Book 
 
1 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 i«mma©M s^h@w^<oti 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE BEST AND LATEST 
 FRENCH GRAMMARS. 
 
 Bf CLAUDIUS BERARD, 
 
 EACHEK OP FRENCH IN THE MILITARY ACADEMY, AT 
 
 WEST-POINT. 
 
 NEW-YORK. 
 
 >* j) < 
 
 BERARD & MONDON, 20 MAIDEN-LANE* 
 PRINTED BY JOSEPH DES^duSS 
 3 PROVOST-STREET. 
 
 1826. 
 
-pc* 
 
 03 
 
 fS* 
 
 SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW^ORK, ss. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED. Tint on the twenty-ninth day or June, the fiflielb 
 the Independence of the United Snie* of America, Claudius Berard, of (lie »aid district, hath df 
 posted in tba office the title ol a hook, the right whereof he claims a^ author, ia the word- 
 following, to wit: 
 
 " A Grammar of the French Language; compiled from the best 
 and latest French Grammars. By Claudius Berard, Teacher of 
 French in the Military Academy at West-Point." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United Slates of America, entitled " An ac! 
 fin- the encoui igemi nt of I >- tin copii ■ of m ipa, chart! und boob to the author" 
 
 ind proprietor I i ■ - 'I" ' nUoned." And also to an act entitled. 
 
 " An »ct, nipplemeoutrj t" »o ict, entitled, An act foi 'h om i^ mi nl .•! Ii urning, by securing 
 
 the coii. "nl boob to ihr urtfaon ami pro| on of sircb copiea, during the 
 
 i,m. tl, n 1 mill tiding ihc benefits thereof to the ail- ol doigning, engpavi 
 
 , I other |iintv" 
 
 JAMES DILL, 
 Clerk of the Southern Di-tuct of New-York. 
 
 9U 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present French Grammar is humbly offer- 
 ed to the Pupils of the Military Academy, and to 
 the American public in general, as a short, plain 
 and comprehensive exposition of the principles 
 of a language, which, on account of the ease with 
 which it may be acquired, of its being a key to so 
 many valuable works, and the sociable character 
 of the nation that speaks it, must always consti- 
 tute a part of a liberal and polite education. 
 The compiler is far from nattering himself he has 
 done better than his numerous predecessors, but 
 he trusts the plan he has adopted will prove use- 
 ful to the learner. Nothing but what experience 
 has taught was necessary for beginners has been 
 introduced into these elements. The treatise on 
 pronunciation, which precedes, will be found more 
 complete than in any other grammar, and the 
 learner, assisted for some time by a good teacher, 
 will soon, by its means, pronounce with facility 
 all the most difficult words of the language. The 
 various syntactical examples have not been trans- 
 
IT PREFACE. 
 
 lated that the instructor, by causing the pupil 
 himself to give him a literal translation of them, 
 may more deeply inculcate the rules they are 
 intended to illustrate. This method will of course 
 make the scholar acquainted with many words, 
 give more interest to his lessons, and better ena- 
 ble him to write with accuracy the practical 
 exercises which the compiler contemplates short- 
 ly to publish in a separate volume. 
 
PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 The principles of pronunciation are a natural introduc- 
 tion to the grammar of a language. 
 
 The first principles or elements of pronunciation are 
 letters. 
 
 The letters of the French language are : 
 
 
 USUAL NAMES. 
 
 NEW NAMES. 
 
 IN 
 
 FRENCH IN ENGLISH 
 
 in which, Conso- 
 nants have all 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 a mute sound. 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ah 
 
 
 According- to the 
 
 2 
 
 b 
 
 be 
 
 bay 
 say 
 day 
 
 be 
 
 old and usual names 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 c 
 d 
 
 ce 
 de 
 
 ke or ce 
 de 
 
 of the consonants, 
 the following seven 
 f, h, I, m, n, r, s, 
 
 5 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 
 are feminine, and 
 
 6 
 
 f 
 
 effe 
 
 eff 
 
 fe 
 
 the others mascu- 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 ge 
 ache 
 
 zhay 
 ash 
 
 gue or ge 
 he 
 
 line ; according to 
 the new names, all 
 consonants are mas- 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ee 
 
 
 culine : in both the 
 
 10 
 
 j 
 
 ji 
 
 zhee 
 
 J e 
 
 vowels are mascu- 
 
 11 
 
 k 
 
 ka 
 
 kah 
 
 ke 
 
 line. 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 elle 
 
 ell 
 
 le 
 
 
 13 
 
 m 
 
 emme 
 
 emm 
 
 me 
 
 
 14 
 
 n 
 
 enne 
 
 enn 
 
 ne 
 
 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 P 
 
 pe 
 
 pay 
 
 pe 
 
 
 17 
 
 q 
 
 qu 
 
 
 que 
 
 q cannot be repre- 
 
 18 
 
 r 
 
 erre 
 
 airre 
 
 re 
 
 sented by anEnglish 
 
 19 
 
 s 
 
 esse 
 
 ess 
 
 se or ze 
 
 sound, as it includes 
 the vowel u in its 
 
 20 
 
 t 
 
 te 
 
 tay 
 
 te 
 
 pronunciation. 
 
 21 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 No similar sound in 
 
 22 
 
 V 
 
 ve 
 
 vay 
 
 ve 
 
 English. 
 
 23 
 
 w 
 
 double ve 
 
 dooble vay 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 X 
 
 ix 
 
 eekse 
 
 xe 
 
 
 25 
 
 y 
 
 i grec 
 
 ee graik 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 z 
 
 zede 
 
 zaid 
 
 ze 
 
 
PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 Six of these letters a, e, ' \ same sound o, u, are called sim- 
 ple vowels ; the others consonants. 
 
 From the combination of the simple vowels, the follow- 
 
 au 
 
 ing compound vowels are formed: > same sound 
 
 ai i 
 
 tn 
 
 
 same sound ; > same sound; a like simple e : ou. 
 
 ceu 3 l 7 
 
 Vowels united, so as to produce two sounds, but one syl- 
 lable only, are called diphthongs. The French diphthongs 
 are : aie, ia, mi, it, ie, few, io, oc, o», ouai, one, out, ua, ut, w. 
 By the addition of m or », the preceding vowels general- 
 ly become nasal, that is, form sounds which are effected 
 by a simple aspiration through the nose, without the least 
 motion of the tongue, and without pronouncing at all m. 
 or n. 
 Tlie na*al sound* arc : am )i un ~) ~i om ) 'g urn ) ~i vm 
 
 1 un \ | ien 
 
 %icn hktiin -J 
 
 r ";i Jf -I -5 OM 
 
 en (has also the sound of in.) ouin 
 
 inn 
 
 The sounds of die rowefe are affected by small marks, 
 called accents, placed over them. 
 
 There are three accents, the acute ('), the grave ( x ), 
 and the circumflex ('). 
 
 The acute is placed over e to retain the closr sound 
 which it 1 1 ; t — ■ in tlie alphabet, ;i- in -/<'. pinetri, degenert. 
 
 The grave is also placed i>ui < to give it an oj>< A sound, 
 ( - in acci$i pro 
 
 The grave i- besides, placed over a preposition (to), to 
 distinguish it from a verb (has) ; over pa adverb (hen 
 
 distinguish it from fa pr un (that) ; over id adv. (there), 
 
 to distinguish it from la article (the); over ou adv. (where), 
 fo distinguish it from <>» conjunction (or); over da adv. 
 (indeed) and deja adv. (already), without any ostensible 
 reason. 
 
 The circumflex is plac< <l <>vcr the vowels a, e, i, o, u, ai. 
 eu, ot, and ou, to give them a long open found ; ex. pat,', 
 f.'i,. (Un,, rut,, Jlut.'. aln . (hj'iin\ cfofire, 
 
 \\ Inn a vowel Busl be pronounced distinct from an other 
 preceding it. it is marked over with two dDts**,ealledd 
 U ■>!. hair, Saul. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 All that remains to be said in relation to the vowels and 
 consonants will be found in the following observations on all 
 the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 A has two sounds: it is short, as in matin, morning; 
 bague, ring; table, table ; &c. It is long as in midin, 
 mastiff; time, soul ; atre, hearth ; and wherever it is 
 marked over with the circumflex, n. b. This accent is 
 often pronounced in a, as well as other vowels, where 
 it is not laid down ; ex. bas, low ; cas, case ; sabre, 
 sword j &c— a is silent in these words : 
 
 the aorist tense, 
 august. 
 
 a reaper. 
 
 a river of France. 
 
 an ox fly. 
 
 aoriste, pr. oriste, 
 aout, pr. ou, 
 
 aouteron, pr. outeron, 
 saone, pr. sone, 
 iaon, pr. ton, 
 
 and in Aaron, one a only is sounded, pr. Aron, a proper 
 name. 
 AI, a compound vowel, has two sounds : the sound of 
 e in pai, I have ; and in perfect and future tenses of 
 verbs ; ex. jejouai, dansai, jouerai, danserai, I played, 
 danced, shall play, shall dance. 
 
 ■ the sound of e, every where else ; ex. mais, but ; vrai, 
 
 true ; trait, feature ; jejouais, I was playing ; je dan- 
 sais, I was dancing ; je jouerais, I would play ; je dan- 
 serais, I would dance. 
 B, sounds as in English ; ex. babouin, bobo, bible, &c. 
 It is silent in plomh, lead ; and wherever it is reduplica- 
 ted, one only is pronounced ; ex. abbe, and its deriva- 
 tives, rabbin, sabbat. 
 
 ~} k before a, o, u ; ex. cacao, cocon, coucou, cure. ( 1 ) 
 
 ^ before e, i, y ,• ex. cecile, cicero, cypres ; and 
 
 I before a, o, u, when it has underneath a small 
 
 > (mark called cedilla ., : ex. §a, magon, fagon, 
 
 J poincon, frangais, congu. 
 g in second and all its derivatives ; in reine-claude, 
 
 the name of a kind of plum, 
 before an other c, or q : accablement, accomplir, 
 accumidation, acquerir, acquit, ( 2 ) and at the end 
 of the following words : accroc, almanach, amict, 
 arc-boutant, arsenic, banc, blanc, broc, clerc, eric, 
 "croc, echec, estomac,jlanc, franc, instinct, jonc, 
 J lao$, marc, pore, tabac and tronc. ( 3 ) 
 
 G< 
 
8 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 (') C. has the sound of & before a consonant, in the mid- 
 die and end of words : cri,climat, croix, Cneius, Czar, Ctesi- 
 phon, acteur, sanclification, bac, soc, micmac, &c. 
 
 ( 2 ) But when double c is followed by e or i, the first c is 
 pronounced ; ex. accent, acccs, accident sacces, succint, &c. 
 
 ( 3 ) When done, a conjunction, begins a sentence, its r is 
 pronounced : in every other case, it is silent. 
 
 fshin English ; ex. chapcau, char, cheri, cherubin, choc, 
 chuchoteur. 
 k in the following words : Achat, Achdicc, Achclous, 
 Achil/cidc, Antiochus, Arachne, Archllaiis, Archilous, 
 archetype, archange, Archangel, Archenaasse, Archf- 
 trastus, archiepiscopal, Archtgenes, archonte, baccha- 
 nale, bacchante. Bacchus, Calchas, Chalcidoinc, Chal- 
 n, Cham, Chanaan. chaos, Chan/bde, charides, 
 Charon, Ch/oris, catechumene, Chilidoine, cheludre. 
 Chersonese, chiliarque, Chio, chirographic, chiroman- 
 . i hour, choree, choriste, chorus, chorographie, 
 Christ, chretien, chretiente, christianisme, chromatiqw, 
 chronologic, chronique, chrysalidt, chrysocolle, chrip 
 sologtu, Civita-Vecchia, Dyrrachium, echinades, ipi- 
 chantid< s. < i archat, echo, echonometre, eucharislie, Es~ 
 chyle, Eschines, Ezechias, lichen, Machiavel, Melchior, 
 M Ichisedec, Mich l-Angt , Nabuchodonosor, orchu- 
 tre, parochial, rachitis, Tycho-Brahe, Zacharie, and 
 other- not \< i v common, derived from the Greek. 
 g in (Inn linn onl\ . 
 
 Cli i- silent in ahnanach. 
 
 D sounds as in English \ kx. dada, d,' . dedit, dindon, dodo, 
 due, dru, <^e. 
 
 Ii i- pronounced in the middle of words, and before an- 
 other d ; KX. adverbe, adjoint, adversite, addition, red- 
 dition, Sic. 
 
 at the end of proper names: ex. David, 
 
 d, Joadf&c, except Madrid, where 
 it i- Bilent. 
 
 — tothese two words, talmtud and sud. 
 
 \[ is lilenl at the end of adjectives, common substantive*, 
 ami verbs ; as in fcord, chaitd,fonA, froid, gond, nutid, 
 
 ;i'd./'"il. // mor&, U COtiA, d mom\, &.C. 
 
 \\ hen d final is co ted \\ ith the vowel beginning next 
 
 word, it takes the soood of f ; ex. dt fond-t nM mbU, 
 or. di fon-U n-i omblt ■; </« pied-en-cap, or. de p\ 
 
 • mud-ilh ' pr« eoa-l'lh .' un grand homme, pr. 
 im gran-totm . »v<'. 
 
 I 
 
I 
 
 *S ! 1 
 
 W 
 
 .w 
 
 I 
 
 FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 9 
 
 fmarked over with the acute accent ; ex. etc, dvgenen, 
 repele, &c. 
 before d,f, h, r, s, z in the same syllable, these conso- 
 nants being silent ; ex. pied, clef, effemine ; eh ; de- 
 jeuner, jouer, aimer, marcher, papier, boucher ; essai, 
 descendre, messieurs ; nez, chez, &c. 
 f marked over with the grave '; ex. succes, acces,pere, 
 mere, &c. 
 
 (b, c, d, f, m, p, x, z, ending a syllable or word, 
 and sounded; ex. Oreb, avec, sec, lectcur, rec- 
 titude, Sedlitz, Obed, chif, nef, hem, idem, cep, 
 julep, inepte, reptile, exces, examiner, sexe, Suez, 
 j | Alvarez. 
 i o J Si ^ n, > r ' s i *i some t' m es pronounced, sometimes 
 3 "^ silent : ex. segment, legs, del, sel, tel, be\le, li- 
 beller, abdomen, chienne, Etienne, fer, mer, ter- 
 ror, Jerre, guerre, serre, leste, ouest, est, mes- 
 quin, espece, les, mes, tes, ses, ces, es, messe, ca- 
 resse, tacet, sept, navet, duvet, et, mets, lettre, 
 mettre. 
 E is long open, marked over with the circumflex A ; ex. 
 tete, tempete, meme, extreme. 
 mute, under no accent and affected by no consonant. 
 In monosyllables e mute has a full sound, emitted from 
 the throat ; for which reason, it has been termed 
 guttural ; ex. ce, de,je, le, me, ne, que, se, te. 
 At the beginning, middle, and end of words, it is scarce- 
 ly perceptible : ex. demande, devenir, promenade, 
 plume, ai-je ? dis-je ? sais-je ? vais-je ? &c. 
 When a vowel precedes, mute e serves merely to 
 lengthen its sound ; ex. vie pr. vi, lie pr. li, fee pr. 
 fe, nee pr. ne,joue pr.jou, suie pr. sui, &c. 
 When many monosyllabic mute sounds occur together, 
 they must be rapidly pronounced ; ex. je ne le sais 
 pas,je me le dis, il sefache de ce que je ne me le rap- 
 pelle pas. 
 The mute sound is often done away in verbs, where 
 two mute e's would come together, by placing the 
 acute or grave accent over the first, or by redupli- 
 cating the consonant ; ex. je donne, dorme-je ? je 
 danse, danse-je ? mener,je mens, je menerai ; semer^ 
 je seme, je semerai ; appe/er, j'opp< 
 nous avjprenons, ils apprennent, &c. 
 2 
 
10 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 Mute e is sometimes dropped in substantives, verbs, 
 and adverbs ; and the foregoing vowel is then mark- 
 ed over with the circumflex ; ex. gaitc for gaiete ; 
 je prirai for je prierai ; jcjourai for jc jouerai ; gai- 
 ment for gaicmcnt ; congrument for congruemeni ; ice. 
 
 Mute e is dropped in all mute monosyllables coming 
 before words beginning with a vowel or a silent /* : 
 and its place is supplied by a mark called apostro- 
 
 phe 
 
 EX. 
 
 le, the, Poiseau, the bird. 
 
 re, it, c'«s/, it is. 
 
 je, I, fiume, I love. 
 
 it, thee. il f'aime, he loves thee. 
 
 himself, U s'atmc, he loves himself. 
 
 rf< , of, ?//} m'd cPoiseaux, a nest of birds. 
 
 ?j^, not, /'< ii'ose, I dare not. 
 
 7'", that, f/u'i/ ttimf, that he may love. 
 
 E mute is also dropped before a vowel in lortque, tor*- 
 qu'il j des qn< . oes tjv'i!; quoique^ quoiqv?il ; puis- 
 que, puisquUl ; jusque, jusqifators; antique, autl- 
 ijn'iiu; tntr> . nttr't in ; and in the adjective femi- 
 nine grande, although not before a vowel ; ex. 
 fgraruP faim, grand 5 yo;/" grand* 1 m/>v. &c. 
 E is silent in Caen, pr. ('»/>/. b citj of France ; in en, /'cms. 
 fu ei -. &c. belonging to 
 
 the verb avoir, to have; and in all words where il 
 i- found I- ■. g-o, if-//, (provided there is no 
 
 i \. il rongea, je gageai, George, geo- 
 lier, gageure, mangeure, in which ca d as a 
 
 • oing sign.— (sec lettei 
 Em has genera I rj a nasal Bound ; ex. empire, tmpan, tnn- 
 ftener. But it sounds like a in femme, pr. 
 /omi ; femmelette, pr. famelete ; and in all adverbs 
 ending in emmenf ,■ ex. ardemment, pr. ardaman } di(- 
 rmunt, pr. ch'j/eraman; iloquemment, pr. eloqua- 
 
 Jiiini ; \r. 
 
 En has four sounds. It ia generally pronounced like on; 
 
 encens, entmdement, ennui. Often like mj ax. 
 
 li is pronounced like 
 
 in abdomen, amen, Eden, gramen, hymen, (this 
 
 word i- often pronounced with a nasal sound.) knd 
 
 like '/. in /" nntr 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 11 
 
 F sounds as in English ; ex. fanfan, fer, fbre,fou,fumee, 
 cerf vif I of, tuf bceuf ceuf 
 
 — sounds like v in the numeral adjective neuf, nine ; be- 
 
 fore a substantive beginning with a vowel, or a silent 
 h ; neuf ecus, pr. neu-vecu ; neuf homines, pr. neu-vome; 
 
 — is silent in clef, pr. cle ; eteuf pr. eleu. 
 
 in the compound substantives cerf-volant, pr. 
 
 cer-volan ; chef-d'oeuvre, pr. che-deuvre ; nerf- 
 de-bozuf pr. ner-de-bozuf ; the last f being 
 sounded. 
 
 in the plural of these three substantives; bceuf, 
 
 nerf ceuf; ex. bceufs, pr. beu ; nerfs pr. ner; 
 ozufs, pr. eu. 
 
 in bceuf and ceuf when followed by an adjective, 
 
 and in neuf nine ; when followed by a sub- 
 stantive, beginning with a consonant ; ex. du 
 bceuf sale, un ceuf dur, neuf chaises, neudivres. 
 
 before another/; ex. affaiblir, oifrir, suifire, &c. 
 
 G has two sounds : 
 
 A hard one before a, o, u, I, r, ex. gave, gai, gogo, goulu, 
 
 aigu, cigue, glace, glu, 
 gras, gros. 
 
 ■ before ue, ue, ui, uon, when the vowels e mute, 
 
 e, i, 071, only are sound- 
 ed, the preceding vow- 
 el u being used mere- 
 ly to make g hard ; 
 ex. gnenon,monologxxe, 
 gue,guerre,gueule,gui, 
 gagui, gmnguette, vo- 
 guons. 
 (both u and i are pronounced in the fol- 
 lowing words; aiguille, 
 aiguillex, aiguillee, ai- 
 guilletiex, aiguillette, 
 aiguillon, aiguillonner, 
 aiguiser, aiguisement, 
 inextinguible, and in 
 these two proper names 
 Guise, le Guide.) 
 
 — in the middle and end of words, where it should 
 
 sound ; ex. augmentev, 
 segment, fragment, pa- 
 radigme, enigme, sugge- 
 rerjoug, Jigag, Zadig. 
 
12 PRLNCIPLEo OF 
 
 G. has a bard sound in the proper names Gessner, pr. Guts- 
 
 ner ; Geshr, pr. Gitesler. 
 
 — before h in these foreign words : Berg- 
 
 heinK Ghilan, &e. 
 
 — has a soft one before e, i 3 y ; ex. gemir, goiou. genre, gibier, 
 
 gingembrc, gynecee, gypse, 
 
 — before ea, eo,eu, where the vowels r/, o, ", 
 
 only are sounded, the pre- 
 ceding vowel e being used 
 merely to make g soft ; ex. 
 ?7 mentgea, se gorged, il m- 
 geole, George, chargcure. 
 ''/•'', &c. 
 
 — sounds like A in the first syllable of gangrene, gungrener, 
 
 and gangn /r.nr. 
 
 — in bourg; and at the end of some words. 
 
 when conuected with the vowel begin- 
 ning the following words ; an longacch, 
 pr. un-lon-kacct ; /-a/(? \\onarable, pr. 
 ran-konorablt ; suer sang et eati, pr. sue 
 san-ki-6, 
 
 — is silent in these words : faubourgs /ms. cfotgt, otngt, fta- 
 
 n ng, r7a/ig,/>oi/jg, gswe, 6ar/ong, 
 
 oblong, and in long, /v/z/l:. and sang, when 
 not connected with a vowel. 
 
 — before another g ; ex. aggravi r, agglomen r, agglu- 
 
 lunr. Except in suggirtr, 
 geste, suggestion, where bothgS 
 are pronounced. 
 fiN. I tnds. 
 
 ■ . compagnon, compagn\ 
 
 xagnanime, magnifiqut^ 
 v. incog- 
 nito, magnisie, magnetiqw, magnetiser, 
 
 :iiure, igMh 
 . &C. 
 
 A liurd one, as in the English words magnify, ignorant* 
 
 \\ In re\ ci it begins a w ord ; ex. Gmde, gnotm . 
 
 gnomon, %no»tique, gnosimaque% i &c. 
 In these fvords ; agnat, agnation* agnus-cattut^ 
 • ' on, diagnostique, igni, igni- 
 tion, ignicole, impregnation, inexpugnable, 
 magnat, magnis-arsenical, Pro { 
 tagnant, stagnation. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 13 
 
 In these words Glugny, Regnard, Regnaud, and signet, g 
 is silent, pr. Cluni, Renar, Rcnau, sine. 
 H. is sometimes aspirated, and sometimes silent. 
 
 It is aspirated in ha, habler, hable, hablerie, hableur, hache, 
 hachement, hacher, hachereau, hachctte, 
 hachis, hachoir, hachure, hagard, haha, 
 hahalis, haie, Juiie, haillon, hainc, haincux, 
 hair, haire, haireux, haissable, hait, ha- 
 lage, halbran, halbrene, halbrener, hale, 
 hdle-bas, halencr, holer, haleter, hahtant, 
 hdleur, haUage, haUali, halle, haMebarde, 
 haMebardier, haUcbreda, haUicr, halluci- 
 nation, haloir, halot, halotechnie, halte, 
 halter, hamac,hameau,hampe, han,hanap, 
 hanche, hangar, hanneton, hanscrit, hanse, 
 hanseatique, hansiere, hantcr, hantise,hap- 
 pe, happee, happe-fou, happelopin, happe- 
 lourde, happer, haquebute, haquenee, ha- 
 quet, haquetier, harame, harangue, haran- 
 guer,harangueur, haras, harasser, harceler, 
 hard, harde, hardes, harder, hardeau, har- 
 delle, harder, hardi, hardiesse,hardiment, 
 harem, hareng, harengaison, harengere, ha- 
 rengerie, harer, hargneur, haricot, haridel- 
 le, harnachement, harnacher, harnacheur, 
 harnais, haro, harpagon, harpailler, harpe, 
 harper, harpie, harpin, harpiste, harpon, 
 harponner, harpowneur, hart, hasard, ha- 
 sarder, hasardeusement, hasardeux, hase, 
 hate, hater, hdtereau, hdteur, hdtier, hdtif, 
 hatille, hdtiveau, hdtivement, hdtivete, hau- 
 baner, hauban, haubere, haubert, hauber- 
 v geon, haubitz, hausse, haussement, hausscr, 
 
 haussoires. haut, hautain, hautainement, 
 hautbois, hautement, hautehse, hauteur, 
 hauturier, have, haveron, havet, havir 3 
 havre, havresac, he, heaume, heler, hem, 
 hennir, hennissement, Henri, Henriade, he- 
 raut, here, herisser, herisson, herissonner, 
 herniaire, hernie, hernieur, heron, heron- 
 nier, heros, herpes, hersage, herser, herse- 
 ment, herseur, hetre, heurt, heurter, heur- 
 toir, hibou, hie, hideur, hideusement, hi- 
 
14 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 deux, hie, hier, h'urarchie, hierarchique, 
 hisser, hoc, hochc, hochepied, hochepot, ho- 
 cher, hochei, hold, hoUander, homard, hon- 
 gre, hongrcr, honnir, honnisscment, hon- 
 togc, hontc, honteusement, honteur, hoque- 
 ton, hors, hors tPaeuvre, hotte, hottee, hot- 
 teur, houblon, houblonner, houre, hone, 
 houev, houette, kouquette, houhmi, houille, 
 houillcrc, houilleur, houlette, horde, hon- 
 /cur, houp, houpee, houper, houppe, houp- 
 pelandt, hourtiilltT, houraillis, hourcc, 
 hourdage, hourdcr, hourdi, houret, houri, 
 houret, houri, hourque, hourvori,houscaux, 
 houtpiller, housiage, hovssaie, houssc, 
 houst&e, housser, houssine, houssiner,hou&- 
 soir, hour, hoi/ttu, huard, huchc, hucher, 
 /ituhfi. hiu'e, hmr, huguenot, hugwno- 
 tis/ni, huit, huitain, huitaine, huitieme, 
 huittimcment, humer, htme, hunter, hunpe, 
 hurc, hur/taid, hurlc/nati, h'irlcr, hussurd, 
 huUr. hutier* 
 
 rt ia aspirated in aheurter, qheurtement, dehajer, tUhanche, 
 deha'rder, dUmrnach&rnenk, tUharnacher, 
 dehiscence) dihonte, dehors, diho 
 ehancher, tnhowdix enharnachement, en* 
 harnacher, ehonte", rehau&86T» 
 
 in names <>i' countries, cities and nations; 
 
 Hainaut, HoUande, Hongrie, Hesse, Horn- 
 bourg, Ihm-, Hottentot, &c— There arc 
 a lew exceptions i<> this rule; c\. Helve- 
 tic, l\>>/»in. Hurcanie, where h is silent. 
 
 It is silent in every other word nol included in the pret •■ 
 dihg lilt : :> s in habile, babilete, baottpha* 
 biter, habitude, haleine, halo, harmonic 
 h9it,hehdomadaire,hebi rg i r,h£6ete,biorj u, 
 h&cat'ombe, h&las, rWicon, hhnisphire 1 
 \\nb,. Herctde, heresie, heritage, herder, 
 I, r, hesitation, heure, heureux, hier, lw- 
 rondeUe, histc homicide, horn- 
 
 mqge, homtne, hamecon, homogene, hon- 
 neur, hoonite, honorer, horizon, \\ormis, 
 horn ur, hfipital, hdti /, humain, huitrt, hu~ 
 . Uydre, &c. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION, 15 
 
 It is silent in heroine, hero'isme, herdique, herdiquemrnt, 
 heroide, although h is aspirated in heros, 
 N. B. Some do not aspirate h in Henri, Hen- 
 ricttc, in familiar discourse ; and say 
 likewise, toile (PWoUande, frontage d'Hol- 
 lande, eau de la reine d^Hongrie, point 
 d'Rongrie : but, according to the best 
 grammarians and speakers, it is better to 
 avoid such an irregularity, and pronounce 
 h in these four words in all cases. 
 
 ■ after r and t ; ex. rheteur, rhombe, rhubarbe, 
 
 Thalie, the, theatre, thon, thym, thyrse, 
 catholique, methode, &c. 
 
 I. has always the sound of double ee in English : biribi, 
 Mississipi, inimitable, &c. 
 It is silent in mo\gnon, poignard, poignant, poignee, em- 
 
 poigner, 
 in the proper name Montaigne, &c. the com- 
 mon substantive oignon, which words are 
 now generally spelled Montagne, ognon. 
 • ■ — in the conjunction si, before il and its only, 
 where i is dropped, and an apostrophe 
 put in its place ; ex. sHl a, s'ils ont.^ 
 IM. has two sounds. 
 
 It has the same sound as in English before m, in the be- 
 ginning of words ; ex. immortel, immense, immobile, 
 immodere, immuable, &c. 
 It has also the same sound at the end of foreign proper 
 
 names ; ex. Selim, Ephrdim, Elim, fyc. 
 And in the word hymne. 
 
 It has the nasal sound of in or ain, in every other case ; 
 ex. simple, imprudent, timbre, thym, symbole, &c. 
 
 IN. has also two sounds. 
 
 It is pronounced as in English before n, in a few words ; 
 
 ex. inne, innovev, innascible, innavigable, $-c. 
 It is pronounced with a nasal sound in every other case : 
 ex. incree, insu,jin, cintre, gredin, fyc. 
 J. is always pronounced soft, as g before e, i, and y ; ex. 
 jaloux, je, jesuite, jeune, joli, joie, jouer, juge, jujube, fyc. 
 K. sounds as in English ; kabak, kermes, kiosque, knout, 
 kyrielle, <^c. 
 
16 
 
 principles or 
 
 L, sounds as in English, before or after a vowel ; ex. la, 
 le, les, libre, lyre, lin, loge, lune, luire, bloc, clemencc. 
 cheval, canal, austral, sol, c'alcul. 
 
 — final is always pronounced after e, and gives it the open 
 
 sound ; ex. bel, ciel, autel, cruel, mortel, reel, sel, «$rc. 
 pr. bel, ciel, autel, cruel, tyc. 
 
 — in the middle of words, whether pronounced or not, co- 
 
 rning before another /, also gives the open sound to the 
 e preceding it; ex. belligerunt, ellebore, vclleite, be\le. 
 bagatelle, JiceUe, se\le. vaisseUe, ^'C. 
 
 — final is pronounced after i in Alguazil, anil, Bresil, bill. 
 
 bissea til. civil, exit. fil,goupil, il, incivil, mil, (thousand). 
 JMirtil, liwrjil, pistil, profit, pueril, sil, subtil, til, vola- 
 til, vinl. 
 
 — final i.- >ilcnt after i in h«ri\, cheni\, couti\,feni\,fourni\, 
 
 f'n:i\. genti\, gri\, nombril, outii, persil, and sourcil. 
 
 — i- also silent in //Is. pr. /7 ; gentiishommes, pr.gentizdme ; 
 
 pou\s, pr. /""' ; bow, pr 
 
 A-de-sac, c\A-dt-lampt, 
 
 ( i, ~\ JZ ( avril, babil, mil, (millet) and piril. 
 
 )ot, § ail, bail, bttail, detail, eventau, Ac. 
 n. | COtueil, ii;il, orteil, jianit, xotcit, kc. 
 
 ihi. ~L \ i, , I', ml. ih'Vi'nil. < turn/it. fault uil.kv. 
 
 mi, a> | in cut tl.iin md. i • ut it, nrgttri/,rii ut </,«.y 
 
 ■ M. gj \l,,l. 
 
 am, a (Jenouil, trenawl, ami virotal. 
 
 - followed by h has a liquid Bound in geniilhomme. pr. 
 gentiliomt ; Mithaud, pr. Milio; and in P&rdaUhat ■■, pr. 
 Pardaliacm 
 
 f 
 
 ex. 
 
 brillant, Jill, , fumillr, grille 
 
 LI .. i- liquid, when 
 preci d( (1 l>\ 
 
 a, 
 
 a 
 
 f'n ill, /'. pillrr. &C, 
 ex. hntiiill,. CCtille, niniiille, tru- 
 
 vailler, railler, saillit, A-c 
 ex. (da illt . or exile, veille, 
 It r, Bomrm iller, $'c. 
 nti ; ex. feuille, v\ utile, effeviller^ fyc. 
 - . i in ill' . recueille, accu< illir. 
 IrouUli . depouille, grenouille, 
 fouillt r, souiller, a t . 
 in : ( \. aiguille, aigtiillonner, - 
 Exc( p1 in the following word?, where the Grst / is sileol : 
 .1,1, Ah. codiciile, campaniUe, distiller, gi\le, \dy\le, ////• 
 I.:, /I/. . I Ah . mi\lt . myrtiUe, pupiUt , tt file, stVe, snnllr, 
 \le, tybtile, tranqxAU, o i Hie, 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION 17 
 
 LL is liquid in Sulli, a proper name, although no i pre- 
 cedes it. 
 
 LL, preceded by any of the other vowels, has the sound of 
 a single / ; ex. aUer, col/er, rebeMe, pelle, moUir, nu\le, 
 c£*c. -^-Except in the following words, where 11 sounds 
 distinctly, as in English : allegation, allegeance, alUgev, 
 allegorie, alleguer, allusion, alluvion, appellatif, ap- 
 pellation, belligerant, belliqueux, cavillation, collation, 
 coUationncr, collaborateur, collegial, collegue, colloque, 
 collusion, constellation, ebullition, ellebore, folliculaire, 
 gallican, gallicisme, hellenisme, instillation, instillev, 
 intellect, intelligence, intelligent, intelligible, libeller, 
 malleable, maxillaire, millenaire, millesime, osciller, 
 oscillation, palladium, palliatif, palliation, palliev, 
 pellicule, pusillanime, pusillanimite, rebellion, solli- 
 citer, solicitation, sollicitude, syllogisme, scintiller, scin- 
 tillation, titillation, titiller, tabellion, va^iller, vacilla- 
 tion, velleite ; in all words beginning with ill : illusion, 
 illegal, fyc. ; and in Greek and Latin proper names : 
 Apollon, Bellone, Pallas, Sylla, &c. 
 
 M sounds as in English, before vowels ; ex. mamelle, mime, 
 momie, murmur e, fyc. 
 
 — sounds as in English before n ; ex. Agamemnon, pr. 
 
 agamemenon, amnistie, amnistier, automnal, calomnie, 
 calomniex, calomniateur, calomnieuv, calomnieusement, 
 Clytemnestre, pr. clitemenestre,- hymne, pr. imene, 
 hymnaire, hymnode, indemne pr. indemene, indemnisev 
 pr. indamenize, indemnite pr. indameniie, insomnie, sam- 
 nite, somnambule, somnambulisme, somnifere, somno, 
 somnolence. Except in automne, damnable, damnable- 
 ment, damnation, damner, condamnable, condamnation, 
 condamner, where m is silent : pr. autone, danable, #-c. 
 
 — sounds as in English, in words beginning with imm : im- 
 
 monde, immoral, ^c. (see im.) 
 
 — sounds as in English, in these latin words : Aempr. heme, 
 
 idem pr. ideme, item pr. iteme, requiem, septemvir, tri- 
 umvir, tu-autem, te-deum. 
 ~ sounds as in English in proper names : Amsterdam, Cham, 
 Potsdam, Priam, Rotterdam, Sem pr. Seme, Stockholm, 
 Wirtemberg, #-c— Except in Absalom and Adam, where 
 m has the nasal sound : pr. Absalon, Adan. 
 
 — sounds like me, when it begins a word, and is followed 
 
 by n ; in which case, it is silent in English : ex. Mne- 
 3 
 
18 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 mon pr. menemon. mnemonique pr. mtnimoniquc, Mai 
 mosine pr. menempzine, c£-c. 
 
 M is silent, before another m, and preceded by any of the 
 vowels, except i : ex. grammaire, grammairien. dom- 
 mage, homme, commander, commun, commode, puissam- 
 ment, fyc — It is pronounced in Amnion pr. amemon, 
 Emmanuel pr. ememanuel, ammoniac, commensurable, 
 commemoration, commknoratif, committimus, coyjuno- 
 tion. commiur. commuable, comma, grammatiste, gram- 
 matical. 
 
 -i after any of the vowels, and not followed by another n* 
 has the nasal sound of n in every other case: ex. 
 camper, ambe. embeMir, tempete, imbu, simple, ihym. 
 symbols, cymbal?, trompc. ombre, parfum, ^-c. (see the 
 nasal vow« 
 
 X sounds as in English, before vowels : ex. nagcv, nenufar. 
 nonagenairtj \c. 
 
 — has a nasal sound after vowels : as in anglican, enfant, 
 
 encan. </<<(»s. tnfin, enclin, intendant, plantain, enceini. 
 boado/i. Brandon, tribun, emprun, fyc, (see the nasal 
 vowels, i — Except io these words, where n has its pro- 
 per sound: abdomen pr. ahdomene, gramen pr. gra~ 
 mine, amen pr. amine, Eden |>r. edene, hymen pr. itnene, 
 (or imin with the nasal sound*) 
 
 — is silent before another : ax. annonce, annee, anntver- 
 
 sairt, annum, dormer, sonner,penne pr. pine, innocent 
 pr. ," - ■ . ennemi pr. rnemi, fyc. 
 
 • [>t in ihf follow ing w ords, \\ here both n\< are pro- 
 nounced as iu English: annul, annuel, annate, anna- 
 te cum, anntniler, an- 
 nihilation, ■■Hint* \\ annitit', inuiu- 
 lation, annuler, innascible, itinuscibilite, innavigable, 
 inn . innombmbh . innumerable, innombrablement, bi- 
 nommi, uui'.mtii'. bmovaieur, innovation, jtmovsr; and 
 in foreign proper name- : Ciuna, ( inchmatus, I. 
 
 A« . — N. B. When in precedes a rowel, <>i 
 
 a Bilenl 'i and a vowel, i rorms a syllable In itself, and 
 
 n i> connected with the following vowel: i t. 
 
 pr. //- tact pr. i-ni'xact, inachevt pr. i-na- 
 
 ihabilt pr. i-na-bile, inherent pr. i-m-ran, </<- 
 
 |u. - ia-bi-te, inhonore pr. i-no-no-re, \< . 
 
 — preceding another n, has a nasal sound in enno6/tr, en- 
 
 nui, and their derivatives. It i^ likewise pronounced 
 nasal, and as though it Wl bv a:. other >i. in 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 19 
 
 cnivrer pr. an-ni-vre, enorgneillir pr. an-norgueillir, and 
 their derivatives. 
 N is silent in Beam, a province of France, and pronounced, 
 in le Tarn, a river. 
 
 — is silent (as weli as t) in the third persons plural of verbs, 
 
 when e mute precedes it ; ex. Us montcut pr. il monte, 
 Us dinent pr. il jou, Us n'ent pr. il ri, Us voient pr. 
 il vol: fyc. 
 
 (When e mute comes after a vowel, it serves merely 
 to lengthen the sound of that vowel, as may be seen in 
 the three last examples.) 
 
 is silent mfaon pr. fan, Laon (a city) pr. Ian, paon pr. 
 pan, paone pr. pane, paonneau pr. pano. 
 
 P sounds as in English : as pape, papa, papier, pipe, pom- 
 pon, pupitre, #-e. 
 
 — sounds like joe, at the beginning of words, when followed 
 
 by s or t ; in which case it is silent in English : ex. 
 fjsaume pr. pesome, psalmiste pr. pesalmiste, psautier, 
 pr. pesautie, pseudonyme pr. peseudonyme, psyche pr. 
 pesyche, ptarmique pr. petarniique, ptyalisme pr. 
 petyalisme, fyc. 
 
 — is sometimes pronounced, sometimes silent, in the mid- 
 
 dle, and end of words : It is sounded in abrupt, adepte, 
 Alep, adapter, apte, accepter, adopter, excepter, intercep- 
 ier, optey and their derivatives ; baptismal, cap, con- 
 tempteur, cep, creps, ex abrupto, exemption, Gup, ja- 
 lap, julep, illaps, impromptu, impromptuaire, inepte, 
 ineptement, laps, rapt, redempteur, redemption, scep- 
 tique, scepticisme, sceptre, septante, stptantieme, septem- 
 bre, septenaire, septentrion, septuagenaire, symptome, 
 symptomatique, somptueux, somptueusement, somptuosi- 
 te, somptuaire, subreptice. 
 It is silent in bapteme, baptiser, baptistere, Baptisie, beau- 
 coup, camp, champ, compte, compter, comptoir, decomp- 
 tev, and all other derivatives ; in corps, coup, dompter, 
 domptable, indomptable, dompteur, drap, debaptiser, 
 exempt, exempter, galop, loup, prompt, promptitude, 
 sept, septieme, sculpter, sculpter, sculpteur, sculpture, 
 sirop, temps, (this word is now generally spelled terns) 
 printemps, trop ; in je romps, tu romps, il rompt, of 
 rompre and its derivatives ; before another p / as «p- 
 prcndre, apporter, supprimev, supplantev, &c. 
 PH sounds like /; as philosophe, phalange, phosphore, 
 phrase, Joseph, diphthongue, triphthongue, apophthegms 
 ajohte, ophthalmie, $-c. 
 
20 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 PH sounds like/, at the beginning of words, before /, ia 
 which case, it is mute in English ; as phthisie, pr. 
 fctizie, pkthisiologie, fyc. 
 Q has the sound of A- : but when it begins a syllable, as it 
 generally does, it always attended by u, which is silent 
 in most cases, the following vowels a. e, i, and o being 
 only pronounced; a* in quaire, pr. katrt ; q\mlque,pr. 
 kllke ; querelle, pr. kerele : quiproquo, pr. kiproko 
 quoique, pr. Aroi&e ; c^c. 
 N. B. There is but one instance ofgu bein^ followed b) 
 v. and it is in the word piquure, which is now con- 
 tracted into piquri pr. piik 
 Q is final in two words onhj cinq and coq, where it sounds: 
 pt when cinq is followed by a word beginning with 
 a consonant; as cinq femmes, pr. cin-fame ; cinq livres, 
 pr. cin-livre ; cinq plumes, pr. cin-plume ; ^.r. and in 
 r-;ij oVfnde, pr. co-ainde. 
 {' attending 7 sounds in some words, 
 it i.- pronounci d like ou when followed by «; as in ade- 
 qital. pr. mli-ro:iiit ; aquatile, pr. acumilile ; aqttittique, 
 equa on, '/'/</</' /■/(< -, quadragenaire, quadrage- 
 
 sitnal. rime, quadrangle, quadranguiaire, qua- 
 
 me, quadrupede, quadruple, quadruplet, 
 quaker,quanquam,quartidt, quartz, quasi-contrat, quasi- 
 l,quaterne, quaterne,quatuor, in-quarto, quadrature, 
 (t has its proper Bound when followed bj 
 gfufsfre, pr. t'-oi-<'str( ; eqtdangle, pr. i-cu-i-angle ; 
 1. Equilateral, equitatere, iquimultipU . «., 
 
 t'm in in. questeur, questure, quia, quibus, 
 
 (Jin." Quintilien, Quinte-Curce, qutnquage- 
 
 . quinquatrie, quinque, qumquennal, 
 
 quinquivir, qumtidi, quintuple, quintuplet, quirinalesm 
 
 IX. before B rowel sounds as in English ; as in rurcti, rilro- 
 
 gad ^v«'. 
 
 — ^ pronounced after a, i, ", u, but with a harder sound 
 
 than it eve/ has in English; as <">\ cAar, ttrdntr, 
 pdrtir, fourbir^ pour tour, dormir, sartir, bufor, martyr, 
 
 trtrtr, mur, sur,pur,sieur,&c. Except in mo 
 where ria silent, | • *. - or moncieu, and rapidly, 
 
 as i» the i;im' in conversation, mecieu.) 
 
 — sound* always after < io the middle "I \\<>nl-. givii 
 
 ih<- "i" n sound, as it. th<- case wherever r is heard : 1 \ 
 ''. cercle t <)ntLrin< . i nniti ,girbt\ pcrdre* 
 
 ■■ r,ai. &C« 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 21 
 
 R sounds always at the end of words, when followed by an 
 other consonant ; ex. cerf, concert, couvert, divers, 
 desert, je pcrds, offert, tiers, univers, vers, &c. 
 
 — sounds always in monosyllables ; ex. chcr,fer,fier, bier, 
 
 mer, ver. 
 •— sounds always in the following words ; alfier, amer, bel- 
 veder. cancer, cuiller, evfer, ether, faber, frater, gaster, 
 garniser, hirer, hydropiper, lucifer, macer, magister, 
 messer, outremer, pater. 
 
 — sounds always at the end of proper names ; ex. Alger, 
 
 Esther, Jupiter, Leicester, Munster, le Niger, Stat- 
 houder, &c. 
 
 — is silent at the end of all polysyllabic substantives, or 
 
 adjectives, terminating in cher, ger, iev and wer ; and 
 gives e the close or acute sound, as is always the case 
 where r final is mute : archer pr. arche, rocher, cocker, 
 vachev, berger, bocager, danger, passages, verger; acier, 
 altier, barbier, cahier, poirier, papier, diner, dejeuner, &c. 
 
 — is silent at the end of all infinitive moods of verbs in er ; 
 
 ex. cacher, jouer, lancer, Her, manger, percer, trainer, 
 verser, &c. 
 
 — is generally silent before another r ; ex. parrain, mar- 
 
 raine, carre, carrosse, charme,narrer, pourrir,je pourrai, 
 je pourrais. — N. B. E, preceding double r, is pro- 
 nonnced with the long open sound ; as guerre, pierre, 
 serre, terre, verve, &c. But both r's are pronounced in 
 erreur, terreur and their derivatives ; in abhorrer ; in 
 words beginning with irr : irriter, irraisonnable, &c. 
 and in these three future and conditional tenses : 
 j r acquerrai, j' *acquerrais,je courrai,je courrais,je mour- 
 rai,je mourrais. 
 S, before a vowel, sounds as in English •, ex. sa, sceur, son, 
 somme, surete, &c, 
 
 — at the beginning of words, before a consonant, sounds 
 
 also as in English ; as in spectateur, statue, squelette, 
 spectre, station, st (an interjection to silence or call,) &c. 
 
 — between two vowels is pronounced as in the English 
 
 words, daisy, noisy, arise ; ex. case, hesiter, miser e, po- 
 ser, oser, rose, vesicatoire, &c. Except in the follow- 
 ing words, where s has its proper sound, as in the 
 English word heresy ; ex. desuetude, entresol, monosyl- 
 labe, monosyllabique, parasol, polysyllable, polysynodie, 
 preseance, tournesol, vraisemblable, vraisemblance, vrai- 
 semblablement, in the second syllable of presupposer, 
 and presupposition ; in gisons, gisez, gisent, gisant, gi- 
 sement from the obsolete verb gir or gesir, to lie down. 
 
Z'Z PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 N. B. Many write nous gissons, rous gissez, ih- gisscui. 
 ■il gissait, gisaent, gissernent, which is a more regular 
 spelling. — See the verb gir. 
 
 S sounds like z in some words, although it is not between 
 two vowels, as in Alsace, balsamine, balsamique, in- 
 transitif, transaction, transiger, transit, transilif, tran- 
 sition, transitoirc. 
 
 ~ is generally pronounced in the middle of words (giving 
 c, where it precedes, the open or grave sound) ; ex. 
 basque, casque, aspic, bisque, registre, pistache, ostensi- 
 ble, poste, hostile, buslc, brusque, incruster ; destin, es- 
 clandre, asbeste,reste, zeste,fyc. pr. destin, isc/aiidre,fyc. 
 
 — is silent before ce, ci, and ch, at the beginning of words: 
 
 ". scene, BCte, scintiller, scion, schisme, schiste, &-c. 
 
 — is silent before ce, ci, and another s ; (pronouncing the 
 
 preceding e, sometimes with the acute, sometimes with 
 
 the grave Bound) misceltanee, v't'mmiscer, miscible,pis- 
 
 in n. discipline ; descendre, pr. decendn ; descente, pr. 
 
 - j esctent, pr. »'oa,/ ; masrae, cras*e, 6/esser, pr, 
 
 blice; ivresse, pr. n ?e, pr. ui/ece ; doissow, 
 
 pr. poi-con . glisser, pr. gli-cr, co&sc, grossc, mousse, 
 
 aumusfe, «.y<:. 
 
 N. 1>. In the following words i is mule before double e : 
 
 . pr. <l<-<ii; aes«ous, pr. <fe-c< pr. re- 
 
 iMtr, ream- 
 t, r. wecfa r, n sseme/i r, n - 
 ////•. /•.«.-.. ■• errer, res*ort, ressortir, res- 
 
 i . rissi jnlilirnii . r< 
 
 AAr/it. res»emo7er, and res*ittc»fcr, which many pro- 
 noonce h -cucitc. 
 I'll.- object of reduplicating a i- to avoid the soft sound 
 ofz, which a single has between two vowels. 
 * final is generally silent ; ax. FVangais pr.fran*ci,Anglaii 
 
 pr. anrglCjjamaii pr. jn-mi . bray pr. l>ni s tri/ius pr. //■.'- 
 pr. "/</■- ', onw pr. ant, fr< u7is 
 pr. trnlli. dot pr. f/''. " or. ■ pr. «/, ooue pr, 
 
 066, pr. <• />"> pr. pfl, refitf pr, re/tt, <frc. 
 
 — final i- always silent, when added to form the plural: 
 
 i.\. mmsont pr. mat-zdn, tots pr, fot, canj/« pr. cantf) 
 Aommei pr. omcj/enwiu pr. /«m«, «^c, — It gives the 
 open sound to the vowel < in these monosyllable 
 pr. ci, met pr. mi, »< pr. <• f« pr. A\ dct pr. </-'. and 
 their compounds lesquela pr. /<7.-<7, deaqneh pr. d£&e7; 
 D j, : . , .. D '•> pr. din', ■ I ' 
 
 : these Ibree laal are proper Dames. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 23 
 
 S final is pronounced in amy, angelus, agnus, agues, aloe*, 
 abas, abraxas, abenevis, adonis, agatis, amadis, apis, 
 ambesas, anus, asperges, as, atlas, bis (an adverb), bibus, 
 blocus, bolus, cans, calus, chorus, coltra-morbus, crept, 
 certs', Christ (where t sounds also, but in antechrist both 
 $ and t are silent), devis, dervis, diesis, diabetes, foetus, 
 fiores, gratis, helas, hiatus, honores, hypocras, ibis, iris, 
 jadis, Jesus (but silent in both places in Jesus-Christ 
 pr. jesu-cri), kermes, laps, lis, (silent in jieur de lis), 
 lorsque, (although silent in lors), mdis, (which many 
 pronounce mdi), mars, metis, mceurs, moius, obus, oli- 
 brius, oremus, ours, pancreas, pathos, patres, phoibus, 
 profes, prospectus, puisque, (although silent in puis), 
 quibus, quitus, radius, rasibus, rhus, rebus, rhinoceros, 
 sinus, sus, tous used as a pronoun (but silent in tous 
 adjective) us, uterus, vis, virus, volvulus, vasistas : in 
 plus, in some cases, as plus que parfait, plus-petition ; 
 at the end of a sentence ; as il y a plus, je dis plus 5 
 among mathematicians, as plus deux, (plus two). 
 — final is also pronounced in most proper names ; as 
 Chalcas, Delos, Ducis, Brutus, Caylus, Genlis, Ladisr 
 las, Gil Bias, Sens, Senlis, Solis, Paris, Priam's son, 
 (silent in Paris the name of the capital of France), 
 Stanislas, Rubens, fyc. It is silent in Judas, Thomas, 
 Colas, Mathias, Alexis, Nicolas, Lucas, Louis, Barna- 
 bas, Denys, Charles, and many others that are purely 
 French. — S is silent in Duguesclin. 
 • — final, when connected with the vowel beginning next 
 word, has the sound of z; ex. les ozufs pr. U-zeu, mes 
 enfans pr. me-zanfan, vous etes pr. vou-zete, nos ennc- 
 mis pr. no-ze-nemi, tes oreilles pr. te-zo-reille, de pis 
 en pis pr. de-pi-zan-pi, fyc. 
 
 ' a, e, 0, u, y, r, : inter, tentateur, tolon, tulcur, 
 
 type, trou, «S,-e. 
 
 at the beginning, and in the middle of words : 
 
 tirer, litre, tison, cotiser mystijier, matin, Sf. 
 
 where t is preceded by s or x ; or followed by 
 T sounds as in h: bastion, bestial, digestion, question, misc- 
 
 the English lion, Scythie, Mathias, S,-e. 
 
 words tub!?, \ before { h in substantives ending in tie, tier, Here : am- 
 test, tip, top, itie, pitie, moitie, entier, quarlier, metier, Sfc. 
 
 tun,type,tree, i, in words ending in tie, tien, tiemie, partie, 
 
 hostie, rotie, soutien, chretien, antienne, &c. 
 
 ift the first and second persons plural of 
 
 verbs : portions, intentions, mettions ; porlier 7 
 
 intentiez, mettiez, &c. 
 
 in chdikr and it's derivatives.- 
 
PRINCIPLES OP 
 
 - 
 
 I " 
 
 i i 
 
 =^5 
 
 T final i- generally Bilent, and gives t (where it pr< 
 
 the urave or open sound: OB chat, rat, trait, /ait, d 
 pr.e\ cachet pr. cache, mets pr. me, relt pr. r£, tit, 
 efprit, fat, rot, fait, kit, taint, sc. 
 
 - final sounds in the following words : abject, aca 
 
 tavni bismuth, bot, brut, chut, coit, comput, contact. 
 corral, Christ, debet, deficit, direct, dot, est, (east-but 
 M l ig, is pronounced e) exact, fat, fret, granit, 
 (but when it is profiled to a word beginning with a 
 consonant, t, is Bilent ; ex. hud femmes pr. h*-J 
 
 intact, mid- 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 25 
 
 led, mtroit, lest, luth, lut, malt, mat, (at chess) occiput, 
 opiat, ouest, pat, preciput, preterit, prurit, rapt,rit, rut, 
 sept (but when it is prefixed to a word beginning with a 
 consonant, t is silent; as sept femmes pr. se-fame) sin- 
 ciput, strict, tact, transiat, transit, toast, ut, vingt-deux 
 pr. vinte-deu, vingt-trois pr. vinte-troi, vingt-quatre, pr. 
 vinte-quatre, vingt-cinq pr. vinte-cinq, vingt-six pr. 
 vinte-sis, vingt-sept pr. vinte-set, vingt-huit pr. vinte- 
 huit, vingt-neufpv. vinte-neuf ; vivat, zenith, zist, zest. 
 
 — after a vowel, in the middle of words, is always pro- 
 
 nounced as in English ; as, atmosphere, Etna, arithme- 
 tique, rythme, <fcc. 
 -—before another t, is silent; ex. attaque, battre, sotte, 
 mettre pr. metre, &c— Except in atticisme, attique,bat- 
 tologie, guttural and pittoresque, where both fs are 
 pronounced. 
 
 U has a sound peculiar to the French language, as in the 
 words tu, jujube, du, &c. 
 
 — is pronounced like ou in alguazil, Guadalaviar, para- 
 
 guante, and other Spanish words. 
 
 — is pronounced like ou in qu, when a follows.- — (see the 
 
 letter q). 
 
 — is not pronounced, when it is used to render g hard be- 
 
 fore, e and i. (see g). 
 V has always the same sound ; ex. valve, vetir, vil, val, 
 
 Vll, &LC. 
 
 W sounds like single v in most words ; as, Westphalie, War- 
 wick, Wallon, werste, &c. 
 
 — sounds like u in Newton pr. neuton. 
 
 — sounds as in English in Washington, whist, Wiski, Water- 
 
 ganck, Wailly, &c. 
 X has five different sounds. 
 
 1st. It is pronounced like ks in Alexandre, axe, maxime, 
 
 luxe, &c. and at the end of words : Palafox, Styx, bo- 
 rax, index, lynx, sphinx, &c. 
 2nd. It is pronounced like gz in Xavier, Xenophon, Xante, 
 
 Xantippe ; examen, exemple, exil, exercer, exiger, 
 
 exorde, &c. 
 3rd. It is pronounced like c before ce and ci ; as excep- 
 
 ter, exces, exciter, exciper, fyc, 
 4th. It is pronounced like s in Auxerre pr. au-sere, Au- 
 
 xonne pr. au-sone, Auxerrois pr. au-sii'oi, Bruxelles pr. 
 
2(3 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 bru-scle, soixante pr. soi-sanfc. soixantaine pr. soi-san- 
 taine, Air pr. aire, Cadi x pr. Cadice, dix pr. </?ce, six 
 pr. sice, Xerxes pr. guezer-ses. 
 5th. It is pronounced like 2 in deuxieme pr. deu-zicme, 
 dixieme, sixain, sixieme, and, at the end of words, when 
 it is connected with the following vowel •, ex. denx- 
 hommes, pr. dru-zomc ; dix aufs. pr. di-zcu ; six ems, 
 pr. si-zan ; atuc cnfans, pr. au-zanfan ; dix-huit, pr. 
 di-zuit. fyc. 
 
 — final is silent in crucifix, perdrix, prix, flux, reflux ; dix 
 
 and f 7x before a consonant ; as dix-femmes, pr. di-fame : 
 six-jours, pr. sl-jofir, fyc. 
 
 — final is always silent after o? (./fix only excepted ; see 
 
 above), (tu, , u. oi and on ; ex. faix,paix, (huux.faux, 
 chexaux, tunx % ckoix, croix, tu pnix.jc peux, heureux, 
 peureux, choux, dottx 3 foux, <yc. 
 Y sounds like i; ex. // y a, style, mystere, yeux pr. ied, 
 yeuse pr. .'. uzs ; ^/o/f, pr. /<;/<■; yacht, pr. ifltfcj ^"'"'J, 
 pr. w/v/, i\-c 
 
 — sounds like 11 iii pays, pr. pat-i ; and wherever it is found 
 
 between two vowels; ex. /my sage, pr. pai-i-zage ; ab- 
 
 . pr. uhai-i,. payer, pr. pai-te ; p/oyer, pr. ploi-ii ; 
 
 appuyer, pr. apui-ie. Except in the following words 
 
 where " retains it- proper sound: Jlndaye, Bi$caye 3 
 
 Will, ;/r.v. pr. (llt-dil-lC. \C. 
 
 Z sound- ;e in English ; ex. rizante, :?. 
 azvr, gaz. 
 
 — final 1- silent in riz. 
 
 — final 1^ -iii ni after e, giving < the acute sound 5 ex. o#- 
 
 sonru ?, pr. sii-iu'- ; vous par- 
 /' .-. pr. 1 ou-parl -. pi . pou jfoul 
 
 — final Bounds like s in proper names, giving tin - 
 
 < the grave sound; ex. Jlharez, pr t alvares \ < 
 pr. cortii ; Mttz t pr. we*; Suez, pr- mii'j •, ^-c. 
 
 A |ECAPITULATION 
 
 ■III. 1UI 1 J KIM I V KUK: 
 
 I'ime ah 1 as fraceu 
 
 al *a//*> at nod 
 
 ah arn d tin ' 
 
 ao / en I 
 
 ROD a/i'innach ap u/>jirorhe 
 
 ■»t' a flail-: ar ;.* AIR oir, 1 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 27 
 
 er 
 
 for, cher 
 
 en 
 
 ennemi 
 
 ist 
 
 antechrist 
 
 ere 
 
 clerc 
 
 er 
 
 terre 
 
 it 
 
 lit, debit 
 
 erd 
 
 il perd 
 
 es 
 
 les, mes 
 
 ix 
 
 prix 
 
 erds 
 
 je perds 
 
 est 
 
 est, (is) 
 
 iz 
 
 riz 
 
 erf 
 
 cerf- volant 
 
 et 
 
 fi'* 
 
 y 
 
 type 
 
 erfs 
 
 nerfs 
 
 ets 
 
 mels 
 
 
 
 ers 
 
 univers 
 
 ai 
 
 essai 
 
 IN 
 
 lin,fn 
 
 ert 
 
 concert 
 
 aid 
 
 laid 
 
 inct 
 
 instinct 
 
 
 
 aient 
 
 ils riraient 
 
 ingt 
 
 vingt 
 
 AN 
 
 ban, Ian 
 
 ais 
 
 mais 
 
 inq 
 
 cinq femmes 
 
 anc 
 
 banc 
 
 ait 
 
 fail, lait 
 
 ins 
 
 je vins 
 
 and 
 
 gland 
 
 aix 
 
 paix, faix 
 
 int 
 
 il tint 
 
 ang 
 
 sang 
 
 ei 
 
 seigle 
 
 im 
 
 simple 
 
 ans 
 
 dans 
 
 e y 
 
 dey 
 
 aim 
 
 faim 
 
 ant 
 
 plant 
 
 
 
 ain 
 
 bain 
 
 aen 
 
 Caen 
 
 EU 
 
 feu, lieu 
 
 ains 
 
 je plains 
 
 aon 
 
 faon 
 
 osu 
 
 vceu 
 
 aint 
 
 saint 
 
 am 
 
 ample 
 
 ceud 
 
 nceud 
 
 ein 
 
 sein 
 
 amp 
 
 camp 
 
 euf 
 
 etenf 
 
 eins 
 
 je ceins 
 
 ean 
 
 Jean 
 
 03llfs 
 
 aiifs, basufs 
 
 eint 
 
 enceint 
 
 en 
 
 encan 
 
 eur 
 
 monsieur 
 
 en 
 
 chien, Agen 
 
 end 
 
 reverend 
 
 eus 
 
 je metis 
 
 ens 
 
 je viens 
 
 ends 
 
 je prends 
 
 eut 
 
 il pleut 
 
 ent 
 
 ' il vient 
 
 eng 
 
 hareng 
 
 eux 
 
 ceux, eux 
 
 ym 
 
 thyra 
 
 ens 
 
 gens, sens 
 
 
 
 yo 
 
 syncope 
 
 ent 
 
 dent, lent 
 
 EUR 
 
 peur 
 
 
 
 em 
 
 temple 
 
 eurs 
 
 ailleurs 
 
 J 
 
 je, deja 
 
 ems 
 
 terns 
 
 eurt 
 
 il meurt 
 
 ge 
 
 genou 
 
 emps 
 
 temps 
 
 
 
 ge 
 
 gemir 
 
 empt 
 
 exempt 
 
 F 
 
 fanfare 
 
 ge 
 
 gene 
 
 
 
 ph 
 
 phare 
 
 gi 
 
 givre 
 
 AR 
 
 char 
 
 
 
 gea 
 
 il gagea 
 
 arc 
 
 marc 
 
 G hard zadig 
 
 geo 
 
 geole 
 
 ard 
 
 bavard 
 
 ga 
 
 game 
 
 geu 
 
 gageure 
 
 ars 
 
 jars 
 
 go 
 
 gogo 
 
 
 
 art 
 
 ecart 
 
 gu 
 
 aigu 
 
 K 
 
 Kan, Mosque 
 
 
 
 gue 
 
 guenon 
 
 ca 
 
 cacao, cantique 
 
 E mut< 
 
 le,jefrappe 
 
 gue 
 
 guerir 
 
 CO 
 
 coco, cou 
 
 ent 
 
 Us frappent 
 
 gue 
 
 guere 
 
 cu 
 
 cure, cuire 
 
 t 
 
 
 gui 
 
 guitare 
 
 ch 
 
 chorus, orchestre 
 
 E 
 
 ete 
 
 ge 
 
 Gessner 
 
 qu 
 
 quart, qui 
 
 ed 
 
 pied 
 
 gh 
 
 Ghilan 
 
 g 
 
 gangrene 
 
 ef 
 
 effemini 
 
 c 
 
 second 
 
 
 sang et eau 
 
 eh 
 
 eh! 
 
 
 
 
 
 er 
 
 cider 
 
 I 
 
 ami, cri 
 
 N 
 
 net, renard 
 
 es 
 
 message 
 
 ic 
 
 eric 
 
 gn 
 
 signet, Regnard 
 
 ez 
 
 nez 
 
 ict 
 
 amict 
 
 
 
 ai 
 
 j'ai, j^otai 
 
 id 
 
 nid 
 
 O 
 
 obole 
 
 Q3 
 
 cedipe 
 
 if 
 
 chiffre - 
 
 oc 
 
 broc 
 
 
 
 il 
 
 sourcil 
 
 of 
 
 qffrir 
 
 E 
 
 pere 
 
 ils 
 
 fils 
 
 ch 
 
 oh ! 
 
 ecs 
 
 echecs 
 
 in 
 
 innocent 
 
 oi 
 
 poignee 
 
 egs 
 
 legs 
 
 ip 
 
 cippe 
 
 ol short mollir 
 
 el 
 
 belle 
 
 is 
 
 avis, ris 
 
 om 
 
 homme 
 
•28 
 
 PRINCIPLED OF 
 
 on 
 
 honne 
 
 oraps 
 
 je romps 
 
 ca 
 
 facade 
 
 op 
 
 galop 
 
 ompt 
 
 il rompt 
 
 CO 
 
 mac.on 
 
 Off 
 
 coq (Tindc 
 
 aon 
 
 taon 
 
 cu 
 
 recjt 
 
 OS 
 
 propos 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 nation, facetie 
 
 ot short mot, sot 
 
 OR 
 
 essoi; or 
 
 X 
 
 snixanle, dix 
 
 fit 
 
 tot, depot 
 
 ore 
 
 pore 
 
 z 
 
 Suez 
 
 ao 
 
 saone, aorisle 
 
 ord 
 
 bord 
 
 
 
 au 
 
 noyau 
 
 ords 
 
 remords 
 
 T 
 
 ta, ton 
 
 eau 
 
 bateau 
 
 orps 
 
 corps 
 
 th 
 
 the, thon 
 
 aud 
 
 n&gaud 
 
 ors 
 
 alors 
 
 d 
 
 grand hommc 
 
 aut 
 
 assaut 
 
 ort 
 
 mart 
 
 
 
 aux 
 
 laux 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 lu, du, 
 
 
 
 OU 
 
 mou,fou 
 
 uf 
 
 suffice 
 
 OI 
 
 moi, loi 
 
 oud 
 
 il coud 
 
 ul 
 
 ail de sa'. 
 
 oid 
 
 froid 
 
 ouds 
 
 je mouds 
 
 up 
 
 supplied 
 
 oids 
 
 poids 
 
 oue 
 
 bone 
 
 us 
 
 cam us 
 
 oie 
 
 foie 
 
 oul 
 
 soul 
 
 ut 
 
 debut 
 
 oient 
 
 iii potent 
 
 ouls 
 
 pouls 
 
 ux 
 
 Jlux, reflux 
 
 oif 
 
 coiffe 
 
 onp 
 
 coup 
 
 cu 
 
 eu 
 
 oi?t 
 
 doigt 
 
 our 
 
 pourrir 
 
 eus. 
 
 In cits 
 
 ois 
 
 abois 
 
 ous 
 
 absous 
 
 cut 
 
 il tut 
 
 oit 
 
 toil 
 
 out 
 
 Colli 
 
 
 
 oix 
 
 vo : r, rhoiz 
 
 oux 
 
 luux 
 
 UI 
 
 t'lui. quia 
 
 ofi 
 
 juf'lr 
 
 aou 
 
 flOut 
 
 uid 
 
 mmd 
 
 
 moelle 
 
 u 
 
 paraguanlc 
 
 uie 
 
 attic 
 
 ouct 
 
 fom i 
 
 
 
 uis 
 
 bins 
 
 
 
 OUR/f 
 
 nit 
 
 nuil 
 
 OIN 
 
 torn 
 
 (Mini 
 
 lovrd 
 
 uits 
 
 puiU 
 
 oing 
 
 I 
 
 ourg 
 
 
 
 
 oins 
 
 
 
 
 [ \ 
 
 brun 
 
 oint 
 
 
 <,uit 
 
 
 inn 
 run 
 
 parfum 
 
 jti-.i 
 
 ON 
 
 •ion 
 
 R 
 
 tort 
 
 nnt 
 
 ,/ifimt 
 
 one 
 
 
 rli 
 
 rhumc 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 rnhr 
 
 on.ls 
 
 
 s 
 
 sa, nt Ins 
 
 \v 
 
 \\ or* 
 
 
 Inn? 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 neufhommtm 
 
 
 ■irons 
 
 
 
 
 
 imt 
 
 front 
 
 l i 
 
 tdon 
 
 z 
 
 
 Kilts 
 
 fontl 
 
 ce 
 
 i eau 
 
 s 
 
 roteau 
 
 om 
 
 rtmpre 
 
 ci 
 
 dire, ceci 
 
 x 
 
 
 omb 
 
 pkmb 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION OF WORDS. 
 
 In poetry, the consonant ending a word is always con- 
 nected with the vowel beginning ili« i.« \t wind; but in 
 . and especiallj in familiar discourse, tlii-* connexion 
 i- often in ■_!«•• ted ; and pra< tice alone can teach where if 
 Bhould In- observed, as th£ ear ought to be generalh • 
 suited. However, a connexion must lake place in ilic fol- 
 lowing i 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 29 
 
 1. In small words such as : 
 
 Z>es hommes, les oiseaux, les cettfs, pr. le zome, le zoizo, le zeu, le 
 
 zampire. 
 de zo, de zouvrage, de zarbre, 
 
 de zouti. 
 au zar, au zami, au zuitre, au 
 
 zerbe. 
 mon netui, raoa noneur, mon 
 
 nan-plete. 
 ton nexistance, ton nanvi, ton 
 
 nespri. 
 son name, son noncle, son ne- 
 
 vantail. 
 me zieu, me exploi, me zanee. 
 te zamour,te zidee, te zame*con. 
 se zieG, se zabitude, se zecar, 
 ce tome, ce tongle, ce tomage. 
 ce zoi, ce zuzage, ce zouvrie. 
 nou zavon, nou zemon, nou zo- 
 
 noron. 
 vou zave, vou zeme, vou zo- 
 
 nore. 
 il la, il leme, il lonore, il la- 
 
 bille. 
 il zon, il zeme, il zonore, il za~ 
 
 bille: 
 ele zave, elezouvre, elezantre. 
 
 les empires. 
 Des eaux, des ouvrages, des arbres, 
 
 des outils. 
 ■Aux arts, aux amis, aux huitres, 
 
 aux herbes. 
 Mon etui, mon honneur, mon em- 
 
 plette. 
 Ton existence, ton envie, ton esprit. 
 
 Son time, son oncle, son eventail. 
 
 Mes yeux, mes exploits, mes annees. 
 Tes amours, tes idees, tes hamecons. 
 Ses yeux, ses habitudes, ses ecarts. 
 Cet homme, cet ongle, cet hommage. 
 Ces oies, ces usages, ces ouvriers. 
 JVbws avons, nous aimons, nous 
 
 honorons. 
 Vous avez, vous aimez, vous honorez. 
 
 II a, il aime, il honore, il habille. 
 
 lis ont, Us aiment, Us honorent, Us 
 
 habillent. 
 Elles avaient, elles ouvrent, elles 
 
 entrent. 
 Je les ai, allez-y, les y avez-vous 
 
 wis ? 
 On aime, on a, on est Men, on entre. 
 
 En avez-vous ? en ai-je assez ? je 
 n'en aipas. 
 
 On en aura, ni'atlend-on ? entend- 
 il? 
 
 ■JHai neuf oiseaux, Us ont neuf en- 
 fans. 
 
 Son jils est-il marie ? le coup est 
 sur. 
 
 Lejus en est amer, le pus en est 
 abondant. 
 
 Un rang honorable, un sang impur. 
 
 II est bien avance, il est bien aise. 
 
 Du blanc au noir, unporc epic. 
 
 Le sort en estjete, elle est trop ha- 
 bile. 
 
 Plus il a, plus il vcut avoir. 
 
 Un ami sincere, un homme vrai. 
 
 Un oiseau bleu-, un ecolier alten- 
 tif, &c. 
 
 je le ze, ale zy, le zy ave vou 
 
 vu? 
 on neme, on na, on ne bien, ob 
 
 nantre. 
 an nave vou ? an ne-je ace ? je 
 
 nan ne pa. 
 on nan nora, matan ton ? antan 
 
 til? 
 je neu voizo, il zon neu vanfan. 
 
 son fi ze til marie ? le cou pe 
 stir. 
 
 le jft zan ne tamer, le piS zan 
 ne tabondan, 
 
 un ran konorable, un san kin- 
 pur. 
 
 il le bien navance, il le bien 
 neze. 
 
 du blan ko noir, un por kepi. 
 
 le sor tan ne jete e le tro pabile. 
 
 plu zil la, pi fi zil veu tavoir. 
 unnami sincere, un nome vre, 
 un noizd bleu, un necolie atan- 
 
 tif. 
 
30 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 2. In adjectives preceding their substantives ; as : 
 
 Un important avis, v?i I'ieu.c homme. pr. un ninportan tavi, un vieu zom£» 
 Un second Annibal, cinq habits. un segon tane nibal, cin kabi. 
 
 Un franc original, un sot orgueil. un fran koriginal, un so torguei!. 
 
 Un bon ami, un ancien auttur. un bon nami.un naocien noteur. 
 
 Un vilain homme, un certain ours. un vilain nome, un certain- 
 
 nource. 
 
 N. B. The nasal termination ought to be connected only 
 where the sense does not admit of a short pause after them; 
 but where this pause naturally takes place, n is never heard 
 or connected : ex. 
 Ce vin est bon a boire, une passion pr. ce vin e bon a boirc, une pa- 
 
 ,7' . cion aveugle. 
 
 ■ I\u oa un assez bon, il est bien loin jan ne un ace bon, il le bieu 
 
 encore. loin aucore. 
 
 Ce bien est a moi, en a-t-on cu soin ? ce bien e ta moi, an na ton u 
 
 soin ? 
 
 N. B. The t of the conjunction et, (and), is never con- 
 nected ; as 
 
 ElleeM aknante et aimable. pr. e le temante e cmable. 
 
 tain el indubitable. cc certin e indubitable. 
 
 Vou* ttcs ardent eta von zete zardan e anbicieu. 
 
 PRACTH AL LESSONS ON PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 On the general founds of tl\r Kauris and Consonants. 
 
 La beaute" de la dame; la probite du labourcur; l'autori 
 roi : I'amenite de la reine ; la parole de Dieu ; 1c feu 
 ttre ; le \ oea da peuple; la Balubrtte du lieu ; la severity 
 de la loi ; la vanite de I'elfcve; la foi du p ret re ; la variet 
 la nature j I'oubli de la peine; le sourire de la pudeur; la 
 tt'iiinitr du fou; voilS lYtui : la fiole -era pleinc; Dieu aura 
 pitie de moi ; l\imitie du pauvre ; le livre sera pour lui ; I'eau 
 de la riviere; la Iumieredelav6rite; iEdipe devina P6nigrae, 
 la debilite du malade; la tete lui fera mal ; la voilure du 
 \ ire ; la rapidite du bateau ; le tournoi a et€ beau ; Padieu du 
 pere ; oui ; voila le milieu ; la familiarity du fro re ; il 
 jovial. 
 
 On the Nasal Sounds. 
 
 Le (urban du Bultan ; le ruban de sa maman ; le plan da 
 divan; I'elan du milao ; le tyran trembla ; il a faim; le ban 
 de ('empire ; I'emploide forban ; unjeu enfantin ; la via 
 sera tendre ; il le i ontentera : le son du tambour; il le G 
 
 son dam : il le demaudera en vain ; il a tendu la main ; un 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 31 
 
 sourire malin ; le pain du matin ; voila un daim ; il a un joli 
 serin; il maintiendra la verite ; un vilain sein ; le bien d'un 
 seul individu ; il n'a rien ; le frein de la loi ; il a rompu son 
 lien ; il reviendra demain ; il saura bien le latin ; il semble s'en 
 repentir; unfin pelerin ; il prendra le mien, on lui aampute 
 Ja jambe ; voila un joli bambin ; un bon dindon ; l'abandon 
 de son bien; etre encore a jeun ; il en prendra soin ; il se 
 joindra a moi ; il viendra au milieu de juin ; voila un mar- 
 souin ; le parfum du jasmin ; il sera importun ; il a vendu ; son 
 foin ; le temoin demeure bien loin. 
 
