■^^ .^^'^" ^. ^'^■ . ..^^ "^^ v^' ,,^V->5^-Vo^ 'J- > /v. o?^' S''^^. iX' .^:^' \ bo; v^- ..\^ .*^'»* '^b •^./. ,\\^^ Sio. ■'-'■^ .<^' %' ,a\^ '^/^ .^^ '^- -;- '/^^^S^ :^j >^..^^. x^^""-. .# ."'"' - '^0^ - ^°'=- ' •:• V om this time till the year 1784, no- thing remarkable happened ; the king's imbecility of inind grew every day more apparent, and intrigues were set on foot to take advantage of it. The kino- of Prussia, who was nearly related to the queen-dowager, by her means, gained an almost absolute sway in the cabinet of Denmark ; the only minister who op- posed his views was count BernstotT, and he was soon dismissed from his em- ployments, and obliged to retire into Germany. But in order still farther to strengthen his party, it was necessary to keep the prince royal out of the privy council. By the laws of Denmark, he could not be sworn in a member till he had taken the sacrament, and he could not take the sacrament till he had under- gone a public examination ; this the ruling party contrived to put off, under the pretext that he was not yet sufficient- ly instructed in religion. As soon, how- ever, as he arrived at the age of 16, they were obliged to consent to his admission into the privy council ; and the first step he took was to advise the king to dismiss his ministers, and to reinstate count Bernstoff. The other party endeavored to intimidate him ; but he was resolute, and carried his point. A new council was formed ; and as they apprehended that the queen-dowager might again take advantage of the king's imbecility, they passed an order, that no instrument signed by him should be valid, unless it were countersigned by the prince. One of the first acts of his administration ren- dered him extremely popular ; he com- pletely emancipated all the peasants on the estates of the crown, Avith so much prudent and cautious preparation, that no evil consequences resulted from this change in their condition. His example was followed by some of the nobility, but by no means to the extent that he wished or expected. The slave trade was also abolished, principally by the advice and exertion of count Schimmellman, who himself possessed large estates in the West Indies. For a considerable time after the com- mencement of the French revolution, Denmark remained tranquil, wisely re- 17 130 DENMARK. fusing to engage in the wars produced by that event. At length in 1801, the mad- ness of the emperor Paul obliged her to accede to the confederacy against Great Britain, formed by Russia and Sweden. In consequence of this. Great Britain sent a formidable fleet into the Baltic. The defeat of the Danes, and the death of Paul, dissolved the confederacy ; aad the Danish possessions in the East and West Indies, which the British had cap- tured, were restored. When the war between Britain and France recom- menced in 1803, Denmark resolved, if possible, to adhere strictly to her system of neutrality ; but it was soon apparent that tlie success of the latter power in Germany would place her in a perilous situation, or compel her to take an active part in the contest. But she escaped till the year 1807, when the peace of Tilsit convinced the British cabinet, that Den- mark, even if she were well disposed to resist the importunities of France to unite herself against England, was no longer capable of acting as an independent power. At length in 1807, this state was in- cluded in Napoleon's continental policy. A French army stood on the borders of Denmark, Russia had adopted the con- tinental system at the the peace of Tilsit, and England thought it her duty to pre- vent the accession of Denmark to this alliance. A fleet of twenty-three ships of the line was sent up the Sound, August 3d, which demanded of Denmark a defen- sive alliance, or the surrender of her fleet, as a pledge of her neutrality. Both were denied. Upon this, a British army land- ed, consisting of 25,000 men, under lord Cathcart ; and, after an imsuccessful re- sistance on the part of the Danes, Avho were unprepared for such an attack, Co- penhagen Avas surrounded, Aug. 17. As the government repeatedly refused to yield to the British demands, the capital was bombarded for three days, and 400 houses laid in ashes, in the ruins of which 1300 of the inhabitants perished. Sep- tember 7th, Copenhagen capitulated, and the whole fleet, completely equipped, and, including eighteen ships of the line, fif- teen frigates, &c. was delivered up to the British, and carried off" in triumph. The crews, who had fought on those days with distinguished bravery, were made prisoners of war. Great Britain now offered the crown-prince neutrality or an alliance. If he accepted the first, the Danish fleet was to be restored in three years after the general peace, and the island of Heligoland was to be ceded to the British crown. The crown-prince, however, rejected all proposals, declared war against Great Britain in October, 1807, and entered into a treaty with Na- poleon, at Fontainbleau, October 31. Upon this, Bernadotte occupied the Dan- ish islands with 30,000 men, in order to land in Sweden, against which Denmark had declared war in April, 1808. This plan was defeated by the war with Aus- tria, in 1809, and the hostilities against Sweden in Norway ceased the same year. The demand made by the court of Stockholm, in 1813, of a transfer of Norway to Sweden, was followed by a new war with this crown, and a new al- Uance with Napoleon, July 13, 1813. On this account, after the battle of Leipsic, the northern powers, who were united against France, occupied Holstein and Sleswick. Gluckstadt and other fortica- tions were captured, and the Danish troops driven beyond Flensburg. Den- mark now concluded a peace with Eng- land and Sweden, Jan. 14, 1814, at Kiel. She also entered into an alliance against France, and contributed a body of troops to the allied forces. She was obliged to cede Heligoland to Great Britain (receiv- ing in exchange several West India islands,) and Norway to Sweden, (for which she was compensated by Swedish Pomerania and Rugen.) A peace was concluded with Russia in February, 1814. Jan. 14, 1815, Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, and received for them Lauenburg and a pe- cuniary compensation. June 8, 1815, the king entered into the German confed- eracy with Holstein and Lauenburg, and received in it the tenth place, and three votes in the general assembly (the ple- num ;) after Avhich, by the appointment of a decemviral commission, preliminary measures were taken to introduce a rep- resentative government into Holstein. EGYPT. 131 EGYPT, Among all the ancient nations which have been distinguished in history, there is none more worthy of our notice than the kingdom of Egypt. If not the birth- place, it was the early protector of the sciences ; and cherished every species of knowledge, which was known or cul- tivated in remote times. It was the prin- cipal source from which the Grecians derived their information ; and, after all its windings and enlargements, we may still trace the stream of our knowledge to the banks of the Nile. Every ancient nation lays claim to a higher origin than legitimate history can sanction ; and Egypt extends its claims to a fabulous period. Menes is the first king of Egypt Avho is presented to our notice ; but the cir- cumstances of his reign distinctly imply, that the age in which he lived was an advanced period of the Egyptian history. The arrangements which he made did not belong to rude times ; the wealth and the luxury of his court, were far removed from the savage state, and the magnifi- cence which he introduced into the ser- vices of religion, manifest an improve- ment in the arts, and a progress in the splendor of society. Sir Isaac Newton ascribes to him the building of Memphis, wliich was not founded, or at least not famous, in the time of Homer ; for it was Thebes, and not Memphis, which he celebrated as the glory of Egypt. Nor- den supposes that the latter was adorned from the ruins of the former ; but even if this be true, it would not imply that Memphis was unbuilt till Thebes was in ruins. It will only show, that, as the an- cient capital was deserted, the new city was adorned with some works of art, which had been admired in the city of Thebes. Osymandias is the next Egyptian king whose history has assumed any probable shape ; and yet the narrative of his reign is doubtful and imperfect. While he was upon the throne, the city of Thebes was still in its glory, and some of its most remarkable ornaments are attributed to this prince. His palace was an edifice of exquisite workmanship ; and in the maimer of those times, it was of vast ex- tent. In front there was a court of an immense size ; adjoining this space there was a portico of 400 feet long, the roof of which was supported by animal fig- ures of fifteen cubits high. This portico led into another court similar to the first, but more superb. Here, among other ornaments, were three statues of vast size, which is alone sufficient to show the antiquity of Osymandias' reign. In the infancy of science, every thing is vast ; and to command admiration among the uncultivated, immensity is better calculated than beauty, deep de- sign, or elegance of workmanship. These statues are said to have represented Osy- mandias and some of his family ; but this is of little importance to the history of those times, which leads us to approxi- mate the period of society in which Osy- mandias lived, by the state of literature and science which belong to the period of his reign. Sculpture and the art of building had evidently arrived at con- siderable improvements. For the style of architecture, as well as the art of the statuary, which the ruins of Thebes have disclosed, have justly commanded the admiration of the curious and discerning. There were other courts, and other por- ticoes, together with piazzas, halls, and galleries, which excelled in workmanship as well as in extent. There the chisel had sculptured, with wonderful art, the triumphs of the king, the sacrifices which he offered, the administration of justice in the courts of law, and many other em- blems of his transactions and reign. But his tomb has been celebrated above all other buildings at Thebes ; and it has been chiefly remarkable for the emblems of astronomy which it bore. It was en- compassed with a golden circle of 365 cubits in circumference, to represent the number of days which were then inclu- ded in the year, and shows that the solar year was not then distinctly understood. Here the rising and the setting of the 132 EGYPT. stars Avere represented to A'iew ; various parts of the ceiling in the pubUc build- ings of Osymandias were painted bhie and bespangled with stars, to exhibit an idea of the firmament ; and a hall was stored with the most valuable writings of those times, and was significantly de- nominated the dispensary of the mind. From the whole it appears, that the reign of Osjnnandias, though remote and not accurately defined, was in a period of considerable improvement. His lineal descendants are said to have reigned in Egypt during the course of eight generations ; but their transactions, and even their names, are not distinctly known. Uchoreus was the last of that race ; and in his time the city of Mem- phis appears to have become the success- ful rival of the ancient and venerable city Thebes. It is indeed added, that he transferred the abode of the Eg}''ptian kings from Thebes to Memphis. Passing by other sovereigns, who arc rather alluded to than specified in the conjectural parts of this history, we shall take notice of Maoris, who would proba- bly have beei» left in the same obscurity as many other ancient kings of Egypt have been, had not the lake which beai-s his name preserved his memory. That work of stupendous labor may be con- sidered as a remnant of those mighty works which Moeris did to aggrandize his kingdom. He adorned the temple of Vulcan at Memphis, and must be sup- posed to have been the author of many important improvements, which have been lost in the lapse of time, and forgotten among the changes of early and obscure events. He was the 330lh king from Menes ; and the immediate predecessor of Sesoslris, whose history is now to claim our attention. Sesostris is known by various other names, according to the variety which diftVrent languages and other circum- stances are calculated to produce, such as Sesonchis, Sesoosis, and Sesothis. He has also been supposed to be the Se- sac or Shishak, who took Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam ; while others have supposed that he was the Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt, and who was drowned in the lied Sea, when pursuing the Israelites to bring them back ; but these are conjectures and not historical facts — they may amuse, but they cannot instruct. Under the pretext of a dream, his father adopted measures Avliich, in his view, were calculated to furnish his son with certain means of conquest and power. Exercising the influence which he seems to have possessed, he collect- ed a number of youths of the same age with his son, and trained them up to- gether at his own expense, that they might be attached to the person of Se- sostris ; and that, by being trained up in a hardy and active manner, they might be able to brave dangers, and be the means of honor and aggrandizement to his son. Having made successful inroads into Arabia, and being led to put confidence in his own resources and skill, Sesostris returned into Eg}'pt, and devised meas- ures for such campaigns and conquests as have perpetuated his fame. Being resolved to take the field in person, and having the prospect of being a long time absent from his kingdom, he adopted pru- dential means for preserving tranquillity while he was abroad. By promises and salutary arrangements, he attached the army to his interest ; and he provided carefully for the internal peace of the state. He divided the empire into 36 provinces, and having appointed a gov- ernor to each, he constituted his brother regent of the kingdom, with supreme power till he himself should return. He fitted out two fleets, one in the Mediter- ranean, and the other in the Red Sea. With the former he conquered the islands of Cyprus, together Avith several islands of the Cyclades, and the whole coast of Phoenicia ; and with the latter he scour- ed the Red Sea, and entered the Indian ocean. His army was in great force. It con- sisted of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 chariots. The 1,700 youths Avho had been trained up along with him from his infancy, and accustomed to toil and ] military exercise, Avere Avell fitted to have i the chief places of trust in that mighty j army, both from their attachment to their , I sovereign, and their military ardor. With : this numerous host, he overran the Ethi- EGYPT. 133 opians, and traversed Africa, till he reach- ed the shores of the Atlantic. Being en- couraged by success, he penetrated Asia, and crossed the Ganges. Returning in- to Europe, he invaded Scythia as well as Thrace ; but, according to some his- torians, these warlike people resisted his invasion, and after he had made several conquests, compelled them to retire. A colony of Egyptians was planted by him in Colchis, or a part of his army settled there of their own accord ; and pillars recording his triumphs have been found in various parts of the world. He appears to have aimed at universal conquest ; but though his movements were rapid, and his successes great, yet he was forced to return to Egypt, and abandon the kingdoms he had acquired. There is a certain compass, beyond which the powers of man cannot pre- vail ; and it was never intended b}' na- ture, that one man should lord it over the whole earth. There are limits to the powers of the mind, and there are Iioun- daries among the empires and kingdoms of the earth, which it is cruel and unjust to pass. While Sesostris was employed with conquest abroad, his brother was perverting his authority at home, and sub- verting the power and honor of the king. Being informed of these transactions, Sesostris hastened his return to Egypt ; and having resumed the reins of his king- dom, overthrew the proceedings of his brother, tranquillized the country, and completely re-established his own power. It is said in honor of his humanity, that he saved the life of his rebel brother, who, it has been asserted, lied into Greece, and was the Danaus of that country, whose story seems to be partly true, and partly fabulous. From this time forward, Sesostris aban- doned a life of warfare, and employed his leisure as well as his riches in adorning his kingdom, and improving the condition of his people. He provided for the re- pose of the soldiers, who had been his companions in arms ; and he enriched the temples of the gods, whom the peo- ple worshipped. He fortified the king- dom in the most commodious parts ; im- proved the state of Lower Egypt or the Delta, and in general meliorated the state of the kingdom. He either divided the people into casts, or rendered the division more complete, which appears to have been a favorable arrangement in those times and circumstances, though it has created a host of prejudices unfavorable to successive improvements. It is re- corded to the disgrace of Sesostris, not only that he retained the kings captive whom he had taken in war ; but also, that he took a cruel pleasure in exposing their fallen state to public observation, making them feel, in a most sensible manner, the degradations of their captive condition. In the midst of these severities, one of his captive sovereigns reminded him, by the emblem of a wheel turning rapidly upside down, that fortune was capricious, and that he who sat upon the throne might soon, like him, be ranked amongst slaves. The remark did not fail of its naturel im- pression ; and from that time the captive princes were set free. So true is it, that health is followed by sickness, and pros- perity by pain, that Sesostris lost his sight, and sinking into despair, he put a period to his own life. The first king who is mentioned in the Egyptian history, after the preceding sovereign, is Gnephactus, who is of no celebrity in the annals of his country. Sethon is the next king of Egypt, who lays claim to our consideration. He was a person of the sacerdotal order, and be- longed to the temple of Vulcan. He had no warlike dispositions, nor was he at all habituated to the use of arms. Till this period the soldiery had been cherished, and were a conspicuous body of men in Egypt ; and, therefore, being neglected by Sethon, they were dispersed, and hos- tile to hi« interests. The kings of As- syria being at this time bold and success- ful warriors, and fmding Eg\'pt in a feeble and unprotected state, they entered that country in a hostile maimer, and filled the nation with alarm. The soldiers being scattered and disgusted, Sethon's army consisted only of raw and undisci- plined troops, who were unable to meet a host of victorious invaders. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, with a numerous army, entered Egypt, and committed great de- vastations. In this threateninsr and dangerous situ- 134 EGYPT. ation, when ruin was apparently ready to burst upon the head of the Egyptian king, a host of rats in one night gnawed the bow-strings and shield-straps of the Assyrian army ; and being thus deprived of their weapons of warfare, they fled before the Eg}'ptians with great slaugh- ter. A story somewhat alike to this Egyptian representation, is handed down to us in the history of Palestine, where 185,000 men of Sennacherib's army were found dead by some sudden disaster. The better authenticated Jewish liistory would lead us to suppose, that the story is the same, but misapprehended and dis- guised in the obscurer annals of Egypt. The Babylonish Talmud supposes, that tliis sudden destruction was brought upon the Assyrians by the effects of lightning ; while others are of the opinion, that the disaster was occasioned by the sumiel or hot wind of the desert, which is known to be so destructive and so sudden in its effects ; and this idea seems to corres- pond with the language of our sacred books. " Behold, I will send a blast upon" Sennacherib, and he " shall return to his own land." But to whatever cause we ascribe the destruction of Sennache- rib's army, it was equally the work of God ; for all the parts and elements of nature minister to his will. Soon after this, the government was entrusted to twelve princes, who appear to have entered upon their high office, with every resolution of concord and pub- lic spirit ; but, like all common alliances, the harmonious union was soon dissolved. Psammeticus, one of the twelve, was soon raised to the sovereign power, B. C. 679, and his colleagues were over- thrown. The story runs of an oracle having asserted, that if any of the twelve governors should offer a sacred libation in a brazen helmet, that person should ascend to the sovereign power. The story adds, that upon a festival of Vulcan, when all the twelve governors were to offer libations to the god, eleven vessels through mistake were only provided, upon which Psammeticus presented his liba- tion with his own helmet of brass. The prediction of the oracle was remembered ; and Psammeticus claimed the sovereign power. If the story of the helmet be not a fic- tion, it was probably contrived beforehand by the friends of Psammeticus, to be a signal for the powerful rising and de- claration in his favor, as the destined sovereign of Egypt. But he seems to have acquired the aid of foreign power to place or establish him upon his throne ; and his reign was distinguished by an intercourse and friend- ship with Greece. The soldiers of Egypt, who are said to have retired in disgust into Ethiopia, were probably the adhe- rents of the eleven governors whom Psammeticus had deprived of their pow- er, and the remaining supporters of the surreptitious kings, who had reigned be- tween them and his father Nechus. The restoration of the legitimate family ap- pears to have been the means of remov- ing the factious and discontented from the bounds of the kingdom. Psammeti- cus, in order to be more secure from the dangers of intestine commotions, retired to a residence near Bubastis, on the Pe- lusian branch of the Nile ; and, by culti- vating commerce, he enriched the nation. His son Nechus succeeded him on the throne, who was called in Scripture, Pharaoh Necho. He prosecuted with vigor the system of navigation, which some of his predecessors had begun; and, by the assistance of Phoenician sailors, he not only investigated the coasts of the Mediterranean, but, fitting out a fleet in the Red Sea, passed through the Straits of Babelmandel, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar. Owing to inexperience in naval affairs, this voyage, which could now be performed in three months, cost the Egyptians as many years. His expeditions by land were no less enterprising and grand. He made war upon the Medes and Babylonians, who, according to Josephus, had jointly over- thrown the Assyrian throne. Besides his enterprising by sea and land, Nechus attended to the improve- ment of his kingdom ; and, among other undertakings, he attempted to join the Red Sea and the Nile, by means of a broad and deep canal. The enterprise failed ; and owing, we may presume, to EGYPT. 135 inexperience, muclx money was uselessly- expended, and 12,000 men were lost. After having reigned for sixteen years, this active prince terminated his career about 600 years before the birth of Christ ; and was succeeded by Psammis, who only reigned six years, and left no- thing of consequence for the historian to record. Amasis, who was called unexpectedly, and without any pretensions, to the throne, began his reign by attempting to improve the moral condition of the coun- try. He appears to have lived freely, as well as sometimes riotously, while he filled an inferior station ; and he was sometimes devoted to excess, even after he had ascended the throne ; but he was nevertheless aware how important it is for good order, that the habits of society should be sober. To attain this end, he required every inhabitant of Egypt once a year to inform the government by what means he obtained his living. But while he was endeavoring to establish order at home, preparations were making abroad to invade Egypt, and overthrow its gov- ernment. The Persian king was making vast movements, in order to enter that coimtry, and get possession of its do- minions. Wc cannot ascertain the reasons of this projected invasion in the court of Persia ; for while no well authenticated records remain, we cannot speak Avith certainty from traditionary tales. It might be ambition, and it might be re- venge, or a mixture of passions and motives, which incidents and unknown events might bring into action. The story runs, that instead of permitting his daughter to be numbered amongst the women of the king of Persia, he had sent Nitetis, the daughter of A pries, the for- mer Iving. This affront and double dealing being discovered at the Persian court, Cambyses made war upon Egypt. Several circumstances occurred to render the invasion of Cambyses successful ; and of these occurrences, Amasis himself, appears to have had a share. Phanes, a Grecian general of considerable note, Avho was engaged in the service of the Egyptian king, fled to the court of Per- sia, and assisted Cambyses to conduct his operations against the interest and power of his former master. Polycrates, the successful sovereign of Samos, was formerly the ally of Amasis ; but the king of Egypt seems imprudently to have forfeited his favor, and he also joined with the Persian king. While these pre- parations and adverse circumstances were going on, the king of Egypt died, and escaped from the disasters which fell immediately upon his devoted country. In the year 525, before the birth of Christ, Psammenitus, the son of Amasis, succeeded to the kingdom ; and he was scarcely invested with the powers of royalty, when Cambyses approached the frontiers of Egypt. The new king pre- pared for defence, and the king of Persia laid siege to Pelusium. Taking advan- tage of the Egyptian superstition, the invaders placed in the front of their army a variety of dogs, cats, and other animals, which were held sacred by the besieged ; and the Egyptians not daring to injure the sacred animals, the Persians entered Pelusium without resistance. Scarcely had Cambyses taken posses- sion of the city, when the army of Psam- menitus drew nigh ; and the Greeks, who were in the service of the Egyptian king, to revenge the defection of Phanes, their countryman and former general, brought forth his children into the camp, and put them to death before the eyes of their father. Then, in conformity to the Grecian manner, they tasted of the blood mixed with wine, in token of execration. Enraged at this scene of horror, the Per- sians put the Egyptian soldiers to flight, and chased them with great slaughter to the very gates of Memphis. Having sent a vessel up the Nile towards Mem- phis, with a demand to surrender the city, the messenger and the crew were assaulted and torn to pieces. Memphis was soon after taken ; the adjoining countries to the Avest of Egypt readily submitted to the conqueror ; and now Cambyses, in his turn, did more than fill up the measure of retaliation upon the king of Eg)-pt and his devoted subjects. Placed in a particular situation in the suburbs of Memphis, Psammenitus was forced to behold the misery, the degra- dation, and even the death of some of his 136 EGYPT. family, and many of his nobles. The grief was too great to permit the feelings of the king to be otherwise expressed than by oppressive silence, till last of all, an intimate companion, old and infnm, was presented before him, begging his bread ; and then the afflicted monarch burst into tears. In his madness for conquest, Camby- ses despatched an army of 50,000 men from Thebes in Upper Egypt, to seize upon the temple of Jupiter Amnion in the deserts of Africa ; but after suffering every hardship, and losing nearly the one half of his army, he wreaked the ven- geance which should have been directed towards his own folly, upon the afflicted and despairing Egyptians. He reached Memphis at the time of a high festival, and, with that jealous violence which belongs to tyranny, he was transported with rage, and would not be convinced, that the public rejoicings were not occa- sioned by his disappointment and defeat. Under this persuasion, he scourged the priests, put the magistrates to death, and, with his own hand, slew the god Apis, whose festival the Egyptians were ob- serving. But a period was soon put to his cruelty and his life ; for having re- turned to Persia to quell an insurrection in his own kingdom, he appears to have been assassinated ; or, as the incident is generally related, he was mortally wound- ed by his own sword, from which the scabbard had dropped, as he was eager- ly mounting his horse. Thus died Cam- b)'ses, an object of hatred to his subjects, and a detested tyrant to the Egyptians. Egypt remained subject to Persia un- til the time of Alexander the Great. In returning from Persia, he passed as a conqueror through Syria, took Sidon, and compelled Tyre to surrender. Con- tinuing his march, he was received in Egypt rather as a friend than a conquer- or ; but his vanity led him to the temple of Jupiter Amnion, Avhere he was de- clared to be the son of that deity. When he returned into Eg}^pt, he founded the city of Alexandria, as a good commercial station, and connected it by canals with the river Nile. On the eve of his de- parture, he invested Doloaspes, a native Egyptian, with the sovereign power, and he carried along with him, the af- fections and the regret of the Egj'ptian people. After the death of Alexander, B. C. 323, Perdiccas, who had been a favorite of Alexander, assumed the regency, trust- ing to his address and influence for the establishment of his power. But this step raised violent commotions among the generals of Alexander ; and after a battle which was fought in Phrygia, the empire of Alexander was divided into separate portions. Ptolemy Lagus, who was afterwards denominated Soter, was entrusted with the government of Egypt. It was in the year 3C8 that Ptolemy took upon him the sovereign authority in Egypt ; and though he was not till after- wards honored with the name of king, yet he was under no control, and he ex- ercised his power for the good of the state. Having added Palestine, Syria, ^ and Phoenicia to his new dominions, he proceeded to acquire Cyprus, which abounded with wood, for the building of ships ; but he was interrupted in these proceedings by the invasion of Antigonus, whose capital was Babylon, and whose possessions were immense. He made a successful inroad into the dominions of Ptolemy ; and Gaza, Joppa, and Tyre, were subdued. After various struggles, and interchanging successes between An- tigonus and Ptolemy, the former was slain in battle, and his son Demetrius, after various reverses, was taken a pris- oner of war, and retained a captive till he died. Ptolemy Soter was of a litera- ry character, as well as a skillful and intrepid general. He wrote the life of Alexander the Great, which was lost amid the ravages of time ; but from com- ments and observations which remain, it appears to have been elegant and much esteemed. His taste for literature, and his love of science, appeared in the exertions which he made to promote knowledge and inquiry. He founded a college or museum, which became the abode of learned men ; and he formed a library, to assist the cultivation of science. Among the men of leaniing who flocked to Alex- andria upon the invitation of Ptolemy, was Demetrius Phalerius, the Athenian. EGYPT. 137 He was a wise and a favorite governor in that city ; but upon Athens being taken by Antigonus, the people received the conqueror with extravagant demonstra- tions of joy, and they banished Deme- trius with threatenings of death. In this situation he fled to the court of Ptolemy, deeply afflicted with the changeable tem- per, the ungrateful and hasty proceedings of the populace, when the government is invested in their hands. The accom- plished Demetrius took charge of Ptole- my's library, and assisted his royal mas- ter in literary arrangements. The mimificence of Ptolemy was mani- fest in the splendid buildings of the mu- seum, as well as in the magnificent temple which he reared for Serapis in Alexandria, and in the watch-tower of Pharos, which he constructed for the commercial interests of the country. In the mean time, Ptolemy Soter was far advanced in years ; and, by the influence of his favorite wife Berenice, her son Philadelphus was nominated his succes- sor, to the prejudice of Ceraunus his eldest son. Ptolemy Philadelphus obtained full possession of the throne, upon the de- mise of his father ; and his accession was celebrated with uncommon splendor. At this time the empire of Asia was en- gaged in war, by Seleucus and Lysi- machus, the only surviving generals of Alexander the Great. Ceraunus, the el- der and disappointed brother of Ptolemy Philadelphus, had left Egypt, either from choice or necessity ; and he took an ac- tive part in the wars which were sub- sisting between Seleucus and Lysima- chus. By his artifice, the ruin of Lysi- machus was accomplished ; and he put Seleucus to death with his own hand. Having perpetrated these deeds, and being supported by a multitude of adhe- rents, he obtained the throne of Macedo- nia ; but just retribution soon overtook him, for he was slain in battle, and his dead body was treated with indignity. During the reign of Philadelphus, the Romans attracted the public notice, in their disputes with the city of Tarentum ; and the king of Egypt solicited their friendship. Hence a close alliance was formed between the courts of Rome and 18 Alexandria. Ptolemy Philadelphus at- tempted to assist the Greeks, when they were invaded by the Macedonians ; but the assistance he granted was unsuc- cessful, and his aff'airs at home assumed a gloomy aspect. His brother Magas, who was governor of Lybia and Syrene, took advantage of his perplexing condi- tion, and, by the assistance of his father- in-law Antiochus Soter, king of Upper Syria, he attempted to wrest the kingdom of Egypt from the hands of Ptolemy Phi- ladelphus. During these preparations, and while the king of Egypt was em- ployed abroad, there was a revolt in the bosom of his kingdom by 4,000 Gauls whom he had employed in his service ; but overcoming all these difliculties, he finally established his throne. From fear, or a sense of duty, his brother Ma- gas was desirous of being at peace with Ptolemy ; and, as a bond of union, pro- posed that his daughter Berenice should be united in marriage to Ptolemy, the son of Philadelphus, that the possessions of both brothers should at length centre in one family. This proposal was car- ried into effect ; but in the mean time Magas died, and did not see the marriage solemnized. This settlement was op- posed by Apania, the mother of the young princess ; and she stirred up Antiochus Soter to declare war upon Egypt. But the threatening storm passed away, and Ptolemy Philadelphus was left at peace. This sovereign of Egj'pt built many cities, and erected various temples. He had even a share in constructing the celebrated Pharos of Alexandria ; for that watch-tower was built in the latter end of the former reign, when he was united with his father in the kingdom. He finished the canal from Suez to the Nile, and watered the deserts of Lybia by reservoirs and ductile streams. The comt of Philadelphus might be called the seat of learning and politeness ; for strangers and the unfortunate were re- ceived with courtesy, learning flourished, and books were increased. Ptolemy HI raised the kingdom of Egypt to a very commanding height of power ; for, besides his immense influ- ence by land, he was powerful at sea, and had extended his conquests to the 138 EGYPT. straits of Babelmandel. His assistance was requested by the members of the Achaean league ; but Arratus having form- ed a connection with Antigonus of Ma- cedon, Ptolemy was ofiended, and lent his aid to Cleomenes, king of Sparta. But his new ally being defeated and overthrown in the battle of Sellasia, fled into Egypt, and received protection. Amid the spoils which Ptolemy acqui- red in his Eastern conquests, besides immense sums of gold and silver, he re- covered a prodigious number of statues, gold and silver shrines and images, which Cambyses had carried away from the temples and palaces of Egypt. These valuable and revered relics, Ptolemy re- turned to their proper places ; and hence he was styled Euergetes, or the Bene- factor. While Ptolemy Euergetes was absent on these expeditions, his affec- tionate Queen Berenice was alarmed for his safety ; and vowed, if he should be restored to her wishes, she would conse- crate her hair in the temple of Zephyri- um. Ptolemy returned, and the sacrifice was made ; but, by some accident, the consecrated hair was lost. The king was ofiended, and the priests were in danger ; for the female hair was the chief orna- ment of the Egyptian as well as the Eastern ladies ; and the sacrifice had ac- quired an additional value, because it was consecrated as a momunent of Berenice's aftection for her lord. But the supersti- tion of the times, and the address of Conon, the celebrated mathematician of Samos, delivered the priesthood from their fear. In those days, heroes were deified, and sometimes had a place as- signed them in the starry heavens ; but Conon's fancy took a wilder flight, and aftirmed, that the consecrated hair of Berenice had been translated to the fir- mament, and composed the seven stars in the tail of Leo. In the former reign, the Romans had renewed their friendship at the Eg^^ptian court ; and the adherents of young Ptole- my, a descendant of Ptolemy III, on this occasion, applied to Rome for assistance and direction. This was the more ne- cessary, because the infancy of Ptolemy required protection ; and because Antio- chus and Philip of Macedon had deter- mined, in the feeble state of the Egyptian government, to dismember that empire, and divide it amongst themselves. The aid of the Roman government was given with readiness and eflect. An ambassa- dor was sent from Rome to each of the confederated hostile kings, and M. ^Emi- lius Lepidus hastened to Alexandria to manage the aflairs of the Egyptian court. Having placed them in a state of proper direction, he returned to Rome, and set the prudent Aristomenes at the head of the Egyptian government. From this period to that of the Roman civil wars, the history of Egypt contains but little else than a narration of the struggles of the competitors for the throne, some of whom were monsters of cruelty. At the period of the civil wars, Ptolemy Dionysius was the legal suc- cessor to the throne of Egypt ; but being too young for managing the afi'airs of state, he, and the other children of the late king, were under the superintendence of the Roman senate, and the government of Egypt was also conducted by them. But as soon as the young prince was thought to be capable of managing the state, he was admitted to the throne ; and he associated with him, in the govern- ment, his sister Cleopatra. But their friendship and union were of short con- tinuance ; and each having their parti- sans, a civil war ensued. During the occurrence of these events, the aflfairs. of Rome had suffered wide and impor- tant changes. A civil war had broken out, headed on the one side by Pompey, and on the other by Julius Caesar. In the memorable battle of Pharsalia, B. C. 48, Csesar was victorious, and Pompey was put to flight. In terror of pursuit, and without pro- tection, he directed his course to Egypt, where he hoped for a ready and welcome reception ; because through his influence and schemes, Ptolemy Auletes, the late king, had been restored to his kingdom ; but he was betrayed and put to death. The counsellors of the young king were either afraid of giving offence to Caesar, or they were suspicious that Pompey, even in his fallen state, might regain some of that influence which he formerly possessed in Egypt ; and either lessen EGYPT. 