life, fought and bled in a more epic struggle for liberty and democracy . . . than was given to the heroes of Marathon or Salamis to face." — J. C. Reville, S. J. Wilson's First Administration,^ 191 3-19 17 501. New Amendments. In 191 3 two amendments were added to the Constitution, the first since 1870. The Sixteenth Amendment allows an income tax to be laid without apportion- ment among the several states and without regard to any census enumeration.^ Under the Underwood Tariff Act an income tax was passed in 19 16, The Seventeenth Amendment pro- vides for the direct election of United States senators by the people. Up to this time the members of the Senate were elected by the legislatures of the various states .'^ 502. The Department of Labor. In 1903 the Department of Commerce and Labor was added to the president's cabinet. To study more fully the problems of labor and to meet the changing conditions in the world of industry the Department of Labor was separated (191 3) from the Department of Com- merce. The new secretary took his seat for the first time in President Wilson's cabinet. 1 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia in 1856. He studied law and later became a professor in Princeton University, of which he was elected president in 1902. In 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey. He was elected president of the United States in 1912 and was reelected in 1916. On the same ticket with him Thomas R. Marshall was elected vice president in 191 2 and reelected in 1916. - See Constitution, Section 9. •' See Constitution, Section 3. 440 THE UNrrED STATES AS A WORLD I'oWI'R 441 503. The Underwood Tariff Act. The Tariff Commission. In the presidential election of 191 2, as \vc liavc seen, the tariff was one of the vital issues of the campaign. The Democrats, when they came into power, proceeded at once to carr)' out their pledges of a real reduction in tariff schedules. The Under- wood act was signed by President Wilson, October 3, 19 13. The history of the tariff has been one of constant fluctuation, a contest between the advocates of a tariff for revenue only and a protective tariff. The first tariff, of 1789, averaged 7^ per cent ad valorem and was largely a revenue tariff. In 18 16 the protective feature came to the front, when the rates in some schedules were advanced as high as 35 per cent. The tariff of 1824 and the " tariff of abomi- nations " of 1828 still further increased the duties. The action of South Carolina and other Southern states which threatened to nullify the tariff led to the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which brought about a gradual reduction of duties to 20 per cent. In 1842 the tariff was again made protective, but the Walker Tariff of 1846 again lowered the duties. It was "a revenue tariff with incidental protection." The Morrill Tariff of 1861 was protective. The need of revenue during the Civil War caused advances in the tariff from time to time. It was supposed that the high tariff rates would be lowered after the war, but the protective interests prevented this action. The tariff act of 1883 left the tariff about as high as it was during the Civil War. In 1890 the McKinley Tariff came out unqualifiedly for very high protective duties, but in WOODROW WILSON 442 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 1894 the Wilson Tariff reduced the duties somewhat. The Dingley Tariff of 1897 was again highly protective, as was the Payne Tariff of 1909. In 191 3 the Underwood Tariff reduced the duties to the lowest point in half a century and greatly enlarged the free list. By the action of Congress in 19 16 a permanent tariff commission of six members was appointed to study the tariff question in its relation to our busi- ness life. This commission will make suggestions to Congress for any changes in the tariff laws that may be called for by the business conditions of the United States in their relation to foreign countries. It is hoped that the tariff will hereafter be a business rather than a political question. 504. The Federal Reserve Currency Act. From time to time there have been disastrous panics or financial crises in the United States — as in 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893, and 1907. Again, the supply of currency in various sections of the country has been inadequate when it was most needed, as in the West during the great harvest season. To prevent further panics, and if possible to place our national finances in a stable yet more elastic condition, Congress passed (191 3) the Federal Reserve Act. This provides for a General Reserve Bank, with branch banks established in various cities of the country. This General Reserve Bank with its branches is made up of national banks, state banks, and trust companies. This new Federal Reserve system has been a valuable ai'd in placing our finances on a sound basis. It prevented a financial crisis at the outbreak of the great world war and has secured to the various sections of the country ample financial aid in times of need. 505. Great Industrial Works. The Keokuk Dam. The Cape Cod Canal. Near Keokuk, Iowa, the Mississippi River forms rapids as it flows down through a narrow valley between high bluffs that form its banks. To utilize the water power created by the mighty river at this point, a high dam almost a mile in length has been built across the river. A power house generates THE INTTKI) STATES AS A WORLD POWER 443 electricity for light, heat, and traction. The electric current is carried on wires to many great cities of tiie Middle West, liy means of a large lock built in connection with the dam, vessels are now enabled to pass quickly up and down the river. Another work of great importance is the Cape Cod Canal. This canal is eight miles long and is at sea level. It extends across Cape Cod between Barnstable Bay and Buzzards Bay. THE KEOKUK DAM 506. The Panama Tolls Act. Under the Cla}ton-Bul\ver treaty of 1850 (see sect. 345, note) it was provided that neither the United States nor Great Britain should exercise any authority over any state of Central America or any exclusive control of any canal that might be built in that section. This treaty was superseded in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which pro- vided that the United States should enjoy the sole right to con- struct and maintain a canal across the Isthmus, giving all nations equal terms in its use. In the Panama Canal Act of 191 1 it was provided that vessels of the United States should be exempt from the payment of tolls. It was believed by many that this was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. In 1914 Congress repealed this provision, and all vessels may now use the Canal on terms of equality. 444 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 507. Important Legislation. To promote the development of the territory of Alaska, Congress passed (19 14) a law for the construction by our government of a railroad, one thousand miles in length, from the coast inland to the Yukon River, This railroad will open up the great coal and timber tracts of Alaska, but government supervision will prevent waste of these valuable national resources. The Clayton Anti -Trust Act and the Federal Trade Com- mission Law are designed to prevent unfair competition and restraint of trade. 508. New Political Movements. The Initiative, Referendum, Recall, and Direct Primary. Since the beginning of the twen- tieth century many new political movements have been proposed and adopted which change to a marked degree the former systems of government. The general trend of the new legis- lation is to allow the people to have a more direct influence on the legislators they have chosen. The Initiative is a measure which gives the voters the right to begin or initiate legislation. When a certain small number (generally five per cent) of the people desire a bill to be con- sidered, they can petition the legislature, and the legislators are thereby required to introduce and consider the bill. Under the Referendum a certain number of voters can petition the legislature to refer any important act to the people to be accepted or rejected by them before it can become a law. The Recall means that the people may demand the recall of a public ofificial. The Recall demands, therefore, another election, and the official, if the required number of votes is cast against him, will thereby be removed from office irrespec- tive of the time for which he had been at first elected. The Direct Primary, wherever adopted, gives to the people an opportunity to vote directly by ballot for the nomination of officials. It supersedes the earlier method of sending dele- gates to a convention which made the nominations. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 445 509. Municipal Problems. Commission Form of Govern- ment. Among the problems tliat from time to time have con- fronted the people has been the proper government of our cities, for it is generally believed that there has been much corruption and great lack of efficiency m our municipal rule. The government of most of our cities is made uj) of a mayor, a board of aldermen, and a common council. In a small way it is similar to the three departments in our national and state governments. As a result of the Galveston disaster in 1900, a commission of experts was given charge of rebuilding the city. So wonder- fully efficient and economical was the work of this commission that it became the municipal governing body. Many other cities — led particularly by Des Moines, which worked out a very acceptable plan — have since adopted this so-called com- mission form of city government to replace the older plan of mayor, board of aldermen, and common council. 510. Safeguarding the Public Health. Great strides in the safeguarding of the public health have been made by national, state, and city health officers. Our ports are guarded against the introduction of diseases from abroad, the states at times enforce quarantine laws against other states, and the tenement- house requirements of the cities have been framed to prevent the development and spread of disease. A study of the diseases that formerly in epidemics swept away whole populations has materially reduced the death rate year by year and nearly put an end to epidemics. Vaccination has caused almost the entire disappearance of smallpox, once so common and so fatal. The discovery of the fact that a cer- tain type of mosquito spreads yellow fever has aided in con- quering that dreaded disease. The bubonic plague that in 1348, as the so-called " Black Death," swept away half of the people of Europe has been controlled since it was discovered that rats and ground squirrels carry the fleas that spread the disease. The ravages of tuberculosis are being lessened bv 446 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY letting fresh air and sunshine into the dark tenements and by requiring the new houses to have a certain amount of air and light space. The number of cases of typhoid fever has been greatly reduced by various measures. The campaign against the house fly, which bears the germ of typhoid from place to place, has been productive of excellent results. Probably the leading causes of typhoid fever are impure milk and impure water. To secure pure milk, the dairies are now carefully examined and clean conditions are required. To secure pure water, millions of dollars are expended on great engineering feats. 511. Water Supply for Cities. The constantly increasing population of our cities has brought to a head the necessity of arranging for a better water supply. In 1895 the state of Massachusetts took steps to secure for Boston and adjacent cities a pure water supply for years to come. A commission was appointed to purchase extensive tracts of land near Mount Wachusett, fifty miles from Boston. Towns and villages were removed, a great dam erected, and an artificial lake, miles in extent, created. So successful was the work here that the idea spread rapidly to other parts of the country. For many years the city of Chicago secured its water from intakes far out in Lake Michigan. Since much of the sewage of Chicago was carried into Lake Michigan by the Chicago River, it was difficult to keep the lake water free from impurities. A brilliant engineering suggestion -was made. As a very slight elevation of land — about fifteen feet — formed the watershed between the Chicago River flowing east into Lake Michigan and the Des Plaines River flowing southwest into the Illinois River, it was proposed to cut a canal forty miles in length and sufficiently deep to cause the Chicago River to run westward into the Des Plaines, which would carry the water into the Illinois and thence into the Mississippi, In this way the waters of Lake Michigan would flow westward through the Chicago River in a strong current, carrying the 'I'liK rxiri-:!) siai'ks as a woki.d i'owi.k 447 sewage with them into the Des Plaines and IlHnois Rivers, away from Lake Michigan. The plan was carried to a success- ful finish in 1906. Eventually the canal may form a waterway for barges and vessels from Chicago to the (iulf of Mexico. The city of Los Angeles has built an aqueduct two hundred and fourteen miles long, carrying from the mountains into the city an unlimited quantity of the purest water. The flowing stream can also be utilized to develop water power which will furnish electric light and traction. The greatest engineering feat in connection with the water supply of a great city is the Catskill Aqueduct for New York, The Aqueduct extends one hundred and twenty-seven miles to the furthest point. Four miles above West Point it is led through solid granite under the Hudson River at a dci)th of one thousand one hundred feet. By means of tunnels the water is carried far underground to all parts of the city. The Catskill Aqueduct is second only to the Panama Canal as one of the world's greatest engineering projects and is the greatest water- works system in the history of the world, ancient or modern. 512. The Growth of Electric Traction. The increasing use of tunnels and the public demand for purer air is bringing about the change from coal locomotives to electric motors on railroads. ' The New York Central Railroad has already changed to electric traction on its main line from New York City north- ward. The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad uses electric motors on a long stretch of its system. The Pennsylvania Railroad, in its great tunnel under the Hudson River, uses only electric power. One of the greatest steps for- ward in the change to electricity is the electrical equipment of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad through the Rockies. The mountain torrents and swift rivers furnish the electric power. The largest electric motors in the world have been installed upon the system, and for hundreds of miles the trains are carried over mountain ranges by the clean, smokeless electric motors. 448 ESSENTIALS OE AMERICAN HISTORY 513. The Panama Expositions. To celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal two expositions were held in 1 9 1 5 on the Pacific coast. The Panama-California Exposition was opened at San Diego, where the great explorer Cabrillo first landed. As was fitting, the buildings were in the style of the Spanish THE FIRST THREE-THOUSAND-VOLT DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVE More powerful than any steam locomotive ; one hundred and twelve feet long, weighs two hundred and sixty tons, uses no coal, requires no water, has no boiler, and carries no tender missions, in recognition of the early Franciscan missionaries who here began to Christianize and civilize the Indians. The Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. For two miles along the water front near the Golden Gate the beautiful buildings extended, covering six hundred and thirty- five acres. Exhibits from all parts of the world showed the marvelous progress that has been made in recent years in all lines of human activity. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 449 514. Development of the Automobile Industry. One of the most remarkable commercial developments of the last fifteen years is the automobile industry. The automobile of to-day was rendered possible by the perfecting, in Europe, of the gasoline motor. Hie automobile industry in the United States was of comparatively slow growth at the outset, but in recent years automobile manufacturing has increased enormously. Besides pleasure cars large gasoline motor trucks have been developed to carry great loads for which formerly many horses were re- quired. Gasoline tractors are being used more and more for plowing and harrowing on the great farms of the West, and motor boats are found on all our waters. The automobile has caused a general recognition of the need for good roads, which are now being built in all parts of the countr)'.i Among the many cities that have been especially benefited by the auto- mobile industry are Detroit, Cleveland, and Toledo. 