 On ai pronounced e. 
 
 J'ai dejeune; je n'ai rien a vendre; je l'ai salue; je le 
 trouvai bien fou ; je boirai du vin ; je parlais en ami ; je le 
 romprai ; je demandai un jour ; je lui ecrirai ; je le sondai, je 
 tirai le bondon ; je l'adorai ; j'ouvrirai le tiroir ; je l'aurai 
 demain ; je le prendrai. 
 
 On ai pronounced like e, 
 
 Le vrai proprietaire ; voila un balai ; il se promene sur la 
 plaine ; un air salutaire ; il saura se taire ; la haine du capi- 
 taine ; j'aime le militaire ; sa retraite n'a pu lui plaire ; la 
 gaite du solitaire ; la depense du deblai ; la laine du mou- 
 ton ; l'aire de l'aigle ; le nombre impair lui sera contraire ; 
 aide-toi ; Dieu t'aidera ; un delai imprevu ; il reviendra en 
 mai ; une laideur parfaite ; son maitre va paraitre. 
 
 On ai. 
 
 La naivete de son caractere ; une dame naive; votre aieul 
 l'a secouru ; je le hai'rai ; il me haira; il a ete tue par unbis- 
 caei'n ; voila un caieu de tulipe ; le peintre a vendu son ca- 
 maieu ; j'ai de la faience ; un pretre paien. 
 
 On silent b. 
 
 Je lui ai vendu un saumon de plomb ; il prendra l'aplomb 
 du mur; il a de l'aplomb; l'abbe aime a rire; j'ai vu le 
 rabbin. 
 
 On c pronounced like k. 
 
 Le cable du navire ; j'aime le cafe ; voila un beau con- 
 combre ; un miroir concave; je calmerai sa colere ; je vide- 
 yai le sac ; je l'ai coupe avec un couteau ; le bee du soc, un 
 lieu bien sec ; j'ai joue au trictrac ; je l'irai voir au bivouac, 
 sa conduite deviendrg. suspecte ; il se delecte a lire ; on de- 
 
32 PRINCIPLES OP 
 
 couvrira le micmac ; le Czar a vaincu ; Cnei'ug a survecu a 
 son pere. 
 
 On ce, ci, cy and 5 sounding like s. 
 
 Ceci lui plaira ; j'ai lu Ciceron ; je sucerai ce celeri ; je 
 me ceindrai de ma ceinttire ; voici un joli garc,on ; j'ai recu 
 ma leqon ; la facade de l'edifice ; il enfonca le poincon ; un 
 troncjon de lance ; je suc,ai le senec;on; 11 1'agac.a a sa fa<;on ; 
 le macon plac;a l'etanqon pour soutenir le mur ; je le tancjai 
 d'importance ; il avan^a sa ranc,on. 
 
 On c pronounced like g. 
 
 11 se contentera de la seconde place ; je seconderai mon 
 irere ; il lui faudra environ une seconde pour 1c faire ; je 
 remplirai un rolesecondaire; il a ete bien seconde; la reine* 
 elaude Teinporte sur toute autre prune. 
 
 On silent c. 
 
 Je pendrai mon manteau au croc ; il a etc accable par la 
 doulcur ; j'ai accompli ma parole; voila un mur blanc; il y 
 1 un accroc t votre robe ; je le lui ferai accroire; il a avale 
 de Parsenic ; place-toi Bur ce banc ; voici une tabatiere 
 pleine de tabac ; il a bit un broc de vin ; ce pore lui fera mal 
 
 Pestomac ; il a bq acquerir Bon amitie ; il a un caractere 
 franc; j'ai une doalenrau fianc; Pinstinct de Panimal; le 
 tronc de Tallin; : un balai dejooc : voici Talmanach ; il n'a 
 • lone ricn a faire j il a jete- lc marc du cafe. 
 
 On c.li pronounced Hke sh in English. 
 
 Le charme dc Petude ; je chante une < hanson ; lc cha* 
 mean < bemine ; la chimie de Chaptal ; un chetif cbeval ; \m 
 chiencheri; lachevre broute le chou; la chaleur de sa 
 . hambre : le 1 baroi du charbon : le chapelain cbucbotc ; la 
 chair du cochon ; voici ton mouchoir; moucbe toi. 
 
 On cli jtronounccd like k. 
 
 L' echo de ce lieu ; Porchestre ten bon; cc cboristeva an 
 choeur; ce chretien B'en retourne a Chio; Pautorite arcbi< - 
 piacopak •. Parchetype du monde ; la beatitude d'un ar- 
 change; la bacchante en fureur; il a Pair de croirc a la cbi- 
 ronaancie; Melchior fera Charon; Parchonte IMedon; le peu- 
 ple chaldeen ; ><>n devoir parocbial ; Miclicl-Ange , CW 
 peintre de Rome. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 33 
 
 On silent d. 
 
 Le fond de l'eau ; j'ai mal au pied ; j'aime le froid ; il a 
 chaud ; le gond de la porte ; il me mord ; il moud du poivre ; 
 il emporte le nid ; un muid de ble ; il coud sou pantalon ; il 
 a l'air grand; il fend la bucbe ; il prend le second tome ; il 
 tend sa tente ; ce gland produira un chene ; on pend le bri- 
 gand ; un sol fecond ; un grand blond ; la poule pond ; ce 
 marchand vend a bon marche a ce chaland ; la cornicbe du 
 plafond; il se rend a Madrid; le bord de la riviere; il perira 
 sur l'6chafaud. 
 
 On d connected sounding like t. 
 
 Le voila arme de pied-en-cap ; coud-il bien ? Un grand 
 architecte ; me repond-il ? fond-il le suif ? moud-il le cafe ? 
 Le chateau sera demoli de fond-en-comble ; reprend il son 
 bien ? fend-il la planche ? iui sied-il de le faire ? se rend il ? 
 entreprend-on de le rebatir ? se pend-on pour cela ? perd- 
 il au jeu ? 
 
 On mute e after a vowel 
 
 Faire une raie avec de la craie ; la plaie du caporal ; sa 
 maladie l'a empeche de venir; il crie ; l'amour de la vie ; un 
 grand incendie ; l'idee de ma soeur ainee ; un conte de fee ; 
 je me confie a votre amie ; la jeune mariee ; de la soie bleue ; 
 il va faire une lieue ; le chien aboie ; j'en ai envie; il a mal 
 au foie ; il sauta de joie ; la voie de l'impie ; de la viande 
 crue ; la vie sera tendre ; il sue ; ta suie de la cheminee ; la 
 roue sera reparee ; il tomba au milieu de la boue ; on tue la 
 truie; une jolie joue; on loue sa retenue ; la pluie diminue. 
 
 On silent f. 
 
 Voici la clef de l'armoire ; sa maladie l'a affaibli ; le chef- 
 d'oeuvre de la nature ; il a un nerf de boeuf ; je l'ai offense ; 
 jeluioffrirai du boeuf sale; il a envie d'un oeuf dur; il mene 
 une vie effeminee ; cela lui suffira. 
 
 On hard g. 
 
 Je l'ai regale ; un bon gateau ; je garde ce malade ; je n'en 
 ai guere goute ; le gui de chene ; le gue de la riviere ; etre 
 un peu goguenard ; ce medecin le guerira ; il joue de la gui- 
 tare ; cela lui a coute une guinee ; la gueule du lion ; je le 
 trouve bien guinde ; un vrai gourmand ; la tete ceinte d'une 
 guirlande; j'aideguste son vin; j'ai etemorduparuneguepe; 
 
 5 
 
31 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 faire le pied de grue ; il a brigue sa place ; un beau mono- 
 logue ; l'intrigue de la comedie. 
 
 On g pronounced like j. 
 
 II a gele ce matin ; le geai a deloge de sa cage : le genie du 
 general : j'ai gemi dc sa triste fin : un juge sage : George s'af- 
 flige ; il a enjole la geoliere : je mangeai un morceau de jam- 
 bon : il enragea de le faire ; une forte gageure : la mangeoire 
 du cheval ; j'ai tue un pigeon : il dechargea sa vengeance sur 
 lui : je changeai de linge. 
 
 On g so muting tike k. 
 
 La gangrene menace sa plaic: on a coupe sa jambe gan- 
 grenee : voici lejuge du bourg; il se vante d'etre le rejeton 
 d'unsang illustre; le \oil;\ eleve a un rang enviable; le vice 
 l'n j gangrene le coeur; un long abrege ; un long epilogue. 
 
 On silent g. 
 
 II lui montra son poing; le sejour du faubourg semble lui 
 Stre agreable ; j'ai mange un coin-; il aime a repandre le 
 Bang; I'acte sera revetu de ^n Being; son manage sera ^ u i \ i 
 d'mi longrepentir; aa conduite lui a merte le nomdesang- 
 sue i I x :t un etang au milieu de son jardin; voici un bareng 
 pour voire dejeflne; il a aggrave ma douleur; un livre o- 
 blong ; nul ne BOrtira de bqb rang. 
 
 O.i liquid gn. 
 
 J'irai demain a la campagne ; une aimable comp 
 gagna mon amiti£ ; le chirurgien Pa eaigne ; l«- regne <l< 
 Charlemagm je viendrai incognito ; j'aime l'agneau r6ii 
 l.i magnesie lui fera du bien; son compagnon magnanime; 
 son maftre lui enaeigne -a le<jon ; voilii une < bataigne; il a 
 <ln guignon aa jeu ; il dedaigne ma compagnie . ic me bai 
 
 i -;i baignoire . il me soigne en ami . il mi 
 moigne I'envie <!<■ Il- voir; il grogne ; un beau champignon ; 
 l.i trogne de I'ivrogiie; <>n aime -a piete benigne; il lui re- 
 pii.'iir dc Ic (aire ; j'eteindrai la bougie avec I'eteignoir; uu 
 peigne dc poche je I'ai Bigne" . il en sera bien digne . il n.Y- 
 pargne bien de la peine; un ctre ignare ignore son i 
 ram c . voila un \ ignoble bien cntrctenu ; ee vigneroO a 
 du sa vigne ; une source iinpregncc dc -ouii 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATON. IB 
 
 On hard gn. 
 
 La trisie Progne ; une matiere ignee ; la valeur seule a 
 rendu ce chateau inexpugnable ; la divinite de Gnide ; l'o- 
 deur fetide d'une eau stagnante ; le gnomon d'un cadran 
 solaire. 
 
 On aspirated h. 
 
 La honte le fera rougir; il a franchi la haie ; la harangue 
 a ete bien recue ; ce hableur se fera hair ; la hure d'un sau- 
 mon ; le hibou se cache ; un caracterehardi ; il sehata de se 
 rendre au hameau ; l'armee fera halte en ce lieu ; il empor- 
 tera la hache ; un hetre touffu ; il a une douleur a la hanche ; 
 on a enharnache votre cheval ; sa hauteur m'a indigne ; sa 
 harpe sera d'accord ; la Henriade de Voltaire ; il heurta con- 
 tre le mur ; voici du houblon ; le peuple le hua ; ce pauvre 
 here a vendu son havresac; le chien hurla toute la matinee. 
 
 On silent h. 
 
 Tl a de l'humeur ; il y a un habile chirurgien a l'hopital ; 
 l'heroine du roman ; il s'y habitue avec peine; ilhabite mon 
 heritage ; il reprend haleine avec difficulte ; il amorqa son 
 hamecon; 1'harmonie de sa flute; il aime a lire l'histoire ; il 
 a Pair hebete ; il saura l'hebreu ; je reviendrai a la merae 
 heure ; j'ai tire son horoscope ; il a bien du bonheur au- 
 jourd'hui ; l'horloge va mal ; j'honore sa memoire ; j'aime 
 1'huile d'olive ; l'histrion se disputa avec son hote; j'ai man- 
 ge une huitre ; votre pitie I'humilie ; je l'ai traite avec hu- 
 manite ; ce lieu humide le rendra malade ; l'hypocrite m'a 
 trahi ; une armee hostile a envahi sa patrie ; j'ai un rhume ; 
 il se purge avec dela rhubarbe; un bon rhetoricien; il prend 
 du the ; voici la thei'ere ; il se consacre au theatre ; je 
 n'aime guere le thjm ; il se borne a la theorie ; il deviendra 
 bon theologien ; je mangerai du thon a mon dine ; la region 
 etheree ; le revenu de la cathedrale ; on le traite d'athee ; il 
 a la force d'un athlete ; je suivrai votre methode. 
 
 On silent i. 
 II empoigna la bride du cheval ; il aime a lire Montaigne ; 
 on trouva un poignard sur lui ; ce lui sera une douleur bien 
 poignante ; en voici une poignee ; il a mal a son moignon. 
 
 On im and in pronounced as in English. 
 L'immortalite de i'ame ; votre oie sera immangeable ; il 
 a publie un livre immoral ; il a consume un bien immense i, 
 
315 PRINCIPLES OP 
 
 il demeura immobile; la volonte immuable de Dieu; il s ; im- 
 mole pour sa patrie; un animal immonde; l'immodestie de 
 sa conduite ; j'ai une envie immoderee de le lui dire ; ce se- 
 ra la suite immediate de votre etourderie ; une riviere in- 
 navigable; une idee innee; une foule innombrable ; ce legis« 
 lateur n'a rien innove. 
 
 On the sound of el. 
 
 Le colonel a accepte le cartel ; on .lui eleva un aulel ; un 
 grand degel ; le ciel aura pitie de lui; le fiel desa plume; un 
 roi cruel ; un hotel garni ; un auteur immortel ; un amour 
 mutuel : un tel langage scmble pen naturel ; il a une vclleite . 
 je lui ferai prendre de rdlebore ; ilade l'intelligence ; leui 
 rebellion a etc pnnie. 
 
 Je serai Sdeile a ma parole ; il sc fache pour une baga- 
 telle ; voici une belle dentelle ; elle a su la nouvelle; lasellc 
 de I'haridelle ; il s'empaia de la citadelle ; sa sumr jumellc ; 
 on a demoli la cbapelle ; il monta sur l'echelle ; la plaintive- 
 toutetclle roucoule. 
 
 On silent 1. 
 
 J'ai tire mon fusil ; il fron^a le sourcil ; un baril de bceuf 
 
 il habite un vrai chenil .j'ai aebete une piece de cou- 
 
 til ; je le trouve gen til ; il a mal an nombril ; voila un bon 
 
 outil : Tai m in-' ilc la graine de persil ; je le ferai cuire sur le 
 ^ril ; i'obscurite du cul-de-sac ; il a Pair d'etre soul. 
 
 On liquid 1 and 11. 
 
 Avril finira demain ; son babil m'ennuie ; voici du mil poup 
 votre serin ; il a affronte* Ionic sorte de peril ; il scaccoutumc 
 an travail: je lui ferai un detail de I'affaire; I'eventail dema 
 aoeur; il mange de Tail ; le Detail do la imtairie ; je suivrai 
 eon conseil ; b- soleil sc coucbe ; Tun sera parcil a Tautrc; 
 mon rivcil inc rind a ma douleur; I'ecureuil a ronqe son 
 livre ; le (kuteuil du maladc ; son orgueil a ite bumilie ; j'e- 
 viterai I'ecueil ; il a mal a Peril gauche ; le seuil de la porte ; 
 1'odeui tin fenouil. 
 
 S;i tille brille au bal : il travaillc pour sa famille; cllr enn- 
 le son aiguille ; il >'habille pour sortir ; un peigne d'ecaillc , 
 il a rec.u une mcdaille d'or; il a gagne la bataille ; il bailie 
 d'ennui ; il coucbe Mir la paille ; il se raillc de moi ; il lui lan- 
 C,a une douce oillade ; la vicille lui parla a Poreillc; j'ai bu 
 une bouteille de vin; il a rempli la corbeille; je cueifle ttn< 
 citrouille ; il e'agcnouilla au pied de l'autel; il porta le deuil 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 37 
 
 de sa mere ; on l'a bien accueilli ; un canon charge a mi- 
 traille; il prend un crapaud pour une grenouille ; la patrouilte 
 a failli le detenir ; une feuille de chevrefeuille ; tela a souil- 
 le sa memoire ; il s'enrichira de ma depouille ; j'ai dechiflre 
 son barbouillage ; il a peche une anguille ; il me chatouille ; 
 on a ri de sa saillie ; on le fouilla avec soin ; il tua l'abeille ; 
 il s'enrhumera s'il se mouille. 
 
 On m pronounced as in English, after a vowel. 
 
 II chanta une hymne ; l'amnretie sera generate. ; le venin 
 de lacalomnie; l'insomnie du malade; on lui accorderaune 
 indemnite; le somnambule sauta par la fenetre ; Clytemnes- 
 tre tua son mari Agamemnon ; Priam, roi de Troie ; la frai- 
 cheur automnale ; il plaQa le flambeau sur le somno ; il de* 
 meure a Potsdam ; ce sera le tu-autem de PafFaire; hem! 
 1'ami ; voici votre mouchoir ; on chantera un te-deum. 
 
 On silent m. 
 
 Je prefere l'automne a Pete ; il sera condamne a le faire , 
 il se damne; il enseigne la grammaire ; j'aime un homme 
 communicatif ; je ferai comme il voudra ; il commande en 
 maitre ; un bon grammairien ; il commence a devenir incom- 
 mode ; voila une demarche bien condamnable. 
 
 On silent n. 
 
 L'annee prochaine ; voici un anneau d'or ; je lui ai donne 
 ma parole d'honneur ; il rend justice a son innocence ; je le 
 lui annoncerai ; il mange la manne comme du sucre ; la 
 cloche a sonne; un lapin de garenne ; j'ai etrenae cc mar- 
 chand ; Putilite du renne ; la chienne Pa mordu au talon ; la 
 comedienne abandonne le theatre. 
 
 On in preceding a vowel, or a silent h. 
 
 Une cote inabordable ; je n'aime guere une personne ina- 
 nimee ; il se rend inaccessible ; il sera inebranlable ; Phumeur 
 inegale de votre frere ; un bonheur inespere ; il sera inhabile 
 a le faire ; on l'a inhume ; la mechancete inherente a Phomme; 
 Pinimitie d'un prince inhumain ; une fleur inodore ; une cru- 
 aute inouie ; une ile inhabitee ; il a achete un in-octavo ; il 
 Se donnera une peine inutile. 
 
 On silent p. 
 II a requ le bapteme ; j'ai beaucoup d'ouvrage a faire ; 
 Baptiste cultive son champ ; Pennemi entoura notre camp ; il 
 
38 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 lui donna un coup de poing; voici du drap bien fin ; j'ai 
 compte la somme ; le compte s'y trouve ; je lui ai recom- 
 mande de boire du sirop de vinaigre ; le loup a devore le 
 mouton ; il a dompte l'ennemi ; il y alia au galop ; il a agi 
 avec trop de promptitude. 
 
 On qu pronounced like k. 
 
 Quelqu'un te demande ; il se promene sur lequai ; quand 
 reviendra-t-il ? un homme de qualite ; la queue du cheval ; 
 que veut-il? jc prendrai du quinquina; quiconque le fera ; 
 sera puni ; un marchand de quincaille ; il se dedommagera 
 sur la quantite ; quoiqifil l'aime, il ne lui pardonne rien ; il 
 a pensc (aire un quiproquo ; son bien a ete confisque; il lui 
 a ehercbe querelle ; le voila bien requinque ; quel caractere 
 taquin! ce qu'on lui a mande Pinquiete beaucoup ; une 
 pmule Equivoque ; un homme plein d'equite ; L'armee sera 
 bien equipee. 
 
 On q pronounced like cu and coil. 
 
 J'ai vu la statue t-questre de Henri quatre ; un animal 
 aquatique; il ;• ete questeur en Sicile; une i le au nord de 
 I'equateur; on beaa quadrupede; un triangle equilateral ; un 
 bon quakre ; il a quadruple sa fortune ; je quintuplerai la 
 somme ; un beau quatuor ; un livre in-quarto ; j'ai lu 
 Quintilien. 
 
 On er pronounced like air. 
 
 1 Fne mine de fei ; une gcrbc de We . voila un homme bien 
 mer ; une cuiller detain ; je Pai perdu 
 bier Pair de 1 1 mer lui fera du bien ; il reviendra I'hiver 
 I bain i e i Ikji ami m'.i bien servi ; il sera ferme ;je Pai 
 i du peril elle a un cancer au sein ; le magister <lu vil- 
 lage . il se berce d'one vaine eap£rance il adu uerf; il mon- 
 ta au belveder; le centre d'un cercle ; la chair du cerf; le 
 terme de la \ ie an vet a soic ; le merle se pcrchc sur Par- 
 bre; il a peurde Penfer; Pherbe verte du pros; j'ai 6t< 
 clave i Alger unefoled'ether; Minerve fille de Jupiter ; 
 ; < ii\»- de PAfrique ; le Nieper, fleuve de PEurope. 
 
 On er pronounced like fe. 
 
 1 .<• danger que j'ai couni ; elle a su le charmer ; mon cor- 
 donnicr va m'apporter mon aonlier . \<- jardinier va taillci le 
 poirier; il pourra Be tier ft Phorloger ; j'espere retrosrei 
 monpanu i rai dem'arrangeravec mon creai 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 39 
 
 voici du papier ; il menace de tuer son officier ; il a peur de 
 tomber ; mon cocher ira le chercher ; rien n'a pu 1'y decider ; 
 il viendra m'aider ; il y va pour se recreer ; il commence a 
 s'echaufFer ; je cherche a l'obliger ; j'ai voulu y aller pour le 
 consoler ; je ferai reparer l'evier par le meme ouvrier ; je 
 n'ai pu lui parler; il me prie de le conseiller; je n'ai pu 
 m'empecher de l'aimer ; il va se promener ; il s'obstina a le 
 nier ; on lui a defendu de jouer ; cela a paru le piquer; votre 
 ecolier apprend bien a chiffrer ; rien ne pourra le porter a 
 m'abandonner ; il va se hater de l'achever. 
 
 On e pronounced e before rr. 
 La guerre ensanglante la terre ; le tonnerre gronde ; donne- 
 moi un verre d'eau ; il le renversa d'un coup de pierre ; je 
 serre mon linge ; le lierre rampe le long du mur ; il s'arme 
 d'un cimeterre ; on l'enterrera demain ; le marechal a ferre 
 mon cheval. 
 
 On silent s. 
 
 II y a applique son sceau ; il paraitra sur la scene ; il n'a 
 pas beaucoup de science ; l'homme n'a pas scie le bois ; il ne 
 se soucie pas de porter le sceptre ; nous ne sommes pas 
 sceptiques ; j'avais mal au bras ; je suis tres-surpris de vous 
 voir ; vous n'etes pas forces de lui confier vos papiers ; je ne 
 vois plus Thomas ; je n'eprouverais pas de refus ; il n'y a 
 rien de plus beau dans 1'univers ; Louis n'aime pas Charles ; 
 nous ne fumes pas peu etonnes de son succes ; je ne sais que 
 penser de son fils Denys ; tu aimes Colas. 
 
 Je connais ces Francois ; j'irais avec mes sceurs si je pou- 
 vais ; tu sers les gens que tu aimes ; tu as du recevoir tes li- 
 vres ; je crois a ses sermens; tu ne vois pas les suites funestes 
 de tes etourderies ; desquels souhaites-tu te defaire ? Les- 
 quels voudras-tu ? Tu devrais lire les comedies de Destou- 
 ches ; nous nous moquons des tourbillons du celebre Des- 
 cartes ; tu avais des vues differentes des miennes ; je n'ap- 
 prouve pas tous ses sentimens, mais je suis toujours son ami ; 
 je vends mes meubles ; tu ne defends pas tous les privileges 
 des bourgeois de Paris ; n'as tu pas lu Adelaide Duguesclin^ 
 tragedie de Voltaire ? nous ne connaissons pas les com- 
 pagnons d' Alexis ; Nicolas a rec,u ses gages ; tu es plus per- 
 iide que Judas. 
 
 On final s sounding. 
 II a publie un prospectus de son ouvrage ; je joue l'as de 
 cceur ; l'ennemi forma le blocus de la place ; le parterre cria 
 bis ; une jeune agnes ; voila le devis du serrurier ; je vous pre* 
 
40 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 terai un atlas ; helas ! )e dervis m'a trompe ; il a un colera- 
 morbus ; je le ferais gratis, si je n'etais pas si pauvre ; les 
 bonnes gens du terns jadis; il a pris du kermes ; un gateau dc 
 mai's ; je lis Gil Bias ; le mois de mars; des pilules d'aloes; les 
 couleurs de 1'iris ; Mars, dieu de la guerre : un homme de 
 bonnes mceurs ; cela n'aura lieu qu'apres un certain laps de 
 terns ; il y a un lis superbe dans son jardin ; je fus poursuivi 
 par un ours ; un obus le renversa ; il y a du phcebus dans 
 son style ; Paris, fils de Priam ; la villedc Sens ; son pathos 
 n'a pu m'allecter ; tu tournes la vis trop vite ; je les renver- 
 rai tous ; j'ai vu un rhinoceros; nous lerons chorus; je vous 
 donne en sus ; un tableau de Rubens se vendra domain 
 matin. 
 
 On the sound of e before ss. 
 
 II a la faiblesse d'y consentir ; il a de l'adresse ; l'i\ resfie 
 des -en> . la hardieaae de son discours; laprestesse de ses re- 
 p. >ii-os m'a deconcertr: nous fendfmea la presse ; nous par- 
 lames a sa hautesae ;je me ania blease ; la vitesse du canos>o. 
 ntiUeaae de own hotesse ; rien n'egale sa pare.-se ; vous 
 sseur : il ne cessc de se plaindre. 
 Le deasous Bemble plus beau que le dessus; il n'a plusde 
 irce, on Pa reseaigne;ie vais faire ressemeler mes 
 Boulien ; i".ii n ■semi des pou ; qoiii ressentons une grandc 
 louviendrai dc la priere que vous me Bites; 
 il reaaemble b boh pare ; je Pai ressalue . on a bien reai 
 Paflain •; il y a une trea-grande ressemblance entre vous 
 trois ; il ra ressortir. 
 
 On s sounding Hire z. 
 
 .!< o'oee lui exposer ma misere ; i! a posl leTasesurla 
 cheminee . Ic h >- ird a < te la cause de sa fortune ; la chose 
 un -. m! ! ucille une rose : il me refuse une priae 
 
 le [jriser une mauvais* 
 
 maiaon; il lui donna, un baiaer; II Be baae sur la raison ; 
 
 lui : rien de plus futile que le blason ; 
 
 il inciie iinr vieoiafjuse; elle se trouve malheureuse ; elle 
 
 privotai un joli oiseau ; use du ciseau quej'aiaigu 
 il n atme pa- les fraiai i« 
 
 J'ai mange* des oeufe les enfans de votre ami ; vous fetei 
 heureuse; dous avons une mauvaiae Baisou; cela va d<- pii 
 tu;"- tueatri rroee mes arbres ; combien i 
 
 il sesalosea! un mauvaii ouvrier; un gros oi-' 
 litila. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 41 
 
 On ti sounding like ci. 
 
 Je suis impartial ; II a un air martial ; une chose essenti- 
 elle ; une populace seditieuse ; une nation ambitieuse ; une 
 ceremonie superstitieuse ; une devotion minutieuse ; une 
 conception hardie ; la destruction de l'empire romain ; il 
 obtiendra la suprematie ; il balbutia quelques paroles ; il 
 prefere l'aristocratie a la democratic; il n'apasde patience ; 
 la prophetie s'accomplira ; il mange jusqu'a la satiete ; il 
 s'impatiente de son imperitie ; je ne suis pas initie dans leur 
 societe ; il ne debite que des inepties ; il tombe dans l'inertie ; 
 une maladie pestilentielle ; un pretre egyptien ; la benedic- 
 tion nuptiale. 
 
 On silent t. 
 
 Le chat a attrape un rat ; il doit son salut a son esprit ; il 
 sait combien j'en ai de regret ; un mets delicat ; il connait ce 
 soldat; unsot a souvent des secrets ; il veutresterau lit; ce 
 mot n'est pas en usage ; il s'est coupe le doigt ; il vit content 
 etsans eclat; la mort duscelerat; il croit et embellit tous 
 les jours ; il dit qu'il a tort ; il met le gobelet sur le buffet ; le 
 respect qu'il inspire ; un portrait mal fait et point du tout 
 ressemblant ; l'ennemi prit le fort d'assaut ; la resurrection 
 de Jesus-Christ ; il lui faut vingt ducats ; il m'a fait un petit 
 present ; il avait huit valets; je lui ai ecrit sept lettres ; il 
 boita tout moment ; il craint d'etre decouvert. 
 
 On final t sounding. 
 
 Un homme abject ; il a obtenu un accessit ; du sucre brut ; 
 chut! faites silence; voila le point de contact; il y a 
 un beau Christ dans cette eglise ; c'est un fat ; il est tres. 
 strict ; j'ai vingt-quatre francs; j'en ai vingt-sept a votre ser- 
 vice ; je lui en ai donne huit ; il lui en faut vingt-neuf ; en voil& 
 sept ; je l'ai fait echec et mat ; iljoue du luth; il est exact; 
 vous n'etes pas correct; ily a un deficit ; la dot de ma fille; 
 le zenith est oppose au nadir ; il m'a fait pat ; il a commis un 
 rapt ; la Pennsylvanie s'etend de l'est a l'ouest ; il prend un 
 chemin direct ; cet homme a du tact ; un marais infect ; le 
 depot est intact ; le fret de ses marchandises ; il est entre le 
 zist et le zest ; vivat ! j'ai gagne ; ce verbe est au preterit ; il a 
 bu un toast; la profondeur de son intellect ; la biere se fait 
 avec du malt ; le rit de l'eglise romaine. 
 6 
 
42 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 On x sounding like ks. 
 
 L'ambition d'Alexandre ; le luxe du beau sexc ; Taxe 
 de la terre; c'est un axiome indubitable ; cela le vexe ; une 
 maxime dangereuse ; rien ne peut fixer son esprit; il a dee 
 lunettes convexes ; un sphinx de bronze ; l'index du livre ; 
 l'equinoxe du printemps. 
 
 On x sounding like gz. 
 
 Xenophon est un des meilleurs auteurs grecs : Pcxamen 
 annuel de l'academie ; il exige que je le fasse ; cet ouvrage 
 est bien execute ; les bords du Xante ; il afinison existence 
 dans I'exil; il lui donne un bon exemple; Xantippe 
 exenjait souvent la patience de ^.on man ; il se Domme 
 Xavier. 
 
 On x sounding like s. 
 
 II est ne a Bruxellcs ; il a soixante ans : en voila six : i\ 
 nVen faut dix; je partirai bientot pourCadix; Xerxes, roi 
 de Perse; ilvaa Auxonne; une soixdntaine de fusils ; mon 
 uls est a Auxerre; Aix en Provence est sa ville natale. 
 
 On x sounding like /.. 
 
 CV^t la deuxieme f.»is qu'il le fail ; il vient d'achever 
 le dixieme tome; jai mange deux oeufs ; il a six enfans ; if 
 Pa donn£ aux out riera i il a a< bete un sixain de cartes ; j'ai 
 dix-huit guinees; tile a dix ans; voici de bien beaux 
 arbrea* 
 
 O/t fmnl I not sounding. 
 
 Lea biens de la paix il succombe sous le faix de ses. 
 maux ; il airoe les choux ; il ;i i'.iit un mauvais choix 
 tut uneperdrix; le flux et reflux de la mer; je veux lr 
 rendre neureux; hi peux me dire le prix de ces chevaux ; 
 un < rucinx d'argenl sa toux va mieux ; il lui fail l< - 
 doux; il est furiedl des cbeveux roux; une voix forte ; 
 le chant m6todieux des oiseaux; il mange des noij 
 bijoux precieux ; < hacun porte sa croix ; les deux g< m raui 
 ont paa d'accord ; il a six bateaux; il me faudra dii 
 pieux ces lieux sont delicieux ; les dieux out combl< 
 
 VU'lU. 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 43 
 
 On j sounding like ii. 
 
 La France est un beau pays; elle lit les Enfans de 1'Ab- 
 Wye ; je l'ai paye ; c'est un bon paysan ; il peint bien le 
 paysage; nous nousegayons a ses depens ; j'ai renvoye mon 
 metayer; il begaya quelques mots ; il a besoin d'etre un peu 
 depayse ; ennuye de la vie, il se noya ; je payai mon loyer ; 
 il n'a pas les moyens d'employer tant de gens ; la servante 
 a nettoye le foyer; les citoyens d'un pays libre ; il s'ap- 
 puya contre le noyer. 
 
 On ez pronounced like e„ 
 
 Vous avez assez de pain; essuyez-vous le nez ; vous 
 parlez trop ; mangez un peu ; buvez du vin et de l'eau ; 
 ecrivez-moi souvent ; pensez a ce que vous ferez ; mouchez 
 la chandelle ; n'allez pas si vite ; arretez-vous ; regardez 
 de ce cote ; voyez le rnal que vous causez ; vous vous 
 amusez au lieu d'etudier ; vous gatez tout ce que vous 
 touchez ; vous riez quand vous devriez etre serieux ; vous 
 saviez ce que vous deviez faire ; songez a ce que vous pro- 
 mettez. 
 
 On em and en sounding like a. 
 
 C'est une femme courageuse ; il agit prudemment ; il 
 s'enonce eloquemment ; il aime bien sa femme; il desire 
 ardemment de te voir ; j'attends impatiemment son arrivee ; 
 je ne puis decemment le communiquer a ma femme; il 
 prend la chose differemment ; il a prouve evidemment que 
 vous aviez tort ; vous parlez pertinemment ; il lui a repon- 
 du impudemment qu'il ne le ferait pas ; je lui ai dit confi- 
 demment ce que je pensais de cette femme ; le eheval hen- 
 nit ; la solennite du sacre de l'empereur ; elle a fait un 
 voeu solennel; il solennise la naissance du roi. 
 
 On ent sounding like mute e. 
 
 lis aiment ceux qui les traitent bien ; ils payent ce qu'ils 
 doivent ; qu'ils considerent ce qu'ils demandent ; ils oubli- 
 ent ce qu'ils promettent; ils ne reflechissent pas a l'argent 
 qu'ils depensent ; ils mangent plus qu'ils ne boivent; ils 
 donnent d'une main ce qu'ils reqoivent de l'autre ; ils ne 
 se soucient guere de ce qu'ils disent ; ils trouvent que les 
 ouvriers ne travaillent pas assez \ ils soutiennent ce qu'ils 
 
44 PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 avancent; ils perdent moins qu'ils ne gagnent ; ilsjouent 
 beaucoup plus qu'ils n'etudient; ils liseut et ecrivent assez 
 bien ; ils prennent tout ce qu'ils veulent ; ils imitent tout 
 ce qu'ils voient faire ; ces messieurs se plai^nent sans raison ; 
 les medecins tuentplus souvent qu'ils ne guerissent. 
 
 — ««o<>o»— 
 
THE ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. The object of grammar is to teach the general prin- 
 ciples and particular rules established in a language, in or- 
 der to enable us to speak and write with correctness. 
 
 2. All the words that constitute speech are reduced to 
 nine sorts, called parts of speech. 
 
 I. The Substantive, or noun, expressing the name of any 
 
 thing that exists, or of which we 
 have any notion. 
 
 II. The Article, a word used to determine the substantive 
 
 before which it is placed. 
 
 III. The Adjective, added to the substantive to express 
 
 its quality. 
 
 IV. The Pronoun, a word used instead of a noun, or sub- 
 
 stantive. 
 
 V. The Verb, a word which signifies existence or action. 
 
 VI. The Adverb, joined to a verb, an adjective, and some- 
 
 times to another adverb, to express 
 some quality or circumstance respect- 
 ing it. 
 
 VII. The Preposition, serving to connect words with one 
 
 another, and to show the rela- 
 tion between them. 
 
 VIII. The Conjunction, serving to connect sentences, so 
 
 as, out of two or more senten- 
 ces, to make but one. 
 
 IX. The Interjection, a word thrown in between the 
 
 parts of a sentence, to express 
 the passions or emotions of the 
 speaker. 
 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 3. The substantive, or noun, serves to name txery thing, 
 existing in nature, or in our ideas ; as, Dieu, homme, arbre, 
 vertU) blancheur, beaute. 
 
46 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 4. There are two kinds of substantives, the substantive 
 proper, and the substantive common. 
 
 5. The substantive proper expresses the name of an in- 
 dividual, or of one particular thing of the kind : as, Wash- 
 ington, Philadelphia, V Hudson, le Mont-Blanc 
 
 6. The substantive common, or appellative, is common 
 to a whole class of things : as, montagne, riviere, plaine. 
 livre, maison. 
 
 7. There are three sorts of substantives common : physi- 
 cal, metaphysical and collective. 
 
 8. The substantive common physical is a denomination 
 common to many things really existing in nature : as, lac. 
 cheval. />it rre t hois. 
 
 9. The substantive common metaphysical is a denomi- 
 nation common to many things which exist only in our ideas, 
 or understanding J and which are not beings, but qualities 
 and modes of being or acting, considered independently of 
 the person or thing, in which they are found : as, rondeur. 
 grandeur, bonheur, agesse, courage. These words do not 
 represent things that have an existence in nature ; never- 
 theless, thc\ h;i\ e been called substantives to be understood. 
 
 10. The Bubstantive common collective, is that which 
 j.n Bents to the mind the idea of many objects of the same 
 kind, a- forming one Bingle whole : a<. a roue, finite, fort I. 
 congrln, senat, compagnie, assemblee, troupeau* 
 
 I I, Two tiling are to be considered in substantives : 
 gender and number. 
 
 13. Genders are two : the masculine and feminine. 
 . The masculine belong- to males, the feminine to 
 ill -. 
 
 15. Inanimate things, which, 03 their nature, have no 
 particular -ex. are however, masculine or feminine in <h^ 
 French lane 
 
 16. The French language has several methods of distin- 
 guishing, the Bex, viz. 
 
 1 -t. I'.\ different word? : 
 I 
 Cerf. Bicbe. 
 
 I ll.i-c. 
 
 1 
 
 M.'R. 
 
 Tanle. 
 
 Mate. 
 
 
 Ilmnnu . 
 
 I't mine. 
 
 ( ;',< ml. 
 
 JomenL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Frire. 
 
 
 Gendre. 
 
 
 A'i n 11. 
 
 
 Merit 
 
 I'.niim-. 
 
 1 
 
 Pilte. 
 
 
 Noooe. 
 
 
 Vfaduw 
 
 Rot. 
 
 Urine. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 17 
 
 17. — 2nd. By means of the words male arid femelle raided 
 
 to names of animals whose sex is not de^ 
 
 signated by a different word, such as : 
 
 Chameau, corbeau, crapaud, ecureuil, reauin, taon, renne, 
 
 &c. &c. which are used only in the masculine gender: Ba- 
 
 fr.ine, beleile, becassine, grenouille, souris, &c. &c. which are 
 
 used only in the feminine. In drder to specify the sex, we 
 
 say: un chameau male, un chameau femelle / une baleine? 
 
 male, ime baleine femelle ; &c. 
 
 18. — 3rd. By means of the word femme prefixed to some 
 substantives, which have no feminine, on ac- 
 count of their expressing employments ge« 
 nerally belonging to men, such as : 
 Amateur, auteur, docteur, ecrivain, geometre, graveur, 
 medecin, orateur, philosophe, poete, sadpteur, soldat, temoin, 
 and traducteur. Say une femme amateur, une femme auteur, 
 une femme docteur, &c. 
 
 19. — 4th. By means of an article or adjective prefixed 
 to substantives, which belong to genders, 
 such as : 
 Enfant, esclave, depositaire : We say un joli enfant, une 
 jolie enfant ; le petit esclave, la petite esclave ; le seul depo- 
 sitaire, la seule depositaire. 
 
 20, — 5th. By a difference of termination. 
 I. Some substantives take the termination esse in their fe- 
 minine, such as : 
 
 Ivrognesse. 
 
 Larronesse. 
 
 Maitresse, 
 
 Mulatresse. 
 
 Negresse. 
 
 Pair esse. 
 
 Papesse. 
 
 Pauvresse. 
 
 Pecheresse. 
 
 Poetesse.( 3 ) 
 
 Pretresse. 
 
 Princesse. 
 
 Professe. 
 
 Prophetesse, 
 
 Quakresse. 
 
 Sauvagesse. 
 
 Suissesse. 
 
 Tigresse. 
 
 Traitresse. 
 
 VeDgeresse, 
 
 (1.) Adultere is often used for both genders un adultere, une adul- 
 tere. (2.) Chasseresse is confined chiefly to poetry: chasseur makes 
 chasssuse in common discourse. (3.) Poeiesse is not generally used. 
 
 Abbe. 
 
 Abesse. 
 
 Ivrogne. 
 
 Adultere.( l ) Adulteresse. 
 
 Larron. 
 
 Ane. 
 
 Anesse. 
 
 Maxtre. 
 
 JBailleur. 
 
 Bailleresse. 
 
 JMulatre. 
 
 Borgne. 
 
 Borg-nesse. 
 
 Negre. 
 
 Chanoine. 
 
 Chanoinesse. 
 
 Pair. 
 
 Chasseur. 
 
 Chasseresse.( 2 ) 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Comte. 
 
 Comtesse. 
 
 Pauvre. 
 
 Defendeur. 
 
 Defenderesse. 
 
 Pecheur. 
 
 Demandem 
 
 . Demanderesse. 
 
 Poete. 
 
 Devin. 
 
 Devineresse. 
 
 Pretre. 
 
 Diable. 
 
 Diablesse. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Diacre. 
 
 Diaconesse. 
 
 Profes. 
 
 Dim. 
 
 Deese. 
 
 Prophele 
 
 Do^e. 
 
 > Dog-esse. 
 
 Quaker. 
 
 
 \ Dog-aresse. 
 
 Sauvage. 
 
 Drule. 
 
 Drolesse. 
 
 Suisse. 
 
 Due 
 
 Duchesse. 
 
 Tigre. 
 
 Enclianteur. Enchanteresse. 
 
 Traitre. 
 
 Rote. 
 
 Hotesse. 
 
 Vengeur. 
 
48 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 II. Some substantives change their termination eau into 
 elle ; as bourreau, bourrelle; jumeau, jumelle; jouven- 
 ccau, jouvencelle ; pastoureau, pastourelle •, puceau, 
 pucelle. 
 HI. Substantives ending in eur generally take the termina- 
 tion euse : as, chanteur, chanteuse-^ 1 ) accoucheur, ac- 
 coucheuse ; menteur, menteuse ; crieur, crieuse ; mo- 
 queur, moqueuse; trompeur, trompeuse/ vendeur, 
 vendeuse ; &c. 
 
 Gouverneur makes gouvernante ; serviteur, servante; 
 pricur, prieure. 
 
 The following change eur into rice : accilerateur, accele- 
 ratricc ; accompagnatcur, accompagnatrice; accusa- 
 teur, accusatrice; acteur, actrice; administrateur, ad- 
 prinistratiice } admirateur, admiratrice; &c« Admo- 
 mltur. adorateur, adulateur, ambassadeur, apprtciateur, 
 approbateur, bit nfaiU ur. blasphemati ur, calcuiateur, ca- 
 lomniateur, eollabordteur, commentateur, conciliateur, 
 conductmr. const rvateur, contolatt ur. conspirateur, con- 
 ii mplateur, co-operateur, correcteut, corrupteur, crca- 
 teur, cultivateur, cur at eur, dibiteur, delateur, dinoncia- 
 teur, deprtdateur, desapprobateur, desolateur, deetruC' 
 t< a r. ditt uttur. divastateur, divorateur, directeur, dis- 
 mulateur, dissipateur, d-istributeur, do- 
 jiiniah ur, dunati ur, iltcteur, emulateur, < i agirateur, cx- 
 citateur, txlcuteur, fauteur, fondateur, fornicateur, gfa 
 tifrat- ur. imUateur, improbateur, indicateur, inspirateur, 
 inquisiteur, mspecteur, instigateur, instituteur, introduc* 
 ttur. inventeur, investigateur, Ucteur, Ugislateur, ///*/- 
 rateur, litterateur, mfaiateur, moderateur, mot eur, m- 
 iteur, observateur, operateur, ostentattur, perslcu- 
 . pi rturbateur, predicaU ur, procurateur, protecU ur, 
 <m ilii.it' ur. reformat eur, restaurateur, sacrificateuTj 
 icrutateur, tectateur, siducteur, speculateur, epectateur, 
 ■■pn/iut'iir. tintntiur. ttstalcur, tuteur, u.surputcuf, \i<>- 
 (at, ur. ziluti ur. 
 
 Empereur makes imperatn z. 
 
 Amateur should make amatrice ,• auteur t autrice ; compo- 
 
 ur, luiiipu-itnri ; traducteur, traductrice : but these 
 
 fcminioe substantives are not, as yet, generally adopt- 
 
 (l.) c> Jao cantatrice for its feminine: c hand use is ap- 
 
 iv female u bo MDgs, and cantatrice to her who makt 
 her profession. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 49 
 
 ed. N. B. Autocrate, though not ending in enr, makes 
 aulocratrice in its feminine. 
 tV. Bachelier makes bachelette ; chat, chatte ; compagnon, 
 compagne ] Czar, Czarine ; fils, Jille $ grec, grecquc ; 
 levrier, levrette ; partisan, partisanne ; paysan, pay- 
 sanne ; turc, turque. 
 
 V. Substantives in en, on and ct reduplicate their last con- 
 
 sonant and take e mute ; as, Chien, chienne ; citoyen, 
 citoyenne ; lion, lionne / paon, paohne ; sujet, sujette ; 
 coquet, coquette* 
 
 VI. Substantives in if and e«/* change/ into ve ; as, juif 
 juive ; captif captive ; veuf, veuve. 
 
 VII. Substantives in x change x into se ; as, epoux, epouse ; 
 malheureux, malheureuse ; religieux, religieuse. 
 
 VIII. Substantives ending in c?, e, i, /, n, r, s, t, u, not 
 coming under any of the foregoing rules, take e mute ; 
 as, marchand, marchande ; marie, mariee ; ami, amie ; 
 provincial, provinciate ; americain, americaine ; berger, 
 bergere ; francais, francaise ; avocat, avocate ; bossu, 
 bossue. 
 
 IX. Substantives ending in e mute belong to both genders ; 
 as7 le or la proprietaire, It or la donataire, le or Ice 
 camarade. 
 
 (As substantives are frequently used as adjectives, and 
 vice versa, see the latter page.) 
 
 21. Inanimate objects are either masculine or feminine; 
 and a perfect knowledge of their gender can be only the re- 
 sult of time and practice. Nevertheless, here are a few 
 general rules, which will be useful to the learner. 
 1st. Names of days, months and seasons ;(!•) 
 2nd. of the new decimal nomenclature; 
 
 (1.) The Academy makes automne masculine when the adjective 
 precedes : un bel automne ; and feminine, when the adjective follows : 
 ztne automne froide et pluvieuse. But should an adverb or a verb in- 
 tervene between automne and the adjective, then according to the same 
 authority, the adjective must be masculine ! un automne fort sec, Pau- 
 tomne a ete beau et sec. However most modern writers, unmindful of 
 such whimsical rules, make automne masculine in every case. 
 
 Et toi,. riant automne, accorde a nos desirs 
 
 Ce qifon attend de toi, des biens et des plaisirs. 
 
 St. Lambert. 
 Dirai-je a quels desastres 
 De Vautomne orageux nous exposent les astres ? 
 
 Deluxe* 
 
50 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 3rd. of metals and semi-mcf als : 
 
 4th. of trees and shrubs ; (Except aubepine, epine, 
 
 ronce, yeuse, bmtrdaine, and vigne t which 
 are feminine.) 
 
 6th. of winds; (Except bise and tramontane which 
 
 are feminine). 
 
 Cth. of mountains; (Except Alpes, Pyrenees, Cor- 
 
 dillires, Vosges which are feminine). 
 7th. of cities and towns not ending in e mute ; (Ex- 
 cept Jerusalem, Sion. Won which are fern.) 
 
 Oth. of countries, such as empires, kingdoms, states, 
 
 provinces, not ending in e mute ; 
 9th. Adjectives, infinitive moods, prepositions, &c. used as 
 
 substanin 
 1 Oth. Words designating language or dialect ; as, lefran^ais, 
 
 Panglais, le basque, &c, are masculine. 
 1st. Names of metaphysical objects ; (Except courage, m&- 
 rit<\ iicc } bonheur, malheur, which are mas- 
 culine). 
 
 2nd. of cities and towns ending in t mute ; 
 
 Mil. of countries ending in e mute ; (Except Mexique 
 
 which i* masculine) ark feminine. 
 22. There are some substantives that are sometimes mas- 
 culine, and sometimes feminine. 
 Amour is generally masculine, but poets have frequently 
 teade it feminine. 
 
 Amour* in the- plural is generally feminine, but when it 
 
 means those little genii which poets describe as atten- 
 dant- <>n beauty, it is always masculine. 
 
 . the name <■(" tin- largest of birds, is properly mas- 
 culine j but many writers have made it feminine : in 
 heraldy, and in allusion to the effigy of this bird on a. 
 standard, il is alwaj i feminine. 
 
 applied to a male and female is masculine ; but 
 win ii expressing an) two thiDgs of the same kind, oi 
 two animals without distinction of gender, it i- femi- 
 nine. 
 
 1 1 , singula*, i masculine: when usedinthe plural, 
 ii i- feminine. 
 
 ExempU i- masculine; but when it signifies a writing- 
 master's copj . or the scholar's imitation oi it, it is ge- 
 
 i ill\ made ft miliilie. 
 
 Ire, m its pi ptation, is general!) feminine: 
 
 when it it> figuratively used, il h alv line. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 51 
 
 Gens is masculine ; but it requires the adjective prece- 
 ding it to be feminine ; as, de bonnes gens; de mechantcs 
 gens ; les vieilles gens ; toutes les sottes gens ; maintcs 
 dangereuses gens ; certaines fines gens; qucllesexcellcnles 
 gens ! Should the adjective, immediately preceding 
 gens, belong to both genders, the mediate adjective, 
 such as tout, certain, maint, quel, must be masculine : 
 ex. tous les honnetes gens ; certains pauvres gens ; ha- 
 biles gens ; quels braves gens ! 
 
 Orge is feminine, except in these two expressions : de 
 Vorge monde, de Porge perle. 
 
 Orgue, singular, is masculine : orgues, plural, is feminine. 
 
 Paque, passover, is always feminine : Paque, easter, is 
 masculine; except in these expressions, where it is 
 feminine plural: pdques fieuries, pdques closes, faire de 
 bonnes pdques. 
 
 23. Some substantives are masculine in one signification, 
 and feminine in another, viz. 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 Aide, an assistant. 
 
 Ange, an angel. 
 
 Aune, an alder-tree. 
 
 Barbe, a Barbary horse. 
 
 Barde, a bard, a poet. 
 
 Berce, a robin-red-breast. 
 
 Capre, a privateer. 
 
 Carpe, the carpus. 
 
 Cartouche, an architectural orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Cloaque, a sink. 
 
 Coche, a coach. 
 
 Cornette, a cavalry standard 
 bearer. 
 
 Cravate, a Croatian horse. 
 
 Crepe, crape. 
 
 Custode, a claustral office. 
 
 Drille, a fellow, a companion. 
 
 Enseigne, an ensign. 
 
 Espace, space of time or place. 
 
 Fin, the main point, or height of 
 a thing. 
 
 Foret, a borer. 
 
 Garde, a keeper. 
 
 Garde-robe, an apron worn by fe- 
 males to keep their clothes clean. 
 
 Givre, white frost, 
 
 Greffe, the rolls. 
 
 Guide, a guide. 
 
 Heliotrope, the sun-flower, 
 
 Hymne, a profane hymn. 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 Aide, assistance. 
 
 Ange, an angel fish. 
 
 Aune, an ell. 
 
 Barbe, a beard. 
 
 Barde, a thin slice of bacon. ] 
 
 Berce, a cow-parsnip. 
 
 Capre, a caper, a berry. 
 
 Carpe, a carp, a fish. 
 
 Cartouche, a cartridge, a furlough. 
 
 Cloaque, a sewer. 
 Coche, a notch, a sow. 
 Cornette, a head-dress. 
 
 Cravate, a cravat, a neck-cloth. 
 Crepe, a sort of cake. 
 Custode, a curtain, a cover. 
 Drille, a paper rag. 
 Enseigne, a sign. 
 Espace, a space, with printers. 
 Fin, the end. 
 
 Foret, a forest. 
 
 Garde, a keeping ; a guard. ' 
 
 Garde-robe, a ward-robe. 
 
 Givre, a snake in heraldry. 
 Greffe, a graft. 
 Guide, a rein. 
 
 Heliotrope, a precious stone. 
 Hymne, a church hymn, 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Iaterligne, the black space be- 
 tween two lines. 
 Laque, a Chinese varnish. 
 Livre, a book. 
 Loutre, an otter bat, a muff. 
 Blanche, a handle. 
 Manoeuvre, a labourer. 
 
 Masque, a mask. 
 Memoire, a memorial, a bill. 
 Mode, a mode, a mood. 
 Mole, a pier. 
 Moule. a mould. 
 Mousse, a cabin boy. 
 GEuvrc, the collection of a musi- 
 cian's or ingravert works: the 
 philos ' ; '"<</ fortie- 
 
 s' a work, a deed. 
 Office, an ol 
 
 06 at cards. 
 Fa^e, :■ 
 
 ..'" J inches. 
 Parallele, r i 
 rendule, a pendulu 
 i i ,,< . the end. 
 
 Pique, uds. 
 
 . a gnat snapper. 
 1M me, the plane tree, 
 platine platioom, a • 
 
 F." le a itOVB | a |>all. 
 
 polacre, a Polish horeeman. 
 Ponte, punto .i' cards. 
 i post, a situation. 
 
 Pourpre, I he purple bue; the ptir- 
 
 ple i. \ er. 
 
 played 
 
 bj four persons. 
 It clai ie, a < r\ to call back the 
 
 falcon. 
 
 Re] U I -'an. 
 
 , . a back. 
 :i scholium in geometry, 
 ire, a constellation. 
 ;!„• balance of an account 
 
 S>nri>., a kiiiiIc 
 
 T i circuit, a turn, a trick. 
 
 Triomphe, a triumph. 
 
 TrompettOj a tnunpeufs 
 
 Interligne, with printers, the piece 
 
 separating 1 two lines. 
 Laque, a kind of gum. 
 Livre, a pound 
 Loutre, an otter. 
 Manche, a sleeve. 
 Manoeuvre, the tackles, the work-, 
 
 ing of a ship ; a manoeuvre. 
 Masque, an ugly, cross old woman. 
 Menioire, memory. 
 Mode, fashion. 
 Mole, a mole in midwifery. 
 BToule, a muscle, a shell-fish. 
 Mousse, moss. 
 
 CEunc, a work, a deed ; in Iheplic- 
 rul, a writer's works. 
 
 Office, a pantry. 
 Ombre, sh ide, shadow. 
 
 ,r page of a book. 
 Palme, a branch of a palm-tree. 
 Parallele, a parallel line. 
 Pendule, a clock. 
 Periode, a period of time; a sen» 
 
 tence. 
 Pique, a pike, a weapon. 
 Piroine, piony. 
 Plane, a plane, a look 
 
 Platine, the scutcheon of a lock., 
 
 Poele, a frying pan. 
 Polacre, •■> kind ofressel. 
 Ponte, laj mcr o 
 Poste, the post-office, &c. 
 Pourpre, the purple die; the symbol 
 of royalty, fcc. 
 
 Quadrille, a troop of kniphK or 
 
 people of the same partj . 
 Reclame, withprwtert, the catch- 
 word. 
 
 e, a port good for 
 to put into; the act of touching 
 
 at a port. 
 
 Remise, a carriage stable i delay. 
 Bcolie, a scholium in literature. 
 
 Serpentaire, the snake root 
 
 Sol.le, a soldier's pay. 
 
 Homme, a burden ; a sum. 
 
 Bouris, a mouse. 
 
 T, i.in, tin- i oini 11I-- of a writing. 
 
 Tour, a tower. 
 
 Triomphe, a game, trump ..; 
 
 Trompette, a trumpet. 
 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. !~)3 
 
 Vague, the airy region. Vague, a wave. 
 
 Vase, a vase, a jar. Vase, the slime or mud at the but- 
 torn of a river. 
 
 Vigogne, a hat made of penman Vigogne, an animal of Peru ; its 
 
 wool. wool 
 
 Voile, a veil. Voile, a sail. 
 
 24. A few substantives do not belong to the sex which 
 their gender indicates, viz. 
 
 Bete, feminine a fool, a dunce, is Personne, fern,, a person, man or 
 
 said of a man or woman. woman. 
 
 Base, fern, a numskull, an ignora- Sentinelle, fern, a sentry, many 
 
 mus, is said of a man. writers make it masculine : un 
 
 T>uye,ftm. a dupe, is said of a man sentinelle assidu. Voltaire. 
 
 or woman. De nombreux senlinelles. Delille. 
 
 Estafette,yem. a man carrying the Le plus sur sentinelle. Fontanes. 
 
 mail from one post-office to an- Tendron, masculine, a young girl. 
 
 other. Troupes,y"em. troops, soldiers. 
 
 Garde, fern, a guard, a company Vedette, fern, a mounted sentry. 
 
 of men. Yigie.fem. a sentry at sea. 
 
 OF NUMBERS. 
 
 25. Number is the distinction of one from more than one. 
 or many. 
 
 26. Numbers are two ; the singular, which denotes one, 
 or the aggregate of many collectively ; as, un homme, une 
 troupe : the plural, denotes more than one ; as, les homines, 
 les troupes. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
 
 27. lst.-The plural number of substantives is generally 
 formed by adding s to the singular ; as, navire, navires ; 
 itat, etats ; loi, lois. 
 
 28. S, sign of the plural, added to a mute monosyllable, 
 changes its sound into that of e ; as, le, les, pr. le ; me, mes, 
 pr. me ; te, tes, pr. te ; se, ses, pr. se ; ce, ces, pr. ce. (see 
 page 22.) 
 
 29. 2nd.-Substantives ending in s, x, and z in the singu- 
 lar, retain the same termination in the plural ; as, lefils, les 
 fils ; la souris, les souris ; la voix, les voix ; le nez, les nez. 
 
 30. 3rd.-Substantives ending in ant or ent, of more than 
 one syllable, from their plural by changing t into 5 ; as, le 
 diamant, les diamans ; P enfant, les enfans ; lejugement, les 
 Jugemens ; Paccidmt, les accidens. — Monosyllables retain 
 
M THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 t ; as, le gant, les gants ; la dent, les dents ; (except gent 
 which makes gens.)— Many retain t in both cases. 
 
 31. 4th.-Soine substantives in ou take x in the plural: 
 as, bijou, bijoux ; caillou, cailloux ; carcajou, carcajoux ; 
 caribou, cariboux ; chou, choux, genou, genoux ; ghuglou, 
 glougloux ; hibou. hiboux ; joujou, joujoux ; pou, poux ; sa- 
 pajou, sapajoux. The others take s ; as, acajou, acajous ; 
 bambou, bambous ; brou, brous ; clou, clous; cou, cous; 
 coucou, coucous ; tcrou, ecrous ; Jilou, filous ; fou, fous ; 
 licou, licous ; loup-garou, loups-garous ; matou, matous ; 
 sou, sous ; iron, trous ; verrou, verrous. 
 
 32. 5th. -Substantives in au, eau and eu take x in the 
 plural : as, Uau, etaux ; noyau, noyaux ; eau, eaux ; seau, 
 seaux ; feu, feux . ch* veu, chevoax ; vau, vceux. 
 
 33. Gth. -Substantives in al make aux in the plural ; as, 
 chevai, chevaux ; general, generaux ; mal, maux ; rival, 
 ri\;iux. 
 
 Except bal. earnaval and regal, which follow the general 
 rale, that i: take s in the plural. 
 
 Pal makes [*•»* bocal makes \ J"*"" * 
 
 \ puis ; S bocals, 
 
 31. Tth.-Oi" J 2 substantives in ail. to take a in the plural ; 
 as, attirttil, atttrailfl ; catnail, camaila ; detail, details ; ipou- 
 ■ I, epotfvantaila . eventail, sventailfl . gouvemail, gou- 
 vernails ; mail, mails ; pott rail, poi trails ; portaU, portails ; 
 rirail, j-erails.— 10 make a aulx ; bail, baux ; In- 
 
 tail, bcstianx ; corail, coram ; email, emaux ; plwnail, plu- 
 ni.iiix; t niipinii/. soupiraox ; tramail t tramaux j traiail.(') 
 tiavuux ; Ktniuil, vantaiix : and the two la=»t, aiguail and 
 .'. are only used in the -insular. 
 
 . I ; ,>:/.( i )yeuxj an ul. aimx : 
 
 and univerttl, a logical term, makes u 
 
 Borne substantives, firom the nature of the things 
 which they express, are Hied only in the singular form ; as, 
 
 ' Hhers are Used only in the plural ; as. accordailles, 
 fffrn,aguets, altntour.^ aOCetres, annates, appas, armoiries, 
 
 (I.) Trnvail makrn traoa&U in the *en<;< of frsee, ttint is. a wooden 
 
 I ) Cut makes cieti 
 
 tiry, and the tester or top of a bod; a>, cV«< mi tit* plusbeatuc culsdu 
 
 In faxt l,i>n tfs cieU, de» del* <tc tits. (J.) CEi/ makes 
 
 o-i/t in ./ U-dr-htni}; a small oval window ; as, k grenkr cit iclairi far 
 
 i/ci aUt-dt-banf. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 55 
 
 assises, (assizes) assistans, (by-standers) atours, besides, 
 broussailles, broutilles, catacombes, ciseaux, (scissors) con- 
 fns, decombres, depens, doleances, entours, entrailles, epou- 
 sailles, fiancailles, fonts, frais, (expenses, charges) funi- 
 railles, hardes, (clothes) immondices, mdnes, matcriaux, ma- 
 tines, maurs, mouchettes, nippes, nones, obscqucs, pincettes, 
 pleurs, premices,proches, tenebres, vepres, vergettcs, vitraux, 
 vivres.— Those that are not in italics are sometimes used in 
 the singular number ; as, Dieu crea une lumiere 2000 ans 
 avant Adam, qui passant d?elu en elu, d r ancetre enancetrede 
 Mahomet parvint enfin jus qu' 'a lui. Montesquieu. Les sots 
 sont la broussaille du genre humain. Marmontel. Le ciseau 
 de la Parque. On n*a pas encore mis le ciseau a cette etoffe. 
 Donnez-moi la pincette. Oil est la vergette ? l'Academie. 
 Cest-la que regne unpleur eternel. Bossuet. 
 
 38. Proper names of persons are sometimes preceded by 
 the plural article, where single individuals are meant; in 
 such a case, these proper names do not take the plural 
 form ; as, Les Aristote et les Platon succederent aux Sopho- 
 cle et aux Euripide. Durant le dernier siege de Troie on voit 
 les A.chille, les Agamemnon, les Ulysse, &c. 
 
 39. But when many persons, who have born the same 
 name are mentioned, they ought to have the plural form ; 
 as, les trois Curiaces ; les trois Horaces ; les deux Gracques . 
 les deux Corneilles ; la vertu des deux Antonins ; Qu'est-cc 
 que tous ces Grignans-la ? 
 
 40. Proper names used as appellatives always take the 
 plural form ; as, Tous les hommes ne sauraient etre des So- 
 crates ; il y a beaucoup de poetes, mais peu de Virgiles ; 
 Phistoire ojfre un plus grand nombre d' * Alexandres que de 
 Washingtons. 
 
 41. When two substantives are connected by the prepo- 
 sition de, the second is put in the plural, if it express a num- 
 ber of things ; as, Un marchand deplumes ; de chevaux ; d'o/- 
 seaux ; une livre de cerises ; un bouquet de roses ; une pile de 
 boulets ; un tas depierres et de briques. But should the se- 
 cond substantive be used only to specify the nature of the 
 first, then it must be singular ; as, Un lit de plume ; une 
 force de cheval ; de Phuile d^olive ; une maison de pierre ou 
 de brique ; de la gelte de groseille. 
 
 42. Compound substantives, united by a hyphen, are sub- 
 ject to various rules when used in the plural. 
 
56 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 1st. In compounds, consisting of a substantive and art 
 adjective, or of another substantive used adjectively, both 
 words take the plural form ; as, 
 
 Sing Aigue-marine, aqua marina. Pl. — Aigues-marines. 
 
 Arc-boutant, aimtlrtss. Arcs boutaus. 
 
 Ba^so-cour, a poultry -yard. Basses-cours. 
 
 Bel-esprit, □ wiL Beaux-esprits. 
 
 i-tils, ti son-in-law. Beaux-fiJsi 
 
 Bean-fr^re, a brother-in lava, Beaux-freres. 
 
 Belle-fille, a daughter-in-law. Belles-fillcs. 
 
 li< tlf-niere, a m>tii,r-iii-law. Bdles-meres. 
 
 Chef-lieu, thief lawn. Chefe-lieux. 
 
 Clioii-tiVur, cauliflower. Choux-fleure. 
 
 Dame-jea ae, ademi-john* Damcs-jeannes. 
 
 il-hoiiiiiic, anoblenian. Gentils-liommcs. 
 
 n In 'in. IVlits-maitrcs. 
 
 (I irtier-maltre, aquartermat Qoartiers-mattreA 
 
 tfu g reet Reiaes-claodi m 
 
 -feaime, a mid-wife. Sages-femmes. 
 
 3d. In compounds consisting of ;i preposition, or such 
 Irorda ;i- tiri/u. derni, • i, grand*, mi, semi, tragi, vice, and 
 ;i substantive onJj takes the plural form 
 
 \ 1 1 1 1 re-boutiqne, a backehop. 
 
 At .mi . 
 
 Aiv In - ti 1 1 •* » 1 1 , 
 1 »( mi-dii ii. 
 I i pal, 
 
 Grand'n 
 Grand'rue, 
 
 !\1l-. ainnr. 
 
 Semi-too, 
 
 liral, 
 
 l 
 
 cotUKon, 
 
 mi arrant knave. 
 
 a derm 
 
 n grand-mother* 
 
 Hreet. 
 mid-lent. 
 
 :,>,ir<lt. 
 
 Pl. — Arriere-bouflque* 
 Avant-i eilies. 
 Contre-da& 
 Ar. bi-frif 
 I )in.i- 
 
 KUX. 
 
 Graod'OH i 
 Graod'ruee. 
 iMi-c.n i 
 Semi-tons. 
 
 \ ice-amir 
 
 3d. In i ompounds consisti bi ( intrves, united 
 
 l>\ i preposition, the first substantive onlj takes the plural 
 form; as, 
 
 Sim. — \i< i 
 
 
 Chef- 
 Cul-di 
 
 Kan-.!. . (fifty. 
 
 •1 in. 
 
 Pi . — Arcs-en-ciel. 
 
 -.I'.iuv ic 
 
 « !ub> ; 
 \ 
 
 1 tli. Mam used in both numbed n \th 
 
 <>nr form, singular or plural, according tu th< 
 
 turn. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 r Si 
 
 Compound substantives which preserve the singular form 
 in both numbers. 
 
 un or DES. 
 
 
 un or DES. 
 
 
 Abat faim, 
 
 a large piece of 
 
 Cogne-fetu, 
 
 a busy body. 
 
 
 meat. 
 
 Colin-maillard, 
 
 blindman's buff. 
 
 Abat-jour, 
 
 a sky light in a 
 
 Contre-jour, 
 
 counter light, 
 
 
 store. 
 
 
 false light. 
 
 Abat-vent, 
 
 a pentice. 
 
 Coq-a-1'ane, 
 
 nonsense, a silly 
 
 Appui-main, 
 
 a mostick. 
 
 
 speech. 
 
 Apres-demain, 
 
 after to-morrow. 
 
 Corps-de-garde, 
 
 a guard house. 
 
 Apres-midi, 
 
 after-noon. 
 
 Coupe-gorge, 
 
 a cut-throat place. 
 
 Bien-etre, 
 Boute-en-train, 
 
 welfare. 
 
 a bird exciting 
 
 Coupe-jarret, 
 Coupe-tete, 
 
 a cut-throat. 
 
 leapfrog. — ■ — ■ """ 
 
 
 others to sing ; 
 
 Couvre-chef, 
 
 a kerchief. 
 
 
 a promoter of 
 
 Couvre-feu, 
 
 afire plate. 
 
 
 mirth or pleas- 
 
 Creve-coeur, 
 
 heart-break. 
 
 
 ure. 
 
 Cric-crac, 
 
 the sound of any 
 
 Boute-feu, 
 
 an incendiary ; 
 
 
 body bursting. 
 
 
 a lint-stock. 
 
 Croix-de-par-Dieu, a primer. 
 
 Boute-selle, 
 
 the signal given 
 
 Doit-et-avoir, 
 
 debit and credit.* 
 
 
 to the cavalry 
 
 Ecoute-s'il-pleut, a mill that goes 
 
 
 to saddle their 
 
 
 by a sluice ; a 
 
 
 horses. 
 
 
 vain hope. 
 
 Boute-tout-cuire,a spendthrift. 
 
 Entre-sol, 
 
 mezzanine. 
 
 Brise-cou, 
 
 a break-neck. 
 
 Fesse-Matbieu, 
 
 a hunks. 
 
 Brise-fer, 
 
 avery strong man. 
 
 Fouille-au-pot, 
 
 a scullion. 
 
 Brise-glace, 
 
 starlings. 
 
 Fripe-sauce, 
 
 a lick-dish: 
 
 Brise-raison, 
 
 afool. 
 
 Gagne-denier, 
 
 a labourer. 
 
 Brise-tout, 
 
 one that breaks 
 
 Gagne-pain, 
 
 livelihood. 
 
 
 every thing. 
 
 Gagne-petit, 
 
 a grinder. 
 
 Brise-vent, 
 
 a shelter. 
 
 Garde-boutique 
 
 , goods thai have 
 
 Brule-tout, 
 
 a save-all. 
 
 
 long been in 
 
 •Caille-lait, 
 
 lady-bed-straw. 
 
 
 a shop andean* 
 
 Careme-prenant, carnival-time ; 
 
 
 not be sold. 
 
 
 a mummer. 
 
 Garde-feu, 
 
 afender. 
 
 Casse-cou, 
 
 a break-neck. 
 
 Garde-manger, 
 
 a safe. 
 
 Casse-croute, 
 
 an instrument ser- 
 
 Garde-note, 
 
 a notary. 
 
 
 ving to break 
 
 Garde-vue, 
 
 a screen for the 
 
 
 hard crust. 
 
 
 eyes. 
 
 Casse-cu, 
 
 a fall upon one's 
 
 Gate-cuir, 
 
 a bungling shoe- 
 
 
 back side. 
 
 
 maker. 
 
 Casse-museau, 
 
 a knock on the 
 
 Gate-maison, 
 
 one who does not 
 
 
 nose. 
 
 
 know how to 
 
 Casse-tete, 
 
 the Indian club ; 
 
 
 manage a house 
 
 
 apuzzle brain. 
 
 Gate-menage, 
 
 one who reduces 
 
 Chasse-avant, 
 
 aforeman. 
 
 
 the expense of 
 
 Chasse-cousin, 
 
 bad wine. 
 
 
 of a house more 
 
 Cbasse-ennui, 
 
 diversion, 
 
 
 than he ought. 
 
 
 amusement. 
 
 Gate-metier, 
 
 one who works or 
 
 Chasse-maree, 
 
 a fish boat. 
 
 
 sells for two 
 
 Chauffe-lit, 
 
 a warming pan. 
 
 
 low a price. 
 
 Chausse-pied, 
 
 shoeing leather, 
 
 Gate-papier, 
 
 a scribbler. 
 
 
 or horn, 
 
 Gate-pate, 
 8 
 
 abad pastry cook,. 
 
58 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 un or DES. 
 
 Gratte-cu, the hep of a briar. 
 
 Hausse-coL. a g 
 
 Hors-d'oeuvre; an outwork. 
 
 In-dix-huit, an oclo-decimo. 
 
 In-douze, a duodecimo. 
 
 In-f!c(avo, an octavo. 
 
 IM.i.i-lcvee, f. rep 
 
 Mal-aise, uneasiness, hard- 
 
 ship. 
 
 TNI.il- . languor and pain. 
 
 Mouille-liuuchc. f.//ic mouth-water 
 pear. 
 
 Oui-dire, 
 
 ; 
 
 ■j trlout, 
 . ort, 
 I terre, 
 
 J'iik i-i:. lillc. 
 
 hearsay. 
 
 I ■>■<}. 
 r key 
 "■rt. 
 a placi to ttop ut. 
 a pinch'i 
 
 laHciotu 
 
 Piqae-ntque, 
 
 riciirc-niijtri'. 
 
 I 
 
 Porte-di 
 
 Pbrte-bnilit r, 
 
 I'ortc-inallirur, 
 
 Tortc-i. 
 
 1 
 Qircn-iiira-Uoii. 
 
 ^-1,, • ■ ) 
 
 ■ a i ■ ■ ■ v 
 
 clubbing at a 
 
 - 
 
 a /•'■il> -yt'ind. 
 ■ 
 
 i-l/turtr, 
 
 OfU who 
 
 b.td link. 
 
 ,1,1 may 
 
 im or des. 
 Rabat-joie, 
 
 Remue-menage, 
 Reveille-matin, 
 
 Savoir-faire, 
 
 S;i\ ( iir-vivrc, 
 
 We, 
 Serre-tete, 
 Souffre-donlear, 
 Sot-1'y-laisse, 
 Tac-tac, 
 ■l in, 
 
 Tirr-h,,(to, 
 
 Tire-bouchoo, 
 
 Tirt-ljuurrr, 
 
 Tin -I 
 Tirv-h;. 
 
 Tonte-epice, f. 
 
 T.).i-l..n. 
 Tmiilili-ii ■((•, 
 
 Tu-auUm, 
 
 i it at. 
 
 \ult-au-\iut, 
 
 a check on pleas- 
 ure a sullen, 
 trouhli 
 
 loir, casting (i 
 damp on oth- 
 ers joy. 
 
 moving, distur- 
 bam e, confu- 
 sion. 
 
 alarm bell : newt 
 or noise heard 
 early in the 
 morning. 
 
 skill. 
 
 good breeding. 
 
 a cloter up. 
 
 a ni^hl cap. 
 
 a drudge: « butt. 
 rPsnosc. 
 
 lok-l 
 
 a wine tatter. 
 
 a pri val- 
 uation. 
 
 • ark. 
 r, xc. 
 
 a worm Co unload 
 
 a gun. 
 a ruler. 
 
 n mow y -box. 
 
 u//-\pi ■ 
 
 a puppy. 
 
 a troubh 
 
 an in- 
 tend/ r. 
 
 thi main 
 th, difficult knot- 
 lit point of a 
 thing. 
 
 a radi -m 
 
 a in I : a , 
 
 Qui 
 
 < '<iiii(ii)iiinl su which preserve the plural form 
 
 in ix. tl» numbers, 
 
 
 Bri:. 
 
 I 
 ofw who ha* lott Cassc-noisettea ) . , 
 
 v. s" 
 
 j Chut 
 | '. br-.'.ik'.r. I CbaBM-COfuiai $ 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 59 
 
 T7N Or DES. 
 
 Chasse-mouches. 
 