139 their power with Ptolemy Dionysius, or espouse the cause of Cleopatra, who was now driven from the kingdom ; and therefore, without any justice or feeling, Pompey was beheaded as he landed on the shore. Immediately after the victory of Phar- saha, Caisar pursued Pompey ; and with a chosen band of soldiers, landed at Alexandria. There he found his enemy had been put to death, and being pre- sented with his head, he was much af- flicted ; and, instead of being gratified, as the assassins supposed, he wept at the sight, and commanded the remains of Pompey to be honored. The kingdom of Egypt, which had long been agitated by intestine divisions, was now in a complete state of turbu- lence and misrule. Cleopatra, with some of her adherents, had fled into Syria, and Ptolemy had assembled an army between Pelusium and Mount Cassius, in order to oppose Cleopatra, who was returning to Egypt with an armed force. On the frontiers, every thing was warlike ; in the interior, all was confusion. In the capacity of guardian to the children of Ptolemy Auletes, Caesar being then in- vested with the supreme authority of Rome, commanded a statement to be laid before him of the diff'erences which continued to agitate the kingdom, that he might pass sentence thereon, and com- pel the parties to abide by his decision. The power of Cssar was too great to have his will opposed ; and therefore advocates for each side were chosen, and every arrangement made to have the mat- ters in dispute brought to an issue. But Cleopatra, being anxious for the success of her own claims, and aware what in- fluence her presence and personal charms might have upon Caesar, set out from Phoe- nicia, and arriving in the bay of Alexan- dria, was secretly conveyed into the pre- sence of Caesar. Ptolemy having discovered his sister's arrival, was frantic with rage at her ac- cess to the arbiter of his destiny, and the whole city was in commotion. To avert the storm which was gathering, and re- store the people to confidence, Caesar passed a decree, that Ptolemy Dionysius and his sister Cleopatra should reign jointly upon the throne. And further to conciliate the affections of the people, he restored the Island of Cyprus, and submitted its government to the younger son and daughter of the late king. But the friends of Ptolemy were suspicious of Cleopatra's power, especially as she was obviously the favorite of Caesar, and could support her interests by the power of Rome. At the instigation of Photinus, Achillas, the commander-in- chief, filled the city of Alexandria with troops, and attempted to block up the har- bor, that he might thereby cut off" the Roman supplies. The attempt was frus- trated by burning the Eg^'ptian ships ; but the flames reached a part of the city, which was called Bruchium, and its noble library was destroyed. Photinus, the fomenter of these evils, was put to death ; but Ganymedes, his associate, a deep designing man, continued to main- tain the strife, and combat the Romans. On various occasions, Caesar was in imminent danger, and upon a time while he was hastening from the Mole of the Pharos, the boat in which he was pass- ing sunk by an over-pressure of soldiers, who fled from pursuit. But Caesar swam to a neighborhig vessel, and his life was preserved. Upon a promise of peace, the king of Egypt was liberated from that bondage into which Caesar had thrown him, while he had drawn the sword against him and Cleopatra. But all his promises were soon violated ; and the war acquired new strength from the pre- sence of the king. But the Roman dis- cipline and address overcame the num- bers, as well as the rancor of the Eg}-p- tians ; and Ptolemy himself perished while crossing a branch of the Nile. A fair opportunity now occurred of Cleopatra obtaining the sovereign power ; but Caesar, attending to the prejudices of her people, joined with her in the gov- ernment her younger and only surviving brother, who had been formerly appointed to the government of Cyprus. But this nomination was a mere show of limiting the power of Cleopatra ; for the young prince was but in the eleventh year of his age ; and, according to the accursed maxims of those times, he was soon put to death by treachery and poison. His HO EGYPT. younger sister Arsinoe was sent to Rome, \ that she might acquire no partisans, nor be the means of any disorders in Egypt. I Hitherto, Caesar had continued in , Egypt, with the professed intention of settling its aftairs ; but his remaining at Alexandria after Cleopatra was seated firmly upon the throne, clearly betrayed an illicit and degrading attachment to the queen. In various parts of the Roman dominions, the power of Caesar was threatened ; but he could not be induced to leave Cleopatra, till his fortune seemed to be upon the verge of despair. Then his usual activity returned, and from place to place he carried victory and triumphs. Having suppressed the insurrections in Syria, he hastened to Africa, and over- threw the partisans of Cato, and the king of Numidia, in the celebrated battle of Thapsus. Then, having conquered the remainder of Pompey's party in Spain, he returned to Rome, and enjoyed for a while the fruit of his triumphs. But still his aflections centered in Cleopatra ; and, it is said, that he had taken some steps to remove an obstacle, which the Roman law placed in his way, for making her his wife. But soon after this, he was murdered in the senate-house by a band of conspirators, headed by Cassius and Brutus, B. C. 44. A scene of confusion now ensued at Rome, and it was difficult to say what hardships were to be endured, or what form of government was then to be adopt- ed. Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, Avho had assumed the name of Octavianus, formed a coalition, with the professed in- tention of avenging Caesar's death ; but chiefly with the view of aspiring sepa- rately to the sovereign power. Conse- quently, the triumvirate was soon broken, and Lepidus falling into neglect, Antony and Octavianus strove for the mastery. But Antony was peculiarly conspicuous at the battle of Pliilippi, where the cause of the republicans was lost, with the lives of Brutus and Cassius. Victorious and i'uU of hope, Antony de- parted to Syria ; and viewing himself as the master of Rome, he travelled into Sy- ria, which, with the other provinces of the East, was committed to his govern- ment ; and having arrived at Tarsus, he commanded Cleopatra to leave Egypt, and appear before him. Though the kingdom of the Ptolemies had lately been secured to her by the in- terest of Rome, yet it is obvious, that she did not obey the commands of Antony to acknowledge his authority, but perhaps to pay respect to the avenger of Caesar ; and who knows, but the licentiousness of Cleopatra might induce her to expect an- other admirer in the Roman hero 1 The meeting of Antony and Cleopatra was splendid beyond example ; they indulged in costly presents, and their feastings were numerous and extravagant. At her soli- citation, and to remove every fear of a rival, her sister Arsinoe was put to death. Like Cajsar, Antony was lost amidst the fascinating manners of Cleopatra ; and he divorced his wife Octavia, the most vir- tuous of women, to remove the jealousy, and enjoy the favors of the abandoned Cleopatra. Having subdued his enemies in the East, he returned towards Rome to oppose the growing power of Octavia- nus, which his own misconduct had tend- ed to enlarge. Had Antony marched directly to Rome, the power of Octavianus might have been overthrown ; but being enervated with effeminate pleasures, he listened to the voice of Cleopatra rather than the coun- sels of his wiser friends ; and having haz- arded a naval battle near Actium, his fleet was vanquished, and he fled first to Ly- bia, and then to Alexandria. But he was not to be consoled by the presence of Cleopatra, and the consciousness of her own errors disquieted the mind of that ambitious woman. She fled from the presence of Antony, and retired to a se- pulchral monument near the tombs of her fathers. Previous to this, Octavianus had followed up his triumphs over Antony, and was then victorious in the city of Alexandria. Believing a report that Cle- opatra had put an end to her life, and see- ing himself upon the point of falling into the hands of his rival and inveterate foe, Antony fell upon his sword. But not having instantly expired, and finding that Cleopatra was still in life, he was con- veyed to her retreat, and after an affect- ing farewell, immediatel)'' expired. Cleopatra could no longer escape the EGYPT Death of Cleopatra. power of Octaviaims, and she attempted to win his heart, and gain her Uberty ; but her attempt was ineflectual ; and though she was treated with many marks of ap- parent respect, yet she was still detained a prisoner, and she had good reason to believe that the Roman conqueror intend- ed her to complete his triumphs at Rome. She determined to escape this ignominy by a voluntary death. Maintaining an appearance of confidence and good spir- its, she ordered a splendid feast to be prepared, desired her attendants to leave her, and put an asp, which a faithful ser- vant had brought her, concealed hi a basket of flowers, on her arm, the bite of which caused her death almost imme- diately, B. C. 30. Thus died Cleopatra, who, to the beau- ty and gracefulness of her person, added the charms of wit, extensive knowledge, and aflable manners. She was the pa- tron of letters, and added a valuable col- lection to the hbraries of Alexandria. She Avas licentious and vain ; but she was born in the midst of a dissipated court, and placed in circumstances pecu- liarly seductive. By the death of Cleopatra, the dynasty of the Ptolemies was finished after it had lasted about 294 years, and Egypt was converted into a province of Rome. That the people of that country might continue united to the Roman government, none of the noblemen were allowed to have in- tercourse with the Egypti.-in people. The kingdom of the Ptolemies was to be sub- ject to a governor ; and that office was conferred upon Cornelius Gallus, whowas a person of equestrian rank. And further to restrain the ambitious views of Eg}''pt, it was not allowed to be under the direc- tion of a proprzetor, as the more favored provinces were ; but the government was under a prefect, nor had he the power of life and death, nor the command of pub- lic money. When the Christian system was de- clared to be the religion of the Roman empire, a scene of confusion and violence ensued in Egypt. The heathen temples were destroyed, and some of the indecent and lewd emblems were exposed to pub- lic view. The multitude in general, ad- hering to the idol worship of their fathers, threw themselves into an attitude of de- fence, and, posting themselves in the temple of Serapis, which was a strong and massy building, they made a stout and long resistance. But the royal man- 142 EGYPT. (late for destroying the heathen temples arrived ; the friends of idolatry were over- powered, and the god Serapis himself shivered into pieces. (See Arabia, Note, p. 30.) But the human mind is ever apt to run into extremes ; and, now that the church had acquired considerable influ- ence in Egj^pt and with the pope, a per- son soon appeared in the sec of Alexan- dria, who abused his power, and degraded his character. It was Cyril, the bishop of Alexandria, and vicar of the Roman pontiff, who, by haughty and overbearing conduct, created for himself a host of enemies. In the exercise of his power, he encroached up- on the authority of the civil magistrate ; and Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, was assailed and abused by the adherents of Cyril. But there was a darker shade to be added to the character of the aspiring and violent bishop, ilj'patia, the daugh- .ter of Theon, a celebrated master in the school of Alexandria, was no less famous for learning and elegant accomplishments, than she was for beauty and virtuous qual- ities ; yet she had oflended Cyril, and her life was the forfeit. She was the friend of Orestes, the Roman prefect, and being unjustly accused of cherishing the irrita- tion between him and Cyril, she was at- tacked by the multitude in the streets of Alexandria, and cruelly put to death. But the ambition of Cyril was as violent in public life as in private, and his intem- perate dispute with Nestorius, the bishop of Constantinople, remains against him in the annals of the church. The western empire of Rome haA'ing already fallen, by the intrusion of the Huns and Goths, the Vandals, and other warlike and uncultivated nations, the east- em empire, of which Constantinople was the head, was also fallen into decay, and the queen of Persia overran different parts of the Roman dominions. She likewise obtained possession of the principal towns and parts of Egypt. But her triumphs here were of short duration, and Persia itself was soon added to the dominions of the Mahometan conquerors. Omar succeeded to the empire of Ma- homet, and in his reign Egypt was sub- dued by the arms of the caliph. Amru Benelas marched his troops into Egypt, and, after much resistance, got possession of Memphis. Mocawcas, the prefect of Egypt, was hostile to the religious tenets of Constantinople ; and when the Per- sians were besieging that capital, he had revolted from his allegiance. For these reasons, Mocawcas supported the inter- ests of the Mahometan invaders, and, after many eflbrts and various changes of for- tune, the city of Alexandria surrendered to the Saracens. The town was exposed to plunder, but at length the people were admitted into the protection of the con- querors ; and if they did not become Ma- hometans, they were to pay a certain ratio or tribute. Amru, the conqueror, was also consti- tuted the governor of Egypt ; and having added to its boundaries, he likewise re- gulated its internal affairs, and command- ed a canal to be opened between the Nile and the Red Sea. When Othman was raised to the caliphate, Amru was removed from the government of Egypt ; but his successor, Abdallah Bensaid, was not ac- ceptable to the people of that province. He renewed the conquest of Africa, and was successful in his views ; but the suc- cess was owing to the bravery of Zobeir, and not to the courage or conduct of Ab- dallah. But being afterwards unfortunate, he was removed from the government of Egypt, and Amru restored to his former station. But this salutary change was not of much avail, and the improvident con- duct of Othman was hurtful to his domin- ions, as well as fatal to himself. In the subsequent caliphate, Egy^pt was involved in the civil wars, which were occasioned by the competitors for the dominions of Mahomet ; and Egypt was not composed nor set at peace till Amru was again in- vested with the government of the coun- try, with the most ample and almost in- dependent powers. During the contentions which ensued, Egypt threw off the yoke of the Saracens ; but was again reduced to submission when Merwan, the son of Hakem, was raised to the throne. In the caliphate of Walid, Corrah Bensharik was invested with the government of Egypt ; but he was licen- tious in his manners, and outraged the feelings and the decency of the Christian adherents. But while he was degrading EGYPT. 143 himself by every species of folly and vice, Mura, the lieutenant of the caliph's ar- mies, was traversing Africa in triumph, and had reached the fortress of Ceuta, or Pillar of Hercules, on the African side. Count Julian, the Gothic commander of this fortress, not only surrendered it to Mura, but offered to conduct him into the bosom of Spain. It was jealousy and resentment among the Gothic chiefs, which occasioned this offer to the Arabian warrior ; for Roder- ick, the usurper, but reigning king of Spain, had many enemies in his domin- ions, and he had stirred up the vengeance of Julian, by his infamous conduct to the daughter of that chief. Musa hesitated, for he was fearful of a snare ; but one of his confidential generals was willing to make an experiment ; and having sailed from Ceuta, and landed at Calpe, the other Pillar of Hercules, the Saracen army pitched their first camp where the impregnable works of Gibraltar are erected. The expedition was success- Ad, and Musa being jealous of Tarik or Tarif, his general, set sail for Spain, and completed the conquests which his fore- runner had begun. If he treated his suc- cessful general with unbecoming severity, Musa, in his turn, was degraded by the caliph, and died under the pressure of infirmities and sorrow. These things happened in the beginning of the eighth century, and the Saracens obtained the chief possessions and management of Spain, into which they introduced the literature of the East. For a considerable period of years, the affairs of Egypt are scarcely mentioned ; for the public mind and the national records were employed with animosity and violence about the succession to the caliphate. Formerly the family of Ali, the immediate descendants of Mahom- et, had been overpowered, in attempt- ing to assert their right to the throne ; and the house of Ommiak, by power and good fortune, were raised to the sovereign power. The Ommiades being in their turn overthrown by the Abbassides or descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet retired into Spain, and established their dynasty on the throne of Cordova. But the family of Ommiah having many adherents in Syria, and some being also attached to the descendants of Ali, Al- mansur, the second caliph, founded a new capital on the western banks of the Tigris, and that city was Bagdad, famous in the annals of Eastern history. Haroim Alrashid succeeded to the caliphate, and in his reigrx the affairs of Egypt come again into view. Alrashid was a prince of great fame, and he is well known as the hero of the Arabian tales, called the Arabian Nights' Enter- tainments ; but in the great variety of his vast engagements, Egypt, as a distant province, attracted little of his attention, though he visited many of his dominions, sometimes in disguise, and sometimes openly. The disorders of that country, and other distant possessions, called for his interposition ; and he invested Ibra- him, the son of Aglab, with the powers of governor and lieutenant over his domi- nions in Africa upon the shores of the Mediterranean ; and Ibrahim found means to render himself independent. Thus he established the dynasty of the Agla- bites, the seat of whose government was at Cairwan. During the reigii of Alrashid, there was nothing remarkable in the state of Egypt, excepting a general feebleness of the government, which happened, as we have already observed, in all the re- mote provinces ; but in the reign of his successor Almansur, the Ommiades of Spain attempted to regain the possession of Egypt. But the caliph of Bagdad invested Abdallah Bertaher with a high commission for repelUng the invaders, and restoring Egypt to order. Yet the Ommiades were scarcely dispersed, when the Greeks of Constantinople arrived in Eg}^pt with a numerous fleet. Alarmed by this powerful armament, Ahmed Ben Tholan, a Turkish commander, was sent into Egypt to defend the country, and reduce the inhabitants to order. When he had settled the disturbances in that country, he led a powerfvd army into the East, and reduced under his own power several cities and provinces of the caliph. His son and successor enlarged his dominions from the falling empire of the caliph of Bagdad, until he returned to Egypt in possession of dominions which 144 EGYPT. extended from the streams of the Eu- phrates to the confines of Nubia. But the power of the Tholonides was not of long duration, and Egypt again was added to the empire of Bagdad. The Aglabites, in Africa, ceased to reign, and a dynasty succeeded, whose princes were denominated Fatimites ; because they professed themselves the descendants of Fatima, the wife of Ali, and daughter of the prophet. This new race of princes aspired to the dominions which the Aglabites possessed in Egypt. Upon the death of Aladid, A. D. 1171, the last of the dynasty of the Fatimites, the caliph of Egypt, Saladin, being in pos- session of the chief power in his charac- ter of vizier, seized upon all the wealth of the late prince, which was various and valuable. He threw his whole family into confinement, and adopted every measure which his wisdom could devise, for establishing, in his own person, the supreme authority of the state. He main- tained a show of obedience to Nureddin, the prince of Damascus, but was secretly determined to acquire an independent rule in Egypt. This intention, though disguised, could not be concealed from the powerful and discerning Nureddin ; and, while he seemed satisfied with the conduct of Saladin, he was raising a nu- merous army to resist and overthrow his power ; but, in the mean time, he was seized with a sudden illness, and died at Damascus. But the death of this prince did not deliver Saladin from danger ; for Nured- din's successor was both able and willing to give him just cause of alarm. In these circumstances, Saladin wished to secure a retreat, and for this purpose, he sent his brother Malec Turanshah into the kingdom of Nubia ; but finding it desolate and barren, he returned to Grand Cairo, and thence he was despatched with a numerous army into Arabia Felix. There he was successful, and reduced a considerable part of that country under the subjection of the Egyptian vizier. Saladin having enlarged his dominions, and confiding in the means which he had devised for becoming master of Egypt, was determined to assume a name suita- ble to his views. Not being a descend- I ant of Mahomet, he could not be de- ' nominated caliph, which implied the sa- [ cerdotal as well as the kingly office. On this account he chose the name of sultan, and left the office of pontiff, who had the charge of religious affairs, to be filled up by a descendant of the prophet. Though Saladin was acknowledged as the sultan of Egypt by many of the neigh- boring states, and even received the sanc- tion of the caliph of Bagdad, which gave him a name and influence among the followers of Mahomet, yet he was not secure from intestine commotions. The friends and adherents of the Fatimite caliphs raised a rebellion in the kingdom, and a pretender to the throne collected an army of 100,000 men. These, how- ever, were soon defeated by the power and address of Saladin ; but no sooner was he freed from this alarm, than he was threatened by the soldiers of the Crusades. William II, king of Sicily, had engaged in the Christian wars, and laid siege to Alexandria both by sea and land ; but the enterprising spirit of Sal- adin frustrated his views. With a ra- pidity of movement which was peculiar to the energetic mind of the Egj'ptian sultan, he marched to the relief of Alex- andria ; and the Crusaders, with a sudden panic, fled from the siege, leaving their stores, baggage and engines. At this time the government of Damas- cus was under a regency; for Malec Al- saleh was under age, and the govern- ment of affairs in his minority was not acceptable to the people. Amidst these discontents, Saladin was requested to ac- cept the sovereign power of Syria. Hav- ing arrived at Damascus, he found little difficulty in becoming master of the country ; but he professed to assume the government in the name and for the in- terest of the young prince. Having set- tled the affairs of Damascus, he marched with a successful army through various parts of the country, while his growing prosperity excited suspicions ; and the ministers of Malec, the prince of Damas- cus, entering into a combination with some of the neighboring powers, sought an opportunity to check the career and disappoint the designs of Saladin. A battle ensued ; but the Syrian forces, to- EGYPT. 