515. The New York Barge Canal. We have seen how largely the Erie Canal (see sect. 292) aided in building up the wonderful commerce of the state and city of New York by affording a direct waterway from the Hudson River to the Great Lakes. It was long evident, however, that the canal needed to be so enlarged as to carry barges of much greater capacity in order to meet the growing needs of commerce. At a cost of about one hundred and thirty million dollars the state of New York has enlarged the canal and its branches. The Barge Canal, as it is now called, with its branches, is almost eight hundred miles in length. ' The agitation for good roads has led to the great undertakings known as the Lincoln Highway and the Dixie Highway. The Lincoln Highway, built in memory of President Lincoln, is to extend from New York to San Francisco, and when completed will be the longest road in the world. The Dixie High- way will connect some of the leading Northern cities with the growing cities of the South. As the great Roman highways joined and bound together the cities of Europe, these splendidly built new roads will facilitate quick com- munication, especially by automobile, between the East and the West, the North and the South, and will permit the quick movement of the products of the farms to the cities. 450 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 516. The Record of American Inventions. Since the United States Patent Ofifice was established in 1791 American inven- tive genius has developed more great and useful inventions than all the rest of the w^orld combined. So fertile of new ideas is the American brain that no less than two hundred in- ventions a day are now patented in Washington. The following is a list of some of the epoch-making inventions since the foundation of the republic : Cotton gin Whitney, 1 793 Steamboat Fulton, 1807 Telegraph Morse, 1832 Reaper and mower McCormick, 1834 Revolver Colt, 1835 Screw propeller Ericsson, 1836 Vulcanized rubber Goodyear, 1844 Sewing machine . Howe, 1846 Steam cylinder press Hoe, 1847 Typewriter Sholes and Glidden, 1866 Air brake Westinghouse, 1 868 Welt machine Goodyear, 1871 Railway block signals Robinson, 1872 Automatic car coupler Janney, 1873 Barbed-wire machine Glidden, 1875 Telephone Bell, 1876 Talking machine Edison, 1878 Electric-arc lamp Brush, 1879 Incandescent lamp Edison, 1 880 Trolley car . . . Van Depoele and Sprague, 1 884-1 887 Cash register ... Patterson, 1885 Linotype machine Mergenthaler, 1885 Induction motor Tesla, 1887 Portable roll-film camera Eastman, 1888 Adding machine . . . ' Burroughs, 1888 Aeroplane Wright, 1903 517. The Mexican Civil War. In 19 10 a rebellion, under Francisco Madero, broke out in Mexico against the president, Porfirio Diaz. Diaz was compelled to leave the country, and Madero was elected president. One year later he was THK I'Xri'KI) STATES AS A WORLD POWER 451 overthrown and, with the vice president, was murdered. Huerta ^ now took possession of the government, but revolutionary armies arose on every side. He asked for recognition by the United States, but it was refused, and he was finally compelled to resign. Carranza, as " first chief," became the ruling power, but the country w^as still ravaged by different armies. Churches, convents, and homes were pillaged, and the inhabitants mur- dered or grossly maltreated. In 1916 peace was, to a certain extent, restored in Mexico. 518. Legislation to aid the Farmer. One of the most far- reaching and beneficial laws of recent years is the Federal Farm Loan Act, or Rural Credits Act as it is frequently called. As almost everything we eat and much of what we wear comes from the soil, it is very important that agriculture should be efficient and prosperous. A century ago in the United States, of every one hundred persons in our population eighty were on the farms producing food for the twenty per- sons who lived in cities or did not produce foodstuffs in any form. Under these conditions food was plentiful and cheap. With the growth of the cities and the gradual drift to them of young men and women from the farms, a great change has been brought about. To-day of every hundred of our popula- tion only thirty-seven are on the farms, and sixty-three live in the cities. The result is ever-increasing prices for food. 519. Federal Farm Loan Act. Other Progressive Legisla- tion. The new Federal Farm Loan Act (July 17, 19 16) was designed to aid the farmer. It established a board of five members and divided the country into tw^elve F'ederal districts. Each of these districts has a Federal Land Bank. Under the act farmers organized into local credit unions, and through these unions loans are secured from the Federal Land Bank. As a valuable aid to the Farm Loan Act two other laws have been passed to assist the farmer, who is the food producer of the nation. The Good Roads Law gives Federal aid in ' Huerta (ware'tah). 452 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY building good roads and thereby draws closer together the farm and the market. The act increases the value of the farm and reduces the operating expenses of the farmer. The Agri- cultural Education Act provides a means for the Federal government to act with the states in the scientific education of the farmer. This will enable him to produce more on each acre and to increase the number of acres under cultivation. All these acts show that the farmer is now receiving the fullest consideration in all matters of national legislation. 520. The Federal Child Labor Law. Eight-Hour Railroad Law. In 191 6 the Federal Child Labor Law was passed to give the fullest protection to children working in mills, shops, factories, canneries, or mines, but it has been declared (19 18) to be unconstitutional. In the summer of 19 16 a nation-wide strike on all our railways was averted by the Adamson Eight- Hour Railroad Law which sought by act of Congress to adjust the hours of labor and wages to be paid. The brotherhoods accepted the action of Congress as a satisfactory solution of the problem, and the nation-wide railway strike, with its appalling consequences, was averted. 521. Growth of Woman Suffrage. An important movement in political life has been the rapidly increasing growth of woman suffrage. This movement was preceded by a general widening of all spheres of activity for women. Many uni- versities and colleges that were formerly closed to women were opened to them, and many colleges solely for women were established. Women have now been admitted to most of the professions, and new laws have given them rights to prop- erty which they have never before enjoyed. The movement for suffrage for women began in the West. Kansas gave them the right to vote on school matters as early as 1861. Wyoming gave them full suffrage in 186.9 01^ equal terms with men ; Colorado followed in 1893 ; Idaho and Utah in 1896 ; and Washington, California, Arizona, Kansas, Oregon, THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 453 Nevada, Montana, and the territory of Alaska followed. In Illinois they have partial suffrage. In 191 7 the state of New York gave them full suffrage. 522. The Election of 1916. In the presidential election of 19 1 6 the Democrats renominated President Woodrow Wilson and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall. The Republicans nominated Charles E. Hughes for president and Charles W. Fairbanks for vice president. The leading issues of the cam- paign were the progressive legislation of the Wilson adminis- tration and the peace and prosperity of the country. In the election the Democrats were successful and President Wilson and Vice President Marshall were reelected. SUMMARY The leading events of Wilson's first administration (19 13-19 17) were : The addition (19 13) to the Constitution of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments. The creation (19 13) of the Department of Labor with a seat in the cabinet. The Underwood Tariff Act of 19 13. The passage of the Federal Reserve Currency Act. The building of great industrial works — the Keokuk Dam and the Cape Cod Canal. The completion of the Panama Canal in 19 14. The passage of the Panama Tolls Act. Legislation to develop the wonderful resources of Alaska. •The Clayton Anti -Trust Act and Federal Trade Commission Law. The development of new political movements — the Initiative, Referendum, Recall, and Direct Primar)-. The expositions of 1 9 1 5 at San Francisco and San Diego. The Mexican Civil War. Enactment of the Income Tax Law. The Federal Farm Loan Act, Good Roads Law, Agricultural Edu- cadon Act, Federal Child Labor. Law, and Eight-Hour Labor Law. The rapid growth of woman suffrage. 454 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Wilson's Second Administration (191 7- ) 523. The Parcel Post and Airplane Post. Although foreign governments in their postal systems had for years cared for the transportation of merchandise, up to a certain weight, the Congress of the United States did not pass a parcel-post law until 191 3, owing largely to the opposition of the express com- panies. The law allows packages up to a considerable weight to be transported by the postal authorities. In May, 191 8, the postal system was enlarged by the intro- duction of an airplane service between leading cities. 524. Protectorates in the Caribbean. Purchase of the Virgin Islands. The Panama Canal has made the region of the Caribbean of the greatest importance, as through these waters lies the direct route to and from the canal. ^ Among the islands that fringe the Caribbean is the large island of Haiti, the western portion of which is the republic of Haiti and the eastern portion the republic of Santo Domingo. President Grant in 1869 had tried by treaty to annex Santo Domingo, but the United States Senate refused to confirm the treaty. Revolutions occurred frequently, until in 1907 the United States by treaty took over the financial direction of the republic. We collect the revenues and pay the creditors, who are especially numerous in France. A similar arrangement has been neces- sary in Haiti, where a revolution in 191 5 overthrew the rulers 1 To put an end to the revolutions directed by dictators in Latin-America, President Wilson in an epoch-making address at Mobile announced to all Latin-America that the United States would never again recognize any gov- ernment founded on assassination and revolution. Without the recognition of the United States it would be practically impossible for dictators to sell bonds and secure money. It is therefore significant that since this Mobile address there have been few dictators arising in Latin-America. President Wilson also assured the republics of Latin-America that the L^nited States would never again seize a foot of territory belonging to them. This policy, and the invitation to Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (the famous A. B. C. con- ference at Niagara Falls in 1913) to confer for the settlement of the Mexican trouble, has allayed on the part of the Latin republics the feeling of fear of the United States arising largely from our part in waging the war against Mexico and our share in the Panama revolution. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 455 of the republic. To protect lives and property the United States has since had charge of its financial and police affairs. In accordance with this policy of guarding Caribbean inter- ests, the United States purchased in 19 17 from Denmark for twenty-five million dollars the Danish West Indies, or Virgin Islands, situated a short distance northeast of Porto Rico. IH. Ur,giu.d. VTat THE LXITKD STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS (SHADED AND liLACK AREAS) This gives the United States ownership of the excellent harbor of St. Thomas and prevents the islands from falling into the hands of any hostile European power. 525. The Great War. The war which all Europe had been fearing for decades came at last in 19 14. On June 28 of that year the Crown Prince of Austria and his wife were murdered in Bosnia^ as the result, it was claimed, of a Serbian conspiracy. ' The Halkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been annexed by Austria in 190.S. Serbia had hoped to unite these and other Balkan Slav prin- cipalities to herself and form a great Serbian state. The action of Austria aroused great resentment in Serbia. The Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Crown Prince of Austria, was warned not to go to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, because of the intense hatred of Austria which many there held, but he disregarded the warning and on his arrival was assassinated (June 28, 1914). 456 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY On July 23, 19 14, Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. Although if she had accepted it, it would have practically ended her national life, Serbia agreed to all the severe conditions except one and she asked to have that referred to the Hague Tribunal. Austria refused and at once declared war (July 28) on Serbia. Russia immediately prepared to go to the aid of Serbia, Ger- many was in alliance ^ with Austria and came to the aid of Austria by declaring war (August i) on Russia. As France was allied to Russia, war was declared on France by Germany (August 3). To crush France at once Germany attempted to pass through Belgium, a neutral country. The Belgians resisted and for a few days held the Germans in check, — long enough to allow the French armies to be gathered. The attack on Belgium brought England into the war against Germany. The Great War now became a world catastrophe. 526. The United States and the Great War. On August 18. 1914, President Wilson issued a proclamation of neutrality, asking the people of the United States to "act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality." It was thought that the United States, separated by three thousand miles of ocean, would not be drawn into the great conflict. The close relations, however, of nations to-day in world affairs, the ships sailing daily from shore to shore, the cables and wireless sending messages from people to people, the need of munitions and foodstuffs by the warring countries, soon made it evident that it would be very difficult for the United States to keep out of the war. As soon as war was declared. Great Britain, with its vast navy, blockaded the coast of Germany and no German vessel could leave a harbor anywhere without danger of capture. So strict became this blockade that even neutral vessels were searched, which 1 An alliance had been formed between Germany, Austria, and Italy as early as 1882. It was called the Triple Alliance. France and Russia made an alliance in 1891 and were joined by Great Britain in 1904, forming the Triple Entente, now generally called the Allies. Italy claimed its alliance was merely for defensive war while this was an aggressive war. She refused to aid the Triple Alliance and finally (May 23, 191 5) joined the Allies. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 457 led to a vigorous protest to England by the President of the United States as being a violation of international law. Ger- many retaliated to the decree of Great Britain by developing a powerful fleet of submarines, which sped forth unobserved, armed with the deadly torpedo, and attacked neutral vessels as well as those of their enemies. On May 7, 191 5, to the horror and amazement of the world the large English passenger steamer the Liisita7iia\^2,% torpedoed, without warning, by a submarine off the coast of Ireland with a loss of eleven hundred and fifty-two lives, among them being many women and children. Of the lost one hundred and four- teen were American citizens. Scores of merchant vessels fell a prey to the active German submarine. President Wilson protested to Germany against this method of submarine warfare wherein the lives of passengers and crews could not be safe- guarded as required by international law. On September i , 1 9 1 5 , Germany gave her pledge that her submarines would not sink liners "without warning and without providing for the safety of the lives of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance." Early in 191 7 England extended the lines of her blockade, the more effectively to cut off supplies from Germany. Germany issued (Januar}' 31, 19 17) a new proc- lamation extending the war zone ^ and declaring that every ship without regard to its character or the safety of those on board would be sunk. The United States was to be permitted to send one boat a week, properly marked, to Falmouth, Eng- land, upon a certain specified route. Declaring this proclama- tion to be a breach of the earlier pledge of Germany and a violation of the law of nations and the principles of humanity, President Wilson gave the German ambassador, Count von Hernstorff, his passports (February 3, 191 7). 1 Two weeks earlier the German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman had written a letter to the German Minister in Mexico which was intercepted. This letter suggested that if war was declared between Germany and the United States, Mexico might join with Japan in attacking the United States and would receive as a reward Arizona. New Mexico, and Texas. 458 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 527. Declaration of War, April 6, 1917. After two months of unrestricted submarine warfare I^resident Wilson went before Congress (April 2, 19 17) and in the course of his address said : The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents. Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and stricken people of Belgium . . . have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle. . . . The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. In response to the President's request Congress declared war on Germany (April 6, 1917).^ For the first time since the War of 1 8 1 2 the United States became involved in war with a first-class power. 