 ChaufFe-pied, 
 
 Claque-oreilles, 
 
 Couvre-pieds, 
 
 Croque-notes, 
 
 Cure-dents, 
 
 Cure-oreilles, 
 
 Entr'actes, 
 
 Entre-colonnes, 
 
 Entre-lignes, 
 
 Entre-sourcils, 
 
 Essuie-mains, 
 Garde-fous, 
 
 Garde-menbles, 
 Garde-robes, f. 
 Gate-enfans, 
 
 afiy-flap. 
 
 a fool stove. 
 
 a flapped hat. 
 
 a quilt. 
 
 apaltry musician. 
 
 a tooth pick. 
 
 an ear picker. 
 
 an interval be- 
 tween two acts 
 of a play. 
 
 intercolumnation. 
 
 interlineation. 
 
 the space between 
 the eye brows. 
 
 a towel. 
 
 the rails or para- 
 pet of a bridge. 
 
 a lumber room. 
 
 a wardrobe. 
 
 a spoiler of chil- 
 dren. 
 
 un or DES. 
 
 Gobe-mouches, a fly catcher ; a 
 very credulous 
 
 Lave-mains, 
 
 Mille-pieds, 
 
 Pese-liqueurs, 
 
 Porte-lettres, 
 
 man. 
 a vessel in which 
 
 water is kept 
 
 for washing the 
 
 hands, 
 millepedes, 
 an areometer, 
 a letter case. 
 
 Porte-mouchettes, snuffers-tray. 
 
 Quinze-vingts, 
 
 Serre-papiers, 
 
 Tate-poules, 
 Va-nu-pieds, 
 Vide-bouteilles, 
 
 one of the 300 
 blind men hos- 
 pital. 
 
 a place-where pa- 
 pers are kept. 
 
 a cotquean. 
 
 a lag rag fellow. 
 
 a small country 
 box. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 43. The article is an adjective prefixed to substantives, 
 to point them out, and to determine their signification. 
 
 44. There is, in French, but one article, le, the, which 
 varies according to the gender, number, or case of the sub- 
 stantive, before which it is placed. 
 Le, retains 
 
 But before 
 
 s own form before a substantive 
 
 masculine singular ; as, 
 
 a substantive feminine singular, it 
 
 changes its e into a ; as, 
 a substantive singular, whether" 
 
 masculine or feminine, begin- 
 
 nin 
 
 le pere, the father. 
 la mere, the mother. 
 
 Pours, the he bear. 
 
 , Pourse, the she bear. 
 
 with a vowel, or a silent h, } „,,. ' .. , , ' 
 
 v. , j , i i Phote , the host, 
 
 it drops-its own vowel, and takes 
 
 an apostrophe in its place ; as, J 
 
 a substantive plural, whether mas- " 
 
 culine or feminine, it takes an 
 
 Photesse, the hostess. 
 
 les peres the fathers/ 
 les meres the mothers. 
 
 45. Le is always contracted with the prepositions de, of, 
 and a, to, in the masculine singular, before a consonant ; 
 and in the plural, thus : 
 
 du, } Lde le. 
 
 au, f , . . , , ~ 1 a le. 
 
 des, > are alwa y s used instead of \de les. 
 aux, 1 fa les. 
 
60 THE CLEMENTS OF 
 
 46. The article is declined in the following manner, 
 before a substantive 
 masc. fem. sing, beginniug with Plural of both gen- 
 sing. sing, a vowel or silent h. ders. 
 
 Nominative^) 1 
 
 and V le, 
 
 Accusative. ) 
 
 la, 1' les, the. 
 
 Genitive. } , f ., 
 
 and >du, dela, del', des, i %J* € W M 
 
 Ablative. $ - ' yromthe. 
 
 Dative. au, a la, a P, aux, to the, at tfie 
 
 OF THE CSE OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 47. The article is used in French, as in English, to point 
 Out Bubstan tires taken in a limited or particular sense ; and 
 i- n peated before every substantive ; as, Le president da 
 Sinat. La beaute <l> In dame. Uimmortaliti de Paine. La 
 liberti dis Etats-Unis* Donnez le pain, la viande, les as- 
 rietteS) let couteaux >t les fourchettes an domestique, 
 
 48. The article, in French, serves besides to point out 
 substantives taken in their widest or mo:>t general sense : 
 in which case, the article is omitted in English; as, V esprit 
 est moins ran qtu It bon sens. La religion est le baunu de 
 la vie. 1 .n saget -. la vertu, tt le savoir distingueni les vrait 
 philosopfus. L> ftr 1 1 racier sunt plus utiles que Par et 
 
 ■ tit. 
 
 49. The English possessive case must always be put in 
 Freiu h, after tlie substantive, <>r substantives, governing if ; 
 and the genitive of the article must be placed between them 
 
 (i.i There are reallv i ues in French, as well as ra English, in 
 
 the strict sense of the word; as substantives in l»itli languages, < ! < > no! 
 rarj their termination: • ire already familiar to ami 
 
 itudied Latin, the compiler baa determined t>> ose them, :is well as 
 tin' leverai denomination! that modern grammarians have adopted to 
 in lioatetbe reJ ition thai noons bear toooe another in a sentence. — The 
 nominative simplj expresses the name of a person or iliiiiL'-, ;im<1 
 marks the inbjo t oi di i i nitive 
 
 (or pe k, iif 
 
 .-,•,/, n. — The datit e (<>r regimen indirect, complement in- 
 direct the term of the ;« to mark the object i>> which em 
 
 thing i- referred ; . G fc I — Thi ■ tivi 
 
 • rim< n direct, complement direct] indicates the direct oh* 
 
 ject to whteh the actioo'of the verb passes; as, V rhttke 
 
 inta out the object addressed or called upon. 
 
 an.) is distinguished bj the ioterjet eon », expressed or understood be- 
 
 rhe ablative shows thi 
 
 taring 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 61 
 
 as, The king's brother, le frere du roi. Men's passions, lea 
 passions des hommes. The governors speech and conduct, 
 le discours et la conduite du gouverneur. 
 
 50. The article is used to point out proper names of 
 countries, rivers, seas and mountains ; as, La France et 
 PAngleterre ont fait la paix. UAmerique est plus libre que 
 PEurope, PAsie et PAfrique. Les bords de la Tamise. Le 
 Missouri est une branche du Mississipi. Le detroit de Gi- 
 bralter joint la Mediterrante a PAtlantique. Le Mont-Blanc 
 est la plus haute montagne des Alpes. 
 
 51. The article is placed before substantives expressing. 
 measure, weight, or number ; in which case the determina- 
 tive adjective a or an is used in English ; as, Ce drop se vend 
 huit dollars la verge. Le cafe, vaut trente sous la livre. 
 Elle vend ses ozufs dix-huit sous la douzaine, et ses perdrix 
 trois schellins la paired 
 
 52. The preposition par, bj r , or per, is used, instead of 
 the article, before substantives expressing a division of time, 
 or the measure of labour agreed upon ; as, Je le vois qua- 
 tres fois par an. 11 regoit une guinee par semaine. Cette 
 revue se publie deux -fois par mois. Ce magon regoit tant par 
 toise. Ce maitre de musique prend un dollar par legon. 
 
 N. B. The article, however, is often used, instead of par, 
 before a division of time ; as, II venait me voir deux ou trois 
 fois Pan. J'allais chez lui cinq ou six fois la semaine. 
 
 53. The article is prefixed to an adjective expressing 
 some peculiar quality by which a person is distinguished ; 
 as, Guillaume, le conquerant, naquit a Falaise en Normandie. 
 Pepin, le bref coupa la tete a un lion. Napoleon, le grand, 
 est mort a Saint e-Helene. 
 
 54. The masculine article is placed before adjectives, 
 taken as metaphysical substantives ; and other parts of 
 speech used as substantives ; as, Le beau ideal. II prend le 
 recherche pour le sublime. Cet auteur sait meler Putile a 
 Pagreable. II prefer e Pitre auparaitre. II enperd leboire 
 et le manger. II veut savoir le pourquoi de tout. 
 
 55. The article should be repeated before every adjec- 
 tive connected with a substantive, when these adjectives 
 express opposite qualities ; as, Les bons et les rnauvais rois 
 sontjuges par Phistoire. On a coupe dans cette forit lejeune 
 et le vieux bois. II occupe le premier et h second etage de 
 cette maison. 
 
 56. When the adjectives do not express opposite quali- 
 ties, but are nearly synonymous, it is sufficient to place the 
 
62 the Elements of 
 
 article before the first adjective only ; as, Lcs belles t\ 
 movables actions de Washington, 11 ne faut pas se moqncf 
 des simples et bonnes gens. 
 
 N. 13. The article, repeated before every adjective, even 
 when they do not express opposite qualities, gives much 
 more energy to the sentence : as. Le bun, le sage, lc chari- 
 table Fenelon aimail tons les kommes sans distinction de 
 pays. 
 
 57. The genitive of the article, du, de la, de P, dts, 
 (then generally rendered in English by some or any) is el- 
 liptically used (the words unc partie, tine portion being un- 
 derstood) before substantives, in order to express a part of 
 a species or jualitv ; and for this reason, it is sometimes 
 called partitiv( articU ; as, Dupain, d<s legumes et de Peat* 
 lui sufjisent. Mettez du sel, da poivre, de la moutarde, du 
 
 i' Pkuile, (l Pestragon, <t des ognons dans la sa- 
 hans Pont calomnie. Kile a de la bear 
 ■■ ft (I, la modestie. II a du savoir, dugout, de Patna- 
 /'. du />i> it. 'I des amis. (N. B« This par- 
 titive article is often omitted in English, but it must alwayt 
 bc expressed in French |. 
 
 58. I> i- used instead of du, d< la, de P and des, when 
 substantive is preceded l>\ an adjective, or bj the ad- 
 
 :..>t : ;nid in — jamais, never 
 J\ii de bun /lain, di bonne viande, it de beau* fruits. If lui 
 donm d' ui . 'id' mauvais exemples. De pi tilts 
 
 i' souvent de grands effets. II n'a />as < 
 
 '. n'aiponti d'amit . Tu ><■ 
 
 'i a ton diii> r. Elle in- lit jamais d< remans. 
 
 .v. 1 . Bui should the adjective preceding the substantive 
 
 form but one idea, wnh n : or should the substantive not be 
 
 taken in a partitive Bense, du, d> In. <l< r. des must be < 
 
 and DOt "'■ ; ;i-. /.' //< ti /i.'/tls. I ) 
 
 yimnt linn' >tt tnariis. ll y avail dans e< cafe dee bum 
 
 prit.- ■ ' i / philo- 
 
 In lies actio 
 
 N. B. When ind the substantive forn 
 
 but one id< : i ctive qualifying both, 
 
 (• rule 58 : as, // man 
 
 idr que dc vieux pttits-nuu- 
 
 . The dative of the article, a la, a P, is b itin 
 
 placed before an adjective (which agrees with a femii 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 C3 
 
 substantive understood; such as mode, manure) to denote a 
 fashion, a manner of being or doing; as. 
 
 La coiffure d /'antique, 
 Les batimens d la moderne, 
 Des bottes a Z'anglaise, 
 II chanted /'italieune, 
 Un bonnet a la turque, 
 II s'habille a Pespagnole, 
 
 Un habit d la francaise, 
 II vit a Z'americaine, 
 
 the antique head dress, 
 modern buildings. 
 english boots. 
 
 he sings in the Italian style.' 
 a turkish cap. 
 
 he dresses himself after the Span- 
 ish fashion, 
 afrench dress, 
 he lives after the americanfashion, 
 
 N. B. This dative of the article is also used before proper 
 names ; as, Void un livre cartonne a la BradeL CPest un 
 chape.au a la Henri-quatre. Des cheveux a la Titus. Ce sont 
 des bottes a la Souvarozv. 
 
 61. The dative of the article, au,a la, a P, aux, serves 
 to connect two substantives, the last of which qualifies the 
 first, or shows what it is made of, its use, the business or 
 some peculiar quality of the person it relates to &c— In, 
 english the qualifying substantive generally precedes ; as, 
 
 De la sauce au beurre, 
 
 De la sauce aux capres, 
 
 De la soupe aux choux, 
 
 TJne tarte aux groseilles, 
 
 De la pommade a la rose, 
 
 Le pot a l'eau, 
 
 La bouteille a. l'encre, 
 
 Le marche a la volaille, 
 
 De la peinture a. l'huile, 
 
 Le coffre a l'avoine, 
 
 L'homme aux huitres, 
 
 La femme aux gateaux, 
 
 L'homme aux quarante ecus, 
 
 L'enfant aux cheveux roux, 
 
 Achille aux pieds legers, 
 
 La fille aux yeux bleus, 
 
 L'homme aux grandes moustaches, 
 
 L'homme a l'habit vert, 
 
 butter-sauce, 
 
 caper-sauce. 
 
 cabbage-soup. 
 
 a gooseberry-tart. 
 
 rose-pomatum. 
 
 the water-pot, pitcher. 
 
 the ink-bottle. 
 
 the poultry-market. 
 
 oil-paint. 
 
 the oat-chest. 
 
 the oyster-man. 
 
 the cake-woman. 
 
 the man with the forty crowns. 
 
 the red hair-boy. 
 
 svnft-footed Achilles. 
 
 the blue-eyed maid. 
 
 the man with the large xohiskers. 
 
 the man with the green coat. 
 
 62. When the second substantive, expressing the use, fit- 
 ness, form, propensity, &c. of the first, is taken in an inde- 
 terminate sense, the preposition a is placed between them, 
 without the article ; as. 
 
 Un moulin d vent, 
 Un moulin d eau, 
 Un moulin d scie, 
 Un moulin d cafe, j 
 Un grenier d foinj 
 
 a wind-mill, 
 a water-mill, 
 a saw-mill. 
 a coffee-mill, 
 a hay-loft. 
 
64 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Une arme d feu, 
 
 Un chapeau d grands bords, 
 
 Une boite d fusil, 
 
 Un ouvrage d come, 
 
 Une corbeille d fruit, 
 
 La boite d poudre. 
 
 Le bateau a vapeur, 
 
 Une cuiller d cafe, 
 
 Un verre d liqueur, 
 
 Un lit d colonnes, 
 
 Une pierre d feu, 
 
 Un pays a paturages, 
 
 Un mot d double sens, 
 
 Une terre d froment, 
 
 Une cafetiere d dix tasses, 
 
 Une voiture d huit places, 
 
 Une table d douze couverls, 
 
 Une table d tiroirs. 
 
 Un liornme d projets, 
 
 Un homme d systeme, 
 
 Un homme d grands mots, 
 
 T'n liomrac d toute epreuvc, 
 
 f n homme a cheveux courts, 
 
 a Jire-arm. 
 
 a broad brimmed hat, 
 
 a tinder-box. 
 
 a horn work. 
 
 a fruit basket. 
 
 the powder-box. 
 
 the steam-boat. 
 
 a tea-spoon. 
 
 a wine-glass. 
 
 a bed with posts. 
 
 ajiint. 
 
 a pasture-country. 
 
 a double entendre. 
 
 a land good for wheal. 
 
 a coffee pot holding ten cups. 
 
 a carriage for eight persons. 
 
 a table for twelve persons. 
 
 a table with drawers. 
 
 a schemer. 
 
 a builder of systems. 
 
 a man using hi^/ijloicn language, 
 
 a man proof against every thing, 
 
 a man with short hair. 
 
 OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 63. The article is omitted in many proverbs 
 Ron sang no pent inentir. 
 
 Contentement pane nohi 
 
 11 fait de iit'co^-itc vorlii, 
 JMauvaisr herbe croil toujours, 
 
 lit n'a point de I'M. 
 ft'nurritiire pa<se nature, 
 On force domiuc, raison n'a point 
 
 lieu, 
 
 Pam roti n'esl pas vice, 
 
 ]'lu6 bit douceur que violence, 
 
 True blood cannot lie. 
 Contentment is the greatest wraith. 
 Jit makes a virtue of necessity. 
 
 Ill weed* grow apace, 
 jYi i i trity has no law. 
 Nurture goes beyond nature. 
 Whirr force brars the sway there 
 
 it no room for reason. 
 Povi rty is no rrimr. 
 Gait hints tucceedt where violence 
 fails. 
 Tout cc qui leluit n'est pas or, WhaU ver glitters is not gold. 
 
 6 4. In order to give more animation to the style, the ar- 
 ticle is usually omitted before substantives that arc simply 
 enumerated; as, L< vent renversa lours, cabanes, paiais, 
 
 i ,/ ( lea homme* oppellent gloire t grandeur, puis- 
 sance, profundi poijtique, ne paratt <i ces svprimes divinitee 
 qui mulrt ttfarbh vertu, vie*, honneur, infamU, 
 
 virile, mi mange, tout prend son itm dc Vevenemeni tPun com* 
 bat, Priiru, hienfaits, ojfres, menaces, larmes (Tun pert, ou 
 d'unc iiii'ri. run if. Pa eorantL 
 
 65. Names of countries that have long been known 
 (chiefly in Europe) and the four parts of the world, prccc- 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 65 
 
 ded by a verb of being, travelling, going, returning or send- 
 ing, are generally governed by the prepositions en, to, in, 
 and de, from ; and do not take the article ; as, // ira en 
 France, en Italie, et en Allemagne. Mon frere a demcure 
 long-terns en Espagne, rnais il est maintenant en Portugal. 
 J^ai voyage en Hollande, en Danemark, en Suede et en Nor- 
 vege. J r ai et'e en Asie, en Afrique, et en Amerique. II re~ 
 vierit d?Angleterre, d^Ecosse et d?Irlande. II n'est pas en- 
 core revenu de*Fmnce. Elle arrive d^Europe. 
 
 66. Exceptions to this rule. — 1st. The four parts of 
 the world sometimes take the article after de ; as, li re- 
 vient de /'Europe, de /'Asie, de /'Afrique, de /'Ame- 
 rique. 
 
 2nd. Names of countries, either distant or little known, take 
 the article; but, instead of en, they are governed by 
 the preposition a, to, in, or dans, in, into ; as, // va a 
 la Chine, et an Japon. II ira bientot aux Indes. II a, 
 el'e au Perou, au Chili, au Mexique, et au Bresil. II de- 
 meure au Canada. Je reviens des Indes, et de la Co- 
 chinchine. II arrive du Canada. 
 
 3rd. Most names of provinces and states always take the 
 article ; and after such verbs as etre, to be ; aller, to go ; 
 voyager, to travel ; <^c. they are governed by the pre- 
 position dans, in, into, to : as, Je vais dans PArtois, 
 dans le Mans, tt dans PAnjou. II a voyage dans 
 la Pouille et dans PAbruzze. II a tie dans le Massachu- 
 setts, et dans le Maryland. 
 
 67. Names ot countries, and common nouns qualifying, 
 or used in apposition to, substantives, coming immediately 
 before them, do not take the article ; as, 
 
 Le roi de France. Le mat de tele. 
 
 Les chevaux d^Anglderre." Un habit de drap d^Angleterre. 
 
 Le vin de Champagne. Franklin naquitd Boston, capitate 
 
 La toile de Flandres. du Massachusetts. 
 
 La laine d^Espagne. Mr. Adams, president des Etats- 
 
 Les tapis de Perse. Unis. 
 
 Les pretres d'Egypte. Mr. Barlow, auteur de la Colom- 
 
 L^empereur d">Autriche. Made, est mort d Zarnaw, ville 
 
 Lepont defer. de Pologne. 
 
 La maison de brique. Mr. Johnson, redacteur de VAr- 
 
 Le de d^argent. gus, vient de mourir. 
 
 La montre d'or. Jean, portier, et commissionaire 
 
 Le marchand de bois. de voire frere, est un bon ser- 
 
 Une conduite defou. viteur. 
 
 N. B. As names of countries, distant or little known, 
 and most names of provinces and states, are always prece- 
 9 
 
66 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ded by the article, we should say ; Le the de la Chin?. Lc 
 coton du Bengalc. La volatile, de la Saint on ge. Le Sucre 
 de la Loiiisiane. Le tabac de !a Virginie. &c. 
 
 68. Substantives used as adjectives, after the verb etrc, 
 to be, and a personal pronoun, do not take the article ; as, 
 FJle est sceur du \r, et femrne du secretaire d'etat. 
 11 est auteur de cr livre. Etes-vous capitaine de c>Uc com- 
 pagniel Je sidsjils de voire correspondanU 
 
 69. Countries deriving their names from, their capital 
 city do not take the article ; as, Naples est un beau paus. 
 Venise etait autrefois un etai tres-jlorissant, 
 
 70. Most names of islands de not take the article ; as, 
 
 'l'n . Cj.p>-' ; Corfou, Candie, Madagascar, 
 Saint-Doming m . ( 'uba, &c. 
 
 N. B. The following always take it ; a*. La Guadeloupe,. 
 la Martinique, In Jamaique, la Grenade, la Barbade, la 
 Tnniti, la Dominique, &c. 
 
 7 1. Proper nan i s, cities, towns, and villages 
 
 do not t:ike the article. 
 
 72. Excei this role.— 1st. The article is 
 
 pn fixed to names of actresses, and other females, when 
 they are spoken ofin a familiar or contemptuous man- 
 ner; ;i~. / . la Uumesnil, lu 
 I in. mha •'■it p 
 
 ha Pompadour it la Dubarry 
 !tu Louis quinze, 
 
 2nd. The article i- prefixed tosome Italian names, agree- 
 ably to the idiom of thai language ; as, UAriosU estle 
 plus amusani ii tout lei pool 8. U prefere /< Dante au 
 
 i /< Titien sont <'< 
 grand 
 3rd. The article i^ prefixed to some names <>f peraom 
 and n>\\ hs, thai are i constituent part 
 
 of them: as, La Fontaine, Lu Bruycre, La JRochefou- 
 cault, I. ft ! /.'.' I lu- 
 
 a. Le J Li ire < H (/ V 
 ehure de la Si inc. 
 4th. The aili<-le i- prefixed to nam. ins and 
 
 cities, when th( j are used as appellatives ; when the) 
 are qualified bj . and when (In \ arc taken 
 
 in a lirait< P. I- 
 
 li candn 1 
 
 . 
 Etats-l I . 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 67 
 
 moderne Rome ne saurait se comparer a Pandemic. Le 
 Jupiter d 1 Homer e. 
 5th. The plural article is sometimes prefixed to names 
 of celebrated men; as, Lcs Buffon, les Montesquieu, 
 les Voltaire ont illustre le rigne de Louis quinze. 
 
 73. The article is omitted before substantives, not taken 
 in a particular sense, and governed by collective nouns ; 
 nouns denoting want ; adjectives ; and adverbs of quantity ; 
 as, Une socicte de savans. Une multitude de paroles. U?ie 
 foule de spectateurs. Le besoin d^ argent. Le defaut de 
 jugement. Ce puits est pi tin d?eau. Un disc ours vide de sens. 
 Elle est rouge de colere. ' J\ti assez de pain. 11 a trop de 
 viande, Elle a beaucoup de peine. Vous avez beaucoup d y amis. 
 
 N. B. The article is always used after the adverb of 
 quantity, bien; as, Elle a bien de la peine, Vous avez bien 
 du courage. lis ont bien des enfans. 
 
 74. The article is also omitted before substantives, not 
 taken in a particular sense when they are in regimen in- 
 direct, marked by the preposition de • (of, from, with.) 
 after active, passive, neuter, and pronominal verbs ; as, 
 Je Pai ravi dejoie. On le comble de faveurs. Sa table est 
 couverte de papiers. Le pays est inonde de soldats. II man- 
 que de courage. II perit dHnanition. Je me sers de four- 
 chettes d? argent, lis s' 'abstiennent de viande et de vin. Ses 
 bureaux se remplissaient de postulans. 
 
 75. The article is omitted before substantives, not taken 
 in a particular sense, and preceded by the prepositions, avec, 
 with, en, in, sans, without, par, by, &c. ; as, 77 vous seri avec 
 zele. Ce maitre reprend ses ecoliers avec douceur. II est 
 en colere. Elle fond en larmes. II agit sans faqon, sans 
 gene, et sans reserve. Je lefais par bonte. II viendra par 
 eau o.upar terre. II vit sous terre. II a vaincu sur mer. 
 
 76. When the same substantive is repeated, and both 
 are connected by a preposition^ the article is not used be- 
 fore either : as, // entasse livres sur livrest II forme projets 
 sur projets. Les voild aux prises ; pieds contre pieds ; mains 
 contre mains. lis ont fait troc pour troc. Je lui rendrai 
 amour pour amour. Je les ai comptes un a un. II rend la 
 phrase mot a mot. L?eau tombait goutte a goutte. lis s'm- 
 tretiennent tete a tete. 
 
 77. The article is omitted before substantives, not 
 taken in a particular sense, after the conjunctions : 
 fiii neither, nor : II n'a ni pitie ni remords. II ria ni habits 
 
 ni argent. Je n'ai ni amis, ni ressources. 
 Elle n'a nipain ni viande. 
 
68 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 comme( l ), like, as; Elle est noire comme poix, 
 
 Cela estfroid comme glace et blanc comma 
 
 neige. 
 II agit comme tuteur. des enfans dc son ami. 
 ne-qne, only, but ; Je try trouve ejir extravagance, faiblcsse, 
 injustice, trahisons, fureurs, cruautes. II 
 tie demande one plate et bosse. 
 mane, same; Lcs homines se ressemblcnt parlout, mCmes 
 vertus mimes vices. 
 Ces deux dames se conviennent tres-bicn ; 
 mime fortune, mime naissance, mime 
 humeur, mimes gouts. 
 
 78. The article i> generally omitted before the title, or 
 any division of a work: as, Court d* Langut Frangaise, par 
 
 <!■ Gil III" ,'■ Santillane, tome quatrieme, livre dixieme, cha- 
 pit/-' premier, second paragraphs, 
 
 79. The article is Bometimes omitted before substantive! 
 denoting a place of residence; as, // demeure rue Saint 
 Antoii . •. plat ■< Vendome, et moi, euai Vol\ 
 
 80. The article is nol used in French, as it i* in English, 
 before an adverb of comparison ; as. Plus on a, plus on veul 
 avoir. Moms il gagne, moins Udepense, Plutot il viendra, 
 plulot il /• saura, 
 
 81. Tin artii le is nol placed before substantives in tbe 
 vocative i SoldatsJ la patrie attend d< von d> 
 grandes chosts, Au* armes, citoyens ! Trcmblez, tyrant I 
 
 N. \\. The article is used in Borne familiar phrai 
 ParltZ) Phomme. Q .rami/ Haute:, la belle 
 
 fill,. 
 
 B2< The article ia n<>i used before substantives preceded 
 
 bv another determinative adjective: as,Ceshomm*s sunt 
 
 ;■/■/ est soigneuse, Une matron de earn' 
 
 pagnti D<>n arbn . Quelques veraonnee le di- 
 
 tent, 1 i doit a rvir sa patrie, 
 
 N. 13. W hen tout (all) i^ nol distributive, but implies the 
 whole of the obj< ,- to extent or number, the 
 
 following substantiv^takes the article ; ^. ,/< lui ai d 
 tout I' pain, Toutt lafamille ni en deuil. Tuns lea horn 
 / a itn flattfa, 
 
 (l.) Substantives after comme, more generally take tbe article; le, 
 ct ii ( "Hi| ared in a n bole specie*; du, </< to, 
 deP,dst, win n tl compared onlj to a part; m, EU« 
 
 ir < omme /'• 
 doux couwie du sacre. I'ette stofie est modicuse cuiuwc dc lu rat 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 69 
 
 83. Substantives, forming but one idea with the prece- 
 ding verb, do not generally take the article ; as, Ajouterfoi, 
 to believe ; avoir besoin, to want ; avoir faim, to be hun- 
 gry ; avoir soif, to be thirsty ; /aire voile, to sail ; faire tort, 
 to wrong ; savoir grc, to be pleased, &c. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 84. Any word added to a substantive to qualify or de- 
 termine it, is an adjective. 
 
 85. The adjective, in French, agrees with the substan- 
 tive in gender and number. 
 
 OF THE GENDER OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 86. All adjectives ending in e mute serve equally for 
 the masculine and feminine; as, Uhomme or la femme 
 Jidele, aimable, riche, pauvre, sage, &c.(l-) 
 
 87. Adjectives not ending in e mute in the masculine, 
 generally form their feminine by the addition of an e mute ; 
 as, Bourru, bourrue ; joli, jolie ; chaud, chaud'e ; froid, 
 froide ; sur, sure ; savant, savante ; &c. 
 
 88. Adjectives in /, form their feminine by changing f 
 intone; as, Actif, active; craintif, craintive ; bref, breve; 
 neuf, neuve ; veuf, veuve ; &c. 
 
 89. Adjectives in eux, change x into se ; as, Affreux, 
 qffreuse ; heureux, heureuse ; peureux, peureuse ; &c. 
 
 'some 1 M (eur into se ; as, Flatteur, flat- 
 teuse. 
 menteur, menteuse. 
 reveur, reveuse. 
 others « eur into rice; as, Destructeur, 
 destructrice. 
 protecteur, protectrice. 
 inspirateur, inspiratrice. 
 a few ■£ ] ur into resse; as, Vengeur, ven- 
 | | geresse. 
 
 - tM [ enchanteur, enchanteresse. 
 
 (See the formation of the feminine of substantives in eur, 
 page 48). 
 
 N. B. The following adjectives in eur, follow the gene- 
 ral rule; as, Anterieur, anterieure ; citerieur, ciierieure; 
 exterieur, exterieure ; inferieur, inferieure ; interieur, inte- 
 rieur e ; majeur, majeure; meilleur, meilleure ; mineur, mi- 
 neure ; posterieur, posterieure ; superieur, superieure ; ulte- 
 yieur, ulterieure. 
 
 00. Of adjectives in eur, 
 
 (1.) All adjectives end with an e mate, in the feminine gender. 
 
70 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 91. Adjectives in a s ~) 
 
 eil 
 el 
 
 yen 
 ol 
 
 ;// 
 
 On a djective id au 
 
 il 
 
 form their femi- 
 nine by redupli- 
 cating 1 the last j 
 consonant, and 
 taking- a mute 
 e, after it ; as, 
 
 ( Cas, casse ; gras, grasse; las, 
 
 lasse. Exception : Kas, makes 
 
 rase. 
 
 Pareil, pareille; vermeil, 
 
 vermeiUe ; vieil, (') viei/le. 
 
 Actuel, actuelle ; bel ( l ) belle: 
 
 cruel, cruelle ; nouvel, (M 
 
 nouvelle. 
 
 Expres, expresse; profes, 
 
 professe. 
 
 Cet, cette ; f\\iet,jluelte ; net, 
 
 neltc. Exceptions: Secret 
 
 makes secrete ; complet, eom- 
 J plctc ; discret, discrete; iu- 
 
 discret, indiscrete; inquiet, 
 
 inr/xiete. 
 
 Acrien, acricnne , chretien, 
 
 che,iienne. 
 
 Moyen, moyetme. 
 
 Fo\,Jblle; mol, »io//c. ( ! ) 
 
 Bon, bonne; mignon, mig- 
 
 nonnr. 
 
 \ui. nutlet 
 
 Epais, i ,: 
 
 Gentilj gcntille. 
 
 \e, \iiillot, ritil/olti. 
 
 l'liinr. frina h< ; ddi<, frah/ic : 
 
 Two adj< ctives in ot) 
 92. Blanc makes blanche 
 
 ■lie. 
 
 Caduc makes caduqut ; grec, grecque ; public, publiquej 
 hire, tv 
 
 I) >m\ 1 1 1 : i k . - dotLCt ; jaloux. julmisc ; roux, ruitsse. 
 
 Benin mak< - .• malin, ma 
 
 Pavori makes favoriii ; coi, coiit . 
 Faux makes /a* 
 
 (') Vieil, bel, tareonlj used before a substantive 
 
 b a vowel, or sHent h : as, un vieil ami, unvieil 
 
 I ' in i m.^ nu. l.i tunnel cut- Uhjblespoir. Le mol idredon. 
 
 I i. a i . In mi, nouveau, f<>" and hum are always used, instead of vieil, 
 
 .'. before a substantive ingular or plun 
 
 ning with :i cooaonanl ; before ■< substantive plural, beginning with a 
 
 rowel or a silent h ; arid after a substantive ; ■* . /•' vieux cheval. I.e. 
 
 mi vieux. l.i '■■ '■■ far <><■ I.'- beaut enfans. In nouveau jour\ 
 
 I I ■ a. ( n lil 
 
 i- indifferently nsed with vieil before a vowel, or silent /' . as, 
 ' ami orvii new ami. ( n vieil homme or "n vieux homtne. 
 of Borne km'.', of France; as I 
 U I- 1. Philippe l> t,.t. 
 
 QOW almost cntircU out QfllM 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 71 
 
 Long makes longue; oblong, oblongue ; barlong, barlon- 
 gae. 
 
 Tiers makes tierce. 
 Traitre. makes traltresse. 
 
 93. Chdtain, chesnut colour, and fat, foppish, imperti- 
 nent, are only used in the masculine gender: as, Ilalepoil 
 chdtain, il a les chtveux chalains. Un hommefat, un air fat. 
 
 OF THE PLURAL OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 94. Adjectives generally form their plural in the same 
 manner as substantives, by takings; as, Vrai, vrais ; joli, 
 joiis ; rouge, rouges ; blond, blonds ; &fC. 
 
 95. Adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, retain the 
 same termination in the plural ; as, Un habit gris, des habits 
 gris ; l'homme vertueux, les homines vertueux ; un poulet 
 gras, des poulets gras. 
 
 96. Adjectives ending in eau take x in the plural ; as, 
 Beau, beaux ; nouveau, nouveaux ; moreau, moreaux. 
 
 97. Of three adjectives in eu, two take s ; as, Bleu, (blue) 
 bleus ; feu, (late, deceased) feus ; and one takes x ; as, He- 
 breu, (Hebrew) hebreux. 
 
 98. Adjectives in ant and ent, change t into s in the plu- 
 ral ; as, Charmant, charmans ; interessant, interessans ; emi- 
 nent, eminens ; recent, recens ; &c. 
 
 N. B. The monosyllabic adjective lent retains its t in the 
 plural, and makes lents. 
 
 99. Tout (all) makes tous. 
 
 100. Adjectives in al makes aux in the plural ; as, Ano- 
 mal, anomaux ; banal, banaux ; baptismal, baptismaux ; bo- 
 real, boreaux ; brutal, brutaux ; capital, capitaux ; cardinal, 
 cardinaux ; claustral, claustraux ; collateral, collateraux ; 
 conjectural, conjecturaux ; conjugal, conjugaux ; cordial, cor- 
 diaux ; doctrinal, doctrinaux ; egal, egaux ; electoral, elec- 
 toraux; episcopal, episcopaux ; feoda],feodaux ; fondamen- 
 tal, fondamentaux ; general, generaux ; ideal, ideaux ; im- 
 moral, immoraux; impartial, impartiaux; imperial, impe- 
 riaux ; lateral, lateraux ; legal, legaux ; liberal, liberaux ; 
 local, locaux ; loyal, loyaux ; machinal, machinaux ; mar- 
 tial, martiaux ; matrimonial, matrimoniaux ; meridional, me- 
 ridionaux ; municipal, municipaux ; moral, rnoraux ; natal, 
 nataux ; national, nationaux ; numeral, numtraux ; nuptial, 
 nuptiaux ; occidental, occidentaux ; ordinal, ordinaux ; ori- 
 ental, orientaux ; original, originaux ; parti al,^orh'awa:; pa- 
 trimonial, patrimoniaux ; pontifical, pontifcaux ; principal. 
 
72 THE ELEMENTS OI* 
 
 principaux ; pronominal, pronorninaux ; provincial, ^>tt 
 ciaux; radical, radicaux; royal, roi/aux ; rural, runner; 
 septentrional, septtntrionaux ; sepulcral, sepulcraux ; social, 
 socianx ; special, spcciaux : transversal, iransversaux ; tri- 
 cnnal, triennaux ; triomphal, triomphaux ; trivial, triviaux; 
 venal, vinaux ; verbal, vcrbaux ; vertical, verticaux ; vital, 
 vitavx. 
 
 101. Many adjeetives in a/ are never used in the plural 
 masculine ; such as. Adverbial, arnica!, annul, antipodal, ar- 
 bitral, astral, automnal, beneficial, brumal, causal, central, 
 ceremonial, continental, deloyal, diagonal, diametral, docto- 
 ral^ doctrinal, ii/umo i ial. experimental, glacial, hivemal, 
 horizontal, initial, instrumental, jovial, labial, lingual, longi- 
 tudinal, magistral, matutinal, mental, musical, penal, thed- 
 tral, total, virginal, zodiacal. 
 
 10-'. 'I'll'- adjective- fatal, filial, frugal, nasal, naval, 
 paschal, which, according to most grammarians, are also 
 never used in the plural masculine, are nevertheless found 
 with the general plural form, in many writers ; as, D> 
 
 fat ah, St. Lambert. Les soinsfilials, les repot fru- 
 gal*, les sons nasals, les combats rtavafa.-Chapsah Des 
 
 ' '//.y.-Tn:\OUX. 
 
 OF QUALIFICAT1VE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 103. Qualificative adjectives are (hose thai express pe- 
 culiar qualities of substantives ; as, Bon, mauvais, beau, laid, 
 in i. Qualificative adjectives are often used as substan- 
 ive* .i-. /. aid* r I, s pa\ 
 
 ! Us medians seront punis, Jeprk 
 Putili a Pagreable, Lf merveiUetu dans unpo&mt doit itrt 
 joint an vraisemblable. 
 
 Of i in. i'! OREEfi OF COMP \ni - 
 
 in... There are three signs of comparison ; the" p 
 the comparative, and die suptrlative4 
 
 I06< The positive expresses the quality of an object, 
 
 without a: or diminution ; as. /nine, vieux, imiu. 
 
 ! Ik i omparative incn ens the quality of 
 
 an object, above or !•« Ion another o 
 plu^ Jean et moms jeum que Pie* 
 
 Hie i in, formed in French by 
 
 cing the adi more, or j 
 
 in, to the ;- 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 73 
 
 ject of the comparison ; as, // est plus jcune, plus discret, 
 plus instruit, et plus aimable que son frere. Elle est moins 
 jolie, moins imtruite, et moins modesle que sa sccur. (The 
 learner will observe that plus and moins are always repent- 
 ed before every adjective when they are joined to the same 
 substantive). 
 
 109. There are three adjectives in French, which are 
 comparatives in themselves ; as, 
 
 Meiileur, better, comparative of bon, good, used instead 
 
 of plus bon, which is never used. 
 Moindre, less, comparative of petit, little, used instead of 
 
 plus petit, which is likewise used. 
 Pire, worse, comparative of mauvais, bad, used instead 
 
 of plus mauvais, which is likewise used. 
 
 110. After a comparison, the preposition de is used in 
 French, and the preposition by in English, before a substan- 
 tive denoting excess ; as, II f^t plus grand que vous de toute 
 la teie. 
 
 111. When the verb, used in a comparison, is in the in- 
 finitive mood, it must be preceded by the preposition de; 
 as, II est plus aise de critiquer un mauvais livre que d' 'en j aire 
 un bon. II est moins glotieux de se venger que de pardonner. 
 
 1 12. When the verb, used in a comparison, is not in the 
 infinitive mood, it must be preceded by the negative ne ; 
 (not expressed in English) as, Vous etes plus heureux que 
 vous ne pensez. Elle est moins belle que je ne croyais. 
 
 113. A comparison is formed by means of the adverbs 
 aussi — que, as—as, in an affirmative ; and si — que, so— as, 
 in a negative sentence ; as, Cet homme est aussi sage, aussi 
 riche, et aussi genereux que vous. Sa sceur tfest pas si jiere 
 qu'elle. 
 
 114. The superlative increases or lessens the quality of 
 an object to the highest or lowest degree. 
 
 1 1 5. There are two sorts of superlatives ; the superlative 
 relative, and the superlative absolute. 
 
 116. The superlative relative expresses the quality of an 
 object in the highest or lowest degree, with regard to some 
 other object. This superlative is formed by means 
 
 c ^ le plus, la plus, les plus, the most, ) , , , 
 \ le moins, la moins, les moins, the least, ^ 
 the adjective, according to the gender or number of the 
 substantive; as, Cejeune homme est le plus sage de sa fa- 
 mille. Cette dame est la plus belle de toutes, Ces enfans 
 sont les moins dociles de Pecole. 
 
 10 
 
74 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 117. The article alone is prefixed fo meillew\ moindre 
 and pire ; as. Cesl le meilleur (the \>est)' des homines. 11 ne, 
 sent pas la moindre (the least) doulcur. Oest la pire (the 
 worst) des servantcs. 
 
 1 18. The article is not prefixed to the superlative adjec- 
 tive, after a possessive ; as, jMon pins jeune (youngest) frtre. 
 Void mon meilleur (best) ami. Nos plus beaux (finest) 
 habits, 
 
 119. When the adjective is placed after the substantive, 
 the article must be repeated before both ; a.-. Les hommes 
 Irs plus savans sont ordinairement les phis modest'es. Cest la 
 demoiselle la plus belle.) In phis aimable, et la micux elevee. 
 (The learner will observe tlmt the article is also repeated 
 before every adjective). 
 
 1 20. The superlative in French always governs the geni- 
 tive case, that is t'> say. the preposition tie (of ) ; whereas 
 in English, it sometimes takes the preposition »n; as, (Pest 
 l> nu ilh ur homme du moudf, lie is the best man in the 
 world. 
 
 121. The superlative absolute expresses the quality of 
 an object, in the highest or lowest degree, without any rela- 
 tion to anothei ob < ct. The following adverbs are used to 
 express this superlative ; as, Tres, forty 6ten, very; infini- 
 menty infinitely ; exlrimrment, extremely ; I, plus, the most . 
 
 h mmns. the lca-1 ; EX. Cel hommt est tris-rusi. Ct t enfant 
 
 est fort d\ i. fls sunt bien ignorans. Diat est infiniment 
 
 hmt. Cette femnu est extrimement land. On ne savait a) 
 
 ! etait h plus proprt . CPest quand son mart la grondt 
 
 rjn'i/h est h plus tranquiile. On peut tout embellir, mim 
 
 U moiru sust eptiblt s. 
 
 1 22. The termination issime i- added to Bome adjectives 
 
 to form the superlative absolute; as, ample, amplissime f 
 
 most ample; eminent, emintntissime^ most eminent, most 
 
 high; excellent, excellentissime, most excellent; grand, 
 
 grandi.- sun. . ino-t great j <.Vc. 
 
 l 23. This final it inn maj be added to any adjective, in 
 a familiar or jocular style ; as, Puissantissime seigneur, ft 
 
 Ixt'hssintt dunie, ,! VOUS il/ust nssinn s auditn/rs, jr snis 
 
 /inniiisi (Pfanouvoir vos caurs obligeantissimet par /. ridt 
 </- mes tourmens horribilii Imes. Mais avant tout, daignez 
 
 7n"infi>rnn r si | dtZ dans ces linn PinvictitsitlM 
 
 1 1 Quichotte it smi 1 1 ni/i ,- e urlli nttssinir. — Oni, madame, 
 
 rhpondii SsncAo, /< magnanissimt Don Quichotte de la A 
 chissnni , avec ton ecuyerjidelissime. Vous /»• truuierez di/i- 
 gtnHssvm a tervir ootrt btauti JJurothissime. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 75 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 124. The adjective agrees in gender and number with 
 the substantive to which it relates ; as, Tous les princes de 
 cette race ont ete sages,, liberaux et vaillans. Cette dame est 
 bonne, belle et enjouee. 
 
 125. The adjective nu, naked, bare, is indeclinable when 
 placed before a substantive ; as, // va nu tete, nupieds, nu 
 jambes. 
 
 126. When the adjective relates to two substantives sin- 
 gular of the same gender, it must be put in the plural, and. 
 agree with them in gender ; as, he pere et le Jils sont aima- 
 bles. La mere et lajille sont jolies. 
 
 127. When there are many substantives of different gen- 
 der, the adjective must be put in the masculine plural ; as, 
 Je songe auplaisir que vous aurez d" 1 avoir nne femme et un 
 enfant gais et gaillards. Mon pere et ma mere sont contens. 
 
 128. The adjective sometimes agrees with the last sub- 
 stantive only; as, Cetait terns et peine perdue. II avait 
 les yeux et la bouche ouverte. Toute sa vie n'a ete qu'un tra- 
 vail et qu'une occupation continuelle. II trouva les rivieres 
 et les etangs glaces. 
 
 OF THE PLACE OF THE QUALIFICATIVE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 129. Qualificative adjectives are generally placed after 
 the substantive ; as, Lepeuple romain, la langue grecque, 
 une femme modeste, une traduction htterale. 
 
 130. The following are almost always prefixed to the 
 substantive : 
 
 Bel, beau, belle, beautiful ; as, Void un bel abricoU un beau 
 
 coing, et une belle peche. 
 
 Bon, good ; as, Cest un bon cheval, une bonne ju- 
 
 ment. 
 
 Cher, dear, beloved; ( l )as, J\lon cherfils, ma chere niece. 
 
 Chetif, poor, wretched ; as, Cest une chetive campagne. 
 
 Grand, . *? ar ^ e ' _ ( as, II habite une grande maison. 
 
 Gros, big, flat ; as, Qiielle grosse femme ! 
 
 Jeune, young ; as, Cest unjeune homme bien ne. 
 
 Mauvais, bad ; as, Cest un mauvais livre. 
 
 Mechante, bad, wicked ; as, Cest un mechant homme. 
 
 Meilleur, better, best ; as, Vous etas mon meilleur ami. 
 
 JSloindre, less, least ; as, Cest mon moindrt souci. 
 
 (l.) Cher, in the sense of costly, is placed after the substantive ; as, 
 Une marchandise chere, une maison chere. — We must except the ex- 
 pression chore annec, dear season. 
 
76 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Petit, little, small : as, II a acheli une petite maison. 
 
 Fire, worse, worst ; as, 11 rty a pire etnt que celui (Pun 
 
 homme clont la conscience n'est 
 
 pas pare. 
 Saint, holy ; as, Cest un saint homme. 
 
 Triple, triple : as, Its ont fait une triple alliance. 
 
 Vieux, okl ; as, Ccsl un vicu.v serviteur. 
 
 Vrai, true : as, Lc vrai Dieu. 
 
 131. The above seventeen adjectives are placed after 
 the substantive, when they are joined by a conjunction to 
 another adjective, which comes under the general rule ; as. 
 C r est une maison belle bt commode. CPest un homme bon et 
 bien el 
 
 fa English, two or more adjectives may qualify a 
 substantive, without a conjunction; but in French, thej 
 iy a conjunction ; as, Cest un enfant 
 . ■■■. IN- is a gentle, smart child; except when 
 custom all stantive t<» be placed between two ad- 
 
 ject i n I" ua cheval gris. C\st un jeune 
 
 l . Some are indifferently placed after or before the 
 
 or nme. 
 
 oi iffaire. 
 
 or ti.t ii ritabte ami. 
 
 or ■•"!' aim iblefemme, \r. 
 
 I Khers bai <■ :i different meaning according as they 
 
 aiv placed before . >i\i : a-, 
 
 n honest man. 
 
 is a i 
 t « i rui I child. 
 
 i >■ rong lv> \ . 
 
 ilanl, is a . 
 
 I 
 \\ o 
 
 ' polite 
 
 LViir i il! ;i Ltured 
 
 i ' is dead wool. 
 
 iiu.Hii- 
 if, a :i troublesome 
 
 rdi, i^ :i '-trincr which 
 
 • i I 
 
 . bach door, 
 
 ic :m bonett 
 manlj man. 
 
 it man. 
 nnn . i- a big, thi< k 
 
 ■ 
 ■ 
 
 ■ ..■ . crv little 
 
 bramble, 1m i 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 77 
 
 Un habit nouveau, is a coat of a Un nouvel habit, is a coat different 
 
 new fashion. from that which has been just 
 pulled off. 
 
 Un auteur pauvre, is a needy au- Un pauvre auteitr, is a paltry au- 
 thor, thor. 
 
 Un homrne ptaisanl, is a merry, Un plaisant homme, is an odd, 
 
 waggish fellow. strange man. 
 
 Un homme petit, is a mean, con- Un petit homme, is a short man. 
 temptible man. 
 
 Une femme sage, is a virtuous Une sage femme, is a mid-wife, 
 woman. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF QUALIFICATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 135. The government, or complement of an adjective, is 
 the substantive, pronoun, or verb in the infinitive mood, to 
 which it is joined by means of a preposition. 
 
 1 36. The prepositions that join an adjective to a sub- 
 stantive or pronoun, are : de, of*, from, with ; a, to ; dans, en, 
 in ; erivcrs, towards ; pour, for ; contre, against ; sur, on or 
 upon ; as, 
 
 1st. La carafe estpleine cfeau. 5th. Vous etes fertile en expediens. 
 
 II est soigneux de ses livres. Elle est severe envers ses en- 
 
 Elle est digne de lui. fans. 
 
 Vous etes libre de soins. 6th. Cet habit est commode pour la 
 2nd. Ce tapis est agreable a la vue. pluie. 
 
 Cet homme est dpre a Vargent. 7th. Le quinquina est ban contre la 
 
 11 est fort aux tehees. fievre. 
 
 3rd. II est constant dans ses amours. 8th. Je suis inquiet sur son sort. 
 4th. Cepaijs est riche en pdturages. 
 
 137. The prepositions that join an adjective to a verb 
 in the infinitive mood, are : de, a and pour ; as, 
 
 1st. // est doux defaire le bien. Cm' une chose fxcile a f aire.' 
 
 Elle est sure de reussir. 3rd. Ce lievre est trop dur pour 
 2nd. Vous ties aise a contenter. rotir. 
 
 * // est adroit a manier un cheval. 
 
 138. Adjectives signifying dimension always takes the 
 preposition de, after them ; as, 
 
 Cette planche est epaisse de deux Ce soldat est haut de six pieds trois 
 
 pouces. ' pouces. 
 
 J\1on jardin est long de cent pieds, Ce fosse est prof and de six p>ieds. 
 
 et large de cinquanle. Cet arbre est gros de quinze 
 
 Cette muraitle est haute de cinq pieds. 
 
 pieds six pouces. 
 
 Remark 1. — These adjectives (except profond and gros). 
 are often used as substantives, and placed after the substan- 
 tive of measure.— Both the adjective of measure and the 
 substantive of dimension, are then preceded by the prepo- 
 sition de ; as, 
 
78 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Une planche de deux pouces Wepais. 
 
 Unjardin de cent picas de lung, et de cinquante de large. 
 
 Une muraille de cinq pieds six pontes de haut. 
 
 Remark II. — The substantives epaisscur, thickness; lon- 
 gueur, length; largeur, breadth, width; hauteur, height; 
 profondeur, depth ; and grosseur, bigness, largeness ; are 
 used in the same manner; as, 
 
 Une planche de deux pouces d'cpaisseur. 
 
 Unjardin de cent pieds de longueur et de cinquante de largeur. 
 
 Une muraille dc cinq pieds six polices de hauteur. 
 
 Unfossc de six puds de profondeur. 
 
 Un arbre de quinze pieds de grosseur. 
 
 Remark 111. — The verb avoir, to have, is used instead 
 of the verb t/rc, to be. with these substantives, and with 
 the adjective of dimension taken substantively.— The pre- 
 position de is then omiltcd before the substantive of 
 measure; as, 
 
 planche a deux pouces tPipais, or d'epaisscur. 
 J&onjardin a cent pieds de long, or dt longueur, et cinquante de 
 
 largt , or d< largeur. 
 ('. Hi mu rait It a cinq puds six pouces dc haut, or dc hauteur. 
 C'i foui a six piedt dt profonaeur> 
 
 Cet arhn a quinze putl.i dc grossmr. 
 
 1 39. Two or more adjectives can be connected together, 
 onlj when they admit the Bame regimen. Thus, we Bai : 
 
 11 tit prompt it adroit a cj.it utir lea commissions qiSon lui 
 donne. V «.<•/ digru et heureui de posseder votrt cceur. But 
 ire • annot saj .- (_'</ homme est utile et cheri </<. sa famillc ; 
 because tin adjective utile requires the preposition d. — 
 \. B. In English we may say: This man is useful to, and 
 beloved by hit family; but in French the preposition cau- 
 noi be separated from it- complement. VVe therefore say ; 
 Cet homm* est utile a safamilfe ct il en est ehiri» 
 
 or DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1 in. Under this denomination are included all those 
 words, which most grammarians have divided,, as adjectives 
 or pronouns, into four classes, viz. demonstrative, possessive, 
 
 ! i ml finite. 
 
 UK DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 111. Demonstrative adjectives are those, which precisely 
 point <»ut the subjects to which they relate. 
 
 11-. There i> properly, in French, but one demonstra- 
 tive adjei ii\<. ' i . which varies according to the substantive 
 to which it is preli\ed. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 79 
 
 Ce, this or that, is placed before 
 a substantive (or an adjective 
 preceding the substantive) 
 masculine singular, beginning 
 
 with a consonant ; as, . . Cepain,cejeunehomme. 
 Cet, this or that, is used instead 
 of ce, before a substantive sin- 
 gular, beginning with a vowel, 
 
 or a silent h ; as, . . . . Cet oiseau, cet homme. 
 Cette, this or that, is placed be- 
 fore a substantive feminine 
 
 singular; as, Cette femme, cette echelle. 
 
 Ces, these or those, the plural of 
 ce, cet and cette, is prefixed to 
 
 a substantive plural; as, . Ces hommes,cesfemmes. 
 Ces oiseaux, ces echelles. 
 N. B. As the French have not two demonstratives, such 
 as, this and that ; they add the adverbs ci, here, and la, 
 there, connecting it with a hyphen to the substantive, that 
 comes after the demonstrative ce, cet, cette, ces, in order to 
 particularize it still more; ci denotes the nearest, la the 
 most distant person or thing ; as, Ce pain-ci, cette viande-la, 
 cet homme-ci, cette femme-la, ces papier s-ci, ces livres-la. 
 
 143. Ce is compounded with the adverb ci and la : ceci, 
 this, is used for cette chose-ci, and cela, that, for cette chose- 
 la; as, 
 
 Donnez-moi ceci, et prenez cela. 
 Ceci est beau, cela est laid. 
 Ceci est soie, cela est laine. 
 
 144. Ceci and cela are sometimes used alone, without 
 relation to the distance, more or less great, of objects ; as, 
 
 Ceci dement serieux. Que veut dire ceci ? 
 Cela n'est point joli. Je ri>aime pas cela. 
 
 145. Cela relates sometimes to a whole action, and is 
 then rendered in English by that or it ; as, 
 
 Jfas-tu pas entendu les battemens de mains qu*a excites cet acleur ? 
 Cela prouve qu'il n'est pas si mauvais. Cela ne prouve rien re- 
 
 partit Don Pompeyo. 
 On applaudit cette actrire dans les momens memes oil elle parait 
 
 s^oublier : cela est heureux. 
 
 146. Cela is sometimes applied to persons in a familiar 
 or contemptuous manner ; as, 
 
 J'envie le sort de cet enfant : cela est heureux, cela nefait quejouer. 
 Ce sont les meilleures filles du monde : cela vit comme des saintes. 
 Mon president etait une bete : il rietait bon qu'au palais : cela sa- 
 vai\ les lois : voila tout. 
 
ilO THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 147. Cela is sometimes added as an expletive to a verb 
 in the infinitive mood ; as, Oest purler ccla. Cest sauter 
 ccla. 
 
 148. Cela is often contracted into ca, in familiar dis- 
 course : as, Ca me parent joli. Ca doit porter bonhcur. Don- 
 ne z-moi ca. ? 
 
 149. Ce is also compounded with the personal pronouns 
 /•'/, tile, eux, and elles ; as, Celvi, he, him. that ; idle, she, 
 her, that ; ceux. cclles, they, those, such. These demon- 
 strative pronouns are applied to persons and things, ahvays 
 relate to a substantive of which they take the gender and 
 numher, and must necessaril) he followed by the words de, 
 of; out, que, who, whom, which, that ; and dont, of whom, 
 of which ; as, 
 
 ■'•■' celvi <lr /■ • gens que painuu lephu. 
 
 < 
 
 Jt :.' runs aimer, 
 
 I ! Pair tPt n ignorer It jiri.i-.- 
 
 I 
 
 rut parkz e»i man frirtu 
 
 adverb d is added to celtti, celle, ceux, celles, 
 to de&ignab the nearest object, and the adverb la. to point 
 out the m >st distant ; a-. 
 
 . ii/ni-ii ist bien meilleur </'"' celui~ML 
 
 prendrai < tlle-ci dt 
 
 prifi :->1H, u II III -1,1. 
 
 /v. maw iiur-ii valcnt jiii'u.) ! que 
 
 l.M. When two r two things have been men- 
 
 tioned, ce/tri-ct, * • //< i '. relate to the nearest, and celtd la, 
 r tlU -la to tlif most distant ; as, 
 
 l n m ■•< dI i slimtihh.* ; 
 
 clr. domettiqves, nttii-u nuns 
 
 I ' 'a i tut : 
 
 ■ ■/!-{,< let no I 
 
 ux-la ; cdlt-la, ceux-la are -una time* 
 i the verb, Bnd in an indefinite si 
 mmti } as, 
 
 < / ommandement. 
 < 
 
 < plain jui cult priL 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 81 
 
 3 £3. Ce is often the antecedent of relative pronouns ; as, 
 
 Ce qui (what or that which) mHntcresse, ne le louche pas beaucovp. 
 Ce qui (what) vous plait, me plaira toujours. 
 Je sais ce que (what) vous avez dit. 
 Void ce dontje veux me defaire. 
 
 154. When ce qui and ce que relate to a whole sentence, 
 they are rendered in English by which ; as, Jepassai lejour 
 « courir les rues, en m?amusant a regarder les choses qui 
 ctaient nouv elles pour moi ; ce qui neme donna pas pen cV oc- 
 cupation. A ces mots elle baissa les yeux ; ce que j 1 attribuai 
 u sa modes tie. 
 
 155. Tout ce qui, tout ce que are rendered by all that 
 {which) or whatever; as, Tout ce qui me plait, lui plait aussi ; 
 jeferai tout ce que je pourrai. 
 
 156. Ce is often joined to the verb etre, to be. It is 
 then used for cela, that, it ; as, Cestjoli. Cest bon. Cest 
 facheux. Cest triste ; for il, elle, ils, elles, he, she, they ; 
 as, Je lis souvent Shakspeare, c'est mon poete Javori. Vous 
 voytz cette dame, chst sa mere. Ce sont ses amis ; and for 
 the sake of giving more force to the sentence, and of direct- 
 ing the attention more particularly to the object spoken of; 
 as, Cefut Brutus qui poignarda Cesar. Ce sera monjils qui 
 vous accompagnera. (Ce in the last case is generally ren- 
 dered by it). 
 
 157. The verb etre takes the plural form when the sub- 
 stantive, which follows it, is in the plural ; as, 
 
 Ce sont ses gouts. Celaient des gens sans mawrs. 
 
 Cejurent les Pheniciens qui les premiers inventerent Pecrilure. 
 
 Ce seront nos heritiers. Ce seraient des momens perdus. 
 
 158. If, of many substantives which follow etre, the first 
 be singular, the verb must likewise be singular ; as, Cest 
 Vor et V argent qui sont ses idoles. Cest la gloire et lesplai- 
 sirs qu'il a en vue. 
 
 1 59. The verb etre always retains the singular form when 
 followed by plural pronouns of the first and second persons ; 
 as, Ce sera nous qui leferons ; Cest nous qui devrions nous 
 plaindre. Cest vous qui etes mes amis. 
 
 160. The verb etre must take the number of a pronoun 
 of the third person ; as, Cest lui qui m?a sauve la vie. Ce 
 sont eux que je veux imiter. Cest elle qui est bonne. Ce 
 seront elles qui me consoleront* Ce furent eux qxCon 
 maltraiia. 
 
 U 
 
82 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 161. But in interrogations, the verb Hre retains the sin- 
 gular form before plural pronouns, in all its tenses, except 
 in the imperfect and conditional; as, Est-ce eux qui sont 
 malades ? Sera-ce eux qui me paieront ? Etaicnt-ce eux qui 
 frappaient ? Seraient-ce eux qui devraient lefairc? 
 
 162. In interrogations the verb itre is always in the plu- 
 ral when followed by a plural substantive ; as, Sont-ce Its 
 richcsses qui rcndent heunux ? Etaient-ce mes enfans qui fc- 
 saient tant de bruit.'' Seront-ce les Francais qui auront la 
 preference ? 
 
 N. B. For the sake of the sound, we sometimes deviate 
 from rules. For instance, if this question was asked. Sont- 
 t r des jlnn-s . ; the answer should be - : out e'en est, in order 
 to avoid the cacophony which would arise from e'en sont. 
 the grammatical form. 
 
 it;;. (_ - . aged as the antecedent of a relative pronoun, 
 ought to bo repeated in the next number of the sentence, if 
 a personal pronoun; a plural substantive, or the conjunc- 
 tion '/'". follow t lie verb Stre; as, 
 
 mi fnil Ir phu i/< plaisir dans cettc affaire, e'est toi. 
 < ■ mi plattu, t't.it de vuus . 
 
 ( '< i/tn me ili plail done une /« tid viUe, ce sunt lee midisanccs el les 
 
 ( dottle eonaoler, e'eei gveje nc /< renverroipcu sans ricom- 
 
 . 
 164. C maj or may not be repeated when a verb in 
 the iniiuiti\ c mood, or u substantive in the singular num- 
 ber, follows the \ erb ttrt ; as, 
 
 Ce (jin y limi I, jplui, t't si it'i Ire teul, «»r rst d'etre sin/. 
 
 ■ . or eat Pespcrance. 
 
 OF POS81 38IVS \!" 
 
 1 G j. /' are those which relate to pot- 
 
 d or prop* rty. 
 166. There arc two sorts of possessives, viz: abaohdt 
 
 and i > I 
 
 The absolute are prefixed to substantives, with 
 which thej oder and number.( '•) 
 
 I )( the amoluti possi me relate to one 
 
 .. and others to Bei i ral iht-.hi-. 
 169. Those thai relate to one p< rson arc : 
 
 (1 ) In Boglah, | \ritli the possessor, as it 
 
 fhown I'v • ■ :..i. Ex. His book) her book: but in 
 
 Treat | intii c of the thii 
 
 e MM lu-rc is masculine; sa mutton, be- 
 muse ma/Uon i> feminine. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 83 
 
 For the 1st 
 person. 
 
 For the For the 
 
 2nd. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 Masc. sing. Mon, Ton, Son, 
 
 Ma, Ta, 
 
 are prefixed to sub- ~i Mon pere, 
 masc. ytonfrire, 
 
 stantivcs 
 sing-, as, 
 
 3 son oncle. 
 
 and, by euphony, in- 
 stead of ma, ta, sa, 
 to substantives fe- Mon amie, 
 rninine sing-, be- \ton ame, 
 ginning* with a son hotesse.O) 
 vowel, or a silent 
 h; as, 
 
 are prefixed to sub- ") 
 
 stantive feminine | Ma mere, 
 sing, beginning }• to sceur, 
 with a consonant ; sa tante. 
 
 Masc. 
 and 
 
 Fern. 
 
 ■ plur 
 
 Mes, 
 
 (my) 
 
 Tes 
 
 (thy)' (hi 
 
 Ses, ' 
 
 i, her, its) I 
 
 are prefixed to sub- } Mesfreres? 
 stantives plural ; > tes sceurs, 
 as, ) ses onctts. 
 
 170. Those that relate to several persons are : 
 
 For the 1st For the For the 
 
 person. 2nd. 3rd. 
 
 Masc . j } are prefixed to sub- } Notre pere, 
 
 and } ling. Notre, Votre, Leur, }■ stantives singular ; > voire mere, 
 as, ) leur oncle. 
 
 are prefixed to sub- f JYbs freres, 
 
 and 
 Fern. 
 
 plur. 
 
 Nos, 
 
 Vos, 
 
 (your) 
 
 jeurs, f 
 
 (their) £ 
 
 stantives plural; >vos sceurs, 
 \ leurs amis. 
 
 171. Votre and vos, like your in English, are used in re- 
 ference to one person only, out of politeness or respect ; as, 
 Madame, votre carrosse est a la porte. Mon pere, void vo- 
 ire canne et vos gants. 
 
 } mister, 
 172. The words monsieur > sir, madame 
 
 3 gentleman; 
 
 and mademoiselle, miss ; being compounds of mow and sieur ; 
 ma and dame ; ma and demoiselle. ; make in the plural mes- 
 sieurs, mesdames and mesdemoiselles.(2.) 
 
 mistress, 
 madam : 
 
 (1.) In old French ma, ta, sa, were contracted before substantives 
 singular beginning with a vowel ; as, M^epee, s^origine. We have still 
 two contractions of this kind in the two following expressions : «/H'a- 
 mour for mon amour, and m?amie for mon amie 
 
 (2.) As these words are variously applied in French, the following 
 observations will be of service to the learner. 
 
 1st. These words are, out of respect, prefixed to names of titles, dig- 
 nities, professions and kindred ; as, Monsieur le comte est arrive. Ma- 
 dame la marquise est morte. Monsieur le medecin est venu. Monsieur 
 votre pere, madame votre mere, et mademoiselle votre sceur viennent de 
 sortir. 
 
84 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ON THE USE OF POSSESSIVES ABSOLUTE. 
 
 173. Possessives absolute are used in French in the same 
 manner as they are in English, except in the following 
 cases : 
 
 1st. Possessives must be repeated before every substan- 
 tive; as, .Am vu so>iperc, sa mere, sesfreres, et ses cousines. 
 
 2nd. Possessives are prefixed to substantives in the vo- 
 cative case ; as. Monpcrc, puis-je vous suivre ? Monj rtre t 
 attends-moi. Man maitrc, on vous dernancle. 
 
 3rd. The article is placed, instead of the possessive ad- 
 jective, before a Bubstantive expressing a part of the body, 
 when a pronoun, which is either subject or regimen, suffi- 
 ciently supplies the place of thai possessive ; or when there 
 i> do sort of ambiguity ; as, La tete ltd fait mal. Les mains 
 me demangent, I. cuisent. On lui it coupe la jambe. 
 
 II a jH rdu In vie. ■I'm mal am yenx, a la fe/e, an nez, aux 
 au men/on, au ventre, aua pi >' . &c. 
 
 lib. The article w also used, instead of the possessives 
 of the third person, ton, sa. »es, it-. I< ur and lettrs, their, be- 
 fore a Bubstantive relating to an inanimate thing, with the 
 pronoun .//, of it. of them, placed immediate!! before the 
 verb, to which that Bubstantivi serves as a subject or regi- 
 nun : ;i-. Philadelphie tsi une belle ville ; pen admire la r,'- 
 >! >>n tsi dauy an pays, il faut en sail > 
 
 ' 'bret toni beaux, mats les fruits n?en sent ptu 
 
 bum. Li .Yd vi' nl d< v montagnes d> la Nairn • on en a 
 
 < 
 
 I ii-i I. in :i t-miiliur i>r jocular stylo; 
 
 n-, . ■/•■ > - ■■»• /■ d\ H nsieur /< paresseux, apt 
 
 VOtn /-■!'"• 
 
 ad Madam* are ased absolutely io speaking 1 of the 
 ofa boose, :ni>l of the eldest of the king of France 1 ! 
 brother*, and his wife i < ■ t torti. Madame tsi duns su 
 
 chambn I Monsieur et dt Madame. 
 
 3rd. These irorda arc pohtelj used, instead of eon*, (job) with the 
 in the 3rd person; as, Monsieur nrait-il maleuU ' Madam 
 Mt demoueili vadont *' marisr ' 
 1th [ken used w ah a determin 
 
 • ttleman and gentlemen; ns V"'"' - " done ■. 
 
 ■u- bun [><ilt. Con~ 
 
 ■ •lis. 
 
 Madam* am) MademoueUt arc not used «itli a determinative ; 
 
 u tort . lull u Mil a d( in. 
 numeral adjective, or the article, we drop the po 
 
 ' '."./A.. Ltu dsmaiseUt bun ntc. Dei dames potics. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 85 
 
 OF RELATIVE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 174. Relative possessive adjectives are so called, be- 
 cause they relate to a substantive mentioned before. They 
 are preceded by the article, and agree, in gender and num- 
 ber, with a substantive always understood. 
 
 175. Of the relative possessive adjectives, some relate 
 to one person, and others to several persons. 
 
 176 Those which relate to one person are : 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 Sing, Le mien, C Sing. La mienne, "i 
 
 Masc. ■> Fem. ' V 
 
 s. ) 
 
 C EM. < 
 
 PL Les miens. ( PL Les miennes. 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 C Sing. Le tien, C Sing. La tienne, 
 
 Masc. 2 Fem. •? 
 
 ( PI. Les liens. ( PL Les tiennes. 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 C Sing. Le sien, i Sing. La sienne, ~) g: 
 
 Mesc. ) Fem. 1 V i. 
 
 ( PL Les siens. f PL Les siennes. } | 
 
 177. Those which relate to several persons, are : 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 Masc. sing. Le notre, 
 
 Pl. Les votres, ours, 
 Fem. sing. La notre, 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 Masc. sing. Le votre, 
 
 Pl. Les votres, yours, 
 Fem. sing. La votre, 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 Masc. sing. Le leur, 
 
 Pl. Les leurs, theirs* 
 Fem. sing. Laleur, 
 
 Examples. 
 Void votre chapeau, donnez-moi le mien, (that is, le chapeau mien.) 
 Vospeches valent mieux que les miennes. (that is, les peches miennes.) 
 Mon vin est superieur au tien. (that is, au vin tien.) 
 
 Sonjardin touche le notre. (that is, lejardin notre. ) 
 
 178, These adjectives are found in many writers with 
 their substantive expressed ; as, 
 
 Un mien parent. — Regnard. (a relation of mine.) 
 Un mienfrire. — Lafontaine. (a brother of mine.) 
 Un sien ami. — Idem. (a friend of his.) 
 
86 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 But this manner of speaking is no longer used, except in 
 hudibrastic style ; we now say in place of it : 
 
 Un de mes parens, (one of my relations.) 
 Un de mes freres. (one of my brothers.) 
 Un de ses amis. (one of his friends.) 
 
 Un de vos enfans. (one of your children.) 
 Deux de vos seeurs. (two of your sisters.) 
 Trail de nvs tcoliers. (three of your scholars.) 
 
 179. These adjectives are sometimes used without the 
 article, or any other determinative, and without relating to 
 a substantive mentioned before ; as, 
 
 Cest une disposition naturelU a Phomme de rcgardcr comma sien lord 
 ce qui est en son pouvoir. — J. J. Roussf.au. 
 
 Ces fruits-fu sont miens. — Acadi.mii:. 
 
 Ces effels sonl not res. — Ipi.m. 
 
 *-Chris/ p> ut dupott >• '/< I graces qifil nous distribue, comme des 
 choses qui sonl sitnnes. — Bossuet. 
 
 ISO. But these possessives are no more used in this man- 
 ner : we now use ID their place the following personal pro- 
 nouns in the dative. 
 
 A. , _ S Ce livre est a mot, 
 
 moi, mine ; pi. a nous, ours : as. . ! 
 
 1 ( ( < tit motion est a nous. 
 
 A. , . . . S Ces chemist* sunt a lot, 
 
 ti)i, thim : pi. :i vous, uourt :Wi 
 r '* ( ( i moucnair < v/ a eon*. 
 
 tmg. m. A hn. his , pi. a eux. ) ) L !\ PjjJ* hr , ax \ f " /( "' 
 
 sin-./. A elle, hers; pL a cites, J i ', << l '<"»«™ «»'« « dl ^ 
 
 ° J ' ' * jet non pus a tin. 
 
 181. These adjectives arc often used as substantives ; 
 as, 
 
 mania que lr mum. ") 
 
 I'ii Mloi , i • 
 
 , Nidi words as Imn, property. 
 
 ..',,., , . . , , bcnur understood. 
 
 "1 Such words as parens, rela- 
 Jr n\il>iind>innrrui jamais l< i 
 
 tions; enfant. «lnl«li «n : do- 
 
 ,. \ in 
 
 . friends ; toliiats. soldiers : 
 
 being nude. 
 
 m. \i).n:< TIYCS. 
 
 Numeral adjectives are used (<> count, and arc divi- 
 ded into two aorta ; cardinal and ordinal. 
 
 The i animal serve to express the number of tiling. 
 and are as follows: 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 87 
 
 Une, fern. 5 ' ' 
 
 1 
 
 Deux, 
 
 2 
 
 Trois, 
 
 3 
 
 Quatre, 
 
 4 
 
 Cinq, 
 
 5 
 
 Six, 
 
 6 
 
 Sept, 
 
 7 
 
 Huit, 
 
 8 
 
 Neuf, 
 
 9 
 
 Dix, 
 
 10 
 
 Onze, (•) 
 
 11 
 
 Douze, 
 
 12 
 
 Treize, 
 
 13 
 
 Quatorze, 
 
 14 
 
 Quinze, 
 
 15 
 
 Seize, 
 
 16 
 
 Dix-sept, 
 
 17 
 
 Dix-huit, 
 
 18 
 
 Dix-neuf, 
 
 19 
 
 Vingt, 
 
 20 
 
 Vingt-un, 
 
 21 
 
 Vingt-deuX, 
 
 22 
 
 Vingt-trois, 
 
 23 
 
 Vingt-quatre, 
 
 24 
 
 Vingt-cinq, 
 
 25 
 
 Vingt-six, 
 
 26 
 
 Vingt-sept, 
 
 27 
 
 Vingt-huit: 
 
 28 
 
 Vingt-neuf, 
 
 29 
 
 Trente, 
 
 30 
 
 Trente-un, 
 
 31 
 
 Trente-deux, &c, 
 
 32 
 
 Quarante, 
 
 40 
 
 Quarante-un, 
 
 41 
 
 Quarante-deux, &c. 
 
 42 
 
 Cinquante, 
 
 50 
 
 Cinquante-un, 
 
 51 
 
 Cinquante-deux, &c. 
 
 52 
 
 Soixante, 
 
 60 
 
 Soixante-un, 
 
 61 
 
 Soixante-deux, 
 
 62 
 
 Soixante-trois, 
 
 63 
 
 Soixante-quatre, 
 
 64 
 
 Soixante-cinq, 
 
 65 
 
 Soixante-six, 66 
 
 Soixante-sept, 67 
 
 Soixante-huit, 68 
 
 Soixante-neuf, 69 
 
 Soixante-dix, or Septante, ( 2 ) 70 
 Soixante-onze, or Septante-un, 71 
 Soixante-douze, or Septante- 
 
 deux, 72 
 
 Soixante-treize, or Septante- 
 
 trois, 73 
 
 Soixante-quatorze, or Septante- 
 
 quatre , 74 
 
 Soixante-quinze, or Septante- 
 
 cinq, 75 
 
 Soixante-seize, or Septante-six, 76 
 Soixante-dix-sept, or Septante- 
 
 sept, 77 
 
 Soixante-dix-huit, or Septante- 
 
 huit, 78 
 
 Soixante-dix-nenf, or Septante- 
 
 neuf, 79 
 
 Quatre-vingt, or Octante, ( 2 ) 80 
 Quatre-vingt-un,or Octante-un 81 
 Quatre-vingt-deux, or Octante- 
 
 deux, 82 
 
 Quatre-yingt-trois, or Octante- 
 
 trois, 83 
 
 Quatre-vingt-quatre, or Octan- 
 
 te-quatre, . 84 
 
 Quatre-vingt-cinq, or Octante- 
 
 cinq, 85 
 
 Quatre-vingt-six, or Octante- 
 
 six, 86 
 
 -Quatre-vingt-sept, orOctante- 
 
 sept, 87 
 
 Quatre-vingt-huit, or Octante- 
 
 huit, 88 
 
 Quatre-vingt-neuf, or Octante- 
 
 neuf, 89 
 
 Quatre-vingt-dix, or Nonante, 
 
 ( 2 ) 90 
 
 Quatre-vingt-onze, or Nonante- 
 
 un, 91 
 
 Quatre-vingt-douze, or Nonan- 
 
 te-deux, 92 
 
 ( 1 ) The article le, la, les ; the proposition de ; and the conj unction 
 que are pronounced without contraction, or connexion,*before onze and 
 onzieme ; as, Le onze, le onzieme, la onzieme, les onze, les onziemes ; 
 De onze enfans qv?ils etaienl, il en est mart dix ; De vingt, il li'en est 
 Teste que onze. 
 
 ( 2 ) Septanle, octante, and nonante are used in arithmetic only. 
 