145 gether with all their allies, were defeat- ed, and the sultan of Egypt was left master of Syria. Saladin returned from his Eastern con- quests, and began to aggrandize and for- tify the city of Grand Cairo. He en- couraged the schools and literature of the country ; but was drawn away from the pursuits of elegance and domestic im- pi'overaents, to the din of arms and the ravages of war. Having obtained pos- session of Syria, he was anxious to ac- quire Palestine ; and therefore, he led a numerous host against the armies of the Crusade who had assem'led for the de- fence of the Holy Land. But there he met with the most obstinate resistance ; multitudes of his army perished in the field of battle ; and when he was forced to return towards Egypt, a still greater number died in the desert, from hunger, thirst and disease ; yet still the views of Saladin were toward Syria and the East. At the commencement of this campaign, his army was defeated both at Aleppo and Mossul ; and in the mean time the Christians of the Crusade had assembled a fleet in the Red Sea, which threatened the cities of Mecca and Medina ; but Abubeker, Saladin's viceroy in Egypt, fitted out a fleet under the command of the brave and experienced Lulu, which deleated the European expedition, and gave fresh vigor to the exertions of Sala- din. In the spirit of conquest, he enter- ed the provinces of the East ; and to trace his progress, would be to follow him like lightning from field to siege, and from siege to battle. Having run a triumphant course through Syria, he entered Palestine with victory and terror. Having obtained possession of Aleppo and Mossul, he aimed a blow at the Holy Land. For the space of three years, Saladin continued to gain advan- tages over the armies of the Crusade. Various places of strength having fallen, Tiberius was at length taken, and Lusig- nan, king of Jerusalem, was desirous of meeting Saladin in the field The ar- mies met on the banks of the Jordan, and victory was declared in fiivor of Saladin. The king himself was taken prisoner, as well as Arnold, lord of Carac. The king of Jerusalem was treated with respect, 19 but Arnold was put to death by Saladin's own hand, because he had inflicted many miseries on the followers of Mahomet, Ptolemais, Neapolis, Ceesarea, and other cities, fell into the power of Saladin. Finding nothing to oppose his course, he marched directly towards Jerusalem, and besieged the city A. D. 11 87. The garri- son was numerous, and made a desperate defence ; but after Saladin had made a breach in the walls, and was on the point of entering the town, the commander of- fered to capitulate. But Saladin refused to accept of the terms, and vowed that he would sack and destroy the city. His cruel threatenings roused the spirit of the Christians, and a herald declared, that they would first put 5,000 musselmen prisoners to death ; and, that no European might be exposed to their revenge, they would also destroy their wives and children. That no booty might be found, they would destroy every thing valuable in the city; and, having leveled the rock which the Mahomet- ans held sacred, they would sally out in a body upon the besiegers ; and if they were not victorious, their destruction should be accomj)lished by an unexam- pled expense of blood and misery. This desperate resolution moved Saladin to more reasonable terms ; and the garrison, as well as the citizens, were spared by paying a stipulated sum of money. In this enfeebled state of the Chris- tian armies, a third Crusade was deter- mined on in Europe ; and the emperor of Germany, together with Philip II, of France, and Richard I, of England, hav- ing arrived in Palestine, encamped be- fore the city of Acca or Ptolemais, whilst many European ships rode in the harbor. In this city, Saladin had assembled a nu- merous army ; and tlie powers of Europe were combined to defeat him. Richard I, of England, was of great courage, and therefore was surnamed Coeur de Lion ; and his skill in war, added to his prowess, had rendered him the most famous gene- ral of the age. If there had been as much harmony as there was power among the diff'erent armies of the Crusade, the city of Ptolemais must soon have fallen ; but, after all the distractions in the views and councils of the allies, Saladin was 146 EGYPT. compelled to capitulate, A. D. 1191. The garrison were allowed to march out with the honors of war ; but a sum of money was to be paid to the besiegers. The sultan of Egypt refused to pay the ransom ; and historians tells us, that 3,000 prisoners answered for it with their lives. The siege was extremely bloody ; and it is not supposed that fewer than 300,000 persons on either side were cut off during ihe conflict ; and the flower of Europe, as well as Egypt, Asia, and Syria, perished in the combats. Ptole- mais, or Acca, became the residence of the hospitalers of St. John, and, since that period, the town has been denomi- nated St. John d'Acre. Of all the European potentates, the king of England only remained ; and, hav- ing laid siege to Ashkelon, he took pos- session of that city. Upon this event, Saladin hastened to Jerusalem ; and Richard followed him to the holy city. The king of England held it in close siege ; but when the hour arrived that the city was to be delivered up, the be- sieging army retreated, and the enter- prise was abandoned. The cause of this sudden and extraordinary conduct has never been well explained ; and different authors have presented different views of the subject. It may justly be supposed to have been involuntary on the part of Richard ; for his courage has never been questioned ; and the value which he set upon his honor could not permit him to tarnish it by unworthiness of conduct. The retreat of the army, it is said, over- whelmed him with grief; and the mis- fortune was probably occasioned by the discord and jealousy of the combined army. The duke of Burgundy, who was left in Palestine by the king of France, with 10,000 soldiers, is said to have been as jealous as his master of the fame and valor of the English king ; but, even in his retreat, Richard was formidable. He concluded a truce with Saladin for three years and upwards ; various places of strength were dismantled ; the whole sea-coast from Jaffa to Tyre was surren- dered to the Christians ; and the pilgrims of Europe, travelling to Jerusalem, were to be under the protection of the power- ful Saladin. But scarcely had the king of England returned to his coimtry, when the health of Saladin began to decline ; and he finished his life about the 55th year of his age, and after he had reigned "in Egypt 24 years, A. D. 1193. Alaziz, the second son of Saladin, was appointed to the government of Egypt ; but, not being contented with the portion of his father's dominions assigned to him, he made successful inroads into Syria ; but died suddenly in the midst of his tri- umphs. Upon his death, several import- ant changes took place with respect to the affairs of Egypt and Syria ; but no- thing worthy of notice till the reign of Alcamel. When this prince was raised to the throne, he was well received by the Egyptians ; but he found the state of public affairs full of disorder, and at- tended with danger. The Mahometans and the Christians were plotting each other's destruction ; and the Christians were at variance among themselves. In this state of internal disquietude, the sol- diers of the fifth Crusade landed in Egypt and laid siege to Damietta. The united forces of Egypt and Damascus could not overcome the European army ; but Al- camel offered such terms of accommoda- tion as were acceptable to all the chiefs of the Crusade, except D'Albano, the Pope's legate. Such influence had the see of Rome then acquired, that his single voice pre- vented the negotiation. The siege was continued, and the town of Damietta fell. Elated with this success, they pushed into the interior of the country ; but were vanquished by the Egyptians, and were compelled to sue for mercy. The sultan of Egypt became powerful in Syria, as well as at home ; and, when Frederick II, of Germany, found it necessary to re- turn to Europe, he entered into a league with Alcamel, which was wise and pro- fitable for both. Alcamel died at Damascus, and Ala- del, one of his sons, was raised to the throne ; but Nojmoddin,his eldest brother, laid claim to the kingdom. A bloody contest would probably have ensued ; but, in the mean time, Aladel died or disap- I peared ; and his brother Nojmoddin was I peaceably proclaimed sultan. He, too, EGYPT. 147 acquired influence with the most power- ful party of the Crusades ; for Richard, the earl of Cornwall, perceiving that the sultan of Egypt was more powerful than the Syrian lords of Carac and Damascus, entered into an alliance with Nojmoddin, and renewed the treaty which Freder- ick of Germany had made with Alcame his predecessor. By this covenant, the Christians were protected, and the views of Nojmoddin encouraged, in opposition to his Syrian rivals. In this settled state of afiairs, Nojmod- din passed into Syria, and, with the help of some uncultivated tribes, determined to overpower his Eastern enemies. That part of the Crusading armies which was favorable to the lords of Syria, joined them in opposing the sultan of Egj^ot ; but Nojmoddin overthrew them with great slaughter. In the mean time, a host of warriors from Europe arrived in the port of Damietta, with Louis IX, of France, as their leader. In the absence of the sultan, and when the nation was unpre- pared for this unexpected attack, the armies of the Crusade entered Damietta. The news of this event was quickly car- ried into Syria ; and Nojmoddin having raised the siege of Emessa, hastened to Egypt to protect his kingdom ; but he died by the way, and left a vacancy in the government, when a vigorous admin- istration was peculiarly wanted. The country received a seasonable relief by the address of Shajir Aldor, the favorite female of the late sultan. Pre- tending that Nojmoddin was indisposed on his journey, the principal lords of the country Averc induced to swear allegiance to his only son Turan Shaw. The veil was then taken off, and the young prince was proclaimed sultan, upon his arrival from Damascus with a numerous army. The European soldiers had by this time penetrated far into the country ; but they paid dearly for their rashness ; and Louis himself was taken prisoner. Tu- ran Shaw had the name of sultan, but none of its powers ; for Shajir Aldor, and her adherents about the court, directed in reality the afflvirs of state. The young sultan was sensible of his situation, and determined to assert his proper rights. Being strictly watched, Shajir Aldor was aware of his intention, and he was vio- lently put to death. The young prince having been assas- sinated, Shajir Aldor was declared to be sovereign of the country. She was pray- ed for in the mosques, and her name was impressed on the coins. This active and designing woman was raised to the throne by the power and influence of the Mamelukes.* During the short and turbvdent reigns between Bibars and Naser Mahomet, and while the sultan Calib, was on the throne of Egj^pt, the city of St. Jolin d'Acre was taken from the Christians. The attack was violent, and the defence brave ; but the Mussulmans obtained pos- session of Acre, and the whole land of Palestine, 1291, after much treasure had been spent, and innumerable lives lost in the wars and victories of the Cru- sades. Soon afterwards, the Knights Templars departed into Europe ; but those of St. John formed a settlement in the island of Rhodes. From this situ- ation, they made frequent inroads into Eg\'pt ; for although the knights were comparatively weak, yet the distracted situation of Egj^t permitted them to retire from the coast, without the severe ven- geance which they might have inflicted ; but, indeed, Egypt was in the utmost state of distraction ; and a revolution in the government could not be avoided. If the Ayubite dynasty was superseded * It was the heroic Saladin, who first conceived the idea of establishing the troops, since so cele- brated, called Mamelukes. Having ravaged the countries of Georgia and Circassia, and taken many prisoners, the sultan was so struck with the extreme beauty of the captives, that he sug- gested to his officers the expediency of forming a band of soldiers to consist entirely of them. But this plan was not carried fully into effect till A. D. 1230, when Malek Salah, then sultan of Egypt, purchased 12,000 of these young men, of Gengis Khan, who had overrun their country and carried them into captivity. The sultan of Egypt, had them trained to military exercises, and con- stituted them his body-guard. A finer corps per- haps never existed, but like the praetorian band of Rome, they gave laws to their masters. Un- der the successor of Malek Salah, they interfered in the affairs of government, assassinated the sultan, Turan Shah, and in 1254, appointed Ibegh, one of their own number, sultan of Egypt. The dominion of the Mamelukes in Egypt continued 263 years. 148 EGYPT. by the Baharite Mamelukes, who sur- rounded their throne, the Baharite suUans were also supplanted by the Circassian slaves, who had been cherished at court, and permitted to acquire uncontrolable power. The sultan Hagi, who was but a child, was deposed by the influence of a Circassian chief ; and the Baharite dy- nasty was terminated in Egj'pt, after it had existed about 128 years. The Circassian slaves, M'hose chiefs had in their turn become masters of Egypt, were called Borgites, because, in the capacity of soldiers, they had been dispersed through the diflerent fortresses of the country, to keep in check the peo- ple who had long been in want of subor- dination ; and these fortresses were call- ed Borges. Barcok, was the first of this dynasty on the throne of Egypt ; but so powerful were the adherents of the dethroned family, that Hagi was soon restored to the kingdom. But his re- newed power was of short duration ; for Barcok suddenly recovered his situation, and the Borgite dynasty was established. Scarcely had he overcome the internal enemies of his kingdom, when he was threatened by a formidable power from without. Tamerlane the Great, who had formed the new empire of the Moguls, and denominated the Cham of Tartary, was desirous of adding Syria to his do- minions ; and the sultan of Egj^pt march- ed an army to meet him at Damascus. At the approach of Barcok, Tamerlane retired ; and, directing his course towards India, his arms were attended with great success. In the mean time, Bajazet, at the head of the Ottoman armies, and the rival of Tamerlane, was spreading terror upon both sides of the Hellespont, and had carried his arms to the very gates of Con- stantinople. Indeed, he was determined to take possession of that city, and estab- lish his government upon the ruins of the Roman empire. For this reason, he solicited the friendship of the Eg^'ptian sultan, and the blessing of the caliph, who was then residing at Grand Cairo, without any civil authority, but only as iman of the Mahometan faith. About this time, Barcok died ; and his sou Pharage, surnamed Abulsaadat, reig-ned in his stead. When this prince obtained the government, he was but ten years of age ; and the affairs of the king- dom were managed by a regent. In these circumstances, the national com- motions were continued ; and his Syrian dominions rose in rebellion. But Abid- saadat, under the influence of his native vigor, took the reins of government in his own hand, recovered the provinces which had rebelled, and put his whole kingdom into a state of order and obedience. In this situation of aflairs, Tamerlane re- turned from India, and found that his rival had been extending his power, and was more formidable than ever. These ambitious and terrible warriors were determined on each other's destruc- tion. Bajazet laid claim to the assistance of Egypt, because he had entered into a former alliance with the sultan ; but he did not receive the expected support, be- cause he had not been faithful to the terms of agi-eement ; and we may add, that the power of Tamerlane was another reason with the sultan of Egypt, for withholding aid from his rival Bajazet. These two powerful chiefs met once and again in the field of battle, when Bajazet was finally overthrown, and taken pris- oner. Having overcome his rival, the ambition of Tamerlane was more un- bounded than ever. He intended to rav- age the south of Europe, cross into Africa by the straits of Gibraltar, and continue his course through Egypt and Syria, till he arrived at the seat of his government in the East. But there was one power of which he stood in awe, and which prevented the project which his ambition had laid. The knights of St. John, now established at Rhodes, and enriched by the spoils of the forfeited Templars, were formidable to the neighboring powers, and maintained a mighty preponderance in the scale of nations. Though small in numbers, their strength was great, their fame extensive, and their courage well tried. In these circumstances, it was not ex- pedient to attack the knights directly in the island of Rhodes ; but he laid siege to Smyrna, and reduced it to ashes. He was drawn away, however, from any further attempts upon the power and in- EGYPT. 