528. The United States at War. The United States at once prepared for the great struggle. Conscription was voted (May, 19 1 7) and ten million men between the ages of twenty- one and thirty inclusive were registered. From this body an army was drawn by lot. Immense cantonments were con- structed, munition factories developed, supplies in untold quan- tities prepared, the navy placed in a condition of complete preparedness, airplanes manufactured, and enormous ship- building plants erected. The government took charge of all the railroads of the country. Administrators of food and fuel were appointed to fix prices and control distribution. Congress voted billions of dollars for war expenses, and the people through Liberty Loans poured a stream of money into the national treasury .^ So effective were all these measures that 1 See Leonard, War Addresses of Woodrow Wilson. War on Austria-Hungary was not declared until December 7, 1917. 2 The four departments of State, Treasury, War, and Navy in these critical days of war were under the efficient direction of Secretaries Lansing, McAdoo, Baker, and Daniels. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 459 the development of the United States from a peace-loving nation at peace to a nation at war was accomplished with a success unsurpassed in history. By the summer of 19 18 more than one million men with supplies had been safely transported across three thousand miles of ocean infested with German submarines and were on the firing line in France under (jcneral John J. Pershing. On September 12, 19 18, the registration for war of all males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five was ordered, and thirteen million responded throughout the Union, On the same day the news reached the United States that the American army had begun its drive at St. Mihiel, resulting in a brilliant victory for our arms. In the relief of the soldiers and sailors at home and abroad the Red Cross/ the Young Men's Christian Association, the Knights of Columbus, the Young Men's Hebrew Association, and the Salvation Army have done valiant work. The nation, united for a common purpose, has put forth its every endeavor to bring success to its cause. 529. The Great War nears its End. With the arrival of fresh troops from the United States the Allies took renewed courage. By the autumn of 19 18 two million men had poured into Europe from the United States, These soldiers took up an important section of the great line on the western front. In the meantime the English had been driving ahead in Asia Minor, capturing the historic cities of Jerusalem, Damascus, and Aleppo. For some months the Germans, Austrians, Bulgarians, and Turks had been sending repeated appeals for peace terms to ^ The Red Cross was founded in Geneva. Switzerland, in 1S64, by repre- sentatives of many European nations, to care for wounded and sick soldiers. Clara Barton organized an American branch and extended its work to include relief not only for the victims of war but also for those involved in great calamities. Besides its work in the Great War, the American Society did splendid work in the Spanish-American War, and has rendered invaluable aid in disasters, as those of Johnstown, Galveston, and San Francisco, and in epidemics, as the yellow fever of New Orleans. 46o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY President Wilson. The President informed them that no terms would even be presented by him to the Allies unless invaded territories were evacuated, the superior military strength of the Allies maintained, and governments set up that, in the belief of the Allies, would respect treaties. In June, 191 8, Austria began a widespread attack on the Italian line, but was defeated at the Piave River. The Bulgarians were attacked, three months later, with great vigor from the south. Seeing the hopelessness of her condition, Bulgaria surrendered (Sep- tember 30, 19 1 8). The great alliance which had held un- broken the battle line for the Central Powers from Ostend to Constantinople began to fall to pieces. 530. The End of the War. Hemmed in on all sides, Turkey yielded to the Allies (October 31, 1918). Austria, torn by internal strife and defeated by Italy, gave up the struggle (November 4, 191 8). Germany now stood alone. With the Allies pressing on without cessation day or night, she realized it was impossible to continue the struggle. She sent a dele- gation to Marshal Foch, asking for an armistice. The terms offered were accepted and Germany surrendered (November 1 1 , 19 1 8). The kaiser gave up his throne and fled to Holland. The Great War was over, and arrangements were at once begun for the final treaty of peace. When Columbus, with the spirit of a Crusa'der, landed in the New World, broad and noble as his vision was, he could never have dreamed of the wondrous epoch he was opening in the world's history. These pages have given merely a glimpse of what has since been achieved, — - the conquest of the wilder- ness, the establishment of the colonies, the winning of the Revolution and the founding of the republic with a written constitution, the increase in the number of the stars in the flag, and the westward expansion until the whole territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific was under the rule of the great Republic THE I'XrrED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 461 of the West. We have seen the small states develop into great commonwealths, the manufacturing industry grow to magnifi- cent proportions, the mines pour out their wealth of gold and silver and coal and iron, our commerce expand upon every sea, and the railroads spread their network of steel over the whole country. While most of the republics of history have been small, the United States of America has proved that the democratic form of government can be successful on a scale large beyond all precedent. During these years we have seen developed the spirit of liberty ^- liberty to act within the bounds of the civil and moral law and liberty to worship according to the dictates of one's conscience. The great problems before the people of the present century are the development and conservation of natural resources, solicitude for the health and well-being of the community, the maintenance of a high standard of living and education, and the nurturing of lofty ideals of political morality. These are a few of the problems that must be solved by the future citizens of the nation. APPENDIX DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ' In Congress, July 4, 1776 A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UXITEI) STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMI5LE1) When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of gov- ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that man- kind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is 1 The original copy of the Declaration of Independence is kept in the Department of State in Washington. The Declaration was adopted July 4, 1776, and was signed by the members representing the thirteen states .\ugust 2, 1776. John Hancock, whose name appears first among the signers, was president of the Congress. ii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly' neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless thos^ people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and .convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; • For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundarie.s, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; P"or taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. lie has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, buined our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum- stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all iv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members : JOHN HANCOCK NEW HAMPSHIRE JOSI.A.H Bartlett William Whipple Matthew Thornton MASSACHUSETTS BAY Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Elbridge Gerry RHODE ISLAND Stephen Hopkins William Ellery CONNECTICUT Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington W^iLLiAM Williams Oliver Wolcott NEW YORK William Floyd Philip Livingston Francis Lewis Lewis Morris NEW JERSEY Richard Stockton John Witherspoon Francis Hopkinson John Hart Abraham Clark PENNSYLYANIA Robert Morris Benjamin Rush Benjamin Franklin John Morton George Clymer James Smith George Taylor James Wilson George Ross DELAWARE C.T.SAR Rodney George Read Thomas M'Kean MARYLAND Samuel Chase William Paca Thomas Stone Charles Carroll, of Carrollton VIRGINIA George Wythe Richard Henry Lee Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Harrison Thomas Nelson, Jr. Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton NORTH CAROLINA William Hooper Joseph Hewes John Penn SOUTH CAROLINA Edward Rutledge Thomas Hayward, Jr. Thomas Lynch, Jr. ARTHUJi MiDDLETON GEORGIA Button Gwinnett Lyman Hall George Walton Kesoh'ed, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- manding officers of the continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, at the head of the army. CONSTITUTIOX DF THE UNITED STATES I'KKAMIJLK \Vk, the people of the Inited States, in order to form a more perfect union, estabUsh justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. LE(;iSLATIVE DEPARTMENT ShXTiox I. Congress All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.' Section 2. Hoi'se of Representatives Election of Members. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Qualifications. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Apportionment. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers,- which shall be determined by adding to the whole num- ber of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.' The actual 1 The term of each Congress is two years. It assembles on the first Monday in December and " expires at noon of the fourth of March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, when a new Congress begins." 2 The apportionment under the census of 1910 is one representative for ever>- 212.407 persons. 3 The word " persons " refers to slaves. The word " slave " nowhere appears in the Constitution. This paragraph has been amended (.Amendments XHI and .XIV) and is no longer in force. vi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre- sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative : and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massa- chusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. Vacancies. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority^ thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Officers. Impeachment. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker- and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. Senate Number of Senators : Election. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. [Repealed in 1913 by Amendment XVIL] Classification. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive ^ thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Qualifications. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. President of Senate. The Vice-President of the United States shall be presi- dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. Officers. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. Trials of Impeachment. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- peachments : When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 1 Governor. 2 The Speaker, who presides, is one of the representatives ; the other officers — clerk, sergeant-at-arms, postmaster, chaplain, doorkeeper, etc. — are not. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vu When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two- thirds of the members present. Judgment in Case of Conviction. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SixTiox 4. Both Houses Manner of electing Members. The times, places, and manner of holding elec- tions for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.^ Meetings of Congress. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sf.ctiox 5. The Houses separately Organization. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Rules. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Journal. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Adjournment. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Si-.cTioM G. run-iLEfiEs Axn Disabilities of Members Pay and Privileges of Members. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 1 This is to prevent Congress from fixing the places of meeting of the state legislatures. viii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. Prohibitions on Members. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the au- thority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section 7. Method of passing Laws Revenue Bills. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. How Bills become Laws. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- ceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal'of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Resolutions, etc. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. Powers granted to Congress Powers of Congress. The Congress shall have power : To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the I'nited States ; To establish post-offices and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,^ and make rules con- cerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for gov- erning such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States,- and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con- sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — And Implied Powers. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.^ 1 Letters granted by the government to private citizens in time of war, authorizing them, under certain conditions, to capture the ships of the enemy. 2 The District of Columbia. * This is the famous elastic clause of the Constitution. X ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Section 9. Powers forbidden to the United States Absolute Prohibitions on Congress. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun- dred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 1 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus- shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder 3 or ex-post-facto law* shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appro- priations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. Powers forbidden to the States Absolute Prohibitions on the States. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay- ment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. Conditional Prohibitions on the States. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, 1 This refers to the foreign slave trade. "Persons" means "slaves." In 1808 Congress prohibited the importation of slaves. This clause is, of course, no longer in force. - An official document requiring an accused person who is in prison awaiting trial to be brought into court to inquire whether he may be legally held. 3 A special legislative act by which a person may be condemned to death or to out- lawry or banishment without the opportunity of defending himself which he would have in a court of law. 4 A law relating to the punishment of acts committed before the law was passed. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT Sectio.x I. President .and \'k r:-PKEsii)p:NT Term. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : Electors. ICach State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. Proceedings of Electors and of Congress. [^ The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 1 This paragraph in brackets has been superseded by the Twelfth .Amendment. xii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Time of choosing Electors. The Congress may determine the time of choos- ing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. ^ Qualifications of President. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. Vacancy. In case of the removal of. the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.^ Salary. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Oath. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section- 2. Powers of the President Military Powers ; Reprieves and Pardons. The President shall be commander- in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the ex- ecutive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and paj-dons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. Treaties ; Appointments. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 1 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, preceding the expiration of a presidential term. They vote (by Act of Congress of Feb- ruary 3, 1SS7) on the second Monday in January for President and Vice-President. The votes are counted, and declared in Congress on the second Wednesday of the following February. - This has now been provided for by the Presidential Succession .\ct of 18S6. coxsTiru riox of the uxiti:u states xiii States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and whicli shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appoint- ment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the I'resident alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. Filling of Vacancies. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sectio.x 3. Duties of the President Message; Convening of Congress. He shall from time to time give to the Congress mlormation 1 of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. Impeachment Removal of Officers. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT Section i. United States Courts Courts established ; Judges. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Section 2. Jurisdiction of United States Courts Federal Courts in General. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all casCs 1 The president gives this information through a message to Congress at the open- ing of each session. Washington and John Adams read their messages in person to Congress. Jefferson, however, sent a written message to Congress. This method was followed until President Wilson returned to the earlier custom. xiv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States;- — between a State and citizens of another State ; ^ - — between citizens of different States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. Supreme Court. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. Trials. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Treason Treason defined. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Punishment. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. RELATIONS OF THE STATES TO EACH OTHER Section i. Official Acts Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the p'ublic acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen- eral laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. Privileges of Citizens The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. Fugitives from Justice. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 1 This has been modified by the Eleventh Amendment. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. Fugitive Slaves. \o person ' hold to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escapinj^ into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3. New States and Territories Admission of States. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Territory and Property of United States. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Con- stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section' 4. Protection of the States The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. AMENDMENTS How proposed; how ratified. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitu- tion, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifica- tion may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which 1 " Person " here includes slave. This was the basis of the Fugitive Slave Laws of I7Q3 and 1850. It is now superseded by the Thirteenth .Amendment, by which slavery is prohibited. XVI ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. GENERAL PROVISIONS Public Debt. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. Supremacy of Constitution. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Official Oath ; Religious Test. The senators and representatives before men- tioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION Ratification. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. ^ GEORGE WASHINGTON, Presidetit, and Deputy from Virginia. 1 There were sixty-five delegates chosen to the convention : ten did not attend : six- teen declined or failed to sign ; thirty-nine signed. Rhode Island sent no delegates. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES x\ NEW HAMPSHIRE I'ENNSVLVANIA \ IK(;iMA John Langdon Benjamin Franklin John Blaik .Nicholas Oilman Thomas Mifflin James Madison, Jr. Robert Morris MASSACHUSETTS George Clymer ^ „ NORTH CAROLINA Nathaniel Gorham Thomas Fitzsimons RuKis King Jared Ingersoll William Hlolm James Wilson Rhharo Douhs Spaigi CONNECTICUT GorvERNEUR Morris IItgh Williamson Wii.i.iAM Sami-ki. Johnson DELAWARE RociR Shikm an George Read SOUTH CAROLINA Gi'NNiNG Bedford, J R NEW YORK John Dickinson John Rutledge „ „ Charles C. Pin( kney ALEXANDER HAMILTON ^'CHARD BaSSETT ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^.^^^ Jacob Broom Pierce Butler GEORGIA NEW JERSEY MARYLAND William Livingston James M'IIenry David Brearley Daniel of St. Thomas William Paterson Jenifer William Feu- Jonathan Dayton Daniel Carroll Abraham Baldwin AtU-st: WILLIAM JACKSON, iVrnr/ary AMENDMENTS Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition. Article \y Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. Militia. Article IL A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Soldiers. Article IIL No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Unreasonable Searches. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon > These amendments were proposed by Congress and ratified by the legislatures of the several states, pursuant to the fifth article of the Constitution. The first ten were offered in 17S0 and adopted before the close of 1701. Thev were for the most p.irt the work of Madison. They are frequently called the Bill of Rights, as their purpose is to guard more efficiently the rights of the people and of the states. xviii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Criminal Prosecutions. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against him- self, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Suits at Common Law. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. Bail, Punishments. Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Reserved Rights and Powers. Article IX. The enumeration in the Con- stitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. Suits against States. Article XI. ^ The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against any of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Method of electing President and Vice-President. Article XII.- The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — 1 Proposed in 1794 ; adopted in 1798. 2 Adopted in 1S04. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix the president of the Sf;nate shall, in the presence of the Senate and Mouse of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. Kut no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Slavery abolished. Article XIII.^ Section i. Neither slavery nor involun- tary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sirtion 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Negroes made Citizens. Article XIV.2 Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immuni- ties of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of 1 .\dopted in 1S65. 2 Adopted in 186S. XX ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebel- lion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section J. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may. by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity" of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebeUion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section J. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- lation, the provisions of this article. Negroes made Voters. Article XV. ^ Section i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. Income Tax. Article XVI.'^ The Congress shall have power to lay and col- lect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Article XVII.'^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Direct Election of Senators. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided, that the Legislature of any State may empower the Executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 1 Adopted in 1870. 2 Ratified in 19 13. DIGEST OF THE CONSTITUTION I. Congresses and acts that led to the i Constitution (I. New England Confederacy, 1643 6. Leisler's American Congress, 1690 tr. Albany Convention, 1754 i. Constitutional Convention, 1787 2. Defects of the Articles of Confed- eration that led to the Constitution 3. Provisions of the Constitution , for the United States a. Lack of executive power No president to execute the laws 6. Lack of a judiciary No national courts or judges c. Defective organization of Congress (1) A single house (2) Debates held in secret (3) Members elected and paid by the states (4) Each state might have seven members (5) Each state must have two members (6) Each state cast a single vote in Congress (7) Vote of nine states required to enact a law J3 h o n c o o -^ «j^ t^o «o o t^ 00 ooo 55 6 o o o OOCCOOOOOOOO » 00 00 0000 cc H-;2;z- .2 ?.S S 6 ■^c^ xxvi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY TABLE OF STATES No. Name of State 11 = ,}. Mi No. Name of State S- H M I Delaware . . . 1638 17S7 29 Iowa 1833 1846 2 Pennsylvania 16S3 1787 30 Wisconsin . . 1669 1848 3 New Jersey . 1617 1787 31 California . . . 1769 1850 4 Georgia. . . 173.3 1788 32 Minnesota. . . 1819 1858 5 Connecticut . 1633 1788 33 Oregon .... iSii 1859 6 Massachusetts 1620 1788 34 Kansas .... 1854 1861 7 Maryland . . 1634 1788 35 West Virginia . 1863 8 South Carolina 1670 1788 36 Nevada .... 1850 1864 9 New Hampshire 1623 1788 '37 Nebraska . . . 1847 1867 lO Virginia . . 1607 1788 38 Colorado . . . 1859 1876 II New York . 1614 17S8 39 North Dakota . 1857 1889 12 North Carolina 1663 1789 40 South Dakota . 1857 1889 13 Rhode Island 1636 1790 41 Montana . . . I86I 18S9 14 Vermont . . 1724 1791 42 Washington . . 1845 1889 15 Kentucky . 1774 1792 43 Idaho .... 1862 1890 16 Tennessee 1769 1796 44 Wyoming . . . 1867 1890 17 Ohio . . . 1788 1803 45 Utah 1847 .1896 18 Louisiana . 1700 1812 46 Oklahoma . . . 1889 1906 19 Indiana . . 1702 1S16 47 New Mexico . . 1582 1912 20 Mississippi Illinois . . 1716 16S2 1817 1818 48 Arizona. . ._, . 1580 1912 21 23 Alabama . Maine . . 1702 1625 1819 1S20 Territories and P OSSESSIONS 24 Missouri . 1719 1S21 Alaska P orto Rico 25 Arkansas . 1670 1S36 Hawaii G uam 26 Michigan . 1670 1837 District of T utuila Islands 27 Florida . . 1565 1845 Columbia C anal Zone 28 Texas . . 1685 1845 Philippine Islands "V irgin Islands LEADING DATES IN CONNECTION WITH THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (Dtih'i ill italiis to be nieiiiorized) 1000 (about). The voyages of the North- 1608. men. 1453. Fall of Constantinople (closing of trade routes). 1609. 1492. Columbus discovers the Xciv World. 1493. Demarcation Line of the Pope. 1494. Demarcation Line agreed upon by 161O. Spain and Portugal. 14917. ^''"' C'^bots discover the mainland of 1614. North America. 1507. The name " America " suggested by Waldseemiiller. 1619. 1513. Ponce de Le(5n discovers Florida. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 1519. Cortes conquers Mexico. 1521. Magellan discovers the Philippine Islands. 1620. 1524. \'errazano"s voyage. 1525. tiomez visits the Hudson River. 1626. 1535. Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence River. 1630. 1539. De Soto begins his expedition. i634- 1540. Coronado's expedition. 1636. 1541. De Soto reaches the Mississippi. 1558. .Accession of Elizabeth. l637' 1565. The Spaniards settle Si. Auj^ustiue, 1638. the oldest city in the United 1639. States. . 1642. 1578. Drake in the Pacific. 1643. 1582. The Spaniards found the city of Santa Fe. 1649. 1583. Ciilbert on North .Atlantic coast. 1584. Raleigh sends expedition to the eastern coast of .Vmerica. 1660. 1588. Defeat of the .\rmada (beginnings 1662. of English colonization). 1664. 1604. French attempt settlement of .\cadia. 1607. The English settle Jamcstoirn, the first permanent English settlement in America. 1665. The French found Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in America. The Hudson River is explored by Henr>' Hudson for the Dutch. Champlain's fight with the Iroquois. Hudson explores Hudson's Bay for England. The Dutch take possession of New Netherlands later called New York. The first laivmaking assembly in America meets in Jamestoxcn, Virginia. Negro slavery is introduced into Virginia. The Pilgrims land at Plymouth. The Mayflower compact. The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island from the Indians. The settlement of Boston. Settlement of St. Marys, Maryland. Settlement of Providence by Roger Williams. The Pequot War. Swedes settle Delaware. The Connecticut constitution. Beginning of civil war in England. The first New England Confedera- tion. The passage of the Peligiotis Tolera- tion Act in Maryland. Execution of Charles 1 of England. The English Restoration. Connecticut granted charter. New Netherland is captured by the English ; New Amsterdam be- comes New York. The union of the New Haven and Connecticut colonies. The " Duke's Jaws," of New York. ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 1669. The French begin the exploration of the West. 1670. Settlement of Charleston, South Carolina. 1673. Jolliet and Father Marquette begin their famous journey. 1675. King Philip's War. 1676. The Bacon rebellion in Virginia. 1681. Charter of Pennsylvania granted. 1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi River. 1683. Governor Dongan calls the first legislative assembly in New York. William Penn settles Philadelphia. 1688. Flight of James II of England (English Revolution). 1689. King William's War (1689-1697). 1692. The Salem witchcraft. 1699. The founding of Louisiana. 1701. Settlement of Mobile by the French. 1702. Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). 1704. First newspaper in America {^Boston Nnvs-Lctter). 1713. Treaty of Utrecht (Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay ceded to England). 1718. The French settle New Orleans. 1733. The English settle Georgia. 1744. King George's War (1744-1748). 1754. The last or fourth French and Indian War (1754-1763). The Albany Convention. 1755. The defeat of Braddock. 1758. The English take Fort Duquesne. 1759. The Etis:Ush under Wolfe ea//iire Quebec. 1761. Otis's speech on writs of assistance. 1763. Treaty of Peace at Paris. Cauaeia ceded to Great Britabi. Pontiac's War. 1765. The Stamp Act passed by Parlia- ment. The Stamp Act Congress (Patrick Henry's resolutions). 1766. Repeal of the Stamp Act. Declaratory Act. 1767. The Townshend Acts (colonial union). ' 1769. Steam engine invented. 1770. The Boston Massacre. 1773. The Boston Tea Party. 1774. The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia (.September 5). The Five Intolerable Acts. 1775- Patties of Lexington and Concord (April 19). Second Continental Congress (May 10). Washington appointed commander in chief (June 15). Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). 1776. Declaration of Independence (July 4) . Surrender of Biirgoyne (October 17). France acknoTvledges the independ- ence of the United States (Feb- ruary 6). The French alliance. Surrender of Corniievelopment of comtrierce Europe in the | "• Need of new routes of commerce Fifteenth Can- \ L '• Keligious zeal *"'y 3. Trade between Europe and Asia | ": H^ f;^"°^.^'^ ''""''^ l^ i?. The V enetian route 4. Interference of the Turks 5. Adventures of Marco Polo 6. (ireat inventions 1. Birth and early education 2. His ideas of the earth Christopher Columbus ^ 3- His religious zeal 4. .At court of Portugal 5. At court of Spain 6. Assistance received 1. His fleet 2. Difficulties of the voyage 3. Discovery of land 4. Further discoveries 5. Belief of Columbus as to new land 6. Reception at home 7. Later voyages 8. Las Casas and the Indians Voyage of Columbus 9. Results in Europe ti. Commerce /'. Colonies c. Wars l^ (/. Industrial life Voyages of the Cabots | '■ "iscoveo- of North America (^ 2. Extent of English claims resultmg from these voyages Portuguese Enterprise Division of the World by the Pope \'asco da Gama Cabral and Brazil Effects of Da Gama's voyage on the fortunes of Columbus f I. Reason for the division t 2. Religi ligious beliefs of the early great discoverers xxxi XXXll ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY How America was named Balboa and the South Sea, or Pacific Ocean f a. The cruise along South America /'. Discovery of the Strait c. Naming the Pacific (/. Discovery of the Ladrones c. Discovery of the Philippines /. Return of the Victoria to Spain 1^ g. Results Further Discov- eries Magellan's first voyage around the world II. The Explorers Spanish Explora- ^ tions French Explora- tions I. Ponce de Leon < a. The magic fountain b. Discovery of Florida De Narvdez Coronado {I r a. Arrival in Mexico < h. The Aztecs 1^ c. Conquest of Mexico De Ayllon's expedition to Virginia Expedition to Florida Cabeza de Vaca r a. Fatlrer Mark b. The expedition c. Canyon of the Colorado d. " Seven cities of Cibola " I e. The Zufii pueblos \ f. Santa Fe ( a. Conquest of Florida „ „ \ b. Reaches the Mississippi De Soto ^ T^ n- J ] c. De Pmeda 1^ d. Rio de Espiritu Santo Extent of Spanish possessions 8. Claims of Spain 9. Motives of Spain Religii r a. Rel \ b. Go; )ld-seeking ^ c. Love of adventure r a. Francis I of France 1. Verrazano «' /-■. The voyage 1^ c. The description of the coast ( a. Discovery of the St. Lawrence 2. Cartier \ ^- ff^"^ ^^^^^^ I c. Montreal l^ d. Newfoundland fisheries T-v AT .. r ^- Acadia 3. De Monts <^ , „ ^ \b. Port Royal a. " Father of New France " b. Founds Quebec, first permanent French set- „, , . tlement in America 4. Champlam ^ t^. t 1 r>u 1 • c. Discovers Lake Champlam d. Defeats the Iroquois e. Results of this defeat TOPICAL ANALYSIS The French in Florida r a. Ril /-. La -I c. Mt Ribaut and Port Royal, South Carolina audonniere and Fort Caroline, Florida enendez destroys Fort Caroline I d. Menendez founds St. Augustine for Spain French Explora- ^ (^ f. De Gourgues's revenge tions (io,i/in,uJ) I f ,j. Fisheries l>. Fur trade 6. Motives of P'rance ^ c. Religious zeal I (/. Missionary enterprise (^ e. Territory for France 1. English lack of interest 2. Frobisher and the Northwest Passage C a. His voyage 3. Drake < b. New Albion English Explo- , rations Gilbert Davis 6. Sir Walter Raleigh Second circumnavigation of the world ( a. His charter Sir Humphrey J b. Reasons for the expeditions I c. Three voyages l_ d. Newfoundland Discovery of the Strait a. First attempt at colonization. Roanoke /'. (iold-seekers, not colonists c. Second attempt. Croatoan (/. War between England and France. The .