38 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Quatre-vingt-treiz-e, or Nonan- 
 
 te-trois, 93 
 
 Quatre-vingt-qwatorze, or No- 
 
 nante-quatre, 94 
 
 Quatre-ving-t-quiaze, or Nonau- 
 
 te-cinq, 95 
 
 Quatre-vingt-scize, or Nonan- 
 
 tc-six, 96 
 
 Quatre-vingt-dix-sept, or No- 
 
 nante-sept, 97 
 
 Quatre-vinyt-dix-huit, or No- 
 nan te-bu it, 93 
 Quatre-vingt-dix-neuf, or Nu- 
 
 nante-ncuf, 99 
 
 Cent, 100 
 
 Cent-un, 101 
 
 fciit-di'ux-, 102 
 
 Cent-trois. &cc. LOS 
 
 Deux-cent, 800 
 
 Deux CCllt-UII. "JU1 
 
 Deux cent-deux, kc? 
 
 9.02 
 
 Trois cent, 
 
 300 
 
 Quatre cent, 
 
 400 
 
 Cinq cent, 
 
 500 
 
 Six cent, 
 
 600 
 
 Sept cent, 
 
 700 
 
 Huitcent, 
 
 800 
 
 Neuf cent. 
 
 900 
 
 Mille, 
 
 1,000 
 
 MiJle-un, 
 
 1,001 
 
 jMille-dcux, feci 
 
 1,002 
 
 Deux mille. 
 
 2,000 
 
 Trois mille, 
 
 3,000 
 
 Quatre mille, 
 
 4,000 
 
 Da mille, 
 
 10,000 
 
 ( lent millty 
 
 100,000 
 
 Million, 
 
 
 Billion, 
 
 
 Trillion, %a 
 
 
 OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 184. Ordinal numbers serve to denote the rank which 
 persons or things hold with respect to each other. 
 
 185. The ordinal numbers are : 
 
 . ordenxieme, 
 
 Quatrii 
 Cioqaieme, 
 Bixi< me, 
 
 me, 
 Hum. me, 
 i\<-'i\ nine, 
 I >!\,' me, 
 Oii/.i. 
 
 me, 
 Treizii 
 Quaton 
 Quinci 
 Beizii me, 
 Dix-aeptieme, 
 Dix-hail 
 
 Di\ riru\ H iih' 
 
 \ ingtit 
 Vingt-d< 
 
 '•) 
 
 Ftr»L 
 
 Third. 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 Sixth, 
 
 Seventh, 
 
 Eighth, 
 
 jfath. 
 
 T.nth. 
 I . (It. 
 
 Twelfth. 
 
 Thirteenth 
 
 Fourteenth* 
 
 Fift enth. 
 
 Sixteenth. 
 
 S\ venteentht 
 
 Eighteenth. 
 
 Nineteenth. 
 
 Twentieth. 
 
 Twenti/'Jirtt. 
 
 Twent] 
 
 (i) Uniitm audi i always placed after vingt, trente, qwt. 
 
 rnnli , dnqvantt , toixanU . teptante, quatre-vingt, nonantt t cent and mille. 
 Bod nerei premiei I n&mt ia never uscduluuc, instead of 
 
 me and lecond ia wed ludiscruumaidv. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 89 
 
 Vingt-troisicmc, 
 
 Vingt-quatrieme, 
 
 Vingt-cirjquieme, 
 
 Vingt-uxieme, 
 
 Vingt-septieme, 
 
 Vingt-hmtieme, 
 
 Vingt-neuvieme, 
 
 Trentieme, 
 
 Trente-unicme, 
 
 Trente-deuxieme, &c. 
 
 Quarantieme, 
 
 Quarante-umeme, 
 
 Quarante-deuxieme, &c. 
 
 Cinquantieme, 
 
 Cinquante-unieme, 
 
 Cinquante-deuxieme, 
 
 Soixantieme, 
 
 Soixante-unieme, 
 
 Soixante-deuxieme, &c. 
 
 Soixante-dixieme, or septantieme, 
 
 Soixante-onzieme, orseptante-un- 
 
 ieme, 
 Soixante-douzieme, or septante- 
 
 deuxieme, &c. 
 Soixante -treizieme, 
 Soixante-quatorzieme, - 
 
 Soixante-quinzieme, 
 Soixante-seizieme, 
 Soixante-dix-septieme, 
 Soixante-dix-huitieme, 
 Soixante-dix-neuvieme, 
 Quatre-vingtieme, or octantieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-unieme, or octante- 
 
 unieme, &c. 
 Quatre-vingt-deuxieme, &c. 
 Quatre-viagt-dixieme, or nonan- 
 
 tieme, 
 Quatre vingt-onzieme, ornonante- 
 
 unieme, &c. 
 Qu atre-vingt-douzieme, 
 Quatre-vingt -treizieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-quatorzieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-quinzieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-seizieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-dix-septieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-dix-hmtieme, 
 Quatre-vingt-dix-neimeme, 
 Centieme, 
 Cent-unieme, 
 Cent deuxieme, &c. 
 Deux-centieme, 
 Millieme, 
 Millioaieme, 
 
 Twenty-third. 
 
 Twenty-fourth. 
 
 Twenty-fifth. 
 
 Twenty-sixth. 
 
 Twenty- seventh. 
 
 Twenty-eighth. 
 
 Twenty-ninth. 
 
 Thirtieth. 
 
 Thirty-first. 
 
 Thirty-second. 
 
 Fortieth. 
 
 Forty-first. 
 
 Forty-second. 
 
 Fiftieth. 
 
 Fifty-first. 
 
 Fifty-second. 
 
 Sixtieth. 
 
 Sixty-first. 
 
 Sixty-second, &c. 
 
 Seventieth. 
 
 Seventy-first. 
 
 Seventy-second. 
 
 Seventy-third. 
 
 Seventy-fourth. 
 
 Seventy-fifth. 
 
 Seventy-sixth. 
 
 Seventy-seventh, 
 
 Seventy-eighth. 
 
 Seventy-ninth. 
 
 Eightieth. 
 
 Eighty-first. 
 Eighty-second, &c. 
 
 Ninetieth. 
 
 Ninety-first. 
 
 Ninety-second. 
 
 Ninety-third. 
 
 Ninety-fourth. 
 
 Ninety -fifth. 
 
 Ninety-sixth. 
 
 Ninety-seventh. 
 
 Ninety-eighth. 
 
 Ninety-ninth. 
 
 Hundredth. 
 
 Hundred andfirst. 
 
 Hundred and second* 
 
 Two hundredth. 
 
 Thousandth. 
 
 Millionth. 
 
 12 
 
90 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 OF THE USE OF CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 186. Cardinal numbers are prefixed to substantives, and 
 are all indeclinable, except un which makes une in the femi- 
 nine ; and quatre-virigt, and cent which take s when imme- 
 diately followed by a substantive ; as, quatre-vingts homines. 
 Irois cents soldats. 
 
 187. Mil/-' i> always contracted into mil, when used to 
 express the date of the year in which we live; as, Nous 
 sommes en mil huit cent vingt-six: but in every other case, 
 we must write mille. So, in speaking of an epoch, past or 
 future, we should say ; L'an mille sept cent quatre-vingt~ 
 neuffut fameux par la prise de la Bastille.— Je le paierai 
 /'(//< deux milledeux ant quarante. 
 
 188. [ . . i- not expressed before substantives used 
 as adjectives . as, // est negotiant ; tile est tailleuse; je suis 
 orfevre ; vous ites prqfesseur de physique} Unrest que lit u- 
 tenant, mats il sera bient6t capitaine. 
 
 189. Bat when '.', it, is nominative to the verb itre, the 
 tive un, Hue must always be prefixed to the following 
 
 BUDstantiv< I I un nigociant; <\>7 une tuillcuse ; 
 
 un professi ur dephy&iqut, 
 
 190. I >>■ ".I- omitted before the title of a book; and 
 before a substantive put in opposition with an other, or pre- 
 
 I b) the adverb jamais, nevei ; as, Manuel de chtmie. 
 M. /.'. King) membrt dusenat. Jamais homme ne fat plus 
 
 hi a r> a I . 
 
 191. In. preceded by the negative pas, is used as a pro- 
 noun . (the negative m l>< ing prefixed to the verb.) as. Pas 
 un (nol one) m croii </,', nouvelle. Pas un ne le craint, 
 
 192. Unit preceded bj the article, when we wish par- 
 ticularly to point out a Bubstantive, which forms b part of a 
 fixed number; as, Thalii < t Punt de$ trois graces. AntiHe, 
 
 dt votdt\ . La bienfesanct est Pun da 
 
 ■ tons li s autn .»-. 
 
 I is sometimes opposed to autn . other ; in which 
 
 . theae two wonl- are preceded by the article, Buppl) 
 
 tin- place of the substantives to which thej relate, adopt 
 
 their gendi r and number, and form the following pronouns : 
 
 /■ H h other 
 
 V'"" 1 ('•> 
 
 ■in- Pun Pmitri 
 f " """" f I r&tent Pune Pautrt. 
 
 I i i I.' <■ zrrtnils limn 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 91 
 
 196. Dun et Vautre, 
 
 Les uns i 
 
 N. B. If there be any preposition it 
 must be placed before autre ; as, 
 Cps messieurs se moquent les uns 
 des autres. lis se sont donne It mot 
 Vun a Vautre, 
 
 195. Vun, Vautre, one, the other. } These words, used separate- 
 
 j , \ some, others. > ly, denote a difference, and 
 
 Les uns, les autres, ^ sorae> some? )then Pun may be governed 
 
 by a preposition as well as Vautre ; as, Charles, 
 red de Suede, eprouva ce que la prosperite a de 
 plus grand, et ce que VadversiU a de plus cruel, 
 sans avoir ete amolli par Vune, ni ebranle par 
 Vautre. Par le sort de la naissance, Vun est roi, 
 Vautre berger. Les uns veulent une chose, les 
 autres une autre. 
 
 both ; as, Vun et Vautre sont bons. Nous som- 
 mes Vune et Vautre a plaindre. 
 les autres, all ; as, lis se reunissaient les uns et les autres 
 contre Vennemi commun 
 
 Remark I. When Vun is preceded by a pre- 
 position, the same preposition must be repeated 
 before Vautre ; as, Je suis content de Vun et de 
 Vautre. Je serai juste envers les uns et envers 
 les autres. 
 
 Remark II. The expression Vun et Vautre 
 always requires the following substantive and 
 verb, to which this substantive serves as a sub- 
 ject, to be in the singular ; as, Vune et Vautre 
 maison me plait. L r un et Vautre exces choque. 
 
 197. Vun ou Vautre, either; as, Vun ou Vautre me suffira. 
 
 198. JVi Vunni Vautre, neither; as, JV* Vun ni Vautre n'ont fait leur 
 
 devoir. 
 
 199. A perfect participle, coming after a cardinal num- 
 ber and its substantive, may, or may not be, preceded by 
 the preposition de / // y tut un homme de tue, or un homme 
 tue ; il y eut cent hommes de blesses, or il y tut cent hommes 
 blesses. 
 
 200. But when the cardinal number is preceded by the 
 pronoun en, of it, of them, the perfect participle, or adjec- 
 tive, which follows that number, should be preceded by the 
 preposition de ; aSj II y en eut mille de tues ; il n'y en a pas 
 un de riche. 
 
 OF THE USE OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 201. Ordinal numbers are generally prefixed to their 
 substantives; as, Le premier homme ; la premiere femme ; 
 le second etage, les troisiemes volumes. 
 
92 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 202. Tn quotations ordinal numbers are placed after their 
 substantives, and the article is omitted ; as, Lxxrc premier, 
 chapitre douzieme, verset cinquieme. 
 
 20 3. When the ordinal number is placed after a person- 
 al pronoun, the. article is also omitted : as. Le roi de Po- 
 logue n*eut que le terns de monter a cheval, lui onzr 
 
 204. Cardinal numbers are used, instead of ordinal num- 
 bers, after premier and second, to designate sovereigns of 
 the same name. They are then placed after the substan- 
 tive, and do not take the article; as, 
 
 Louis prem Charles premier, 
 
 Henri ""id. nd. 
 
 Henri Irois. C 
 
 L'>ii><: qualre. J! nri quatre. rnier. 
 
 I. • : ' 
 
 . ,'ftit. aire. 
 
 20. of cinq, the word quint (a contraction of 
 
 quint i iys used to d< si .■■ t the Fifth, 
 
 r< ii .i'iiv. andSix/ua theFiflh, the pope ; as, 
 Churl i: '/it. 
 
 speaking of the day of the month, we aho use 
 the cardinal number, <-• h prerm 
 
 /, ,/, r juillet, le deux 
 
 ■ '/■ i. &c. 
 ... n, :l \ also be expressed; as, 
 /. • • ' • ■ . ,. U deux at Janvier, &C. ; but it is 
 
 more < l« ganl to omil it. 
 
 Iher, use cardinal numbers, inptead of 
 oi.ii- al numbi i- w h< ars, and of the time 
 
 of the day; as, Now tomtnes en mil huit cent vingl six. U 
 ...,< o'clock) ii est dt 
 
 \. B. I stead of <fouz< heures, we always mak< 
 
 l-daj | sod ofmsmiu*, (midnight) . as, // est midi, it 
 
 •Yin. k. or noon ; U est mum, 1 , it is twelve o\ lock] 
 or midnight. 
 
 Of DSTI KM IV \ I i\ I. 1DJECTIVES COMMONLY CALLED l\ 
 hi ii\i IK PEON01 NB, 
 
 some, is an adje< live always 
 substantive, and either preceded, or nol pre 
 ced( ■ the Bingular; and de in the plural 
 
 J' < 
 
 J y ai out dire a un certain Homme, or fat mti dtre d certa 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 93 
 
 II y a de cerkdnes gens qui ai- ) S ^ V a certaines gwis qui aiment 
 ment a tout critiquer, £ ( it lout cni 
 
 209. Maint, mainte, many a, is always prefixed to its sub- 
 stantive; as, Tally, cela dans maint auteur. Mainte veuve 
 est souvent bien aise de Petre. 11 etait la maintes Jilles sa- 
 vantes. 
 
 Maint is sometimes repeated ; as, Cette dame a fail dans 
 sa jeunesse mainte et mainte conquete. Je le lui ai dil mainte 
 et mainte fois, 
 
 210. Plusieurs, many, several, is an adjective which has 
 no singular, and which is of both genders. 
 
 1st. It signifies an indeterminate number, without rela- 
 tion to another; as, Ilabattu Pcnnemi en plusieurs occasions. 
 Plusieurs navires sont arrives de la Chine. 
 
 2nd. It is used of a greater or less number forming a part 
 of a number still greater. It is then followed by de or pre- 
 ceded by en (of it, of them) ; as, Plusieurs cTentre eux le. 
 disirent, plusieurs de ces gens -la me sont connus. De toutes 
 ces choses-ld, il y en a plusieurs qui ni'appariiennent. Parmi 
 les memhres du Congres, il y en a plusieurs qui sont en fa- 
 veur de cette memre. 
 
 3rd. It is sometimes used absolutely : hommes or per son- 
 nes being understood ; as, Plusieurs irfont assure que cette 
 nouvelle etait vraie. II ne faut pas que plusieurs pdtissent 
 pourun seul. Plusieurs se sont trompes en voulant iromper 
 les autres. 
 
 211. Chaque, each, every, is an adjective which is always 
 prefixed to a substantive, and which has no plural ; as, 
 Chaque age a ses plaisirs. L'haque chambre etait bien meu- 
 blee. II vient me voir chaque jour. Chaque tete, chaque 
 avis. 
 
 212. Chacun, chacune, each, every one, is used either 
 distributively or collectively. It has no plural. 
 
 213. When used distributively, it means chaque pcrsonne, 
 chaque chose, each person or thing ; as, Void de belles oran- 
 ges, chacune coute un chelin. Chacun d^eux y a consenti. 
 Chacun de nous vit a sa mode. Chacune de ces dames etait 
 mne differemment. 
 
 214. When used collectively and absolutely, it signifies 
 tout homme, every man ; and has no feminine ; as, Chacun 
 devient sage a ses dip ens. Chacun a ses difauts. Chacun veut 
 etre heureux. 
 
 215. Remark. Chacun, though always singular, maybe 
 followed sometimes by son, sa, ses, soi, and sometimes by 
 leur, leurs, eux* 
 
94 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 216. Chacun, is followed by son, sa, ses, when the plural 
 substantive of which chacun, is the distributive, is expressed 
 in the sentence neither by itself, nor by a pronoun ; as. // a 
 donne a chacun sa part. Je donnerai a chacun ses effets. A- 
 pres la cercmonie, chacun se retire/ chez soi ; and when it is 
 placed after the regimen ; as, Les deux rois fesaient chanter 
 le Te-Deum, chacun dans son camp. Ilfaut remettre ces livres 
 chacun a sa place. Tons les juges out donne leur avis, cha- 
 cun i Ion ses lumieres. 
 
 N. B. The same rnle'is observed when the verb is neu- 
 ter; as, Tons lesjuges oni opine" chacun scion ses Itanieres. 
 
 217. Chacun is followed l>\ lair. Irurs, MAX, when it is 
 
 placed before the regimen of the verb ; as, lis ont apporti 
 chacun leur offrande. C<s livres ont chacun leurmerite* 
 La mm. dii tfle-mimi aux deputes qu'iletaii tans quails s'en 
 retournasseni chacun chez eux. 
 
 2 1 8. .Incuii. ui'cuik . with the negative ne before the verb, 
 signifies n . non ,• as, Jinn,, chemin n^est sur. Aucunt wt- 
 ., peut justifier un mensonge, II n* a fait aucuneprepa- 
 rutij '. personne <jui vous constat, ./< m 
 
 7iu mill plus dPaucunes affaires, .!< m connaia aucun d< set 
 parens, D is lespoetes i iln , y ena aucund'aussiparfait 
 ij'i' Vxrg '. \hmml j\tui- riche pavais beaucoup tPamis ; 
 maintenant h n*en at plus aucun, 
 
 ji .'. Jinn/I. (Hum,,, any, is used without the negative 
 
 // in interrogative Bentenci b, or those which express doubt 
 
 or < iclustOD ; ;>-. V ii-t-il aucun hommt plus savant quelui. 9 
 
 conma ' >- jolie mfellel On doute 
 
 . i I, plus /"(in morn an 
 
 (Peloquenci qtfily mt dans tsucune langue, 
 
 nil,, no, none, is used in the singular only, 
 and like pas un and aucun (which mean the sameasnti/, 
 but iritfa ;i less negative force) take* the negativi 
 the verb . ;i-. AW homnu n'u I, droit de lefaire. ./« r* 1 
 nullt conn* ■ H <d amis n'apuh convau 
 
 231. .\'"'. none, no one, do man, i> sometimes used in a 
 ral and absolute manner, and baa then no feminine j 
 as, JVU/ n?tst exempt di la mart, anient de sa dcs~ 
 
 I 2 2. Qui I. qui lit . what, i* used to hint, to ask, or to cx- 
 
 , on, tin qualitii - "i ;i person or thing. 
 It is used affirmatively ; at, '• dtt quel Immme et 
 
 quelU 'nitnt. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 95 
 
 Vous savez quels ouvragcs il a 
 
 ecrits. 
 Je lie sais quel homme c^est. 
 
 interrogatively ; as, Quel terns fait-il ? Quelle heurt 
 
 est-il ? 
 De quel homme parlez-vous ? 
 A quelle femme Pavez vous 
 donne ? 
 
 in exclamations ; as, Quelle imprudence ! Quelle 
 
 sottise ! Quels hommes ! 
 
 223. Sometimes the substantive, with which quel agrees, 
 is placed after the verb, the same substantive being always 
 understood immediately after quel ; as, Quel est le livre que 
 vous lisez ? (that is quel livre est le livre que vous lisez ?) 
 Quelles sont les femmes dont vous parlez ? Je ne sais quels 
 sont ses motifs. 
 
 224. Sometimes the substantive to which this adjective 
 relates is understood ; as, Void un bien gros livre ! quel 
 est-il ? Une dame desire vous voir. Quelle est-elle ? J>ai des 
 nouvelles a vous apprendre. Quelles sont-elles 1 
 
 225. Lequel, laquelle, who, which, that, is formed of quel 
 and the article, and is used sometimes instead of the rela- 
 tive pronouns qui and que to avoid ambiguity ; as, On a out 
 trois temoins, lesquels (temoins understood) ont depose contre 
 lui. On courut apres le voleur, lequel se voyant poursuivi 
 entra dans une maison. 
 
 226. Lequel is chiefly used governed by a preposition, 
 and relates to persons and things ; as, 
 
 Void Vhomme a Pintrepidile duquelje dois la vie. 
 
 Cest une femme sur le compte de laquelle il court des bruits facheux. 
 
 La Seine dans le lit de laquelle viennent sejeter P Yonne, la Marne 
 
 et POise. 
 Void Vhomme auquel on a remis votre lettre. 
 II y a des gens auxquels on ne saurait plaire. 
 Songeons afiechir lejuge devant lequel nous allons paraitre. 
 La table sur laquelle vous ecrivez est a lui. 
 Void le trou dans lequel il est tombe. 
 L'encre, avec laquelle vous avez ecrit cette lettre, est Men blanche* 
 
 227. Lequel, which, is used as a demonstrative ; as, 
 Void plusieurs livres, choisissez lequel vous aimerez le mieux. 
 Je ne sais lequel choisir. 
 
 Parmi ces etqffes, voyez laquelle vous voulez. 
 Je m'adresserai auquel vous voudrez. 
 
 228. Lequel-que, which ever, requires the subjunctive 
 mood; as, 
 

 96 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 Lequel dc ces deux bijoux que vous choisissiez, vous rencontrerai 
 
 toujours bien. 
 Auquel de cet rs que vous donniez la preference, vous 
 
 auric d 
 
 229. Lequel, which, is sometimes an interrogative ; as, 
 
 ./ Z'VOUS le mhux? 
 m Ut de i es dames ti - plus belle ? 
 
 - 
 Far lequel des a, ux chemins ttes-vous venu? 
 
 230. Quel que, quelle que. whatever, whoever, is an ad- 
 jective which denotes quality or excess. It is always sepa- 
 rated from the substantive, with which it agrees, by the 
 verb rtre. to be. which ii governs in the subjunctive mood ; 
 but when it agrees witha personal pronoun, it is always im- 
 mediately prefixed to it ; as, 
 
 ^ modeate, 
 
 U ': jHttric, dors sous mon toil avec si- 
 
 Q . i out rtauriez pas du lefairt, 
 
 J . .tin r devanl la loi. 
 
 J i u'' n i n ' ■/■ /" r '// sod. 
 
 231. Quelque, some, notes a vague individual, an inde- 
 terminate quantity or numb< i 
 
 ./ 
 
 I H ils. 
 
 1 juc. any, ia used interrogatively ; as, 
 
 some, any, relates tu 
 
 .i Bubstaotive expressed in the sentence, and i- pre< eded by 
 tin- pronoun < •. p iced before the verb(i) or followed bj 
 the preposition ' ; ; as, 
 
 'li'i'un. 
 
 ■i hn plait. 
 
 I • urirs de 
 
 ■ z in ptendrt qui lqu< 
 taken absolutely . is used <>n- 
 l\ id the masculine singular, and maj relate to a man or 
 
 (1.) Whei live mood, wilhuut 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 97 
 
 Quelquhin ni'a (lit que cette nouvelle estfausse. 
 Quelquhin frappe a la porte. 
 
 jVous nvons par It a quelqu'un que vous connaissez. 
 Y a-t-il quelcpi'un dans cette maison ? 
 
 235. Quelques uns, some, some people, the plural mas- 
 culine of quelquhin is used absolutely in the nominative 
 case only ; as, 
 
 Quelques uns ni'ont assure quHl est marii. 
 Quelques uns contredisent cette nouvelle. 
 
 236. Quelque chose, something, used as a single word is 
 always masculine, although chose (thing) is feminine ; as, 
 
 Demandez-moi quelque chose, etje voxis le donnerai. 
 On m'a dit quelque chose qui est tres plaisant. 
 
 N. B. When quelque chose is followed by an adjective, it 
 must be joined to the adjective by the preposition de ; as, 
 J'ai vu quelque chose de beau ; avez-vous quelque chose de 
 nouveau a nous dire ? 
 
 237. Quelque-que, whatever, is an adjective which signi- 
 fies quel que soit le, quelle que soit la, &c. and which re- 
 quires the subjunctive. Quelque is prefixed to the substan- 
 tive, and que is placed after it ; as, 
 
 Quelque remede qu'on lui donne, il ne s'en parte pas mieux. 
 Quelques efforts que vousfassiez, vous ne reussirez point. 
 Quelques maux que nous souffrions, nous ne nous en plaindrons pas. 
 Quelque chose qtieje lui axe dit,je nPaipu le convaincre. 
 
 238. Quelque-que, however, united to an adjective, or 
 an adverb, is used elliptically as an adverb in the sense of 
 de quelque maniere que, and is then invariable ; as, 
 
 Quelque belle, quelque aimable, quelque riche quelle soit, il ne veut 
 
 pas Pepouser. 
 Quelque forts, quelque puissans quHls soient,je ne les crains pas. 
 Quelque grands biens qu'on possede, on ne peut acheter le bonheur. 
 Quelque adroitement quHl s^y prenne, il ne reussira pas. 
 
 239. Quelconque, any, whatever, is an adjective which is 
 always placed after its substantive. 
 
 240. In a positive sentence the substantive to which quel- 
 conque is added is always preceded by a determinative ; as, 
 
 Donnez-lui une recompense quelconque. 
 Jlfaut que cela sefasse d'unc maniere quelconque. 
 Cherchez des pretextes quelconques pour pallier vos torts. 
 Carnot a ecrit un memoire sur la relation qui existe entre les dis~ 
 tances respectives de cinq points quelconques pris dans Pespace. 
 
 241. When quelconque is used in a negative sentence^ 
 the determinate aucun may be expressed or omitted before 
 the substantive ; as, 
 
 13 
 
98 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 H ne veul se soumtttre a aucune autorile quelconquc. 
 
 II n'a mat quelconquc 
 
 11 n't/ a homme quelconquc qui puisse rrtobliger a lefaire. 
 
 11 n'est demeure a ce negotiant chose quelconque de son naufrage. 
 
 242. Tel, telle, such, like, is a demonstrative or compa- 
 rative adjective. 
 
 243. When tel is a demonstrative, and points out a par- 
 ticular person or thing, it must be preceded by em, une, in 
 the singular, and de in the plural ; as, 
 
 Vous devriez eviter la mettle" (Pun tel homme et d'une telle femme. 
 Pourquoi r&pondre a de tcls propos? 
 
 244. But when tel is prefixed to a substantive, taken in 
 an indeterminate sense, un, une, or clc is never expressed ; 
 as, 
 
 T>1 homme, (Ml tillcf>mmt , s'nwrgudl/it des qualitcs de son esprit, 
 
 qui deorait rougir de la turpitude de son ceeur. 
 
 N. B. This indeterminate substantive is sometimes un- 
 derstood ; a-. 
 
 lAtragi tombt ra tur ti I qui n*y pense pat* 
 
 T I d mm d pUine* main*, qui rfoblige pertonmu 
 
 TelpetUi vn-re long'teou, qui mewl le Undemaim 
 
 2 I j. T-iiii. all. is a collective adjective, which signifies the 
 wlmlc quantity, the whole number, the whole extent. 
 
 346. The substantive to winch tout \* prefixed, may be 
 preceded bj the article, a demonstrative, or a dobsi 
 as Tout It ramp sc rivolta. Tuns let homme* soni moriefo* 
 I -In font contre vous, TouU mafamUle est al- 
 
 li( u In campagne* 
 
 J 17. Tout in i\ be prefixed to B pronoun ; as, Tout ceci. 
 Tout clti. Jt ft rm toutce qtfil vous plaira* Tons < 
 
 m'tjtit pari' soul d> eei mis. 
 
 Tout 1 1 1 : i \ lie placed after personal pronouns; as, 
 I/s sunt tous en ta faveur, ./< /< s aivus tout nunis. 
 
 I'tiitt t\)-.\\ be prefixed to a numeral adjective; as. 
 / •/ . or tout I's <ltur (both) sont icnus. J'ai parli 
 
 toutu < ; 
 
 i >i». 7W, relating to a DOUn mentioned before, is some- 
 times used alone as the nominative to the verb; at 
 
 ', cPitre Jideles a la patrie, Tous semblaient animls 
 d'un un me esprit* 
 
 251. Tout It: mondt is used in the general sense of cha- 
 rt lc mondc It suit. Tout 
 Ic mond: hi) mt 80 ciiiduitc. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 99 
 
 252. Tout is used as a distributive, and signifies chaque, 
 each, every ; in this case it is not accompanied by another 
 determinative ; as, Tout citoyen doit servir son pays. Toute 
 
 femme aime a etre admiree. Tout homme est mortcl. 
 
 253. Tout, used alone, signifies toutes choses, all things, 
 every thing, and becomes a pronoun; as, Tout luifaitplai- 
 sir. II se moque de tout. II veut tout. 
 
 N. B. When tout is governed by the compound tense 
 of an active verb, it is placed between the auxiliary and 
 the participle ; as, // a tout avoue ; and when tout is go- 
 verned by a verb in the infinitive mood, it must be placed 
 before that verb ; as, II est pre t a tout f aire. 
 
 254. Tout is sometimes used as an adverb, in the sense 
 of quite, wholly, and is then invariable, except before 
 an adjective feminine, beginning with a consonant, in which 
 case it takes the gender, and number of the substantive, or 
 pronoun, to which it relatevS ; as, 
 
 1st. Ce sont des gens lout pleins (Phonneur. 
 
 Elle est tout itonnee de cet evenement. 
 2nd. Elle est toute malade. 
 
 Ces dames furent toutes surprises de me voir. 
 
 Cest de Peau-de.-vie toute pure. 
 
 255. Tout, followed by que, is used as a conjunction in 
 the sense of although for all ; as, It then governs the indi- 
 cative mood, and like tout, wholly, is invariable except be- 
 fore an adjective, or substantive feminine, beginning with a 
 consonant ; as, 
 
 1st. Tout habiles et tout artificieux quHls sont, Us ont echoue dans 
 leur entreprise. 
 
 Tout aimables et tout instruites que sont ces dames, elles ne 
 me, plaisent pas. 
 
 Tout usees que sont ces hardes, elles me serviront encore long- 
 tems. 
 2nd. Ces dames, toutes belles et toutes riches qu'elles sont ne me plai- 
 sent pas. 
 
 L'esperance, toute trompeuse qu 7 elle est, sert au moins a 
 nous metier a la'fin de la vie par un chemin agreable. 
 
 Toutes laides qu'elles sont, elles sont bienjieres. 
 
 Toute femme qv?elle est, elle entend Men les affaires. 
 
 256. Autre, other, expresses distinction, the difference 
 between two objects, or between one and several. 
 
 257. It is generally prefixed to its substantive ; as, Vous 
 parlez d'une autre personne, II a aehete une autre maison. 
 Donnez-moi Vautre volume. 
 
 258. Sometimes the substantive to which it relates is un- 
 derstood ; as, J'aime mieux que vous Vapprtnitz dhm autre 
 
100 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 que de moi. Quelque autre vous f'expliquera mieux que moi, 
 Un autre lefera. Si Pon ne veutpasfaire de bien. il nefaut 
 pa> empechcr que hs mitres enfassent. 
 
 259. Autre. used after a personal pronoun, is an expletive 
 not expressed in English ; as, Nous autres Francais, )iou>; 
 mangeons beaucoup de pain. Tournez-moi cela commc vous 
 le savez si bienfairc, vous autres cavaliers. 
 
 (For autre opposed to un, see un, page 90.) 
 
 260. Jlutrui, is an invariable pronoun, which is never 
 used in the nominative. and whi< h signifies les autres hommes, 
 les autres pcrsonnes. Its autres, other men, other people, 
 others ; as, Voxdoir tromper autrui, c'rst se tromper soi- 
 meme. Je ffenvie pus le mend* autrui. Me fats pas a autrui 
 ce que tu ne voudrais pas qu-on te fit. Je ne fats pas f aire par 
 autrui, a qui j< puis f 'aire moi-mime. On est sage pour »oi, 
 et vertueur avee autrui. 
 
 261. Mime, same, is an adjective which expresses iden- 
 tity or similarity. It is generally prefixed to its substantive, 
 and preceded by the article, or some other determinative , 
 as, c est toujour s It mime homme, 11 n? a plus la mime place, 
 Vous aurez les minus uiuutages. I'ous avez pris tous deux 
 ■un mime sujet. 
 
 262. Mine, is sometimes used without being preceded by 
 the article; as, Void dun plantes de mime tspece, Les 
 homm mblent par tout, mimes vices^ mimes vertus. 
 
 The Bubstantive, to which mime relates, is often 
 understood; as, Cet homme est toujour- le mime. C<ttc 
 femme n? est plus la mime. Le mime est revenu re matin. 
 Cela revient an mil u . Les mimes <n,t pari; ii monfrire, 
 
 264. Mime, iel£ himself, herself, itself, is placed after 
 Bubstantives and pronouns t<» give them more force or ener- 
 pv ; as Dieu est la sagesst mime, Les geniraux mimes 
 furentfait prisotmiers. ./< le ferai moi-mime, its rfont 
 a si plauidrr que (Peux*mim 
 
 ii. nay, is invariable when used as a con- 
 junction ; as, Les magistrate doiveni rendre une igah justice 
 h tout l< monde, mirtu ii lews ennemis, Les j>lus sages 
 mime sunt suit to d em r. 
 
 OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 266. The pronoun is a word which supplies the place of 
 i noun, or substantive. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. J 01 
 
 267. Pronouns may be divided into personal, relative, in- 
 terrogative and indefinite. 
 
 268. Personal pronouns are those which denote persons. 
 
 269. There are three persons : the first is the person 
 speaking ; the second the person spoken to ; and the third 
 is the person or thing spoken of. 
 
 270. Pronouns of the first person, mas. and fern. 
 
 kom. sing. > L' > I- Pl. nous, we. 
 $ moi, £ ' 
 
 ac. or dat. sing. < me : i me, or to me. Pl. nous, \ us > ' , MS ' , 
 
 ( moi, ^ ' ( our selves, to our selves. 
 
 271. Pronouns of the second person, masc. and fern. 
 
 nom. sing. < .' > ' S thou. Pl. vous, yow. ( J ) 
 
 C te, } f t/om, to you, 
 
 Ac. or dat. sing. ■? I tAcc, or «o tAee. P), vous. } yourself, to yourself, 
 
 ( toi, ) ( yourselves, to yourselves. 
 
 272. Pronouns of the third person, masculine. 
 nom. sing. > | '• > he, it. PI. V s ' I they. 
 
 ac, sing. 5 le, /iim, it. ) pt 5 ^ es ' ^cm. 
 
 dat. sing. I lui, £o him, to it. $ ' ( leur, to /Acw. 
 
 273. Pronouns of the third person feminine. 
 nom. sing, elle, she, it. PI. elles, they. 
 
 ac. sing, j la, her, it. } „. ( les, iAew. 
 
 dat. sing. I lui, fo Aer, to it. $ ^ ieur, <o <Aem. 
 
 274. The following may be added to the pronouns of the 
 third person. 
 
 On, man, one, they, people, we, &c. 
 
 Se, one's self, himself, herself, itself, themselves, each other, one an- 
 other. 
 
 Soi, one's self, himself, itself. 
 
 Ed, of 'or from him, of or from her, of or from it, of or from them, some 
 or any of it or of them, [thence from them). 
 
 Y, to him, to her, to it, to them, on it, on them ; in it, in them, lither, 
 here, there. 
 
 (1.) This pronoun is oftener used in French than its corresponding 1 
 thou in English. It is used as a mark of great familiarity, superiority 
 and even contempt. Intimate friends, brothers, sisters, near relations, 
 parents, children, husbands and wives address each other with this pro- 
 noun, and often express their being- angry or offended by substituting 
 in its place the pronoun vous, which, like you, is also applied in French 
 to one person only, oat of respect. 
 
102 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 275. The pronouns je, tn, il, Us and on come before the 
 verb as its subject, either immediately, as je frappe. or with 
 one or more of the pronouns me, nous, te, voits, le, la, les, 
 ha, leur, se, en, y; or the negative ne between; as, je le 
 
 frappe; je ne frappe pas ; but they will not admit of any 
 adverb, or other word, between themselves and the verb, 
 as in English. Therefore we do not say : Je toujonrs frappe, 
 I always strike ; palors lui dis, I then told him; butje 
 frappe lonjours,je lui dis alors. 
 
 276. In certain forms, the word soussigyjf, underwritten, 
 and the title and quality of the person that speaks, are put 
 between the pronoun and the verb, thus : Je soussigne de- 
 clare. Jc, Jean Smith, Docteur en medecinc, cerlifie ty-c. 
 
 277. The same pronoun, as well as nous, xous, clle, dies, 
 come after their verbs in the following cases* 
 
 1 -t. After the verb dire, to say ; ripondre, to answer ; re- 
 fjliijucr, to reply ; continuer, to continue ; poursuivre, to pur- 
 sue ; /" / v r, to cry out ; «&-c. by parenthesis, as is practi- 
 sed in English with to say, though not so generally as in 
 French; as. Vous ,'cnv :. dites~vous. Vous voyez, disnit-ils, 
 or ripondircnt-ils, or s'ecritrent-ils Petat ou nous sommes 
 ate, 
 
 2nd. After the verb avoir, etre, devoir and pouvoir, in the 
 subjunctive ; as, 
 
 JtUJi i/iftnd unhnmmr r*t rirhe, if raut toujour* son pri.r. 
 Kt rn'il-on ru notier la mumlil/c a Pans, 
 J\^eu(-il dt mm vrai num in litrt. m mimoire y 
 
 &> Hosier Im t r o mtr o <!■ i tut wc dona rhUtoire. 
 
 fWm 111 par de'h drs colunnei (P.ilcide! 
 
 jr , ,i ji, rir. 
 
 HcM ymx y voir tomher lafoudrr! 
 
 3rd. Generally after these adverbs and conjunctions en- 
 , yet ; 014**1, therefore ; peut-itre, perhaps ; du mom*, <tu 
 motM ) at least; rn vain, in vain; it peine, hardly ; inntilc- 
 meni, uselessly ; as. ElU u'a qu'ttn laguait d'oramenre^ 
 
 nt U /" nt-illi *■ jrardt run jour rutin-. Aussi lui-aijt don- 
 
 ' Par gent, Peut-itre a-t-elle rauon. .S\7 n?e»t pas fori 
 
 rirhc du moms u-t-d d> qUQt vivrc. En rrla au moms 
 
 Incn justi. En vain voudruts-tu It BOuldger, A peine 
 >.-t-i/ hnrs d> son lit. Imitdnmnt xoudruis-tu lr COntrti 
 
 4th. In interrogations ; as, Ai-jet as-tu? a-t-il? avons- 
 
 nous t nvc-vous f ont-ds ? a-t-on 1 
 
 278. In general, moi. toi. are only the subject by apposi- 
 tion or reduplication, whether they follow the verb; as, 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 103 
 
 Je pretends moi que cela se fasse. Tu dis done toi que tu 
 veux de Par gent. Or, precede ; as, Moi, dont-il dechire la 
 reputation. Je ne lui ai jamais rendu que de bons offices. 
 Toi, qui es mon ami, tu peux me croire coupable ? Vous, mon 
 frere et moi, nous irons demain a la campagne. Tu pars, et 
 moije reste. 
 
 279. Sometimes the pronouns je and tu are not expressed, 
 but understood, before a verb in the infinitive mood ; as, 
 Moi, trahir le meilleur de mes amis ! Faire une lachete, toi ! 
 Elliptical phrases for: moi, je voudrais trahir, &c. Toi,tu 
 pourrais faire, &:c. 
 
 280. The pronouns lui and eux are used in the same 
 manner as moi, and toi in the two preceding paragraphs, to 
 give more force to the sentence, or to express a difference 
 or distinction ; as, Lui, te tromper ! cela ne s° peut pas. Lui, 
 qui est ricke, il a les moyens de le faire. Je Paime lui et ses 
 enfans. Nous agissons, et lui il donne des conseils. Je ne 
 Pestime ni lui ni eux. lis souffraient de la famine, eux et 
 leurs bestiaux. Eux qui ne font jamais rien de bien, Us trou- 
 vent sans cesse a redire aiix autres. Eux, vous abandonner ! 
 Us en sont incapables. 
 
 281. The pronouns elle, nous, vous, elles, are also used 
 in the same redundant manner ; as, Elle croit elle que vous 
 ne parlez pas serieusement. Nous qui avons de V 'experience, 
 nous savons ce qui en resulUra. Vous dont la perspective 
 est si belle, vous avez quelque raison de vous rejouir ; mais 
 elles qui n'ont rien a esperer, et qui ont toujours ete si mal- 
 heureuses, elles ne peuvent guere se livrer aux memes senti- 
 mens dejoie. 
 
 282. The pronouns lui and eux may be the subject with- 
 out being in apposition in distributive phrases, or when they 
 are, together with nouns, nominatives to the verb ; as, Mes 
 freres et mon cousin in'ont secouru ; eux m'ont releve, et lui 
 m' 'a pause ; lui, mon frere et ma sozur etaient a la comedie. 
 
 283. The pronouns of the nominative and dative cases, 
 moi, toi, lui, elle, eux, elles and soi (and never je, me, tu, te, 
 il, Us, le, la, les, se) are used, 1st. after the demonstrative 
 ce, and the verb etre ; as, Qui est la? c' 'est moi. C est toi 
 qui leferas. Cest lui et non pas elle qui m'a ecrit. Ce 
 sont eux qui m'ont trahi. 2nd. After conjunctions ; as, II 
 ecrit mieux que toi et moi. II n'aime que moi. Quiconque 
 n'aime que soi est indigne de vivre. Faites comme eux. II 
 Tie veut voir ni toi, ni elle : 3rd. after prepositions ; as, Cela 
 depend de moi et non pas de toi. Je pense a eux. J^ai tout 
 
104 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 fait pour elks. Chacun agit pour soi. Choisissc: entre hu 
 et moi. 
 
 284. The pronouns me, te, se, leur, lc, la, les,y and en, 
 are generally placed before verbs, as are nous, vous and fas, 
 when without a preposition ; as, II mefrappi ; je te protege} 
 il sc loue ; tu leur /eras plaisir ; je le. suivrai ; vous la fa- 
 cherez ; cllc les soignera ; py penserai ; tu en auras ; tu nous 
 persecutes ; il vous eerira; je lui parlerai. 
 
 285. In imperative phrases, with affirmation moi, loi, 
 nuns, vous, lui, leur, le, la. les. y and en are placed after 
 Verbs; as. Aim- :-moi ; donne-toi du plaisir ; envoye:-nous 
 (les livres ; soigncz-vous ; j>arlcz-lui ; donnez-leur du pain ; 
 prenez-le : voyez-la\ garaez-les; songez-y ; dounez-lui i n ; 
 but with negation. we, te, .-a. nous. vous. lui, leur, le, la. /(?, 
 y and en arc placed he fore \ erbs : as. Ne me suispas ; ne te 
 preesepas; rju'ilne se /Ache pas. ne nous louons pas; nc 
 tons enivrez pas ; rn lut parlez pas; ne leur donnezjpas de 
 pam ; m l( croyt - pas ; ne la suivez pas • ne les mangi z pas ; 
 /;"'/ songez jxis ; h'iii parlez pus. 
 
 M and te are used instead ofmoi and tot, before en, 
 after the imperative; as, Donne-m' l en+moque-t' i en, 
 
 \\ hen there arc i«n imperatives joined together by 
 tin conjunctions ft, ou, it i» more elegant to place the se- 
 cond pronoun before the verb; as, Polissez-le sans cesse et 
 h repoUssez. Gardei-les ou let r envoy ez. Sors de ces 
 
 In ii l el iu'ji I 
 
 Toe pronouns me, te, se, lui, leur, /<. la. les,y and 
 hi are never separated from the verbto which they are pre- 
 fixed, and li\ which the) are governed; except when the 
 verb is in the infinitive moed ; the words tout, all; rien, 
 iioihniL' : and jamais, never ; maj then be placed between 
 some of them and their werb ; is, CPest lew tout nfu- 
 ser. (Pestnenu rien permtttre. II a jure de ne lui jamais 
 
 pardon ti i r. 
 
 nine- thr pronouns le, la, lea, supplying tht 
 place of a substantive in an answer, arc not expressed in 
 English 
 
 i woyi i herefu r ? out, je lc suit. 
 
 .V'ul riv , iUs-VOUt 1 1 in n tli til <nf':tnt ' mii, jr In suit. 
 
 , let trttliiturs (Ii mon Jrere? uui, nous let 
 
 MNM 
 
 The pronoun h. without change of gender or num- 
 ber. BuppHefl the place of an adjective, of a substantive ta- 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 105 
 
 ken as an adjective, or of a member of a sentence, it is then 
 not expressed in English, or rendered by the adverb so or, 
 the neuter pronoun it <; as, 
 
 Etes-tious laborieux? oui,je le suis. 
 
 Madame, etes-vous prete ? oui,je le suis. 
 
 ^Mademoiselle, etes-vous musicienne ? oui,je le suis. 
 
 JWesdames, etes-vous poeles ? oui, nous le sommes. 
 
 Pouvez-vous mPobliger? oui,je le puis. 
 
 Sij'ai obtenu quelque success, je le dois a vos soins. 
 
 291. The pronouns le, la, les are always used instead of 
 lui, eux, elle, dies, after the demonstrative ce, when answer- 
 ing a question relating to an inanimate thing ; as, 
 
 Est-ce ta maison ? oui, ce Pest. 
 
 Est-ce la man chapeau ? non, ce ne Vest pas. 
 
 Sont-ce vos gants ? oui, ce tes sont. 
 
 292. The pronouns of the nominative il, its, elle, elles, 
 and those of the accusative le, la, Its are indifferently used 
 for all sorts of objects rational ; or irrational, animate or ina- 
 nimate ; as Cet homme est genereux, il rie cesse de m'obliger. 
 Cette dame est belle, mats elle ripest pas riche. Ou est moil 
 cheval ? il rCest.pa^ dans Vecurie. Voyez ces fieurs, comme 
 elles sont belles ! Void ma canne, je vous la prete. Ce cou- 
 teau ne coupe pas, aiguisez-le. Prenez ces fruits, je vous les 
 donne. 
 
 293. The pronouns lui, leur, eux, elle, elles, in the accu- 
 sative and dative cases, are chiefly applied to persons and 
 personified things. 
 
 294. The pronouns lui and leur, joined to' a verb, are 
 often applied to animals, plants, and even inanimate ob- 
 jects ; as, Cet oiseau a soif, donnez-lui a boire. Ces chevaux 
 ont faira, donnez leur du foin. Ces murs sont mal faits 9 
 on ne leur a pas donne assez de talus. 
 
 295. When speaking of animals and inanimate things, 
 we use the adverbs and prepositions, dessus, dessous, de- 
 dans, avec, aupres, vis-a-vis, &c. absolutely instead of sur 
 lui, sur eux, sur elle, sur elles / sous lui, sous eux, sow.- elle, 
 sous elles ; dans lui, dans ewx> dans elle, dans elles ; &c. as, 
 
 Prenez ce. chevaL et montez dessus. 
 On le cherehait swr le lit, et il etait dessous. 
 Ouvrez ce cabinet, et mettez-vous dedans. 
 Prenez cette plume, et ecrivez avec. 
 ' 11 s 7 approcha de la table, et s'assit aupres. 
 
 Vous savez ou et ma maison, la sienne est vis-a-vis. 
 
 296. En is applied to things, instead of de hri, d'eux^ 
 d'elle, d^elks ; as, 
 
 14 
 
106 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Vous avez lu eel ouvrage, qu'en pensez-vous ? 
 Vous avez vu ma maison, qifen diles-vous ? 
 Voici des pommes, combien en voulez-vous ? 
 
 297. En often means some or any of it or of them, {of it 
 and of them are usually not expressed) ; as, 
 
 Tu veux des oranges, in voici. 
 
 Vous desirez du labac,j'en ai a voire service. 
 
 298. En, when governed by a numeral adjective ; by 
 aucim, any ; plusieurs, many ; beaucoup, much, many ; pen. 
 few ; &c. is not generally expressed in English ; as, 
 
 // a six mouch>~)irs, maismoi,je n'en ai qu'un. 
 
 Vous avez trtnte ans, el lui nVn a que vin^t-cinq. 
 
 Si vous aimcz les poires, en void une tres-bonne. 
 
 II a beaucoup dc ptches, mais it ne veut mVn donner aueunc. 
 
 Vous avez besom d y eping/es, it y en a plusieurs svr la table. 
 
 299. En relates also to persons ; as, 
 
 Jfous aimons beaucoup votrefrere, nnus enparhns souvent. 
 
 II a vicu long-tems parmi les Americains, el il en a adoptc les usages. 
 
 300. En sometimes relates to a place ; as, 
 
 Vous allrz it Parts, m./t.j'Y/i nefU, 
 
 A jiropos du bal, en vinez-vous ? ouiyfen viens. 
 
 301. Y is applied to things instead of a lui, a eux, a ellc. 
 '/ files, tur eux, &c. ; as, 
 
 .Sun Uvrc sera bimtdl at hi »•<', rcir il y Irawille tous les jours. 
 J^ii rtQu tea Uttres.fy ripondrai bienUit, 
 
 affair* tie sera pas negligee, fydimnerai tout met soins. 
 Vous m'tircz elonnt poire {X'ro/e.fy cample. 
 
 302. Y relates to persons only when connected with the 
 verb? firr, to trust : penser and songer, to think; then y 
 may relate to the three person* | 
 
 Vtiu me dnnindiz sijc pente a moi dans celte affaire, je vous as 
 
 jiense. 
 CH >t mh k omm e dang* reus, ne- mnii yjiez pas. 
 
 J'ensfz-vous d mm ' uu\.j*>i jhhsc. 
 
 Je regrftte *atre tcntr,j\ tongt eonttamment, 
 
 .303. Y relates to a place, and is then an adverb; as, 
 
 Si vous voulezalli r an sj,, i tacl&,jt BOM y mineral. 
 
 l'*iu< (v iii z ile In promenade, it moij*^ vais. 
 
 • V n ckapeau est tur In tablet metttX y aussi lr voire. 
 
 301. Soi, used for both genders, and in the singular num- 
 ber only, is applied to person in an indefinite tense ; as, 
 
 ■"pic n'aime e/ue soi est ittdigne dt 
 
 I on rent trtmptr lr* autris, tfeei souoent soi yu'on trvmpe 
 •/.•i ,. U di eomptaii 
 La santi cxige qu'on suit propre sur soi. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 107 
 
 305. Soi, applied to things and animals, is taken in a de- 
 finite sense ; as, 
 
 Un bienfail porte sa recompense avec soi. 
 
 La vertu est aimable de soi. 
 
 ISaimant attire le fer a soi. 
 
 Le chat neparait sentir que pour soi. 
 
 306. On(i) is a pronoun which indefinitely denotes one 
 or many persons. It is used only in the nominative, and 
 always governs the third person singular of the verb ; as, 
 
 On devient sage a ses depens. 
 
 On n'est jamais si riche, qu'on ne veuille le devenir davantage. 
 
 On dit que nous aurons bientot la paix. 
 
 307. The article is sometimes prefixed to on for the sake 
 of euphony ; as, 
 
 Si Von rejlechissait, on dirait moins dc soltises. 
 On envie et Von persecute souvent le merite. 
 Quand on veut changer et innover dans une republique, c'est moins 
 les choses qne le terns que Von considere. 
 
 Without the article, si on, et on, qu'on con, would 
 come together ; which would produce disagreeable sounds. 
 
 308. Although the adjective, which follows on is com- 
 monly put in the masculine, there are circumstances which 
 mark so precisely that a woman is spoken of, that the ad- 
 jective is then put in the feminine ; as, 
 
 Demeurez pourservir auxfemmes de modele, 
 Montrez-leur qu'on peut-elre etjeune et sage et belle. 
 On n'est pas toujours jeune et jolie. 
 
 309. On is also followed by an adjective or substantive, 
 when circumstances clearly show that many persons are 
 spoken of; as, 
 
 On est egaux, quand on s'aime. 
 
 On n'est pas des esclaves, pour essuyer de si mauvais iraitemens. 
 
 310. On is sometimes used for ye, nous, il, Us, elle, elks y 
 as, 
 
 II y a long-tems qu'on ne vous a vu. 
 
 On 7i'a plus le plaisir de voire societe. 
 
 Je hois la vanite, mais ce n'est point un vice 
 
 De savoir se connaitre et se rendre justice. 
 
 On n'est pas sans esprit, on plait, on aje crois^ 
 
 Aux petits cabinets Voir de Vami du Roi. 
 
 Ilfaut Men Vavouer que Von est fait d peindre ; 
 
 On danse, on chante, on boit, on saitparler etfeindre. 
 
 (1.) On is an abbreviation or corruption of the word homme, man. 
 
108 
 
 THK ELEMENTS OP 
 
 31 1 That the learner may never be at a loss respecting 1 
 the place of the personal pronoun, the following tables are 
 given. 
 
 1st Table. 
 
 312. When the sentence is affirmative, the personal pro- 
 nouns me, te, se, le, la, les, lui, leur, nous, voits are alway 
 
 placed before the verb, 
 perative. 
 
 Example 
 with the pronouns in the accusative. 
 
 "me 
 tc 
 se 
 le 
 la 
 les 
 nous 
 
 L vous . 
 
 its moods, except in the im- 
 
 E.X AMPLE 
 
 with the pronouns iu the dative. 
 
 II s 
 
 rcspecte- 
 
 1 
 
 |i„, 
 
 leur }>donne du plaisir. 
 
 DOU8 I 
 
 ^ vous J 
 
 2nd Table. 
 
 313. When the sentence i> negative, the order is the 
 same, and the negative /" i> placed between the nominative 
 and the accusative or dative pronouns, and the negative 
 2>us (the English negative not i> generally rendered in 
 French l>> m and pa ), ifl placed after the verb, or between 
 (he auxiliary and the perfect participle, when the verb is a 
 compound. 
 
 311. When the sentence is interrogative, or both inter- 
 rogative and negative, the order of the pronouns in the ac- 
 cusative and dative it still the same, but the pronoun in the 
 nominative ia placed after the verb, or between the auxilia- 
 r\ and the penei t participle* When the verb ends, and 
 the pronoun begins with a vowel, the letter / is then, for 
 the sake of euphony, placed between them, united by two 
 hyphens, 
 
 ' Ill- 
 
 me 
 
 Ill- 
 
 tc 
 
 ne 
 
 M 
 
 Dfl 
 
 le 
 
 1.. 
 
 IIP 
 
 lea 
 
 no 
 
 nous 
 
 ne 
 
 vous 
 
 rcspecte pas 
 
 ne 
 
 le 
 
 h 
 
 lei 
 
 Dooa 
 
 row 
 
 rcspecte-t-il, respecte-t-clle, 
 
 respecte-t-oo ? 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1CM 
 
 m 
 
 IM 
 
 'ne 
 
 me "| 
 
 ne 
 
 te 
 
 ne 
 
 se 
 
 ne 
 
 lui 
 
 ne 
 
 leur 
 
 ne 
 
 nous 
 
 ne 
 
 vous 
 
 donne pas de plaisir. Ne ^ lui 
 leur 
 
 a pas respecte, 
 
 j ne 
 
 nous > 
 
 j^ne 
 
 vous 3 
 
 fne 
 
 mV ' 
 
 ne 
 
 t' 
 
 ne 
 ne 
 
 lui 
 leur 
 
 ne 
 
 nous 
 
 t ne 
 
 vous 
 
 a pas respectes. 
 
 a pas donn6 de plaisir. Ne 
 
 donne-t-il pas, 
 J-donne-t-on pas du 
 plaisir ? 
 
 a-t-il pas, 
 
 a-t-on pas respecte ? 
 
 a-t-il pas, 
 
 a-t-on pas respectes? 
 
 a-t-il pas, 
 
 • a-t-on pas donne du 
 plaisir ? 
 
 Cle ) 
 
 Il}la Urn, 
 
 leur donne» 
 
 3rd Table. 
 
 315. The pronouns of the accusative le, la and les, al- 
 ways follow the pronouns in the dative me, te, se, nous and 
 vous-; but always precede the pronouns of the dative lui 
 and leur before the verb. 
 
 (me } 
 I te I 
 II i se S le, la, les donne. 
 1 nous I 
 l^vous J 
 
 4th Table. 
 
 316. Y and en are placed immediately before the verb, 
 but when both come together, en must always be placed 
 the last. 
 
 en enverra. 
 
 5th Table. 
 317. When the verb is in the second person singular or 
 plural, or in the first person plural of the imperative mood 
 (for when the verb is in the 3d person singular or plural, 
 and the sentence is negative, the pronouns above mentioned 
 are still placed before the verb) the pronouns moi, toi, le, 
 $(i, les, lui, leur, nous and vous are placed after the verb ; 
 
 fm> 1 
 
 
 r m' 
 t' 
 
 
 |s' 
 Il<lui 
 leur 
 
 • en donne. 11- 
 
 s 1 
 les 
 
 • y jettera. 11 
 
 J nous 
 ^vous 
 
 1 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 
 1 
 
110 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 those in the accusative always preceding those in the da- 
 tive. N. B. A hyphen always connects the pronoun with 
 the preceding verb. 
 
 
 inoi. ... 
 toi, f™ 1 
 
 
 'moi. 
 
 Respecte- - 
 
 le t01 
 , * donne- < lui 
 
 ■ du plaisir. Donne-le, la, les < 
 
 toi. 
 lui. 
 
 
 
 leur. 
 
 
 1 nous 
 
 
 
 
 nous *- 
 
 
 L nou6 
 
 Respectez-vous donnez-vous 
 
 Donnez-le, la, les 
 
 VOU6. 
 
 
 6th Table. 
 
 
 318. En is placed after the pronouns rne, te, lui, leur y 
 nous and vous. Y is placed before the pronouns moi and 
 toi, and after the pronoun? le, la, les, nous, vous. When y 
 and en come together, (which seldom occurs) they precede 
 moi and toi, and follow Im, leur, nous and vous. 
 
 f? ] 
 
 Jettes-y moi. 
 
 Jettes-y en moi. 
 
 Jettes-y toi. 
 
 Jettes-y en toi. 
 
 Donne- •! lui 
 
 • en. Jette-Tv. 
 
 Jette-lui y en. 
 
 1 leur 
 
 Jctte-les y. 
 
 Jette-leur y en. 
 
 (^nous 
 
 Jettc-nous y. 
 
 Jette-nous y en 
 
 Donncz-vous 
 
 Jctr/.-vous y. 
 
 Jetez-vous y en. 
 
 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 319. Relative pronouns are such as relate, in general, to 
 somf word or phrase going before, which is thence called 
 lb? antecedent : they arc gut, who, which, that; que, whom, 
 which, that; fuoi y what, and dont^ whose, of whom, of 
 which, (see lequel, laqwtlie, para 05.) 
 
 ■.j.i is aeed instead of the adjective lequel, laquelle, 
 and is applied, in the nominative to persons, animals and in- 
 animate tin 
 
 / nt ijUi vnl le plus d' esprit nc sont pas touj ours les plus aima- 
 1,1, r. 
 
 I incheval qui gulopjtr him. 
 
 I.is, z In ltU>>' qui aH sur lit lahlr. 
 
 321. The antecedent of y?<j is often understood ; as, 
 Qui vitahni <l> toutajamaiidtvrmi vimrt. (for celui qui.) 
 tyui in fad d*M hrurt uj n\ <L prudigne dc /V/re.ffor celui qui.) 
 
 ■nr. {Jui prcud. fengqgt. (for celui qui.) 
 koila </m vie plait I'uila qui vu bim, (for ce qui.) 
 
 322. Qui absolutely, is sometimes used in the sense of 
 
 quelle pcrsonne, what person ; as, 
 
 ■ t hommc vCncrable dorU TeUmaque 
 > tail m > ■'in/' . 
 Je sais qui vout a traJU. JHgnort quiapu lefaire: 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. Ill 
 
 323. Qui is also used for celui que ; as, 
 
 J^en croirai qui vous voudrez. * ^ 
 
 324. Qui is sometimes preceded by the verb governed by 
 its antecedent understood ; as, 
 
 Joua qui voulut. (for celui qui voulutjoua.) 
 
 Travaillait qui pouvait. (for celui qui pouvait travaillait.) 
 
 Y croyait qui voulait. (for celui qui voulait y croyait.) 
 
 Ecrive quivoudra. (for que celui qui voudra ecrive.) 
 
 325. Qui, whom, governed by a preposition, is applied 
 only to persons, and things personified; as, 
 
 La dame a qui vous venez de parler est ma mere. 
 
 Cest un homme sur qui vous ne devez pas compter. 
 
 Void la personne de qui il attend un grand service. 
 
 Lesjeunes gens, avec qui vous ites si souvent, sont de mauvais su- 
 
 jets. 
 La gloire a, qui il s 1 est devoue, ne le rendra jamais heureux. 
 
 N. B. When we speak of animals and inanimate things, 
 we use lequel, laquelle, instead of qui, after a preposition, 
 (see lequel, page 95.) 
 
 326. The relative should, for the sake of clearness, im- 
 mediately follow its antecedent. 
 
 The relative, however may be separated from its antece- 
 dent, when the latter is a pronoun ; as, Je la vis qui 
 s'avangait gaiment ; il les trouva qui se disposaient a parler ; 
 celui-la est heureux qui se contente de peu. 
 
 327. The verb which follows the relative qui must agree 
 in person and number with the antecedent ; as, Cest toi 
 qui Vas fait. Cest moi seid qui suis coupable. Cest nous 
 qui Vavons debauche. Je suis ce Diomede qui blessai Venus 
 au siege de Troie. 
 
 328. Que is the accusative of qui, and is always govern- 
 ed by a verb, which follows it ; as, 
 
 Le maitre queje sers, me comble de bienfaits. 
 La dame que j*attends est de votre connaissance. 
 II n'a pas recu la lettre queje lui ai ecrite. 
 Le chien quej'ai tue, etait enrage. 
 
 329. Que is sometimes used for quelle chose, what thing : 
 as, 
 
 Je ne sais que vous donner. 
 
 II ne sail plus que /aire, ni que dire. 
 
 330. Quoi, which is used for quelle chose, is never go- 
 verned by a verb, except in this sentence je ne sais quoi. 
 (I know not what.) Quoi is then joined to the adjective 
 which follows it by the preposition de ; as, Cefo mHnspire 
 
112 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 je ne sais quoi de Iriste. II crut aperccvoir en moi je fie 
 sais^qtioi d^heureux. N. B. Je ne sais quoi is sometimes 
 used as a substantive ; as, // y avail en elle un je ne sais quoi 
 auquel on ne pouvait resister. 
 
 331. Quoi is generally governed by a preposition ; as, 
 Dites-moi en quoije puis vous obligor. 
 
 Cest a quoije vous exhorte. 
 
 II n't/ a rien sur quoi on ait plus Ccrit. 
 
 J'ignore de quoi il peut se plaindre. 
 
 332. Quoi is sometimes used for lequel, laqudle ; as, 
 Cert la chose pour quoi on Pa arrete. 
 
 Ce sont des chosen a quoi vous ne jireniz /-a.< garde. 
 
 333. De quoi. wherewith, used without any relation, sig- 
 nifies means, faculty, materials ; as, 
 
 JVbfH neons (li quoi in, us am iser. 
 
 - Stes riche ; B us nee; dr quoi (Ire hcurevr. 
 II a de quoi t\ rirei 
 Cest un lu'tiu/n qni a de quoi. (who is rich.) 
 
 334. Dont, is used for rie qui, du quel, de laquclle, des- 
 quels, desquelleS) and i>; applied to persons and things. 
 N. B. The article is always prefixed to the substantive 
 which follows donti 
 
 L*homtM don i : ist mon aw?. 
 
 / bientdonivo pout appartienneni pas. 
 
 < \ si un /mi i doni lis habitant m nt tns ruins. 
 
 ,i i iimi h.< -m, is sunt modi r< >■. je vie content dupeu que jo 
 .// 
 N. B. The substantive governed by the verb is nevei 
 placed immediately after doni< as it is after whose in En- 
 ^li»h. but always after it- rerb . 
 
 ,r,ii In un /tree dontftu out li, f< num. 
 
 La mditon dont rims adi N <i e,ndre. 
 
 Ce sunt dot plantet dont pi q nun '■* Hon g. 
 
 When b preposition follows (he subject, to which 
 the pronoun Palates, we must make usi of duqml, de In- 
 quelle, desquels, desquelles, instead of dont} as, 
 
 Uhomnut, & in reputation duquet pout vouiez nuire a iti voire bien- 
 
 '• Wti 
 
 -ns.sur/i z, li desquels tout ovies rompti, n'ont rim Jail 
 
 pour run-. 
 
 La dame, & I" gentrotiU dt laqueUe vout me* eu recours, vous a 
 serai en ounce. 
 
 OF THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 3.30. The pronouns qui, que and quoi are called iut< -rrn- 
 gative, when thej arc used in asking questions' (see quel 
 and lequel, paragraphs 222, 22. s, 224, page 94.) 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 113 
 
 337. Qui? who ? whom? is applied only to persons and 
 animals ; as, 
 
 Qui veut venir avec moi? 
 
 Qui sont. ces messieurs ? Qui cherehez vous ? 
 
 Qui, tfcvx ou de mesfils a tie le plus sage ? 
 
 Qui est la ? Q/,i va la ? Qui vive? 
 
 A qui remettrai-Je voire lettre? 
 
 De qui le savez-vous? Avec qui ttes-vous? 
 
 338. The dative a qui? is used in French where the ge- 
 nitive whose is used in English ; hut the order of the words 
 is different. In French the verb always follows the inter- 
 rogative, and the nominative its verb ; as, 
 
 A qui est cette maison ? je ne sais a qui elle est. 
 A qui soni res ckapeauz ? je ne sais a qui its sonL 
 
 339. The expression qui est-ce qui ? is sometimes used 
 for qui ? as, 
 
 Qui. est-ce qui a ecrit cette lettre ? 
 Qui est-ce qui me demqnde ? 
 
 340. Que, what, is an interrogative generally governed 
 by an active verb, and applied only to things ; as, 
 
 Que voulez-vous ? que cherchez-vous ? 
 Quefailes-vous ? que dirons-nous ? 
 
 341. Que is also used with the verb etre and neuter verbs ; 
 as. 
 
 Qu'est-ce ? que deviendra voire frerc ? 
 
 Que lui est-il arrive ? que serais-je sans vous? 
 
 342. But quhst-ce qui must always be used, instead of 
 que, as the nominative to an active verb ; as, 
 
 Qu?est-ce qui lefache ? 
 Qu'est-ce qui lefait rire ? 
 
 343. Quhst-ce que is sometimes used for que ; as, 
 Qii'est-ce que vous voulez ? 
 
 Qic'' est-ce que vous dites ? 
 Qu'est-ce que e'est ? 
 
 344. Quoi, what, is generally preceded by a preposition ; 
 as, 
 
 De quoi vous plaignez-vous ? 
 
 A quoi pensez-vous ? Avec quoi le ferez-vous ? 
 
 Sur quoifondez-vous votre soupcon ? 
 
 345. Quoi, followed by the preposition de and an adjec- 
 tive in the comparative degree, is used in the nominative ; 
 as, 
 
 15 
 
114 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Quoi de plus satisfesant pour des parens que ths enfans vtrlucux f 
 Quoi de plus agreable que de passer sa vie aupres de telle 
 qvPon aime ? 
 
 346. Quoi serves sometimes to express astonishment, in- 
 dignation, i^c. It is then an interjection. 
 Quoi .' vous avez faU une telle chose ! 
 Quoi, vous m'abandonnerez ! 
 lit tptui. vous n'eti s pas encore parti ! 
 Quoi done, vous nSuse: register en face ! 
 
 OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 o IT. Indefinite pronouns are thuse which indicate per- 
 sons or tiling in a general or indefinite manner. 
 
 348. The indefinite pronouns are quiconque, whoever, 
 any body ; qui, que, whoever ; quoi, qm whatever, personne, 
 any body, nobody ; and rien, any thing, nothing. (There 
 arc other words which arc generally put under this head : 
 sec page 92). 
 
 349. Quiconque serves as nominative to two verbs, or 
 ma\ be the obje< I of one verb, and the subject o(' another. 
 It always goi ems Ihe indicatn e mood ; as, 
 
 Qui* onque • ft rii he, esi tout 
 Quiconqm vout <i dii <iiu. n\i pas dit la virile. 
 tasflaUeur* tn'tent aux dipen tute, 
 
 Ji tuerai quiconqui otera avan er. 
 
 350. Qui qtu is used l<>i quelque personne que, whatever 
 person, and always governs the subjunctive inood ; as, 
 
 Qui qui ," fi r, UJaut out oout me rim 
 
 ', in,, maitre. 
 Ii Pest, U fU, ou U doit Sire. 
 .>..i. Q j i boever ii may be (ilmt). 
 
 Qui que ce Jut i er ii might be (that. ) 
 
 'oil >h qui. S I whoever it may hav< been that 
 
 these expressions are used f< r quiconque, quelque persomu 
 atu <> >'"'. and an- rendered l>\ whoever, any body, nhotn- 
 Tbc\ always govern the subjunctive mooil ; as, 
 ./< toutiendrai cela contrt quiqut ct i 
 Qui ii me tit maneU , diles qui j< not en affaire** 
 
 qut " toil qui nous portions, nous devons £tre potts. 
 (jut i i mt tail ii in, est (or c*est) ">i habili fiomwe. 
 
 Qui qut ce Jut qui iui parldt, en itait (or il en Unit) icouti tun- at- 
 tention. 
 Q a qui <.' tit ■ P a' dit. s*est trompi (<>r it t'eri trompi), 
 
 N. I?. Many grammarians, nol making out que ce toil out, 
 &c. nominative t<> two verbs, use << or il before the second 
 verb ; but this rule is not always observed* 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 115 
 
 352. Qui que ce soit and qui que cefut, with the negative 
 ne prefixed to the verb; are used for personne, no body, no 
 one ; as, 
 
 Je n^ai parte a qui que ce soil. 
 
 Je li'ai trouve qui que ce soil. 
 
 11 ne voulul employer qui que cefut. 
 
 353. Quoi que, whatever, is used for quelque chose que, 
 and governs the subjunctive; as, 
 
 Quoi que vousfassiez, vous ne reussircz pas. 
 
 Quoi que le sort ordonne de moi,je vous aimerai toitjours. 
 
 De quoi qii'on Pqccuse, il se dlfendra Men. 
 354. Quoi que ce soit [qui or que) ) $ whatever it may be (that). 
 
 Quoi que cefut [qui or que) \ ' era y I whatever it might be (that) 
 These expressions are also used for quelque chose que, and 
 for quelque chose qui ; as, 
 
 Quoi que ce soit quejefasse,je ne puis lui plaire. 
 
 De quoi que ce soit qu'on parle, il a toujours quelque chose a dire. 
 
 Quoi que ce soit qui vous plaise,je vous le donncrai. 
 
 355. Quoi que ce soit and quoi que cefut, with the nega- 
 tive ne prefixed to the verb, are used for Hen, nothing. 
 
 On ne ni'a appris quoi que ce soit de nouveau. 
 Cela n'est bon a quoi que ce soit. 
 II ne se plaignit de quoi que cefut. 
 
 356. Quoi quHl en soit signifies whatever may be, however 
 it may be, be it as it may, be that as it will / as, 
 
 Quoi quHl en soit de ce qii'on ni'a dit, cela ne changera rien a mes 
 
 sentimens. 
 Quoi quHl en soit, vous serez toujours mon ami. 
 
 357. Personne, with the negative ne prefixed to the verb, 
 signifies nobody, no one, and is always masculine singular ; 
 
 as, 
 
 Personne ne sera assez hardi pour lefaire. 
 
 Je n'ai vu personne aujouj-dViui. 
 
 II n'z/ a personne au logis. 
 
 Je n'ai vu personne de si vain, que ces deuxfemmes. 
 
 358. In an answer, personne may be used alone for no- 
 body ; as, 
 
 Ya-l-il quelqu'un ici ? personne. (for il n'y a personne). 
 Est-il venu quelqu'un en mon absence ? personne. (for personne 
 n'est venu). 
 
 359. Personne is used without the negative ne, in senten^ 
 ces of interrogation doubt or uncertainty, for quelqu'un, any 
 body ; as, 
 
 Je doule que personne ait mieux peint la nature que Thomson. 
 Personne a-t-il jamais raconte plus naivement que Lafontaine. 
 Personne oserait-il soutenir le contraire ? 
 
116 THE ELEMENTS OE 
 
 360. Rien, is used with the negative nc for nulle chose. 
 nothing ; as, 
 
 Je n r i rien <"' lui. downer. 
 J\Pavez-vous rien d me montrer? 
 
 361. The negative nc is sometimes not expressed ; as. 
 Je comple pour rien ma peine. 
 Cela el rien, e'est la meme chose. 
 Cest un peu plus que rien. 
 Que vous a coute cela .' rien. 
 
 362. Rien is used, without the negative ne, in sentences 
 of interrogation, doubt and uncertainty, for quelque chose, 
 any thing ; as, 
 
 . / c z-vo '■■ rit / '' D" 'I nner 7 
 
 ) i-'- itit ' 
 
 Jedouli qyk rienpuua Py decider. 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 \ verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
 
 .;•; i. There are sc\ - n sorts of verbs, \ i/. the substantive, 
 am, ,pronominal 9.nd impersonal. 
 
 The verb substantive i- the verb itre, to be, thus 
 called because ii identifies itself with the substance it ex- 
 presses! 
 
 The auxiliarj verb i- thus called, because it serve* 
 to form the compound tenses of other verbs. 
 
 .;<;r. There are two auxiliary verbs in French, viz. avoir. 
 to have, and In . to be. 
 
 ./ - rves to form its own compound tenses, 11 
 pound tenses of< Ire, those of all active \ < i !>-. and almost all 
 those of neuter \ i rhs. 
 
 serves to form nil the tenses of passive verbs, trjc 
 
 corop <l tenses of all pronominal verbs, and tli<>», ol 
 
 some in uter \ » rbs. 
 
 verb active expresses a transitive action, and 
 3s uil\ implief an object acted upon . as, ./■ an aim 
 (ml, . John loves -in.lv. 
 
 369. The verb passive presents the suhjeet or nomina- 
 tive, as suffering or receiving the « ■ . i < ■< i of an action; as, 
 . John i- l-»\ . d. 
 170. The passive verb is formed l>\ adding the perfect 
 participle of an active \ u l> to the auxiliary etre, t<> be 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 117 
 
 through all its changes of number, person, mood and 
 tense. 
 
 371. Almost all active verbs may become passive. 
 
 372. In French the passive* verb is much less frequently 
 used than in English. Instead of the passive form, we more 
 readily make use of an active verb having the pronoun on 
 for its nominative; as, On dit, it is said; on pense, it is 
 thought, on le rdeprise, he is despised ; on le pour suit , he is 
 pursued ; on trouve de bomies gens partout, good people are 
 found every where. 
 
 373. The verb neuter expresses an intransitive action, 
 that is, confined within the subject, and not passing over to 
 any object, except by means of an intervening preposition ; 
 as, Je dors, I sleep ;je marche, I walk ;je voyagtaien Italic, 
 
 I travelled in Italy. 
 
 374. The same verb may sometimes express a transitive 
 action ; as Frapper quel qtC un,f rapper a la porie. 
 
 375. Pronominal verbs are those which are conjugated 
 in all their tenses with two pronouns of the same person ; 
 as, Je me, I myself, for the first ; tu te, thou thyself, for the 
 second; il se, or elle se, he himself or she herself for the 
 third in the singular ; nous nous, we ourselves, for the first; 
 vow;, vous, you yourself or yourselves, for the second; Us 
 se or dies se, they themselves, for the third in the plural. 
 