149 terests of that religious order, by dangers which were threatening him in the East. A powerful prince, whom Tamerlane had subdued in his Indian expeditions, ap- peared again with renewed strength, and was laying waste the kingdom of Persia. Thither he directed his course, but his power was much diminished through a long succession of obstinate engage- ments ; and, having met his enemy in greater power than was expected, they entered into terms with mutual agree- ment ; and Tamerlane, having withdrawn from public life, retired to Samarcand, and there, in a few years, ended an ac- tive and victorious life. In the mean time, the distractions of Egypt still con- tinued ; and the sultan Pharage Abul- saadat, being weary with continual broils and confusion, retired from the dangers of public life, and surrendered the throne to his brother Abdolaziz, but to assume it again. This happened in the year 1405 ; and there was little more than a rapid suc- cession of feeble monarchs, till the year 1517, when the Borgite dynasty was overthrown ; and the kingdom of Egypt was converted into a province of the Turkish empire. Soliman I succeeded his father Selim ; and he not only began his reign by crush- ing rebellion in the provinces, and adding dominions to his empire, but his name was terrible among the nations. He was the competitor of Charles V, and over- threw the power of the knights in the island of Rhodes. But even in his time the factions in Egypt were not at rest ; and in the more feeble reigns of his suc- cessors upon the throne, the Ottoman power in that country was much impaired, and the form of government at last changed. The beys, who superintended the 24 departments in Egypt, collected the revenues of their respective districts ; and by that means acquired an influence which was not intended. The heads of the seven military corps and the pacha became avaricious, and courted the favor of the beys, who could enforce the pay- ment of tribute with severity, or remit it in part, according to their pleasure. By indulging the members of the regency, the beys increased in power till they obtained the complete disposal of public affairs. Every bey had origin- ally a few Mamelukes or slaves at his command, for enabling him to make his authority respected in the province where he resided ; but as the power of the beys was enlarged, they increased their attend- ants, and in proportion to their number of slaves, so was their strength. When a vacancy occurred in the government of the provinces, the most powerful bey had his favorite Mameluke appointed to the office. This election increased his author- ity ; and, by pursuing a similar course, the most active and povverful beys ac- quired a continually increasing influence in the government, and their Mamelukes became the only efficient soldiers in the " state. The members of the divan having be- come subservient to the pleasure of the beys, the beys got possession of every important office, with the exception of the viceroy's appointment. But in their career of dissipation, the pacha of Egj^pt also became subject to the Mameluke beys. The sheik Albelled, or governor of Grand Cairo, was chosen from amongst the beys, but he was approved or rejected by the pacha. The Sheik Albelled was the constitutional organ through which complaints were made to the Grand Seignior, when the pacha violated the rights of the community ; but to remove him from his office could only be done by the sultan himself. But in process of time, when the divan fell under the control of the beys, they dismissed them at pleasure ; and when a new one was appointed, if they discovered by their spies, that he was entrusted with any mandate inconsistent with their views or authority, they never suffered him to approach Grand Cairo, but intimated at Constantinople, that another pacha must be chosen. In these circumstances of the Egyptian government, an active youth among the slaves who were brought from the neigh- borhood of Mount Caucasus, grew up to great influence and fame in the house of his master Ibrahim, who was a caya of the Janizaries. Like other Mamelukes, this young slave became a Mussulman, and received the name of Ali. Having 150 EGYPT. gone through different offices in the house and service of his master, he was raised to the olfice and rank of a bey. Upon the death of Ibrahim, to whom he owed his power and elevation, considerable commotions existed ; and in the year 1763, Ali Bey obtained the office of Sheik Albelled, by which he was in- vested with the chief authority of the state. In the stniggle for power, Ali Bey was more than once obliged to flee from Egj^pt, and seek refuge in Palestine or Syria. He became obnoxious to the Turkish divan, and the Grand Seignior sought his destruction. But in the year 1768, the court of Constantinople pro- claimed war against the Emperor of Russia; and while the Ottomans were employed in defending their provinces against the northern invasions, Ali Bey was not only active in reducing Egypt to obedience, but he sent an army into Arabia Felix, for purposes of conquest and aggrandizement. The troops of Ali, under the conduct of Mahomet Bey, were successful against the Turkish gar- risons ; and they took possession of Gaza, Ramla, and Shechem, or Naplus. They even reached Jerusalem, and hav- ing arrived at St. John d'Acre, they formed a junction with the troops of the celebrated Sheik Daher. The forces of Ali entered Damascus. But after tarry- ing a few days, his general Mahomet hastened to Grand Cairo, and compelled his master Ali Bey to take refuge in Palestine, where his arms were attended with success, being supported by the Sheik Daher. Osman had been constituted pacha of Damascus, and invested with extraordi- nary powers by the divan of Constanti- nople, that he might oppose and subdue the Sheik of Acre. Ali Bey and the Sheik Daher being equally hostile to the Ottoman power, entered into a treaty to support each other in their views and pursuits. The Egyptian Bey had at- tempted to secure the assistance of Rus- sia, by negotiating with Count Alexis Orlow, the commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the Archipelago ; but the negotiations had been attended with little success, until a Russian transport, , under British colors, commanded by Captain Brown, appeared off Jaffa, and assisted the forces of Daher and Ali Bey to get possession of that town and fort. By these and other means, Daher obtained considerable power. But though the Sheik Daher and Ali Bey had been so far cordial in their co- operations, yet their interests might soon interfere, and their friendship be dis- solved. This might be a sufficient rea- son of itself for Ali Bey to go in quest of possessions which were likely to be more permanent ; and both his interest and inclination led him towards Egj^pt, where he had once been in power. But his former general, and now competitor, Mahomet Bey, was still in great power, and met him with a numerous army, in the desert which lies between Gaza and Egypt. The armies engaged, and Ali Bey being wounded, was taken prisoner. His rival Mahomet seemed to receive him with great respect. For at the first interview, even in his fallen state, his former authority might have some re- maining impressions, even upon the mind of the revolted general ; but upon the third day the unfortunate Ali died, and not without suspicions that his death was occasioned by undue means. By the death of this powerful chief, Mahomet Bey was left without a rival in the kingdom of Egypt ; but in the fluctuating state of public affairs, he was aware that competitors might soon arise, and he was well assured that the divan of Constantinople would endeavor to re- cover their power in Egypt, as soon as they could withdraw their forces from the wars in which they were engaged with the Empress of Russia. For some time past, no pacha had been admitted in Egypt from the court of Constantinople, nor any tribute remitted to the Grand Seignior. But Mahomet Bey, though hostile to the power of Constantinople, made extraordinary professions of friend- ship, and transmitted to the Grand Seig- nior a large sum of money. Both parties dissembled ; the reigning Bey of Egypt intended to manifest his independence as soon as circumstances Avould allow, and the court of Constantinople were deter- mined to take the first opportunity of re- EGYPT. 151 ducing Egypt to obedience ; but in the mean time, they made a show of attach- ment to Mahomet, and raised him from the office of Sheik Albelled to that of pacha, or viceroy of the SubUme Porte. To ingratiate himself still more at the court of Constantinople, he marched an army into the East, under the pretext of subduing the Sheik Daher, who was in- imical to the Ottoman authority, but in reality to obtain such conquests in the East, as would render him formidable to the power of the Grand Seignior. Hav- ing gone in person to Syria, his army was attended with success ; but he was seized with a fever, and died on the sec- ond day of the disease. When Mahomet's death was an- nounced in Egypt, the country was in commotion, but the principal competitors for power were the beys Ibrahim and Murad. After various attempts to ob- tain the ascendency, it was at length agreed that the powers of the state should be held in common by the two contend- ing chiefs. Ibrahim was to continue in the office of Sheik Albelled, and Murad was raised to the situation of Deflerdar, or accountant-general. About this time, peace was concluded between the courts of St. Petersburg and Constantinople, and, as might have been expected, the Grand Seignior was determined to restore his power in the province of Egypt. By the active and prudent services of Prince Potemkin, the Empress of Russia had obtained from the Grand Seignior a vast extent of territory, which included the Crimea, together with the provinces of Circassia, Georgia, and other districts. The fleets of St. Petersburg were per- mitted by treaty to traverse the Black Sea ; and as all these circumstances weakened the Ottoman government, it was the more necessary to recover Egypt, with its resources and tribute. A fleet belonging to the Grand Seignior arrived at Alexandria in the month of May, and landed an army of 25,000 men. The forces of Ibrahim and Murad Bey were drawn out to oppose their progress, and the armies met between Rosetta and Grand Cairo. The dexterity of the Mamelukes, who always fight on horse- back, threw the Ottoman army frequently into confusion ; but the skill and perse- verance of Hassan Pacha finally tri- umphed over the irregular though intrepid warfare of the Mamelukes. Ibrahim and Murad Bey withdrew by treaty into Up- per Eg^'pt. Hassan returned to Con- stantinople, and Beker was sent into Egypt with the honorable distinction of a pacha of three tails. Notwithstanding his power, he was but ill received, and found it impossible to collect the tribute, or preserve the country in order. But these irregidarities soon gave place to designs and achievements of greater moment. The French directed an ex- pedition against the province of Egypt, which was followed by warlike exer- tions, both of Great Britain and Con- stantinople. By the two campaigns of 1796 and 1797, Bonaparte had compelled the con- tinental powers of Europe to make peace with France — a result ardently desired by the French, to allow their country time to recover from the deep wounds which she had suficred during the con- \Tjlsions of the revolution, and from the worthless administration that had pre- ceded it. The next object was to force England also to a peace, and Bonaparte was appointed commander-in-chief of the army destined for the invasion of this country. In February-, 1798, he visited in person the coasts of the British Chan- nel, and all Europe was expecting the commencement of the expedition, when, in May of the same year, the general appeared as commander-in-chief at Tou- lon, where an expedition had been fitting out, of the destination of which the pub- lic knew nothing — a circumstance liighly remarkable, as so many persons, both military and civil, were acquainted with it. It was the expedition to Egypt. It also appears, from a letter written by Bo- naparte to the minister Talleyrand, dated Passeriano, September 13, 1797, that one of the main objects of this great under- taking was to put the French in posses- sion of part of the East India trade, by the conquest of Egypt — a plan by no means chimerical. It was intended to establish French colonies on the Nile, ind thus to recompense the republic for 152 EGYPT. gar islands, and to open a channel for the French manufactures into Africa, Arabia, and Syria, where they might be exchanged for commodities wanted in France. Napoleon's views were, in fact, similar to those which, it is said, have lately led the French to undertake the conquest and colonization of Algiers — an object which seems to be generally applauded. It seems, also, to have been intended to make Eg}'pt a military posi- tion, from which a French army could march into India, raise the Mahrattahs against the English, and injure the power of the latter there. The directory probably encouraged the enterprise with the further object of get- ting rid of a general whose victories and rapidly increasing popularity it feared. It has, indeed, been said, that he was, at first, decidedly opposed to the plan ; but this is very improbable. March 5, Bo- naparte received the decree of the direc- tory, relative to the expedition against Egypt. He had full power to conduct the business as he saw fit. The minis- ters in all the departments were ordered to give him whatever assistance he should require ; and he had full powers to act according to his discretion in Egypt, to return whenever he saw fit, and to ap- point his successor. Napoleon now col- lected all the information necessary for his own direction ; engaged some of the most distinguished savans and artists of France to accompany him, drew up ques- tions and problems to be resolved in Egypt, and informed himself accurately respecting the commercial connections which it was proposed to establish. In fact, he seems to have always viewed this expedition in the double light of a military and a scientific enterprise. The beginning of his proclamation, before landing in Egypt, is remarkable : " Bo- naparte, member of the national institute of France, and general in chief of the army of Egypt." Bonaparte was to leave Paris in April, for the purpose of embark- ing ; but despatches from Rastadt, and from Bernadotte, the French ambassador at Vienna, made a new rupture with x\us- tria probable. Bonaparte, however, left Paris, May 3, and went on board of the Orient the 19th. The fleet set sail the same day, command- ed by admiral Brueyes. Bonaparte's pro- clamation issued before sailing, and sev- eral others, either prove how much he himself was animated by the military fame of ancient Rome, or that he thought it the strongest stimulus to the French soldiers. Reports had been carefully spread to divert the attention of the Eng- lish to other points ; and lord St. Vincent sent rear-admiral Nelson, with only three vessels of the line, four frigates and one corvette, to watch the Gulf of Lyons, and to prevent the French from leaving it. But Nelson arrived too late. He also sufl^ered severely from a gale, so that the French fleet was not molested. Bona- parte had an assurance from the directo- ry, that the minister of foreign affairs should go to Constantinople, still retain- ing his office, for the purpose of negoti- ating with the Porte, and preventing it interfering in favor of the Mamelukes. Talleyrand, however, never went. This omission, and the defeat at Aboukir, proved fatal to the expedition. About 2,000 savans, artists, physicians, sur- geons, mechanics and laborers of all de- scriptions, accompanied the army. The flower of the troops was that Italian ar- my whose valor had effected the peace of Campo-Formio. The principal offi- cers were Berthier, Dessaix, Regnier, Menou, Kleber, Dumas, Cafiarelli, Mu- rat, Junot, Marmont, Belliard, Davoust, Lannes, Duroc, Louis Bonaparte, Eu- gene Beauharnois, and others. June 9, the armament appeared before Malta. Bonaparte solicited of baron von Hom- pesch, the grand master, permission to procure a supply of fresh water from the island. His refusal aflbrded a pretext for the conquest of the island, which had been long contemplated. The next morn- ing, the French landed, and by the even- ing, notwithstanding a brisk cannonade, were masters of the island, which was officially surrendered at midnight, with all its fortresses. The victors left a garrison of 4,000 men, and, on the 19th, sailed for Alex- andria. July 1 , the minarets of Alexan- dria were seen, and Bonaparte issued an order on board the fleet, in which he ex- horted his army to endure with patience EGYPT. 153 the difficulties before them, to respect the religion of Mahomet, and the customs of the Egyptians, not to plunder, but to imi- tate the Roman legions in protecting all religions. Nelson had been here a short time before in search of the French. The apprehension that he might soon return, induced the general to hasten the disembarkation of the troops. This was accomplished without interruption, July 2, at Marabout, an anchorage to the east of Alexandria, notwithstanding the wind and waves were unfavorable. The French army marched, without cannons or horses, towards Alexandria. Bonaparte was hifh- self on foot. Some Arabs attacked the French ; general Kleber was severely wounded. On the 5th, Alexandria Avas taken and immediately fortified. Iloset- ta was taken at the same time by general Marmont, and, July 6, the whole fleet was moored in the roads before Aboukir. Garrisons were left in Alexandria, (where Kleber was made governor,) Rosetta and Aboukir, and the army, now 30,000 strong, marched in five divisions towards Cairo, the capital of Egypt. Not far from it, near the p}Tamids of Gizeh, a decisive battle was fought. Murad Bey had en- camped himself there, with about 20,000 Mameluke infantry, several thousand Mameluke cavalry, and forty pieces of cannon. The well-directed fire of the French, and the resolution with which they used their bayonets, frustrated all the attacks of the Mamelukes, who fled to the contiguous deserts, as soon as the camp and village of Embabey were taken by storm. All the cannon and 400 cam- els fell into the hands of the French ; 3,000 of the enemy lay dead on the field ; tlie French lost few men in comparison. This happened on the 23rd, and Bona- parte entered Cairo on the 24th ; for Ibra- him Bey, who was to cover it, after the unfortunate issue of the battle of the py- ramids, was driven by Dessaix over the deserts to Upper Egypt. Napoleon established a government here, consisting of seven members, sum- moned the sheiks, moUahs and shirefls, who promised to acknowledge the French republic, and, on his side, pledged him- self to respect the Mahometan religion, and the property of the inhabitants. Ju- 20 ly 25, general Bonaparte left Cairo to pursue the Mamelidces, and, after many combats with them, returned to the capi- tal, leaving Regnier as commandant of the province of Charquich. On his re- turn to Cairo, an aidecamp of Kleber brought him the news of the defeat of the French fleet at Aboukir by Nelson. It was stated in the French accounts of this splendid victory by the British na- val force, that the defeat was in part ow- ing to the negligence of admiral Brueyes and vice-admiral Villeneuve, who were said to have acted against the express orders of general Bonaparte, who had directed them to enter the harbor of Alex- andria, or to sail for Corfu, before he left the shore to penetrate into the country. Bourienne, however, in his Memoires, as- serts that Bonaparte never gave such or- ders. Bonaparte thus saw his communica- tion Avith France threatened, and himself exposed to the greatest of all enemies, want. Exasperated by the transformation of so important a dependency as Eg}'pt into a French province, the Porte declared war against France, September 2, 1798, and menaced an attack from the side of Asia. The inhabitants of Cairo rebelled. Many of the French, especially the iaua/j.?, artists and merchants, were murdered ; but, after a bloody conflict in the city, Sep- tember 23, and 25, the insurgents, who had fled to the principal mosque, were comj)elled to surrender unconditionally. After the restoration of quiet, Bona- parte, having organized a system of gov- ernment for Egypt on French princi- ples, marched, February 27, 1799, with about 18,000 men, from Cairo to Syria, took the fort El-Arish, in the desert, then Jafla, and, having conquered the inhabi- tants of Naplous, at Zeta, procured there a supply of provisions, which he greatly needed, in order to be able to undertake the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, and was again victorious at Jafet. In the mean while, the English naval force, which had appeared before