\rmada e. Results of colonizing effort < 1 \ -r v. \^ f. Name of \'irginia 7. Gosnold and Cape Cod 8. Pring and Weymouth 9. Claims of England a. Territory /'. Spirit of adventure c. Rivalry with Spain d. Beginning of English colonization spirit Results of Spanish, French, and English Explorations at the End of the Sixteenth Century Permanent Settlements by the Spanish and French Motives III. The Early Missionariks The Early Missionaries ^ I. In Florida a. The Jesuits b. The Franciscans 2. In New France a. The Recollets, or Franciscans b. The Jesuits 3. The Huron missions 4. The Ottawa missions 5. The Maine missions 6. The zeal of the missionaries 7. Their sufferings and death ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Indians IV. The Indians 1. Reason for the name 2. Personal appearance 3. The Indians of the West l- The Pueblo Indians 5. The Cliff Dwellers 3. The Indians of the East 7. The so-called mound builders 8. Social condition 9. Religion a. Dwellings /'. Food c: Implements and weapons (/. Habits and mode of travel f. Cruelty in war /. Patience in suffering ^. Position of women //. Character /. Civilization C ii. Family groups I /'. Clan (-. Totem ial of officers and soldiers in England (/. Quartering of troops i^ c. Quebec Act 9. Committees of Correspondence 10. First Continental Congress T. Capture of Fort William and Mary 2. Battles of Lexington and Concord 3. Ticonderoga and Crown Point 4. Second Continental Congress 5. Bunker Hill 6. Washington commander in chief 7. Expedition against Quebec 8. English leave Boston 9. Fort Moultrie 10. Declaration of Independence IT. Influence of Common Sense 12. Plan of the British r n- Battle of Long Island 13. Campaign near New York J ^- I'f''^^ occupy New York ' c. Fall of Fort Washmgton d. Retreat through New Jersey 8. The Five In- tolerable Acts TOPICAL ANALYSIS XXXIX The American Revolution, II (continued) 14. Battle of Trenton 15. Robert Morris's great aid 16. Distress of the American troops 17. Campaign in the Middle States 18. Burgoyne's expedition 19. The French alhance a. Battle of Princeton b. Battle of Brandywine c. Howe takes Philadelphia (/. Buttle of Germantown c. Valley Forge /. Conway Cabal Battle of Bennington Fort Stanwix Oriskany Saratoga Surrender ^ /. Important results 1; The American Revolution, III 5. War in the West The British retreat to Philadelphia Battle of Monmouth Stony Point Indian warfare \ ' ,' „/ ^ „ y b. Cherry valley a. George Rogers Clark b. F'ather Gibault c. Kaskaskia d. Cahokia c. Vincennes /. Results ( a. Esek Hopkins 6. War on the ocean \ b. John Barry 1^ c. John Paul Jones a. Fall of Savannah b. Fall of Charleston c. Camden and King's Mountain (/. Cowpens c. Guilford Court House / Hobkirk-s Hill g. Eutaw Springs 8. Treason of Arnold 9. Surrender of Comwallis 10. Treaty of Peace Basis of laws for our territories Trial by jur)- The Northwest j c. Slaver^' prohibited Territor)' | d. Freedom of worship e. Education encouraged t /. Civil liberty guaranteed Independence acknowledged t. 13. Shays's Rebellion War in the South The Constitution (see Digest, Appendix, p. xxi) xl ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY X. Physical Features of the United States ( 1. The Eastern Highland Three Geographical Regions -i 2. The Central Plain l^ 3. The Western Highland Effect of Physical Features on the Settlement of the Country The Resources of the United States XI. The Period of Union Washington's Admiris trations, 1789-1797 John Adams's Adminis tration, 1797-1801 Adminis trations, 1801-1809 Madison's Ad- ministrations, 1809-1817 1. Political parties 2. Loose and strict construction 3. Payment of the debts 4. Federal bank and mint 5. Bishop Carroll 6. Admission of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee 7. Indian troubles 8. Settlements on the Ohio 9. Whisky Rebellion 10. The cotton gin 11. First cotton mill 12. The French Revolution 13. "Citizen " Genet 14. Jay's Treaty 15. Treaties with Spain and Algiers 16. Washington's farewell address r I. Trouble with France I 2. X Y Z papers ■i 3. Alien and Sedition Laws 4. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions 1^ 5. The new capital 1. The Democratic-Republican party in power 2. Ohio admitted , 3. War on the African pirates 4. The Louisiana Purchase 5. Exploration of Lewis and Clark 5. The French and English War 7. Right of search 8. Embargo and non-intercourse *" 1^ 9. Fulton's steamboat 1. Trouble with Great Britain and France 2. Battle of Tippecanoe 3. Declaration of war a. Impressment of American sailors /'. Violation of our rights of commerce by the Orders in Council c. Blockade by English vessels of our ports and the search of our vessels if. Urging the Indians to attack our frontier settlements c. England was already really waging war on the United States, while the United States was at peace with her Causes of the war; " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights " TOPICAL ANALYSIS xli Madison's Administrations, 1809-1817 {continued) 5. Hull's surrender 6. Battle of Queenstown Heights 7. The Constitution and the Giierriire S. The Chesapeake and the Shannon 9. Raisin River massacre 10. Battle of Lake Erie 1 1. Battle of the Thames 12. Battle of Lake Champlain 13. Burning of Washington 14. Battle of New Orleans 15. Treaty of peace 16. The Hartford Convention Monroe's Ad- ministrations, < 1817-1825 1. Era of good feeling 2. Cession of Florida 3. The slavery question Missouri Compromise of 1820 The Monroe Doctrine Missouri admitted as a slave state Maine admitted as a free state Slaverj' prohibited in Louisiana Bur- 1^ chase north of 36*^ 30' r (1) Russia .,., ,,,.,,. I (2) Prussia a. Ihe Holv Alliance ^ ; : „ (3) France 1^ (4) Austria b. The revolt in South America e. The Holy Alliance and the South American republics i^ d. Announcement of the Monroe Doctrine 6. Visit of Lafayette 7. Emigration to the West 8. The National Road T..rt- Aj ,Aj- r>- The tariff question John Qumcy Adams's Adm.n- ^ ^ .j.,^^ ^^.^ 2^^^, istration, 1825-1829 The steam railroad Andrew Jackson's Admin- istrations, 1829-1837 1. Removals from office 2. Nullification 3. Webster and Hayne debate 4. The abolition movement 5. Social reforms 6. Nat Turner rebellion 7. The right of petition 8. The contest over the United States Bank 9. Indian wars 10. Rise of American literature Van Buren's Adminis- tration, 1837-1841 1. The crisis of 183; 2. State banks and wildcat money 3. The subtreasury plan 4. The anti-rent agitation in New York 5. The Mormons 6. The express business xlii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY f I. The Webster- Ashburton Treaty I 2. The Dorr rebelhon Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations,i84i-i845 H 3. The electric telegraph I 4. The clipper-ship era 1^ 5. The annexation of Texas . Settlement of Oregon r a. Palo Alto . War with Mexico < b. Resaca de la Palma [ c. Buena Vista . Plan of campaign . New Mexico and California Polk's Administration, 1845-1849 5. Scott's march to the city of Mexico 6. The peace treaty 7. The Wilmot Proviso a. Vera Cruz /'. Cerro Gordo c. Puebla d. Contreras e. Churubusco /. Molino del Rey g. Chapultepec //. Fall of the capital 9. Discoveries The Compromise of 1S50, or the Omnibus Bill Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849- -^ 1853 Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857 Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861 -i o T ,• r a. Reaper is. Inventions -^ , . r , . l^ b. bewmg machme J" a. Goodyear process \ b. Ether 10. Great immigration from Europe 11. The missions of Califor.ia 12. Discovery of gold in California a. Admission of California as a free state b. Territorial governments for New Mexico and Utah c. Payment to Texas d. Prohibition of slave trade in District of Columbia e. Fugitive Slave Law 2. Personal Liberty Laws 3. " Uncle Tom's Cabin'' 4. Gadsden Purchase Kansas-Nebraska Act Rise of the Republican party Ostend Manifesto The struggle for Kansas Perry's expedition to Japan i^ 6. The Know-Nothings The Dred Scott decision Crisis of 1857 Lincoln-Douglas debates John Brown's raid 5. Beginnings of secession 6. Formation of Confederacy TOPICAL ANALYSIS xliii XIL Thk Period of Disunion Lincoln's Adminis- tration, 1861-1865 1S61 Lincoln's inaugural Fall of -Sumter Strength and weakness of the South Condition of the North The Border States European hostility to the North The Northern plan of the war The call to arms (7. Further secession /'. Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas c. The war in Missouri (/. The blockade c. The Trent affair /. The privateers (i) The plan against Richmond (2) The Peninsular Campaign (3) Battle of Cedar Mountain (4) Second Battle of Bull Run (5) Antietam (6) Fredericksburg (7) Monitor and Mcrr'nnac, or Virginia (i) Forts Ilenrjand Donelson (2) Shiloh,or Pittsburg Landing ] (3) Capture of New Orleans I' Emancipation Proclamation The Homestead Act 10. The war in 1S62 East b West (4) Perrj'ville and Murfreesboro 1 3. The war in 1 863 < b. \\ East /^'^ Chancellorsville \ (2) Gett)'sburg est: Vicksburg Eastern Tennessee J (i) Chickamauga I (2) CI hattanooga r (i) Sherman's march to the sea (2) Fall'of Mobile f a. East \ (3) Battles of the Wilderness (4) Sheridan defeats Early The war J I (5) Petersburg in 1S64 I f (i) Sherman's march from Chatta- , I nooga to Atlanta t. b. W est ^ ^^^ Schofield at Franklin l^ (3) Thomas at Nashville 'a. b. Sherman at Goldsboro Fall of Richmond 15- The war in 1865 -! c. Lee's surrender d. €. Cost of the war Results of the war 16. Assassination of Lincoln 17. Chart of the Civil W ar xliv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY XIII. The Period of Reunion Andrew Johnson's Administration, 1865-1869 1. Plans for reconstruction 2. The Thirteenth Amendment 3. Civil war in Mexico 4. The Civil Rights Act 5. The Fourteenth Amendment 6. The Freedmen's Bureau Act 7. The Reconstruction Acts 8. The Carpetbaggers and Ku-Klux Klan 9. The Tenure of Office Act 10. Impeachment of President Johnson 11. Atlantic telegraph cable 12. Purchase of Alaska Grant's Administrations, 1869-1877 ■< 1. The A/ainwa claims 2. Civil-service reform 3. The transcontinental railroad 4. Great fires of Chicago and Boston 5. The Fifteenth Amendment 6. Era of scandals 7. The Weather Bureau 8. Crisis of 1873 9. Financial legislation 0. The Centennial Exposition 1. The Indian wars 2. The electoral commission Hayes's Administration, 1877-1881 Withdrawal of Federal troops from the South The Bell telephone The electric light The Eads ietties 1^ 5. Resumption of specie payment XIV. The Period of Industrial Development Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations, 1. Assassination of President Garfield 2. Revision of tariff 3. Civil-Service Act 4. The Chinese Exclusion Act 5. The Alien Contract Labor Law ^ 6. Democrats regain power Cleveland's Administration, 1885-1889 1. The Washington Monument 2. The Statue of Liberty 3. The Presidential Succession Act 4. The electoral count 5. Interstate commerce 6. Tariff discussion TOPICAL ANALYSIS xlv Harrison's Administration, 1885H1893 ■< 1. Oklahoma 2. Admission of new states 3. Pan-American Congress 4. The McKinley Tariff Act 5. The Pension and Sherman Acts 6. The Homestead strike 7. Founding of Catholic University Cleveland's Second Administration, 1893-1897 1. The Wilson Tariff Act 2. Hawaii 3. The Bering Sea question 4. The Venezuela question 5. The crisis of 1S93 6. Repeal of the Sherman Act 7. Pullman strike (^ S. Repeal of the Federal Elections Act McKinley's Administration, 1897-1901 1. The silver question 2. The Dingley Tariff Act 3. Destruction of the Maine 4. Declaration of war against Spain 5. Battle of .Manila Bay 6. The Santiago campaign 7. Battles of El Caney and San Juan 8. Destruction of Cervera's fleet 9. Terms of peace 10. War in the Philippines 11. The Hague Conference 12. The Gold Standard Act 13. Freedom of trade with China McKinley's and Roosevelt's Administra- tions, 1901-1905 The Pan-American Exposition Assassination of President McKinley , J. Anthracite coal strike I 4. Panama Canal I 5. Department of commerce and labor (^ 6. Louisiana Purchase Exposition Roosevelt's Administration, 1905-1909 1. The San Francisco disaster 2. Admission of Oklahoma 3. The Railway Rate Act 4. The Meat Inspection Act 5. The Pure Food Act 6. Intervention in Cuba 7. The Hague Peace Conferences 8. The crisis of 1907 The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act Two great celebrations Taft's Administration, 1909-1913 -i ^,. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona 4. Extension of conser\'ation 1^ 5. Reciprocity movement xlvi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Wilson's Administra- tions, 1913- The Sixteenth Amendment The Seventeenth Amendment The Department of Labor The Underwood Tariff Act The Federal Reserve Currency Act The Keokuk Dam and Cape Cod Canal The Panama Tolls Act The Alaska railroad The Clayton Anti-Trust Act The Federal Trade Commission Law The Initiative, Referendum, Recall, and Direct Primary The commission form of government Safeguarding the public health Water supply for cities The growth of electric traction The Panama expositions Development of the automobile industry The New York Barge Canal Record of American inventions The Mexican civil war The Great \\'ar in Europe The income tax The Federal Farm Loan Act Purchase of Virgin Islands War with Germany and Austria INDEX Abcrcrombie, General James, 141 Abolition movement, zcp Abolitionists, 296 Acadia (Nova Scotia), 134, 13^) Acadians expelled, 139 Acts of Parliament, affecting the colonies, 167 leading to the Revolution, 170-17S Adams, John, administration of, 246 life of, 246 (note) Adams, John Quincy, administration of, 287 life of, 287 (note) on right of petition, 298 Adams, Samuel, in Revolution, 172 Africa, early voyages around, 9 (note) Aguinaldo, president of Philippine republic, Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of (1748), 135 Alabama, admitted, 279 secedes, 349 Alabama, cruise of, 37S claims settled, 393 Alaska, discovery of gold in, 423 (note) purchased, 392 railroad in, 444 Alaska- Yukon Exposition, 432 Albany (or Fort Orange) settled (1623), 74 Albany Convention (or Plan of Union) of 1754, 137 Albion, New, 38 (note) Alexander VI, Pope, and Demarcation Line, 16 Algiers, hostilities with, 252 Algonquian Indians, 54 Alien Contract Labor I.aw, 405 Alien and Sedition Laws, 247 Allegheny River, forts on, 136 Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga, iSo Alliance, the Holy, 282 Alliance with France, 201 Amendments to the Constitution : first ten (17S9-1791), 220 Eleventh (1798), 247 (note) Twelfth (1804), 246 (note) Thirteenth (i86s), 386 Fourteenth (1868), 3S9 Fifteenth (1870), 394 Sixteenth (1913). 440 Seventeenth (11)13), 44^ America, North, continent of, discovered by Cabot, 16 Dutch settlements in, 72 English colonies declare independence, 1S5 English settlements in, 62 first law-making assembly, 70 first negro slaves introduced in English, 69 first permanent English settlement in, 66 first permanent French settlement in, 34 first permanent Spanish settlement in, 37 French explorations in, 32 origin of the name, 19 physical geography of United States, 225 reasons for English colonization in, 62 Spanish explorations in, 26 Swedish settlements in, 77 voyages of the Northmen to, 2 voyages of Vespucius to, iS wars of the ^"^ench and English in, 131 America, South, revolutions in, 282 (note), 42S the Monroe Doctrine, 2S3 American flag, history of, 198, 199 American Party, Native, 343 American Revolution, 167 American System, 2S8 Americus Vespucius, 18 Amsterdam, Fort, founded, 75 Anaesthetics discovered, 326 Anderson, Major, at Fort Sumter, 353 Andre, capture and execution of, 210 Andros, Governor. 