 376. Pronominal verbs are of five kinds } viz. 
 
 1st. The pronominal active verb, which throws the ac- 
 tion of the verb upon the nominative, sometimes by means 
 of the accusative ; as, Je me hue ; sometimes by means of 
 the dative, as, Jeme donne du plaisi?\—Th\s verb may also 
 express an action first reflected upon the nominative, and 
 afterwards tending to another noun or pronoun, or to ano- 
 ther action ; as, 11 s^expose a un affront. II s'ddrrssa a mot. 
 
 II s'apprcte aparlir. 
 
 2d. 'The pronominal reciprocal verb, which expresses the. 
 reciprocal action of two or more subjects upon each other. 
 Sometimes the pronouns»n{m.s, vous, se are in the accusative ; 
 as, Pierre et Jean se. louent or s" 1 enlre-louent, Peter and John 
 praise each other ; sometimes in the dative ; as, Pierre et 
 Jean se donnent or s'entre-donnent des louaug.es. 
 
 3d. The prono-minal neuter verb, which expresses an 
 intransitive action, under the form of a reflected verb: as. 
 Je ■/u'ciifuis, 1 fly.- 
 
118 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 4th. The pronominal passive verb, which has a passive 
 signification ; as, Cede histoire se raconte ainsi, this story is 
 related thus. 
 
 5th. The pronominal impersonal verb, which is used only 
 in the third person singular; as, // se donna une grandr. 
 balaillc, there was fought a great battle ; %l se frame un 
 complot contre nous. 
 
 377. The impersonal verb is that which is used only in 
 the third person singular, with the pronoun il, it, without 
 relation to anv person or thing; as, // tonne, it thunders ; xl 
 grele. it hail- ; il pleut, it rains; \l eclaire, it lightens; il 
 neige, it snows ; ilgele, it freezes, il digtle, it thaws; il 
 vente, it blows. 
 
 OF MOODS. 
 
 378. Mood or mode i> a particular form of the verb, show- 
 ing tho manner in which the being, action or passion is re- 
 presented. 
 
 There are four moods of verbs: the infinitive, the 
 indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive. 
 
 The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a gene- 
 ral and unlimited manner, without any distinction of per- 
 sons. 
 
 381. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares 
 a thing. 
 
 The imperative mood is used for commanding, ex- 
 horting, entreating <>r permitting. 
 
 The subjunctive mood represents a thing under a 
 condition, wish, supposition, doubt . and is preceded by a 
 conjunction expressed <>r understood. 
 
 OF TENSES. 
 
 Tense, bejng the distinction of time, might Beena t«> 
 ulniit out] of ih" present, past, and future : but t<> mark it 
 
 Lccurately, it i- made to consist of many more vmria 
 tions. 
 
 . The infinitive mood consists of four tenses ; viz. 
 
 it . m, /'/■ /,■>/" /-. to strike. 
 
 to hare --truck. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 119 
 
 The present participle ; as, Frappant, striking-. (M 
 The perfect participle ; as, Frappc, struck or stricken. 
 
 336. The present participle always terminates in ant, 
 and is invariable when it expresses an action ; as, lis allai- 
 ent sautant, riant, chantant ; paitrouro'e. cette dame mangcant 
 des raisins. 
 
 387. When the present participle expresses a quality, 
 like an adjective, it takes both the gender and number of its 
 substantive; as, Cest une femme aimante. J">y fus a la 
 unit tomb ante. Ces vers sont hien touchans. Ce sont des 
 femmes seduisantes. 
 
 388. The perfect participle is also invariable when it is 
 joined to the auxiliary avoir, and when the substantive or 
 pronoun governed by the verb does not precede ; as, II a 
 frappe cette femme. Nous avons tue ces oiseaux. 
 
 389. When the perfect participle is joined to the auxi- 
 liary etre, it agrees with the nominative of the verb ; as, 
 Monfrere est aime. Cette dame etait admiree. Qes enfans 
 sont tombes dans Peau. Mes sozurs sont parties. 
 
 390. When the verb is pronominal, the perfect partici- 
 ple agrees with the pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, provided 
 they are not used in the dative ; as, Ces marchandises se 
 sont bien vendues. Elle shst plainte de vous. lis se sont ser-. 
 vis de tous lews moyens. Elle s?est apercue de son erreur, 
 Elles se sont enfuies. Sa saur s^est repentie. lis se sont 
 rendus maitres de la ville. Elle s'est trouvee guerie au bout, 
 de quelques jours. 
 
 391. But when the pronominal active verbis followed 
 by the substantive or pronoun, which it governs, and con- 
 sequently the pronouns me, te, se, nous vous, are used in the 
 dative, the perfect participle remains invariable; as, Elles 
 se sont dit mille injures. Ces messieurs se sont donne des 
 louanges. Ces dames se sont imagine que nous les aimions.— 
 Should, however, that substantive or pronoun precede the 
 pronominal active verb, the perfect participle must agree 
 with it ; as, Ce sont les lois quHls se sont prescrites. Avez 
 vous lu les letires que ces messieurs se sont ecrites. Que de 
 peines je me suis donnees ! 
 
 392. The perfect participle remains also invariable, when 
 me, te, se, nous, vous are preiixed to neuter verbs which 
 govern them in the dative ; as, Ces gens-la se sont nui. 
 
 (1) The participle derives its name from its participating- not only of 
 the properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective or substantive. 
 
120 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 Elle.s' est plus time contrarier. lis se sont parte. Elles se 
 sont succe.de. 
 
 393. The perfect participle agrees with the substantive 
 or pronoun governed by and preceding the verb avoir • as, 
 Les ouvrages qu\i ecrits cet auteur, ^ont tres-nomoreux. 
 Mssdames, le del vous a ereees pour nuns rendre heureux* 
 Void lafemme que fat tant aimee. Vous savez les ptines one 
 m'a rausfes ce trtsU evenefnent. 
 
 Exception I. The perfect participle is invariable in im- 
 pejr&onal verb.- ; as Les chaleurs qu'il a fait pendant file 
 les out rendus maladcs. La grande motivation quit >/ a cu 
 a fin i hca in- mil) ilr degat. 
 
 Exception II. The perfect participle is invariable 
 when followed hv a verb, which governs the noun or pro- 
 noun preceding it ; or when the perfect participle and the 
 verb form but one idea ; as, Voild la dame que fui vu pein- 
 drr.{\) Qut dites-vous di Paclrice que vous avez entendu 
 chanter?, G sont deur tragedies que fat vu representee. 
 ( ' ' i/,u maison qw faifait b&tir. C i est une chose que j\ti 
 appris a faire. II abandonna bientoi la route qu'i I avail 
 resolu '/< suivre. 
 
 394. The indicative mood consists often tenses, \iz. 
 The present tense, which represents an action or even! as 
 
 Massing at the time in which it i- mentioned ; as, Jefrappe, 
 strike, I do strike, I am striking. 
 
 The present tense likewise expresses a < haracter, quality, 
 
 n present existing ; .1-, tllle est bonne, she is good ; il 
 
 . he i- bad. 
 
 li is also used in speaking <>f a< tions continued, with oc- 
 
 nal mi' rmisaions, to the pit -rut time . as, // se promene 
 
 /ui/s les matins, he walks <>ut every morning. 
 
 In narration this tense is often used for the perfect tense ; 
 . ( -. ( . meruit (!< tout, assemble li conseil, ou >l appelle 
 let centurions, it lew adressi d< vifs reproch 
 The imperfect tense, which expresses an action, which 
 was present <»r un6nished at the tune another action took 
 place; as, Je dinais quand jt regus sa lettre, [ was dining 
 when I receive d hi- Utter. 
 
 This t< nse is also used to express a habit, a pra< tii e, an 
 inherent or distinctive quality, ami an action reiterated at 
 
 (I) La daub que f aim pemdn rignifies T/u lady \rk<»n I tawsii 
 
 rpicturt ; bat if I said La dam qw fai vut peindre, the perfect 
 
 parti< iple «v»ald quality the substantive dame, and the meaning <>i the 
 
 sentence would uu The lady whom I taw painting', in tin act of p a Mnf. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 121 
 
 a time which is not defined ; as, Frederic le grand etait 
 d?une taille au dessus de lamoyenne. Son regard annoncait 
 de la penetration et de P esprit . II avait des yeux bleus et 
 tres^vifs, quoiqii'il fut myope. Ses traits qui etaient agr'ea- 
 bles dans sa jeunesse, acqueraient un degre singulier d^ex- 
 pression et de vivacite quand il parlait. Peu de voix etaient 
 aussi agreables que la sienne. Ceux qui Pecoutaient, regret- 
 taient qu'il ne parlat pas davantage. Sa mist qxCil variait 
 peu, etait fort simple. II s^habillait It matin en se levant, 
 et cette toilette precipitee, qui ne prenait que quelques minutes, 
 lui servait pour le reste dujour. Jamais il ne quittait ses 
 bottes. Tous ses momens etaient rtgidierement remplis. Son 
 premier soin etait de lire, le matin, tous les papiers qui lui 
 etaient adresses ; car le momdre sujet pouvait lui ecrire et 
 compter sur une reponse. 
 
 The perfect terise, which denotes an action or thing as 
 past and completed in such a manner, that nothing remains 
 of that time in which it was done ; as, Je Pinvitai, il y a un 
 an, a venir nous voir. I invited him a year ago to come to 
 see us. Le Ajuillet 1776, les Americains se declarerent in- 
 dependans. 
 
 The compound perfect tense, which denotes a thing past 
 in a time which is not designated, or in a designated time 
 of which there is still actually remaining some part to slide 
 away ; as, Je Pai frappe de terreur. J^ai dine, cette semaine 
 chez votre pere. 
 
 The pluperfect tense, which expresses an action not only 
 past in itself, but also as being past with respect to an other 
 action likewise past ; as, J^avais acheve le premier volume 
 quand vous m'envoyates le second ; I had finished the first 
 volume, when you sent me the second one. 
 
 The perfect anterior, which expresses an action done be- 
 fore an other in a time which is past, and of which no part 
 remains to slide away ; as, Je iScus pas plutdl dine que je le 
 vis paraitre. Nous eumes fini hier a midi. N. B. This 
 tense is generally construed with these conjunctions quand^ 
 lorsque, des que, aussitot que, apres que fyc. as, Quand feus, 
 regu sa lcttre,je sus ce que je devais faire. Apres qu'ils 
 Peurent bien injurie, Us se mirent a le battre. 
 
 The future tense, which represents the action as yet to 
 
 come, either with or without respect to the precise time ; 
 
 as, J'irai chez vous demain matin, I shall go to your house 
 
 to morrow morning. Je les reverrai, I shall see them again.. 
 
 16 
 
122 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 The compound future, which intimates that the action 
 will be fully accomplished at or before the time of an other 
 future action or event ; as, Jhiurai dine a une hcure, I shall 
 have dined at one o'clock. J\turui dejeune avant que vous 
 soyez dc retour, I shall have breakfasted before you come 
 back. 
 
 The conditional tense, which shows that a thing would be, 
 or would be done, in the present time upon certain condi- 
 tions ; as. Nous gouterions bien dcs jouissances, si nous savi- 
 onsfaire un meilleur usage du tons, we would possess ma- 
 ny enjoyments if we knew how to make a better use of 
 time. 
 
 The compound conditional, which shows that a thing 
 would have been done in a past time, if the condition upon 
 which it depended, had been fulfilled ; as, Je /' aura is fait si 
 vow mt Paviez ordun/u, 1 should have done it, if you had 
 ordered it to me. 
 
 395. The subjunctive mood has four tenses, viz. the 
 present, the imperfect, the perfect and the pluperfect, which 
 are always subordinated to the tenses of the indicative 
 mood. 
 
 39G. The following conjunctions always connect the 
 tensefi of the subjunctive with those of the indicative. 
 
 N. B. The conjunction que is found in every one of 
 tbem i 
 
 h that, though, uolesc 
 
 JLjt . t«i tlio end that, that, kc. 
 
 . i moituque, unless. 
 
 in case that. 
 . / U que, before. 
 
 ft" a ■ though, although. 
 
 / 1 • i/tir, for fear tbat< lest 
 
 l>> peur que, 
 
 I'n , ■ in case that. 
 
 / *n que, though, although 
 
 ■/twou'd <c ( t ue, till, until. 
 
 / far. 
 
 ' ijur, proi Wed that. 
 
 JVbfl nut that. 
 
 granting that. 
 in ord( i that, that, 
 if -mi- so tittle. 
 pro\ idi •! tl 
 14 though, although. 
 
 without. 
 whether, 
 sup 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 123 
 
 397. All verbs expressing doubt, wish, command, fear, 
 surprise, &c. govern the subjunctive mood ; as, Je doute 
 quHl vicnne. Je desire quHl lefasse. Jc cretins qu'ilne le 
 sache. Je suis etonne qu'il Pentreprenne. J^exige que vous 
 lefassiez. 
 
 398. The following impersonal verbs always require the 
 subjunctive, viz. Ilfctut que, it is necessary that ; il convi- 
 ent que, it becomes that ; il importe que, it is important 
 
 that ; and il est que, with an adjective between the 
 
 verb itre and the conjunction que ; as, // est bon que cela 
 se fasse. 11 est juste que vous le sachiez. II est facheux que 
 cela soit eiinsi. II est affreux que vous vous conduisiez de 
 cette mctniere. 
 
 399. Correspondence of the tenses of the indicative 
 mood among themselves. 
 
 The present cor- 
 responds to 
 
 its own tense : 
 
 the compound 
 
 perfect : 
 
 { its own tense : ' 
 
 The imperfect j the perfect : ( 
 
 corresponds to j the compound i 
 
 £ perfect : 
 
 _,. . . C its own tense : 
 
 The perfect cor- \ thfi fect an _ 
 
 responds to £ ^ . 
 
 m , ,( its own tense : 
 
 The compound V l 
 
 P onds C to C ° rreS " ) the im P erfect : I 
 
 f the imperfect: " 
 the perfect : 
 The pluperfect J the compound 
 corresponds to } perfect : 
 
 I the perfect an- 
 [ terior : 
 The perfect anterior corresponds ", 
 to the perfect : < 
 
 ' the present : 
 
 Je lis quand 
 
 vous lisez. 
 
 vous avez lu. 
 \ vous ecriviez. 
 vous ecrivites. 
 
 Je lisais quand > 
 
 j vous avez ecrit, 
 i Quand vous levoulides,je vins. 
 
 I Py allai, quand feus Jini. 
 
 I ~\auasitdt que vous 
 
 f Vavez voulu. 
 
 t pendant que vous 
 
 j lisiez. 
 
 J^ai lu 
 
 J'avais lu quand 
 
 vous entriez. 
 vous entrdtes. 
 
 vous ties entre. 
 
 The future cor- 
 responds to 
 
 the compound 
 perfect : 
 ■{ its own tense : J> Je partirai 
 
 the compound | 
 future : J 
 
 vousfutes entre. 
 
 Apres que feus lu,je sortis. 
 
 si vous le desirez. 
 si vous avez Jini 
 
 votre lettre. 
 quand vous vou- 
 
 drez. 
 quand vous Vaurtz 
 
 dit. 
 
 Th ^ c t °™P° t u u n r ^ futurecorres P° nds j Qudndvousaurezfmijepartirai. 
 
J 24 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 The conditional ! ., j mDer 
 corresponds to ' " 
 
 fits own tense: Qvand un coupaltle echotpperait em 
 
 Ichdtiment, il n'echapperait point 
 a u.c remords. 
 feet : Jc vous aiderais volontiers de ma 
 bourse, sifelaispltts hewreux. 
 the pluperfect : Je vous croirais, si whs iruviiz pus 
 Phnbitude <lt mentir. 
 The compound conditional corres- > faurais tenu ma parole, si vous 
 ponds to the pluperfect : ) n'aoiez manque" a la voire. 
 
 400. When the first verb expresses something positive, 
 tenses of the indicative mood must he used after the con- 
 junction que ; and there result, then, different relations of 
 correspondence among the tenses of this mood ; as, 
 
 The present cor- 
 responds to 
 
 The imperfect, 
 toe p< rii ct, 
 the compound 
 
 perfi 
 and the pluper- 
 
 f. ct, 
 
 C its own tense : ] 
 tin- perfect : j ^ 
 
 the coni|)ouuJ "-C 
 
 perfeel ■ | * 
 
 ■J the pluperfect : J ~ 
 
 the future : i | 
 
 the conditional: * 
 
 the compound | ^ 
 conditional: J 
 
 ") .)( usdisioru ifi'i 
 
 I' 1 " '• | mms d in, i (jii, 
 
 a. i :m„s ui'ons (lit 
 
 Si ,i 
 
 pari aujourd'hui, 
 parte hicr. 
 
 if 
 
 At compound 
 
 est parti re matin, 
 etait parti hitr avant moi. 
 parlira demain. 
 j'urli rait aujourd'hui. 
 
 irtt hit >■. si lc tew 
 Pavait pi rin is. 
 
 vousaimiez VUude. 
 
 rniisitVtztiiiii, Pttuilt 
 
 vous aimeritz /'< - 
 hulr. 
 VOUS nurirz aimi /V- 
 
 lude. 
 
 nmis aviotudU 
 que 
 
 401. When we speak of a thing, or action still present, 
 or of a permanent quality, the present tense must be used 
 after the imperfect, perfect, compound perfect and pluper- 
 fect ; as, 
 
 .V.>/> din tu } 
 
 ^Tout dimes Tque la tantl faii la/iliciU du corps, ri q-.i 
 Jfousavonsdit I bi • zquandonlep 
 
 dii j 
 
 402. Correspondence of the tenses of the subjunctive 
 with those <'i tin- indicative* 
 
 ( the present, 
 
 The present of the | the future, 
 subjunctive our- 1 & (he com- 
 re sp on ds to pouod iu- 
 
 [ hire, 
 the im 
 
 The imp 
 the Bobiunctive 
 
 the perfect, 
 ill-' compouod p< r- 
 feet, 
 
 the plum i fi 
 corieapondi u> ,. ' 
 
 the conditional, and 
 
 | the componod cun- 
 
 { ditionul, 
 
 I il r 
 
 3 .!• voudrai 
 
 ./'- J Jm tu viamex. 
 2 aura* • 
 H /„ ) 
 
 .li touiais 
 
 ./■ voulus 
 '- i/'oi loii- 
 j-. i" 
 
 a J'uviiis rnii/ii 
 
 -:■ J < poi 
 tPumvit vou- 
 lu 
 
 que tu «■(/(,'. 
 ses. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 125 
 
 The perfect of 
 the subjunctive 
 corresponds to 
 
 the present, 
 the compound per- 
 fect, 
 the future, and 
 | the compound fu- 
 J ture,. 
 f the imperfect, 
 the perfect, 
 the compound per- 
 
 The pluperfect of + , fec ^ , . 
 the subjunctive Vhe pluperfect, 
 
 corresponds to 
 
 the perfect anteri- 
 
 the conditional, and 
 the compound con- 
 ditional, 
 
 •j Je i'ordonne 
 •~ Je Cai ordon- 
 4j ne 
 
 ■- Je fordonnerai 
 •S Quand je fau- 
 "3 rai ordonne 
 
 Je vouhtis *| 
 
 Je. voulus 
 •• J'ai v ou- 
 st hi 
 
 Jiavaisvaulu 
 
 Quand feus 
 
 5 VOldu 
 
 3 Je voudrais 
 J^aurais vou- 
 lu 
 
 Y\ 
 
 que tu aies 
 
 que tu ens- 
 ues icrit. 
 
 403. The imperfect and pluperfect tenses of the subjunc- 
 tive may correspond to the present of the indicative, when 
 there is some condition expressed in the sentence ; as, Je 
 dtnde que Inexperience nous rendit plus sage, s'/7 nous etait 
 permis de faire deux fois le mime chemin. Je ne crois pas 
 que vous me refusasnez, si je vous en pfiais. Je ne pense 
 pas que cette affaire eut reussi sans voire protection. 
 
 Of the place of the noun nominative to the verb. 
 
 404. The subject or noun in the nominative generally 
 precedes its verb ; as, Jean travaille. Les Americains sont 
 libres et heureux. La religion console les infortunes. 
 
 405. The subject is placed after the verb : 
 
 1st. In interrogative sentences beginning with a pronoun 
 or adverb; as, Que penseront de vous les honnetes gens? 
 Comment se porte voire frere ? 
 
 2d. In parentheses ; as, Mes amis, s^ecria Titus, voila un 
 jour que jai perdu. 
 
 3d. When the verb is in the subjunctive, and expresses 
 a wish ; as, Vive Pempereur ! Puisse le ciel te rendre bien- 
 tot a tes amis ! 
 
 4th. When the words tel, such; ainsi, thus, and quoique, 
 though precede ; as, telle etait sa situation. Ainsi se sont ar- 
 ranges les choses. Quoiqu'en dise votre frere, tout s" 1 est passe 
 commeje vous Pai dit. 
 
 5th. When the verb is preceded by a relative pronoun, 
 which it governs ; as, Le regret qrfeprouve votre pert semble 
 augmenter tous les jours. 
 

 J 26 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT OR 
 NOMINATIVE. 
 
 406. The verb must be of the same number and person 
 as its subject ; as, Je, frappe. Nous frappbns. Mes saurs 
 viennent. 
 
 407. When a verb lias two or more subjects, each in the 
 singular, it must be put in the plural ; as, Monpere et mon 
 cousin viendront ce soir. Le president, safemme, et sonjils 
 sont a la campagne. 
 
 408. When a verb relates to subjects of different per- 
 sons, it must agree with the first person, in preference to the 
 other two ; and with the second person, in preference to 
 the third. The personal pronoun nous is then generally 
 prefixed to the verb, if the first person is mentioned among 
 the subjects ; and the pronoun vous, if the first person is 
 not comprised among the subjects; as, Vous, ma saur. et 
 moij nous irons demain an spectacle. Vous et voire frcrc 
 vous viendn z aire moi. 
 
 •lo: 1 . ANIicn a verb has the relative pronoun qui for its 
 subject, it must be put in the same number and person, as 
 the noun or pronoun, to which qui relates ; as, C\st moi 
 qui vous ai tnvqyi ce livre. Les gens qui vous protrgent, 
 sont tn's-jnnssaiis. H>l-cc nuns qui PttVOtlS voulu ? 
 
 •1 10. When the Bubject is a collective noun, the verb is 
 put in the Bingular ; as, 
 
 rmie ■•iiini i In /" i *t bientdt battue. 
 mi nfusn ill ratifit r It traits. 
 I., peupU ui s<mvi>ti hi thif>f drs dtmag 
 
 411. When a collective general is followed by a plural 
 Bubstantive, the verb must agree with the collective only 
 as, 
 
 / \rmk ili vrnit n pi ill i rains rst innnrihlr. 
 
 (>t people de k, rot in nn tre en cet etimali. 
 
 I ititituili ili ma null ns uumilitit Irs rues. 
 
 i ■ i ■ t ili m&tt r\ It rati dan* h port, 
 1 1 1. When a collective partitive, or an adverb of quan- 
 tity, is followed bi a substantive, the verb generally takes 
 the number of the substantive; a^, 
 
 l. n phtpari ilu mondt /nid ml que c'rstfaux. 
 
 I. a p/upnrl ih v hommt t agitteni sans njlitliir. 
 I'm mjinili iegetUH [iliti^nrnt ilr M conduite. 
 
 A',mhn t h pertotmeett pritent&reni. 
 i a, fault ti. rrnliii ms lefireni meUre en prison. 
 Beemeoup il> oeyagt uri r ap port e ni la mane chose. 
 I *t M d\coliers untfait de plus grands progrcs. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 127 
 
 ♦ 413. The collective noun la plupart, most, and the ad- 
 verbs of quantity beaucoup, many, and peu, few, are some- 
 times used absolutely ; as, 
 
 La plupart sont cfun avis different. 
 
 Dix-huit mille Moscovites avaient He lues dans leurs retranche- 
 
 mens, un grand nombre etait noye, beaucoup avaient passe fa 
 
 riviere. 
 Les uns etaient armes de Jleches, les autres de massues, peu 
 
 avaient des fusils. 
 
 OF THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 .414. Active verbs govern a noun or pronoun, which, as 
 it completes the sense, is called their complement. Jaime 
 Petude. Ellc a une maison. II mefrappe. 
 
 415.. Besides this complement, which is called direct, 
 because tbe action of the verb directly passes to it, some 
 active verbs may have a second one, which is called indi- 
 rect, and which is marked by the prepositions a or de : 
 
 J'envoie mon fits a Paris. 
 II porle le punier au marche. 
 Elle a rccu une leltre de sa cousine: 
 Je loiie ce domestique de son zele. 
 
 416. The personal pronouns me, te, moi, toi, lui, leur. se 
 nous, vous, are used for a moi, a toi, a lui, a eux, a soi, d 
 nous, a vous ; as, II me donne son argent. Jete monirerai 
 ma maison. Prete-moi ton canif. Donne-toi ce plaisir, Je 
 lui enverrai un cheval, fyc. 
 
 417. The verbs arracher, to snatch, to wrest; enlever, to 
 carry off, to take away ; oter, to take away, to remove ; and 
 ravir, to take away, take a or de before their complement 
 indirect; as, Arracher un enfant a la mort, arracher un clou 
 d'une muraille ; ce prince a ete enleve a ses sujets ; on enleva 
 ret homme de sa maison ; vous otez le pain a cette famille ; 
 otez les chevaux du carrosse ; il a ravi PIvonneur a cettefille ; 
 on a ravi ces enfans de la maison paternelle. N. B. Those 
 propositions are not indifferently used, but practice only 
 can teach their particular application. 
 
 418. Passive verbs take the preposition par, before their 
 complement, when they express an operation of the mind, 
 or an action of the body ; as, 
 
 La poudre a canon fut inventee par un moine. 
 
 Ce carosse a He fait par cet ouvrier. 
 
 La, bataillefnt gagnee par nos braves solduts. 
 
128 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 419. Bui they take the preposition de, before their com- 
 plement, when they express actions of the heart or soul, in 
 which the body lias no pnrt : as. 
 
 Cet homnte est estimi de t >us ceux qui le connaissmt. 
 llfutfrappe de sa beaute. Nov&etions enehantes de sa prevenance. 
 Ces gens la sonl miprises de toiit le monde. 
 
 420. Sometimes they take de or par, indifferently, be- 
 fore their complement ; as, 
 
 /■' i ;i ' ,u de or par tous let z rns de bien. 
 Ce livre sera lu de or parpen de person/met. 
 #21. If passive verbs, besides their complement, arc 
 followed by the preposition de, and a substantive, the pre- 
 position par must always be used before the complement 
 of the passive verb ; as, Elle fut decusee dt vol par ettnud- 
 
 //■ Cei ovoragt a ete loue d'une maniere t ttraordhaire 
 
 par tons le$ critiqw . 
 
 122. Of neuter verbs, some take the preposition </, he- 
 fore their complement ; as, 
 
 ludir&quelquHm. Pritendrt ■'< wu plate. 
 
 Jtspirera un grand nom. Remedieratm mat. 
 
 < Renoncer aubonheur. 
 
 i ,'rerthir <i tint ltd. nl.hr O, KM jirrc. 
 
 Coniribuer auburn public. ra laforee. 
 
 Deplam aupeuple. River ri sonamie. 
 
 Hrd Dieu, > affaire*. 
 
 ,,/;• ,i tout. rable* 
 
 ,) i,i tanti. 
 ratonmaitre. Survivre i sajenune. 
 
 ■ r a un malheur. tiller a la terre. 
 
 Pan ' ' ' w v itudet. 
 
 I 'eater d ton ra/uf. 
 Plain a tout h m 
 
 1 23. < When the preposition dt ; as, 
 
 . i ueerdt '" I'' 1 '' d'argenl 
 
 ,;., i,„(_ ■ d, tabtent. 
 
 | ■ trie. Pi '•'■ ' ' /( Poccaekm. 
 
 D ' • droUe, 
 
 du 1 1,, n'li ii r. 
 
 Jowr, toplaj at some game or play, takes d; as, 
 Jouer aux tehees, aux dames, au trictrac, au aubil- 
 
 I, inl. au volant, a la mertlle,avx barreled coupe-tete or au 
 chrval fondu, a la main chaude, a lafo ttte, i\-< . 
 
 125. Jmi.r. toplaj on a musical instrument, takes dt : 
 ton, dt la guitare, du lutk, dt la harpe, ah 
 fortk-piano, dt la lyre, dt la flat,. ,!■ la clarinette,dufl 
 hi. du hautboUi A-c. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 129 
 
 426. Of pronominal verbs, some take de before their 
 complement indirect ; as, 
 
 Je me repens de ma finite. 
 
 Tu te souviens du service qu'il fa rendu. 
 
 II se mo que de mot el de toi aussi. 
 
 427. Others take a ; as, 
 
 II s'abandonne au vice. 
 It sefie a eux et non pas a vous. 
 Vous vous attachez trop a cettefemme. 
 Nous nous plaisons a la lecture. 
 Elle s'amuse a des riens. 
 
 428. Of verbs, having other verbs, in the infinitive, for 
 their complement, some take de before that complement ; 
 as, 
 
 Lejeu et les debauches ont acheve de le perdre. 
 Un homme de bien craint d^offenser Dieu. 
 
 429. Others take a ; as, 
 
 Je consens a vous obeir en tout, et A vous suivre partout. 
 
 Cette eau claire invite a se desalterer. 
 
 Les hommes aiment a croire ceux qui lesjlattent. 
 
 430. The verbs commencer, continue?; contraindre, 
 s'efforcer, engager, etre, forcer, laisser, manquer, obliger, 
 oublier, prier, tacher and tarder, take a or de ; as, 
 
 Commencer a batir. Je vous laisse a penser sHl y manquar 
 
 Commencer d?ecrire. 11 ne laissa pas de lefaire. 
 
 Continuer a f aire, la guerre. Ne pas manquer de se plaindre. 
 
 Continuer de se taire. II a manque a remplir son devoir. 
 
 Contraindre a marcher. Obliger a agir. 
 
 Contraindre de ceder. Obliger de se soumeltre. 
 
 S^efforcer a parler. Oublier a danser. 
 
 S'eflorcer de parler. Oublier de venir. 
 
 Engager a parler. Pricr a diner. 
 
 Engager de prendre patience. Prier de diner. 
 
 Ce doit etre aujuge d prononcer. Tacher a nuire. 
 
 Cest a vous defaire cela. Tacher dhublier. 
 
 Forcer a partir. Tarder a venir, 
 
 Forcer d'obeir. Tarder de se repentir. 
 
 431. Most grammarians find no difference of signification 
 between commencer a and commencer de ; continuer a and 
 continuer de ; contraindre a and contraindre de ; engager a 
 and engager de ; etre a and etre de ; forcer a, and forcer de ; 
 obliger a and obliger de ; tarder a and tarder de ; some- 
 times, however, the preposition a should be preferred to 
 the preposition de and vice versa : — S^eff'orccr a means to 
 
 17 
 
130 rHE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 use all one'* strength to do something ; s'efforcer de, lo use 
 all one's skill or address to obtain some end ; laisser a, to 
 leave to, ne pus laisser de, used negatively, means not to 
 leave off, not to forbear ; (This expression cannot always 
 be literally translated into English. The best manner to 
 render the sense of it, is to express ne pas laisser de by for 
 alt that, yet, still, nevertheless, or however, and to translate 
 the infinitive, which follows de by a tense corresponding 
 in English to that in which the verb laisser is found in 
 French, as, Quelque bien traite qu'il soit il ne laissera pas 
 de se plaindre', though he is very well used, he will com- 
 plain for all that : Bien qu'il soit fort pauvre, il ne laisse 
 pa< d'etre heun ucr, although he is very poor, yet he is hap- 
 py . // >u laissait pas de defendre son paste, he still defend- 
 ed his post. Cela m laisse pas d'etre vrai, it is neverthe- 
 l( bs true, &c). .Y< pas manqutrde se plaindre, means, not 
 to fail to complain ; il a manque de lomber, he had like to 
 have fallen ; manquer a remplir son devoir, to be deficient 
 in doing one's duty ; oublier d, to forget for want of prac- 
 tice ; oublier de, to forget through an ant of memory; prier 
 a diner, (the preposition d is used after prier only in this 
 expression) signifies, formally to invite to dinner; prier dt 
 dtner, to beg to staj to dinner : lacker a, to aim at ; tucker 
 df, to endeavour, to strive, to exert one's self. 
 
 Some verbs govern the infinitive, without the aid 
 of a preposition 
 
 JUter i ■■'"• m ami i , n mii 
 
 ( r tin ' ml ii I'm,- 
 
 , , >■ re. i ' ' ' ■ i ""ii/ r In • 
 
 I ■■' . (he !.;id liki 
 
 I l ',,ur. ir n\ rmir. 
 
 I Pi 
 
 r.nh ■niln dre demner tit toL 
 
 I 
 
 Fir*. 
 
 II it I'm 
 
 i ,. ' emir quelqtfun 
 
 i 
 
 \ . B . I \ i Iso sa j . i 
 il a fa lombt r, pn ' urir, 
 
 - 
 . . The conjugation of a verb, is the regular i ombinag 
 and arrangerm nt of numbers, moods and 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 131 
 
 434. A verb may be conjugated affirmatively, negatively, 
 and interrogatively. 
 
 435. When a verb is affirmative, it is generally preceded 
 by its nominative or subject; as, 
 
 1st PERS. 
 
 SING. 
 2d PERS. 
 
 SING. 
 
 i Tu at 
 
 3d pers. ) Monpere 
 
 m. s. 5 11 
 3d pers. ) Ma mere 
 
 f. s. \ Elle 
 
 3d PERS. 
 
 INDEF. 
 
 1st PERS. 
 
 PL. 
 
 2d PER7. 
 
 PL. 
 
 i On a, 
 
 i Nous avons, 
 
 i Vous avez, 
 
 I have. 
 
 thou liast. 
 
 my father 
 
 he 
 
 my mother 
 
 she 
 
 we have. 
 
 you have. 
 
 my brothers 
 thef 
 
 Je suis. 
 
 Tues, 
 
 I am. 
 
 thou art. 
 
 my father 
 : he 
 
 > my mother 
 she 
 
 On est. 
 
 Nous sommes, we are. 
 Vous ties, you are. 
 
 my brothers 
 
 ^they 
 
 ° my sisters 
 
 they 
 
 3d pers. ) Mesfreres ) 
 
 m. pl. \ lis f o 
 
 3d pers. } Mes sazurs C my sisters 
 
 f. pl. ^ Biles j they 
 
 436. A verb in French takes the negative form by means 
 of two negatives ne and pas or ne and point ; {point denies 
 more forcibly than pas) ne is placed before the verb, al- 
 ways immediately after the nominative ; and pas or point is 
 placed after the verb, or between the auxiliary and per- 
 fect participle, in compound tenses ; as, 
 
 Je rCai pas, or 
 
 Je n'ai point, 
 
 Je ne frappe pas, or 
 
 Je ne frappe point, 
 
 Je n'ai pas frappe, or 
 
 Je n'ai pointfrappe, 
 
 Tu n'as pas, o.r 
 Tu n'as point, 
 Tu ne frappes pas, or 
 Tu ne frappes point, 
 Tu n'as pas frappe, or 
 Tu n'as point frappe, 
 
 1st person singular. 
 > I have not. 
 
 i I do not strike. 
 { I have not struck. 
 2d person singular. 
 { thou hast not. 
 { thou does not strike. 
 i thou hast not struck. 
 
132 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 3d. pers. $ Monpire 
 
 m. sing. I 11 
 3d. pers. \ JJa mere 
 
 f. sing. \ Elle 
 3d. pers. 5 .Mon pere 
 
 m. sing. I II 
 3d. pers. s Ma meVe 
 
 F. sing. I Elle 
 3d. pers. K .Won pi re 
 
 M. sing. I // 
 3d. pr.RS. > .Mi mere 
 
 F. SING. ( -tV/e 
 
 On n'a ;>^?, or 
 
 On n'a /Wn/, 
 
 On ne/rappt pas, or 
 
 On ne/rappe point, 
 
 On n'a pas/rappi, "r 
 
 On n*a point Jrappe, 
 
 ri*a pas, 
 
 or 
 n'a point, 
 
 ne/rappe pas, 
 
 or 
 ne/rappe point 
 
 my father 
 
 he 
 
 my mother 
 
 she 
 
 my father 
 
 he 
 
 my mother 
 
 she 
 
 , r , my father 
 
 n'a pas/rappe, fa< f 
 
 or 
 
 my another 
 she 
 
 has not. 
 
 does not strike 
 
 has not struck 
 
 3d 
 
 ri'apomt/rappt 
 PERSON indefinite. 
 ; one has not. 
 
 one does not strike. 
 
 '■ one has not struck. 
 \ ri.iliAi.. 
 
 ' we have not. 
 
 we do not strike. 
 
 we hai e not struck. 
 
 yon bai e not. 
 
 you do not strike, 
 you have not -truck. 
 
 Abu* ntaeon* pas, or > 
 
 JVbtw n'avwu potnl, £ 
 
 JVous ne/rapponspas, or i 
 
 JVbuttk frappons point $ 
 
 JVbui n'ae mspas/ra^ I 
 
 JVl»M* n'atxwu point frapp . s 
 
 | !l-.,\ II I R W 
 
 Pout nWi pa*, or 
 
 / out n'aw i potnl, 
 
 / but ru frappt ; pat, or 
 
 Vonu ne/rappt r s 
 
 Jf^oia n'an c pa»/rappe, or 
 
 3d. pi as. ( Mu fr 
 
 it. iii.// 
 3d. pi R8. \ . V< i ta ati 
 
 i . PI I . / /J//».V 
 
 3d. pi i'-. s Jtfi 
 
 M. PL I I I 
 
 i . \ Met tccurt 
 
 \ . iii./ I.Wu 
 
 id. PI 11- s Jtfi 
 
 M. ii I 
 
 Id, pi U-. \.''" 
 
 i- . 111/ /■.'//»» 
 
 Rbmabb I. When the verb is in the infinitive, tv and 
 pa* or ne and/>oint are both placed before it; at 
 
 nVni p<i», 
 
 or 
 n\mt point. 
 
 m\ brother! 
 the) 
 
 the\ 
 
 have not. 
 
 . mj brothers i 
 ne/rappentpas, fae / 
 
 .do not strike 
 
 i 
 
 n'ont pai/rappi, 
 
 "'•»'p , 'i» t J r "i'J"- l \ H . y 
 
 mv brothen 
 the} 
 
 have not 
 struck. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. J 33 
 
 avoir, or ne point avoir, not to have ; nepas etre, or ne point 
 etre, not to be; ne pas f rapper or ne point / rapper, not to 
 strike. We may also say: N' avoir pas or n? avoir point ; 
 rCetre pas or n? litre point ; ne frapp e.r pas .or ne frapp tr 
 point ; but this form is seldom used. 
 
 Remark II. Pa* is sometimes omitted after the verbs 
 savoir, to know; oser, to dare ; pouvoir, to be able ; and 
 cesser, to cease ; as, Je ne sais, 1 do not know ; je tfose, I 
 dare not; jenepuis, I cannot ; je ne cesse, J do not cease ; 
 but these expressions are not so forcibly negative as, Je ne 
 sais pas, je n?osepas, tyc. 
 
 437. A verb is made interrogative in French by placing* 
 its nominative after the verb, when its nominative is a pro- 
 noun, but when it is a noun, the sentence must begin with 
 it, and the pronouns il, Us, elk or elles must be added to 
 the verb, according to the gender or number of the sub- 
 stantive. — In compound.tenses, the pronouns are placed be- 
 tween the auxiliary verb and the perfect participle. 
 
 N. B. 1st. The pronouns are connected with the verb 
 by means of a hyphen. 2d. When the last syllable of the 
 first person singular of the verb, is mute, an acute accent is 
 laid over it. 3d. The letter t, preceded and followed by a 
 hyphen, is placed between the third person singular of the 
 verb, whenever that person ends with a vowel, and th© 
 pronouns il, Us, elle or elles and on. Examples : 
 
 Ai-je ? have I ? 
 
 A$-tu ? hast thou ? 
 
 A-t-il ? has he ? 
 
 Mon pere a-t4l ? has my father ? 
 
 A-t-elle ? has she ? 
 
 Ma mere a-t-elle ? has my mother ? 
 
 A-t-on ? has one ? 
 
 Avons-nous ? have we ? 
 
 Avez-vous ? have you ? 
 
 Ont-ils? have they? 
 
 JWesfreres oht-ils ? have my brothers ? 
 
 Ont-ellcs ? have they ? 
 
 Mes sceurs ont-elles ? have my sisters ? 
 
 Frappe-je ? do I strike. 
 
 Frappes-tu ? dost thou strike ? 
 
 Frappe-t-il ? does he strike ? 
 
 Mon pere frappe-t-il ? does my father strike ? 
 
 Frappe- t-elle ? does she strike ? 
 
 Ma merefrappe-t-elh ? does my mother strike ? 
 
 Frappe-t-on ? does one strike ? 
 
 Frappons-nous ? do we strike ? 
 
134 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Frapppz-vous? do you strike : 
 
 Frappent-ils ? do tbey strike ? 
 
 JHes f rents freippcnl-ils ? do my brothers strike ' 
 
 Frappcnt-ellrs ? do they strike ? 
 
 . Mes sceurs frappent-elles ■ do my sisters strike ? 
 
 433. When the sentence begins with an interrogative 
 adjective, pronoun or adverb, sucb as. quel, what ; que, what; 
 a quoi, to what ; dc quoi, of what : sur quoi, on what ; avec 
 quoi, with what ; ou, where, whither; tomhien, how much; 
 comment, bow ; quand, when ; the interrogation is formed by 
 placing the noun in the nominative after the verb ; as, 
 
 Quel Age u voire fri re ? 
 
 Que veul eclhomme? 
 
 .y quoi perue voire ta ">■ ' 
 
 De quoi ne plaint man domestique ? 
 
 Oil v<mt i es a', ittiewra et ces dames ? 
 
 Cambien taut It bli ' 
 
 Comment u porte monrieur ootrepere : 
 
 Qmmd reviendra cc marckand .' 
 
 The interrogation may be also formed, after all 
 these interrogative?, except qui and ou, by placing the noun 
 in the nominative before, and adding a personal pronoun 
 to tlic verb, according to the general rules above mention- 
 ed : as, Queldgevotre saw u-t-elle. 7 A quoi voir* 
 
 -■-■.. Combien /< bli vaut-il? \;c. N. B. The 
 interrogation can be formed only in this last manner, after 
 everyone of these mterrogatives, ('/ne alone excepted) 
 when the verb has a complement direct or indirect j as, 
 (J a/ emploi vol • "•' ' / quoi voire 
 
 a in- pasx-i-tll- Comment eel owner fuii-il 
 
 n la .' Oil eet holier u-l-il trouvi cette phrase Inline ? i^nand 
 ru ftiqut m^apporU ra-i-il la gaz( tie f 
 440. The interrogation is sometimes formed by prefix- 
 ing ,-t ce-qtu (literally is it that) to the sentence; as, Est- 
 h courtier n 1 est pas encore arrive ! Est-ce-que vous 
 alii : sortir .' Est-a -que vous .'/• s malade ' — This intcrro- 
 gative formia less used in order to become acquainted with 
 some thing, than to express surprise, fear or doubt. 
 
 Ml. We sometimes use est ce-que before the first per- 
 Bon singular of the present tense of the indicative ; in or- 
 der to avoid the awkward sound that would result from/' 
 being placed after it ; as, 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 13^ 
 
 Est-ce queje dors ? 
 Est-ce queje mens ? 
 Est-ce queje lis ? 
 Est-ce queje bois ? 
 
 (do I sleep ?) 
 (do I tell a lie: 
 (do I read ? ) 
 (do I drink ?) 
 
 instead of dors-je? 
 
 instead of mens-je ? 
 
 instead of lis-je/ 
 
 instead of bois-je ? 
 
 442. A verb, which is already interrogative, is made al- 
 so negative by placing ne before the verb, and pas after the 
 pronouns; as. 
 
 Wai-je pas? 
 
 N'as-lupus? 
 
 Wa-t-ilpas? 
 
 Mon pere tfa-t-il pas f 
 
 Wa-t-elle pas ? 
 
 Ma mere n'a-t-elle pas ? 
 
 Jfa-t-on pas ? 
 
 Savons-nous pas ? 
 
 jY'avez-vous pas ? 
 
 JPonl-ils pas ? 
 
 Mesfreres n'ont-ils pas ? 
 
 Sont-elles pas ? 
 
 Mes sceurs n'ont-elles pus ? 
 
 JYefrappe-je pas ? 
 
 JVefrappes-tu pas ? 
 
 Nefrappe-l-il pas ? 
 
 Jilon pere nefrappe-t-il pas ? 
 
 JVefrappe-t-elle pas ? 
 
 Ma mere ne frappe-t-elle pas ? 
 
 JVe frappe-t-on pas ? 
 
 Ncfrappons-nous pas ? 
 
 Nefrappez-vous pas ? 
 
 Nefrappent-ils pas ? 
 
 Mes f reres nefrappent-ils pas ? 
 
 Nefrappent-elles pas ? 
 
 Mes sceurs ne frappent-elles pas ? 
 
 have I not ? 
 
 feast thou not ? 
 
 has he not ? 
 
 has not my father ? 
 
 has she not ? 
 
 has not my mother ? 
 
 has not one ? 
 
 have trenot? 
 
 have you not ? 
 
 have they not ? 
 
 have not my brothers ? 
 
 have they not ? 
 
 have not my sisters ? 
 
 do I not strike ? 
 
 dost thou not strike ? 
 
 does he not strike 5 
 
 does not my father strike f 
 
 does she not strike ? 
 
 does not my mother strike : 
 
 does not one strike ? 
 
 do we not strike ? 
 
 do you not strike ? 
 
 do they not strike ? 
 
 do not my brothers strike ; 
 
 do they not strike ? 
 
 do not my sisters strike ? 
 
 OP THE NUMBER OF CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 443. As every verb of the French language generally 
 takes the rules of its conjugation from the infinitive, and as 
 there are infinitives of four different terminations, gram- 
 marians have divided French verbs into four conjugations. 
 
 The first conjugation } ^er; as, f rapper. 
 
 The secoud conjugation f comprises the verbs which f ir ; as, guirir. 
 The third conjugation t have their infinitive in toir; as, devoir. 
 The fourth conjugation j )re ; as, vendre. 
 
 444. But each of these four divisions is very far from con- 
 taining an equal number of verbs. The first so far exceeds 
 
136 THK ELEMENTS OF 
 
 in number the other three, that it would perhaps be better 
 to consider verbs in er as the only regular form ; and those 
 in ir, oir and re, as irregular verbs : the more so, as all 
 new verbs that have been added to the language, since its 
 idiom has been fixed, have received, without a single ex- 
 ception, the termination erin their infinitive. 
 
 445. There are 1500 verbs in the French language: 
 
 Near 4000 end in er, and arc all conjugated alike, with the exception 
 of two. 
 
 f the first class contains 260 verbs. 
 
 350 end in ir, and may be.1 the second class contains 20 rerbs. 
 
 divided into 4 classes : j the third class contains 9 verbs. 
 
 * the fourth class contains 2G verbs. 
 
 There are. besides, <29 verbs, 
 which ma\ be comprised un- 
 der the head of o irregular 
 verbs : and n' defective verbs, 
 which are insulated in the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 i n of which, in evoir, form the regular verba 
 of the third conjugation: the remaining ZJ maybeoom- 
 I under the head <>t 10 irregular \ erbs. 
 
 C drr. 
 
 ie 1st class contains 16 verbs in ompn 
 
 in >-, , and | I attre. 
 
 roaj be divi« ! the 2d class contains 28 verbs in indre. 
 
 ded into live | the 3d class contains 21 verbs in utfe 
 
 -{: 
 
 the 6th class contains 4 verbs in um 
 
 I- 
 
 1 the 4th class contains l t verbs in i "['''' 
 o Ire. 
 
 There arc, besides, 78 verbs, 
 
 \\ Inch ma\ be Comprised un- 
 der the head of 20 irregular 
 verbs ; and I defective \ erbs, 
 winch are insulated in the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Of nil rOBVATIOM OF TEHBKS OP RKOULAB vi 
 
 in;. The present of the infinitive i^ the source from 
 which all the inflexions <>fa verb flow. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 137 
 
 (frapper 
 I guerir 
 
 I scntir 
 I ouvrir 
 The present j tenir 
 participle i devoir 
 of, j vendre 
 
 craindre 
 conduire 
 connaitre 
 plaire 
 
 r 
 
 t\ 
 
 ir } 
 
 ndre 
 
 ire 
 
 into ant : 
 into ssant : 
 
 into anl : 
 
 into ant : 
 into ant : 
 into gnant 
 into sanl : 
 into ssant : 
 into sanl : 
 
 as, frappant. 
 as, guerissant. 
 
 ( seritant. 
 as, < ouvrant. 
 
 ( tenant. 
 as, devant. 
 as, vendant. 
 as, craignant: 
 as, conduisant. 
 as, connaissant. 
 as, plaisanl. 
 
 r 
 
 The perfect 
 participle < 
 of 
 
 frapper 
 
 guerir 
 
 sentir 
 
 ouvrir 
 
 tenir 
 
 devoir 
 
 vendre 
 
 craindre 
 
 conduire 
 
 connaitre 
 [plaire 
 
 frapper 
 guerir 
 sentir 
 ouvrir 
 The present! £e?wr 
 of the in- 1 devoir 
 dicative of vendre 
 \ craindre 
 j conduire 
 j connaitre 
 [ plaire 
 
 [dropping r, and placing 
 
 an 
 
 
 acute accent over e : 
 
 as, 
 
 frappe. 
 
 di-opping- r, 
 
 as, 
 
 gueri. 
 
 dropping r, 
 
 as. 
 
 senti. 
 
 changing Wr into erf : 
 
 as, 
 
 ouvertm 
 
 changing irinto u: 
 
 as, 
 
 tenu. 
 
 changing evoir into u : 
 
 as, 
 
 du. 
 
 changing re into u : 
 
 as 
 
 vendu. 
 
 changing dre into t : 
 
 us 
 
 craint. 
 
 changing re into £: 
 
 as 
 
 conduit. 
 
 changing aiire or oitre 
 
 
 
 into w : 
 
 as 
 
 connu.' 
 
 [ changing aire into m .- 
 
 as, 
 
 plu. 
 
 M 
 
 'dropping r, and making e 
 
 mute : as, je frappe. 
 
 changing r into s : as, je gueris. 
 
 changing tir into s : as, je sers. 
 
 changing ir inio e mute : as, fouvre. 
 changing enir into iens : as, je tiens. 
 changing evoir into ois : as, je dois. 
 changing re into s : as, je vends. 
 
 I changing dre into s : as, je crains. 
 changing re into s : as, je conduis. 
 
 changing tre into s : as, je connais, 
 
 { changing re into s : as, ^'e plais. 
 
 The perfect 
 of the in-j{ 
 dicative of 
 
 sentir 
 ouvrir 
 tenir 
 recevoir 
 vendre 
 craindre 
 conduire 
 connaitre 
 [plaire 
 
 {frapper ~\ fer into ai : as, jefrappai. 
 
 guerir r, '} Cje gueris. 
 
 into s .• as, 2 je sentis. 
 {jf ouvris, 
 into i/is .• as, ye £ms. 
 into us : as, ^'e regus. 
 into is .- as, je vendis. 
 into gros.- as, je craignis. 
 re into sis -• as, je conduisis. 
 
 aitre or oitre into ws .• as, je connus. 
 J ^ aire into ws .• as, je plus. 
 
 The remaining tenses may be formed, some from the 
 present of the infinitive, others more directly, from the 
 18 
 
 enir 
 • evoir 
 re 
 ndre 
 
isa 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 present 
 perfect 
 led the 
 may be 
 
 1 
 
 and perfect participles, and from the present and 
 tenses of the indicative. These five tenses are cnl- 
 tive primitive tenses, because all the other tenses 
 formed from them. 
 
 
 .ffi 
 
 -3 
 P 
 
 frapper, 
 
 by the addition of ai or ' 
 
 (lis : 
 
 ottvrtr, 
 
 tenir, by changing enh- into iendrai 
 or icnilrnis : as, 
 
 recevoir, by changing oiV into rai or 
 rnii : as, 
 
 craindrc, 
 
 
 amnaitre, 
 
 
 by changing ^ into ai 
 or OW : 
 
 into < mute 
 
 into /.« <>r 
 into ' mute i 
 sin! uit, h I into i« or <;/// 
 
 into ' mull 
 
 ./ into u <<r mil 
 nil." mute 
 
 into 
 
 into - mot< 
 
 into w or 
 ant into ' mu 
 
 con iviiss i 
 
 into M or ant 
 
 )jefrapperm. 
 ' SJ>>fr,i r perais. (') 
 
 ? /' gwertrai. 
 ' y/< guSrirais. 
 
 ) je sentiraL 
 
 V/' sewtrat*. 
 i trot. 
 ' s i\tuvrinns. 
 
 iji tiendrai. 
 
 \ je tiendrais. 
 
 (j< recevrat. 
 
 Ij recevraia. 
 -ilrui. 
 ' \ /< D«no*rat», 
 
 I niiinlrai. 
 raindrau. 
 
 I "Hihiirni. 
 
 onduirtut. 
 
 ) ji i Diitiiifnii. 
 
 ije connaltraii 
 
 as, ije pliiirai. 
 
 S )> plairait. 
 
 >'■/ 'nip pais. 
 '/'" ./' J'nippr. 
 
 \ tente. 
 
 ait. 
 
 \ •/'"./' I"iini. 
 
 I 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 \ queje coftdu 
 
 ) , i onm 
 
 | 
 
 
 (l) The conditional u all 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 i39 
 
 The perfect of the infinitive ] 
 The compound perfect participle 
 The compound perfect of the in- 
 dicative 
 Tiie pluperfect of the indicative 
 The perfect anterior of the in- 
 dicative 
 The compound future of the in- j- -g 
 
 dicative 
 The compound conditional of the 
 
 indicative 
 The perfect tense of the sub- 
 junctive 
 The pluperfect tense of the sub- 
 junctive J 
 
 je gueris, 
 je sens, 
 j'ouvre, 
 je tiens, 
 formed from the <{ je reqois, 
 
 The imperative 
 
 jefrappe, 
 
 ( present of the infinitive > 
 present participle 
 present of the indicative 
 
 imperfect of the indicative 
 perfect of the indicative 
 
 { future of the indicative 
 
 conditional of the indicative 
 
 present of the subjunctive 
 
 imperfect of the subjunc- 
 tive 
 
 r frappe. 
 
 present of the in- 
 dicative. 
 
 je vends, 
 je crains, 
 je conduis. 
 je connais, 
 Je plais, 
 
 gueris. 
 sens, 
 ouvre. 
 tiens, 
 
 >by dropping the<( recois. 
 
 pronoun je : as, vends. 
 
 I crains. 
 
 1 conduis. 
 connais. 
 plais. 
 
 r jefrappai, by changing i into 
 
 The imperfect of 
 the subjunctive is 
 formed from the 
 perfect of the in- 
 dicative, 
 
 je gueris, 
 je sentis, 
 jhuvris, 
 je tins, 
 je recus, 
 je vendis, 
 je craignis, 
 je conduisis, 
 je connus, 
 je plus, 
 
 by the addi- 
 tion ofse.as, 
 
 que jefrappasse. 
 ( queje guerisse. 
 1 queje sentisse. 
 
 que j^ouvrisse. 
 
 queje tinsse. 
 
 queje requsse. 
 
 queje vendisse. 
 
 queje craignisse. 
 
 queje conduisisse. 
 
 queje connusse. 
 ^ queje plusse. 
 
 Remark I. In regular verbs in er, the singular of the 
 present of the indicative and the singular of the present of 
 the subjunctive, are alike ; as, 
 
 Jefrappe, I strike. 
 Tufrappes, thou strikest. 
 llfrappe, he strikes. 
 
 Que jefrappe, that I may strike. 
 
 Que tufrappes, that thou mayst strike. 
 
 QuHlfrappe. that he may strike. 
 
 Remark II. The third person singular and plural of the 
 imperative and of the present of the subjunctive are always 
 alike in all verbs. 
 
HO THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Remark III. The 1st and 2d persons plural of the im- 
 perfect of the indicative, and the 1st and 2d person plural 
 of the present of the subjunctive are alike, not only in regu- 
 lar, but also in irregular verbs ; as, 
 JfausJ rappions, vous frappiez. Que nousfrappions, que vousfrap- 
 
 jvous guerustoru, vous guirissiez. Qui nous guerissions, que vous 
 
 "'"' '' 
 nitons, vous sentiez. Qut nous senlions, que vous amtiez. 
 
 JVbus craignions, votts craigriiez. Qui nous craignions, que dows 
 craigniez. 
 
 Except in the following irregular verbs ; avoir, Clre. 
 pouvoir, savoir, and /aire : 
 
 Que nous ayons, qut vous 
 Abut < Mac. 
 
 N Q puissions, que runs pub- 
 
 v 
 
 vousmchiez. 
 
 Jfouafi ^ s ,„ ; . 
 
 Rcmars IV. In verbs in t> of the 1st class, the singular 
 
 of the present and the singular of the perfect of the in- 
 
 '■"'• are alike ; and the present and imperfect tenses 
 
 "» the subjunctive of all rerba in ir differ onlj in the third 
 
 -■ilar. m which the imperfect has ft instead of 
 
 I nd 1 1 
 
 nan rt i , ., ai 
 
 I cured. 
 
 didst cure 
 
 ' be< area, be < ured. 
 
 Subjoin 
 
 ■ SIS*. IMP] lit I < I 
 
 ', I cure 
 
 i«e#, thai th .. thatthou mi 
 
 <, /■ /. that he might con. 
 
 r, that ire maj Qim run it ire 
 
 might core. 
 --. that you n \ . that you 
 
 that tin v i ,\ that they ought 
 
 cure. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 141 
 
 G>0> 0*0* 
 
 Q> G> 
 
 
 . 4 is 
 
 5* <-> 
 
 1 o s I 1 1 ^ ^ *S 
 
 -^ ^ ^ ^ - rt ^ 0) 41 <» 
 
 K -i--S>-s^-^ f -s ,- =*-5 | -i | -i 
 
 
 r— 
 
 53 ■£ o5 "a! T3 
 
 .J rD ,0 *5 "3 
 
 3 g '3 
 o o - 
 o u o 
 
 o ^ 
 
 *-J>-il-,.->l- 5 l-5l-il-il-,l- ; ,l-5>- 5 >-i>-5>-5>-i 
 
 > 
 
 d 
 
 'XI 
 
 O 
 
 
 -£ 
 
 -a 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 tT 
 
 > 
 
 H3 
 
 o 
 
 
 <j <3 <5 <! <5 -< « M O 
 
 a cs a a c co 
 
 a a a s o 
 
 o o o o 
 
 oooooo 
 
 Is ^2, 
 
 .a © "~ ' 
 
 .£"3 8 S 111 
 
 
 a ra 
 a <u 
 
142 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 
 s i 
 
 3 3 
 
 G'C-5' 
 
 - a «2 <5 «3 ^ < 
 
 -"-'--- Z 
 - - - -., - = • 
 
 UN! it 
 
 
 — - > _x 
 
 -J -i •"> ►-» 
 
 
 _J_^--'-,'C---- 
 
 e - 
 
 
 2 : _ _ _ _ ^ _; <c <,<tf<r 
 
 h K Km 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 117 
 
 to stay or to remain ; descendre to go down ; echapper to 
 escape or slip ; embellir to grow handsome ; grandir to 
 grow tall; mo titer to go up or come up ; passer to pass, 
 to go, to pass by, to obtain, to be over, &c ; rajmnir to 
 grow young again ; rester to stay or remain ; sortir .to go 
 out ; and vieillir to grow old ; are formed with avoir to ex- 
 press an action, and with etre to express a state or manner 
 of being; as, 
 
 Safievre a cesse, mats elle pent re- Safievre est cessee, et il se porta bi- 
 
 venir. en. 
 
 La goulte a cesse de le tourmenter. La peste est cessee, et les communi' 
 
 cations sont rouvertcs. 
 J'ai Men change dans ma maladie. Je suis bien change depuis quelque 
 
 terns. 
 Depuis ce moment Us onl dechu de lis sont bien dichus de leur credit. 
 
 jour en jour. 
 H a demeure long-terns en chemin. II est demeure en chemin. 
 Elle a deseentlujusquhl la cave. Elle est descendue depuis une heure. 
 
 Ce que vous m'avez dit irPa echappe. Ceite chose mPest eehappee de la, 
 
 memoire. 
 Jl a echappe a toutes les poursiiiles. Ce mot Ivi est echappe. 
 Le bonheur nous a echappe pourja- Vous eles echappes du danger. 
 
 mais. 
 Vous avez embelli dansvolre voyage. Comme vous etes embellie .' 
 Elle a beaucoup grandi cette annee. Voyez comme elle est grandie ! 
 J">ai monte aujourd'hui plusieurs Je suis monte dans sa chambre pour 
 
 /bis a sa chambre. y rester. 
 
 II a passe en France en tel terns. II est pasne en France depuis lei 
 
 terns. 
 Nous avons passe par ce lieu-la. I?empire des Romains est passe. 
 Le cortege a passe devant noire mai- Le cortege est passe. 
 
 son. 
 Ce mot a passe, et se trouve dans Ce mot est passe, et ne s'entend 
 
 les meilleurs auteurs. plus. 
 
 II semble avoir raj euni pendant son On dirait quelle est rajeunie. 
 
 sejour a la campagne. 
 Elle a reste trois jours a New- York. Elle est restee a New- York, 
 lis ont sortice matin, et Us sont ren- lis sont sortis ce matin, et ne sont 
 
 tres malades. pas de retour. 
 
 11 a vieilli avant le terns. On voit quHl est bien vieilli. 
 
 VI. Avoir takes the preposition a (to) before the infini- 
 tive mood, in order to express the will, disposition or obli- 
 gation of the subject ; as, Jhd a vous remercier. Elle ad 
 choisir. Tuas a sortir. Nous avons plusieurs lettres a ecrire. 
 
 VII. Avoir, followed by the adverb beau, forms an idio- 
 tism which may be generally rendered by the impersonal 
 verb to be useless, in the following manner : 
 
148 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 J'ai beau. Tu as beau. II a beau. } C 
 
 Elle a beau. f , . , . } me, thee, him, her 
 
 Nous avons beau. Vous avez £ " " useless J or \ 
 
 beau. Us out beau. } f us, you, them. 
 
 IMPERFECT.' 
 
 J'avais beau. Tu avais beau. 1 f 
 
 II avait beau. f r . , r 1 me, fAee, /urn. 
 
 Nous avion, beau. Vous aviez > B """ ««e7M*/br ^ 
 beau. Us avaient beau. j ' us, you, them. 
 
 And so on with the other tenses. 
 Vous avez beau prier beau sollici- II is useless, for you to pray, to 
 ter, beau pleurer, je u'eu de- solicit and to weep, 4fC. 
 morrlrai pas. 
 
 VIII. Avoir i- rendered in English by Ihe verb to be, 
 when it governs the words an, year; chaud y warm or hot ; 
 fnii, i. bungei . cold; honte, shame; raison, ri^ht ; 
 
 soif. thirst; and tort, wrong ; a~. Cet enfant a vn an. This 
 child irold. Votrepen aura bientoi cinguantt ans, 
 
 Your father will 60on bt fifty years old. ./\ii (hand, I am 
 warm. (lufaim, He it hungry. Vous avez froid, You 
 are cold. /,'/' a Sh< i ashamed. // avail raison, 
 
 Ii. right, ./'ii '. I i n thirsty. II a tort. Hew 
 
 wrong.— The French Bubstantive is then translated by an 
 English ad <■< five. 
 
 IV . / ir is used a* an impersonal verb, and is then con- 
 l w nli the adverb y th< re. 
 
 ■ r TBI IMPEBSONAL VKRB Y AVOIH. 
 Psvt iivi'il. 
 
 \ Y. 
 
 Y avoir. (o /-/•- 
 
 II 111 ! 
 
 .i i ii. to &ON &MH 
 
 i N I. 
 
 \ rant 
 
 COMim m. PI BJ I 
 Bt tu. having hctn. 
 
 Part ii ipl 
 
 II. I -I M. 
 
 lit. 7Vn 
 
 Dtea having been. 
 
 fndtcativt mnml. 
 
 I.V*. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 119 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 11 y avait. 
 
 There \ was - 
 J were. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 11 y eut. 
 
 There l was ' 
 } wtre. 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 11 y aura. 
 
 There will be. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 11 y aurait. 
 
 There would be. 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 II y a eu. 
 
 "" YZe^en. 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 11 y avait eu. 
 
 There had been. 
 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 11 y eut eu. 
 
 There had been. 
 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 11 y aura eu. 
 
 There will have been. 
 
 
 COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 11 y aurait eu. 
 
 There would have been. 
 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Qu'il y ait. 
 
 Let there be, 
 
 
 Subjunctive, mood. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Qu'il y ait. 
 
 That there may be. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Qu'il y eut. 
 
 That there might be. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Qu'il y ait eu. 
 
 That there may have been. 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Qu'il y eut eu- 
 
 That there might have been* 
 
 THE 
 
 SAME VERB INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Y a-t-il ? 
 
 Is there ? 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Y avait-il ? 
 
 Was there ? 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Y eut-il ? 
 
 Was there ? 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Y aura-t-il ? 
 
 Will there be? 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Y aurait-il ? 
 
 Would there be ? 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Y a-t-il eu ? 
 
 Has there been ? 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Y avait-il eu ? 
 
 Had there been ? 
 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Y eut-il eu ? 
 
 Had there been ? 
 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 Y aura-t-il eu ? 
 
 Will there have been ? 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Y aurait-il eu ? 
 
 Would there have been ? 
 
150 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 * This impersonal verb takes the plural form in English 
 when followed by n plural substantive ; but in French it 
 always remain.-; the same ; as, 
 
 11 y a un komme s'tr eel arbre. There is a man on that tree. 
 
 lly ades homines qui nedoidcnlde There are men who doubt noth- 
 
 rien. in?- 
 
 ** When il y a is used to express time or distance, it is 
 rendered in English by it is instead of there is or there are; as, 
 11 y atrnisans que jc ne P i ■■/. H is three years since / saw him. 
 
 11 y a '''int It is sixty miles from West-Point 
 
 a New-York. to New- York. 
 
 X. Ravoir (to bave again, to recover) is the only com- 
 pound of avoir, and it i* used in (he infinitive mood only ; 
 as? J -. ravoir la mime maison. fl eat 'Jficilc 
 
 de ravoir c< qu'onlviaprete. />' is -"inctimcs used as 
 
 a pronominal verb ; as, U a ite bien malade, mais il com- 
 meru [o recruit himself)* rfllons, ve vmu 
 
 fach : \ npose yourself). 
 
 449, CONJUGATION ll\E AND AUKIL- 
 
 IAR1 ' I I • 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 ftem 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /•' 
 
 
 ricT. 
 
 
 
 
 ■ i r. 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 -iiis. 
 
 / am. 
 
 I'm < -■ 
 
 art. 
 
 /' it. m 
 
 N 
 
 II i 
 
 
 
 tl, Bont. - •■ i 
 
 
 • l M 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 watt. 
 
 II 
 
 1!, too. or the wai. 
 
 
 \m rr. 
 
 v 
 
 ) 
 
 . aunt. «>>• EUe»etaient 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 151 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je fus. 
 
 Tu fus. 
 
 II fut. or Elle fut. 
 
 Nous fumes. 
 
 Vous futes. 
 
 lis furent. or Ellcs furent. 
 
 I was. 
 
 Thou wast. 
 
 Tie was. or She was. 
 
 We were 
 
 You were. 
 
 They were. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Je serai. 
 
 Tu seras. 
 
 II sera, or Elle sera. 
 
 Nous serons. 
 
 Vous serez. 
 
 lis serout. or Elles seront. 
 
 shall or will be. 
 
 Thou wilt be. 
 
 He will be. or she will be. 
 
 We shall be. 
 
 You will be. 
 
 They will be. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 Je serais. 
 
 Tu serais. 
 II serait. 
 Nous serions. 
 Vous seriez. 
 lis seraieut. 
 
 j 5 should, could \ j 
 
 ( would, might £ 
 Thou shouldst be. 
 He should be. 
 We should be. 
 You should be. 
 They should be. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai ete. 
 
 Tu as ete. 
 
 II a ete. 
 
 Nous avons ete. 
 
 Vous avez ete. 
 
 lis out ete. 
 
 J' avais ete. 
 
 Tu avais ete. 
 
 II avait ete. 
 
 Nous avions ete. 
 
 Vous aviez ete. 
 
 Us avaient ete. 
 
 J* eus etc. 
 
 Tu eus ete. 
 
 II eut ete. 
 
 Nous eumes ete. 
 
 Vous cures ete. 
 
 lis eureut ete. 
 
 / have been. 
 Thou hast been. 
 He has been. 
 We have been. 
 You have been. 
 They have been. 
 
 pluperfect. 
 
 / had been. 
 
 Thou hadst been. 
 
 He had been. 
 
 We had been. 
 
 You had been. 
 
 They had been. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had been. 
 Thou hadst been. 
 
 H> had been. 
 
 We. had been. 
 
 You had been. 
 
 had been. 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 J' aurai ete. I shall have, been. 
 
 Tu auras ere. Thou wilt have been. 
 
 II aura He will have bfen. 
 
 Nous aurons ste. We shall r 
 
 Vcus aurez ete. You w 
 
 lis aurout ete. They tlaill have beet*. 
 
152 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 J' 
 
 aurais ete. 
 
 Tu 
 
 aurais ete. 
 
 11 
 
 a u rait ete. 
 
 Nous 
 
 aurions ete. 
 
 Vous 
 
 auriez ete. 
 
 Ik 
 
 COMPOUD CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I should have been 
 Thou shoutdst have been. 
 He should have been. 
 We should hive been. 
 You should have been. 
 
 auraientete. They should have been. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Sois. Be thou. 
 
 Qu'il soit or Quelle soit. Let him be. or Let her be. 
 
 Soyons. Let us be. 
 
 Soyez. Be ye. 
 
 Qu'ils soient or Qu'elles soient. Let them be. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 I'KI.-I n i II RSI • 
 
 Thai I may be. 
 
 That thou maytt be. 
 
 That In may be. 
 
 That ice may be. 
 
 Thai you may br. 
 
 That they may be. 
 1MIM-.RI t.ct Tl NB1 . 
 
 Thai I might br. 
 
 Thai thou mighJUt be. 
 
 That he might 
 
 That we might br. 
 
 That you might be. 
 
 That they might be. 
 1 1 in i • r i ' Hsi . 
 
 < Ik. That I may har> been. 
 
 That thou maytt Inn-, 
 That he mat/ han been. 
 
 T .i c' may han been. 
 
 Que jc 
 
 suis. 
 
 Que tu 
 
 -hi-. 
 
 Qu'fl 
 
 soit. 
 
 Que nous 
 
 aoyons. 
 
 Que vous 
 
 
 QuM, 
 
 Boient 
 
 Que je 
 
 fusse. 
 
 Qne in 
 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 ftt 
 
 Qi aotta 
 
 fuasions 
 
 Que roua 
 
 fuasiez. 
 
 Qu' iU 
 
 fuasent. 
 
 Que r m 
 
 (Jim- tu :ii« - . '. 
 
 Qu' il ait ete. 
 
 Que null- STOIU i if. 
 
 Que x . .11 - neat u may have tan. 
 
 Qu' iK That they may han / 
 
 II I I . BJ 1 . I. 
 
 Que j* ( / might han /■■ 
 
 Que tu euaaea ete. That thou^mig httt hope b\ 
 
 Qu" tl eel ete. That he might have been 
 
 Qui That 106 mi -lit han | ■ 
 
 Thai you might han /, 
 Qu' i < i.-. That they might have been. 
 
 0B8EKS kTlONfi OK Till \ EBB ETRE. 
 I. Eire, like to in in English, i- joined, through all itB 
 dt' iiiimli.T. person, mood and tense, i" the perfect 
 participles of active verbs to form passive verbs; but it is 
 oined, like to 6e, t" tin- present partit iples of active 
 or neuter verbs, :i- it i- not in the idiom of the French lan- 
 guage to ippanti I am Btrikiog; Je suit mur- 
 daint. 1 am walking ; && 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 153 
 
 II. Etre, joined by the preposition a to a verb in the in- 
 finitive mood, serves, like to be and the present participle 
 in English, to express the continuance of an action ,• as, 
 
 
 
 indicative; 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 Je 
 
 suis 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 / am 
 
 looking. 
 
 Tu 
 
 es 
 
 a. regarder. 
 
 Thou art 
 
 looking. 
 
 II 
 
 est 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 He is 
 
 looking. 
 
 Nous 
 
 somme 
 
 sa regarded. 
 
 We are 
 
 looking. 
 
 Vous 
 
 etes 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 You are 
 
 looking. 
 
 lis 
 
 sont 
 
 a. regarder. 
 
 They are 
 
 looking. 
 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 J' 
 
 etais 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 I was 
 
 looking. 
 
 Tu 
 
 etais 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 looking. 
 
 11 
 
 etait 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 He was 
 
 looking. 
 
 Nous 
 
 etions 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 We were 
 
 looking. 
 
 Vous 
 
 etiez 
 
 a regarder. 
 
 You were 
 
 looking. 
 
 lis 
 
 etaient a regarder. 
 
 They were 
 
 looking. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 Je 
 
 suis 
 
 a. danser. 
 
 / am 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Tu 
 
 es 
 
 a, danser. 
 
 Thou art 
 
 dancing. 
 
 11 
 
 est 
 
 a danser. 
 
 He is 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Nous 
 
 sorames a danser. 
 
 We are 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Vous 
 
 'etes 
 
 a danser. 
 
 You are 
 
 dancing. 
 
 lis 
 
 sont 
 
 a danser. 
 
 They are 
 
 dancing. 
 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 J' 
 
 etais 
 
 a danser. 
 
 I was 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Tu 
 
 etais 
 
 a danser. 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 dancing. 
 
 11 
 
 etait 
 
 k danser. 
 
 He was 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Nous 
 
 etions 
 
 a danser. 
 
 We were 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Vous 
 
 etiez 
 
 a danser. 
 
 You were 
 
 dancing. 
 
 Us 
 
 etaient a danser. 
 
 They were 
 
 dancing. 
 
 III. The neuter verb accoucher, to lie in, to be delivered ; 
 alter, to go ; arriver, to arrive ; choir, to fall ; decider, to 
 decease ; devenir, to become ; entrer, to enter ; intervenir, 
 to intervene ; mourir, to die ; naitre, to be born ; partir, to 
 set out ; parvenir, to arrive ; retourner, to return ; survenir, 
 to come ; tomber, to fall ; are Conjugated with etre in their 
 compound tenses. (See the observations on avoir). 
 
 IV. Etre is often used as an impersonal verb ; as, // est, 
 it is, il etait, it was, ilfut, it was, il sera, it will be, ty-c 
 
 V. II est is sometimes used in the sense odly a ; as, It 
 est des gens qui nc sont jamais salisfaits. 
 
 20 
 
154 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 450. THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 THE PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ER. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Frapper. 
 Frappant. 
 Frappe. 
 Avoir frappe. 
 
 To strike. 
 
 Striking. 
 
 Struck or stricken 
 
 To have struck. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ay ant frappe. I hiving shttck. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 ( strike, 
 
 Je frappe. 
 
 ' 
 
 tin strike, or 
 am striking. 
 
 Tu f rap pes. 
 
 Thou 
 
 slrikest. 
 
 II frappe. or Elle frappe. 
 
 He 
 
 strikes, or She strikes 
 
 IVous frappons. 
 
 We 
 
 stril ■ 
 
 Vous frappe/;. 
 
 You 
 
 strike. 
 
 lis frappent. or Elles frappent. 
 
 They 
 
 strike. 
 
 nmu i i i 
 
 TF.NSE. 
 
 c 
 
 ttruck. 
 
 Jc frappais. 
 
 'i 
 
 lid strike, or 
 mm striking. 
 