St. Jean d'Acre imder sir Sidney Smith, had succeeded in re- enforcing the Turkish garrison of this place with several hundred men, as well as artillery, and ammunition. This en- abled the Turks to repel several assaults, and, notwithstanding the most violent fire 154 EGYPT. from the French batteries, to sustain the attack so long, that Bonaparte was obliged to raise the siege. May 21, the French commenced their retreat, and after a fatiguing march of twenty-six days, arrived at Cairo. A Turkish fleet soon after landed 18,000 men at Aboukir, who took the fort there. Bonaparte quickly led his best troops thither, stationed himself near the foun- tain between Alexandria and Aboukir, and offered battle to the Turks, July 25. Mustapha Pacha, with all his retinue and artillery, was taken ; 2,000 Turks per- ished in the waves or in battle, and the remainder of the army, which had thrown itself into the fort of Aboukir, was com- pelled to surrender unconditionally, Au- gust 2. By this victory, Bonaparte's power in Egypt was again confirmed. At this period, the French had experi- enced considerable reverses in Europe. The battle of the Trebia had been lost, the French had evacuated the Genoese ter- ritory, Massena, in Switzerland, was in great danger. Bonaparte saw the danger of his countr}% and the loss of his con- quests in Italy, and resolved to return, having from the beginning permission to do so whenever he chose. The order which gave the command to Kleber was dated August 22, 1799, and contained wise directions respecting the army and country. By the time his departure was known to the army, Bonaparte's frigate had weighed anchor. August 23, he left Aboukir in the Muiron, a Venetian vessel, commanded by rear-admiral Gantheaume. The situation of the troops under Kle- ber's command became more critical eve- ry day. General Verdier repelled a new disembarkation of the Turks, in Novem- ber, 1 799 ; but, for an army that could not be recruited, the smallest loss was serious. The advices from Europe were not encouraging ; and, at this juncture, Kleber, having been informed that the grand vizier was marching from Syria to Egypt, with a large army, concluded, January 24, 1800, the treaty of El-Arish, with the vizier and sir Sidney Smith. By this treaty it was provided, that a truce should he granted to the French for three months till the ratification of the treaty, when they should evacuate Egypt. But the letter of Kleber to the directory, in which he set fortli the miserable state of the^army, and urged the ratification of the treaty, fell into the hands of admiral Keith, .ind was sent to England. It was now demanded that the Avhole French army should be made prisoners of war. Kleber immediately resumed his arms, and defeated the vizier at Heliopolis, ex- acted a tax for the payment of his sol- diers, foiTued new regiments of the Copts and Greeks, gave security to the coasts, and founded magazines. In the midst of his untiring activity, he was murdered in Cairo by a Turkish fanatic, June 14, and the command devolved on Abdallah Me- nou. Meantime the British government had resolved to wrest Egypt from the French. March 1, an English fleet ar- rived before Alexanaria, and on the 1 3th, the disembarcation was accomplished at Aboukir. The French, about 4,000 men strong, gave battle on the next day, but were forced to retire. On the 21st, Me- nou commenced an attack with 10,000 men, was beaten, and threw himself into Alexandria. But general Abercrombie was mortally wounded, and died on the 28th ; Hutchinson succeeded him in the command. On the 28th, re-enforcements were brought by a Turkish fleet, and the viz- ier was now approaching from Syria. On the 19th of April, Rosetta surrender- ed to the combined forces of the English and Turks. A French corps of 4,000 men was defeated at Ramanieh by 800 English, and 6,000 Turks. Five thou- sand French were obliged to retreat, at Elmenayer, May 16, by the vizier, who was pressing forward to Cairo, with 20,000 men ; and the whole French army was now blocked up in Cairo and Alexandria. June 20, the siege of Cairo was formally commenced. There were but 7,000 men to defend the city against 40,000. It capitulated, June 27, to the English and 'Furks, on condition that general Belliard and his troops should evacuate the city and country, should be transported to France at the expense of England, and that the native Egyptians should be permitted to accompany him. August 17, they embarked at Rosetta, and arrived at Toulon in September, EGYPT. 155 Assassination of general Kleber. 1801, about 13,600, in number, of whom hardly 4,000 were armed. General Me- nou still remained in Alexandria. Ad- miral Gantheaume had sailed, before Belliard's arrival, with several ships of the line, and from 3,000 to 4,000 troops, from France, and arrived before Alexan- dria, but was compelled to hasten back to Toulon, with a loss of four corvettes. On the other hand, the English army re- ceived 5,000 fresh troops from England, and now attacked Alexandria. They were already masters of castle Marabout, when Menou requested a truce ; to which he was impelled by a want of provisions, and a new re-enforcement which had joined the British, consisting of 6,000 men under General Baird, from the East Indies. Menou capitulated September 2. Alexandria, with all the artillery and am- munition, six French ships of war, and many merchantmen, together with all the Arabian manuscripts, all the maps of Egypt, and other collections made for the French republic, were given up. The French army was transported, with its arms and baggage, to a French har- bor, which they reached at the end of November. The garrison of Alexandria comprised above 8,000 soldiers, and 1307 marines. Three years and six months had elapsed since its first embarkation at Toulon. Four weeks after the French evacuated Egypt, the preliminaries of peace were signed at London. Soon after the French left Egypt, the beys were collected at Cairo, and Ibra- him was reinstated in his office. Osman Tambour] being chosen as his colleague. The Turkish government had co-opera- ted with England to drive out the French ; but their views with respect to the Mam- elukes were quite different, as it was the policy of the Porte to depress that formi- dable body, whilst the English wished to conciliate them ; and the latter being most powerful, the Mamelukes were al- ready beginning to recover their former independence — when Hassan, the capi- tan-pacha of the Ottomans, resolved to efl'ect by artifice what he found he had no chance of doing in an undisguised manner. He accordingly invited all the principal beys to his camp at Aboukir, where he entertained them very sumptu- ously ; but detaining them till they began to grow impatient, they complained to general Hutchinson, that they were pre- vented from departing ; when that officer, relying on the honesty of the pacha's in- 156 EGYPT. tentions, persuaded them to remain. In a few days, Hassan gave a grand entertain- ment, and invited the beys to embark in some pleasure boats, to enjoy a sail on the lake Aboukir. They had scarcely done so, however, when a small boat was seen pur- suing them ; on which the pacha lay to. The boat approached, and he went on board under pretence of receiving, with due respect, despatches of great importance from Constantinople. The skiff instant- ly fell back ; some large vessels appeared filled with armed men ; and the next in- stant discharges of artillery were levelled against the unfortunate beys. The rage of the xVIamehikes, at this abominable treachery, was beyond description ; coop- ed up like lions in a den, they had no hope of escaping the fate destined for them ; and their bravery was useless, for their enemies were too far distant for their swords to be of any avail. Some leaped overboard, and died swearing and gnashing their teeth ; whilst others tore their turbans from their heads, and threw themselves on the bottom of the boats in an agony of despair. A few reached the shore, and were compelled to swear upon the Koran that they would not seek the protection of the English. It wa.s im- possible, however, to bury such an act of base perfidy in oblivion, and equally impossible that British feelings should not be disgusted with it. The English, consequently, compelled the Turks to re- lease their prisoners, and to bury the bodies of the butchered chiefs with all the honors of war. Mahmoud Cusrouf was chosen to suc- ceed the faithless Hassan as pacha of Cairo. Osman, the Mameluke cliief, submitted to his authority ; but the other beys refusing to follow his example, and flying into the Said, Mohammed Ah, since so celebrated, was appointed general of the Turks, and joined Osman Bey against them, Osman and Mohammed entered into negotiations with the beys, and offer- ed them all the land from Esnah to Up- per Egypt ; but they being dissatisfied with this proposal, Mahmoud sent fresh troops, under Youssef Bey, to reduce them to obedience ; when Osman, un- willing to fight against the corps of which he had so long been a member, retired into the desert. This happened about the period when colonel Sebastiani arrived in Eg}'pt, for the purpose of carrying into efiect that part of the treaty of Amiens which related to the evacuation of Alex- andria ; and shortly afterwards the Turk- ish forces were defeated ; the leaders, Youssef and Mohammed Ali, each ac- cusing the other of treachery. The pacha favored the former ; and Mohammed in revenge demanded, resolutely, a lage sum of money which was due to the army. Mahmoud sent to him to try to negotiate the business secretly ; but Mohammed who suspected stratagem, refused to leave his soldiers. The pacha became alarm- ed, and invited Tahir pacha, an Albanian chief, to his assistance ; but his troops also soon became clamorous for their pay ; and, when the pacha assured them of his total inability to satisfy their de- mands, they seized his palace, and forced him, with his wife and family, to fly to Mansurah. At first, Tahir used his vic- tory with moderation, and appeared anx- ious to conciliate all parties ; but becom- ing eager for wealth, the populace, en- raged at his exactions, rose and murdered him, after a reign of only twenty-two days. Whilst Taliir's Albanian soldiers were contending with the Turkish guard for the possession of Grand Cairo, Ibra- him returned from Syria, and Osman from his retreat in the mountains ; and, uniting their Mamelukes with the Turks under Mohammed Ali, they seized the city. The Sublime Porte was now roused, and sent an officer to re-establish the Turkish authority. He, however, thought more of aggrandizing himself than of sub- duing the Mamelukes, and was wholly unable to resist the force Mohammed brought against him. He was taken prisoner and put to death. Mohammed's power had now become too firmly fixed to be shaken ; yet he did not assume the government till the Porte attempted to banish him to Jedda, where- upon he declared himstilf pacha of Egypt ; and his authority was soon after confirm- ed by the sultan. A massacre of the Mamelukes followed ; and Mohammed, to replenish his finances, made his min- isters disgorge their ill-gotten wealth, in- stead of oppressing the people ; giving EGYPT. 157 them, at the same thne, a gentle hint, that whenever he found his tax-gatherers getting rich, he shoukl not only take their money, bnt their heads also. After seve- ral minor struggles, in which he was always successful, he prepared to attack the Wahabees, a powerful nation in Ara- bia ; but as the Mamelukes still continued formidable, he did not dare to leave Egypt till he had destroyed them ; and for this an opportunity soon ofl'ered. The grand seignior sent his kisler aga to Cairo, in 1 807, to invest Tousson, the son of Mo- hannned, with the dignity of pacha of two tails ; and the Mamelukes being invited to assist at the ceremony, came with their bey at their head, to otfer their con- gratulations to Mohanuned, in his citadel. In returning, the procession had to pass along a passage cut in a rock : Moham- med's troops moved first, followed by the Mamelukes ; but as soon as the Turks had passed, the gates were closed at both ends, and the Mamelukes, thus enclosed in a kind of trap, were fired on by the pacha's soldiers frorrfthe top of the rocks. At the same moment a general massacre of them was ordered tliroughout Egypt ; their property was universally destroyed ; and above 500 of their houses, in Grand Cairo alone, were levelled with the ground. Some beys, however, escaped, and, in the dress of M'omen or slaves, lied to Upper Egypt. Shortly after, the few remains of their body rallied at Dongola, in Nu- bia, where they fortified the city, and raised a small army of negroes to defend it ; Osman IJey, their chief, swearing that he would neither cut his hair nor shave his beard, till they were again mas- ters of Cairo. The aged Ibrahim, who was still living, protested strongly against the slaughter of the corps to which he had himself once belonged ; but it was in vain ; Mohammed's will was law, and he su tiered no one to dictate to him with impunity. The campaign against the Wahabees was brilliant in the extreme ; and Mo- hammed returning to Egypt, after a long series of victories, loaded with fame and treasures, immediately directed his at- tention to the conquest of Nubia and Se- naar. Tousson having died in Lower Eg}'pt, the command of the army was intrusted to the pacha's second son Ish- mael ; who, in the autumn of 1810, passed the cataracts of the Nile, seized Dongola, and annihilated the remaining ^lamehdves. He next attacked and sub- dued a bold and independent race of Arabs ; and proceeded to Berber, which likewise fell before the power of his arms : he also conquered the city of Shendy ; and reached the Bahr-el-Abiad, above its confluence with the Nile. Se- naar and Kordofan, in like manner, j-ield- ed to the arms of the victorious Eg\-p- tians ; anil they would have invaded Darfoor, had not their attention been re- called to the north by the insurrection of the Greeks in the Morea. On his re- turn, Ishmael was waylaid by the chief of Shendy, and murdered, with all his at- tendants, excepting his physician, whom they spared, that they might torture him by pulling out his teeth before they put him to death. Since that time, Mohammed Ali has taken an active part in the operations of the Turks ; and now by his victories over the armies of the Sublime Porte may be considered as completely independent. Mohanuned Pacha is particiUarly atten- tive to the public security ; he takes, therefore, all Franks under his immediate protection, and permits no abuse of the Greeks. After his successful campaign in the Morea, in 1825, he caused all the Christian population to be transplanted to the countries on the Nile. He is now attempting to introduce a quarentine sys- tem to guard against the plague, and also promotes vaccination. The pacha has done much for the com- merce and industry, as well as for the civilization, of Egypt, and he has now completed the canal of Alexandria, called by him, in honor of the sultan, Mahmu- die canal ; a vast undertaking. It was commenced Jan. 8, 1819, under the su- perintendence of six European engineers, with about 100,000 laborers ; and their number, though more than 7,000 men died of contagious diseases, was gradual- ly increased to 290,000, each of whom received about lOd. sterling per diem. The canal extends from Saone, on the Nile, to Pompey's pillar, and is forty- seven miles and a half long, ninety feet 158 ENGLAND. wide, and eighteen feet deep. This is the first essay towards the execution of his plan of restoring the ancient com- merce of Alexandria with Arabia and the Indies. Within a short time he has es- tablished a line of telegraphs, a printing- press at Boulac near Cairo, a military school, and a higher institution for edu- cation, principally to form dragomans, (i.e. interpreters,) and other public offi- cers. The teachers consist of French and Italian officers. In 1826, he sent several young Egyptians to France to re- ceive a European education. ENGLAND The early history of Britain is so itivolved in the fictions and superstitious prejudices of the monkish chroniclers, that it is scarcely possible to furnish any connected view of the government and political character of the people : indeed, Britain was but very little known to the rest of the world before the time of the Romans. Julius Ca;sar having subdued most of the nations of Gaul, on the opposite side oi" the Channel, began, about B.C. 56, to think of extending his conquests by the reduction of Britain. The motive as- cribed to him by Suetonius for this expe- dition, was a desire of enriching himself by the British pearls, then much esteem- ed. The pretence, however, to justify his invasion was, that the Britons had assisted the Gauls during liis wars with them. Caesar's first expedition was \mder- taken at the close of the summer, (he landed August 26,) and he stated that he only purposed viewing the island, that he might acquire a knowledge of the manners and customs of the natives, preparatory to their permanent conquest. Having marched all his forces into the country of the Morini, in Gaul, from whence was the shortest passage into Britain ; he ordered the vessels that lay in the neighboring ports, and a fleet which he had built the year before, to attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations, sent ambassadors with ofTers of submission ; but Caesar, though he received them with great kindness, did not abandon his intended scheme. He only waited till the return of Caius Volusenus, whom he had sent out with a single galley to make discoveries on the coast. His force consisted of two legions embarked on board eighty transports ; and he appointed eighteen more, which lay wind-bound about eight miles ofl", to convey over the cavalry ; but these last orders were too slowly executed, which occasioned some difiiculty in his landing. The British chiefs at this time, although they had endeavored to conciliate, were far from being disposed to submit to him. As soon as they perceived Caesar's fleet approaching, a number of foot soldiers and chariots were despatched to oppose his landing, while a considerable body of cavalry hastened after. The Romans were chiefly, however, embarrassed in their attempt to land by the size of their ships ; and the soldiers were obliged to leap into the sea completely armed for the combat. Caesar perceivnig this, and in order to drive the Britons from the water side, who annoyed his troops with their slings and arrows, directed his galleys to advance with their broad- sides towards the shore. The Britons, surprised by the size and evolutions of a species of shipping with which they were not previously acquainted, began to give ground. The battle, however, continued for some time greatly to the disadvantage of the Romans ; till at last Caesar, observing the distress of his men, caused several of his boats to be manned, and sent them to the assistance of those who were most exposed. The Roman legions now soon overcame the undisciplined native force, and made good their landing ; but were unable to pursue the enemy for want of cavalry. The Britons, on the other hand, were so ENGLAND. 