94 Annapolis (Port Royal), 34 Annapolis. Mar>land, Naval Academy at, 319 Annexation, of Guam, 422 of Hawaii, 413 of the Philippines, 422 of Porto Rico, 422 of the Samoan Islands, 424 (note) of Texas, 315 of the Virgin Islands, 455 Anti- Federalists, 230 Anti-renters, 306 Antislavery movement, 296 Antislaver>' party formed, 310 (note) Appomattox Court House, Lee's surrender at, 3«i Apprentices, white, m Virgmia, 69 (note) Aquidneck Island, 91 Argall destroys Maine settlements, 84 (note) Arizona, admission to the Union, 434 Arkansas admitted, 301 Arkwright, 240 (note) Arlington. Lord. 70 Armada. Spanish, defeat of, 40 (note) Armv, review of. at end of Civil War, 3S6 Amol J, Benedict, at battle of Lake Champlain (1776), roo expedition against Quebec, 1S2 at Fort Stanwix, 199 at Saratoga, 200 at Ticonderoga, 1^0 treason of. 209 Arthur, administration of, 404 life of, 404 (note) Articles of Confederation, defects of, 216 Ashburton Treaty, Webster-, 311 Asia, early trade routes with, 4 Assassination, of Garfield, 404 of Lincoln, 33? of McKinley, 425 Assistance, writs of. 169 Assumption Act, 232 xh ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Astoria, 258 Astrolabe invented, 7 Atchison, Kansas, settled, 341 Atlanta captured by Sherman, 377 Atlantic telegraph cable, 391 Auriesville, New York, 49 Austin, Moses, 314 Authors, American, 301 Automobile industry, growth of the, 449 Aztecs, 27 Bacon's rebellion, 71 Balboa discovers the Pacific, 19 Baltimore, founded, 108 in War of 1812, 273 Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, Lord, 105 Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord, 102 Bancroft, George, the historian, 302, 319 Bank, the first, of the United States (1791), 234, 266 (note), 299 Jackson vetoes bill to recharter the second, of the United States, 299 the second, of the United States (1816), 299 Banks, Federal Reserve, 442 independent subtreasury plan, 306 the " pet," 299 state, and wildcat money, 305 Banks, General Nathaniel P., 364 " Banner, The Star-Spangled, " 273 Barbary States, war with, 252 Barge Canal, New York, 290 (note), 449 Barry, Commodore John, 207 Battles: Alamance, 175 Alamo, 314 Antietam (or Sharpsburg), 365 Atlanta, 377 Bemis Heights, 200 Bennington, 196 Brandywine, 195 Buena Vista, 321 Bull Run ^or Manassas) (first), 358 Bull Run (second), 365 Bunker Hill, 181 Camden, 209 Cedar Mountain, 365 Cerro Gordo, 323 Chadd's Ford, 195 Chancellorsville, 373 Chapultepec, 324 Charleston, 381 Chattanooga, 376 Cherry Valley, 203 Chesapeake and Shamtoii, 270 Chickamauga, 375 Chippewa, 272 Churubusco, 323 Cold Harbor, 379 Concord, 179 Constitntimi and the Guerriire, 269 Contreras, 323 Corinth, 371 Cowpens, 210 Crown Point, 142, 181 Dallas, 377 El Caney, 421 Eutaw Springs, "211 Fair Oaks (or Seven Pines), 364 Flamborough Head, 208 P'ort Donelson, 369 Fort Duquesne, 136 Fort Henry, 369 Fort McAllister, 378 Fort McHenry, 273 Fort Moultrie, 184 Fort Stanwix, 197 Fort Sumter, 354 Fort Washington, igo Fort William Henry, 140 Fort William and Mary, 179 Franklin, 378 Fredericksburg, 366 Germantown, 195 Gettysburg, 374 Goldsboro, 381 Guilford Court House, 211 Harlem Heights, 189 Hobkirk's Hill, 211 Horseshoe Bend (or Tohopeka), 271 Island Number 10, 370 luka, 371 Jackson, 375 Kearsarge and the Alabama, 379 Kenesaw Mountain, 377 King's Mountain, 209 Lake Champlain (1776), igo; (1S14), 272 Lake Erie, 271 Lake George, 140 Lexington and Concord, 179 Lexington and Edward, 207 Long Island, 188 Lookout Mountain, 376 Lundy's Lane, 272 Malvern Hill, 365 Manila, 420 Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, 237 Memphis, 370 Mill Springs, 368 Missionary Ridge, 376 Mobile Bay, 379 Molino del Rev, 324 Ji I on it or and 3/erritnac, 366 Monmouth, 201 Monterey, 321 Murfreesboro, 370 Nashville, 378 New Orleans (War of 1S12), 273; (Civil War), 370 Oriskany, 197 Palo Alto, 320 Peninsular Campaign, 363 Perryville, 370 Petersburg, 380 Pittsburg Landing (or Shiloh), 369 Plains of Abraham, 142 Plattsburg, 272 Port Gibson, 375 Port Hudson, 371; President and L ittle Belt, 266 Princeton, 193 Quebec (1759). 142 ; (1775), 1S2 Queenstown Heights, 268 Resaca, 377 Resaca de la Palma, 320 San Antonio, 314 San Jacinto, 314 San Juan, 421 Santiago, 421 Saratoga, 200 Savannah, 208 Seminoles, 27S Seven Days before Richmond, 363 Sharpsburg (Antietam), 365 Shenandoah Valley, 379 Shiloh (or Pittsburg Landing;, 369 INDEX xlix Spottsylvania Court House, 379 Stone's Kiver, 371 Stony Point, 20^ Thames, 272 Ticonderoga, 141, 142, iSo Tippecanoe, 206 Tohopeka, 271 TVenton, 191 Tripoli, 252 Vera Cruz, 323 Vicksburg, 375 White Plains, 190 Wilderness, 379 Williamsburg, 363 Wilson's Creek, 360 Winchester, 379 Wyoming, 203 Vorktown, 211 Bay Psalm Book, 157 Bear Republic, 322 Beauregard, General, 354 Bell, A. G., invents the telephone, 39S Bergen, 82 Bering, Vitus, 256 Bering Sea controversy, 413 Berkeley, Sir William, 71 Berkeley and Carteret, 82 Berlin Decrees, 259 Bienville founds New Orleans, 128 Bill of Rights in the Constitution, 220 Biloxi, settlement at, 128 Bimey, J. (i., 298 (note), 310 (note), 315 Black Hawk, 301 Blaine, J. G., 406 Bland-Allison Silver Act, 401 Blockade in the Civil War, 361 Blockhouse in colonial times, 165 BoUvar, Simon, in South America, 427 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 254 _ Botihommc Richard, 208 Books, American, 301 Boone, Daniel, 204 Booth, J. Wilkes, 3S2 Border States in Civil War, 356 Boston, evacuated by the British, 183 great fire in, 394 port closed, 177 settled (1630), 90 Boston Massacre, 174 Boston Nc'Ms-LetUr, 157 Boston Tea Party, 176 Braddock's defeat, 130 Bradford, Governor William, of Plj-mouth, 86 Bragg, General, 371 Brant, Joseph, 203 Brazil, iS Brebeuf, Father, 48 Bright, John, 3A2 (note) Brooklyn Bridge, 405 Brown, John, in Kansas, 342 raid of, and execution, 347 Brown I'niversity, \~,U Brownson, Orestes, 302 Brush, C. !•'.. 399 Brj-an, William J., 417, 424, 431 Brj-ant, William Cullen, 302 Buchanan, administration of, 345 life of, 345 (note) Buckncr. General, 369 Buell, General, 369 Bunker Hill Monument, 2S4 Burgesses, House of, in Virginia, 70 Burgo>'ne, expedition of, u/i surrender of, 199 Burke, Edmund, 171, 184 I'.urnside, General, 3(10 Burr, Aaron, 250, 25S kills Hamilton, 2;S plans empire in S^outhwest, 258 Butler, Colonel John, 203 Cabeza de Vaca, 29 Cabinet, additions to, 42S (note) members of Washington's, 230 (note) Cable, the Atlantic, 391 the Pacific, 392 Cabot discovers the continent of America, I'^i Cabral, 18 Calendar, the Gregorian, 136 Calhoun, John C., "Exposition and Protest," 2S9 (note) life of, 294 (note) California, admitted to the Union, 333 discovery of gold in, 330 emigration to, 330 exploration of, 327 missions in, 328 Calumet, the, 59 Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, 105 Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore, 102 Calvert, Leonard, 105 Cambridge, Massachusetts, 90, 1S2 Canada, Cartier in, 33 Dominion of, 435 English conquest of, 142 refuses to join American Revolution, 1S3 settled, 34 Canals : Cape Cod, 443 Erie, 289 New \'ork Barge, 290 (note), 449 Panama, 425 Pennsylvania system, 290 Cape of Good Hope reached, i"' Capital of United States, 249 Carolinas, constitution of the, 112 nullification in South Carolina, 295 secession of South Carolina, 34S settled. III Carpenters' Hall, 178 Carpetbaggers, 390 Carroll, Bishop John, 235 with embassy to Quebec, 183 Carroll, Charles, 1S3, 186 (note), 291 (note) Cartier's explorations, 33 Cartwright, Edmund, 240 (note) Carver, Governor, 86 Cass, Lewis, candidate for president, 331 Catholics, in Maryland, 103 Know-Nothirig movement against, 343 persecution of, in New Vork, ^o position of, in England, 102 Caucus system, 287 (note) Census, the first, 236 of 1910, 434 Centennial Exposition, 398 Central Pacific Railroad, 371 Cen'era, Admiral, 422 Chabanel. Father, 50 Champlain, the explorer, 34 Charles 1 , 70, 90 (note) Charles H, 70 Charieston, South Carolina, settled, 112 (note) capture of, in Revolution, 208 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Charlestown, Massachusetts, go Chart, of the explorers, 43 of American Revolution, 224 of Civil War Period, 3S3 Charter of Liberties, Dongan's, 79 Charter Oak, the, loi Charters; Georgia, 117 London Company, 64, 65 (note), 68 Maryland, 104 Massachusetts, S6 Pennsylvania, 114 Plymouth Company, 64 Chatham, Lord (WiUiam Pitt), 141 Cherokee Indians, 300 Cherry Valley massacre, 203 Chesapeake, the, defeated by the Shannon, 270 Chesapeake affair, the, of 1S07, 260 Chicago ( Fort Dearborn), 297 great fire in, 394 World's Fair in, 413 China, Boxer uprising in, 424 "open door " in, 424 Chinese Exclusion P.ill, 405 Chinese immigration, 405 , , , , Church, of the Dutch in New Netherland, 77 the Puritan, 89 Church of England, in Virginia, 68 in Maryland, 108 Cibola, search for, 30 Cincinnati founded (1790), 252 Circular letter of Massachusetts, 174 Circumnavigation of the globe, 20 Cities, government of, 445 , ^ , , , Citv, the oldest in the United States (1565), 37 City of Mexico, fall of, 324 Civil Rights Act (1S66), 3S8 Civil-service reform, 393 Civil War, in England, 90 Tnote) in the United States,' 353 Claiborne's rebellion, 105 Clark, George Rogers, in the West, 204 Clark, William, in LewisandClarkexpedition,255 Clay, Henry, and American System, 28S life of, 281 Clayton, Anti- Trust Act, 444 Clermont, the, Fulton's steamboat, 261 Cleveland, President, first administration of , 406 life of, 406 (note) second administration of, 413 Cliff Dwellers, 55 Clinton, George, 258, 262 Clinton, Governor De Witt, and the Erie Canal, 289 Clinton, Sir Henry, 201 Clipper ships, era of, 312 Coal, discovery of, in Pennsylvania, 164 Coal oil, 346 Cod-fishing, 90 Coinage, decimal system of, 234 Coligny, 36 Colleges and universities, foundation of : Brown, 156 Catholic University, 41° Dartmouth, 156 Georgetown, 161, 235 Harvard, 156 Kings (Columbia), 160 Notre Dame (University), 126 (note) Princeton, 160 Rutgers, 161 William and Mary, 163 Yale, 156 Colonial architecture, 154 Colonies, charter, 151 declare themselves independent, 1S5 founding of : Dutch, 72 English, 62 French, 33 Spanish, 26 Swedish, 77 life in the, 151 proprietary, isi resist taxation without representation, 171 royal, 151 Colonization Society, American, and Liberia, 279 (note) Colorado, admitted as a state, 396 gold and silver discovered in, 346 Columbia, South Carolina, burned, 3S1 Columbia River, named, 257 discovery and exploration of, 257 Columbian Exposition, 413 Columbus, Christopher, early life of, 8 first voyage of, 12 later voyages of, 15 in Portugal, 9 in Spain, u Commerce, in colonial times, 153, 15S embargo on, 2'>o interfered with by England, 16S restricted by England, 158 Commerce and Labor, Department of, 42S Commerce Commission, Interstate, 407 Commission form of city government, 445 Committees of Correspondence, 17S "Common Sense," Paine's, influence of, 185 (note) Compact, \>^^J\[ayflomer, 86 Compass, 7 Compromises, of the Constitution, 21S Missouri, 280 of 1850, 332 tariff, 295 Conditions leading to colonization, 62 Confederacy, the Southern, and Border States, 356 constitution of, 349 (note) first capital of, 349 fall of, 3S1 formation of, 349 recognized by foreign nations, 357 Confederation, Articles of, adopted, 18S weakness of Articles of, 2 16 Confederation, the New England, 91 Congress, acts of •' _ OrdinanceforNorthwestTemtory(i787),2i5 first tariff act (1789), 233 first United States Bank (1791), 234 first mint ^t-'i' *--•■' 4 first I'u '■•'• — Act (1793), 334 (note) Alien an , ~ ,11 , I,aws(i798), 247 Embai-j- \. 1 m ,1. 260 importation ol slaves forbidden (180S), 262 Non-Intercourse Act (iSog), 260 National Road Law (1811), 284 tariff of 1816, 275 (note) Missouri Compromise Act (1S20), 280 tariff of 1833, 295 Annexation of Texas (1845), 315 Compromise of 1S50, 332 Second Fugitive Slave Act (1S50), 333 Homestead Act (1S62). 371 Civil Rights Law (1S66), 3 88 INDEX Freedmen's Bureau Law (1866), sSg Kcconstruction Laws (1X67), 3S9 Tenure of Office Law (1S67). 390 Civil Service Reform Law (1S71), 393 coinage law of 1S73, 400 Bland-Allison Act (1878), 401 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 405 tariff act of iS,S3, 404 Pendleton Civil Service Act (1SS3), 404 Alien Contract Labor Law (1SS5J, 405 Presidential Succession Law (i 886), 407 Interstate Commerce Act (18S7), 407 electoral count law (1S87), 407 McKinley Tariff Act (1890), 408 Sherman Silver Act (1890), 409 Anti-Trust Act (1890), 410 Repeal of Sherman Silver Act (1893), 415 Kepeal of " Force Bill " (1894), 417 Wilson Tariff Act (1S94), 413 Dingley Tariff Act (1897), 418 annexation of Hawaii (1898), 413 Uold Standard Act (1900), 422 Reclamation Act (1002), 434 Railway Rate Law (i9o(>), 429 Meat Inspection Law (1906), 429 Pure Food and Drugs Law (igoO), 429 Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act (1909), 432 L'nderwood Tariff Act (1913), 441 Federal Reserve Act (1913), 442 Income Tax Law (1913), 440 Panama Tolls Act (1914), 443 Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914^ 444 Federal Trade Commission Act(i9i4), 444 Federal Farm Loan Act(i9i0), 451 Congress, the Albany, 137 First Continental, 178 in the Revolution, 181 Second Continental, 181 Stamp Act, 172 weaknessof,undertheArticles,2i6,2i7('note) Connecticut, Andros and the charter of, loi constitution of, 99 settled, 99 Western land claims, 214, 23S Conscription Act of iSi)^, 374 (note) Conser\'ation of natural resources, 435 Constantinople taken by Turks, 5 Constitution, first popular, in America, 100 Constitution of United States, adoption of, 219 analysis of, Appendix, p. xxi compromises of, 218 effects of, 220 steps leading to. Appendix, p. xxi text of, Appendix, p. v Constitution of United States, amendments to : first ten, 220 Eleventh, 247 (note) Twelfth, 240 (note) Thirteenth, 386 Fourteenth, 3S9 Fifteenth, 394 Sixteenth, 440 Seventeenth, 440 Constitutional Convention, 218 Constitutions, early state, 185 Construction, loose and strict, 232 Continental Congress, First, 17S Second, 181 Contract Labor Law, Alien, 405 Convention, the Albanv, 137 Hartford, 2-jh trade, at Annapolis, 217 Conventions, formation of nominating, 287 (note) Conway Cabal, 195 (note) Cook, Captain James, 257 Cooper, J . F. , 302 Cooper, l^eter, 292 Copperheads^ 374 (note) Corn, found m America, 57 Cornwallis, Lord Charles,' in New Jersey, igi in the South, 209 surrender of, 21 1 Coronado, expedition of, 29 Cortes conquers Mexico, 27 Cotton and the cotton gin, 239 Cotton gin, invention of, 239 influence on cotton manufacture, 240 influence on the North, 240 influence on slavery, 239 Cotton mill, the first, 241 Courts, national, 220 Crawford, W. H., 287 (note) Creek Indians, war with, 271 Crisis, of 1837, 305 of 1857, 346 of 1873, 396 of 1S93, 414 of 1907, ,}3i Cntical Penod of American Histor%', the, 217 (note) Crittenden compromise, 349 Croatoan, 40 (note) Cronipton, 240 (note) Cromwell, Oliver, 105 Crown Point, taken by the English, 142 captured by Burgoyne, u)6 Crusades, 6 Cuba, becomes a republic, 431 destruction of the Maine, 420 discovery of, 1 4 intervention of 1906, 430 and Ostend Manifesto, 340 revolution of 1895, 419 United States attempts to purchase, 340 Culpepper, Lord Thomas, receives grant of Virginia, 70 Cumberland Road, 2S4 Custer, General G. A., killed by Indians, 397 Czar of Russia and peace conference, 422 Czolgosz, 425 Da Gama, voyage of, 18 Dale, colonial governor of Virginia, 67 Daniel, Father, 48 Dare, Virginia, 40 Dartmouth College founded, 156 Davenport, Reverend John, 100 Davis, Captain John. 39 (note) Davis, Jefferson, president of the Confederacv, ^•♦'' , „ captured, 3S2 life of, 349 (note) Dearborn, Fort, 2'.s Dearborn, General, in War of 1812, 268 De Ayllon, 28 Debt, of the Civil War, 382 imprisonment for, 117 payment of, of the Revolutionary War. Debts, state, pa\'ment of. by Hamilton, 232 Declaration of ' Independence, proclaimed, 185 text of, Apf)endix, p. i Hi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Declaration of rights and grievances, 172 Declaratory Act, 173 De Courcelles, 50 Deerfield attacked, 133 De Gourgues's revenge, 38 De Grasse, Admiral, 211 De Kalb, General, 209 Delaware, captured by the Dutch, 77 granted to William Penn, 114 seized by the English, 78 settled by Swedes, 77 (note) Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 67 De Leon discovers Florida, 27 Demarcation, line of, 17 , . , ^ , Democratic-Republicans, compared with Fed- eralists, 232 Jefferson, leader of, 230 Democrats, advocate free silver, 417 advocate state rights, 232 elect Cleveland, 406 elect Wilson, 437 favor independent treasury, 306 name of, 292 oppose United States Bank, 299 and Texas, 315 De Monts, Sieur, 34 De Narvaez, 28 Denver, Colorado, 346 Department of Commerce, 42S Department of Labor, 440 De Smet, Father, 318 De Soto's expedition, 31 Detroit, automobile industry in, 449 besieged by Pontiac, 145 settlement of, 12S in War of 1S12, 268 De Vaca, journey of, 29 Dewey, Admiral, 420 Deza, Bishop, 12 (note) Diaz, Bartholomew, voyage of, 18 Diaz, Porfirio, president of Mexico, 450 Dictionary, first American, 302 Dieskau attacks Fort Edward, 140 Dingley Tariff, 418 Dinwiddie, Governor, 136 District of Columbia, formed, 249 slavery in, 333 Dixie Highway, 449 (note) Dominion of Canada, 435 Dominion of New England, 9 1 Dominique, Saint, Napoleon and, 254 Donelson, Fort, 369 Dongan, Governor Thomas, 79 Dorchester Heights, 183 Dorr rebellion, 311 Douglas, Stephen A., candidate for presi- dency, 348 debates with Lincoln, 346 and Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 supports the Union, 358 (note) Dover, 'New Hampshire, settled, 96 Draft riots, 374 (note) Drainage of swamp lands, 435 Drake, Sir Francis, 38 Dred Scott decision, 345 Duke of York, 78 Duke's laws, 78 Duluth explores Northwest, 125 Duluth settled, 128 Duquesne, Fort, isiS captured by Forbes, 142 name changed to Pittsburgh, 142 Dutch, claim Connecticut, 75, 77, 99 claim New Jersey, 82 in New Netherland, 73 lose New Netherland, 78 seize Delaware, 77 Dutch East India Company, 73 Dutch West India Company, 75 Eads's jetties, 400 Early's raid, 379 Earth, the, early ideas about, 9 known in time of Columbus, map, p. vi Earthquake at San Francisco, 429 East, interest in the, 6 trade routes to the, 4 Turks block way to the, 5 East Jersey, 82 F^dison, the inventor, 399 Education, in New England colonies, 155 in middle colonies, 160 in southern colonies, 163 Edward, Fort, 196 Eight-Hour Railroad Law, 452 Electoral Commission, 397 Electoral Count Act, 407 Electric light, 399 Electric railway, 447 Electric telegraph, 312 Eleventh Amendment, 247 (note) Elizabeth, New Jersey, founded, 82 Emancipation Proclamation, 372 completed, 387 Embargo Act, 260 Emerson, R. W., 302 Emigrarion to the West, 176, 2S4 England and the Confederacy, 357, 362 ^ England's claim to America, through Cabot : voyage, 16 English explorations, 38 first permanent settlement, 66 Era of Good Feeling, 278 Ericson, Leif, 2 Ericsson, John, 366 Erie Canal, 289 Ether, use of, 326 Europe in fifteenth century, 3 "Evangeline," poem, 140 (note) Excise tax, 238 Expansion of territory : Alaska, 392, 444 Florida Purchase, 278 Gadsden Purchase, 336 Guam, 422 Hawaii, 413 Louisiana Purchase, 254 Mexican cession, 324 Oregon, 317 Panama Canal Zone, 426 Philippines, 422 Porto Rico, 422 Texas, 3>5 Virgin Islands, 455 Explorations : Dutch, 72 English, 38 French, 32 Gray's, 257 Lewis and Clark's, 255 Pike's, 258 (note) polar, 432 (note) Portuguese, g, iS Spanish, 26 Express, pony, 30S Express system established, 307 INDEX liii Falls of St. Anthony, 124 Kaneuil Hall, 150, 172, 17.1 (note) Farm Loan Act, 451 Farmer, legislation to aid the, 451 Farmers' Alliance, 411 Farmers' Grange, 411 Farragut, enters Mobile Bay, 379 takes New Drleans, 370 " Father of the Constitution," 265 (note) Federal Child Labor Law, 452 Federal Flections Act, repeal of, 417 Federal Farm Loan Act, 451 Federal Reserve Act, 442 Federal Trade Commission, 444 Federalist, The, 2ig Federalists, the, 230 Federation of Labor, 410 P'ield, Cyrus W., 391 Fifteenth Amendment, 394 " P'ifty-four forty or fight,"' 319 (note) Filipinos, the, 422 Fillmore, Millard, becomes president, 333 Fire in Boston, 394 Fire in Chicago, 394 ' Fire in San Francisco, 429 Fitch, John, and steamboat, 261 Five Intolerable Acts, 177 Five Nations, the, or Iroquois, 55 Flag, evolution of the American, 198 first raising of the American, 199 the Confederate, 349 Flatboats on the Ohio, 279, 285 Florida, admission of, 332 (note) De Leon in, 26 De Soto in, 3 1 discovered, 27 England cedes, to Spain, 144 (note) French and Spaniards in, 36 Jackson's march in, 278 the name of, 27 Religious Orders in, 46 secedes, 34S Seminole war in, 301 Spain cedes, to England, 144 United States purchases, in 1819, 278 Florida, the Confederate cruiser, 362 Food and Drugs Act, Pure, 430 Foote, Commodore, at P'orts Henry and Donel- son, 369 captures Island Number 10, 370 captures Memphis, 370 Forbes, General, takes Fort Duquesnc, 142 Force Act, the, 417 Forts : Amsterdam, 75 Caroline, 36 Christina, Delaware, 77 (note) Crown Point. 