 Tu frappais. 
 
 Thou 
 
 stru< hi tt. 
 
 II finppnit. 
 
 II 
 
 strut / 
 
 imppions. 
 
 We 
 
 struck. 
 
 Vous t'rapi ii /. 
 
 }<,u 
 
 struck. 
 
 1 , iii-iit. 
 
 They 
 
 si nick. 
 
 ii i.i i rr 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 
 Jc frnppai. 
 
 / 
 
 struck, or Id/.! 
 
 Tu Ii 
 
 Thou stmt 1 
 
 II fr.ipp:i. 
 
 lb 
 
 ttruck. 
 
 Brappflmei. 
 
 Wc 
 
 ttruck. 
 
 VOOI frapp 
 
 You 
 
 struck. 
 
 Us frapp< TLiit. 
 
 Tkty 
 
 struck. 
 
 IUHRE 
 
 t\ m . 
 
 
 .'o frapporai. 
 
 / 
 
 shall or will strike 
 
 Tu frapp. 
 
 ThoutoiU sink,-. 
 
 11 frapprra. 
 
 He 
 
 wilt strike. 
 
 Enpperons. 
 
 II 
 
 shall strike. 
 
 Vous frapp< 
 
 }'•»!« 
 
 will \trikc. 
 
 lis frappcruot. 
 
 Theij 
 
 will strike- 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 155 
 
 J' 
 
 ai 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Tu 
 
 as 
 
 frappe. 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avons 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Vous 
 
 avez 
 
 frappe. 
 
 lis 
 
 out 
 
 frappe. 
 
 J' 
 
 avais 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Tu 
 
 avais 
 
 frappe. 
 
 11 
 
 avait 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avions 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Vous 
 
 aviez 
 
 frappe. 
 
 lis 
 
 avaient frappe. 
 
 J' 
 
 eus 
 
 frappe. 
 
 Tu 
 
 eus 
 
 frappe. 
 
 11 
 
 eut 
 
 frappe. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 T , T S should, could, > . ., 
 
 Je frapperais. I j ^'^ mi ^ £ strike. 
 
 Tu- frapperais. Thou shouldst strike. 
 
 II frapperait. He should strike. 
 
 Nous frapperions. We should strike. 
 
 Vous frapperiez. You shoidd strike. 
 
 Us frapperaient. They should strike. 
 
 COMPOUND PEKFECT. 
 
 J have struck. 
 Thou hast struck. 
 He has struck. 
 We have struck. 
 You have struck. 
 They have struck. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 / had struck. 
 
 Thou hadst struck. 
 
 He had struck. 
 
 We had struck. 
 
 You had struck. 
 
 They had struck. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 / had struck. 
 
 Thou hadst struck. 
 
 He had struck. 
 
 Nous eumes frappe. We had struck. 
 
 Vous eutes frappe. You had struck. 
 
 Us eurent frappe. They had -struck. 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 J' aurai frappe. / shall have struck. 
 
 Tu auras frappe. Thou wilt have struck. 
 
 II aura frappe. He will have struck. 
 
 Nous aurons frappe. We shall have struck. 
 
 Vous aurez frappe. You will have struck. 
 
 lis auront frappe. They shall have struck. 
 
 COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J' aurais frappe. J should have struck. 
 
 Tu aurais frappe. Thou shoiddst have struck. 
 
 II aurait frappe. He should have struck. 
 
 Nous aurions frappe. We should have struck. 
 
 Vous auriez frappe. You should have struck. 
 
 Us auraient frappe. They should have struck. 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Frappe. (*) Strike thou. 
 
 Qu' il frappe. Let him strike. 
 
 Frappons. Let us strike. 
 
 Frappez. Strike ye. 
 
 Qu' ils frappent. Let them strike. 
 
 (1) This person takes an s when the pronoun en or y follows it ; as, 
 Puisque tu as tant de pommes, donnes-en a tes sceurs. Ce quejePai 
 dit est de la derniere importance, songes-y Men, 
 
156 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 PRESENT TJ 
 
 Que je frappe. That I may strike. 
 
 Que Lu fra 
 
 Qu 1 il i That he may s 
 
 Que nuns frappions. 
 
 Que VuUj ll 
 
 Qu' ds frappent That they may strike. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que je frapptj g M * - Thai I might strike. 
 
 Que in i m mightst strike. 
 
 Qu' il That he might sh 
 
 Que noua fi ippassions 7 7; 'if wt 
 
 Que mil' fr ippi 
 
 Qu'ils i -ut. That Uicy might strike. 
 
 Q'ie j 1 ni<> f j)i^ry havf slnn t> . 
 
 I n/</-. 
 
 ifrucfc. 
 « I 77^.' 
 
 ttruck. 
 
 Thai 
 
 ham ttritck. 
 I itrucfc. 
 
 Qui .,'.'•(/</•. 
 
 /.«n-» tfmcA 
 
 QB . i - i.mum; in EJ8. 
 
 I. All gated like/ra/js 
 cepl ■ ■ /<' r i" 91 in!, and a 
 
 II. Verbs ending i f r, wyer and t**r, as well 
 ;■» \ < • ; \ hi fore their last bj lla- 
 ble, although « subfc < i to 
 little al 
 
 l-i. The < of verbs in err, like agacer to incite, avancer 
 
 ck, &c. takes b < edil- 
 la underneath, ■«• follow - it, that its sofl Bound 
 
 be let up' d 
 
 .- 
 ; 
 
 2nd. Muu d between g and nnd o in 
 
 verbs ending in ger, for the purpose of preserving the 
 
 ■ml ; nOW 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 157 
 
 3rd. Tn verbs ending in ayer, oyer and uytr, y is changed 
 into % wherever the e of the termination er becomes mute ; 
 as, 
 
 Essayer to try ; J^essaie, iu rssaics, il essuie, its cssaient, 
 pessaierai, jhssaierais, &fC. 
 Tutoyer to thou ; Je tutoie, tu tutoics, il tutoie, Us tu- 
 
 toient,je tutoierai.je tutoierais, &C. 
 Enmiyer to tire ; JPennuie, tu erinuieSj il ennuie, Us en- 
 nuient, f ennuierai, j^amuieruis, &c. 
 4th. In verbs ending in uer, two points are placed over i 
 in the first and second persons plural of the imperfect of the 
 indicative mood, and of the present tense of the subjunctive 
 mood ; as, nous trouions, vous trouiez ; nous contribiaons, 
 vous contribiiiez, &c. 
 
 5th. Verbs having e mute in their penultimate, take the 
 grave accent over that syllable, when it is followed by an 
 other syllable which must be mute ; as, 
 
 Mener to lead ; Je mine, tu mines, il mine, je minerai, 
 
 je minerals, &c. 
 Achever to finish; J'achive, tu ackives, il achive,j^a- 
 
 chiverais, &c. 
 Lever to raise; Je live, tu lives, il live, je liverai, je 
 liverais, &c. 
 In verbs ending in eler and eter, I and t are reduplicated, 
 which affects the sound of e mute in the same manner as 
 the grave accent ; as, 
 
 Appeler to call ; J^appelle, tu appelles, il appelle, j^ap- 
 
 pellerai, j^appellerais, &c. 
 Chanceler to totter ; Je chancelle, tu chancelles, il 
 
 chancelle,je chancellerais, fyc. 
 Cacheter to seal ; Je cachette, tu cackettes, il cachette, 
 
 je cachetterai.je eachetterais, c^c. 
 
 Jeter to throw ; Jejette, tu jettes, il jette, je jetterai, 
 
 je jelterais, SfC. 
 
 6th. Sometimes the mute e in the future and conditional 
 
 tenses of verbs ending in ayer, ier, oyer, uyer and uer is 
 
 dropt, and a circumflex is placed over the preceding syllable; 
 
 as, Je pairai, je pairais ; je prirai, je prirais ; je ploirai,je 
 
 ploirais ; j^cssuirai, j^essuirais ; j' > avourai,j''avourais, ^c. ' 
 
 III. Puer to stink, formerly made je pus, tu pus, il put 
 
 in the present tense of the indicative mood, and we find in 
 
 Gil Bias P esprit me put ; (wit is nauseous to me) ; but now 
 
 puer is conjugated regularly, and we say jepuc, tupues, ilpue. 
 
158 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 450. A PARADIGM OF THE CONJUGATION OF PASSIVE- 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Etre blesse or blessee. To be wounded. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir ete blesse or blessee. To have been wounded. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Etant blesse or blessee. Being wounded. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant ete blesse or blessee. Hawing been wounded. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT TEN9E. 
 
 Je suis blesse or blessee. / am wounded. 
 
 Tu cs blesse or blessee. Thou art wounded. 
 
 II est blesse. He. is wounded. 
 
 Elle BSl ah She is wounded. 
 
 Nous sooimes blesses or blessees. We art: wounded. 
 
 Vim- fetes blesses or Met You are wounded. 
 
 IN soot bleast s. ) m, . . 
 
 .... > They u re wounded. 
 
 Biles Boat bk s J 
 
 coMi'ol'ND PERFECT. 
 
 J' si ete blesse or bli 1 have been wounded. 
 
 Tu as ete blesse or bte Thou hatt been wounded, 
 
 II :i » tc blesse. He ha» been wounded. 
 
 rile a ete blessee. She hoe been vounded. 
 
 irons ete Met We h<tr> turn wounded. 
 • l. You have been wounded. 
 
 I They have been wounded. 
 
 Elk ^ oat bti S 
 
 And so on with the other tenses. 
 
 451, A paradigm of the conjugation of neuter verba 
 which take the auxiliary ttrt to ht\ in their compound tenses. 
 
 The simple tenses of these verba arc conjugated like 
 those ot frappt t to strike; all the difference consists in the 
 compound tenses, which arc conjugated like the tenses of 
 passive verbs. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 KNT. 
 
 T, irnl.tr. To/all. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Etre tombe or tombec To have /alien. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 159 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Tomb ant. Falling. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Tombe or tombee. Fallen. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Etant tombe or tombee. Having fallen. 
 
 Indicative mood. — Compound Tenses* 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je suis tombe or tombee. / have fallen. 
 
 Tu es tombe or tombee. Thou hast fallen. 
 
 II est tombe. He has fallen. 
 
 Elle est tombee. She has fallen. 
 
 Nous sommes tombes or tombees. We have fallen. 
 
 Vous etes tombes or tombees. You have fallen. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J' etais tombe or tombee. / had fallen. 
 
 Tu etais tombe or tombee. Thou hadst fallen. 
 
 II etait tombe. He had fallen. 
 
 Elle etait tombee. She had fallen. 
 
 Nous etions tombes or tombees. We had fallen. 
 
 Vous etiez tombes or tombees. You had fallen. 
 
 lis etaient tombes. ? n*h~. t.Jx^ij^, 
 
 Elles etaient tombees. \ Th ^ h « d f* llen - 
 
 And so on with the other compound tenses. 
 452. A paradigm of the conjugation of pronominal verbs. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRE9ENT. 
 
 Se louer. To praise one^s self. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S'etre loue or louee. To have praised one's self 
 
 Participles* 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Se louant. Praising. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Loue or louee. Praised. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 S'etant loue or louee. Having praised one's self. 
 
160 p THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 
 
 
 PRESENT TBNSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 me 
 
 loue. 
 
 
 J praise myself. 
 
 Tu 
 
 le 
 
 loues. 
 
 
 Thou j raisest l/i 
 
 11 
 
 se 
 
 loue. 
 
 
 He //raises himself. 
 
 Nous uous 
 
 louons. 
 
 
 Jl'c praise ouri 
 
 Vuus 
 
 vou's 
 
 louez. 
 
 
 You praise ' / '" 1 ' 5 
 ' », yourselves. 
 
 lis 
 
 se 
 
 louent. 
 
 MPEItFECT 
 
 They praise themselves. 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 me 
 
 
 
 I .praised myself. 
 
 Tu 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 Thou praisetPst th\ 
 
 11 
 
 se 
 
 louait. 
 
 
 /' praised himself. 
 
 
 nous louions. 
 
 
 Wt praised ourselves: 
 
 
 voiis lou 
 
 
 . f a< air si If. 
 > ou in-iiKul ■■ . 
 ' J or yourselves 
 
 lis 
 
 sc 
 
 louaicot. 
 
 
 praised themselves. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jc 
 
 mc 
 
 [onai. 
 
 
 1 praisi 
 
 Tu 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 Thou praisetPst myself. 
 
 II 
 
 
 [>«i i. 
 
 
 II praised himself. 
 
 Nun- 
 
 lu&tnes. 
 
 
 )l> praised ourselves. 
 
 \ eras 
 
 
 
 
 . . . ) yourself. 
 )r„, praxsed 
 
 ' \ or yourselves. 
 
 11, 
 
 sc 
 
 
 
 raised tiumt 
 
 
 
 
 I I I I i;i l ■ 
 
 i. 
 
 nir 
 
 linn mi. 
 
 
 1 trill praisi myself. 
 
 in 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 Thou wilt praise thyself. 
 
 ii 
 
 
 Ii.ncni 
 
 
 Ih will praise himself. 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ursetves 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ' w •/' 
 ' \ yourselves 
 
 IN 
 
 
 
 
 l ! :- inset us 
 
 
 
 
 
 Je 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 T.i 
 
 te 
 
 
 thouldst prai 
 
 II 
 
 
 louerait 
 
 Ih 
 
 •' j>rilisr 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 
 
 louerii /. 
 
 ) 
 
 / should pr i' 
 
 ' trselves. 
 
 li- 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 I I an p) 
 Tu T • ■ Thou hast iiraisrrf 
 
 II. hot praised himself. 
 
 Liic b' est l Sht ■ r« if. 
 
 Nun- 1 
 
 I 
 
 s n*y ******** 
 
TRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 161 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 loue or louee. / had praised myself. 
 loue or louee. Thou hadst praised thyself. 
 
 Je m' etais 
 
 Tu V etais 
 
 II s' etait loue. He 
 
 Elle s' etait louee. She 
 
 Nous nous etions loues or louees. We 
 
 Vous vous eliez loues or louees. You 
 
 lis s' etaient loues. ) m. , 1 j 
 
 Elles b> etaient louees. \ Thf * had 
 
 had 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 praised himself, 
 praised herself, 
 praised ourselves, 
 praised yourselves. 
 
 praised themselves. 
 
 perfect Anterior. 
 
 Je 
 Tu 
 
 II 
 Elle 
 
 se 
 
 fus 
 fus 
 fut 
 fut 
 
 loue or louee. 
 loue or louee. 
 loue. 
 louee. 
 
 ]N T ous nous fumes loues or louees. 
 Vous vous futes loues or louees, 
 lis se furent loues. 
 Elles se furent louees. 
 
 J had praised myself. 
 Thou hadst praised thyself. 
 
 He had praised himself. 
 
 She had praised herself. 
 
 We had praised ourselves. 
 
 You had praised yourselves. 
 
 had praised themselves. 1 
 
 \They 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 J shall have praised myself. 
 Thou wilt have praised thyself. 
 He will have praised himself. 
 She will have praised herself. 
 We shall have praised ourselves.' 
 You will have praised yourselves. 
 
 They will have praised themselves. 
 
 Je me serai loue or louee. 
 Tu te seras loue or louee. 
 II se sera loue. 
 Elle se sera louee. 
 Nous nousserons loues or louees. 
 Vous vous serez loues or louees. 
 lis se seront loues. ) 
 
 Elles se seront louees. \ 
 
 COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je me serais loue or louee. / should have praised myself. 
 Tu te serais loue or louee. Thou shouldst have praised thyself. 
 
 II se serait loue. He should have praised himself . 
 
 Elle se serait louee. She should have praised herself. 
 
 Nous nous serions loues or louees. We should have praised ourselves. 
 
 Vous vous seriez loues or louees. You should have praised yourselves. 
 lis se seraient loues. 
 Elles se seraient louees. 
 
 v They should have praised themselves. 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 Loue-toi 
 se loue. 
 
 Louons-nous 
 
 Louez-vous. 
 
 Qu'ils se louent. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Praise thyself. 
 
 Let him praise himself. 
 
 Let us praise ourselves. 
 
 D . S yourself. 
 
 Jr raise < y J 
 
 l ) or yours 
 
 Let them praise themselves 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que je 
 Que tu 
 Qu' il 
 
 me loue. 
 
 te loues. 
 
 se loue. 
 
 Que nous nous louions. 
 
 Que vous vous lou'iez. 
 
 Qu' ils se louent. 
 
 That I may praise myself. 
 That thou mayst praise thyself. 
 
 That he may praise himself. 
 
 That we may praise ourselves. 
 
 That you may praise £ ^'S 
 
 That they may praise themselves, 
 
 21 
 
162 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Queje me louasse. That I might praise m 
 
 Que tu te louasses. That thou migkst praise thyself. 
 
 Qu' il se Jonat. That he ■■ might praise himself. 
 
 Que nous nous louassions. That we might praise ourselves. 
 
 Que vous vous louassiez. ™. , • , , ) yourself or 
 
 ^ Tnat you might praise \ ■ 
 
 r\ 1 i i S yours. 
 
 Qu' ils se louassent. That they might praisl the ,- 
 
 PERFECT TEN8E. 
 
 Que je me sois loue or louec. That I may have praised myself. 
 Que tu te sois loue or louee. ThatthoumaysthavepraisedViyself. 
 Qu 1 il se soit loue. Thai he may hane praised himi 
 
 Qu 1 elle se Bottlouee< That she may have praised her 
 
 Que nous nous soyons loues or That we may lane praised our- 
 
 Iouees. si Ives. 
 
 Que vous vous fioyez loues or Thai you may have praised your- 
 
 Iouees. selves. 
 
 Qu' ils se soient loues. ) That tiny may have praised (he w- 
 
 Qu' tiles se soicut Iouees. £ st 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que je me fusse lour or louee. Thai I might have praised myself'. 
 
 Quetu te fame* tone »r That thou mighH have praised thy- 
 
 louee. self, 
 
 Qu 1 il se fat ; i he might have praised himself. 
 
 Qu' elle se fut I a T/uil she mighihnve praised herself. 
 
 Que inuis nous fdftsions loues or Z%a/ we might have praised our- 
 
 Qucvou. fom iV' or That you might have praued your* 
 
 Iouees. si ins. 
 Qu' iU S( > fassenl loues. \ That they might have praised them- 
 Qu' elles se fasseul Iouees. s 
 
 »3. Conjugation of the irregular rerb En-coyer to 
 
 ■•(') 
 
 live maud. 
 Km. To send. 
 
 Aroii i in 
 
 /'■ 
 
 ant. 
 
 ■ 
 
 (I.) All the ii ' ,l coodi- 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 163 
 
 ' Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 J' envoie. / send. 
 
 Tu envoies. Thou sendest. 
 
 II envoie. He sends. 
 
 Nous envoyons. We send. 
 
 Vous envoyez. You send. 
 
 Us envoient. They send. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 J' envoyais. / sent. 
 
 Tu envoyais. Thou sentcst. 
 
 II envoyait. He sent. 
 
 Nous envoyions. We sent. 
 
 Vous envoy iez. You sent. 
 
 lis envoyaient. They sent. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 J' envoyai. I sent. 
 
 Tu envoyas. Thou sentest. 
 
 II envoya. He sent. 
 
 Nous envoyames. We sent. 
 
 Vous envoyates. You sent. 
 
 lis envoy erent. They sent. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 J' enverrai. I shall send. 
 
 Tu enverras. Thou wilt send. 
 
 II enverra. He will send. 
 
 Nous enverrons. We shall send. 
 
 Vous enverrez. You will send. 
 
 lis enverront. They will send. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 J' enverrais. I shoidd send. 
 
 Tu enverrais. Thou shouldst send. 
 
 11 enverrait. He should send. 
 
 Nous enverrons. We should send. 
 
 Vous enverriez. You should send. 
 
 Us enverraient. They should send, 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai envoye. / have sent, 
 
 Tu as envoye. Thou hast sent. 
 
 II a envoye. He has sent. 
 
 Nons avens envoye. We have sent. 
 
 Vous avez envoye. You have sent: 
 
 lis ont envoye. . They have sent. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Envoie. Send thou. 
 
 Qu'il envoie. Let him send. 
 
 Envoyons. Let us send. 
 
 Envoyer. Send ye. 
 
 Qu'ils envoient. , Let them send, 
 
164 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que j' 
 
 envoie. 
 
 That I may send. 
 
 Que lu 
 
 envoics. 
 
 That thou mayst send. 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 envoie. 
 
 Thai he may send. 
 
 Que nous 
 
 envoyions. 
 
 That ice may send. 
 
 Que vous 
 
 envoyiez. 
 
 That you may said. 
 
 Qu' ils 
 
 euvoient. 
 
 That they may stnd. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 Que j' 
 
 envoya^e. 
 
 That I might send. 
 
 Que tu 
 
 envoyasses. 
 
 That thou mighst said. 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 envoyat. 
 
 That he might stud. 
 
 Que nous 
 
 envuynssions. 
 
 That xce might send. 
 
 Que vous 
 
 envoyassiez. 
 
 That you might send- 
 
 Qu' ils envoyassent. That they might stnd. 
 
 154. Conjugation of the irregular verb Aller to go. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Aller. To go. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Eire alle or alW-o. To be or have gone 
 
 Participles, 
 
 no -l H r. 
 Allant. Going. 
 
 pkrfect. 
 Alle, allre. Gone. 
 
 < OMrOUNO PERFECT. 
 
 Ktant alle ( r alle*. Being or having gone 
 
 Indicative mood, 
 
 i in -ln t i i \-r. 
 
 .It- -•(') 1 go. 
 
 Tu i ThnugoesL 
 
 II \ i. /// 
 
 ikms. /' i go. 
 
 fllez, 1 '"» 
 
 lis vuut. Titty go. 
 
 FfTi i.i ; i n-i . 
 
 J 1 irni. / tholtgo. 
 
 Tu iras. 7%au 
 
 II i r ;» - //- »/■/// go 
 
 nun.. // - thallgo. 
 
 } ../i 
 
 Dl ■ 77im/ will go, 
 
 . ihan Jc vas. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 165 
 
 J' allais. 
 
 Tu allais. 
 
 II allait. 
 
 Nous allions. 
 
 Vous alliez. 
 
 lis allaient. 
 
 J' allai. 
 
 Tu alias. 
 
 II alia. 
 
 Nous allames. 
 
 Vous allates. 
 
 Us allereut. 
 
 Tu irais. 
 11 irait. 
 Nous irions. 
 Vous iriez. 
 Us iraient. 
 
 Je suis 
 
 Tu es 
 
 II est 
 
 Elle est 
 
 . IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 / did go. 
 Thou didst go. 
 
 He did go. 
 
 We did go. 
 
 You did go. 
 
 They did go. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 J went. 
 Thou wentest, 
 He went. 
 We went. 
 You went. 
 They went. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE 
 
 / should go, 
 Thou shouldst go. 
 He should go. 
 We should go. 
 You should go. 
 They should go. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 alle or allee. 
 alle or allee. 
 alle. 
 allee. 
 
 / am or have gone 
 Thou art or hast gone 
 He is or has gone 
 She is or has gone. 
 We are or have gone. 
 You are or had gone 
 
 They are or have gone. 
 
 Nous sommes alles or allees. 
 
 Vous etes alles or allees. 
 
 lis sont alles. jl 
 
 Elles sont allees. $ 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Va. Go thou. 
 
 Qu'il aille. Let him go. 
 
 Allons.' Let us go. 
 
 Allez. Go ye. 
 
 Qu'ils aillent. Let them go. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 That I may go 
 That thou mayst go 
 That he may go. 
 That we may go 
 That you may go 
 That they may go. 
 Imperfect tense. 
 
 That I might go. 
 That thou mighst go. 
 That he might go. 
 That we might go. 
 That you might go, 
 That they might go^ 
 
 Quej' 
 
 aille. 
 
 Que tu 
 
 ailles. 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 aille. 
 
 Que nous 
 
 allions. 
 
 Que vous 
 
 alliez. 
 
 Qu' ils 
 
 aillent. 
 
 Quej' 
 
 allasse. 
 
 Que tu 
 
 allasses. 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 allat. 
 
 Que nous allasions. 
 Que vous allassiez. 
 Qu' ils allassent. 
 
106 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE VERB ALLER. 
 
 I. I r , thither, there, is always suppressed before the fu- 
 ture and conditional tenses of this verb, in order to avoid 
 the meeting of two vowels of the same sound ; as, Irez-vous 
 dcrnaina Philadelphie? ouijfirai. (Instead of fy irai.) Vou- 
 lez-vous venir avec moi a la campagnc ? J^irais avec bicn du 
 plaisir, sije lepouvais. (Instead ofj'y irais.) 
 
 II. The imperative va takes s, when followed by y or 
 en : as, Va-s-y. Va-s-cn chercher ; but should y be follow- 
 ed by a verb, no 5 is added to va ; as, Va y faire ce que tu 
 voudras. 
 
 III. The perfect tense of the indicative mood of the verb 
 to be, is often used instead of the perfect tense of allcr \ 
 
 . for pallax). Tufas It voir la semainc 
 
 . for tu alias). II ful trouver son ami. (for il alia). 
 
 ■ rni spectacle, (for nous allames), Vous Jutes 
 
 plaindre a lui. (for vous allates), Hsfurent r autre jour 
 
 . (foi ••<///). 
 
 IV. The compound tenses of the verb ,'tre to be, arc al- 
 bo used in this verb, but not indifferently with it? own. 
 Toe compound tenses ofc/i r express the action <•! b 
 
 . without having returned; but those of c*//-<, not only 
 of b it ing gone, but a! 10 «>r hat ing returned 
 
 r, ditet J'aiiti me promener ce matin. 
 
 I • , tnais it II " ''('' voir sun frire, ]>uis est 
 
 alii ii la chassc. 
 
 V. Alter is frequently uw d an action which is 
 
 e instantly, ii is then rendered by to be,gi 
 
 ! ing to tell you 
 
 wh.it I think of it, // va chanter, he ii -ing. 
 
 \ I. . I to the pronoun ^, and used as an imper- 
 
 sonal verb, mark what is in question, or of what 
 
 • i>- the thing spoken of. Y all r i- rendered in 
 Ire, to \ i ■■ 
 
 honour and life are at stake, are concerned in it, depend 
 m»o;i il 
 
 \ II. Alter, with the word enjoined to it, is conjugated 
 as a pronominal i 
 
 . I u of the pronominal neuter verb s\n 
 
 alltr to go a^ aj . 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1C7 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S'en aller. To go away. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S'en etre alle. To have gone away. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S'en allant Going away. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 S'en etant alle. Having gone away. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je m' en vais or Je m'en vas. / go' away. 
 Tu t' en vas. Thou goest away. 
 
 II s' en va. He goes away. 
 
 Nous nous en allons. We go away. 
 
 Vous vous en allez. You go away. 
 
 lis s' en vont. They go away. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je m' en allais. / did go away. 
 
 Tu V en allais. Thou didst go away. 
 
 II s' en allait. He did go away. 
 
 Nous nous en allions. We did go away. 
 
 Vous vous en alliez. You did go away. 
 
 1 lis s' en allaieat. They did go aivay. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je m' en allai. I went away. 
 
 Tn t' en alias. Thou wentest away. 
 
 II s' en alia. He went away. 
 
 Nous nous en allames. We went away. 
 
 Vous vous en allates. You went away. 
 
 lis s' en allerent. They went away. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Je m' en irai. / shall go away. 
 
 Tu t' en iras. Thou wilt go away. 
 
 II s' en ira. He will go away. 
 
 Nous nous en irons. We shall go away. 
 
 Vous vous en irez. You will go away. 
 
 lis s' en iront. - They will go away. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 Je m' en irais. 
 
 I should go away. 
 
 Tu t 1 en irais. 
 
 Thou shouldst go away, 
 
 11 s 1 en irait. 
 
 He should go away. 
 
 Nous nous en irions, 
 
 We shoidd go away. 
 
 Vous vous en iriez. 
 
 You should go away. 
 
 Us s' en iraient 
 
 They should go away- 
 
168 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je m' en suis alle. 
 Tu t' en es alle. 
 
 II s' en est alle. 
 
 Nous nous en sommes alles. 
 Vous vous en etes alles. 
 lis s' en sont alles. 
 
 / have gone away. 
 Thou hast gone away. 
 He has gone away. 
 We have gone away. 
 You have gone away. 
 They have gone away. 
 
 Va-t'en 
 
 Qu'il s'en aille. 
 
 Allons-uous en 
 Allez-vous en 
 
 Qu'ils s'en ailltnt. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Go thou away. 
 Let him go away. 
 Let us go away. 
 
 Go ye away. 
 Let them go away. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PBE8B0 1 1 | 
 
 Que je m' en aille. That I may go away. 
 
 Que tu t' en uilles. That thou maysl go away. 
 
 Qu' il B 1 en aille. That tie may go away. 
 
 Que nous nous en allions. That we may go away. 
 
 Que Tons tods en al (du may go away. 
 
 q.i' ifc 
 
 Ql|C til 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 they may go away. 
 
 en aillent. 
 
 IMPEBJ E< 1 1 J N8E. 
 
 en all That I might gn away. 
 
 en all. That thou mightt go away. 
 
 en all \i. That he might go away. 
 
 That we might go away 
 That you might go away. 
 That they might go away. 
 
 Que nous nous (ii allasaions. 
 Que rotu row en allassiez. 
 
 Qu 1 Ua s' in .. 
 
 in i INJUGATION. 
 
 I 'he paradigm of verba in ir, of die first class. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 nr. 
 
 BUT. 
 
 >re. 
 
 ii hi 
 
 To /(</: 
 
 i iasant. 
 
 P 
 
 KCT. 
 
 inl gucri. 
 
 ( 0MPO1 •• 
 
 Having cured 
 Indicalivt mood. 
 
 'I'u gu£ris. 
 
 il 
 
 / 
 
 Thou 
 
 It: 
 
 li> tun. 
 > 
 
 They 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 169 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 guerissais. 
 
 / cured. 
 
 Tu 
 
 guerissais. 
 
 Thou curedst. 
 
 11 
 
 guerissait. 
 
 He cured. 
 
 Nous 
 
 guerissions. 
 
 We cured. 
 
 Vous 
 
 guerissiez. 
 
 You cured. 
 
 lis 
 
 guenssaient. 
 
 They cured. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 gueris. 
 
 I cured. 
 
 Tu 
 
 gueris. 
 
 Thou curedst. 
 
 11 
 
 guerit. 
 
 He cured. 
 
 Nous 
 
 guerimes. 
 
 We cured. 
 
 Vous 
 
 guerites. 
 
 You cured. 
 
 lis 
 
 guerirent 
 
 They cured. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 guerirai. 
 
 1 shall cure. 
 
 Tu 
 
 gueriras. 
 
 Thou wilt cure. 
 
 11 
 
 guerira. 
 
 He will cure. 
 
 Nous 
 
 guerirons. 
 
 We shall cure. 
 
 Vous 
 
 gaerirez. 
 
 You will cure. 
 
 lis 
 
 gueriront. 
 
 They will cure. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 guerirais. 
 
 I should cure. 
 
 Tu 
 
 guerirais. 
 
 Thou shouldst cure. 
 
 11 
 
 guerirait. 
 
 He should cure. 
 
 Nous 
 
 gueririons. 
 
 We should cure. 
 
 Vous 
 
 gueri riez. 
 
 You should cure. 
 
 lis 
 
 gueriraient. 
 
 They should cure. 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' 
 
 ai gueri. 
 
 I have cured. 
 
 Tu 
 
 as gueri. 
 
 Thou hast cured. 
 
 11 
 
 a gueri. 
 
 He has cured. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avons gueri. 
 
 We have cured. 
 
 Vous 
 
 avez gueri. 
 
 You have cured* 
 
 lis 
 
 ont gueri. 
 
 They have cured. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J' 
 
 avais gueri. 
 
 I had cured. 
 
 Tu 
 
 avais gueri. 
 
 Thou hadst cured. 
 
 11 
 
 avait gueri. 
 
 He had cured. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avions gueri. 
 
 We had cured. 
 
 Vous 
 
 aviez gueri. 
 
 You had cured. 
 
 lis 
 
 avaient gueri. 
 
 They had cured. 
 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 J' 
 
 eus gueri. 
 
 I had cured. 
 
 Tu 
 
 eus gueri. 
 
 Thou hadst cured. 
 
 11 
 
 eut gueri. 
 
 He had cured. 
 
 Nous 
 
 eumes gueri. 
 
 We had cured. 
 
 Vous 
 
 eutes gueri. 
 
 You had cured. 
 
 lis 
 
 eurent gueri. 
 
 They had cured. 
 
 21 
 
170 THE ELEMExVTS OP 
 
 compound future. 
 
 J' aurai gueri. I shall have cured. 
 
 Tu auras gueri. Thou wilt have cured. 
 
 II aura gueri. He will have wed. 
 
 Nous aurons g-ueri. We shall have cured. 
 
 Vous aurez gueri. You icill have cured. 
 
 Us auront gueri. They will have cured. 
 
 COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J' aurais gueri. / should have cured. 
 
 Tu aurais gueri. Thou shoiddsl have cured. 
 
 II aurait gueri. He should have cured. 
 
 Nous aurions gueri. We should have cured- 
 
 Vous auriez gueri. You should have, cured. 
 
 lis auraient gueri. They should have cured. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Gueri--. Cure thou. 
 
 Qu'il gueri<-<\ Let him cure. 
 
 Guerissons. Let us cure. 
 
 Oik rissez. Cure ye. 
 
 (lu'ih gucrisscnt. Let them cure. 
 
 Subjunctive .Mood. 
 
 MUKUEin TK1*8B. 
 
 Que je gucriscr. That I may cure. 
 
 Que tu gal | '/'/„,/ thou ntttfftt cure. 
 
 Qu 1 il guirase. That he may curt. 
 
 Que nous gneru That we may a 
 
 H<it- v.ius -u. h*m,./.. That una may curt, 
 
 Qu' ils guir. That ~lh, y may , 
 
 UCFKBI mi ii n-i 
 
 Q" r I* C" - Thai I muthi cure. 
 
 Qneta gw That thou mtf. htt < 
 
 Qu" .1 iru.r.t. I /., „„-.,/,, ,„,.,, 
 
 Que nun •/■/,„/ , r ,. , 
 
 Thai you might i 
 Q u ' »'■> t-f" ri That they might cure. 
 
 rrru kit l • 
 
 '' gveri. Thai I may haw curd. 
 
 Q"" That thou mayti have cured. 
 
 Q"' >' -"i gut may hat 
 
 Q"«- -• u may A 
 
 Qu' il. uentgu That they may ha\ 
 
 II I I LIU LOT. 
 
 ( J ,lr / ' -e cured. 
 
 Q"' '' «M g „„_/,/ /, , 
 
 Que d ,,,,. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 171 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECOND CLASS OF VERBS 
 IN 1R. 
 
 I. Btnir to bless, besides its regular perfect participle, 
 has benit, btnite used in speaking of things consecrated to 
 divine worship by the benediction of a priest; as, du pain 
 benit, de Peau benite. 
 
 II. Flcurir to flower, to flourish, besides its present par- 
 ticiple jleurissant, and imperfect tense Jleurissait. jleuris- 
 saient, has florissant, Jlorissait, Jlorissaient, and in a figura- 
 tive sense ; as, C' ] est un pays Jlorissant. Le commerce Jlo- 
 rissait. Les beaux-arts Jlorissaient. 
 
 III. Hair to hate, is irregular in its pronunciation only. 
 In the three persons singular of the present of the indicative 
 mood, and in the second person singular of the imperative, 
 the diaeresis is dropt, and ai is pronounced like e; je hais, 
 tu hais, il hait ;~hais. 
 
 457. The paradigm of verbs in ir, of the second class. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Sentir. Tofeel. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoi 
 
 r senti. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To have^ 
 
 Sentant. 
 
 
 Feeling. 
 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 Senti 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT 
 
 Felt. 
 
 Ayant senti. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 Having^ 
 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 Je sens. 
 Tu sens. 
 11 sent. 
 
 Nous sentons. 
 Vous sentez. 
 lis sentent. 
 
 I feel. 
 Thou feelett. 
 He feels. ■ 
 We feel. 
 You feel. 
 Theyfeel. 
 
 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 
 Je sentais. 
 Tu sentais. 
 11 sentait. 
 Nous sentions. 
 Vous sentiez. 
 lis sentaient. 
 
 / fell. 
 Thoufellst. 
 He felt. 
 We felt. 
 You felt. 
 Theyfelt. 
 
172 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 
 Je sentis. 
 
 
 / felt. 
 
 
 Tu sentis. 
 
 
 Thou feltst. 
 
 
 11 sentit. 
 
 
 He felt. 
 
 
 Nous senlimes. 
 
 
 Wc felt. 
 
 
 Vous sentites. 
 
 
 You felt. 
 
 
 Us sentireut. 
 
 
 They felt. 
 
 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 
 Je sentirai. 
 
 
 / ' shall 
 
 feel. 
 
 Tu sentiras. 
 
 
 Thou wilt 
 
 feel. 
 
 11 sentira. 
 
 
 He will 
 
 feel. 
 
 Nous sentirons. 
 
 
 We shall 
 
 feel. 
 
 Vous sentirez. 
 
 
 You will 
 
 feel. 
 
 Us sentiront. 
 
 
 They will 
 
 feel. 
 
 CONDITIONAL 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 
 Je sentirais. 
 
 
 / should 
 
 feel 
 
 Tu sentirais. 
 
 
 Thou should 
 
 ttfeel. 
 
 11 Bentirait 
 
 
 Ih shouh, 
 
 feel 
 
 IVous aentiriona. 
 
 
 We shouk 
 
 fed 
 
 \ mii-, aentartez. 
 
 
 You should 
 
 f,il. 
 
 Ik aentiraient 
 
 
 Thru should feel. 
 
 
 COMPOUND 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 J' ai scnti. 
 
 
 / have 
 
 fit. 
 
 Tu aa aenti. 
 
 
 Thnn hast 
 
 f,ll. 
 
 II ,i aenti. 
 
 
 ih hoi 
 
 I'll. 
 
 iNmis arom -( dH> 
 
 
 II ■ have 
 
 '/' " 
 
 \ out ;iv. /. aenti. 
 
 
 > have 
 
 
 Da out scnti. 
 
 
 They have 
 
 fell. 
 
 
 hnperatix 
 
 mood* 
 
 
 
 
 Firl thou. 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 
 Lit him feel. 
 
 ■in. 
 
 
 Lei at feel 
 
 ites. 
 
 
 ■ ye, 
 
 Qu'ils aentent 
 
 
 l.i 1 limit fn I 
 
 
 
 Subjunctivi mood. 
 
 
 
 f i ii tiaa. 
 
 
 Qae je aenta 
 
 
 Thai I mt 
 
 Que tu m ate*. 
 
 
 Thai Hum ,„ 
 
 ,,/st feel 
 
 Qll 1 ll M'lllc. 
 
 
 may feel, 
 
 <^ le i 
 
 
 11/ Jul. 
 
 Que k 
 
 
 That you huh/ i'h i. 
 
 Qu' il- aentefet 
 
 
 That they may feel 
 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thai I might fi'l. 
 
 Qae in at nl 
 
 
 Thai th0U 7,u 
 
 ghrtfeel 
 
 Qu' ll -.•Mil. 
 
 
 Thai he mi 
 
 rhi feel 
 
 Qae aoaa aentianiooa. 
 
 Thai \n m\ 
 
 <^ur rona Mm. 
 
 
 Thai you might Jul. 
 
 Qu' iU aeotisaent 
 
 
 That they might feel% 
 
A 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 
 
 173 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECOND CLASS OF VERBS 
 IN IR. 
 
 I. The following verbs are conjugated like senlir. 
 
 Ressortir. to go out again. 
 
 Dormir. to sleep. 
 
 Redormir. to sleep again. 
 
 Endormir. to lull asleep. 
 
 S'endovmir. to/all asleep. 
 
 Consentir. 
 
 Pressentir. 
 
 Ressentir. 
 
 Mentir. 
 
 Dementir. 
 
 Se dementir. 
 
 Partir. 
 
 Repartir. 
 
 Se Repentir. 
 
 Sortir. 
 
 to consent. 
 
 to foresee. 
 
 to resent. 
 
 to Le. 
 
 to give the lie. 
 
 to belie one's self. Se rendormir. to fall asleep again. 
 
 to set out- Servir. to serve. 
 
 to set out again. Se servir. to make use. 
 
 to repent. Desservir. to clear the table. 
 
 to go out. 
 
 II. Repartir to distribute, ressortir to belong to the juris- 
 diction of, and sortir to obtain, are conjugated like guerir 
 to cure. 
 
 458. The paradigm of verbs in ir, of the third class. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir ouvert. To have opened^ 
 Participles. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Opened. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Ouvrir. To open. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Ouvrant. Opening. Ouvert. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant ouvert. Having 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 J> ouvre. 
 
 Tu ouvres. 
 
 II ouvre. 
 
 Nous ouvrons. 
 
 Vous ouvrez. 
 
 lis ouvrent. 
 
 J' ouvrais. 
 
 Tu ouvrais. 
 
 II ouvrait. 
 
 Nous ouvrions. 
 
 Vous ouvriez. 
 
 Us ouvraient. 
 
 J' ouvris. 
 
 Tu ouvris. 
 
 II ouvrit. 
 
 Nous ouvrimes. 
 
 Vous ouvrites. 
 
 lis ouvrirent. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 / open. 
 Thou openest. 
 He opens. 
 We open. 
 You open. 
 They open. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE, 
 
 J opened. 
 Thou openedst. 
 He opened. 
 We opened. 
 You opened. 
 They opened. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 / opened. 
 Thou openedst. 
 He opened. 
 We opened. 
 You opened. 
 They opened. 
 
J' 
 
 o-.ivrirai. 
 
 Tu 
 
 ouvnras. 
 
 11 
 
 ouvrira. 
 
 Nous 
 
 ouvr irons. 
 
 Vous 
 
 ouvrirez. 
 
 Us 
 
 ouvriiout. 
 
 J' 
 
 ouvrirais. 
 
 Tu 
 
 ouvrirais. 
 
 11 
 
 ouvrirait. 
 
 Nous 
 
 on vrii ions. 
 
 Vous 
 
 ouvririez. 
 
 Us 
 
 ouvriraient. 
 
 J' 
 
 ai ouvcr 
 
 Tu 
 
 as ouvcr 
 
 11 
 
 a ouvcr! 
 
 174 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 / shall open. 
 Thou wilt open. 
 He will open. 
 We will open. 
 You will open. 
 They will open. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 / should open. 
 Thou shoal (1st open. 
 He should open. 
 We should open. 
 You should open. 
 They should open. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 t. J have opened. 
 
 L Thou hast opined. 
 
 :. He has opened. 
 
 Kooa avons on vert. We have opened, 
 
 Vous avrz ouvert. You home opened, 
 
 lis ont ouvort. They have opened. 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Ouvrc. Open thou. 
 
 Qu'il ouvrc. I. it him Open, 
 
 Ouvrons. Lit us open, 
 
 Oin r ■■-/.. Opm ye. 
 
 Qu'ils ouvrmi. Lei thim open. 
 
 Subjunctive mood, 
 Mu.bh.N i nnsii 
 
 Que j 1 ouvre. That I may open. 
 
 Que tu obvros. That thou mayet open. 
 
 urn re. That he may open. 
 
 ^ ma oorriona. That we may open. 
 
 Qm VOtU I'luruv. That unit may open. 
 
 Qu' ils ouvn-nt. That thi y may open, 
 
 nm ri i r n mm. 
 
 Que j 1 onrrise. That! might open, 
 
 Qm- in n,. That thou mighet open. 
 
 I ouvrit. That In mi^ht opm. 
 
 Que null- inn ritsions. That we might open, 
 
 </in Thai you might open. 
 
 Qa' ila oorruMnL That they might open, 
 
 The following verbs arc conjugated like ouvrir, 
 
 r.iiir'mivnr. to open a tittle. 
 
 Roarrir. to open again. 
 
 C'oiivrir. to cover. 
 
 .: rir. I" (ftl 
 
 ReOOW m. t" Cover again. 
 
 Sooffrir. to tuffer. 
 
 OiVrir. toopr. 
 
 !ni. to offer too little. 
 
FREPJCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 175 
 
 459. THE PARADIGM OF VERBS IN IR, OF THE FOURTH 
 CLASS. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Tenir. To hold. Avoir teDu. To have held. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Tenant Holding. Tenu. Hold. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayanttenu. Hating held. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 tiens. 
 
 / hold. 
 
 Tu 
 
 tiens. 
 
 Thou holdest. 
 
 11 
 
 tient. 
 
 He hold. 
 
 Nous 
 
 tenons. 
 
 We hold. 
 
 Vous 
 
 tenez. 
 
 You hold. 
 
 lis 
 
 tiennent. 
 
 They hold. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 tenais. 
 
 I held. 
 
 Tu 
 
 tenais. 
 
 Thou heldst. 
 
 11 
 
 tenait. 
 
 He held. 
 
 Nous 
 
 tenions. 
 
 We held. 
 
 Vous 
 
 teniez. 
 
 You held. 
 
 lis 
 
 tenaient. 
 
 They held. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 tiendrai. 
 
 1 shall hold. 
 
 Tu 
 
 tiendras. 
 
 Thou wilt hold. 
 
 11 
 
 tiendra. 
 
 He will hold. 
 
 Nous 
 
 tiendrons. 
 
 We shall hold. 
 
 Vous 
 
 tiendrez. 
 
 You will hold. 
 
 lis 
 
 tiendront. 
 
 They will hold. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 tiendrais. 
 
 I should hold. 
 
 Tu 
 
 tiendrais. 
 
 Thou shouldst hold. 
 
 11 
 
 tiendrait. 
 
 He shoidd hold. 
 
 Nous tiendrioos. 
 
 We should hold. 
 
 Vous tiendriez. 
 
 You should hold. 
 
 lis 
 
 tiendraient. 
 
 They should hold. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 tins. 
 
 / held. 
 
 Tu 
 
 tins. 
 
 Thou heldst. 
 
 11 
 
 tint. 
 
 He held. 
 
 Nous tinmes. 
 
 We held. 
 
 Vous tintes. 
 
 You held. 
 
 lis 
 
 tinrent. 
 
 They held. 
 
176 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 J' ai tenu. 
 Tu as tenu. 
 II a tenu. 
 
 Nous avons tenu. 
 Vous avez tenu. 
 lis ont tenu. 
 
 Tiens. 
 Qu'il tienne. 
 Tenons. 
 Tenez. 
 
 Qu'ils tienuent 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 I have held 
 Thou hast held. 
 He has held. 
 We have held. 
 You have held. 
 They have held. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Hold thou. 
 Let him hold. 
 Let >is hold. 
 
 Hold ye, 
 Let than hold. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PR] -1 NT TENSE. 
 
 Queje tienno. 
 Que tu li« lines. 
 Qn 1 .i tienna 
 
 mils. 
 
 Que .oils tei iez. 
 Qu' ils tit in. i Hi. 
 
 Thai I mai/ hold. 
 That thou maytt hold. 
 That lu may hold. 
 
 Thai \rr may hold. 
 
 That you may hold. 
 That liny may hold. 
 
 nun 
 
 1 1 Nsr. 
 
 
 <^i;i je (in--.'. 
 
 Thai I might hold. 
 
 <^lli- III til 
 
 That thou migktt ho/,/. 
 
 C^u"" li tint 
 
 ie might hold. 
 
 Que now tin 
 
 That he might hold. 
 
 Qui- \,.h- tinaaiez. 
 
 That 
 
 n in might hold. 
 
 Qu 1 iK tit. 
 
 That they might hold. 
 
 The following verbs arc conj 
 
 Ig&ted 
 
 like Tenir, 
 
 ,,ir. to abt 
 
 
 Je me raia aoatsmu 
 
 I 1 nil. ■'',■"■ 
 
 
 J*ai appartenu. 
 
 ,,r. Uain. 
 
 
 . i ".ii contenn. 
 
 i ,, to detain. 
 
 
 .I'.ii ili I. mi. 
 
 Em <i. nir. ,.' up. 
 
 
 .I'.ii ciil i < f .nil. 
 
 Centre teoir, 
 
 
 .!.• mi- sills ctitn (i in 
 
 , nir, to maintain. 
 
 
 .I'll mainlrnil. 
 
 Obtenir. '"'«• 
 
 
 J'ai nlitiTiii. 
 
 lut.mr. ' "'• 
 
 
 .1' ,i i.t. mi. 
 
 Snnt. mi-. tern. 
 
 
 .r.n smili-ini. 
 
 ij me. 
 
 
 Je -his \ i mi. 
 
 A\< nir, to happen. 
 
 
 li est Rvenik 
 
 Iravene. 
 
 
 .r.u < i.nlrivinil. 
 
 (l.) I'rmr followed bj i li<- preposition </'. and ;i verb in tbein6nitire 
 
 nio.nl, desotoa an action very recentlj pas( li is then rendered bj 
 
 i tbe infinitive is translated h\ ■■> perfeol partieipte; as. 
 
 r, I bare juat aeen bim ; UvenaU deeortir qyandvom, 
 
 !>■<, he bad just j^ '^ out when yon came in. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 177 
 
 Conv 
 
 snir, 
 
 to suit. J'ai convenu. 
 to agree. Je suis convenu. 
 
 
 
 Devenir, 
 
 to become. Je suis devenu. 
 
 Disconvenir, 
 
 to deny. Je suis discunvenu. 
 
 Intervenir, 
 
 to intervene. Je suis intervenu. 
 
 Parvenir, 
 
 to arrive. Je suis parvenu. 
 
 Prevenir, 
 
 to anticipate. J'ai prevenu. 
 
 Provenir, 
 
 to proceed. Je suis prevenu. 
 
 Se ressouvenir, 
 
 to remember. Je me suis ressouvenu. 
 
 Reve 
 
 lir, 
 
 to come back. Je suis reveuu. 
 
 Se souvenir, 
 
 to remember. Je me suis souvenu. 
 
 Subvenir, 
 
 to help. J'ai subvenu. 
 
 Survenir, 
 
 to come. Je suis survenu. 
 
 460. Conjugation of the first irregular verb in ir. 
 
 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 Acquerir, 
 
 To acquire. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 Avoir acquis. To have acquired. 
 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 Acquerant. Acquiring. 
 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 Acquis. 
 
 Acquired. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. FUTURE. 
 
 J' 
 
 acquiers. / 
 
 acquire. J' acquerrai. J shall acquire. 
 
 Tu 
 
 acquiers. 
 
 Tu acquerras. 
 
 11 
 
 acquiert. 
 
 11 acquerra. 
 
 Nous 
 
 acquerons. 
 
 Nous acquerons. 
 
 Vous 
 
 acquerez. 
 
 Vous acquerrez. 
 
 lis 
 
 acquierent. 
 
 Ils acquerront. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J' 
 
 acquerais. 1 
 
 acquired. J' acquerrais. I should acquire. 
 
 Tu 
 
 acquerais. 
 
 Tu acquerrais. 
 
 11 
 
 acquerait. 
 
 11 acquerrait. 
 
 Nous 
 
 acquerions. 
 
 Nous acquerrions. 
 
 Vous 
 
 acqueriez. 
 
 Vous acquerriez. 
 
 lis 
 
 acqueraient. 
 
 Ils acquerraient. 
 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' 
 
 acquis. / 
 
 acquired. J' ai acquis. I have acquired. 
 
 Tu 
 
 acquis. 
 
 Tu as acquis. 
 
 11 
 
 acquit. 
 
 11 a acquis. 
 
 Nous 
 
 acquiraes. 
 
 Nous avons acquis. 
 
 Vous 
 
 acquites. 
 
 Vous avez acquis. 
 
 lis 
 
 acquirent. 
 
 lis ont acquis. 
 Imperative mood. 
 Acquiers. Acquire thou. 
 
 
 Qu' il 
 
 acquiere. Let him acquire. 
 Acquerons. Let us acquire. 
 Acquerez. Acquire ye. 
 
 
 Qu' ils 
 
 acquierent. Let them acquire. 
 
 22 
 
178 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Quej 1 acquiere. That I may acquire. 
 
 Que tu acquieres. 
 
 Qu' il acquiere. 
 
 Que nous acquerions. 
 
 Que vous acqueriez. 
 
 Qu' ils acquierent. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que j 1 acqnisse. Thai I might acquire. 
 
 Que tu acquisses. 
 
 Qu' il acquit 
 
 Que nous acquisssions. 
 
 Que vous acquiasiez. 
 
 Qu' lis acquissent. 
 
 The verbs conquerir to conquer, reconquerir to reconquer, 
 rtquerir to require, and s'en^uertr to enquire, are conjuga- 
 ted like acquerir. 
 
 The simple verb querir to fetch, is used only in the in- 
 finitive mood, after the verbs envoyer to send, alter to go, 
 Mid i enir to come, envoyer querir to send for, oiler quirir 
 to go for. venir querir to come for. 
 
 161. Conjugation of the second irregular verb in ir. 
 Infinitive Mood, 
 
 i m . 
 
 
 1 
 
 r. 
 
 
 
 ■ uilt. 
 
 
 
 
 KM 1 i r. 
 
 
 - 
 
 Avoir HM&fllL 
 
 
 
 ' dssiiullitl. 
 
 
 
 
 Pari 
 
 iciph 
 
 ?. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Bt 
 
 
 ting. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anaulted, 
 
 
 nn>i< \ 1 1 
 
 BJBSJUe. 
 
 —bujml 
 aasaiUona. 
 
 1 IT.I 
 
 Ji 
 
 Tu 
 
 11 
 
 i i i ntr. 
 
 Tu 
 
 II 
 
 Now 
 
 / 
 
 uit. 
 
 asaaillirai. / shall assault. 
 
 :i-.-:iill!- 
 
 Msaillira. 
 auailliroot. 
 
 Vmis 
 
 Us 
 
 aauulleg, 
 ■Traillonti 
 
 
 
 Dj 
 
 assaillires. 
 
 ;i- .iilliicint. 
 
 i pi\IiITI(i\ || . 
 
 J' 
 
 T„ 
 
 II 
 
 \ out 
 Da 
 
 :<-v:iill.u-. 
 
 Bunaillait 
 
 .l-Vllll, 
 
 in— illiiH 
 
 / 
 
 Tu 
 
 V«.u- 
 
 B88aiUirai§. / should ussaull 
 
 MsaJlliraUk 
 assaillirait. 
 
 ' H'llS. 
 
 assnilliries. 
 a saillii 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 179 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 J' assaillis. 
 
 Tu assaillis. 
 
 II assaillit. 
 
 Nous assaillimes. 
 
 V T ous assail lites. 
 
 lis assaillirent. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 I assaulted. J 1 ai assailli. 1 have assaulted, 
 
 Tu as assailli. 
 
 II a assailli. 
 
 Nousavons assailli. 
 
 Vous avez assailli. 
 \ Us ont assailli. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Assaille. Assault thou. 
 
 Qu'il assaille. Let him assault. 
 
 Assaillons. Let us assault. 
 
 Assaillez. Assault ye. 
 
 Qu'ils assaillent. Let them assault. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que j' assaille. That I may as- 
 
 Que tu assailles. [sault. 
 
 Qu' il assaille. 
 
 Que nous assaillions. 
 
 Que vous assailliez. 
 
 Qu' ils assaillent. 
 
 Que j' assaillisse. That I might 
 Que tu assaillisses. assault. 
 
 Qu' il assaillit. 
 Que nous assaillissions. 
 Que vous assaillissiez. 
 Qu 1 ils assaillissent. 
 
 Tressaillir to start, to leap, is conjugated like assaillir, 
 but it has no imperative mood. 
 
 The simple verb saillir, when it means to gush out, is 
 conjugated like guerir : but when saillir signifies to jut out, 
 to project, it is conjugated like assaillir, except in the future 
 and conditional tenses, where it has e, instead ofi, before r. 
 Saillant projecting; sailli projected; je saille, tu sailles, il 
 saille, o/c. ; je saillais, tu saillais, il saillait, &c. ; je saillis, 
 tu saillis, il sai Hit, ^c. ; je saillerai, tu sailleras, il saillera, 
 &c; je saillerais, tu saillerais, il saillerait, o/c— This verb 
 is used only in the third person. 
 
 462. Conjugation of the third irregular verb in ir. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Bouillir. To boil. 
 
 
 Avoir bouilli. To have boiled. 
 
 
 Pari 
 
 iciples. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Bouillant Boiling. 
 
 
 Bouilli. Boiled. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je bous. I boil. 
 
 
 Je bouillirai. / shall bail. 
 
 Tu bous. 
 
 
 Tu bouilliras. 
 
 11 bout. 
 
 
 11 bouillira. 
 
 Nous bouillons. 
 
 
 Nous bouillirons. 
 
 Vous bouillez. 
 
 
 Vous bouillirez. 
 
 Ils bouillent. 
 
 
 Ils bouilliront 
 
180 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 bouillais. / boiled. 
 
 Je 
 
 Tu bouillais. 
 II bouillait. 
 Nous bouillions. 
 Vous bouilliez. 
 lis bouillaieut. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je bouillis. 
 Tu bouillis. 
 II bouillit. 
 Nous bouillimci. 
 Vous bouillitcs. 
 lis bouillircnt. 
 
 / boiled. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je bouillirais. / should boil. 
 
 Tu bouillirais. 
 
 II bouillirait. 
 
 Nous bouillirions. 
 
 Vous bouilliriez. 
 
 Us bouilliraieut. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai bouilli. I have boiled. 
 
 Tu as bouilli. 
 
 II a bouilli. 
 
 Nons avons bouilli. 
 
 Vous avez bouilli. 
 
 lis ont bouilli- 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 Boob. Tint I thou. 
 
 bouille. Lei him boil. 
 
 Bouillons. l.'t us boil 
 
 Bouillez. Boil ye. 
 
 Qu'ils bouillent Let them boil. 
 
 8UBJCN. 11\1 PBBSBNT. IMPERKU T. 
 
 Qaeje bouille. 7%at I may oott. Que je bouillissc. 7%atlmighl 
 Que tu boailles. <}"'• '» liouillisses. boil. 
 
 H<r il b.iuilk-. Qu' il bouillit. 
 
 Que i - boaillions. nous bouillissians. 
 
 ,,!„•/. Que ww bouiUiraiez. 
 
 <iu' iN bouillent. <^')' 'I- bouilbiBent 
 
 lir i- always ;« neuter verb: therefore, when the 
 English verb to botl is used in an active -.use. it must be 
 rendered l>v faxrt bouUlir u> cause to boil; as, Boil some 
 -mi, r. faitea bouH(pr de IY;ui. 
 
 1 1 ,,// r to boil, (with dyers) ebouillir to boil away, par- 
 hnuillir to parboil, and rebouillir to boil again, are conjuga- 
 ted like bouUlir, 
 
 16 >. Conjugation of the fourth irregular verb in (V. 
 Infinitive n 
 
 ,:ir. mil \\uir cuuiu. To have run. 
 
 Participi 
 
 
 
 
 n ill f r i . 
 
 Courant 
 
 
 rung*. 
 
 01 II. Jii'll 
 
 1MI 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 m . 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 J« 
 
 ooorrai. J sha 
 
 1 U 
 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 
 i ourt. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 oourra. 
 
 i ouroiu 
 
 
 
 
 courn 
 
 \ on- . 
 
 
 
 \ mis 
 
 
 Ms 
 
 
 
 
 count 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 181 
 
 IMPERFECT. CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je courais. I ran. Je courrais. J shall run. 
 
 Tu courais. Tu courrais. 
 
 II courait." II cdurrait. 
 
 Nous courions. Nous courrions. 
 
 Vous couriez. Vous courriez. 
 
 lis couraient. lis courraient. 
 
 PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je courus. I ran. J' ai couru. I have run. 
 
 Tu courus. Tu as couru. 
 
 II courut. II a couru. 
 
 Nous courumes. Nous avons couru. 
 
 Vous courutes. Vous avez couru; 
 
 lis coururent. 13s ont couru. 
 
 Imperative mood, ■ 
 
 Cours. Run thou, 
 
 Qu'il coure. Let him run. 
 
 Gourons. Let us run. 
 
 Courez. Run ye. 
 
 Qu'ils courent. Let them run. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje coure. That I may run. Que je ^courusse Thatlmight 
 Que tu coures. Que tu courusses. [run. 
 
 Qu' il coure. Qu' il courut. 
 
 Que nous courions. Que nous courussions. 
 
 Que vous couriez. Que vous courussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils courent, Qu' ils courussent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds accourir to 
 run to, concourir to concur, discourir to discourse, encou- 
 rir to incur, parcourir to run over, recourir to have recourse, 
 and secourir to assist. 
 
 464. Conjugation of the fifth irregular verb in ir. 
 Infinitive mood, 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Cueillir. To gather. Avoir cueilli. To have gathered. 
 
 Participles, - 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Cueillant. Gathering. Cueilli. Gathered. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. FUTURE. 
 
 Je cueille- I gather. Je cueillerai. I shall gather, 
 
 Tu cueilles. Tu cueilleras. 
 
 II cueille. II cueillera. 
 
 Nous cueillons. Nous cueillerons. 
 
 Vous cueillez. Vous cueillerez. 
 
 Us cueillent Ils cueilleront 
 
183 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je cueillais. 
 Tu cueillais. 
 Tl cueillait. 
 Nous cueillions. 
 Vous cueillif'z. 
 lis cueillaient. 
 
 / gathered. 
 
 .'c cueillis. 
 Tu cueillis. 
 II cueiilit. 
 Nous rii'.iliimes. 
 Vous cueillites. 
 lis cneillirent 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 / gathered. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je cutillerais. I should gather 
 
 Tu cueillerais. 
 
 II cueillerait. 
 
 Nous cucillerions. 
 
 Vous cueilleriez. 
 
 lis cueilleraient. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J'ai 
 
 Tu as 
 II a cueilli. 
 
 Nuns avons cueilli. 
 Vous avcz cueilli. 
 lis out cueilli. 
 
 cueilli./ have gathered. 
 
 cueilli. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 CoeuTe. 
 
 Qu'il cucille. 
 
 ( ucillons. 
 < ueille/. 
 
 Qn'i!- cueiilent. 
 
 BUBJClfCTOT PRK >.f \t. 
 
 Gather thou. 
 Li i him gather. 
 Let ut gather. 
 
 Gather ye. 
 
 Let them gather. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 irillo. Tluil 1 may ga- Que je cueillisse. That I might 
 Quota eneilles. [ther. Que tu cueilli gather. 
 
 Qn' il eneille. Qu 1 il cueiilit. 
 
 Qoeaoai eaeiHioas. <^ i nous cueilliuaont. 
 
 m oneillies. Que vous cueillisfiiez. 
 
 Qft' ilfl ciieillem. <^u' ils cueillisscnt. 
 
 Conjugate in the Bame manner its compounds accucillir 
 to vrelcome, and n cueiliir to collect. 
 
 . Conjugation of the sixth irregular verb in ir. 
 
 [nfinUivt mood. 
 
 
 •ftZSl H r. 
 
 PI UPXi i. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 To fty. 
 
 Avoir I'ui. To have Jlid. 
 
 
 Parlt- 
 
 
 
 PI ft] i i p. 
 
 1' ■ : v :i n t . 
 
 Flying. 
 
 Foi. Fled. 
 
 ihdii a rn i pftxi e* r. 
 
 n Tl UK. 
 
 fail. 
 
 Tu Ink 
 II fu.t. 
 
 Nnui fayom 
 
 tf'J- 
 
 Je fuirni. / shall Jly. 
 Tu fuinis. 
 11 fiiira. 
 
 Pfoui fuirons. 
 
 1W/. 
 
 11-. fun lit 
 
 
 \ OOa f'lirez. 
 lit fuiront. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR, 
 
 11)3 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 CONDITIONAL 
 
 Je 
 Tu 
 
 fuyais. 
 fuyais. 
 
 Ijled. 
 
 Je fuirais / 
 Tu fuirais. 
 
 should jly. 
 
 11 
 
 Nous 
 
 fuyait. 
 fuyions. 
 
 
 11 fuirait. 
 Nous fuirions. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 fuyiez. 
 
 
 Vuus fuiriez. 
 
 
 lis 
 
 fuyaient. 
 
 
 lis fuiraient. 
 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je 
 Tu 
 
 fuis. 
 
 fuis 
 
 Jjled. 
 
 J' ai fui. 
 
 Tu as fui. 
 
 I havejltd. 
 
 11 
 
 fuit. 
 
 
 11 a fui. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 fuimes. 
 
 
 Nous avons fui. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 fuites. 
 
 
 Vous avez fui. 
 
 
 lis 
 
 fuirent. 
 
 
 lis out fui. 
 
 
 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 
 
 Fuis. 
 Qu'il fuie. 
 
 Fuyons. 
 
 Fuyez. 
 Qu'ils fuieut. 
 
 Fly thou. 
 Let him jly. 
 Let us jly. 
 
 Fly ye. 
 Let them jly. 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Que je fuie. That I may jly 
 
 Que ta fuies. 
 
 Qu' il fuie. 
 
 Que nous fuyions . 
 
 Que vous fuyiez. 
 
 Qu' ils fuient. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 fuisse. That I might jly. 
 
 Que je 
 
 Que tu 
 
 Qu' il fuit. 
 
 Que nous fuissions. 
 
 Que vous fuissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils fuissent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner it compound s^enfuir to 
 run away. 
 
 466. Conjugation of the seventh irregular verb in it. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Mourir. To die. 
 
 «. . 5 To be dead. 
 Etremort. \ Tohavedk(l 
 
 , Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Mourant Dying. 
 
 Mort. \^f 
 ( Died. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je meurs. 1 die. 
 
 Jd mourrai. I shall di 
 
 Tu meurs. 
 
 Tu mourras. 
 
 11 meurt. 
 
 11 mourra. 
 
 Nous mourons. 
 
 Nous mourrons. 
 
 Vous mourez. 
 
 Vous mourrez. 
 
 Ils meureut 
 
 Ils mourront 
 
181 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL.. 
 
 Je mourais. 
 
 
 / died. 
 
 Je 
 
 mourrais. / should die 
 
 Tu mourais. 
 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 mourrais. 
 
 11 mourait. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 mourrait. 
 
 Nous mourious. 
 
 
 
 Nous mourrions. 
 
 Vous mouriez. 
 
 
 
 Vous mourricz. 
 
 lis mouraient. 
 
 
 
 Us 
 
 niourraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je inourus. 
 Tu mourus. 
 
 
 I dud. 
 
 Je 
 
 . S / am dead. 
 su.s mort. [ Ihavedi£d 
 
 11 mourut. 
 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 es mort. 
 
 Nous mourumes. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 est mort. 
 
 Vous moun'ilcs. 
 
 
 
 Nous sommes inorts. 
 
 Us moururcnt. 
 
 
 
 Vous fetes morts. 
 
 
 
 
 Us 
 
 sont morts. 
 
 
 
 Impi ratvct 
 
 mood. 
 
 
 Miiir-. 
 
 
 Die thou. 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 IIICI1IC. 
 
 / 
 
 1 him die. 
 
 
 "\Icti 
 
 on^. 
 
 die. 
 
 
 Mi. n 
 
 
 
 D'u ye. 
 
 Qui! 
 
 nun 
 
 Lilt. 
 
 l,t I Hunt dit. 
 
 pbssen r. 
 Que je im lire, That f mjay dk Que je 
 Que tu meures. Que to 
 
 Qu' il noeure. Qu' 'I 
 
 tMPKHFI I I • 
 
 mourusse. Thatliught 
 mourut [die. 
 
 mourut 
 
 Que Doui mouri Que " m|s mouruasions. 
 
 ia mouriez. Que *oub moaruuies. 
 
 Qu 1 iU meurent Qu 1 ils mounnBeot 
 
 Mourir take- the pronominal form in the present and 
 imperfect tenses of the indicative mood, and then signifies 
 to I" at tfu point "I'd, tah. to be dying ; as, Je m meurs I 
 am dying, tu U meurs thou art dying, il >< meurlhe is dying, 
 g fC< j i W aa dying, ra te mourais, U st tnou- 
 
 rot/, nous nout mourions, Sic* 
 
 i,,, of the eighth irregular rerib in ir. 
 mod* 
 na ,M; ' 
 
 Avoir v .tu. To ham clothed- 
 
 Participles* 
 
 Vtlir. 
 
 i n r. 
 Vctant. 
 
 im.k ltiti lio 
 
 .!,> i / tloths. 
 
 Tu l 
 II 
 
 (fan \ ■ 
 
 Mil HI . 
 
 Jr \. iir:u. 
 'I'u \i-Ih:i-\ 
 II Vi tint. 
 
 i nous. 
 
 ■ HIV/.. 
 
 lit retiront 
 
 Clothed. 
 
 1 shall ehthc 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 185 
 
 tMPERFECT. CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je vetais. / clothed. Je vetirais. 1 should clothe. 
 
 Tu vetais. Tu vetirais. 
 
 II vetait. II vetirait. 
 
 Nous vetions. Nous vetirions. 
 
 Vous vetiez. Vous vetiriez. 
 
 Ils vetaient. Ils vetiraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je yetis. I clothed. J' 
 
 Tu vetis. Tu as vetu. 
 
 11 vetit. II a vetu. 
 
 Nous vetimes. Nous avons vetu. 
 
 Vous vetites. Vous avez vetu. 
 
 Ils vetirent. Ils ont vetu. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 ai vetu. I have clothed. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Vets. 
 Qu'il vete. 
 
 Vetons. 
 
 Vetez. 
 Qu'ils vetent. 
 
 Clothe thou. 
 Let him clothe. 
 Let us clothe. 
 
 Clothe ye. 
 Let them clothe. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje vete. That I may 
 
 Que tu vetes. 
 
 Qu' il vete. 
 
 Que nous vetions. 
 
 Que vous vetiez. 
 
 Qu' ils vetent. 
 
 clothe. Queje vetisse. That I might 
 Que tu vetisses. {clothe. 
 Qu' il vetit 
 Que nous vetissions. 
 Que vous vetissiez. 
 Qu' ils vetissent. 
 
 The verb is oftener used as a reflected verb se vetir to 
 clothe one's self. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds devetir to 
 undress, to divest ; revetir to clothe ; and survitir to put on 
 clothes over others. 
 
 468. Of the defective verbs in ir. 
 
 Faillir to fail ; faillant failing ; failli failed ; je faillis 
 I failed, tu faillis thou failest, il faillit he failed, &c. 
 
 Hi I had failed, and so 
 que je faillisse that I 
 
 failli I have failed, &c. ; j">avais ft 
 on with all the compound tenses 
 
 might fail, que tufaillisses, &c— The Academy gives this 
 verb as complete : Pres. Je faux, tu faux, il faut, nous 
 faillons, vous faillez, ilsfaillent ; Imperf. Jefaillais ; Fut. 
 Jefaudrai; Cond. Je faudrais ; Sub. pres. Que je faille. 
 Defaillir to faint; defaillant fainting; nous defaillons we. 
 faint, vous defaillez you faint, ils dlfaillent they faint ; je 
 defaillais I was fainting, hi defaillais, &c. ; je defaillis I 
 fainted, tu defaillis, &c. ; j^ai defailli I have fainted, tu as 
 23 
 
Ifi6 THE ELEMENTS" OF 
 
 dtfailli, &c. ; and so on with all the compound lenses J 
 que je defaillisse that I might faint, que tu defaillisses, fyc. 
 
 Ferir to strike ; as, Nous primes la ville sans coup ferir, 
 Feru smitten : as, II estferu de cette dame, II estferu con- 
 tre vous, 
 
 (Gir or gesir to lie. This infinitive mood is no more 
 used). Gissa)it lying; je gis I lie, tu.gis thou liest, il git 
 he lies, ci-git here lies, (in epitaphs); le plaisir git dans la 
 moderation happiness lies or consists in moderation ; nous 
 gissons we lie, vous gissez you lie, Us gissent they lie ; je 
 gissais I did lie, tu gissais, il gissait, &c. 
 
 (Issir to issue. This infinitive mood is no longer used). 
 hsu, issue, issued. 
 
 Ou'ir to hear; out heard; j^ouis 1 heard, tu ouis thou 
 heardst, il ouit, kc. ; j\ti om I have heard, tu as oui, il a 
 oui, and so on with all the compound tenses ; j^ouirai 1 
 shall bear, tu ou'ira. il ouira, fyc. ; Touirais I should hear. 
 tu ouirais, il ou'irait, iy-c. — The following tenses were for- 
 merly used: Pres. partic. Oyant ; I\n. pres. J'ois, tu ois. 
 il oit t nous oyone, vous oyez, us oient, imp. floyais, tu oyau. 
 ^c. Imperat. Ois. (judaic, oyons, oyez, qu'ile oient, 
 
 THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 4G9. The paradigm of verbs in evoir, 
 fnfinuHvt mood. 
 
 NUHSNT. 
 
 PEBEECT. 
 
 Dcroir. To owe. 
 
 Avoir du. 
 
 To hate owed. 
 
 Part 
 
 icijiles. 
 
 
 ni -V.NT. 
 
 rr.RFKCT. 
 
 LVvant. Owing. 
 
 DA, dur. 
 
 Owed. 
 
 oaMvouim I'HiiKiT. 
 
 
 Ay ant du 
 
 Having 
 
 owed. 
 
 indicative mood. 
 
 
 mmi r i • ■ 
 
 PI RTECT i i 
 
 Jc dois. / owe. 
 
 Jo dns. 
 
 I OUI (1 
 
 Tu dms. Thou OWt if, 
 
 Tu dus. 
 
 Thou a 
 
 II dnit. //- 
 
 II dot 
 
 11* owed. 
 
 Now d< rone, // < 
 
 Nooi domes. 
 
 It a 
 
 Von devet. )'<>■. 
 
 
 ) 
 
 IU doiveat 
 
 IU dunnt. 
 
 They owed. 
 
 IMCUI1FXT n 
 
 roTcai f . 
 
 Jc devais. / owed. 
 
 Je devrai. 
 
 I thallovt 
 
 Tu d< V;il«. 2ftOM "!<•< rflfc 
 
 Tu di 
 
 Thou / 
 
 11 dermit //- owed. 
 
 II dei ii. 
 
 Hr will out 
 
 Now deviow. JFTi owed. 
 
 Now devToni. 
 
 We ihaliove. 
 
 Vow d< \ ii /. You owed. 
 
 VOW (lev liv. 
 
 ) Hill (IV, . 
 
 lis dcvaicnt. 7Vy owed. 
 
 • 1 rout. 
 
 ill vice. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 187 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 Je 
 
 devrai.i. 
 
 / should owe. 
 
 Tu 
 
 devrais. 
 
 Thou shouldst owe. 
 
 11 
 
 devrait. 
 
 He should owe. 
 
 Nous de?rions. 
 
 We should owe. 
 
 Vous devriez. 
 
 You should owe. 
 
 Us 
 
 devraient. 
 
 They should owe. 
 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' 
 
 ai dO. 
 
 I have owed. 
 
 Tu 
 
 as dO. 
 
 Thou hast owed. 
 
 11 
 
 a dO, 
 
 He has owed. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avons dO. 
 
 We have owed. 
 
 Vous 
 
 avez du. 
 
 You have owed 
 
 Us 
 
 ont dO, 
 
 They have owed 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J' 
 
 avais du. 
 
 I had owed. 
 
 Tu 
 
 avais dO. 
 
 Thou hadst owed. 
 
 11 
 
 avait du. 
 
 He had owed. 
 
 Nous 
 
 avions dO. 
 
 We had owed. 
 
 Vous 
 
 aviez dO. 
 
 You had owed. 
 
 lis 
 
 avaient du. 
 
 They had owed. 
 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 J' 
 
 eus du. 
 
 1 had owed. 
 
 Tu 
 
 eus dO. 
 
 Thou hadst owed. 
 
 11 
 
 eut dO. 
 
 He had owed. 
 
 Nous 
 
 eumes dO. 
 
 We had owed. 
 
 Vous 
 
 eOtes du. 
 
 You had owed. 
 
 lis 
 
 eurent du. 
 
 They had owed. 
 
 
 COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 J' 
 
 aurai du. 
 