159 disheartened with their bad success that they immediately sent ambassadors to sue for peace. This was granted, on condition of their delivering a certain number of hostages for their fidelity. Part of these they brought immediately, and promised to return in a few days with the rest, who they said lived at some distance. But, in the mean time, the eighteen transports which carried Caesar's cavalry being driven back by a storm, and the fleet greatly damaged, the Britons broke their engagement, and fell unexpectedly on the seventh legion, while busied in foraging. Cajsar has- tened to their assistance with two cohorts, and at last repulsed the enemy. This, however, proved only a temporary ad- vantage, for the Britons, thinking it would be possible to cut ofl' all the Romans at once, drew together a great body of horse and foot, which boldly advanced to the Roman intrenchments. Caesar came out to meet them, and the Britons were once more put to flight with great slaughter. Having burned several towns and vil- lages, the victors returned to the camp, whither they were soon followed by deputies from the natives, to whom the Roman commander, being in want of horse, and afraid lest another storm should destroy the remainder of his fleet, granted peace, on condition of their send- ing him into Gaul double the number of hostages which they had promised. In the following spring, Britain was again visited by the Roman conqueror, who brought with him a fleet of eight hundred vessels ; and on this second in- vasion, the British cheftains came down into the woods near the coast, and there watched every opportunity to annoy his army. They were at first encouraged by the Roman Emperor having lost forty vessels which were wrecked during the violence of a storm ; but having received a check from the disciplined Roman sol- diers, many of the chiefs retired to their mountains, having first invited Cassibela, king of the Cassii, to undertake their de- fence ; and it is very possible, as he had acquired great skill and judgment by his previous wars, that he might have been victorious in his country's cause, but for the treachery of the native princes, some of whom conspired to betray him. He was compelled to sue for peace, and that campaign ended in the Britons consent- ing to furnish an annual tribute to Rome, and Ceesar again quitted the island, and wintered in Gaul. During the succeeding ninety-seven years Britain retained its independence ; but the Emperor Claudius invaded it in person, A. D. 43, and, at his departure, he divided the command of the Roman legions between Vespasian and the legate Plautius. The latter fought thirty bat- tles before he could subdue the natives of Belgffi and the Isle of Wight ; and the former was opposed during five years by Caractacus, who gave the enemy battle on the lofty hill, Caer-Caradoc. Such was the courageous valor of the British on that occasion, that, at the approach of the Romans, they pledged themselves by oath to conquer or die. The Romans, however, mounted the hill, and having driven the Silures from its summit, took the wife and daughters of Caractacus prisoners. His brothers surrendered, and the king himself was delivered up to Ostorius, by his step-mother, Cartis- mandua. Caractacus, after braving the power of Rome during nine years, was sent a prisoner to the imperial city, through which he passed to grace the triumph of Claudius ; but his misfortunes in no shape dismayed the spirit of the British war- rior, who simply expressed his surprise that men, who possessed such riches at home, should have found it worth their while to fight for the wretched hovels of Britain. Caractacus afterwards was restored to liberty, but hostilities con- tinued ; and after several battles, in which the Romans generally gained the advan- tage, their general, Suetonius Paulinus, resolved on the reduction of the Isle of Anglesey, which hitherto had been the secure retreat of the Dniids, to whose influence the Romans attributed the per- seA'^ering resistance of the Britons. At this period Prasatagus, king of the Iceni, died. He had seconded the views of the Roman conqueror, and the better to secure his property, had made the em- peror joint heir with his own daughters ; but Roman avarice not being easily satis- 160 ENGLAND. Queen Buadicea attacking the Romans. fied, the whole succession was imme- diately seized in the emperor's name ; the widow, Boadicea, ventured to re- monstrate, for which she was scourged as a slave, and her daughters violated. The history of her wrongs led her coun- trymen to feel their own, and excited a general spirit of revenge, so that they willingly followed her to battle. The contest was long and fiercely maintained, but the Romans were at last victorious, and Boadicea ended her misfortunes by a voluntary death. The celebrated Julius Agricola was appointed to the command of Britain, A. D. 78, and his arrival was signalized by a victory over the Ordovices and the con- quest of Anglesey. After these successes, he employed himself most studiously in reconciling the Britons to the Roman yoke. In tliis he met with such success, through his wise and equitable conduct, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, began to prefer a life of security and peace, to the state of wild independence which they had formerly enjoyed, and which continually exposed them to the tumults and calamities of war. The suc- ceeding campaigns of Agricola were at- tended with equal success ; he not only subdued the different tribes inhabiting England, but carried the Roman arms almost to the extremity of Scotland. He also caused his fleet to sail round the island, and discovered the Orcades, or Orkney islands. His expedition occu- pied about six years, and was completed A. D. 84. Had this commander been continued in Britain, it is probable that both Eng- land and Scotland would have been per- manently subdued; but he was recalled by Domitian in the year 85, and we arc then almost totally in the dark about the British aflairs till the reign of the em- peror Adrian. During this interval, the Caledonians had taken arms, and not only refused subjection to ihe Roman power, but also ravaged the territories of the Britons who continued faithful to them. Adrian, for what reason is not well known, abandoned to them the whole tract lying between the Tyne and the Forth. At the same time, in order to restrain them from making incursions into the Roman territories, he built a wall eighty miles in length, from the river Eden in Cumberland to the Tyne in Northumberland. He was succeeded by Antoninus Pius, in whose reign the Brigantes revolted ; and the Caledonians, having in several places broken down ENGLAND, 161 the wall built by Adrian, began anew to ravage the Roman territories. Against them the emperor sent Lollius Urbiciis, who reduced the Brigantes ; and having defeated the northern nations, confined them within narrower bounds by a new wall, extending probably between the friths of Forth and Clyde. From the lime of Antoninus to that of Severus, the Roman dominions in Britain continued to be much infested by the inroads of the northern nations. About the year 360, the Picts and Scots, the former adventurers from Ire- land, the latter the northern tribes to whom we have already alluded, united in making incursions, and even broke down the wall Avhich Severus had built to protect the Britons. Since the Roman legions had been withdrawn from the island to defend their continental territo- ries, several ambitious pretenders had assumed the purple ; but each had en- joyed for a short time only the power of usurpation ; and the native Britons, find- ing they were continually exposed to the inroads of their enemies, determined to reject an authority which was become too weak to afford them protection : they, therefore, deposed the Roman magistrates, and proclaimed their own independence. We are informed that, on the extinc- tion of the imperial authority, the pro- vinces were divided among a multitude of petty chieftains, whose ambition, wars, and vices, inflicted more extensive inju- ries than the incursions of foreign ene- mies. To these miseries succeeded the dreadful scourges of pestilence and fa- mine ; district after district, became the scene of devastation, till their common danger warned them to seek other assis- tance, and a Saxon squadron being then cruising in the channel, in quest of ad- ventures, the two commanders, " Hengist and Horsa, eagerly accepted the over- tures of the British prince, Vortigern, to aid in fighting his battles, and to depend for their reward on his gratitude." During the Roman power in Britain, Christianity was introduced, it is believed, as early as the age of the apostles. In A. D. 597, Pope Gregory sent Augustus, and forty other monks, to instruct the 21 inhabitants in the Christian religion ; from this period, it gradually gained the ascendency till the seventh century, when it became the religion of all the inhabi- tants. Previous to this, the people were pagans, their religious system was term- ed Druidism ; their priests were called Druids, and they occasionally required human beings to be sacrificed. Having embarked, about 1,600 men on board three vessels, the two brothers ar- rived in the Isle of Thanet, in A. D, 449. They were received by the inhabitants with the greatest demonstration of joy ; the isle in which they had landed was immediately appointed for their habita- tion, and a league was concluded, in vir- tue of which the Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons against all foreign enemies ; and the provincials were to allow the Saxons pay and maintenance, besides the place allotted them for their abode. Soon after their arrival, king Vortigern led them against the northern nations, who had lately broken into the kingdom, and advanced as far as Stam- ford, in Lincolnshire. Here a battle was fought, in which the Scots and Picts were utterly defeated. Vortigern was so highly pleased with his new allies, that he bestowed large possessions upon Hengist and Horsa. It is said that, even at this time, Hengist obseving the inhab- itants to be quite enervated with luxury, entertained hopes of conquering part of Britain. He, therefore, with Vortigern's consent, invited over more of his coun- trymen, informing them of the fruitfulness of the country,' the effeminacy of the inhabitants, and how easily a conquest might be effected. The Saxons readily complied, and in 452, as many more ar- rived in seventeen vessels, as, with those already in Britain, made up 5,000 men. The Saxons by their victories, and having their numbers augvnnented by numerous adventurers from Germany, became powerful. Difficulties having arisen between them and the Britons, they turned their arms against them, and for a long period many bloody conflicts occurred. After a violent contest of near two centuries, the Saxons entirely subdued the Britons whom they had come to de- 162 ENGLAND. fend, and eventually erected the seven independent kingdoms of the Saxon Hep- tarchy. Of these, Northuinbria, Mercia, and Wessex, were the most distinguished. The race of Northumbrian kings, in their rapid succession, present a continued scene of perfidy, treason, and murder. Within the lapse of a century, fourteen kings assumed the sceptre, of whom seven were slain ; six were driven from the throne by their rebellious subjects ; and only one died in the possession of the royal dignity ; and, finally, the Danes extinguished the Northumbrian dynasty, by the slaughter of Ella and Osbriht, in the year 867. The Danes were a hardy race from the shores of the Baltic, who despised the tranquil enjoyments of peace, and prefer- red the acquisitions of rapine. Their maritime shuation procured for their chieftains the title of sea-kings. Till the eighth century, this people confined their depredations to the northern seas, but the report of wealth in the south incited them to more important expeditions. During the eighth century, this race of pirates made three attempts to land in Britain, which created no serious cause of alarm ; but in 832, they effected their purpose in the Isle of Sheppy, and three years after appeared on the coast of Cornwall, were they succeeded in se- ducing the Britons from their allegiance. During the reign of Ethelbert, one of the kings of Wessex, Radnor Lodbrog, a famed sea-king, attempted the invasion of England, and was slain by the hand of Ella, a Northumbrian. The sons of Lodbrog arrived from Denmark, with their relatives and friends, to avenge the death of their father. The number of this formidable armament amounted to 20,000. Ethelred had only ascended the throne of Wessex a few months when the Danes, under the command of Inguar and Ubba, the sons of Radnor, landed in East Anglia. Devastation and murder every where followed the steps of the victorious Danes ; they burnt the rich monasteries of Bardsey and Croyland, and then proceeded to destroy Medes- hamstede, at which place Ubba slaugh- tered, with his own hand, the abbot and eighty-four monks. The Saxon princes saw the progress of the Danish arms without making any effectual efforts to restrain their rapacity ; but Ethelred, with his brother Alfred, gave the enemy battle near Reading. A solitary thorn- tree long after marked the spot where the Danes were defeated. Another desperate engagement took place at Morton, in Berkshire, where, it is believed, the Danes remained in pos- session of the field. Ethelred, who had been wounded, survived only a few days, and was buried at Wimborne. The in- vaders returned to Reading, to divide the spoil, and to rejoice over their victory. We come now to one of the brightest periods of English history, and it is grati- fying for the chronicler to pass from scenes of barbaric ignorance and military tyranny, to the annals of a period when laws Avere formed for the protection of the serf, no less than for that of his des- potic ruler. When the unanimous voice of the West Saxons called Alfred to the throne, in 871, he refused the royal hon- ors ofi'ered to him ; alleging his own in- capacity, and the increasing num!:»er of the Danes. But his objections being overruled, the archbishop of Canterbury fixed the crown upon his head. Alfred, after having in vain attempted to expel the Danes, was forsaken by his subjects, who could no longer be roused by the most ardent exhortations. Some fled to Wales or to transmarine regions ; and the rest endeavored, by the most abject submission, to mitigate the fury of these ferocious invaders. There is a very characteristic anecdote told of the fallen fortunes of the monarch at this period. Destitute of troops, Alfred, submitting to necessity, dismiss.^d his at- tendants, and, disguising his person in the garb of a peasant, took refuge for a time in the cottage of a neat-herd. Here, intent on higher objects, he attended not to the toasting of some cakes which his hostess, ignorant of his rank, had one day committed to his care ; and, having suf- fered them to be burned, he received an apparently just reprimand for the neglect of that wluch was so hospitably shared with him. He is said to have afterwards, in his prosperity, persuaded this herds- man, named Denulf, to cultivate letters, ENGLAND. 163 Alfred disguised as a spy. and to have promoted him to the church till he became bishop of Winchester. Assuming the disguise of a harper, he had the boldness to enter the Danish camp, in which he was entertained sev- eral days, and introduced to Guthrum the chief commander. Satisfied of his ene- my's unguarded state, he, by his emissa- ries in every direction, summoned liis nobles and their followers to Brixton near Selwood Forest. These having experi- enced still deeper affliction in peace from the brutal tyranny of their conquerors, than they had before from the violence of hostility, assembled with alacrity on the appointed day, and with shouts of joy recognised their heroic monarch, whom they had long considered as dead. Leading them to Eddington, where the Danes were encamped, without a mo- ment's loss, he made a well directed and furious attack. Unprepared, and aston- ished at the sudden sight of an English army, with Alfred at its head, the Danes were with appalling havoc put to flight. Besieged in a fortified camp, where they had taken refuge, they surrendered at discretion from want of provisions. Al- fred, obeying the dictates of wisdom and humanity, instead of consigning them to the sword, admitted Guthrum and his followers as allies, or feudal subjects, on their consenting to become Christians ; to occupy, as settlers, the desolated lands of the Northumbrians and East-Angles ; and to co-operate with the English in preventing the ravages of other Scandi- navians. Some smaller parties of these invaders, dispersed in Mercia, were, un- der the denomination of Fiveburghers, distributed, as citizens, in the five cities of Derby, Leicester, Stamford, Lincoln, and Nottingham. Others, inveterate in their depredatory habits, departed from the country, and engaged elsewhere in piratical expeditions, chiefly under a cele- brated leader named Hastings. When these fierce invaders were thus expelled or subdued, the talents of Alfred were strenuously exerted in arrange- ments for the external defence and inter- nal police of his kingdom, which had been reduced by the Danes to the most wild and deplorable state of disorder. The military arrangements of Alfred, though the most efficacious which the debilitated condition of the country ad- mitted, were soon put to a severe and decisive trial by a great armament of Danes, in 893. From the French terri- 164 ENGLAND. tories, Hastings returned to the English coast with a fleet of three hundred and thirty vessels, which probably carried above twenty thousand combatants. He was, however, most signally defeated. As Guthrum, and others of their lead- ers attached to the English monarch, were dead, the Danes of the Northum- brian and East-Anglian territories, yield- ing to the impulse of a renovated spirit of plunder, when opportunity seemed given, collected a fleet, and, sailing to the south- ern coast, suddeidy invested the city of Exeter. Alfred, however, made a rapid march to this quarter, surprised the be- siegers, routed, and drove them to their ships. But in his absence the Danes at Bamflete, leaving their wives, children, and booty, in their fortified camp under a strong guard, directed their course to- wards the interior of the country with the most wasteful devastation. On this in- telligence reaching London, the king's troops made an unexpected and success- ful attack on the Danish camp, where they secured much plunder and many prisoners, among whom were the wife and two sons of Hastings. Alfred, how- ever, restored the prisoners to the Danish commander, in the vain hope of prevail- ing on him to depart from England. The banded robbers, still hoping to make a conquest, continued to alarm the country for above two years, effecting a retreat by furious eflbrts from place to place. Hastings, Avho had been above thirty years incessantly engaged in predatory war, and appears to be one of the ablest commanders recorded in history, is said to have at length withdrawn himself to France, and to have spent the rest of his life in privacy, on a small domain given him by the French monarch. The rem- nant of the hostile Danes in England be- took themselves to sea under Sigefert, a Northumbrian, who had constructed ves- sels of an extraordinary height, length, and swiftness. These were soon sur- passed in force and celerity, and totally defeated, by ships of Alfred's contrivance, who hanged the crews of twenty barks, condemned at Winchester, as the com- mon enemies of mankind. The North- umbrian and East-Anglian Danes, who, after their overthrow at Exeter, had also been foiled in their attempts elsewhere, renewed their submissions ; and the few, who refused to become peaceable sub- jects, were obliged to abandon the Eng- lish territories. After his final success against the Danes in 897, Alfred, immolested during the remaining four years of his reign, had abundance of leisure to renew his application to the institutions of civil gov- ernment, and the general improvement of his people. These institutions, al- ready in part established by ancient cus- tom, he new modelled, extended, and con- firmed by provisions for the strict execu- tion of justice. His eflbrts were extended to the pro- motion of all the useful arts, particularly those of navigation and commerce, and he employed the ablest navigators to make voyages of discovery. Wulfstan, an English mariner, explored the Baltic to the mouth of the river Vistula. Oh- there, a Norwegian, doubling the North Cape, discovered the White Sea and the river Dwina. The journals of these two voyages are still extant. Sighelm, an English priest, sent as his envoy to the Christians of the Island of St. Thomas, re- turned with a cargo of spices and jewels. Edward, the elder, succeeded Alfred to the throne of England. The military genius this prince possessed was no doubt inherited from his father, and it enabled him not only constantly to main- tain a superiority over the Danes, but also to subdue the internal commotions with which he was constantly assailed at home. In his various operations he was powerfully seconded by his sister Ethelfleda, queen of the Mercians. On the death of this heroine, in the year 920, Mercia, taken under Edward's im- mediate government, from that time ceased to be a separate kingdom. Athelstan having been educated under the eye of his aunt Ethelfleda, was in- sured the favor of the Mercians. He was crowned at Kingston, by Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury, in 925. All the counties which had been originally conquered and colonized by the several Saxon tribes, united under the authority of this monarch, so that he really merit- ed the title of " king of England." ENGLAND. 