142. 19^ Dearborn (Chicago), 268, 297 Donelson, 369 Duquesnc, 13& Edward, 196 Frontenac, 142 Henry, 369 McAllister, 378 McHenry, 273 Meigs. 270 Mimms, 271 Moultrie, 184 Necessity. 137 Niagara, 142 Orange (.\lbany), 74 Pitt (Pittsburgh), 142 Schuyler, 197 Stanwix, 197 Sullivan, 184 Sumter, 354 Sutter, 330 Ticonderoga, 141, iSo, 196 Washington, 190 William Henry. 141 William and Mary, 179 Forty-niners, the, 330 Fountain of Youth, 26 Fourteenth Amendment, the, 3S9 Fox, tieorge, founder of Quakers, 83 (note) Fox River, Marquette on, 122 France, aids us in the Revolution, 201 early explorations by, 32 first permanent settlcrnent by, 34 later explorations by, 121 and Mexico, 387 presents Statue of Liberty, 406 recognizes our independence, 201 sells Louisiana, 254 trouble with, in 1797, 246 wars between England and, in America, 131 Franciscans, the, in California, 32S in the East, 6 Franklin, Renjamin, arranges treaty with France, 201 in Constitutional Convention, 21S (note) and Declaration of Independence, 186 (note) life of, 137 (note) plans colonial union, 137 Free silver, 417 " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights," 267 Freedmen's Bureau, 389 Freedom of the press, 80 (note), 160 Freedom of worship, in Constitution, 220 denied to Catholics, 1S5 (note) Free-Soilers, 331 Fremont, candidate for president. 344 French, the, explore the West, 121 found Mobile, 128 found New Orleans, 12S found Quebec, 34 lose Canada, 144 take possession of Louisiana, i2''> French and English colonization compared, 129 French and Indian War, the, 135 French Revolution, the, 241 Friends, the, or Quakers, S3 (note) in Massachusetts, 92 in Pennsylvania, 1 14 Frobisher, the voyage of, 38 Frolic, the, 269 Frontenac, governor of Canada, 122, 124 Frontenac, Fort, captured, 142 Fugitive slaves, in Compromise of 2850, 332 and the Constitution, 21S and the Northwest Ordinance. 214 and Underground Railroad, 334 Fulton's steamboat, 2'>i Fundamental Orders, the, 99 Fur trade, 317 Gadsden Purchase, 336 Gage, General, iSi Gallitzin, Prince, 23S Galtier, Father, 124 (note) Galveston, commission government in, 445 Gama, Da, reaches India, 18 liv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Garfield, elected president, 402 assassinated, 404 Gamier, Father, 5° , , ^ Garrison, William Lloyd, 296 attacked by mob, 298 publishes Liberator, 296 Gaspee destroyed, 176 Gates, General Horatio, 199 Genet, Citizen, 242 Genoa, Italy, trade route from, 4 George II of England, 117 , George III, acknowledges our mdependence, character of, 167 (note) hires Hessians, 192 and the Revolution, 167 (note) statue of, pulled down, 188 taxes the colonies, 170 Georgia, settlement of, 117 Ghent, treaty of, 274 Gibault, Father, 204 , . . . , Gibbons against Ogden, decision in case of 261 (note) Gila River, 336 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 39 Gin, the cotton, 239 Gladstone favors Confederacy, 362 Gnupson, Eric, Bishop of Gardar, 3 Gold, discovery of, in Alaska, 423 (note) in California, 330 in Colorado, 346 in Nevada, t,4> ^ ,, , , ^ s Gomez, Estevan, in New \ork, 73 (note) Goodyear and India rubber, 326 Gorges, grant to, 96 Gosnold, explorer, 41 . Government, of the colonies, 151 of the Northwest Territory, 215 of the United States, 219 Grand Model, the, 112 Grant, General, administrations of, 393 in Civil War, 369 on Mexican War, 320 (note) life of, 393 J Grasse, Admiral Francois, Count de, 211 Gray, Captain, reaches Columbia River, 257 Great Britain frees slaves in West Indies, 296 ("Ote) , , , N Great Lakes, discovered, 121 (note) first steamboat on, 124 in War of 1812, 27: Great law of Penn, 115 Great Salt Lake, 307 Great War, the, 45^ Greeley, Horace, 395 Green Mountain Boys, 180 Greenbacks, 401 Greene, General Nathanael, 210 Greenland settled, 2 Greenville, treaty of, 237 Gregorian calendar, 136 (note) Guadalupe- Hidalgo, treaty of, 324 Guam annexed, 422 Giicrribrc, the^ and the Constitution, 269 Guiteau, 404 Gulf of St. Lawrence explored, 33 Gunpowder invented, 8 Haceta, 256 (note) Hague Peace Conference, 422 Haiti, island of, 14. 25; , . Hale, Captain Nathan, 1S9 (note) Hal/ Moon, the, 73 . . Hamilton, Alexander, and the Constitution, 219 founds United States bank, 234 killed by Aaron Burr, 258 leader of Federalists, 230 (note) hfe of, 233 (note) pays national debts, 232 Secretary of Treasury, 230 (note) Hamilton, General, and Clark's expedition, 204 Hamlin, Hannibal, vice president, 348 (note) Hancock, General W. S., at Gettysburg, 374 nominated for president, 402 Hancock, John, 179 Hargreaves, 240 (note) Harmar, General, 237 Hamden founds express business, 307 Harpers Ferry captured by John Brown, 347 Harrison, Benjamin, administration of, 40S life of, 40S (note) Harrison,General\V.H.,administrationof,309 life of, 309 (note) at Tippecanoe, 266 in War of 1812, 270 Hartford, Dutch fort at,' 99 foundation of, 99 Hartford Convention, 276 Harvard College founded, 156 Havana, captured by the English, 144 Maine destroyed at, 419 Haverhill attacked, 133 Hawaii, annexed, 413 revolution in, 413 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 302 Hayes, R. B., administration of, 39S disputed election of, 397 life of, 398 (note) vetoes silver coinage act, 401 withdraws troops from South, 39S Hayne debates with Webster, 204 Hennepin, Father, Iranciscan missionary, 124 Henrietta Maria, Maryland named for, 104 Henry, Fort, taken by Grant, 3O9 Henry, Patrick, 171 Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 9 Henry VII of England, 16 Herkimer, General Nicholas, 197 Flessians, 192 " Higher law," the, and slavery, 333 (note) Historians, American, 302 Hoe and the printing press, 327 Holland , establishes settlements in America, 85 Pilgrims in, 84 Holy Alliance, the, 282 Homestead Law of 1862, 371 Homestead strike, 410 , , , ^ , ,. „ Hood, General J. B.. at battle of Franklin, 378 defeated at Atlanta, 377 at Nashville, 378 succeeds Johnston, 377 Hooker, GeneralJoseph,atChancellorsville, 373 Hopkins, Esek, Commodore, 206 House of Burgesses of Virginia, 70 House of Representatives, chooses president, ^digest of constitutional provisions for. Ap- pendix, p. xxii Houston, General Sam, 314 Howe, Ellas, invents sewing machine, 32^ Howe, Lord, British admiral, 189 Hudson, Henns explores Hudson River, 72 Huerta, General, in Mexico, 450 Hughes, Archbishop, 356 IXDFA Iv HuRuenots arrive in America, 36 Hull, (.,'aptain Isaac, 20q Hull, Captain William, surrenders Detroit, 267 Huron missions, 48 Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 91 Iberville founds Mobile, 128 Iceland, Columbus in, S Idaho admitted, 408 Illinois becomes a state, 279 Illinois countr>', Clark's expedition to, 206 Immigration from Kurope, 327 Impeachment, of President Johnson, 391 Imperialism, issue of, 424 Importation of slaves forbidden (1808), 262 Impressment of American sailors, 260 Income tax, 440 Indentured servants, 69 Independence, Declaration of, 185 text of, Appendix, p. i Independence of United States secured, 214 Independence Hall of Philadelphia, i,S7 Independent treasurv- established, 306 Indian Territory forrned, 429 Oklahoma formed from, 429 Indiana, admission of, 277 Indians, the Algonquian, 54 Captain John Smith and the, 67 character, 58 families, 53 the Iroquois, 55 the Iroquois and the English, 134 (note) the Iroquois and the French, 35, 131 King Philip, 92 land cessions by, 237 massacres by, 93, 132, 133 Miles Standish and the, 87 mode of government, 53 mode of life, 54 name, 53 number, at discover)', 55 (note) Penn and the, 116 religion, 59 in the Revolution, 203 Roger Williams and the, 90 self-control, 57 totems, 56 trails of the, 335 wars with Western. 396 what they taught the colonists, 60 Indies, the, America believed to he part of, 14 trade of Kurope with, 4 Initiative in legislation, 443 Injunction, use of, 415 Insurrection of slaves, 296 Intercolonial Committees of Correspondence, 178 Interstate Commerce, United States Supreme Court on, 261 (note) Interstate Commerce Act, 407 Intolerable Acts, the Five, 177 Inventions : automobile, 449 compass, 7 cotton gin, 239 electric light, 399 gunpowder, 8 '■ mule," 240 (note) printing, 7 printing press, 327 (note) propeller, 3 27 (note) reaper, 325 revolver, 327 (note) sewing machine, 326 spinning jenny, 240 (note) steam engine, 291 (note) steamboat, 261 telegraph, 312 telephone, 398 vulcanization of rubber, 326 water frame, 240 (note) Inventions, American, record of, 450 I ronclads, use of, 3O6 Iroquois cede Ohio Valley to English, i34(note) Irrigation, 434 Irving. Washington, 302 Isabella of Castile and Columbus, 1 1 Italians as navigators, 9 (note) Jackson, Fort, 370 Jackson, General Andrew, administration of, 293 defeats Seminoles, 278 life of, 293 (note) and nullification, 295 removal of Indians, 300 , Specie Circular, 300 and "spoils system," 294 and United States Rank, 299 victory of, at New Orleans, 273 victory of, at Tohopeka, 27 1 Jackson, General T. J. (Stonewall), at Dull Run, 358 at Chancellorsville, 373 death of, 373 life of, 3 58 (note) in Shenandoah Valley, 364 James I, 64 James II, 79 Jamestown, Virgjinia, settled, 65 Japan, Perry's visit to, 342 treaty with Russia, 43 1 (note) Jasper, Sergeant, 184 Jay's treaty with England, 242 Jefferson, administration of, 251 and Declaration of Independence, 185 elected vice president, 246 first Secretary of State, 230 (note) life of, 251 (note) purchases Louisiana, 254 writes Kentucky resolutions, 248 Jersey, East, 82 West, 82 Jesuit missionaries, in California, 327 in Florida, 46 Jesuit ReUniotis, the, 4S (note) in Maine, 52 in New France, 47 among the Onondagas, 50 Jogues, Father Isaac, 48 Johnson, Andrew, administration of, 386 impeachment and acquittal of, 391 life of, 386 (note) plan of reconstmction, 3.'^8 Johnson, Sir William, in Revolution, 135, 142 Johnston, General A. S., killed at Shiloh, 370 Johnston, General J. E., in Peninsular Cam- paign, 31.3 succeeds P-ragg, 376 succeeded by Hood, 377 restored to command. 3S1 surrender of, 3S1 Jollietand Marquette expedition. 122 Jones. Captain John Paul, 207 Juan de Fuca, 250 (note) Ivi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Kansas, admitted as free state, 342 civil war in, 342 Jolin Brown in, 342 struggle for, 341 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 Kay, John, 240 (note) Kearny, General Stephen W., 320, 330 Kearsarge, the, sinks the A la 611 iim, 379 Kentucky, admission to Union, 235 Boone in, 204 Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, 24S Key, Francis Scott, writes " The Star-Spangled Banner," 273 King George's War, 134 King Philip's War, 92 King William's War, 131 , , , King's College (Columbia) founded, 160 Knights of Labor, 410 Know-Nothing party, 343 Kosciuszko, General, 194 Ku-Klux Klan, 390 Labor, American Federation of, 410 Department of, 440 Knights of, 410 protection of American, 275 strikes of, 398, 410 Labor Law, Alien Contract, 405 Labor unions, development of, 410 Ladrone Islands discovered, 20 Lafayette, Congress cedes land to, 2S4 revisits United States, 283 in Revolution, 193 Lake Champlain, battle of, 100, 272 discovered, 34 Lake Huron discovered, 121 (note) Lalemant, Father, 48 Land, cession of, by Indians, 237, 300 cessions of, by states to the United States, 2.5,238 drainage of swamp, 435 grant of, under Homestead Act, 434 irrigation of, 434 Land system, 215 (note) .... La Salle, French explorer, on Mississippi, 124 Las Casas and the Indians, 15 (note) Latin-America, development of, 426 Laudonniere, 36 Lawrence, Kansas, attack on, 342 settled, 342 Lawrence, Captain James, 270 Laws of Parliament : Declaratory Act, 173 duty on tea, 176 the Intolerable Acts, 177 Navigation Acts, 168 Quebec Act, 146, 178 Stamp Act, 170 Townshend Acts, 173 writs of assistance, 169 Lecompton constitution, 342 Lee, General Charles, 191 Lee, General Robert E., at Antietam, 365 at Chancellorsville, 373 commands Confederate armies, 364 at Gettysburg, 374 at second battle of Bull Run, 365 surrenders, 381 at the Wilderness, 379 Lee, Richard H., 1S5 Legislative assembly, first, in America, 70 Leif Ericson reaches America, 2 Leisler, Governor, 79 Lewis and Clark's expedition, 255 Liberator, Garrison publishes the, 296 Liberia, 279 (note) Liberty, Statue of, 406 Liberty party, birth of, 298 (note) Lincoln, Abraham, administration of, 353 assassination of, 382 debates with Douglas, 346 emancipates the slaves, 372 life of, 348 (note) plan of reconstruction, 388 reelection of, 380 Lincoln, General Benjamin, 20S, 213 (note) Lincoln Highway, 449 (note) Line of Demarcation, 16 Lisbon, Columbus at, g Literature, American, 301 Livingston, Robert R., 229 Locke, John, and the Grand Model, 112 Locomotive, the first American, 292 Log-cabin campaign, 310 London Company, the, 64 Lone Star Republic, 314 (note) Longfellow, H. W.,302 Loom power, 240 (note) Loose construction, 232 Los Angeles, 322 (note) Louisburg, capture and restoration of, 134 recaptured by English, 141 Louisiana, admission of, 277 claimed by the French, 126 origin of name, 128 purchased by the United States, 254 secedes, 349 . . „ Louisiana Purchase E.xposition, 42S Lowell, city of, 275 Lowell, F.'C, 275 Lowell, J. R., 302 Loyalists, or Tories, 184 Lundy, Benjamin, and abolition, 296 McClellan, General, 3S9 McClure, Captain Robert, 39 (note) McComb, General, 272 McCormick reaper, the, 325 McKinley, assassination of, 4:5 first administration of, 41S life of, 418 (note) second administration of, 425 McLoughlin, Doctor John, 31S Madero, president of Mexico, 450 Madison, administration of, 26; '■ Father of the Constitution," 265 (note) life of, 26i (note) Virginia resolutions by, 248 Magellan, discovers Philippine Islands, 20 voyage around the world, 20 Magellan, Strait of, 20^ Maine, admitted, 97, 281 boundary dispute with England, 311 missions of, 51 and Missouri Compromise, 281 permanently settled, 97 Popham colony in, 6; united with Massachusetts, 97 Maine, the, destroyed at Havana, 419 Manhattan Island, purchased, 75 settled, 72 Manifesto, the Ostend, 340 Manila, captured by English, 144 taken by Americans, 420 Manitou, the, 59 INDEX Ivii Marco Polo, 6 Marcus, Friar (Father ^fark), 29 Marietta settled, 21(1, 2.1S Marque and reprisal, letters of, 362 Marquette, Father, 122 Marshall, Chief Justice, 250 important decisions of. 254 (note) Marjland, becomes a royal province, 107 Catholics lose rights in, 107 restored to the Haltimores, 108 settled by Catholics, 102 Toleration Act of, 105 Mason and Dixon's Line surveyed, 116 (note) Mason and Slidell captured, 361 Massachusetts, Pilgnms land in, S4 Massachusetts I!ay colony, the, SS first charter of, 89 Boston settled, 90 loss of charter of, 93 Puritan rule in, 89 a royal province, 94 second charter of, 94 war with Indians, 92 Massachusetts circular letter, 174 ISIassacre, the Boston, 174 at Cherrv' V'alley, 203 at Wyoming, 203 Massasoit, 92 Matthew, Father, and temperance, 296 Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 3S7 MayJJcnver, the voyage of the, 85 Mayflower Compact, 85 Meade, General G. C, 374 Meat Inspection Act, 4:^0 Mediterranean Sea, piracy on, 252 Meeting, town, 154 Menendez in Florida, 37 Merit system, the, 405 Mexican land cession, 324 Mexican War, tht, 320 results of, 324 Mexico, civil war in, 450 conquered by Cortes, 27 declares independence, 283 (note) loses Texas, 314 trouble with, in 1911, 450 Michigan admitted as a free state, 301 Middle colonies, life in, 158 Milan Decree, 259 Milwaukee, settlement of, 277 Minneapolis, 125 Minnesota admitted, 346 Mint, United States, decimal system of coin- age, 234 established, 234 Minuit, Governor, 75 Missionaries, Catholic, in New France, 121 in Oregon, 31S in Spanish colonies. 