 1 shall have owed. 
 
 Tu 
 
 auras du. 
 
 Thou wilt have owed. 
 
 11 
 
 aura dO. 
 
 He will have owed. 
 
 Nous 
 
 aurons du. 
 
 We shall have owed. 
 
 Vous 
 
 aurez du. 
 
 You will have owed. 
 
 lis 
 
 auront dO. 
 
 They will have owed. 
 
 
 COMPOUND 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J> 
 
 aurais du. 
 
 / should have owed. 
 
 Tu 
 
 aurais dO. 
 
 Thou shouldst have owed. 
 
 11 
 
 aurait dO, 
 
 He should have owed. 
 
 Nous 
 
 aurions du. 
 
 We should have owed. 
 
 Vous 
 
 auriez dO. 
 
 You should have owed. 
 
 Us 
 
 auraient dO. 
 
 They should have owed, 
 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 
 Dojs. 
 
 Owe thou. 
 
 
 Qu'il doive. 
 
 Let him owe. 
 
 
 Devons. 
 
 Let us owe. 
 
 
 Devez. 
 
 Owe ye* 
 
 
 Qu'ils doivent, 
 
 Let them oy>.e. 
 
138 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 PB.ESE.NT TENSE. 
 
 Que je doive. That I may oicc, 
 
 Que tu doives. That thou mayst owe. 
 
 Qu 1 ll doive. That he may owe. 
 
 Que nous devious. That we may owe. 
 
 Que vous deviez. That you may owe. 
 
 Qu' ils doneiit. That they may owe. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que je dusse. That I might owe. 
 
 Que tu dusses. Thai thou mighst owe. 
 
 Qu 1 il d.'it. That he might owe. 
 
 Que nous dr.- That we might owe. 
 
 Que vous dm That you might owe. 
 
 Qu 1 Qs duueot That they might owe. 
 
 PERFECT Tr.NSF. 
 Quej' KM (''i. That I may have owed. 
 
 Qoetn aiea du. Thai thou may at have owed, 
 
 Qu> il ml du. That he may have owed. 
 
 Que nous ayoDS d(L That we may haii oictJ. 
 
 . a du. That you may have owed. 
 
 Qu' lis aient du. That they may have Ml 
 
 rLurearacT n r 
 
 Que j' f 08M du. ' I might have owed 
 
 Que in etMMM « ) ■ i . That thou mighbt Kate owed. 
 
 Qu 1 il tut du. TW /it mtgAl Aomj Mi 
 
 Que DouieossioiudO. That we might have owed. 
 
 il \- ..• , ii ii i iiu. I '/"« might ham owed, 
 
 Qu' in eauent du. 77m/ //icy might Amm mmA 
 
 OBSER\ kTIONS ON THE VERB DEPOIR, 
 
 I. I circumflex is placed over the perfect participle ol" 
 . in order to distinguish it from du. the genitive of the 
 
 arti< !c. 
 
 II. I) voir means ;il-<> to &< obliged to something hy duty, 
 
 . or necessity. It i* then rendered bj oughts 
 ; as, 
 
 I know h l,at I ought to do. 
 
 ^ ' m mid fear to displease kim. 
 
 i trir. All men mm! die. 
 
 III. /' do r i- often used to express a future action; in 
 which case it la rendered bj the verb to be ; as, 
 
 l ;uu in dine bo day iritn her. 
 // devait oenir\ m u* quelque of- Be wu t<><-omi-, but :>omc business 
 fan-: ren a empi prevented him. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3 89 
 
 IV. The following verbs are conjugated like devoir; but 
 take no circumflex in their perfect participles. 
 
 Apercevoir. to perceive. 
 
 Concevoir. 
 Decevoir. 
 Percevoir. 
 Recevoir. 
 
 Redevoir. 
 
 to conceive, 
 to deceive, 
 to collect ta 
 to receive, 
 to remain, 
 to owe. 
 
 apercevant 
 
 apercu 
 
 j'apercois. * 
 
 g'S s « 
 
 concevant. 
 
 concu. 
 
 jeconruis- 
 
 5-^1 
 
 decevant. 
 
 decu. 
 
 je decois. 
 
 ||si 
 
 percevaot. 
 
 percu. 
 
 je percois. 
 
 ' *~ S-3 
 
 recevant. 
 
 recu. 
 
 je recois. 
 
 J »M 
 
 rede v ant. 
 
 redu. 
 
 je redois. 
 
 J* 3 ~ -> 
 
 470. Conjugation of the first irregular verb in oir. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 »'asseoir. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To sit down. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S'etre assis. To have sit down. 
 
 Participle 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S'asseyant. Sitting' down. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Je m' assieds. I sit down. 
 
 Tu t' assieds. 
 
 II s 1 assied. 
 
 Nous nous asseyons. 
 
 Vous vous asseyez. 
 
 lis s' asseient. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Assis. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je m' assierai. I shall sit down. 
 
 Tu t' assieras. 
 
 II s' assiera. 
 
 Nous nous assierons. 
 
 Vous vous assierez. 
 
 lis s' assieront. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je m' asseyais. / sat down. 
 Tu t' asseyais. 
 11 s' asseyait. 
 Nous nous asseyions. 
 
 Je m' assierais. / should sit down, 
 Tu t' assierais. 
 11 s 1 assierait. 
 Nous nous assierions. 
 
 Vous vous asseyiez. 
 lis s' asseyaient. 
 
 Vous vous assieriez. 
 lis s' assieraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je m' assis. J sat dawn. 
 
 Tu t' assis. 
 
 11 s' assit. 
 
 Nous nous assimes. 
 
 Vous vous assites. 
 
 lis b' assirent. 
 
 . Je me suis assis, / have sit 
 Tu t' es assis. {down. 
 11 s' est assis. 
 Nous nous sommes assis. 
 Vous vous etes assis. 
 lis' se sont assis. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Assieds-toi. 
 Qu'il s'asseie. 
 
 Asseyons-nous. 
 
 Asseyez-vous. 
 Qu'ils s'asseient. 
 
 Sit thou down. 
 Let him sit down. 
 Let us sit down. 
 
 Sit ye down. 
 Let them sit down. 
 
190 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Quetu t' asseies. Que tu t' assisses. 
 
 Qu 1 il s' asseie. Qu' il s' assit. 
 
 Que nous nous assey ions. Que nous nous assissions. 
 
 Que vous vous asseyicz. Que vous vous assissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils s' asseieni. Qu' ils s» assissent. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. Asseoir (to set, to place, to lay), is also used as an ac- 
 tive verb. 
 
 IF. Iutsscoir, to sit down again, is conjugated like asseoir. 
 
 III. Scoir, (to sit, to be situate), the simple verb, is no 
 longer used in this sense, except in the present participle 
 scant silling, and the perfect participle sis, sisc, situate. 
 
 IV. Scoir to become, a personal and impersonal verb, is 
 used only in the following lenses and persons : Seyant be- 
 < oming, (o'aut, becoming, is always used as an adjective), 
 // ried it becomes, ils sitent they become; il sfyait it bc- 
 i .line, ils seyaient they became; il siera it will become, ils 
 
 -' the) will become ; il siiraii it would become, ils sti- 
 raient they would become, ; qifil sice let it become, that it 
 limy become, qu'ils riicnl let them become, that they may 
 In. ome. 
 
 V. Mesuovr y to be unbecoming, is conjugated in the 
 game tenses and pecsone as seoir to become. 
 
 \ I. > . i" |hii off, another compound of seoir, is a 
 
 law term, conjugated as follows ! 
 
 Inflmtivc mood. 
 na n ttr> pf.r»ect. 
 
 Sursecur, (toff'. Avoir sursis. To have put off'. 
 
 Piuiiciplcs. 
 
 rut >' N l . PERFECT. 
 
 .t. Putting off. .Sursis. Put off. 
 
 iM>K vu\ ■ i nf u n i . roTtnuc. 
 
 ,lo rareob, I fid off. Je raneoirai. / shall put off* 
 
 Tu ranois. Tu surseoiras. 
 
 il mnoit II ramoiw. 
 
 Nona Banojoos. Noo luneoiropt. 
 
 irons sir Voui raneovsm 
 
 nwient lis surseoiront. 
 
 I.MI-Mii I "MUTIONAL. 
 
 J« tun oywk. J did put ojj. Je raraeoirejs. / should put off '. 
 Tu mii Tu raneoirus. 
 
 II lanoymit H raneoinit 
 
 nnoj |, , n -. Nous surscoirinns. 
 
 SmiliSSI Voug sur^ooirioz. 
 
 utijt. lis suricoiraicaL 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 191 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je sursis. / did pat off". 
 
 Tu sursis. 
 
 II sursit. 
 
 Nous sursimes. 
 
 Vous sursites. 
 
 lis sursirent. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 ai sursis. I have put q£ 
 
 J' 
 
 Tu as sursis 
 II a sursis 
 
 Nous avons sursis 
 Vous avez sursis. 
 lis out sursis. 
 
 Sursois. 
 Qu'il sursoie. 
 
 Sursoyons. 
 
 Sursoyez. 
 Qu'ils sursoient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 oie. I That 1 may 
 5 F ut °ff- 
 Que tu sursoies. 
 Qu' il sursoie. 
 Que nous sursoyious. 
 Que vous sursoyiez. 
 Qu' ils sursoient. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Queje 
 
 Put thou off. 
 Let him put off. 
 Let us put off. 
 
 Put ye off. 
 Let them put off. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 n ■ S That J mizht 
 
 Que ie sursisse. < . a- ° 
 
 ^ J I put off. 
 
 Que tu sursisses. 
 
 Qu' il sursit. 
 
 Que nous sursissions; 
 
 Que vous sursissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils sursissent. 
 
 471. Conjugation of the second irregular verb in oir. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Etre 
 Avoir 
 
 Bechoir 
 
 To decline. 
 
 dechu. To have declined. 
 
 Participle 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Wanting 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Dechu. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Declined. 
 
 Je dechois. 
 
 Tu dechois. 
 
 II dechoit. 
 
 Nous dechoyons. 
 
 Vous dechoyez. 
 
 lis dechoient. 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 / decline. 
 
 Je dechoyais. 
 Tu deehoyais. 
 11 dechoyait. 
 Nous dechoyions. 
 Vous dechoyiez. 
 Ils dechoyaient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je dechus. 
 Tu dechus. 
 II dechut. 
 Nous dcchumes. 
 Vousdechfites. 
 Ils dechurent. 
 
 / declined. 
 
 I declined. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je decherrai. I shall decline, 
 
 Tu decherras. 
 
 II decherra. 
 
 Nous decherrons. 
 
 Vous decherrez. 
 
 lis decherrent. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je decherrais. / should decline: 
 
 Tu decherrais. 
 
 II decherrait. 
 
 Nous decherrions. 
 
 Vous decherriez. 
 
 lis decherraienf. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J have 
 
 Je 
 
 suisor j'ai dechu. 
 
 es dechu. 
 
 est dechu. 
 
 Nous sommes dechus. 
 
 Vous etes dechus. 
 
 Ils soat dechus. 
 
 Tu 
 II 
 
 declined. 
 
192 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Dechois. Decline thou. 
 
 Qu'il dechoie. Let him decline. 
 
 Dechoyons. Let us decline. 
 
 Dechoyez. Decline ye. 
 
 Qu'ils dechoient. Let them decline. 
 
 SUBJU.-SCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Quejc dechoie. { "■«■«* Que je dechusse. \ „«*/ 
 
 Que tu dechoies. Que tu dechusse?. dine. 
 
 Qu' -il decboie, Qu' il dechut. 
 
 Que rums dechoyions. Que nous dechussions. 
 
 Que vou.s dechoyies. Que vous decbussiez. 
 
 Qu 1 Us decboient. Qu 1 ils decbussent. 
 
 Echoir, icheantj ichu (to fall, to expire), is conjugated like 
 dechoir, and is chiefly used in the infinitive, participles, 
 and thud person.— Some write and pronounce il ahct, ils 
 echtent, instead odlechoit, ils echoient. 
 
 C/mir. (to fall) the simple verb, is used only in the infini- 
 tive, in toe perfect participle, chu fallen, and in some of 
 the compound tens< 5. 
 
 472. ( Conjugation ot the third irregular verb in oir. (Im- 
 personal)* 
 
 Infinitive mood* 
 
 I NT PI lit 
 
 r.illuir. Jb be mccssary. A\«»ir l';illu. To have been necessary.' 
 
 ■ 
 
 Pl 1.1 
 // ding. Tallu. <ary. 
 
 [HDD I m 1 Mil -1 n r. I ONDITION IX. 
 
 11 1 mi. II is neceuary. II faudrait. It tooxtld be nm 
 
 topi i;. compound 11 ar«« i 
 
 II fall ait. / ratify. [la fallu. // has been necessary. 
 
 II I II IIV I I 1 
 
 II t.iiiut. It wu necessary . II avait fallu. ft had been necessary. 
 
 • 10 . HOB 
 
 11 t'.m.lrx It wii D eut fallu. ft had been neee t ea ry. 
 
 COKfOl m> • 1 i i 1:1 . 
 
 11 aura Wlu. /' will haw been neeeuary. 
 
 1 ompi rjRD cowdii row u . 
 II annul fallu. /' would have been necessary. 
 
 jcnvi Mii-iM, 
 i^u'i! faille. That it may be necessary. 
 
 imi 1 1: 
 QuM failttt /"■ t U might i» necesemry. 
 
 1 1 1.1 1 
 Qrf] lit !;,iiu. That it m :</ ham been ne cee e at y . 
 
 mil mi' 
 (fctf] < 'i lallu. That U might have been MCWM I 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 193 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON FALLOIR. 
 
 I. This verb is also rendered in English by the personal 
 verbs to want and must, and is used in the following manner. 
 
 fist. By a substantive, and preceded by a pronoun in 
 the dative ; as, 
 II mefaut une chambre. I want a room. 
 
 II luifaut de Vargent. He must have money. 
 
 II nousfallait un cheval. We wanted a horse. 
 
 2nd. By two substantives ; one in the nominative, and 
 
 the other in the dative ; as, 
 Ilfaut un commis a ce nego- That merchant wants a clerk. 
 ciant. [or there is a clerk wanting to 
 
 ^ that merchant.) 
 
 »3 \ Ilfaut de ban bouillon a ce ma- This sick man wants good broth. 
 lade. 
 
 3rd. By a verb in the infinitive mood ; as, 
 
 Ilfaut toujours dire la verite. We must always speak the truth. 
 
 Ilfaut lefaire. It is necessary to do it. 
 
 4th. By que and the subjunctive mood ; as, 
 
 Ilfaut quefy aille. I must go there. 
 
 Ilfallait que nous le trouvassions.lt was necessary that we should 
 
 find it. 
 Ilfaudra que vous veniez. It will be necessary for you to 
 
 come. 
 Ilfaut quHls tiennent leur parti. They must keep their word. 
 
 IT. This verb may also govern personal pronouns in the 
 accusative and dative ; as, 
 
 H lefaut. It must be done. 
 
 II le luifaut. He must have it. 
 
 II le leurfaut. They want it. 
 
 II lefallait. It was necessary it should be 
 
 H le luifallait. He wanted it. [done. 
 
 II nous lefaut. We want it. 
 
 III. It is used without government : 
 
 Dites tout ce quHlfaut. Say all that is necessary. 
 
 LI parte comme ilfaut. He speaks as he should. 
 
 On Pa rosse comme ilfaut. He has been drubbed soundly. 
 
 Cest un homme comme ilfaut. He is a gentleman. 
 
 IV. This verb is used with en in a pronominal form ; as, 
 
 II s'enfaut. There is wanting. 
 
 II s^enfallait. There was wanting. 
 
 II s^enfaudra. There will be wanting. 
 
 // s'enfaudrait. There would be wanting, 
 
 11 s^gn eslfallu, &c. There has been wanting-, 
 
 24 
 
191 
 
 1HC ELEMENTS 01 
 
 473. Conjugation of the fourth irregular verb in oil 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Mom 
 
 oir. 
 
 To move. 
 
 Avoir mu. To luive moved . 
 
 
 
 Part 
 
 iciples. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Mouvant. 
 
 
 Mu. .Moved. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Jc 
 
 metis. 
 
 / move. 
 
 Je mouvrai. 
 
 Tu 
 
 mens. 
 
 
 Tu mouvras. 
 
 11 
 
 meut. 
 
 
 11 mouvra. 
 
 Nous 
 
 mouvons. 
 
 
 Nous mouvrouB. 
 
 Voua 
 
 mourez. 
 
 
 \ «uis mow rez. 
 
 m 
 
 meuvtiii. 
 
 
 Us mouvront 
 
 
 IMl'I 1. 1 KCT. 
 
 ( ONDfTfOH M.. 
 
 Jc 
 
 liimn ;i|s. 
 
 I moved. 
 
 Je mouvrais. 1 should move 
 
 Tu 
 
 mouvais. 
 
 
 Tu mouvraisi 
 
 II 
 
 mow ait 
 
 
 II mow rail. 
 
 
 mom ions. 
 
 
 >■ ua mom rions. 
 
 \ 
 
 IIIIIIM ic/.. 
 
 
 \ DUB iiiuiivn.v. 
 
 lis 
 
 in.'in uiinl. 
 
 
 Us mouvraient. 
 
 
 ii B.1 
 
 COMP01 N l> i'l Bl i 
 
 .' 
 
 mu . 
 
 1 r,,l. 
 
 J' ai mu. / ham 
 
 Tu 
 
 urns. 
 
 
 Tu as mu. 
 
 II 
 
 mut 
 
 
 II a mu. 
 
 Sent 
 
 
 
 [Voua avona mu. 
 
 \ ooa 
 
 
 
 \ ..II- .\\ < /. III!!. 
 
 Ua 
 
 IllUltlit. 
 
 
 II- nut mu. 
 
 
 
 Ititjn rativt mood. 
 
 
 
 M. -ii . 
 
 . v ••■ thou 
 
 
 QoH! 
 
 II. MIC. 
 
 T.'t him 
 
 
 
 ons. 
 
 Lei ui 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ijr. 
 
 
 Qnlk dm n 
 
 I ,i t tli 1 1- 
 
 
 ■ I 
 
 
 
 Que 
 
 tu meuvca. 
 
 <iu' 
 
 il meuve. 
 
 Que 
 
 ■ l!\ lull*. 
 
 
 u\ ic/.. 
 
 Qtf 
 
 ils i, ■ 
 
 Qu 1 il 
 
 / 
 \ 
 
 Que Miii. mut 
 Qu' ila mu -< ui- 
 
 i:i i|,. ; - mm- manner emouvoir to m 
 
 .... 
 .-. to promol I only iu the infinitive, 
 
 the |" 1 1. - i parti( i| prwnw, 
 
 and the compound 
 
 . ,1 ool) in the 
 
 infinitive. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 195 
 
 474. Conjugation of the fifth irregular verb in oir. (Im- 
 personal. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Pleuvoir. To rain. Avoir plu. To have rained. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Pleuvant. Raining. Plu. Rained. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 II pleut. It rains. II avait plu. It had rained. 
 
 IMPERFECT. PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 II pleuvait. It rained. II eut plu. / had rained. 
 
 PERFECT. COMPOUND FUTURE. 
 
 II plut It rained. II aura plu. It will have rained. 
 
 FUTURE. COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 II pleuvra. It will rain. II aurait plu. It would have rained. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 II pleuvrait. It would rain. Qu'il pleuve. That it may rain. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 II a plu. It has rained- Qu'il plot. That it might rain. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Qu'il ait plu. That it may have rained. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Qu'il eut plu. That it might have rained. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON PLEUVOIR. 
 
 I. A substantive is often joined to this verb ; as, II pleut 
 des pierres. II pleut des chansons contre lui. II y pleut de 
 V ennui. On fit pleuvoir sur eux une grele de traits. 
 
 II. It is sometimes used as a personal verb ; as, Les biens 
 pleuvent chez lui. Les honneurs pleuvent sur vous. Les 
 coups de mousquet y pleuvent. 
 
 Ala. Conjugation of the sixth irregular verb in oir. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Pouvoir. To be able. Avoir pu. To have been able. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Pouvant. Being able. Pu. Been able. 
 
 INNDICATIVE PRESENT. FUTURE. 
 
 I I am able. J e pcurrai. I shall be able- 
 
 Je 
 
 puis or je peux. 
 
 \l 
 
 can. 
 
 Tu pourras. 
 
 Tu 
 11 
 
 peux. 
 
 peut. 
 
 
 
 11 pourra 
 Nous pourrons. 
 
 Nous 
 Vous 
 
 pouvons. 
 pouvez. 
 
 
 
 Vous pourrez. 
 lis pourraient 
 
 Us 
 
 peuvent. 
 
 
 
 
 * Interrogatively we say Puis-je? ca,n I ? and never Peux-je ? — Jv 
 puis is oftener used than Je peux. 
 
196 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je pouvais. 
 
 Tu 
 II 
 
 i / was able. 
 i J could. 
 
 pouvais. 
 
 pouvait. 
 Nous pouvions. 
 Vous pouviez. 
 lis pouvaient. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je pourrais. 1 should be abh 
 
 Tu pourrais. 
 
 II pourrait. 
 
 Nous pourrions. 
 
 Vous pourriez. 
 
 lis pourraient. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je 
 
 pus. 
 
 S I was a 
 
 \ 1 could. 
 
 hie. 
 
 J' ai pu. 
 Tu as pu. 
 II a pu. 
 
 1 have been able. 
 
 Tu 
 
 pus. 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 put. 
 
 
 
 Nous avons pu. 
 
 
 Nobs 
 
 piimes. 
 
 
 
 Vous avez pu. 
 lis out pu. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 piites. 
 
 
 
 
 Us 
 
 purent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jmpc 
 
 ■alive mood. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 iv\.mim;. 
 
 
 srBJVNcTivr. i'Bch \ r. 
 
 Que je r u„se. J Th ^ ** »■ QlIC je piIsse . | ThaU might be 
 
 Que (u pnissea 
 Qu' il puisae. 
 
 Quo DOOB piliSBtODI 
 
 Qm- rotu puissies. 
 Qu' ils pttmncnt 
 
 Que (u | 
 Qu' il put. 
 Que DOUfl pulsions. 
 Que i one pussies- 
 Qu' ils pusaeat 
 
 470, Conjugation of the seventh irregular verb in 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 nun r. 
 
 t •( HFECT. 
 
 Bavoir. To know 
 
 Avoir su. To have kn 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 i BUI H i . 
 
 MBI i . P, 
 
 Bachant hunpng, 
 
 BUi known. 
 
 IK! I'MTM 1 PS| H N ••. 
 
 mi 
 
 ua. / A note. 
 Tu lis. 
 
 II Vl|1. 
 
 POM. 
 
 HIV. 
 
 saurai. I shall know. 
 'I'u Mom, 
 ll aaora 
 rToua aaurona 
 \ oui saurez. 
 Us sauront. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 107 
 
 IMPEKFECT. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je savais. 
 
 I knew. 
 
 Je 
 
 saurais. I should know. 
 
 Tu savais. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 saurais. 
 
 11 savait. 
 
 
 11 
 
 saurait. 
 
 Nous savions. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 saurions. 
 
 Vous saviez. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 sauriez. 
 
 lis savaient. 
 
 
 lis 
 
 sauraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 COB1POUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je sus. 
 
 J knew. 
 
 J' 
 
 ai su. I have known 
 
 Tu sus. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 as su. 
 
 11 sut. 
 
 
 11 
 
 a su. 
 
 Nous s times. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 avons su. 
 
 Vous sutes. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 avez su. 
 
 Us surcnt. 
 
 
 Us 
 
 ont su. 
 
 Imperative mood, 
 Sache. Know thou. 
 
 Qu'il sache. Let him know. 
 
 Sachons. Let us know. 
 
 Sachez. Know ye. 
 
 Qu'ils sachent. Let them know. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje sache. That Imay know. Que je susse. That I might know. 
 
 Que tu saches. Que tu susses. 
 
 Qu' il sache. Qu' il sut. 
 
 Que nous sachions. Que nous sussions. 
 
 Que vous sachiez. Que vous sussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils sachent. Qu' ils sussent. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON S AVOIR. 
 
 I. The conditional tense of savoir is often used, with the 
 negative ne, but never with pas, for the present tense of 
 the indicative mood oipouvoir to be able ; as, 
 
 C Je ne saurais. ) j Tu ne saurais. ) Th camtmt ) g 
 
 ^jJenepms. $ Tunepeux. \ V§ 
 
 h \llne saurait. ) „ , Nous ne saurions, &c. ( ^ 
 
 § ri * / «e cannot. ,,. \ \ <o 
 
 £ 11 ne peut. $ Jvous ne pouvons, &c. J ^ 
 
 II. Je ne sache is sometimes used instead of je ne sais, I 
 do not know ; as, Je ne sache rien deplus beau. Je ne sache 
 personne qui soit plus genereux. 
 
 III. Queje sache, that I know, is sometimes placed at the 
 end of a sentence in an answer; as, 77 n'y a personne queje 
 sache. II ne viendra point queje sache. Mon pere. est-il de 
 retour 1 Pas que je sache. 
 
 IV. Savoir, is frequently used in the sense oipouvoir : as, 
 Vous verrez ce que je sais f aire. II ne sait pas ouvrir cette 
 malle. Nous saurons bien nous defendre. 
 
193 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 V. s 
 
 savoir ere. savmr 
 
 bongre, to be pleaded, to take well, 
 
 to be grateful ; and savoir mauvais gre to be displeased, to 
 take ill, are expressions which govern the dative of a person 
 and the genitive of a thing ; as, Je ltd sais lion gre de son at- 
 tention. II vous sail mauvais gre de vos refits. Nous Sa- 
 vons gre a voire scctir dc sa complaisance. 
 
 •177. Conjugation of the eighth irregular verb in oir. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 ' PERFECT. 
 
 Yaloir. 
 
 To be worth 
 
 \\oir valu. To have been worth. 
 
 
 Pai 
 
 licipi 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 v: EU l.CT. 
 
 Yalant. 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Valu. Been worth. 
 
 IMU< » 1 I\ 1 
 
 1 NT. 
 
 
 > 1 ri RE. 
 
 .'•■ \..II\. 
 
 I am worth. 
 
 Je 
 
 vaixhai. 1 shall he worth. 
 
 Tii i 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 
 1! 
 
 
 
 vamlra. 
 
 
 
 Nous \ audrons. 
 
 
 
 Vous \ audrez. 
 
 lb relent 
 
 
 Ela 
 
 vaudront. 
 
 
 
 < 0ND1 I'luNAT . 
 
 
 1 
 
 Je 
 
 \ ainli-.ii-.. / should be worth. 
 
 Tii l 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 \ audrais. 
 
 II relait. 
 
 
 II 
 
 x .imlr.iit. 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 v .in Iri< /. 
 
 lit \ .' 
 
 
 IN 
 
 \ audraii at 
 
 ri ;.i 
 
 
 COMPOUND PI R 
 
 Je i 
 
 i 
 
 J» 
 
 ni valu. / 
 
 III X 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 \ alu, 
 
 II 
 
 
 II 
 
 v a)u. 
 
 Nous v 
 
 
 inns valu. 
 
 '. 
 
 
 1 BVeZ \alil. 
 
 
 
 lis 
 
 out i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 /,'< i 
 
 q 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 1 worth. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 /- worth. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 J.'t them ot worth. 
 
 
 \ :i il It -tit. 
 
 
 N- 1 l\ 1 
 
 n r 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 je relusse. \™ ! 
 
 J ( be WOrth, 
 
 Que tn reillea. 
 
 
 Que tu 
 
 Qu' il raille. 
 
 
 Qu' 
 
 il relfit 
 
 Que i""i 
 
 
 Que Dons \ alu 
 
 Que » ou 
 
 
 Que 
 
 vims \ alu 
 
 Qu' lis refllent 
 
 
 Qu' 
 
 ils valu 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 199 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. Revaloir to return like for like, and equivaloir to be 
 equivalent, are conjugated like valoir. 
 
 II. Prevaloir to prevail, is also conjugated like valoir, 
 except in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, where 
 it makes Que je, privah that I may prevail, que tu privates, 
 qu'il prevale, que nous prevalions, que vous prevaliez, qu'ils 
 prevalent. 
 
 III. Valoir, followed by the adverb mieux better, is ren- 
 dered in English by the verb to he ; as, // vaut mieux se 
 fa-ire que de dire des sottises, it is better to be silent than to 
 talk nonsense. 
 
 478. Conjugation of the ninth irregular verb in oir. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Voir. To sec. Avoir vu. To have seen. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Voyant. 
 
 Seeing. 
 
 Vu. 
 
 Seen. 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je vois. 
 
 J see. 
 
 Je 
 
 verrai. 
 
 I shall sec. 
 
 Tu vois. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 verras. 
 
 
 11 voit. 
 
 
 11 
 
 vena. 
 
 
 •Nous voyons. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 verrons. 
 
 
 Vous voyez. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 verriez. 
 
 
 lis voieut. 
 
 
 Us 
 
 verrront. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je voyais. 
 
 I saw. 
 
 Je 
 
 verrais. 
 
 I should sec 
 
 Tu voyais. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 verrais. 
 
 
 11 voyait. 
 
 
 11 
 
 verrait. 
 
 
 Nous voyions. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 verrions. 
 
 
 Vous voyiez. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 verrez. 
 
 
 lis voyaient. 
 
 
 Us 
 
 verraient. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 COMPOUND 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je vis. 
 
 I saio. 
 
 J' 
 
 ai vu. 
 
 / have seen 
 
 Tu vis. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 as vu. 
 
 
 11 vit. 
 
 
 11 
 
 a vu. 
 
 
 Nous virnes. 
 
 
 Nous 
 
 avons vu. 
 
 
 Vous vites. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 avez vu. 
 
 
 Us virent 
 
 
 Us 
 
 out vu. 
 
 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 
 
 Vois. 
 
 
 See thou. 
 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 voie. 
 
 Let hirr 
 
 see. 
 
 
 
 Voyons. 
 
 Let us 
 
 see. 
 
 
 
 Voyez. 
 
 
 See ye. 
 
 
 Qu'ijs 
 
 voient. 
 
 Let them sec. 
 
 
 I 
 
200 
 
 HIE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je voie. That I may see.Que je visse. That I might see. 
 
 Que tu voies. 
 Qu' il voie. 
 Que nous voyions. 
 Que vous voyiez. 
 Qu' ils voient. 
 
 Que tu visses. 
 Qu' il vit. 
 Que nous vissions. 
 Que vous vissiez. 
 Qu 1 ils vissent. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. Revoir to see again, and entrevoir to have a glimpse 
 of, are conjugated like voir, 
 
 II. Prevoir to foresee, is conjugated like voir in all its 
 tenses, except in the future and conditional tenses, which 
 arc formed regularly : as, Je pn'voirui I shall foresee, In 
 prevoira8 s il prtioira, nous prevoirons, vous prevoiret, ils 
 prevoiront. 
 
 III. Pourvoir to provide is conjugated thus: 
 
 IlljhlililC Wnnd. 
 I>RESENT. PXRF1 
 
 Pourvoir. 7b provide. Avoir pourvu. To have provided. 
 
 Purliciphs. 
 
 TRESI NT. 
 
 Pourvoyant. Providing. 
 
 Droit MT\ 1 I'KI -I NT. 
 
 Je pourvok. / provide. 
 
 TU pOll I'M >!-. 
 
 II pourvoil. 
 
 Sam pourvoyona, 
 \ (in- pourvoyi /.. 
 
 lis puiirVDRMlt. 
 
 IM1T1.- 
 
 .To pourvoyais. / provided. 
 j'u poniTojaisa 
 II po or voyait 
 
 ?s'.>u- pourvoyionfl. 
 
 \ .,ii- | <uir\ 01 H ■/.. 
 
 lis pourvoient 
 
 n h> 1 1 r. 
 J« pourvua. 
 I'u pourvus. 
 
 II poimut. 
 Vous pourviimc-. 
 Vous pourv uti I. 
 
 arvurent 
 
 / provided. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Pourvu. Provided. 
 
 1 TITHE. 
 
 Je pourvoirai. I shall provide. 
 
 'In pi urvoiras. 
 II pourvoira. 
 
 NbUB pounoirons. 
 Vous jioiiivoirez. 
 IK pourvoiront. 
 
 t OMHTIOV W . 
 
 Je pourvoirais. I should provide. 
 
 Tu pourvoirais. 
 
 II pourvoirait 
 
 Nous pourvouiooi. 
 
 VoUl pourvoirie/.. 
 
 IN poniroiraieoL 
 
 COMPOI mi iitn-K.rT. 
 
 J' in pourvu. I haueprotided. 
 
 Tu as poiinu. 
 II a pou nu. 
 
 Nou- avons pourvu. 
 Vou- a\ iv. pourvu. 
 IK out pourvu. 
 
 Imjuralivc mood. 
 Poiin-u-. 
 QuM ponnroie. Lei Him 
 
 I'l.unnMV.. 
 
 urvoieut 
 
 Provide thou. 
 
 provide. 
 
 provide. 
 
 LU than provide. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 201 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 • ) Thai I may n ■ ) That I might 
 
 ueje pourvoie.^ ^^/Queje pourvusse. J prmU £ 
 
 Que tu pourvoies. Q ue tu pourvusses. 
 
 Qu' il pourvoie. Qu' il pourvut. 
 
 Que nous pourvoyions. Que nous pourvussions. 
 
 Que vous pourvoyiez. Que vous pourvussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils pourvoient. Qu' ils pourvussent. 
 
 IV. From the second person singular of this verb vois 
 (dropping s) and the adverbs ci and la, are formed two ex- 
 pressions, which are of very frequent use in French. Vox- 
 el (see here, behold, lo, here is, here are), serves to de- 
 signate the nearest object, and Voila (see there, behold, lo, 
 there is, there are, that is, those are), the most distant ; as, 
 Void mon livre, voila le voire,. Void vos habHs, voila les 
 miens. Void le roi, voila la reine. 
 
 Void relates to what is going to be said, and voila to what 
 has just been said ; as, Voila ce qu'on objede : void ce qu'on 
 peut repondre. 
 
 Void and voila often govern personal pronouns in the ob- 
 jective, and these pronouns are always prefixed to them ; 
 as, Me void, me voila ; le void, te voila ; le void, la void, 
 le voila, la voila ; nous void, nous voila ; vous void, vous 
 voila ; le void, le voila ; les void, les voila. Le voila qui 
 vient. La void qui danse. Ne les voila-t-ils pas qui se 
 fdchent. 
 
 Void and voila may also be preceded by en or y ; as, 
 En void, en voila. Nous y void, vous y voila. 
 
 Void and voila are often followed by the conjunction que 
 (that) ; as, Void qu'il vient. Voila qu'il sejette dans Peau. 
 
 Void and voila are sometimes preceded by the relative 
 pronoun que, which they govern ; as, Monsieur que void a 
 accompagne votre sceur. Madame que voila est la personne 
 dont je vous ai parl'e. 
 
 Voila governs sometimes the preposition de ; as, Voila de 
 mes gens. Voila de vos soupgons. 
 
 479. Conjugation of the tenth irregular verb in oir. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Vouloir. | ^ stilling, to wish. Avoir voulu ' Tohave been ™ llin S- 
 Partidples. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Voulant Being willing. Voulu. Been willing, 
 
 25 
 
 
 
202 
 
 THE ELEMEXTS OF 
 
 INDICATIVE rRESEXT. 
 
 Je veux. 
 
 i I will. 
 
 Je voudrai. 1 shall be willing. 
 
 Tu veux. 
 
 V / am witting. 
 
 Tu voudras. 
 
 11 veut. 
 
 3 / wish. 
 
 11 voudra. 
 
 Nous voyjons. 
 
 
 Nous voudrons. 
 
 Vous voulez. 
 
 
 Vous voudrez. 
 
 lis veulent. 
 
 
 Us voudronl. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je voulais. 
 
 I was willing. 
 
 Je voudrais. I should be uniting. 
 
 Tu voulais. 
 
 
 Tu voudrais. 
 
 11 voulait. 
 
 
 II voudrait. 
 
 Nous voulions. 
 
 
 Nous voudrions. 
 
 Vous vouliez. 
 
 
 Voos voudriez. 
 
 Us voulaient. 
 
 
 Us voudraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 i OMPOUHD PERFECT. 
 
 Je vonlus. 
 
 I was willing.' 
 
 •P ai voulu. \ I have hcai 
 
 Tu voulus. 
 
 
 Tu as von lu. ( willing. 
 
 H vuulut. 
 
 
 11 a voulu. 
 
 Nous roulftmes. 
 
 
 Nous avons vonlu. 
 
 Vous voulutes. 
 
 
 Vous avcz VOOlu. 
 
 Da roulurent 
 
 
 Us ont voulu. 
 
 
 Imp era 
 
 tivt mood. 
 
 
 Vcuillc. 
 
 
 
 Yi uillez. 
 
 S Have ihr tfoodnett, 
 ( li, v,< good us-. 
 
 
 ■ wis. 
 
 J., I ut retohe. 
 
 ■ n. 1 1\ i rati -i \ i . 
 
 I i'ii/ he Que je 
 
 Que in w milt-. 
 Qu' ii M.iiilc. 
 
 Que QOU8 \ notions. 
 u-. \ oulu /- 
 
 QU' ill M'llllll-Ul. 
 
 trilling. 
 
 mil mil r. 
 voulusse. S Thai Imighl 
 
 Que tn roulusses, f 
 
 (in" 1 il v < mi I ut. 
 
 Que nous rouluaejons. 
 Que vous roulusaies. 
 
 Qu' ilfl Miuln-M lit. 
 
 it willins 
 
 !./<'. pi- 1 * ded l>\ the pronoun en, governs (Ik- da- 
 tive, and signifies to bear ill will, ■ , • i,, /,, hostile 
 aim ai. t" want ; ;\-. II lui >n . long t,m>. 
 /in in vouloni beaucoup, parceqvPil tat iris rick** 11 
 ■ iiliiii jilus ii In dot ijii'n In fli. 
 II. I'm,/, ,,!■ </,/■, ; these two words are expressed in En- 
 ^ r li-li bj /• , .i-. ./■ /( , sait jui. '< qtu .mi 
 mot. 
 
 THE FOl inn < o.vii GATION. 
 480. The paradigm <>!' verbs in r< of the firsl cl 
 InJinUivt mood. 
 
 
 
 Avoir \cndu. 
 
 To ham 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 203 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Vendant. Selling. Vendu. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant vendu. Having sold 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 / tell. 
 
 Thou sellest. 
 He sells. 
 We sell. 
 You sell. 
 They sell. 
 Imperfect tense. 
 
 J sold. 
 Thou soldst. 
 He sold. 
 We sold. 
 You sold. 
 They sold. 
 
 Je vends. 
 Tu vends. 
 II vend. 
 
 Nous vendons. 
 Vous vendez. 
 lis vendent. 
 
 Je vendais. 
 Tu vendais. 
 II vendait. 
 Nous vendions. 
 Vous vendiez. 
 lis vendaient. 
 
 Je vendis. 
 Tu vendis. 
 II vendit. 
 Nous vendimes. 
 Vous vendites. 
 lis vendirent. 
 
 Je vendrai. 
 Tu vendras. 
 II vendra. 
 Nous vendrons. 
 Vous vendrez. 
 lis vendront. 
 
 Je vendrais. 
 Tu vendrais. 
 II vendrait. 
 Nous vendrions. 
 Vous vendriez. 
 lis vendraient. 
 
 perfect tense. 
 
 / sold. 
 
 Thou soldst. 
 
 He sold. 
 
 We sold. 
 
 You sold. 
 
 They sold. 
 future tense. 
 
 / shall sell. 
 
 Thou wilt sell. 
 
 He will sell. 
 
 We shall sell. 
 
 You .will sell. 
 
 They will sell. 
 
 CONDITIONAL TENSE. 
 
 / should sell. 
 Thou shouldst sell. 
 He should sell. 
 We should sell. 
 You should sell. 
 They should sell. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai vendu. 
 Tu as vendu. 
 II a vendu. 
 Nous avons vendu. 
 Vous avez vendu. 
 Us ont vendu. 
 
 / have sold. 
 
 Thou hast sold. 
 
 He has sold. 
 
 We have sold. 
 
 You have sold. 
 
 They have sold. 
 
 
 
201 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J' avais vendu. 
 Tu avais vendu. 
 11 avait vendu. 
 Nous avions vendu. 
 Vous aviez vendu. 
 lis avaient vendu. 
 
 I had sold. 
 Thou hadst sold. 
 He had so'd. 
 We had sold. 
 You had told. 
 They had sold 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 ANTERIOR. 
 
 J' eus vendu. 
 Tu eus vendu. 
 11 eut vendu. 
 Nous ei'imes vendu. 
 Vous eutes vendu. 
 lis eurent vendu. 
 
 / had sold. 
 
 TIlOU hadst Si:UI. 
 He had sold. 
 If i had sold. 
 You hud sold. 
 They had sold. 
 
 COMPOUND i LURE. 
 
 J' aurai rendu. 
 Tu aataa rendu. 
 
 11 aura 1 1 
 
 Nous aarons rendu. 
 \ "ii- aurez rendu. 
 
 lis aur.uit rendu. 
 
 1 shall have sold. 
 Thou wilt have sold. 
 Ih will ha vr sold. 
 H > shall hart: sit/il. 
 
 You iri/l have sold. 
 
 They will have sold. 
 
 COHPOl m> 
 
 CONDITION U . 
 
 J' annua rendu. 
 Tu inn us rendu. 
 
 11 :iui ill \cinlii 
 
 Nona aurioni r< a la 
 \ nus auriea rendu. 
 
 lis ai.i 
 
 / should have sold. 
 Thai thouldat hone sold. 
 
 Ih should hurt told' 
 
 Jit thould have told, 
 You thould have told. 
 They should have sold. 
 
 (mpt rut 
 
 \ I lllls. 
 
 Qu'il vende. 
 
 Ions. 
 
 \ i odl /, 
 
 Qu'ds rendenL 
 
 pi mood. 
 
 Sell thou. 
 I. it km st II. 
 
 Let us nil. 
 
 s, II ye. 
 Let them tell. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 1 IU -1 R 1 11 \-l . 
 
 <t ■• e rende. 
 Que in ren 
 Qu 1 il rende, 
 
 QUA nuns vcinliciiis. 
 
 is trendies. 
 <iu' lis rendfent 
 
 That I may tell 
 
 That thou mayet tell. 
 
 That In may si II. 
 r l'h at irr may M //. 
 
 That >/"u may telL 
 That they uiay telL 
 
 I'll i BFJ CT li IWI ■ 
 
 Qui- In \< n 
 
 Qu 1 il rendlt. 
 Que nous rendiaaiona. 
 Que mpus rendiaaieB, 
 
 That 1 might sill. 
 
 That thou mi- hist tell 
 Thai he mi- lit tell. 
 That \cr might xi II- 
 That you Might M U. 
 
 Qu' ils ren 
 
 That they might all. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 205 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que j' aie vendu. 
 
 Que tu aies vendu. 
 
 Qu' il ait vendu. 
 
 Que nous ayons vendu. 
 
 Que vous ayez vendu. 
 
 Qu' ils aient vendu. 
 
 That I may have sold. 
 That thou niayst have sold. 
 That he may have sold. 
 That we may have sold. 
 That you may have sold. 
 That they may have sold. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j' eusse vendu. That I might have sold. 
 
 Que tu eusses vendu. That thou mightst have sold. 
 
 Qu' il eut vendu. That he might have. sold. 
 
 Que nous eussions vendu. That we might have sold. 
 
 Que vous eussiez vendu. That you might have sold. 
 
 Qu' ils eussent vendu. That they might have sold. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like vendre. 
 
 Mevendre. 
 
 Revendre. 
 
 Survendre. 
 
 Fendre. 
 
 Defendre. 
 
 Pourfendre. 
 
 Refendre. 
 
 Pendre. 
 
 Dependre. 
 
 Suspendre. 
 
 Rend re. 
 
 Deseendre 
 
 Condescendre. 
 
 Redescendre. 
 
 Tendre 
 
 Attendre. 
 
 Detendre. 
 
 Entendre. 
 
 Etendre. 
 
 Pretendre. 
 
 Retendre. 
 
 Epandre. 
 
 to undersell. Repandre. 
 
 to sell again. Perdre. 
 to sell too dear. Fondre. 
 to split. {bid. Confondre. 
 to defend, to for- Morfondre. 
 to split in two. Refondre. 
 to cleave, to split Pondre. 
 to hang, (again. Correspondre. 
 to depend. Re pondre. 
 
 to suspend, (turn. Fondre. 
 to render, to re- Mordre. 
 to go down. Tordre. 
 
 to condescend. Rompre.* 
 to go down again. Corrompre .* 
 
 to stretch. 
 to wait. 
 to slacken, 
 to hear, 
 to spread, 
 to pretend, 
 to stretch again, 
 to scatter. 
 
 Interrompre. : 
 
 Battre.* 
 
 Abattre.* 
 
 Combattre.* 
 
 Debattre.* 
 
 s'Ebattre.* 
 
 Rabattre.* 
 
 Re battre.* 
 
 to spill, to shed,, 
 
 to lose. 
 
 to melt. 
 
 to confound. 
 
 to make cold. 
 
 to melt again. 
 
 to lay eggs. 
 
 to correspond. 
 
 to answer. 
 
 to shear. 
 
 to bite. 
 
 to twist. 
 
 to break. 
 
 to corrupt. 
 
 to interrupt. 
 
 to beat. 
 
 to pull down. 
 
 to fight. 
 
 to debate. 
 
 to sport. 
 
 to abate. 
 
 to beat again. 
 
 * Rompre and its compounds take t after p in the third person singu- 
 lar of the indicative ; as, // rompt he breaks, il corrompt he corrupts, 
 il interrompt he interrupts. 
 
 * Battre and its compounds drop a t in the three persons singular of 
 the indicative, and in the second person singular of the imperative ; 
 as, Je bats I beat, tu bats, il bat : bats beat thou : fabats, tu abals, il 
 abat; abats ; &c. 
 
 481. The paradigm of verbs in re, of the second class. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Craindre. To fear. Avoir craint. To have feared. 
 
 I 
 
206 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Craignant. Fearing. Craint. Feart 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant craint. Having feared. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 Je crains; 
 Tu crains. 
 II craint. 
 Nous craignons. 
 Vous craignez. 
 lis craigneut. 
 
 Jo craic^nais. 
 
 Tu oraignais. 
 
 II CI 
 
 Nooa craignions. 
 
 \ o i- craigniez. 
 
 lis craignaient 
 
 Jo CI 
 
 Tu ci 
 
 II oraigoit 
 
 Nuns craigoltnes. 
 
 Vooa ci 
 
 lis CI 
 
 Jo rraiiulrai. 
 
 Tu oraindras. 
 
 iinlr.>n<. 
 
 \ out onundrez. 
 
 nullnlil. 
 
 Jc cr.ii ii. ! : 
 I' | < ■i.uii.lrais. 
 II craindrait 
 
 • .iiihIiim.-i-. 
 I uikIihv.. 
 1U craiodi 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 / fear. 
 Tkoufearest. 
 He fars. 
 We fear. 
 You fear. 
 Tliey fear. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 / feared. 
 Thou fmndst. 
 He feared. 
 We 'fared. 
 ft ared. 
 They feared, 
 
 PKBTX< T ti w. 
 
 / feared. 
 Thoufearedtt, 
 lb feared. 
 II i feared, 
 I feared. 
 They feared, 
 riTiBE TENS] • 
 
 / thaUfear. 
 
 I ■ U ill t>ir. 
 
 //• in// fear, 
 u , thaufear. 
 
 You mil far. 
 
 They mil fear. 
 
 i mn>i nos w. ii mi, 
 
 / ihould feat. 
 Thou thouldetfear, 
 
 II ihould fur. 
 
 ii thouid fear. 
 You should fear, 
 
 Tiny should fur 
 
 ( UMIiilM) Pf ki E< i . 
 
 J 1 ai craint 
 Tu as craint 
 ll ■ craint. 
 warn craint 
 \ 
 lis out craint 
 
 / havt feared, 
 Tlmo hatt feared, 
 Jh hat feared. 
 We havt 
 You home feared. 
 Thy havt '.'fared 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 207 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Crains. 
 Qu'il craigne. 
 
 Craiguons. 
 
 Craignez. 
 
 Qu'ils craignent. 
 
 Fear thou. 
 Let him fear. 
 Let us fear. 
 
 Fear ye. 
 Let them fear. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Queje craigne. 
 Que tu craignes. 
 Qu' il craigne. 
 Que nous craignions. 
 Que vous craigniez. 
 Qu' ils craignent. 
 
 That I may fear. 
 That thou maystfear. 
 That he may fear. 
 That we may fear. 
 That you may fear. 
 That they may fear. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que je craignisse. That I might fear. 
 
 Que tu craignisses. That thou mightstfear. 
 
 Qu' il craignit. That he might fear. 
 
 Que nous craignissions. That we might fear. 
 
 Que vous craignissiez. That you might fear. 
 
 Qu' ils craignissent. That they might fear. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like craindrc. 
 
 Contraindre. 
 
 to constrain. 
 
 Peindre. 
 
 to paint. 
 
 Plaindre. 
 
 to pity. 
 
 Depeindre. 
 
 to describe. 
 
 Atteindre. 
 
 to reach. 
 
 Teindre. 
 
 to dye. 
 
 Aveindre. 
 
 to take out. 
 
 Deteindre. 
 
 to discolour. 
 
 Ceindre. 
 
 to gird. 
 
 Joindre. 
 
 to join. 
 
 Enceindrc. 
 
 to surround. 
 
 Adjoindre. 
 
 to associate. 
 
 Enfreindre. 
 
 to infringe. 
 
 Conjoindre. 
 
 to join together. 
 
 Epreindre. 
 
 to squeeze out. 
 
 Dejoindre. 
 
 to unjoin. 
 
 Eteindre. 
 
 to extinguish. 
 
 Disjoiudre. 
 
 to disjoin. 
 
 Etreindre. 
 
 to bind fast. 
 
 Enjoindre. 
 
 to enjoin. 
 
 Feindre. 
 
 to feign. 
 
 Rejoindre. 
 
 to rejoin. 
 
 Geindre. 
 
 to moan. 
 
 Oindre. 
 
 to anoint. 
 
 Astreindre. 
 
 to bind to. 
 
 Poindre, 
 
 to pick. 
 
 Reslreindre. 
 
 to restrain. 
 
 
 
 481. The paradigm of verbs in re of the third class. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT.. PERFECT. 
 
 Conduire. To conduct. Avoir conduit. To have conducted. 
 
 Participles. , 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Conduisant. Conducting. Conduit. Conducted. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant conduit, Having conducted. 
 
203 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Je conduis. 
 
 / conduct. 
 
 Tu cooduis. 
 
 Thou coniluctcst. 
 
 11 conduit. 
 
 He conducts. 
 
 Nous conduisons. 
 
 We conduct. 
 
 Vous conduisez. 
 
 You conduct. 
 
 lis COU'JuiaCLlt. 
 
 They conduct. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je condnisais. 
 
 / conducted. 
 
 Tu condui 
 
 Thou conducledst. 
 
 U con iris! it. 
 
 He conducted. 
 
 Nous < i.iiiluisions. 
 
 We conduct' d. 
 
 \ - lisiezi 
 
 You conducted. 
 
 IN conduttaient 
 
 They conducted. 
 
 
 PERFECT TKNBE. 
 
 Jc COM'lui 
 
 / conduct' d. 
 
 J'u conduisi . 
 
 Thou conducledst. 
 
 11 conduuit 
 
 Ih conducted. 
 
 Nuns conduisimes. 
 
 Hi conducted. 
 
 VoU:> 1 
 
 You conducted. 
 
 JU « uiulm-i. < lit 
 
 They conducted. 
 
 
 i III K! 1 1 NM . 
 
 .\o conduirai. 
 
 / shall conduit. 
 
 'j'u conduiras. 
 
 Thou vill conduct. 
 
 11 conduira. 
 
 11' wilt i ondnct. 
 
 
 M ' thati conduct. 
 
 
 )'"ii will conduct. 
 
 IN conduiront 
 
 They will conduct. 
 
 
 • 0HDITIO9 M TEnSKi 
 
 Je conduifats. 
 
 / thould conduct 
 
 Tu oooduii 
 
 Thou thouldct i "in/in t 
 
 11 oonduirait 
 
 Ih thould conduct. 
 
 N con luirions. 
 
 If , thould "iifduct. 
 
 
 \ ' nttd "'ililmt 
 
 IN oouduiraient 
 
 '/'/i>i/ should conduct 
 
 ( HMI-OI M) PI R1 > ■ I . 
 
 .r 
 
 Tu 
 II 
 
 ai 
 
 oondait. 
 c onduit. 
 luit 
 Niki- a\ mi^ conduit 
 
 •••lint. 
 
 IN out conduit. 
 
 Iiiijn rathe 
 
 ( i >ii'iui-. 
 
 '^u*.; i .hi luite. 
 ( londaisons. 
 ( londnuez. 
 
 / li'ir, conducted. 
 Thou host conducted. 
 J l> hat conducted 
 
 II ' liner condui tid. 
 
 > mi have condui inf. 
 They liini condui Ud. 
 
 mood* 
 
 induiaent 
 
 Conduct thou. 
 I., i him conduct. 
 I ."/nllllt. 
 
 Conduct ye. 
 
 Lit than conduct. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 209 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 Que 
 
 Que 
 Qu' 
 Que 
 Que 
 Qu' 
 
 Que 
 Que 
 Qu' 
 Que 
 Que 
 Qu' 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 je conduisc. That I may conduct. 
 
 iu conduises. That thou mayst conduct. 
 
 il conduise. That he may c mduct. 
 
 nous conduisions. That we may conduct. 
 
 vous conduisiez. Thai you may conduct. 
 
 ils conduisent. That they may conduct. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 ie conduicisse. That I mi^ht conduct. 
 
 tu corid 11 kisses. 
 il conduisit. 
 nous conduisissions. 
 vous conduisissiez. 
 ils conduisissent. 
 
 That thou rnighst conduct. 
 That he might conduct. 
 That we might conduct; 
 That you might conduct. 
 ThrU they might conduct. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like 
 
 Deduire. 
 
 Econduire. 
 
 Enduire. 
 
 Induire. , 
 
 Introduire. 
 
 Produire. 
 
 Reconduire. 
 
 Reduire. 
 
 Renduire. 
 
 Seduire. 
 
 to deduct. 
 to refuse, 
 to do over. 
 to induce. 
 to introduce, 
 to produce, 
 to reconduct. 
 
 Traduire. 
 
 Construire. 
 
 Detruire. 
 
 Instruire. 
 
 Cuire. 
 
 Decuire. 
 
 Recuire. 
 
 conauire. 
 
 to translate. 
 
 to construct. 
 
 to destroy. 
 
 to instruct. 
 
 to cook. 
 
 to make thinner. 
 
 to cook over. 
 
 to shine. 
 
 to shine, to glitter. 
 
 to hurt. 
 
 to reduce, (gain. Luire.* 
 to daub over a- Reluire* 
 to seduce. Nuire.* 
 
 * Luire, reluire and nuire make lui, relui, nui in the perfect parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 * Luire and reluire are never used the perfect tense of the indica- 
 tive, nor in the imperfect tense of the subjunctive. 
 
 483. The paradigm of verbs in re of the fourth class. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Connaitre. To know. Avoir connu. To have known. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Connaissant. knowing. Connu. known. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant connu. Having known. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Je connais. 
 Tu connais. 
 II connait. 
 Nous connaissons. 
 Vous connaissez. 
 Ils connaissent, 
 
 I know. 
 TIwu knowest. 
 He knows. 
 We know. 
 You . know. 
 They know. 
 
 26 
 
210 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Jc connaissais. / knew. 
 
 Tu connaissais. Thou knewesl. 
 
 II connaissait. He knew. 
 
 Nous connaissions. We knew. 
 
 Vous connaissiez. 1 r ou knew. 
 
 They kneic. 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 J kneic. 
 Thou knewest. 
 
 He knew. 
 I! V knew. 
 You knew. 
 They knew. 
 
 / .</'//// knoie. 
 TTioti iciYl know. 
 Ill will know. 
 Ui shall know. 
 }'"n will know. 
 They will /■ 
 ri \-i . 
 / should know. 
 
 Thou thouldtl knar. 
 /!■ thould know. 
 II i thould know. 
 Y'lU .should knOW. 
 'They should know. 
 • ;■ Pi km . r. 
 
 / have known. 
 Thou host known. 
 lb hat known. 
 Mi have kn>,un. 
 
 ) have known. 
 Tin y have known. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 KnOW Hum. 
 
 Lei hi»i know. 
 
 I.i I UI know. 
 
 Know ye. 
 
 I.i I limn know. 
 
 ■in ir.i mood, 
 
 j iu n nt TEKSEi 
 
 That I may know. 
 
 Que tu < oni | know 
 
 Qu 1 il coi • Thai he may know. 
 
 Qne nous connainiona. Iwe may Ibm 
 
 Thai you may km w. 
 
 Qtt' I ul. Tlicd they may 
 
 lis 
 
 connaissaient. 
 
 
 TERFECT 
 
 Je 
 
 connus. 
 
 Tu 
 
 connus. 
 
 11 
 
 connut. 
 
 Nous 
 
 conn wines.' 
 
 Vous 
 
 conni'itcs. 
 
 lis 
 
 conuurent. 
 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 Jo 
 
 connaltrai. 
 
 Tu 
 
 connallras. 
 
 11 
 
 ura. 
 
 Nona connattrons. 
 
 Vboa connaltrez. 
 
 lis 
 
 connai tront 
 
 
 ' okdi now ti 
 
 Jc 
 
 connaitrais. 
 
 T.i 
 
 connaitrais. 
 
 II 
 
 itrait 
 
 Nous connalli 
 
 VoUS ' oimaitrir/.. 
 
 Ua 
 
 raient. 
 
 .i ai conno, 
 Tu as conno. 
 
 II a 
 
 irons conno. 
 
 1 1 /. connu. 
 
 IN out conno. 
 
 I ttais. 
 ('u'll connai 
 
 ' 'onnaissons. 
 
 ( '('Ml. 
 
 QnMs connai 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 211 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que je connusse. 
 Que tu connusses. 
 Qu' il connut. 
 Que nous conuussions.' 
 Que vous connussiez. 
 Qu' ils connussent. 
 
 That I might know. 
 That thou mightst know. 
 That he might know. 
 That we might know. 
 That you might know. 
 That they might know. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like connaitre. 
 
 Meconnaitre. not to know. Disparaitre. to disappear. 
 
 Reconnaitre. to recognize. Reparaitre. to appear again. 
 
 Paitre.* to feed, to graze. Croitre.f to grow. 
 
 Repaitre. to feed. Accroitre. to increase. 
 
 Paraitre. ~1 Decroitre. to decrease. 
 
 Apparaitre. > to appear. Recroitre. to grow again, 
 
 Comparaitre. j 
 
 * The perfect participle, the perfect tense of the indicative and im- 
 perfect tense of the subjunctive of paitre are not in use. 
 
 f The circumflex is used in connaitre, more than in other verbs, on- 
 ly in the present of the infinitive, in the third person sing, of the pre- 
 sent of the indicative, and in all the persons of the future and condi- 
 tional tenses ; but it is used in more of the inflections of croitre to 
 grow, so as to distinguish this verb from croire to believe ; as, 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Cru. grown. Cru.. believed. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Je crots. J grow. Je crois: J believe. 
 
 Tu crois. Tu crois. 
 
 II croit. II croit. 
 
 I believed. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Je crus. I grew. Je crus. 
 
 Tu crus. Tu crus. 
 
 II crut. II crut. 
 
 Ils crurent. Ils crurent. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 Crois. Grow there. Crois. Believe thou. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je crusse. That I might Que je crusse. That I might 
 Que tu crusses. grow. Que tu crusses. believe. 
 
 Que nous crussions. Que nous crussions. 
 
 Que vous crussiez. Que vous crussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils crussent. Qu' ils crussent. 
 
 484. The paradigm of verbs in re of the fifth class. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 Plaire. 
 
 To please. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir plu. 
 
 To have pleased,, 
 
212 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Plaisant. Pleasing. Plu. Pleased. 
 
 COMFOTJND PERFECT. 
 
 Ayant plu. Having pleased. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Je plais. 
 
 / please. 
 
 Tu p'ais. 
 
 Thou pleasesl. 
 
 11 plait. 
 
 11 phases. 
 
 Noua plaiions. 
 
 Wi i >l?asc. 
 
 Vous pla 
 
 You please. 
 
 lis plaisent 
 
 They please. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT TERSE. 
 
 Je p!:n~.ii-.. 
 
 / pleased. 
 
 Tu plaiaais. 
 
 Thou pleas del* 
 
 11 plaisait. 
 
 a, pleased. 
 
 usions. 
 
 }f< pleased. 
 
 1 
 
 ) ■ pleased. 
 
 [la plainaient 
 
 They pleased. 
 
 
 PERFECT TENSE, 
 
 Je | 
 
 / pleast (I. 
 
 To plus, 
 
 pleasedst. 
 
 11 plat 
 
 II pleased. 
 
 IS. hi- | Inmrs. 
 
 II pL asedt 
 
 1 
 
 
 IK |> In rent. 
 
 1' ■ >/ jiliasal. 
 
 
 FUTIRF. TI NSE. 
 
 n;ii. 
 
 / slot 1 1 [il' us, 
 
 Tu pl.ur.i-. 
 
 Thou will , 
 
 II | 
 
 11' will , 
 
 \ ,'ri.lls. 
 
 II i 
 
 1 
 
 You Hi'/ p 
 
 lis pl.lllUllt. 
 
 They will /■ 
 
 
 CONDITION \r. 
 
 Je pb 
 
 / skfuiil please 
 
 Tu pnurais. 
 
 Thou should 1 
 
 II pl.nnnt. 
 
 // should please, 
 
 ISiiii-. plairioas* 
 
 II ", should please. 
 
 \ On- plairiea. 
 
 ihould please. 
 
 IK pl.ur.ut.iil. 
 
 They should please. 
 
 
 eOHMUKO PEBJ Bi i 
 
 J' :ii plu. 
 
 / haw pleased. 
 
 Tn ;is plu. 
 
 Thou hast pleased, 
 
 11 a plu. 
 
 ll, has j i/i 'iii ti- 
 
 Nom B.TOM plu. 
 
 ll , haw. pleased. 
 
 \ .•!!- vrem plu. 
 
 ) h "•' pleased, 
 
 lis ODt plu. 
 
 Thaj have planed. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 213 
 
 Imperative 
 Plais. 
 Qu'il plaise. 
 
 Plaisons. 
 Plaisez. 
 
 Qu' 
 
 mood. 
 
 Please thou. 
 Let him please. 
 Let us please. 
 
 Please ye. 
 
 plaiserit. Let them please. 
 
 Subjunctive mood. 
 
 Que je plaise. 
 Que tu plaises. 
 Qu' il plaise. 
 Que nous plaisions. 
 Que vous plaisiez. 
 Qu' ils plaisent. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 That I may please. 
 
 That thou mayst please. 
 
 That he may please. 
 
 That we may phase. 
 
 That you may please. 
 
 That they may please. 
 
 iaiPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Que je plusse. That I might -please. 
 
 Que tu plusses. That thou mightst please. 
 
 Qu' il plut. That he might please. 
 
 Que nous plussions. That we might please. 
 
 Que vous plussiez. That you might please. 
 
 Qu' ils plussent. That they might please. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner complaire to humour, de- 
 plaire to displease, and taire to keep secret or silent. (The 
 pronominal verb se taire to keep silence, to be silent, to 
 hold one's tongue, is oftener used than the active taire). 
 
 485. Conjugation of the first irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Boire. To drink. 
 
 
 Avoir bu. To have drunk. 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Buvant. Drinking. 
 
 
 Bu. Drunk. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je bois. 1 drink. 
 
 Je 
 
 boirai. I shall drink. 
 
 Tu bois. 
 
 Tu 
 
 boiras. 
 
 11 boit. 
 
 11 
 
 boira. 
 
 Nous buvons. 
 
 Nou 
 
 s boirons. 
 
 Vous buvez 
 
 Vous boirez. 
 
 lis boivent. 
 
 Ils 
 
 boiront. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je buvais. I drank 
 
 Je 
 
 boirais. I should drink. 
 
 Tu buvais. 
 
 Tu 
 
 boirais. 
 
 11 buvait. 
 
 11 
 
 boirait. 
 
 Nous buvions. 
 
 Nous boirions. 
 
 Vous buviez. 
 
 Vous boiriez. 
 
 13s buvaient 
 
 lis 
 
 boiraient. 
 
214 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 COJIPOUXD. PERFECT. 
 
 Je 
 
 bus. 
 
 / drank. 
 
 J' ai bu. I have drank 
 
 Tu 
 
 bus. 
 
 
 Tu as bu. 
 
 11 
 
 but. 
 
 
 11 a bu. 
 
 Nous 
 
 bumes. 
 
 
 Nous avons bu. 
 
 Vous 
 
 biites. 
 
 
 Vous avez bu. 
 
 Us 
 
 burent 
 
 
 lis out bu. 
 
 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 
 
 Bois. 
 
 Drink (hou. 
 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 boive 
 
 J.rl him drink. 
 
 
 
 Buvons. 
 
 Lei us drink. 
 
 
 
 Buvez. 
 
 Drink ye. 
 
 
 Qu 1 i!s bimeut. 
 
 J.'t th' m drink. 
 
 
 -. i i \ i 
 
 NT. 
 
 IMPSB1 ECT. 
 
 Que 
 
 jc boive 
 
 That I mtv, 
 
 Quo je busse. That I mig 
 
 
 tu 
 
 drink 
 
 Que tu busse; , drink. 
 
 QU' 
 
 it boive 
 
 
 Qu' il but. 
 
 Que 
 
 imiiv I, in 1008. 
 
 Que qous bassions. 
 
 </n 
 
 \ oua liin i«v 
 
 
 Que vous bussiez. 
 
 Qn' 
 
 ila boiveot 
 
 Qu' Us bufisent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner Us compounds n . , . 
 
 1 ( utwoirt 
 
 to imbibe, ami reboire to drink again. 
 
 . ( lonjug ition of the second irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinith t mood. 
 
 ri i.i BCT. 
 
 pi ••. kvoir circonci. To have circtuncind 
 
 Piir/uiju', .-. 
 
 rF.RKF.c T. 
 
 Circciin ' ' ( irCODCia. Circumcised. 
 
 IHD1 l ii t in . 
 
 Je circoDcis. / circumcise. Je ciiconcirai. / shall circvin- 
 
 Tu circoBciras. rise. 
 II cirooncit II cin onefra. 
 
 wna. Noui cirooncirona. 
 
 V"n> circoncin /. 
 iciux iM-nt. IN circonoiroot 
 
 imii iu i ■ r. .rnu> \i . 
 
 Je cirooDciaais. I dreumdaed, Je cirooooirais. / >//nu/»/t ircw/i- 
 
 Tu eircon To cuconciraja. tit 
 
 II circoociaait 11 oirconcirait 
 
 'N «ni- cn< oiici-hui-. Nona oircoociriooa. 
 
 n in /. Voua cin oneirics. 
 
 IN eircoaeJaaieat lis circouciraicnt. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 215 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je circoncis. / circumcised. 
 
 Tu circoncis. 
 
 II circoncit. 
 
 Nous circoncimes. 
 
 Vous circoncites. 
 
 Ils circoncirent. 
 
 COMrOUND PERFECT. 
 
 ai circoncis. / have cir- 
 
 circoncis. cumcised. 
 
 circoncis. 
 
 circoncis. 
 
 circoncis. 
 
 circoncis. 
 
 Imp era 
 
 J' ai 
 
 Tu as 
 II a 
 
 Nous avons 
 Vous avez 
 lis ont 
 
 live mood. 
 
 % Circumcise thou 
 Let him circumcise. 
 Let us circumcise. 
 Circumcise. 
 Let them circumcise. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Circoncis. 
 Qu'il circoncise. 
 
 Circoncisons. 
 
 Circoncisez. 
 Qu'ils circoncisent. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Que je circoncise. That I may Que je circoncisse. That J might 
 Que tu circoncises. circumcise. Que tu circoncisses. circumcise. 
 Qu 1 il circoncise. Qu' il circoncit. 
 
 Que nous circoncisions. Que nous circoncissions. 
 
 Que vous circoncisiez. Que vous circoncissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils circoncisent. Qu' ils circoncissent. 
 
 487. Conjugation of the third irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Conclure. To conclude. , Avoir conclu. To have conclude 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Concluant. Concluding. 
 
 Conclu. Concluded. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je conclu s. 1 conclude. 
 
 Je conclurai. I shall conclude. 
 
 Tu conclus. 
 
 Tu concluras. 
 
 11 conclut. 
 
 11 conclura. 
 
 Nous concluons. 
 
 Nous conclurons. 
 
 Vous concluez. 
 
 Vous conclurez. 
 
 Ils concluent. 
 
 Ils concluront. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je concluais. I concluded. 
 
 Je conclurais. I should conclude. 
 
 Tu concluais. 
 
 Tu conclurais. 
 
 11 concluait. 
 
 11 conclurait. 
 
 Nous concluions. 
 
 Nous conclurions. 
 
 Vous concluiez. 
 
 Vous concluriez. 
 
 Ils concluaient. 
 
 Ils concluraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je conclus. jf concluded. 
 
 J' ai conclu. I have, conclu- 
 
 Tu conclus. 
 
 Tu as conclu. v 
 
 11 conclut. 
 
 II a conclu. 
 
 Nous conclumes. 
 
 Nous avons conclu. 
 
 Vous conclutes. 
 
 Vous avez conclu. 
 
 lis conclurent, 
 
 Ils ont conclu. 
 
216 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Conclus. 
 
 Qu'il conclue. 
 
 Concluons. 
 
 Concluez. 
 Qu'ils concluent. 
 
 Conclude thou. 
 Let him conclude. 
 Lei us conclude. 
 
 Conclude yc. 
 Ld than conclude. 
 
 1MTERFECT. 
 
 Que je 
 Que tu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PKESE>T. 
 
 Thal^Ivmy Que je conclusse. That I might 
 conclude. Que tu conelusses. conclude. 
 
 conclue. 
 conclues. 
 
 Qu' il conclue. 
 Que nonsconcluions. 
 Que vous concluiez. 
 Qu' ili concluent. 
 
 Qu' il conclfit. 
 Que nons conclusions. 
 Que vous coDclussiez. 
 Qu' ils conclussent. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. Exclure to exclude is conjugated like conclure) but 
 it has two perfect participles; txclu and exclus. 
 
 II. Richirc to confine, to shut up, is used only in the in- 
 finitive and perfect participle reclus, recluse cloistcrofl op, 
 confined.— This rerb is also used as q pronominal verb: 
 §< reclun to -hut one's m If up. 
 
 III. inclurt is no longer in use, except in the perfect par- 
 ticiple inclus, uuhis, included or inclosed. 
 
 488. Conjugation of the fourth irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood, 
 
 naatn. ''"<> 
 
 Confirc. Zb ptdfcfe, to prtterve. Avoirconfit lb hem pickled. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 I) KM ' I- 
 
 1 RJ -I N 1. 
 
 vat l' kting. 
 
 im,i. mim i u n n i. 
 / /H'kl'. 
 Tu confis. 
 
 II confit. 
 
 lis co nfi wnt 
 
 I / 
 In con 
 
 nfinit. 
 i onfinona. 
 Vbui a i 
 
 lis < 
 
 Confit '"I- 
 
 1 I ] 
 
 I ulinu. I shall jiicklf. 
 
 Tu oonfiras. 
 1 1 ooofiiu. 
 
 niron^. 
 
 \ otuj confirez. 
 ii- confirant 
 
 comma* u ■ 
 Je oonfirais. / should pkkh 
 Tu confirais. 
 II oonfirait 
 pfotu confii i 
 
 VODJ <<>n("i( ii /. 
 
 IK coofiruaat 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 217 
 
 PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je confis; I pickled. J' ai confit. I have pickled. 
 
 Tu confis. / Tu as confit. 
 
 II confit. II a confit. 
 
 Nous confimes. Nousavons confit. 
 
 Vous confites. Vous avcz confit. 
 
 lis confirenk lis ont confit. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Confis. 
 Qu'il.confise. 
 
 Confisons. 
 
 Confisez. 
 Qu'ils confident. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Pickle thou, 
 pickle, 
 pickle. 
 Pickle ye. 
 Let them pickle. 
 
 Let him 
 Let us 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je confisse. That I might 
 Que tu confisses. pickle. 
 Qu' il confit. 
 Que nous confissions. 
 Que vous confissiez. 
 Qu' ils confissent. 
 
 Que je confise. That I may 
 
 Que tu confises. pickle. 
 
 Qu' il confise. 
 
 Que nous confisions. 
 
 Que vous confisiez. 
 
 Qu' ils confident. 
 
 Deconfire, to, discomfit, to abash, and svffire, to suffice, 
 are conjugated like confire, except that suffire makes sitffi 
 in its perfect participle. N. B. Circoncire differs from con- 
 fire and suffire in the perfect participle only. 
 
 489. Conjugation of the fifth irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Coudre. To sew. 
 
 
 Avoir cousu. To have sewed. 
 
 \ 
 
 Pari 
 
 iciples. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Cousant. Sewing. 
 
 
 Cousu. Sewed. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je couds. I sew. 
 
 
 Je coudrai. I shall sew, 
 
 Tu couds. 
 
 
 Tu coudras. 
 
 11 coud. 
 
 
 11 coudra. 
 
 Nous cousons. 
 
 
 Nous coudrons. 
 
 Vous cpusez. 
 
 
 Vous coudrez. 
 
 Ils cousent. 
 
 
 Ils coudront. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je cousais. / sewed. 
 
 
 Je coudrats. jf should sew, 
 
 Tu cousais. 
 
 
 Tu coudrais. 
 
 11 cousait. 
 
 
 11 coudrait. 
 
 Nous cousions. 
 
 
 Nous coudrions. 
 
 Vous cousiez. 
 
 
 Vous coudriez. 
 
 Ils cousaient 
 
 
 Ils coudraient. 
 
 27 
 
218 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Je cousis. / seized. 
 
 Tu cousis. 
 
 II cousit. 
 
 Nous couai tries. 
 
 Vous cousites. 
 
 lis couaireut. 
 
 Couds.. 
 Qu'il couse. 
 cousons. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai cousu. 1 have sewed. 
 
 Tu as cousu. 
 
 II a cousu. 
 
 Nous avons cousu. 
 
 Vous avcz cousu. 
 
 lis out cou>u. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 Si w thou. cousez. Sew ye. 
 
 Let him sue. Qu'ils cousent. Lei them sue. 
 
 I.' I us sew. 
 
 BtJBJUWCTIVK PHI SEH I • 
 
 Que je couse. That /may jeto.Que je 
 Que tu couses. 
 Qu' ll couse. 
 Que nous cousions 
 
 Qllc \lllh Cnllsic/.. 
 
 Qu' Us cousent 
 Conjugate in 
 to rip, 
 
 •l'JO. 
 
 Croire. 
 
 nii't.iinxT 
 cousissc. That I might 
 Quo tu cousissea. n to. 
 Qu 1 il cousit. 
 Que nous cousissions. 
 Que \ ous > ousissiez. 
 Qu' ils cousisseut 
 
 the same manner its compounds dicoudre 
 ml /■■ coudri to Bew again< 
 Conjugation of the sixth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 i aBU N i • ii:uh ;< i . 
 
 Avoir cru. T» hare believed. 
 
 Participl ■ 
 
 I N I . 
 
 
 11 HI 1 i 1 . 
 
 Croyant in?. 
 
 
 Cru. 
 
 lh lit vt il. 
 
 amu » ) n i i i.i -i n i . 
 
 
 t i mi; 
 
 
 J< crois. 1 1" .i 
 
 Je 
 
 croirai 
 
 1 shall hi lun 
 
 'In < 
 
 Tu 
 
 croiraa. 
 