46 Mississippi, state of. admitted, 277 Mississippi River, De .Soto reaches, 32 explored by the French. 126 explored by Jolliet and Marquette, 122 mouth of, deepened, 400 Pineda on, ^2 (note) Missouri Compromise of 1820, 2S0 repealed in 1854, 339 Missouri River explored, 255 Mobile. Farragojt attacks, 379 founded, 12S Modoc Indians, 39(1 Mohawk Indians, 203 Molasses Act, 169 Money, decimal system of coinage, 234 first mint, 234 gold standard adopted, 422 greenbacks in Civil War, 401 Indian, or wampum. 59 specie payment resumed, 401 Monroe, James, administration of, 27S Kra of Good Feeling, 278 life of, 278 (note) Monroe Doctrine, 283 Montana, admission, 408 Montcalm, General, 142 Montesino, Father Antonio, 15 (note) Montgomery, first capital of Confederacy, 349 Montgomery, General, 1S2 Montreal, founded, 33 surrenders to Knglish, 143 (note) Morgan, General, 210 Mormons, emigrate to Salt Lake, 307 ' rise of, 307 Morris, Robert, 192 Morse, invents telegraph, 312 Morton, Dr., discovers use of ether, 327 Motley. J. L., historian, 302 Moultrie, Colonel, 184 Moultrie, P'ort, 1S4 Mound Builders, the so-called, 55 Mount \ernon, home of Washington, 248 Mowing machine invented, 325 "Mug\vumps.,'" the, 406 Napoleon I sells Louisiana, 254 Napoleon 1 1 1 and Mexico, 387 Narragansett Bay colonized, 90 NarvAez, Panfilo, 28 National conventions, 287 (note) National Road, 284 Naturalization, process of, 433 Naval Academy, 319 Navigation laws, 71, 168 Navy, in Barbary wars, 252 in Civil War, 357 in Revolution, 206 in .Spanish War, 420 in War of 1812, 266 in war with France, 247 Nebraska, admitted, 339 a territon,-, 338 Negro slaver>', and Dred Scott decision, 345 introduced into Fnglish .America, <>9 Negroes, become voters, 394 emancipation of, 3^7 Neutrality, proclaimed by President Wilson, Washington's proclamation of, 242 Nevada, admission of, 377 New Albion, 38 New Amsterdam, 75 Newark, New Jersey, settled, 82 New F.ngland, favors nullification, 248 (note) forms Hartford Convention, 27b opposes War of 1812, 27') New F.ngland Confederation, 91 New France, in colonial wars, 131 founded, 34 missionaries of, 47 surrendered to Briti.sh, 143 New Hampshire, settled, Presidents, table of. Appendix, p. xxv Press, freedom of the. 80 (note), 160 Princeton College, I'o Pring, .Martin, voyage of, 41 Printing, invention of, 7 Privateers, in Civil War, 362 in Revolution, 2uO in War of I'-i^, 270 Proclamation Line, 145 Proctor, General, 270 Progressive party, the, 437 Proprietary colonies, 152 Protective tariff, 28S Protestant Reformation, 84 (note) Providence, Rhode Island, settled, 90 Proviso, Wilmot, 324 Pueblo Indians, 55 Puget Sound, 257 Pulaski, Count Casimir, 194 Pullman strike, 415 Pure Food and Drugs Act, 429 Puritans, in Connecticut, 100 in Fngland, SS in Maryland, 107 in .Massachusetts, 88 Quakers, the, belief of. S3 (note) in Massachusetts, 92 in New Jersey, 83 in Pennsylvania, 114 punished by Puritans, 92 treaty of, with Indians, 116 Quartering Act, 177 Quebec, Arnold's expedition to, 182 capture of, by English in 1629. 48 capture of, by English under Wolfe, 143 expedition against, 1S2 founded, 34 Quebec Act, the, 146 Queen Anne's War, 132 Quincy, Josiah, favors secession, 254 (note) Radical Republicans, 391 Railways, first American, 291 first transcontinental, 394 Interstate Commerce Act, 407 land grants to, 371 Northern Pacific, 378 Railway Rate Act, 429 • Raisin River massacre, 270 Raleigh, founds a colony in Virginia, 40 sends expedition to Virginia, 39 visits South America, 41 (note) Ra>'Tnbault, Father, 48 Reaper, invention of, 325 Rebellions: Bacon's, 71 Claiborne's, 105 Dorr's, 311 Leisler's, 79 Nat Turner's, 296 Shays's, 2 16 the Southern, 353 Whisky, 23S Recall in cities, 444 Reciprocity with Canada, 436 Reconstruction, completed, 389 Congressional plan of, 389 Johnson's plan of, 3S8 Lincoln's plan of, 388 troops withdrawn, 398 Referendum in state legislation, 444 Regulators, the. 17; Religion, in the colonies, 63, 68 (note), 77, 79, 82, 83. 84. 04, 9;, 9<1, 100, 102. 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. 108. io<;i, 1 12, I ij, iiS of the Indians, 59 as motive of explorations, 10 Ix ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Religious liberty, in Northwest Territor\', 215 provisions of the Constitution regarding, 220, Appendix p. xvii Republicans, or Democratic-Republicans, 230 (note), 232 the present party, 340 Resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky, 24S Resources, conservation of natural, 434 Resumption of specie payment, 401 Revere, Paul, ride of, 179 Revolution, the American, action of First Con- tinental Congress, 178 battles of the Revolution. See Battles causes of, 167 chart of battles of, 224 the destruction of tea, 176 end of, 213 foreign help in the, 201 formation of Continental Army, 181 the navy and the, 206 Second Continental Congress, 181 the Stamp Act, 170 Tories in the, 1S4 treaty with France, 201 the Writs of Assistance, i6g Revolver, invention of, 327 (note) Rhode Island, religious freedom in, 109 restriction of suffrage in, no, 311 settled, 90, 109 Ribaut, John, 36 Richard, Reverend Gabriel, 262 (note) Richelieu, Cardinal, 34 Richmond, battles around, 363, 379 fall of, 381 Right of search and England, 259 Rights and grievances, declaration of, 172 Riots : the draft, 374 (note) in Pittsburgh, 39S the Whisky, 238 Roads: Cumberland, or National, Road, 284 Lincoln and Dixie highways, 449 (note) Robertson, James, enters Tennessee, 236 Rochambeau, Count de, 212 Rocky Mountains' discovered by the French, 129 Rolfe, John, in Virginia, 68 Roman Catholic religion, Columbus and, 10 in England, 63, 102 and Know-Nothings, 343 in Maryland, 105 persecuted in New York, 80 Roosevelt, administration of, 425 hfe of, 425 Rosecrans, General W. S., 371, 375. 376 Ross, General, bums Washington, 273 killed, 273 Rough Riders, 421 (note) Royal colonies defined, 152 Royalists or Cavaliers, 70 (note) Rubber, vulcanization of, 326 Russell, Lord John, 358 (note) Russia, in North America, 256 sells Alaska, 392 Ryswick, treaty of, 132 Sacajawea, 256 (note) Sachem, 56 St. Augustine founded, 37 St. Brendan, i St. Die, 19 St. Lawrence River, the, discovered, 33 St. Leger, General, 197 St. Louis exposition, 42S St. Marys, Maryland, founded, 105 St. Paul, 124 (note), 125 St. Philip, Fort, 370 Salem, settled, 88 witchcraft in, 95 Salt Lake City founded, 307 San Diego, exposition in, 44S mission at, 328 San Francisco, earthquake in, 429 exposition in, 448 foundation of, 3 28 Sanitary Commission in Civil War, 359 San Martin, General, 427 San Salvador, island of, 14 Santa Anna, 321 Santa Fe founded, 31 (note), 322 (note) Santa Fe trail, 335 Sault Sainte Marie, 48 Savannah, captured by British, 208 founded, 117 taken by Sherman, 378 Savannah, the first ocean steamship, 262 (note) Saybrook founded, 99 Scalawags, 390 Scandals, era of, 395 Schenectady, attack on, 132 Schuyler, General, igg Scott, General Winfield, 321 Scrooby, 84 "Sea-to-sea" grant, 68, 136 (note) Seals, protection of, 413 Search, right of, 260, 361 (note) .Secession, and the Civil War, 3S2 and Jackson, 295 of South Carolina, 348 of Southern states, 348 threat of, 254 (note), 2S9 (note) and Webster, 294 Sedition Act, the, 247 Seminoles in Florida, 301 Semmes, Captain, 378 Separatists, or Pilgrims, 84 Sequoya, 56 Seventeenth Amendment, 440 .Sevier, John, 236 Seward, W. H., buys Alaska, 392 "higher law " doctrine of, 333 (note) warns France, 3S7 Sewing machine, invention of, 326 Seymour, Horatio, 392 Shays's Rebellion, 216 .- Sherman, General, at Atlanta, 377 march to the sea, 37S receives surrender of Johnston, 3S1 takes Savannah, 37S Sherman Silver Act, 409 repeal of, 414 Ships, clipper, era of, 312 Siege of Boston, 183 of Chattanooga, 376 of Nashville, 378 of Petersburg, 380 of Vicksburg, 375 of Vorktown, 211 Silver, discovered in West, 346 dropped in act of 1873, 400 the Bland-Allison Act, 401 Sherman Silver Coinage Act, 409 Sherman Silver Coinage Act repealed, 414 the silver campaign of 1896, 417 INDEX Sitting Bull, 307 Sixteenth Amendment, 440 .Slater opens cotton mill, 2.ti Slave trade, abolished in District of Columbia, 333 foreign, prohibited, 262 Slavery, and Civil War, 35J and the compromises of the Constitution, 218 constitutional amendments and, 3S6, 389, 394 . cotton gm and, 240 and the Dred Scott Decision, 345 Kmancipation Proclamation, 372 excluded from Northwest Territory-, 214 fugitive slave law of 1793, 334 (note); of 1850, 334 . „ ^ „ "gag resolution and, 29S Garrison attacks, 296 growth of abolition movement, 296 importation of slaves forbidden (1808), 262 insurrection of slaves (1831), 296 introduced into Virginia, 69 J. Q. Adams and right of petition, 29S John llrown and, 342, 347 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 and Lincoln, 353 Missouri Compromise Act (1820), 2S0 opposed by Jefferson, 262 (note) Personal Liberty Laws and, 334 Republican party opposes, 340 Seward's " higher law " and, 333 (note) and Texas, 315 " Uncle Tom's Cabin " and, 336 the Underground Railroad, 334 Wilmot Proviso and, 324 Slidell and Mason, 361 Smith, Captain John, 67 Smith, Joseph, founds Mormon Church, 307 Snake, Franklin's, 137 Sons of Liberty, 173 South America, republics founded in , 2 79 (note) , 282, 427 South Carolina settled, 11 1 exposition and protest, 289 (note) favors nullification, 294 readmitted, 390 secedes, 34S South Dakota admitted to the Union, 40S Sovereignty, popular, 333 (note), 339 Spain, cedes Florida, 278 discoveries of, S establishes missions in California, 32S explorations of, 26 loses American colonies, 279(note), 2S2, 427 war with, 420 Specie Circular, 300 Specie pa>Tnent, resumption of, 401 Spice Islands, search for, 8 Spoils system, 293 Squanto, 87 Squatter sovereignty, 333 (note), 339 Stamp Act, protest against, 170 rcp>ealed, 173 Stamp Act Congress, 172 Standish. Captain Myles, 87 Stanton, Sccretarv-, 390 .Stanwix, Fort, 197 Stark, General John, 196 " Star-,Spangled banner,"' 273 State banks, 304 State constitutions, 185, 1S5 (note) State debts, 232 State rights, doctrine of, 232 States, constitutions formed by, 1S5 (note) dates of admission, Appendix, p. xxvi formed, 1S5 .Statue of Liberty, 406 Steam railroad, 291 Steamboat, first ocean, 262 (note) invention of, 261 in the West, 262 Stephens, Alexander H., 356 (note) .Stephenson, George, 292 .Steuben, Haron, 194 Stevens, Thaddeus, 391 Stowe, Mrs. H. H., 336 Strikes, the Baltimore and Ohio, 398 the Chicago, 415 the Homestead, 410 Stu>'vesant, Governor, 76 .Subtreasuries of the United States, 306 Suffrage, and Dorr Rebellion, 311 granted to negroes, 394 woman, 452 Sugar Act, 169 (note) .Sullivan, General John, 179, 203 Sulpicians in Montreal, 48 Sumter, Fort, 353 Supreme Court, established, 220 important decisions of, 254 (note), 261 (note) Marshall, Chief Justice of, 250 Sutter, Captain, 330 Swedes settle Delaware, 77 (note) Taft. William H., administration of, 432 life of, 432 (note) Tariff, of Abominations (1828), 289 Calhoun's exf)osition and protest, 289 (note) Clay's compromise tariff (1S33), 295 Dirigley tariff (1897), 418 the first (178^)), 233 the first protective tariff (1816), 275 (note) McKinley tariff (1890), 408 Morrill tariff (1861), 441 and nullification, 294 l'a>Tie-Aldrich tariff (1909), 432 revenue tariff (1846), 441 tariff of 1824, 288 tariff act (i833>, 295 tariff act (1883), 404 tariff discussion (1888), 407 Underwood tariff (191 4), 441 Wilson tariff (1894), 413 Tariff Board, the, 442 Tax, the Income, 440 Taxation without representation, 171 Taylor, General Zacharj-, administration of, 332 life of, 332 (note) in Mexican War, 320 Tea Partv. the Boston, 177 Tea ship, the Peggy St.-ntirf, 177 Tecumseh, conspiracy of, 2i>l> Telegraph. Atlantic cable laid, 391 invented, 312 Pacific cable laid, 302 Telephone invented, 398 Temperance and Father Matthew, 296 Temperance movement, 29*^ Tennessee admitted, 215 (note), 236 Tenure of Office Act, 390 Ixii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Territory acquired by tlie United States : Alaska, 392 Canal Zone, 425 Florida, 27S Gadsden Purchase, 336 Guam, 422 Hawaii, 413 Louisiana, 254 Mexican Cession, 324 Oregon, 319 Philippine Islands, 422 Porto Rico, 422 Texas, 315 Virgin Islands, 455 Texas, annexed, 315 becomes an independent republic, 314 Thirteenth Amendment, the, 3S6 Thomas, General G. H., in Civil War, 368 life of, 368 (note) Ticonderoga, captured by Ethan Allen, 180 retaken by British, 196 Tilden, S. J., candidate for president, 397 Tobacco cultivated in Virginia, 68 Toleration Act, of Maryland, 105 of Rhode Island, 109 Topeka, constitution of, 342 Tordesillas, treaty of, 17 (note) Tones, the, 184 Toscanelli, 10 (note) Toussaint L'Ouverture, 255 Town meeting, 87 Townshend Acts, 173, 176 Trade, early routes of, 4 foreign slave, prohibited, 262 restrictions on colonial, 71, 168 with the Indies, 4 Trails, map of, 335 Transcontinental railroad, 394 Travel in colonial times, 152 Treason of Arnold, 209 Treasury, independent, 306 Treaty, of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) (King George's War), 135 with Algiers (1795), 243 with France (1778), 201 between France and England at Paris (1763), 144 of Ghent (1814), 274 with Japan (1854), 342 Jay's (1795), 242 with Mexico (1848), 324 Oregon (1846), 3i'9 of Paris (1783), 214 Penn's, with the Indians (1683), ii6 of Ryswick (1697) (King William's War), .132 with Spain (1795), 243 with Spain (1899), 422 of Utrecht (17 13) (Queen Anne's War), 134 of Washington (1871), 393 Webster- Ashburton (1842), 311 Trent affair, the, 361 Tribute paid to Tripoli, 252 Tripoli, war with, 252 Trusts, 409 Turner, Nat, rebellion, 296 Twelfth Amendment, 246 (note) Tyler, administration of, 310 life of, 310 (note) "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 336 Underground Railroad, 334 Union, adoption of independence, 1S5 Albany Plan of, 137 Articles of Confederation, 188 Committees of Correspondence, 178 Constitutional Convention, 218 First Continental Congress, 178 Jackson defends the, 295 Lincoln on the, 353 New England Confederation, 91 Stamp Act Congress, 172 threatened by secession, 295 Union Pacific Railroad, 394 Unions, labor, 410 "Unite or Die," 137 (note) United States, adoption of Constitution by, 218 Articles of Confederation, 18S University, of Notre Dame, 126 (note) of Pennsylvania, 161 of San Marcos, 28 (note) Utah, admitted as state, 40S equal suffrage in, 452 settled by Mormons, 307 Utrecht, treaty of, 134 Valley Forge, 195 Van Buren, administration of, 303 life of, 303 (note) Vancouver, George, 257 Vasco da Gama, 18 Venezuela, dispute between Great Britain and, 414 Vera Cruz captured, 323 Verendr>'e, 129, 256 (note) Vermont, admission of, 235 Verrazano, 32 Vespucius, Americus, 18 Vincennes taken by Clark, 206 Vinland discovered, 2 Virgin Islands purchased, 455 Virginia, Bacon's Rebellion in, 71 first settlement in, 65 House of Burgesses in, 70 readmitted, 390 resolutions of 179S, 248 secedes, 356 Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 248 Waldseemiiller, ig Waltham, cotton mill at, 275 Wampum, t;g War Hawks, the, 267 (note) Wars {See Battles) : American Revolution, 167 Black Hawk War, 301 Civil War, 353 French and Indian War, 135 Great War, 455 King George's War, 134 King William's War, 131 Mexican War, 320 Pequot War, loi Pontiac's Conspiracy, 144 Queen Anne's War, 132 Russo-Japanese War, 43 1 (note) Seminole War, 301 Spanish- American War, 420 war with Creek Indians, 271 war with France, 247 war with Tecumseh, 266 war with Tripoli, 252 Warof iSr2. 267 Western Indian wars, 396 INDKX Ixiii Washington, D.C., captured and burned In- British, 273 made national capital, 249 treaty of, 3>;3 Washington, state of, admitted, 40.S Washington, Kort, captured by Howe, ic;i, Washington, CJeorge, administration of, 2jy with Hraddock, 130 commander of Continental Army, 181 in Constitutional Convention, 21S death of, 248 at P'ort Necessity, 137 life of, 229 (note) message to the French, 136 Washingtonian societies, 296 Watt, James, and steam power, 240 (note) Wayne, General Anthony, at ^Iaumee, 237 at Stony Point, 203 Weather Bureau established, 395 Weaver, General J. 13., candidate for presi- dency, 412 Webster, Daniel, and Ha>Tie, 294 Webster- Ashburton treaty, 311 Webster's I)ictionar\', 302 Wells, Dr. Horace, 326 West India Company, Dutch, 75 West Indies discovered. 14 West Point, founded, 252 in the Revolution, 209 West Virginia formed, 356 (note) Westward movement, 175 Whigs, elect Harrison and Tyler, 309 elect Taylor and Fillmore, 331 origin of, 309 W hisky Rebellion, 23S White apprentices, bg (note) Whitman, Dr., and Oregon, 319 (note) Whitney, Kli, invents the cotton gin, 239 Whittier, J. G., 302 Wildcat banks and money, 305 William and Marj' College, 163 Williams, Roger, founds Providence, 90 Wilmot Proviso, 324 Wilson, Woodrow, election of, 437 first administration of, 440 life of, 440 (note) rciilection of, 453 second adnvnistration of. 454 Wisconsin, admitted to the Union, 332 (note) early explorers in, 122 Juneau founds Milwaukee, 277 Witchcraft, the .Salem, 95 Wolfe, General, takes Quebec, 143 Woman suffrage, growth of, 452 Writs of assistance, 169 Wyoming, admitted, 408 woman suffrage in, 452 Wyoming Valley, massacre at, 203 X V Z papers, 246 Vale College founded, 156 \ ork, Duke of, seizes New Netherland, 7S Vorktown, surrender of, 211 Zenger, trial of Peter, 80 (note), 160