 
 II • roil 
 
 47 
 
 "Nou 
 
 croir u 
 
 
 ' 
 
 s croirona. 
 
 
 crow /.. 
 
 \ ous croin /.. 
 
 
 Da ( 
 
 IK 
 
 croiront. 
 
 
 mi gai i ' r. 
 
 
 i ONDtTIOll u . 
 
 / beUeoed. 
 
 Jc 
 
 
 1 shuulil in in ii 
 
 Tu croyaia, 
 
 Tu 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 cyait 
 
 ll 
 
 croirait 
 
 
 ' 
 
 NOUS < iuiiuhis. 
 
 
 \ qui < i 
 
 \ in- ( roiries. 
 
 
 Ui i roj m nt. 
 
 IK 
 
 I'll M 
 
 
 m un ' r. 
 
 
 ( , Mini N|i 
 
 II l.l ITT. 
 
 .r. i / L, Ht 
 
 J' 
 
 ai riu. 
 
 J hai. ' 
 
 Tu 
 
 Tu 
 
 ;.-< <iii. 
 
 
 ll 
 
 II 
 
 :i ( in. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 avons cru. 
 
 
 
 VoUS :i\ (V. (I'll. 
 
 
 ■mnt 
 
 lis 
 
 out. cru. 
 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 :19 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Crois. Believe thou. 
 
 Qu'il croie. Lei him believe. 
 
 Croyons. Let us believe. 
 
 Croyez. Believe ye. 
 
 Qu'ils croient. Let them believe. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje croie. That I may believe.Que je crusse. 
 
 Que tu croies. 
 Qu 1 il croie. 
 Que nous croyions 
 Que vous croyiez. 
 croient. 
 
 Qu' 
 .v. 
 
 Que tu crusses. 
 Qu' il crut. 
 Que nous crussions. 
 Que vous crussiez. 
 Qu' ils crussent. 
 
 That I might 
 believe. 
 
 r Accroire, which is used only in the present of the 
 infinitive, and always after the verb /aire 
 to make ;. &s,faire accroire to make believe, 
 to impose upon, to deceive ; s^enjaire ac- 
 croire to be self conceited, to presume too 
 much upon one's self. 
 Decroire, to disbelieve, to cease to believe. 
 Mecroire, to disbelieve, to suspect. 
 
 two verbs are inflected like croire, but are 
 
 ^ seldom used. 
 
 These 
 
 491. Conjugation of the seventh irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 Dire. 
 
 Disant. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To say, to tell. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Saying, 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir dit. To have said. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 INNDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Je dis. 
 Tu dis. 
 II dit. 
 Nous disons. 
 Vous dites. 
 lis disent. 
 
 I say. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je disais. - 
 Tu disais. 
 II disait. 
 Nous disions, 
 Vous disiez. 
 lis disaient' 
 
 I said, 
 
 
 PERFECT, 
 
 
 Dit 
 
 
 Said. 
 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 
 Je 
 
 dirai. 
 
 I shall 
 
 say 
 
 Tu 
 
 diras. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 dira. 
 
 
 
 Nous dirons. 
 
 
 
 Vous direz. 
 
 
 
 Ils 
 
 diront. 
 
 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 
 Je 
 
 dirais. 
 
 I should 
 
 say 
 
 Tu 
 
 dirais. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 dirai t. 
 
 
 
 Nous dirions. 
 
 
 
 Vous diriez. 
 
 
 
 Ils 
 
 diraient 
 
 
 
220 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je dis. 
 Tu dis. 
 11 dit 
 Nous dimes. 
 Vous dites. 
 lis dirent. 
 
 / said. 
 
 J' ai dit. 
 
 Tu as dit. 
 
 II a dit. 
 
 Nous avons dit. 
 
 Vous avez dit. 
 
 lis out dit. 
 
 / have said, 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Dis. Say Ihou. 
 
 Qu'il ■ Let him say. 
 
 Di-ons. Lit u» my. 
 
 Say yc. 
 Qu'iU digest Let them say. 
 
 ■• I tVB PKB8KHT. 
 
 Thai I may say. 
 
 ■ 
 Que tu 
 Qu" i! dhe. 
 Que none 
 Que « ■ 
 
 Qll 1 H« di-ciit. 
 
 IMPEKKK< 1. 
 
 Que je disse, 7V: // 1 might say 
 Q ]«• i'i dii 
 Qn' il dit. 
 
 ma di-^ions. 
 Que roua diasiez. 
 Qu 1 ilfl Jinwrnt 
 
 again, to tell again, to repeat; to 
 blame, to reprove) i= conjugated exactly like 
 
 COBtl ^ are inflected lik- 
 
 Didiri (tc disown). I except in the 2nd par- 
 it, to retract). I B *™j ol " *• i' n '- 
 
 >sen1 «>t ttie nidi 
 
 - hUerdire (to forbid, to interdict). 
 
 
 hcabve, 
 and of the onperatirc . 
 irbere thej mall 
 instead of Ut i 
 predisez* 
 d,'t/ 
 
 didw z vouit 
 mli i < 
 mid 
 prid 
 in two (liiii'_ 
 |j : 1st By baying a double • instead <d' i 
 single t. vrh< T. \. r it forma three syll 
 
 :nt, nous maud mau- 
 
 . U* mouth ienf,je maudissait, tyc, -nd. 
 By making it w, instead of t«e«, in the 2nd 
 person plural of the present of the indicative, 
 and of the imperative: as, vous maud 
 maud* 
 
 (to Blander), 
 (to predict)* 
 
 Vous coni 
 
 I >■ , 
 
 Vous Dili n 
 
 Poia prid 
 {Maudirt (to cone) differs from din 
 
TRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 221 
 
 492. Conjugation of the eighth irregular verb in re. 
 Jrifinitive mood. 
 
 Ecrire. 
 
 Ecrivant 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To write. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir ecrit. To have written. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Ecrit. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Written. 
 
 J' ecris. 
 Tu ecris. 
 II ecrit. 
 Nous ecrivons. 
 Vous ecrivez. 
 Us ecrivent. 
 
 I write. 
 
 I shall write. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J' ecrivais. 
 Tu ecrivais. 
 II ecrivait. 
 Nous ecrivions. 
 Vous ecriviez. 
 Us ecrivaient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 J 1 ecrivis. 
 Tu ecrivis. 
 11 ecrivit. 
 Nous ecrivimes. 
 Vous ecrivites. 
 lis ecrivirent. 
 
 I wrote. 
 
 I wrote. 
 
 FUTUR 
 
 J' ecrirai. 
 Tu ecriras. 
 II ecrira. 
 
 Nous ecrirons. 
 Vous ecrirez. 
 lis ecriront. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J' ecrirais. I should W7'ile. 
 
 Tu ecrirais. 
 
 II ecrirait. 
 
 Nous ecririons. 
 
 Vous ecririez. 
 
 Us ecriraient. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 J' ai ecrit. i" have written, 
 
 Tu as ecrit. 
 
 II a ecrit. 
 
 Nous avons ecrit. 
 
 Vous avez ecrit. 
 
 Us ont ecrit. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Write thou. 
 Let him, write. 
 Let us write. 
 
 Write ye. 
 Let them write. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 ecrivisse. That I might 
 ecrivisses. write. 
 
 Ecris. 
 Qu'il ecrive. 
 
 Ecrivons. 
 Ecrivez. 
 
 Qu'ils ecrivent. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Que j' ecrive. That I may 
 Que tu ecrives. write. 
 Qu' il ecrive. 
 Que nous ecrivions. 
 Que vous ecriviez. 
 Qu' ils ecrivent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds ; 
 Circonscrire. to circumscribe. Proscrire. to proscribe. 
 
 Decrire. to describe. Recrire. to write agam 
 
 Inscrire. to inscribe. Souscrire. to subscribe. 
 
 Prescrire. to prescribe. Transcrire. to transcribe. 
 
 Quej' 
 
 Que tu 
 
 Qu 1 il ecrivit. 
 
 Que nous ecrivissions. 
 
 Que vous ecrivissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils ecrivissent. 
 
222 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 493. Conjugation of the ninth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive JWood. 
 
 PRESENT.. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Faire. To make, to do. 
 
 Avoir fait. To liave made. 
 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 i \T. 
 
 TK.RFECT. 
 
 Fesant* .'/ . 
 
 
 Fait. Made. 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Jp fais. 
 
 / make. 
 
 Je 1 / shall make. 
 
 Tu fais. 
 
 
 Tu feras. 
 
 11 Cut. 
 
 
 11 I. ra. 
 
 
 
 Nona i'< "in-. 
 
 VoUfl i. 
 
 
 Voua feraz. 
 
 lis fout. 
 
 
 [la feront 
 
 
 1 0ND1 riuN II . 
 
 
 1 
 
 Je f( ■ / should make 
 
 Tn i> 
 
 
 Tu ferais. 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 ferait 
 
 
 
 Nous ferkms. 
 
 '■ 
 
 
 \ mis feries. 
 
 1 
 
 
 IN limit nt. 
 
 ii ki i . r. 
 
 
 < OMPOUHD PF.RF i 
 
 Jo fis. 
 
 I 
 
 .1' ai fait. / have made 
 
 Tu fis. 
 
 
 Tu as fait. 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 :. But 
 
 
 
 Nous BTODI fait. 
 
 \ OUS fill -. 
 
 
 ;.\iv. I'm. 
 
 
 
 IN nut fill. 
 
 Jmpcrativi moodt 
 i Make thou. 
 
 Qu'il / ' im makt . 
 
 i .ii-. /,</ hi make. 
 
 - ye. 
 ■ i.i-m hi. ]■! tin m make. 
 
 iMi'i arKCT. 
 B. Tlial I may hit!, ,Qoeje fine. Thai I might make. 
 Que i i i 
 Qa' il Qn 1 il fii. 
 
 . Faasioni, <l>n oona i 
 
 Qae v . <^mi- vous G 
 
 Qo 1 iU ii 
 
 l. ( lanjugata in the same manner its compounds : 
 
 inctead oife, in all the inflections of thr \ril- 
 » itii .ui asterisk. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 223 
 
 Contrefaire. to counterfeit. Redefaire. to undo again. 
 
 Defaire; Uo undo, to defeat; Refaire. to make, or do again. 
 
 se defaire. ( to get rid. Surfaire. to ask to much, to 
 
 Satisfaire. to satisfy. exact. 
 
 Its four other compounds forfaire to forfeit, to prevari- 
 cate, malfaire to do ill, mtfaire to misdo, and purfaire to 
 perfect, are used only in the present of the infinitive, and 
 in the perfect participle : forfait, malfait, mef ait, par fait. 
 
 II. Faire, preceded by the negative ne, and followed by 
 the conjunction que, and a verb in the infinitive, expresses 
 a continuation or a frequent repetition of the same action ; 
 as, // nefait que manger, he does nothing but eat. Je ne 
 fais que le conseiller, I constantly advise him. Elle nefait 
 
 que jouer, she does nothing but play. 
 
 III. Faire, preceded by the negative ne and followed by 
 que de and a verb in the infinitive, expresses an action very 
 recently past, like venir de ; as, Tu nefais que de lui parler, 
 you have just spoken to him. Elle ne fait que de sortir, 
 she has just gone out. Nous ne fesons que de le voir, we 
 have just seen him. 
 
 IV. Faire is frequently used to recall the idea of a verb 
 which precedes, and serves to avoid its repetition ; as, II 
 ix'aime pas tant safemme quHlfesait, he does not love his 
 wife so much as he did. On regarde une femme savanie, 
 comme on fait une belle arme, we look on a learned woman 
 as we do on a fine weapon. II se conduit mieux qitil rtfa 
 jamais fait, he behaves better than he ever did. 
 
 V. Faire is often used as an impersonal verb, to express 
 the state of the weather, or the nature, condition or quali- 
 ty of certain things. The verb faire is then rendered in 
 English by the to be ; as, 
 
 11 fait jour. II fait obscur. 
 
 Il fait nuit. 11 fait clair. 
 
 Il fait chaud. II fait clair de lune. 
 
 Ilfait froid. II fait glissant. 
 
 Ilfait frats. Ilfait sec. 
 
 Ilfait beau, or beau terns. Ilfait sale dans Its rues. 
 
 Ilfait mauvais, or mauvais Ilfait propre dans les rues. 
 
 Ilfait crotte. {terns. Ilfait cher vivre dans cette 
 
 Ilfait sombre. Ilfait bon ici. (yille. 
 
 Ilfait noir. Ilfait mauvais marcher. 
 
 When we use a substantive, we prefix the partitive du, de 
 la, des, to it ; as, 
 
224 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 II fait du tonnerre, for il tonne. II fait de la crottc, for il y a 
 Iifait des eclairs, for il edairc. de la crotte. 
 
 II fail du rent, for il rente. Il fait de la boue, for il y a 
 II fait du verglas, for il tombe de la boue. 
 du verglas. 
 
 VI. Faire is also used as a pronominal impersonal verb, 
 and is then rendered by to groio ; as, // sefait lard, il se 
 fait mat. 
 
 494. Conjugation of the tenth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Lire. To read. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Avoir lu. To have read. 
 
 Participles* 
 
 trf.-' 
 Lisant. Reading. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Lu. Read. 
 
 IRDICATITB PRBSEm 
 
 11 IIRK. 
 
 Je li . / rind. 
 
 Tu lis. 
 
 II lit. 
 
 \ one 1 
 
 Da Iim hi. 
 
 Je lirai. / shall read. 
 Tu lira-,. 
 11 lira. 
 
 Nun- lirons. 
 
 \ ons liK/.. 
 
 Us liruut. 
 
 iMiri.i 
 
 ill 10> U . 
 
 Je lisais. / 
 
 Tu 1 
 II liaeit 
 ions. 
 
 \ I'n-. '.. 
 
 Je lirais. / should rend 
 To In ai-, 
 
 II lirait. 
 
 Nulls hi ...li-. 
 
 \ ..us lines. 
 II-, lii.uint. 
 
 
 < UMI'UIM) PSBJ 1 
 
 Je < I n 
 
 I IB. 
 11 lut. 
 
 1 rent. 
 
 .r ai lii. / have read 
 Tn as lu. 
 II a lu. 
 
 Nun- avons In. 
 
 \ ons :u ea 1". 
 [In out lu. 
 
 
 •ative iiujixl. 
 
 Q"\! 
 
 1 .1-1. lis. 
 
 QuM- lisent 
 
 Read thou. 
 f.,t 'i;m read. 
 
 1 
 
 ' 'J' • 
 Let them read. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 225 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT- IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje lisd That I may read. Que je hisse. That I might read. 
 
 Que tu lises. Que tu Iusses. 
 
 Qu' il lise. Qu' il lut. 
 
 Que nous lisions. Que nous lussions. 
 
 Que vous lisiez. Que vous lussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils hsent. Qu' ils lussent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds elire to 
 elect, and relive to read over or again. 
 
 495* Conjugation of the eleventh irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Mettre. To put. Avoir mis. To have put. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 iVlettant. Putting. Mis. Put. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Je mets. 
 Tu mets. 
 II met. 
 Nous mettons. 
 Vous mettez. 
 Ils mettent. 
 
 Jput. 
 
 Je mettrai. 
 Tu mettras. 
 II mettra. 
 Nous mettrons. 
 Vous mettrez. 
 Ils mettront. 
 
 I shall put. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je mettais. 
 Tu mettais. 
 II mettait. 
 Nous mettions. 
 Vous mettiez. 
 Ils mettaient. 
 
 I put. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je mettrais. 
 Tu mettrais. 
 II mettrait. 
 Nous mettrions. 
 Vous mettriez. 
 Ils mettraient. 
 
 I should put. 
 
 PERFECT, 
 
 Je mis. 
 Tu mis. 
 II mit. 
 Nous mimes. 
 Vous mites. 
 Ils mirent. 
 
 I put. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J' ai mis. 
 Tu as mis. 
 II a mis. 
 
 Nous avons mis. 
 Vous avez mis. 
 Ils ont mis. 
 
 I have put, 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 Mets. Put thou, 
 
 Qu'il mette. 
 
 Mettons. 
 
 Mettez. 
 Qu'ik mettent. 
 
 Let him put. 
 Let us put. 
 
 Put ye, 
 Let them put. 
 
 28 
 
226 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je inette. That I may put Que je misse. Thai 1 might put. 
 
 Que tu meltes. 
 Qu' il mette. 
 Que nous mettions. 
 Que vous mettiez. 
 Qu 1 Us mettent. 
 
 Que tu misses. 
 Qu' il mit. 
 Que nous missions. 
 Que vous missies. 
 Qu 1 ils missent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds : 
 
 Admettre. 
 
 Commettie. 
 
 Cornpromettre. 
 
 Demettre. 
 
 Se demettre. 
 
 S'eutremettre. 
 
 to admit. Omettre. 
 
 Permettre. 
 
 Ppomettre. 
 input out of joint. Remettre. 
 . ( f, rt . Sonmettre. 
 io meddle, to in- Transmeta* 
 
 to permit. 
 
 to promise* 
 
 tn hand, toputcfi 
 
 ,.iit. 
 to transmit. 
 
 496. Conjugation of the twelfth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 MouJrc. 
 
 To -rind. 
 
 Pl Rl \ i r. 
 Avoir moulu. To have ground 
 
 Participlt 
 
 : n r. 
 
 
 
 ii .in 
 
 Mcnhnt 
 
 
 
 IMoiilu. Ground. 
 
 nvmc inn 
 
 
 but. 
 
 
 m 1 1 GUI . 
 
 Jp r 
 
 / grind. 
 
 Je 
 
 mondial . / shall grind. 
 
 Tu mouds. 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 mood 
 
 il i.mhi.I. 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 moodra. 
 
 '-■ 
 
 
 
 Nona moodrons. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 Voui 
 
 moudrez. 
 
 ,1. nt. 
 
 
 
 [la 
 
 moudront 
 
 IMP] B 
 
 
 
 < ■ \ 1 1 ||M\ \I . 
 
 Je m 
 
 / 
 
 
 .'<• 
 
 moodrais. / should grin 
 
 To dboi 
 
 
 
 Td 
 
 moodrais. 
 
 11 ITlulll.iit. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 moodrait. 
 
 limns. 
 
 
 
 Noii- moo li 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Von 
 
 moodi i 
 
 loolaieot 
 
 
 
 lis 
 
 moodraieot 
 
 1 1 > T. 
 
 
 
 ( OMPOl SU PER] 1 1 P. 
 
 Je n 
 
 / 
 
 ground* 
 
 r 
 
 ai moulo. Ihm- 
 
 To mould*. 
 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 :is moolo. 
 
 II moulot 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 :i moolo. 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 \ ..us moolo. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 \ . iiintiiii. 
 
 IU i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 out moolo. 
 
 hnperativt mood* 
 
 M d thou. 
 
 QiiM ; /.// him grind* 
 
 \i. / rind. 
 
 tea. I id >jr. 
 
 QoHli moolent. Let them grind. 
 
FRE.NCH GRAMMAR. 227 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje moulo. That [may grind. Que je moulusse. Thai I might 
 Que tu mouies. Que tu mou hisses. grind. 
 
 Qu 1 il inoule. Qu' il moulut. 
 
 Que nous moulions. Que nons moulussions. 
 
 Que vous mouliez. Que vous moulussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils moulent. Qu' ils moulussent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds hnoudre to 
 grind (knives) and remoudre to grind again. 
 
 497. Conjugation of the thirteenth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood, 
 
 PRESENT. . PERFECT. 
 
 Naitre. To be born. Etre ne. To have been born. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Naissant. Being born. Ne. Born. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. FUTURE. 
 
 Je nais. I am born. Je naitrai. I shall be born. 
 
 Tu nais. Tu naitras. 
 
 II nait. II naitra. 
 
 Nous naissons. Nous naitrons. 
 
 Vous naissez. Vous naitrez. 
 
 Ils naissent. Ils naitront. 
 
 IMPERFECT. CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je naissais. 1 was born. Je naitrais. / should be born. 
 
 Tu naissais. Tu naitrais. 
 
 II naissait. II naitrait. 
 
 Nous naissions. Nous naitrions. 
 
 Vous naissiez. Vous naitriez. 
 
 Ils naissaient. Ils naitraient. 
 
 PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je naquis. I was born. Je suis ne. I have been born. 
 
 Tu naquis. Tu es ne. 
 
 II naquit. II est ne. 
 
 Nous naquimes. Nous sommes nes. 
 
 Vous naquites. Vous efes nes. 
 
 Ils naquirent. Ils sont nes. 
 Imperative mood. 
 Nais. Be thou born. 
 
 Qu'il naisse. Let him be born. 
 
 Naissons. Let us be horn. 
 
 Naissez. Be ye born. 
 
 Qu'ils naissent. Let them be born. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je naisse. That I may be bom.Que je naquisse. That I might be 
 
 Que tu naisses. Que tu naquisses. born. 
 
 Qu' il naisse. Qu' il naquit. 
 
 Que nous naissions. Que nous naquissions. 
 
 Que vous naissiez. Que vous naquissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils naissent. Qu' ils naquissent. 
 
228 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Renaiire. to be born again, is conjugated like nailrc; but 
 it ha? no perfect participle, and, consequently, no com- 
 pound tense?. 
 493. Conjugation of the fourteenth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Frendre. To lake. 
 
 Avoir pris. To have taken. 
 
 
 Pai 
 
 ticiples. 
 
 PBESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 PrenanL 
 
 Taking. 
 
 Tris. Taken. 
 
 INDICATIVE PBX8BH i . 
 
 % FUTURE. 
 
 Je prends. 
 
 1 take. 
 
 Je prendrai. 1 $hail take 
 
 Tii prends. 
 
 
 Tu preiivlras. 
 
 11 pi 
 
 
 11 prc-ndra. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Nous prendroiw. • 
 
 1 
 
 
 \ - prend rec. 
 
 ]U | rennent 
 
 
 lis prendront 
 
 IMI 1 Kl 1 i 1 
 
 
 CORDI1 KM! AT.. 
 
 Jc pr 
 
 1 took. 
 
 Je prendrais. / should lake 
 
 Tu | r 
 
 
 Tu prendrais. 
 
 II JHi'li.nl. 
 
 
 11 pren 
 
 x 
 
 
 readi inns. 
 
 \ eniez. 
 
 
 Voua | n odries. 
 
 lis pn 
 
 
 I prendraient 
 
 1 KCT. 
 
 ■ 0MPO1 M' ii R] ' 
 
 Je | n-. 
 
 I took. 
 
 J 1 ai pris. J hare takeu 
 
 
 
 Tu as pris. 
 
 II prit 
 
 
 II :i pris, 
 
 'DOS. 
 
 
 \ nil- pris. 
 
 \ QUI . ' 
 
 
 \ mi- avez pris. 
 
 IK j>rirriit. 
 
 
 II- onl in-. 
 
 
 fmptrativi mood* 
 
 
 Prends. 
 
 Take thou 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 pr. iiii'-. 
 
 J.-i fa m take. 
 
 
 I'r. DOOa. 
 
 Lei uj takt 
 
 
 1 
 
 Tak > 
 
 Qu'ih 
 
 irenncnt. 
 
 l.i t them take. 
 
 biDJi tu i n i piu 
 
 IMPl EU 
 
 Oneje prrrtnc Thai 1 iii I Q < ; at 1 ini^httakf. 
 
 Que in | • 
 Qu' il prenne. Qn' il prit 
 
 Que nam pn na priasions. 
 
 Que \ . .ii-. pr. in./. Que -v . .ii - pi 
 
 Q.r Us j. rciuit.nl. Qu' lb pri 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 229 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds. 
 
 Apprendre. to learn. Entreprenclrc. to undertake. 
 
 Desapprendre. to unlearn. S'eprendre. to be eaafnoured. 
 
 Rapprendre. to learn again. Se rrieprendre. to mistake. (pume, 
 
 Comp'rendre. to tindersland. Reprendre. totakeagain,tore- 
 
 Deprendre. to separate. Surprendre. to surprise. 
 
 499. Conjugation of the fifteenth irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Resoudre. To resolve. Avoir resolu or resous. To have resolved. 
 Participles. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Resolvant. Resolving. Resolu or resous. Resolved. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. FUTURE. 
 
 Je resous. / resolve. Je resoudrai. / shall resolve. 
 
 Tu resous. Tu resoudras. 
 
 II resout. II resoudra. 
 
 Nous resolvons, Nous resoudrons. 
 
 Vous resolvez. Vous resoudrez. 
 
 lis resolvent. lis resoudront. 
 
 IMPERFECT- CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je resolvais. / resolved. Je resoudrais. I should resolve, 
 
 Tu resolvais. Tu resoudrais. 
 
 II resolvait. II resoudrais 
 
 Nous resolvions. Nous resoudrions. 
 
 Vous resolviez. Vous resoudriez. 
 
 lis resoivaient. lis resoudraient. 
 
 PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je resolus. I resolved. J' ai resolu. I have resolved, 
 
 Tu resolus. Tu as resolu. 
 
 II resolut. . II a resolu. 
 
 Nous resolumes. Nous avons resolu. 
 
 Vous resolutes. Vous avez resolu. 
 
 lis resolurent, lis out resolu. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Resous. Resolve thou. 
 
 Qu' il resolve. Let him resolve. 
 
 Resolvons. Let us resolve. 
 
 Resolvez. Resolve ye. 
 
 Qu' ils resolvent. Let them resolve. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Queje resolve. That I may r esolve. Que \e resolusse. That J might 
 Quetu resolves. Quetu resolusses. [resolve^ 
 
 Qu' il resolve. Qu' il resolut. 
 
 Que nous resolvions. Que nous resolussions. 
 
 Que vous resolviez. Que vous resolussiez. 
 
 Qu' ils resolvent. Qu' ils resolussent. 
 
230 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 OBSERVATIONS, 
 
 I. The two perfect participles of resoudre are not used 
 indiscriminately. Resolu means determined, and resous 
 (which is :i<ed in the masculine gender only), reduced into: 
 as, // a resolu de le faire. Le soleil a resous le brouiliard en 
 pluic. 
 
 are conjugated like resou- 
 dre ; but wnit the perfect 
 of the indicative, and the 
 imperfect oi' the subjunc- 
 tive; and make in the per- 
 
 il. 
 
 Absoudre^ to absolve. 
 wire, to dissolve. 
 
 feet participle absoii?, 00- 
 ■ <li sous, dissoute. 
 
 N. B. J* absohis, que _p 
 a!j>,, . olvis, que 
 
 je dissohisst . are given by 
 -onu' grammarians and 
 
 !-m ,| l.\ .1 i. w u titers. 
 
 III. The simple rerb soudre, to solve, is used only in the 
 present of the i ■ ''' problhru. 
 
 igation of the aiite • ith irregular verb in re. 
 Itifinitivi 
 
 Rirc. 
 
 ■ \ r. 
 
 IMi 
 Jc ri-.. I 
 
 Tu 
 
 N 
 v 
 
 i lit. 
 
 .i. i / 
 
 Tu ri 
 
 ll 
 
 . tent 
 
 MOUfZCT. 
 
 Jo ri~. 
 
 ll rit 
 
 \ 
 
 IU ruin!. 
 
 PKR1 
 
 Avoir ri. 
 
 To hate laughed. 
 
 (iji/i 8. 
 
 
 
 Ri. 
 
 houghed. 
 
 n 1 1 ki 
 
 .Ic 1 
 
 1 skull laugh. 
 
 Tu i 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 [ 
 
 
 
 
 IK riroiit. 
 
 
 i i [OB w . 
 
 .'. i 
 
 I should laugh. 
 
 Tn i 
 
 
 11 i 
 
 
 NOW ririnii 1 -. 
 
 
 \ oaa riries. 
 
 
 IN ri: 
 
 
 pDMtOI mi 
 
 • < T. 
 
 I 1 ai ii- 
 
 
 I ri. 
 
 
 II a ri. 
 
 
 rfona avona ri. 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 IU oi" 
 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 231 
 
 R 
 
 Qu'il rie. 
 Rions. 
 Riez. 
 
 Qu'ils rient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Queje rie- That I may laugh. Que je 
 Que tu ries. Que itu 
 
 Qu' ll rie. Qu' il 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Laugh thou. 
 Let h<m laugh. 
 Let us laugh. 
 
 Laugh ye. 
 Let them laugh. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 risse. That I might laugh. 
 
 risses. 
 rit. 
 
 Que nous riions. Que nous rissions. 
 
 Que vous riiez. Que vous rissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils rient. Qu' ils rissent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compound sourire to 
 smile. 
 501 . Conjugation of the seventeenth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Suivre. To follow. 
 
 Avoir suivi. To havefolloi»ed. 
 
 Pm 
 
 ticiples. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Suivant. Following. 
 
 Suivi. Followed. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je suis. Ifollow. 
 
 Je suivrai. I shall follow. 
 
 Tu suis. 
 
 Tu suivras. 
 
 11 suit. 
 
 11 suivra. 
 
 Nous suivons. 
 
 Nous suivrons. 
 
 Vous suivez. 
 
 Vous suivrez. 
 
 lis suivent. 
 
 Ils suivraient. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je suivais. I followed. 
 
 Je suivrais. 1 should follow, 
 
 Tu suivais. 
 
 Tu suivrais. 
 
 11 suivait. 
 
 11 suivrait. 
 
 Nous suivions. 
 
 Nous suivrions. 
 
 Vous suiviez. 
 
 Vous suivriez. 
 
 Us suivaient. 
 
 . Ils suivraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 • COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je suivis. / followed. 
 
 J' ai suivi. 1 have followed, 
 
 Tu suivis. 
 
 Tu as suivi. 
 
 11 suivit. 
 
 11 a suivi. 
 
 Nous suivimes. 
 
 Nous avons suivi. 
 
 Vous suivites. 
 
 Vous avez suivi. 
 
 lis suivirent. 
 
 Ils ont suivi. 
 
 Imperative mood. 
 
 Suis. 
 
 FoUow thou. 
 
 Qu'il suive. 
 
 Let himfn/loio. 
 
 Suivons. 
 
 Lei us follow. 
 
 Suivez. 
 
 Follow ye. 
 
 Qu'ils suivent. 
 
 Let them follow. 
 
232 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Que jc suive That I mayfollow.Q.ne je 
 Que tu suives. Que tu 
 
 Qu' il suive Qu il 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 suivisse. That T might 
 
 suivisscs. 
 suivit. 
 
 follow. 
 
 Que nous suivions. 
 Que vous s.nricz. 
 Qu' ils solvent. 
 
 Que nous suivissions. 
 Que vous suivissiez. 
 Qu' ils suivissent. 
 
 V ensuivre, to ensue, used only in the third person sin- 
 gular ami plural of every tense ; and poursurore, to pursue, 
 are conjugated in the same manner. 
 502. Conjugation of the eighteenth irregular verh in re* 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 HUME1IT. PERFECT. 
 
 Train. ■'• Avoir trait. 7b hone milked, 
 
 Par lie i pi i J. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Trayant Milking. 
 
 Trail. 
 
 Milked. 
 
 |\HK IT IV] 
 
 PR] SEKT. 
 
 
 M 1 1 RE. 
 
 Jfl 1 
 
 1 milk. 
 
 je 
 
 trairai. 1 shall milk. 
 
 I'm trais. 
 
 
 'I'u 
 
 
 11 trait 
 
 
 11 
 
 traira. 
 
 Nun- trayotu. 
 
 
 Nmh- trairona. 
 
 ayes. 
 
 
 Voua trairez. 
 
 : ii III. 
 
 
 lis 
 
 trairont. 
 
 lMl'UV.l 1 1 1. 
 
 
 i "MH 1'MN \I.. 
 
 Jfl l: 
 
 I milked. 
 
 .l.- 
 
 Iran / should milk- 
 
 Tu trayau. 
 
 
 T.i 
 
 trairais. 
 
 II In 
 
 
 II 
 
 trairait 
 
 Nona trayioos. 
 
 
 Nmus trairions. 
 
 iyiea. 
 
 
 tl.UI'M V.. 
 
 Pa trayaient 
 
 
 IK 
 
 lr .ir unit. 
 
 ii ai i 
 
 
 . l.Ml'ill M) PERI 
 
 
 
 .r 
 
 ai trail. 1 have nulkid 
 
 \\ : 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 trait 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 a trail. 
 
 
 
 ivona trait 
 
 
 
 \ oua avea trait 
 
 
 
 IK 
 
 nut trail 
 
 
 
 rative 
 
 innail. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 .Milk thou. 
 
 QuM 
 
 
 
 I.'l him milk. 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 .<t m milk. 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 Mill 
 
 Qi.'lk 
 
 
 
 T.'i them milk. 
 
 
 
 i i\ i PR] 
 
 I Haw. 
 
 Thai 1 may milk.Que nous ti 
 
 ljll< III till' -. 
 
 
 Qllr Mill. II.HH7. 
 
 <^U' ll tl.lM' 
 
 
 Qu' 
 
 da ti 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 233 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compounds : 
 Abstraire. to abstract. Exlraire. to extract. 
 
 Attraire. to allure. Rentraire. to fine draw. 
 
 Distraire. to divert. . Soustraire. to substract. 
 
 503. Conjugation of the nineteenth irregular verb in re. 
 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. . PERFECT. 
 
 Vaincre. To conquer. Avoir vaincu. To have conquered. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 Vainquant. Conquering. 
 
 Vaincu. Conquered. 
 
 Par 
 
 iciples. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je vaincs. / conquer. 
 
 Je vaincrai. 1 shall conquer. 
 
 Tu vaincs. 
 
 Tu vaincras. 
 
 11 vainc. 
 
 11 vaincra. 
 
 Nous vainquons. 
 
 Nous vaincrons. 
 
 Vous vainquez. 
 
 Vous vaincrez. 
 
 Us vainquent. 
 
 Us vaincront. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je vainquais. I conquered. 
 
 Je vaincaisr. / should conquer. 
 
 Tu vainquais. 
 
 Tu vaincrais. 
 
 11 vainquait. 
 
 11 vaincrait. 
 
 Nous vainquions. 
 
 Nous vaincrions. 
 
 Vous vainquiez. 
 
 Vous vaincriez. 
 
 Us vainquaient. 
 
 lis vaincraient. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. 
 
 Je vainquis. I conquered. 
 
 J' ai vaincu. / have con- 
 
 Tu vainquis. 
 
 Tu as vaincu. quered. 
 
 11 vainquit. 
 
 11 a vaincu. 
 
 Nous vainquimes. 
 
 Nous avons Vaincu. 
 
 Vous vainquites 
 
 Vous avez vaincu. 
 
 Us vainquirent. 
 
 Us ont vaincu. 
 
 Imperat 
 
 ive mood. 
 
 Vaincs. 
 
 Conquer thou. 
 
 Qu'il vainquc. 
 
 Let him conquer. 
 
 Vainquons. 
 
 Let us conquer. 
 
 Vainquez. 
 
 Conquer ye. 
 
 Qu'ils vainquent. 
 
 Let them conquer. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je vainque. That I may Que je vainquisse. That Imight 
 
 Que tu vainques. conquer. Que tu vainquisses. conquer* 
 
 Qu' il vainque. Qu' il vainquit. 
 
 Que nous vainquions. Que nous vainquissions. 
 
 Que vous vainquiez. Que vous vainquissiez. 
 
 Qu' ils vainquent. Qu' ils vainquissent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner its compound convaincre 
 to convince, or to convict. 
 
 29 
 
 
•234 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 504. Conjugation of the twentieth irregular verb in re. 
 Infinitive mood. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Vivre. 
 
 To live. 
 
 Avoir vecu. To have lived 
 
 
 Par! 
 
 iciplcs. 
 
 PRLSENT. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Vivant. 
 
 Li ring. 
 
 Veci 
 
 Lived. 
 
 ivnii ATlvi, PRESENT. 
 
 
 FT r IRE. 
 
 Je \i=. 
 
 I live. 
 
 Je 
 
 vivrai. / *kall live. 
 
 Tu ^ is. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 vivras. 
 
 11 vi(. 
 
 
 11 
 
 vivra. 
 
 ISous vivons. 
 
 
 Nous vivrons. 
 
 i. . /.. 
 
 
 Vous 
 
 \i\ re/.. 
 
 11= vivcnt. 
 
 
 IN 
 
 \ ivront 
 
 IMP! RPEI I ■ 
 
 
 ITDI riOB vi . 
 
 i\ ai>. 
 
 lined. 
 
 §e 
 
 \ i\ r;u-. / should live. 
 
 To rivais. 
 
 
 Tu 
 
 \ jl raN. 
 
 11 rivait. 
 
 
 11 
 
 \ n r ul. 
 
 Noua i i\ i ins. 
 
 
 N.ius \ i\ rions. 
 
 1 . ii iez. 
 
 
 \' 
 
 \ \\ lit /.. 
 
 IN rii 
 
 
 IN 
 
 \ n raient 
 
 II IU 1 
 
 
 1 nMlnl M>1 , | 
 
 Jf 
 
 i 
 
 .1' 
 
 :u m en. I ha>> In;,/ 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tfl 
 
 as vecu. 
 
 II \ • 
 
 
 II 
 
 a vecu. 
 
 Nous ve* 
 
 
 .mi- \ . ( H. 
 
 Voui \ . 
 
 
 \ "lis 
 
 svez m < n. 
 
 IN recoraat 
 
 
 IN 
 
 mil \ 
 
 
 
 | n(l. 
 
 
 Vi, 
 
 
 Live thou. 
 
 Qu'il 
 
 \ i\ e 
 
 
 Lit him five. 
 
 
 '• 
 
 
 I.i l f/v iivr. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 H r 
 
 
 l.-i them /n ■ 
 
 I n- i n i i hi -i nt. IMPI i.i 
 
 Q rive J " •■' / Q Thai I nigh 
 
 Que in \ • • 
 Qn 1 ii \ h ' ■ Qu' ii \ ■ ■ 
 
 <,> e vous vccui -!<•/. 
 Qu 1 ii-. rivi Qu' iN \ i cussent. 
 
 Conjugate io »lu- same manner w- « ompoun 
 
 . ti> i. \ i\ .-. mi! to sun i\c. 
 
 505. < tf the 'I 
 
 /■ in iring, DOISJ : U /inn, 
 
 roa ' the) roared* 
 
 ( [ , , - J C ] s 
 
 ■ . 
 
 yait, 1. 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 235 
 
 Je clorai, I shall close, tu cloras, il clora, nous 
 clorons. vous clorez, Us cloront. Je clorais, I 
 should close, tu clorais, il clorait, nous clorions, 
 vous cloriez, Us dor client. Clos, close thou, 
 qu 1 il close, let him close ; que je close, that I 
 may close, que tu closes, qu* il close ; and all 
 the compound tenses. 
 
 N. B. Declore, to unclose ; enclore, to inclose ; and 
 eclore to be hatched, to blow, or to open like a 
 flower, are conjugated like clore. 
 
 Frire, to fry \frit, frite, fried ; je fris, I fry, tu fris, il 
 frit. 
 
 Je frirai, I shall fry, tu friras, il frira, nous 
 fr irons, vous frirez, Us friront. 
 Je frirais, I should fry, tu frirais, il frirait, 
 nous fririons, vous friries, Us friraient. 
 Fris, fry thou ; and all the compound tenses. 
 To supply the place of the other forms. We use 
 the verb faire, and the infinitive of frire; as, 
 fesant frire, frying or causing !to fry ; je fesais 
 frire, fyc. 
 
 Sourdre, to gush out ; il sourd, it gushes out, Us sourdent, 
 they gush out. 
 
 Of Adverbs. 
 
 506. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, 
 or to other adverbs, to express some circumstance or quali- 
 ty respecting them. 
 
 507. Adverbs are simple or compound. 
 
 The simple are those which consist of single words ; as, 
 jamais, demain. 
 
 The compound are those which consist of several words ; 
 as, d-present, a la hate. > 
 
 508. Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced 
 to ten classes, viz : of time, place, order, quantity, affirma- 
 tion, negation, doubt, interrogation, comparison, and manner 
 or quality. 
 
236 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 
 509. Of 
 
 time : as, 
 
 
 Acluellemenl. 
 
 now. 
 
 Incontinent. 
 
 forthwith. 
 
 A Junius. 
 
 forever. 
 
 .f'lflis. 
 
 formerly. 
 
 A P avtnir. 
 
 for the future. 
 
 Journel/ement. 
 
 daily. 
 
 Alvrs. 
 
 then. 
 
 Jusr/u' 1 id. 
 
 hitherto. 
 
 A present 
 
 at present 
 
 JUaintenanL 
 
 now. 
 
 Auparavant. a 
 
 before. 
 
 .1/ ■! a. 
 
 early, betimes. 
 
 ■l. [vant 
 
 as soon as powiVleJVagu&re. 
 
 lately. 
 
 AtusitoL 
 
 mime li 
 
 Awtammoni. 
 
 bj night. 
 
 Autrefois* 
 
 formerly. 
 
 ParfoiM. 
 
 sometimes. 
 
 Ac i-ii-h ier. 
 
 the da) before 
 i rday. 
 
 Piu* lird. 
 Phis tut. 
 
 later, 
 sooner. 
 
 ■ 
 
 soon. 
 
 /'--•/;• toujour*. 
 
 for ever. 
 
 I 'int. 
 
 in the mean time.Quelgue/ait. 
 
 sometimes. 
 
 1. 
 
 immediately. 
 
 Ran mi nt. 
 
 selilom. 
 
 i 
 
 ' shortly. 
 
 Soudain, 
 
 forthwith. 
 
 | 
 
 
 often. 
 
 i 
 
 
 'tamp. 
 
 immediately. 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 l hv anil by, a Ii- 
 
 1 
 
 to marrow. 
 
 Tanidt. 
 
 J tie while ago, 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 f ■1'iiitimes. 
 
 
 t'r.iiii that time. 
 
 rs. 
 
 ahva\ .. 
 
 / / 
 1 . • mi. \ 
 
 rth. 
 
 Tlltt-,!-! llUp. 
 
 all at once. 
 
 
 Tout i.- 
 
 directly. 
 
 
 
 
 too soon, too late 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 510. Of 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 W lihill. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 u it limit. 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 behind. 
 
 
 far 
 
 
 In iu-.it: 
 
 
 iiu uherc. 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Portout. 
 
 B\ • rv w here 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 /•• 
 
 near. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 nigh, 
 
 I 
 
 : 1. 
 
 part. 
 
 somewhere. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 oppo 
 
 V. ih< i. . i- itive, and is prefixed to the verb, in 
 
 evei ien the verb is in the imperative, srith- 
 
 . I am there . nll< :-ij, ^" tin ■ 
 
 . . Iinr. a U-. 1 1 m,l\ :iii. i penir, (<• come; a-. Viens-ca, 
 
 /-■; i. ' "i He Ik ii . in the following compounds ; as, pi < t 
 
 </■-/<;. Ik re and there, up and down . pnr-di -in, 
 
 i'ii ilu- sidt . and as an interjection to i 
 
 . trttoaUlon , i ome, lei ui work .■ <;"• i ommtnpm . i ome 
 let as I 
 
 n . i- placed afti ra substantive or pronoun to point 
 out we nearest penon or thing; as, Ce/ horn* 
 fl'ii-ii. till!-/! -■ . It is placed after the preposition 
 
 in the compound adverb, par-ci jmr-lu. here and then 
 in various places. It ia prefixed tu the verb gir, (u live, in 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 237 
 
 epitaphs ; as, Ci-git ma femme, here lies my wife ; to the 
 participles inclus, inclosed, and joint * annexed; as, Lalettrc 
 ci-incluse; la facture ci-juinte ; to some prepositions; as, 
 Ci-apres, ci-contre, ci-devant, ci-des^ous, ci~dessus. It is also 
 put after the preposition enlre, between, to denote time ; as, 
 Entre-ci et demain, il pent arriver bien des choses, between 
 this time and tomorrow, many things may happen ; entre-ci 
 et la il y a encore bien loin, it is yet a long while between 
 this and then. The above are the only instances in which 
 it is used. 
 
 Ou, where, whither. — Ou is used for dans lequel, dans 
 laquelle, dmislesquels, dans lesquelles, in which; as, Void la 
 maison ou je demeure ■; for auquel, a laquelle, aux quels, 
 auxquelles, to Avhich ; as, Cest le bonheur ou il aspire ; for a 
 quoi, to what ; as, Ou me reduisez-vous ? Ou cela nous me- 
 nera-t-ill D'ou signifies whence, from what place, from 
 xohat cause; as, D'ou a-t-il pris celal D'ou lui vient son 
 orgueil ? Par ou signifies through what place, by what 
 ■means $ as, Par ou avez-vous passe pour alter la? Par ou 
 me tirerai-je d'affaires ? 
 
 511. Of order $ as, Apres, after, afterwards ; d'abord, at 
 first, ensuite, afterwards ; puis, then ; premierement, first ; 
 secondement, secondly ; troisiememeni, thirdly &c. 
 
 512. Of quantity ; as, 
 Au mains. at the least. Bien • 
 
 Au plus. at the most. Fort. 
 
 Encore. again. Tres. 
 
 Assez. enough. 
 
 Autant. as much, as many. 
 
 Beaucoup. much many. 
 
 >-, ,. how much, how 
 
 Combien, ' 
 
 many. 
 
 Moins. less. 
 
 Peu. little, few. 
 
 Plus. more. 
 
 Suffisamment. sufficiently. 
 
 Tant. so much, so many. J -5 \ 
 
 too much, too 
 
 many. 
 
 Trop. 
 
 Very. 
 
 ( J^ai assez de pain. 
 Ji en ai assez. 
 II a autant de livres. 
 II en a autant. 
 Tu as beaucoup aVargent, 
 Tu en as beaucoup. 
 Combien dVwmmes vous 
 
 favt-il? 
 Combien vous enfaut-il ? 
 Elle a moins d^enfans. 
 
 -r 
 
 j Elle en a moins. 
 lis ont peu de linge. 
 lis en ont peu. 
 J"' aiplas de vin que lui. 
 J 1 en ai plus que lui. 
 II a suffisamment de Men. 
 11 en a suffisamment. 
 Elle a tant de bijoux. 
 Elle en a tant. 
 Tu as trop de meubles. 
 , Tu en as trop. 
 
»38 1HE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 Que, used for combien in sentences expressive of 
 
 admiration, irony or indignation, takes also 
 de before the substantive ; as, Que de peinea 
 
 >ous avez 
 
 Guere, much, very, almost, hardly, is always prece- 
 ded by the negative ne. vVhen it is used for 
 btaucoup, it takes also dc before the substan- 
 tive, or en. prefixed to the verb, instead of dc 
 and the substantive ; as. // n'a guere d'argmt. 
 II n\n a guere. Elle ri'eet guere sage. It fi'u 
 
 qui [iiihsuz le /(tire. 
 used for beaucoup, is always followed by the 
 genitive of the article ; as, Ua bien dupouvoir. 
 Ellt a bit a de la bonte. Us oni bien dr Phuma- 
 niti. I ■ ' des connaissances. 
 
 Davantag e, has the same meaning as plus, more, hut is 
 never followed !>\ dt or que, and is always pla- 
 i1 the end of sentences; asj L< cadet est 
 studicux, mais Paine" Pest davantage. 
 
 ' . Though davantage cannot be fol- 
 lowed b\ </. . ii may !><• preceded by en; as, 
 /. G '"" debonne foi,les Romains 
 
 , vantage, ./< vous en aime davajitage. 
 Remark 1L When a disagreeable or ambigu- 
 ous sound « ould result from the use of plus, at 
 the < nd of a sentence, davantage should al- 
 
 I n-tu in await pin 
 
 ./• n\ , a pat davantage, 
 
 : 88, 
 
 . no ; m and ot, joined to \rrl>-. 
 
 mm p done, not, before substantives, 
 
 pronouns, ad i < tive9, adverbs, and whole ment- 
 I,, i- of sentences; as, Ji rends hommai 
 
 . • i non pas (or non) <• st t rich* i • U 
 
 mais agreabli mtnl ; 
 
 ■i, dm trim . non par d< dooti ■ 
 
 Ut s bataillt ; F.il' 
 
 us ti non pas de luu N. B< Aon 
 
 should generailj be preferred to non alone, 
 
 Before personal pronouns and adverb- j as 
 
 pour vous et non pat pour ltd* FaittiU 
 
 'nd'liui el non pas demanu 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 239 
 
 514. Difference between pas and point. 
 
 1st. Pas is used before the nu- 
 meral adjective un, at the begin- 
 ning- of a sentence; as, Pas un 
 homme nPest venu. 
 
 2nd. Pas is used in preference 
 to point before the abverbs plus 
 moins, si, tant : Je ne suis pas plus 
 riche que lui. Elle ne Palme pas 
 moins que vous ; Tu nhs pas si 
 sage que ton frere. Je n'ai pas 
 tant cfaudace que lui. 
 
 3d. Pas does not deny so strong- 
 ly as point : Je li'en ai j)as, I have 
 none, is a simple negative. 
 
 4th. Pas denotes something ac- 
 cidental ; as, II tie lit pas, he does 
 not read now. 
 
 5th. We use pas in interroga- 
 tions .when we are persuaded of 
 what we ask; as, JVavez-vous pas 
 pris ma montre ? You have taken 
 my watch, have you not ? 
 
 1st. Point may elliptically be- 
 gin a sentence. It then takes dc 
 before the following substantive ; 
 as, Point de recompense pour le 
 sage que la vertu. Point de cha- 
 grin mes amis. 
 
 2nd. Point may be used for non, 
 no, in answering a question ; as, 
 En voulez-vous ? point. Ferez- 
 vous cela ? point. 
 
 3d. Point is sometimes used be- 
 fore an adjective: as, Cest un 
 homme bienfesanl, indulgent, point 
 aigre, point soup<;onneux. 
 
 4th. Point denies more forcibly 
 than pas ; as, Je ri'en ai point, is a 
 negative expressive of impatience 
 or passion. 
 
 5th. Point denotes something 
 permanent ; as, 11 ne lit point, he 
 never reads. 
 
 6. We use point in interroga- 
 tions when we have any doubt on 
 our minds ; as, JVavcz vous point 
 pris ma montre ? have you not ta- 
 ken my watch. 
 
 N. B. Both pas and point, joined to a verb, take the 
 preposition de before the following substantive ; as Je riai 
 pas de papier. Elle w' a point de fortune. 
 
 515. Remarks on the negative ne. 
 JVe is generally accompanied by pas or point ; but it 
 sometimes is used alone, before the verbs cesser, to cease ; 
 oser, to dare ; bouger, to stir ; pouvoir, to be able ; and sa~ 
 voir, to know ; as, Je ne cesse de lui ecrire, il ri>ose me suivre, 
 i\e bougez,je nepuis le faire, je ne sais ou le trouver : in in- 
 terrogations after a relative pronoun; as, Ai-je quelque 
 chose qui ne soit a votre service? after qui, dont qui, relative 
 pronoun or conjunction, when the foregoing verb is prece- 
 ded by ne ; as, Je ne connais personne qui nevous estime. 
 II ri>y a personne dont vous ne medisez. Je ne sors jamais 
 queje ne le rencontre. N. B. Ne is always used alone before 
 the conditional of savoir, used for the present tense of the 
 indicative of pouvoir ; as, Je ne saurais le faire, I cannot do it, 
 
 JVe is used with aucun ; 
 de — vie ; 
 de—^-jours , 
 goutle, at all; 
 guere ; 
 
 II n'a aucun egard pour moi. 
 as, Elle ne lui a parle dc sa vie. 
 as y Je ne le verrai de trois jours. 
 as, Je ne vois goutte.. 
 as, Nous n'avons guere de pain. 
 as, Elle ne se farde jamais. 
 
240 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 mot, preceded bj' Dumeral adjective. 
 
 Je ne (lis mot. 
 ni ; as, Et/c nVt ni amour ni eslimepour hti- 
 
 mil; as, JVul hdmme rfest parfait. 
 
 nullement; as, Je ne le veux nullement. 
 
 jiersonne ; as, Personne n'cst venu me voir, 
 
 que, meaning^ou?-- 
 
 quoi; as, Que tie le fait es-VQUS ? 
 
 rpi , when rien is 
 understood ; ne <!v' 
 que are then ren- 
 dered in English 
 h\ nothing, but. or 
 
 only ; as, Jc n'ai que cela a vous clonner. 
 
 Elle ne fait que babiller. 
 onque ; as, // r»' a tnal quetconque. 
 
 U .- as, ./' n y ai parte a qui que ce soil, 
 quoi qut a suit : as. // ne miVi donnt quoi que ce soit. 
 rien ; Me n\i rien a /aire. 
 
 as, // - it tout <uitri qiSil nVtait. 
 atUremeni que \ as, Je pente autrement queje ntfesais. 
 mi U(- ' drop est meilleur que jenecroy- 
 
 ak. 
 ,, x ; as. // 1 crit micux quHl nc.parle. 
 
 ul!!; ft est moinsmnlkeureuxquHln'etait. 
 
 as, Sa situation est pire qw vous cro- 
 ak : encore pk qu'ellcs 
 
 u'liltuu lit. 
 
 plus ; Elle t st />ltis malude qu\lle n\tait. 
 
 apprifu 
 
 J*apprehcndt qn'il ne viaine. 
 
 ! oJ quHlne pU 
 
 nH7 ne dcvien- 
 
 ,n in. 
 
 meni pat y ■ 
 
 qu\l m n 
 
 I 
 
 when 
 
 , 1 are 
 
 / Hurt. 
 
 I ■ : ', fallui gut rt qn'il nVn 
 mil .i 
 
 • .up que 
 
 Hn$ s\n /'mi prMOiM rien qmHl 
 ne soil oiMti grand que pout. 
 
 J. i ncsuit vrui 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 241 
 
 prendre garde que, to take care 
 
 as, 
 
 trembler que ; as, 
 
 a mains que; J^ 
 
 ( as, 
 
 t as > 
 
 Prenez garde qu'il ne vous trompe. 
 Je tremble qu'on nc le decouore. 
 Je ne le ferai-pas, a mains que vous 
 
 ne lefassiez. 
 11 ne s^en ira pas, si Pon ne le met a 
 la -parte. 
 
 de crainte que, ) lest ; as, Cachez-le de crainte qu 1 il ne le voie. 
 
 de peur que, \ for fear that ; as, Faites-le de peur qu'il ne sefache. 
 
 516. Of doubt; as, Peut-etre, perhaps ; par 
 
 hasard, per chance. 
 
 517. Of interrogation ; as, Combien, how much, how 
 
 many ; comment, how ;pour- 
 quoi, why ; que ne, why not ; 
 ou, where, whither ; quand, 
 when. 
 513. Of comparison ; as, Ainsi, thus; comme, as, like ; 
 mieux, better ; le mieux, the 
 best ; moins, less ; le moins, 
 the least ; pis, worse ; le pis, 
 the worst ; plus, more ; le 
 plus, the most ; plutot, ra- 
 ther, sooner ; si, so. 
 519. Of manner or quality ; as, Men, well (the comparative 
 of Men is mieux) mal, ill j 
 (the comparitive of mal is 
 pis), sagement, wisely ; 
 temerairement, rashly ; for- 
 tement, strongly, fyc. 
 520. Remarks on adverbs of manner or quality. * 
 Adverbs of manner or quality, are the most numerous 
 kind, and they are generally formed by adding the termina- 
 tion ment to adjectives, in the following manner. 
 
 1st. When the adjective masculine ends with a vowel, 
 the simple addition of ment forms the adverb ; as, Juste, 
 justement ; joli, joliment ; absolu, absolument, fyc. Except 
 impuni, unpunished, which makes impunement. 
 
 2nd. When the adjective ends with a consonant in the 
 masculine, the adverb is formed from its feminine termina- 
 tion ; as, Heureux, heureuse, heureusement ; doux, douce, 
 doucement ; nouvel, nouvelle, nouvellement ; fol, folle, folle- 
 ment ; vif, vive, vivement ; franc, franc he, franchement, fyc 
 Except gentil, pretty, which makes gentimeni. 
 
 3rd. Adjectives ending in ant and ent form the adverb by 
 changing ant into amment, and ent into emment ; as. Cons- 
 30 
 
242 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 tant, constammenl ; elegant, elegamment ; vaillanl, laillam- 
 meat: diligent, diligemment ; eloquent, cloquemnu nt ; evi- 
 dent, evidemtnent) frequent, frequemment, At. Kxcept 
 lent, slow, zadpresent, which follow the second rule ; as, 
 Lent. hnte. lentement : present, presente, pvpsentement, 
 
 N. B. Some adverb-, formed from adjectives ending in 
 € mute, take the acute accent on their penultimate ; as. 
 igle, aveuglerncut. blindly; conimode, commodement, 
 conveniently; commune, commwumml, commonly; con- 
 forme, con/urmement, conformably ; conftu mnl, 
 confuseh : enorme, enormement, enormously; « ipressc, ex- 
 
 ressly; immense, immensiment, immense!} 
 imp'o i.nt importunately; incommode, in- 
 
 commodement, inconveniently; ob?am, obscurement, ob- 
 ■'. obstinatel} ; opportune, 
 tunement, opportunely ; pro ■>■ nt, precis* 
 
 profonde, ) nt, profoundly; 'ncnt. 
 
 prol ; . vmiformiment, uniformly. 
 
 Of the government of adverbs, 
 521. Most adverbs of quantit) requin sition d< 
 
 after them, n alread) observed. 
 
 nment, indipendamment, and 
 
 ..■ aNo r/« ; as // unu agit souveni dtpendam- 
 
 rai indipendamment </< tout 
 
 ! 
 
 The adverb? '. eoufnrmement, ronse- 
 
 rieurerm nt. 
 
 m I 
 
 • con- 
 
 nt U 
 
 . 1 1 a i l . 
 . 
 ( t fait 
 
 II aim 
 f, ,„,. J, It I in accorde pru 
 
 . i 
 . i tremcti 
 
 The pl.n , h, i- generally si- 
 
 ne verb in simple tenses, and betw< en the auxiliary 
 the participle in compound tenses; as, // . 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 243 
 
 525. Adverbs of order and of time arc placed sometimes 
 before, sometimes after the verb ; as, JlujourdViui il fait 
 beau, il pleuvra peut-ttre demain. Nous devons premier ement 
 
 faire noire devoir, secondement chercher les plaisirs permis. 
 
 526. Adverbs of interrogation always precede the verb; 
 as, Ou allez vous? Comment faites vous cela? Combien 
 vaut cela? 
 
 527. The adverb is always placed before the adjective 
 which it modifies ; as, Oest mi fort bon livre. Voire mai- 
 son est tres-belle. Dieu est infiniment bon. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 528. Prepositions serve to connect words with one ano- 
 ther, and to show the relation between them. 
 
 529. Prepositions are placed before substantives, pro- 
 nouns, verbs in the infinitive, and adverbs ; as, // fut de 
 Paris a Londres. Marchez apres lui. 
 sans consulier per sonne. II a passe par id, 
 
 N, B. The preposition en, only, is placed before the 
 present participle ; as, Ce ii'est pas en jouant que vous ap- 
 prendrez voire lecon. 
 
 530. Prepositions may be divided into simple and com- 
 pound. 
 
 Simple prepositions are those which consist of single 
 words ; as, a, de, apres, &c. 
 
 Compound prepositions are those which are formed by 
 the reunion of several words ; as, A Pegard de, au lieu de, 
 au milieu de, &c. 
 
 531. The following is a list of the simple prepositions. 
 
 a, to, into, at, in, within, on, &c. as, II va a Boston. 
 
 Je vais a la campagne. 11 est a la porte. Elle est 
 
 a, la campagne. lis sont a une portee de fusil. Sa 
 
 maison est a droite. 
 apres, after ; Je boirai apres vous. 
 
 attendu, on account of, owing to ; as, ll ne put y aller, attendu 
 
 ses affaires, 
 avant. before, as to time ; as, J' irai vous voir avant Pheure 
 
 de la enmedie. 
 avec, with ; as, Venez avec moi. 
 
 chez, to or at one's house ; among ; as, Je vais chez man 
 
 cordonnier. II demeure chez man fr'ere. Cest la 
 
 coulume chez les savvages. 
 concernant, concerning ; as, La legislature a fait une loi concer- 
 
 nant le divorce, 
 contre, against ; as, lis elaient trois contre un. 
 
 dans, in, into, within ; as, II est dans sa rhamhre. II sauta 
 
 dans le fosse. II sera parti dans une heure. 
 
244 
 
 de, 
 
 depuis, 
 
 derriere, 
 
 des, 
 
 devanf, 
 
 durant, 
 
 Clin >■.*, 
 
 J 
 
 vert, 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 of, from, with, by, at, &c. as, La beaule de la ville. 
 It arrive de Baltimore. La terre est couvertc de 
 neiice. Ce roi elait aime dc sea sujets. II rit <le moi. 
 since, from ; as, II y eat accoututne depuis son enfance. 
 behind ; as, Elle est d, rrikre vous. 
 from ; as. 1/ tst tart des le matin. 
 before, as to place ; as, 11 ge met devant moi, el 7«' 
 
 i he d> voir. 
 
 during-; as, 11 Pa fait durant sa vie. N. B. This 
 
 preposition may be also placed after its comple- 
 
 ment ; as, I vie durant. 
 
 in. to. into, &c. a-*. // est en France, lis vonl en Es- 
 
 pagne. II voudrait changer le fer en or, JN. B. 
 
 < nearly the same meaning; but 
 
 thej differ in this, that the former is used in a more 
 
 e, the Inner in a more determinate sens 
 / est en llalie. II est dans sa boutique. From 
 what has just been said, it follows that *;j, of an in- 
 determinate nature, oujlit not to be followed by 
 the article, except in a small number of phrases 
 sanctioned b\ custom; a>. Enlapriaenet dt Tiieu; 
 'jsenct d'ttn tel ; en I'honneur delarefy 
 • ii, among:; as, Mcttez-v as mire rite ct voire 
 1/ a ett troum entrt lea mortt), 
 
 ti v ingrat rnvcra nitre ma 
 exc< pt ; T i ■ ■ ■ epU ha. 
 
 ' perdu, >t»rs I'/ionmur. 
 ft lis ,u vus ious, litirrni mtn/rirr. 
 ing, in spite of; as, UP a feat ma/gre 
 pt re. 
 bj m> ti moyennant voire secours. 
 
 I i ./ all, nonobatant mea avis. 
 ■ la torn- 
 '. 
 by, through; as, La furent invmtia par 
 
 .Vi/,f r. ./' .:• /■ nvr J,. i) I 
 
 jiapii r parmi nu $ / 
 
 I 
 
 witboul uu /in. 
 
 v, tauf 
 . snuf 
 
 • 
 
 iiiul. i | ',/,-. 
 
 Oil, ll|ion, o\ . 
 
 rifiih . It /i\» nut pouvoir tur nun. 
 
 I , .'<< rim dii touchant voire 
 
 I i 
 
 < 'eat pmde those, t 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 245 
 
 532. The following is a list of the principal compound 
 prepositions. 
 
 for the sake of, on account of, because of; as, Je le 
 
 ferai a cause de voire perc. 
 by the side of, beside ; as, ELle s'assit aupres de sa 
 
 a cause de, 
 (I cote de, 
 a couvert de 
 
 under shelter from ; as, Jhttez-vous u couvert de la 
 
 pluie. 
 a Jleur de, even with ; as, La pierre etait djleur 'de isrre. 
 
 a force de, by dint of; as, // s^est fait aimer a force de wins el 
 
 cPuUentibns. 
 a P abri de, under shelter from ; as, Je te meltrai a Pabri de sa 
 
 colere. 
 a la faveur de, by favour of, by means of ; as, Uenncmi s'avanca d 
 
 la faveur de la nuit. 
 a la mode de, after the fashion of; as, 11 vit a la mode de France. 
 a la reserve de, except ; as, // a tout perdu a la reserve de ses tiyres. 
 a P aide de. by the help of, as, 11 a obtenu cette place a Paide de 
 
 son beau-pere. 
 a P exception de, with the exception of; as, Tous y ont souscrit d 
 
 Pexception de deux personnes. 
 a a P exclusion de, with the exclusion of; as, // P a fait son heritier a 
 
 Pexclusion de tous ses autres parens. 
 a P egard de, with regard to ; as, La terre est petite a P egard du 
 
 soleil. 
 a P instarde, after the manner of; as, Ces bains sont constructs a 
 
 Pinstar de ceux des anciens Romains. 
 a P inscu de, without the knowledge of, unknown to ; as, II est 
 
 parti a Pinsqu de safumille. 
 a P opposite de, opposite to ; as, Ma maison est a Popposite de la 
 
 sienne. 
 a moins de, under ; as, Je ne puis pas vous le vendre a moins de 
 
 trois guinees. 
 a raison de, at the rate of, in proportion to ; as, Je vous paierai 
 
 ce drap a raison de huit dollars P aune. On { %i".ra 
 
 cet ouvrier a raison de Pouvrage qii 1 il aura fad. 
 
 a ravers, / across, through ; as, // passa ses mains a travers les 
 au travers de, \ ° L 
 
 barreaux de la grille, lis se firentjour au travers 
 
 des ennemis. 
 au dessus de, above ; as, Cette tache est au dessus de ses forces. 
 au dessous de, beneath, below ; as, II me regarde comme un elre 
 
 trop au dessous de lui. 
 au dedans de, within ; as, II avail des espions au dedans ds la place. 
 au dehors de, without ; as, Nous campdmes au dehors de la ville. 
 au lieu de, instead of; as, Vous avez pris mon chapeau au lieu 
 
 du vbtre. 
 au milieu de, in the middle of, amidst ; as, La nuit nous surprit 
 
 au milieu du bois. II conserva sa vertu au milieu 
 
 des mceurs les plus corrompues. 
 au moyen de, by means of; as, Nous y arriverons bientdt au moyen 
 
 (Pun bon vent. 
 
216 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 au niveau de, 
 
 au peri/ ile, 
 avjiris de, 
 
 s de. 
 
 on a level with ; as, // se met au niveau de lout le 
 
 ttwnde. 
 at the peril of; as. Vonu k Jerez au peril de voire vie. 
 near, iu comparison of: a us aupres de 
 
 hiui. Jltajbrtune n'est rien aupres dr la nitre. 
 at the price of, in comparison of ; - ' lavic- 
 
 l ' 
 
 u f/*, ail!. as, lis se sont enrichis au 
 
 in the vicinitj of, nbout ; as, // dt 
 
 roini I. ali^ui : de son biai. 
 
 . I 
 
 riture. 
 
 from : ' - ' .'•■• 
 
 fro n und - , 1 
 
 la fiont^glt*. 
 
 au prt 
 
 
 ■ 
 de, 
 
 en dip 
 
 i 
 
 
 - 
 
 of; as, />' un nc vaut rial en comparai- 
 
 • • ■ 
 
 ■■■ ' 
 
 ' > i jours 
 I 
 
 : 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 yruch 
 
 
 I 
 
 \. i; />. 
 
 
 , // dfiiuure p 
 Umea omitted 
 
FRENCH GRAMMAR. 
 
 247 
 
 533. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
 
 used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sen- 
 tences, to make but one. 
 534. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions. 
 
 **a condition que, ) on condition 
 **a la charge que, \ that. 
 
 et—et, 
 
 both — and. 
 
 *jusqu' a ce que 
 
 till, untill. 
 
 qfin de, 
 
 in order to. 
 
 *loin que, 
 
 far from. 
 
 *afin que, 
 
 in order that. 
 
 lors que, 
 
 when. 
 
 *(\ moins que, 
 
 unless. 
 
 mats, . 
 
 but. 
 
 attendu que, 
 
 seeing 1 that. 
 
 meme, 
 
 even. 
 
 *au cas que, 
 
 in case that. 
 
 neanmoins, 
 
 nevertheless. 
 
 au contraire, 
 
 on the contrary. 
 
 ni, 
 
 neiMier, nor.' 
 
 au lieu que, 
 
 whereas, instead or, 
 
 now. 
 
 
 of which. 
 
 ou, 
 
 or. 
 
 au moins, 
 
 at least. 
 
 ou bien, 
 
 or else. 
 
 au reste. 
 
 as for the rest 
 
 outre que, 
 
 besides that. 
 
 
 besides, 
 
 farce que, 
 
 because. 
 
 au surplus, 
 
 as for the rest, 
 
 par consequent 
 
 consequently. 
 
 
 furthermore. 
 
 partant, 
 
 therefore. 
 
 aussi, 
 
 therefore. 
 
 pendant que, 
 
 while, whilst. 
 
 aussi-bien, 
 
 for. 
 
 *pour que, 
 
 that. 
 
 aussi-Men que, 
 
 as well as. 
 
 pourtant, 
 
 however, yet. 
 
 aussitdt que, 
 
 as soon as. 
 
 *pourvu que, 
 
 provided that. 
 
 *avant que, 
 
 before. 
 
 puisque, 
 
 since. 
 
 *bien-que, 
 
 though, although. quand, 
 
 when, though, if. 
 
 car, 
 
 for. 
 
 quand meme, 
 
 though, if. 
 
 eependant, 
 
 however, never- 
 
 **que, 
 
 that, than, till, 
 
 
 theless. 
 
 
 let, if, &c. 
 
 comme, 
 
 as, just as, like. 
 
 *quoique, 
 
 though, although 
 
 tPabord que, 
 
 as soon as. 
 
 *sans que, 
 
 without. 
 
 d^ailleurs, 
 
 besides, more- 
 
 selon que, 
 
 as, according, as. 
 
 
 over. 
 
 si, 
 
 if, whether. 
 
 *de crainte que, 
 
 } for fear that, 
 £ lest. 
 
 si bien que, 
 
 so that. 
 
 *de peur que, 
 
 svnon. 
 
 if not. 
 
 defa^on que, 
 
 ) 
 
 sinon que, 
 
 but that, save 
 
 de maniere que 
 
 > so that. 
 
 
 that. 
 
 de sorle que, 
 
 s 
 
 sitol que, 
 
 so soon as, as 
 
 de meme que, 
 
 as, just as. 
 
 
 soon as. 
 
 depuis que, 
 
 since. 
 
 *soit que, 
 
 whether. 
 
 dds que, 
 
 as soon as, since 
 
 ^suppose que, 
 
 supposing that. 
 
 done, 
 
 then 
 
 tandis que, 
 
 whilst, so long as. 
 
 *en cas que, 
 
 in case that. 
 
 tant que, 
 
 so long as. 
 
 encore, 
 
 yet, still. 
 
 tellemenl que, 
 
 so that. 
 
 *encore que, 
 
 though, although., . ^_j.,_ 
 
 5 nevertheless, 
 
 enfin, 
 
 at length, at last 
 
 wuiejois, 
 
 ^ however. 
 
 
 in fine. 
 
 vu que, 
 
 seeing that. 
 
 el, and. 
 
 N. B. The conjunctions marked with one asterisk go- 
 vern the subjunctive, and those marked with two asterisks 
 govern sometimes the indicative and sometimes the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
lm ucsiie ; ) 
 of aversion ; ) 
 of disdain ; [■ as. 
 
 of disgust ; ) pa 
 
 2lo THE ELEMENTS OP 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 535. Interjections are words thrown in between the. 
 parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of 
 the speaker. 
 
 536. The French interjections, as well as those of other 
 languages, are Comprised within a small compass. They 
 are of different sorts, according to the different passions or 
 'motions of the speaker. 
 
 537. They are expressive of fear ; as, ha ! he f 
 
 of pain ; ^ ag ah! helas ! on/.' 
 of grief; *> ' ahi! aie ! 
 
 °['W} I as, hat hi! 
 ot desire ; ^ 
 
 fi ! fi done ! 
 
 as, bah ! ouais ! 
 
 pouais ! pouas ! 
 
 of warning; as, gare ! altrte ! 
 
 hola ! lout beau ! chut .'hem ! 
 
 h, ! 
 of astonishment ; as, oh ! bah! 
 
 x raiment ! ouais! dame! 
 
 diantrt ! 
 of calling; as, hola ! st! hem! 
 of silence ; as, paix ! sifenct ' 
 
 chut! »t! 
 of encouragement ; as. 
 
 Ions, court 
 of admiration . as, 6 ! eh ! 
 
 OUi 
 
 of iron} ; as, ouais ! bah ! 
 of doubt, distrust ; as, hvxi. 
 
 In, m ! 
 of noise, of 
 
 pa/! 
 
 KIMS. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 8 
 
 Page. Line. 
 
 After derivatives 
 for succint 
 
 — Achai'ee 
 
 — Clitemenestre 
 after ils dinent pr. 
 
 for 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 31 
 31 
 33 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 45 
 46 
 
 49 
 52 
 52 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 10 
 26 
 7 
 31 
 23 
 3 
 U 
 14 
 30 
 13 
 28 
 26 
 33 
 7 
 12 
 3 
 21 
 
 quinque 
 
 double e 
 
 og- 
 
 suffice 
 
 me 
 
 iEdipe 
 
 parlais 
 
 biscaein 
 
 la vie 
 
 place ; instead of 
 read succinct 
 
 — Achai'e 
 
 — Clitemenestre 
 
 add il dine, ils jouent pr, 
 read quinquevir 
 
 — double ss 
 
 — oq 
 
 — suffire 
 
 — m£ 
 
 — (Edipe 
 
 — pariai 
 
 — biscai'en 
 
 — l'oie 
 
 — pre 
 
 after donne 
 write 
 
 add cela 
 — it 
 
 iP l r Zit% aJ lf r ™Y™^"dd because they 
 subsist by themselves in speech, and need not 
 t>e connected with other substantives. 
 
 after page 
 
 for black 
 
 — ingraver 
 
 — to 
 
 — born 
 after substantive 
 
 for 
 
 chaufte-pied 
 Gibralter 
 Schellins 
 american 
 
 systeme 
 
 adjeetives 
 after used with 
 
 add 69 
 read blank 
 
 — engraver 
 
 — 10 
 
 — borne 
 
 add, the substantive 
 read chautfe-pieds 
 
 — Gibraltar 
 
 — C'helins 
 
 — American 
 
 — systemes 
 
 — eu4g 
 
 — adjectives 
 add or without 
 
 (paragr m\ for, les votres m the first person 
 
 plural-read les notres. l 
 
 (mthe note.) for instead of deuxiema and second 
 ia used mdiscnm.nately rmrf instead' of premier ; 
 90 22 fj % a ° d * cco ^ are used indiscriminately. 
 
 97 44 7 Ws.t.on fWappdsition 
 
 99 24 ^.^r™ 1 , 03 / 6 -determinative 
 
 101 (paragr. 2^4) thencM ^^ ~ "J^' for a11 
 
 101 ^ _ j ??f h nce tr °m thence- thence, from there 
 
 117 Ifi "7/ * . — tether 
 
 S ? /^ST™ ^andanintransitive ' 
 
 124 Q J „k V- read P'u 
 
 "4 9 o^ern'ayiez aeW J M 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 
 137 
 138 
 143 
 
 146 in 
 156 m 
 
 104 
 
 166 
 I" 
 1 I 
 
 J 1 1 
 
 Line. 
 
 28 for 
 
 29 — 
 \>2 — 
 
 je sers 
 evcut 
 je vetis 
 
 read ie sens 
 — evant 
 
 _ je ^ ets, ?'n Me />re- 
 w/i< tense 
 these persons take — this person takes 
 rTerf, Uu« je frappe — 
 V ?/«ce the future ttnse between the perfect and 
 conditional I 
 /"or puis est 
 
 ' to be conceived 
 
 Je ->ui? prerenu 
 
 _ the 
 — parti 
 
 the note— 
 
 U 
 U 
 
 3 
 II 
 13 
 
 13 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 a a est 
 
 to be concerned 
 
 _ Je suis provenu 
 — this 
 
 5u»nou8vamoiia — Que nous valions 
 rerused add 
 j ,- to much 
 after h) the 
 
 _ j 
 
 Qu*il vainquit 
 
 roue ftiriea 
 
 _ |.r- '■ ''•' '' hj 
 
 _ qoe voua croyei 
 
 i 
 
 JU I'M 
 
 ■ much 
 add rerh 
 
 _ Je vauM 
 
 _ Qullvainquit 
 
 — \oiis tViru/. 
 
 _ preceded by no 
 _ que *oua ne croyez 
 
 — liormi-. 
 
 — au prix di 
 
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