165 Dunstan forcing king The reign of Edmund lasted only six years. He died by the hand of Leof, a noted outlaw, whilst celebrating the feast of St. Augustine. This king left two sons, Edwy and Edgar ; but the eldest being only nine years of age, Edred, the only remaining son of king Edward, was chosen to represent him. Edred was much influenced by his ministers — the chancellor Turketul, and Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. Turke- tul was a clergyman of royal descent, and the grandson of Alfred ; he was hon- ored with the approbation of Edred, and the applause of the people, and he held the first place in the royal councils. He revived the monastery of Croyland, which had been destroyed by the Danes, and embraced a monastic life. Dunstan had been introduced by his relatiA'es, Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury, and Elphege, bishop of Winchester, to the court of king Athelstan ; and afterwards caused the chancellor Turketul to recommend him to king Edmund, who bestowed upon Dunstan, Glastonbury and its possessions. Over Edred, who made him the director of his conscience, Dunstan appears to have exercised the most despotic con- trol. The reign of Edred was prosper- Edwy from his queen. ous, but short ; frequent attacks of illness enfeebled his frame, and he died in 954. Edwy was not more than sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne. Beautiful in person, of an amiable dispo- sition, and of promising virtue, he was, notwithstanding, odious to Dunstan, who was conscious of having abused the late king's imbecility to the total impoverish- ment of the crown, and who also may have dreaded a discernment and vigor of mind in the young monarch incompati- ble with his designs of ecclesiastical domination. As if determined at once to enter into a trial of strength with his sovereign, this audacious monk, on the very day of the coronation, made a vio- lent attack on the young king. Disliking the riot and intemperance to which the English were addicted, or allured by con- nubial affection, Edwy, without sufficient- ly attending to the prevailing habits of his subjects, retired alter dinner to his queen's apartment, leaving his nobles and prelates drinking in the gi-eat hall. It may be proper to state that Elgiva, the queen, was his relative within the degrees pre- scribed by the canons, and as such was not by the monks allowed to be his wife. Dunstan, accompanied by Cynesius, a 166 ENGLAND. bishop, forced his way into the apart- ment where Edwy was sitting with El- giva and her mother, outraged the ladies with the most opprobrious language, and violently dragged the monarch back into the hall. Enraged by such brutality, the king called Dunstan to account for his abuse of the public treasure, drove him into exile, and, expelling the new monks he had created, restored the rightful owners to their monasteries. But the partisans of the ambitious churchman, who were zealously active, formed a conspiracy, which completely overmatched all the force collected by the youthful monarch. Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, a fero- cious bigot, who was of Danish race, and had himself been a soldier, forced the palace with a body of armed men, seized Elgiva, against whom he had pronounced a sentence of divorce, branded her face with a hot iron to destroy her beauty, and banished her into Ireland. This prin- cess, on recovering her health, returned to England, but was intercepted at Glou- cester by lier monkish foes, who added to their previous atrocities by cutting the tendons of her legs, and left her to ex- pire in the most excruciating agony. Edwy, who determinately opposed the monks, was excommunicated, and dis- possessed of all his dominions except Wessex, by the victorious faction, who placed Edgar his brother, a boy of thir- teen, at their head. Dunstan returned in triumph ; and Edwy died in 959, but whether in consequence of a broken heart, or the stroke of an assassin, is matter of some dispute. Edgar, on commencing his reign, ap- pears to have made a tacit compromise with Dunstan and his monks, allowing them to govern as they pleased, and was in return indulged in the gratification of the most licentious desires. By his monkish historians he is represented as a mighty conqueror, statesman, and even saint. But historical facts are totally wanting to support the first part of this character, and are copiously furnished to overthrow the last. Edward the Martyr was in his thir- teenth year when his father Edgar died. But his accession to the throne met with violent opposition from his mother-in- law, Elfrida, who wished that her own son should reign in his stead ; but Dun- stan, who was always bold and decisive in his measures, assembled his followers, and without further delay, placed the crown on the head of Edward. The exertions of Elfrida, however, were not lessened by this circumstance, for she planned, and successfully executed, the murder of the king. As Edward was hunting near Corfe Castle, in Dorsetshire, the residence of the queen, he rode, without suspicion, to the entrance gate, to pay his respects to the queen, and having requested a draught of wine, at the moment he raised the cup to his lips he received a wound in the back. Put- ting spurs to his horse, he galloped away at full speed, but fell from the animal, and was dragged at the stirrup till he expired. Tliis reign was most disastrous. Hea- ven seemed to conspire with man in the severity of its visitation ; famine and disease afflicted the human species, whilst a contagious disorder among the cattle added to the horrors of invasion, which the northern pirates practised on different parts of the coast. Such were the ravages made by the invaders, that Ethelred, in 1001, paid them twenty- four thousand pounds to retire from his kingdom. This, and repeated sums given for the same purpose, procured only a temporary suspension of misery. After the death of Edgar, the administration of justice had been only feebly enforced, and at this period, it was entirely sus- pended. The absence of legal punish- ments, and a long continued state of warfare, left men's passions free from restraint, and individuals sought to in- demnify themselves for their own losses by the spoliation of their neighbors Relations are said to have sold their relatives, and parents their children, as slaves. Wherever money was known to exist, it was required by the king's officers, and to that period may be refer- red the origin of direct and annual tax- ation. The impost, called " Danegelt," was established at that time, and became an annual land-tax of twelve pence per hide. ENGLAND. 167 In the year 1002, Ethelred espoused as his second wife, Emma, a Norman princess, and the rejoicings had scarcely finished before the king ordered a gen- eral massacre of the Danes to take place, which command was executed through- out every county, with every additional insult which national enmity could sug- gest. Ethelred expected by his union with Emma, to have found a powerfid support against the Danes in her brother Richard, duke of Normandy ; but the king's neglect of the queen, and his in- fidelity, had lost him her affection. The nobility were divided by the influence of faction, and treason and murder were the results. The king was entirely un- equal to the duties of government, and the people continued to be the sport of a vindictive and revengeful enemy, until Sweyn, having exhausted the spirit of retaliation on the murderer of his coun- trymen, consented to terms of peace, on receiving 36,000/. of silver. After Sweyn's departure, he secretly permitted Thurchil to continue the same work of devastation. The first year he ravaged the southern provinces ; in the second, he penetrated through East Anglia into the fens, which had hitherto afforded a retreat to the natives ; and the third year, he besieged the city of Can- terbury. Treachery favored the surren- der, and the Danes numbered 800 cap- tives, whilst 8,000 inhabitants perished in the flames. On that occasion, Elphege, the archbishop, venerable for his age and virtues, was bound and dragged to behold the fate of his cathedral ; in which were collected the monks and the clergy, the women and the children. The pile was set on fire, and as the melting lead and falling timbers compelled them to quit their retreat, they were massacred before the eyes of the primate, who was reserved some weeks in the hope of re- ceiving a ransom of 3000/. ; but the old man refused to ask his friends or the clergy to pay the sum. He Avas inhu- manly murdered whilst laboring to im- press his captors with a reverence for the doctrine of Christianity. After rav- aging thirteen counties, Thurchil sold his services to Ethelred in 1012, for the sum of 40,000/. ; which, when Swevn heard, he was jealous of the chieftain's compromise with the English, and de- clared his intention to conquer England. Hoping thereby to inspire the islanders with a terror of his name, he issued or- ders to his followers " to ravage the open countiy, pillage the churches, burn the towns, and put every male to the sword ;" which instructions were ob- served, except where the inhabitants ap- peased the invaders by prayers and hos- tages. Ethelred, after some unsuccess- ful attempts to defend London, fled in despair, and having abandoned the crown to his competitor, remained concealed in the Isle of Wight, until a messenger from his queen brought him the offer of an asylum in Normandy. Sweyn, how- ever, died the following month, leaving the crown to his eldest son, who landed, in 1016, at Sandvvitch, then the most cel- ebrated haven in Britain, accompanied by Thurchil. When they arrived, Eth- elred was confined by illness at Cosham, in Wiltshire, from Avhence he Avas re- moved to London, Avhere he lingered through the Avinter, and died on the 23rd of April, at the moment the invaders were preparing to besiege him in his capital. By his first wife he had three sons, Ed- mund, Edwy, and Athelstan ; and by his second, he left two, Edward and Alfred. Edmund, surnamed Ironside, the eldest son of Ethelred, succeeded to the throne at a period of the most imminent danger to the liberties of his country. The fe- rocious character of the invading army was too Avell knoAvn for either him or his people to expect mercy at their hands in the event of their expedition proving suc- cessful ; and yet their very ferocity pre- A'ented the people from bravely second- ing their sovereign in his attempts at de- fence. Edmund was a man of great courage as Avell as bodily strength, and in the latter respect excelled almost any of his subjects. He possessed abilities sufficient to have saved his country from ruin, had he come sooner to the throne ; but it Avas now too late. He bravely opposed the Danes, however, notwithstanding every disadvantage ; till at last the nobility of both nations obliged their kings to come to a compromise, and divide the king- 168 ENGLAND. dom between them by treaty. Canute reserved to himself Mercia, East An- gUa, and Northumberland, which he had entirely subdued. The southern parts were left to Edmund. This prince sur- vided the treaty oidy about a month ; be- ing murdered at Oxford by two of his chamberlains. After the death of Edmund nothing was left for the English but submission to Canute. Though Canute had, previous to his accession to the throne, received bap- tism, he knew little of the Christian doc- trine ; but no sooner was he seated on the English throne, than the ferocity of his disposition yielded to the precepts of religion ; and the sanguinary sea-king was insensibly moulded into a just and beneficent monarch. He placed the two nations on an equality, and admitted them alike to offices of trust and emolument. He prohibited the custom of sending Christians for sale into foreign countries ; and, in his frequent visits to Denmark, he took with him pious and learned mis- sionaries to civilize and instruct his countrymen. Of Canute, historians speak highly, as regarding his piety, and his equitable system of government. He revised sev- eral old laws, and formed many new ones, all of which tended to the public welfare. In 1030, Canute went to Rome, and on his return, paid a visit to Denmark. By the marriage settlement between Canute and his queen Emma, the crown of England should have descended to their son Hardicanute, but as he was ab- sent at the time of his father's death, the ambition of his half brother Harold, caused him to aspire to the throne ; and, being generally supported by the nobility, he took possession of it in the place of Hardicanute. The early part of this king's short reign was marked bj'' many acts of cruelty and injustice. Having first induced Al- fred, the youngest son of Ethelred, to visit England, he caused the adherents of the prince who accompanied him to Guildford to be assassinated, and then murdered the unsuspecting Alfred. Af- ter a reign of four years he died, in 1039, and was buried at Westminster. Hardicanute was with his mother Em- ma, (who had accepted an asylum at Bruges from Baldwin of Flanders,) when a messenger arrived with intelligence of the death of Harold, and who was fol- lowed by a deputation of English and Danish thanes, requesting Hardicanute to ascend the throne of his father. On his arrival in London, his feelings urged him to an act of impotent revenge ; he ordered the tomb of his predecessor to be opened, the body to be decapitated, and the head and trunk to be thrown into the Thames. The command was obeyed; but the head and trunk were both recov- ered by some fishermen, who deposited them in the cemetery of St. Clements, London, the buiying place of the Danes. The reign of this prince was short and popular, the strength of his constitution, from which he derived the name of Hardy, was entirely overpowered by habitual in- temperance, and he suddenly expired at Lambeth, in the second year of his reign, at the bridal of a noble Dane. The death of Hardicanute severed the crown of Denmark from that of England, and the Saxon Edward was placed on the throne. Before the body of the departed king was laid in the grave, Edward ascended the throne. This prince was about forty years of age when he commenced his reign, and appears to have aimed only at improving the condition of his people : all historians agree in his being rather a good than a great man. The only foreign war maintained by this prince was one against Macbeth, the usurper and murderer of Duncan, king of Scotland ; and ihe victory of Laufanan, in Aberdeenshire, by the fall of Macbeth, secured the crown on the head of the rightful heir. King Edward wished, according to the fashion of those times, to visit Rome, but his desig-n being opposed by his council, he sent his nephew and ixame- sake, the exiled son of his brother Ed- mund, and who, in the Saxon line, was the rightful heir to the throne. The prince arrived in London, and kept at a distance from the king, and in a few days j he died suddenly, not without suspicion j being attached to Harold, who was now resident in England ; and between whom ENGLAND. 169 Death of king Harold at the battle of Hastings. and the throne there stood only one indi- vidual, namely, Edgar, son of the lately deceased prince Edward. By an acci- dental occurrence, some time before this event, Harold fell into the hands of earl Guy, who surrendered him to William who was then in Normandy; and he found himself so completely a prisoner as to be induced to do homage for his lands and honors to William, as the apparent successor of Edward. Harold returned to London only five weeks before the death of Edward, which took place on the 5th of January, 1066. In consequence of a report that Ed- ward had appointed Harold to be his successor, the latter was proclaimed king, and was crowned by Aldred, the archbishop of York ; while to Edgar, who was the last male descendant of the race of Cedric, was given the earldom of Oxford. On learning the death of Edward, and accession of Harold, William duke of Normandy determined to enforce his claim to the crow-n of England. Prepa- rations were made on both sides, and Harold was waiting with confidence the approach of his enemy, when his pro- jects were disconcerted by the arrival of 32 a fleet of Norwegians, under the com- mand of Hardrada their king. An obsti- nate battle was fought near York, in which the Norwegians were defeated and Hardrada slain. Harold w^as at York, when the news of the descent of the Nor- mans was announced to him. William effected his landing on the 29th of September, 1066, with an army composed of warriors from every prov- ince of France. Harold marched his army to Scnlac, an eminence near Has- tings ; where, on the opposite hill, he found William employed in marshalling his host. Each army spent the night in its camp ; the English in revelry and mirth, the Normans in fasting and prayer. The battle began at nine o'clock on the morning of the 14th of October, 1066. The Normans advancing in three lines raised the national shout of " God is our help!" which was as loudly answered by the adverse cry of " Christ's rood ! the holy rood !" from the English, who rushed forward in two lines, principally com- posed of infantry. The battle seemed for some time in favor of the English, and a report spread that W^illiam had fallen ; but the duke, with his helmet in his hand, galloped along the line exclaim- 170 ENGLAND. ing, "I am still alive, and with the help of God I still shall conquer." Long and desperate was the contest of that day ; the ground was strewed with the slain, and yet the ardor of the surviving comba- tants seemed unabated ; when, a little before sunset, an arrow, shot at random, entered Harold's eye. He instantly fell, and the knowledge of his fall relaxed the efforts of the English ; they wavered, and fled in great confusion, closely pursued by the Normans ; who, by the order of William, gave no quarter. On the side of the victors sixty thousand men had been engaged, and more than one-fourth were left on the field. The numbers of the vanquished, and the amount of their loss, is unknown. The king's mother begged, as a boon, the body of her son, offering as a ransom its weight in gold ; but William ordered the corpse of the fallen monarch to be buried on the beach, adding sarcastically, " He guarded the coast while he was alive, let him continue to guard it after death." By stealth, how- ever, or by purchase, the royal remains of Harold were removed, and deposited in the church of Waltham, which Har- old had founded before he ascended the throne. William had vainly expected on his re- turn to Hastings after the battle, that the British crown would have been offered to him : a few days, however, dissipated the illusion. London was put in a state of defence by its citizens, and it required great exertions to subdue the English to his yoke ; they were, however, ultimately compelled to submit. The castle of Do- ver yielded, and the inhabitants of Kent gave hostages as security for their obe- dience. Soon after a deputation arrived, consisting of the nobility, the clergy, and the principal citizens of London, who, in the name of their fellows, swore alle- giance to the Conqueror, gave hostages, and made him an offer of the crown. He affected not to accept it until his Norman barons had ratified the proposal with their applause ; and then he appointed the festival of Christmas for his coronation. It accordingly took place in Westminster Abbey, on the 25th of December, 1066. All the first measures of the Conquer- or's reign tended to allay former animosi- ties, and to win the affections of his new subjects ; all his commands seemed to be dictated by justice and moderation, with a due regard to ancient laws and customs. The monarch was easy of ac- cess, and listened graciously to the com- plaints of those who approached him. From this period the term "bastard," which hitherto had distinguished Wil- liam, was dropped ; and he received the name of " Conqueror." To increase his revenue, he erected a court of exchequer, wherein the accounts of all the officers' collectors were passed, and all delays and defaults in payment were cognizable. All fines and forfeit- ures, by which nearly all crimes were commuted for, added greatly to the royal income ; and, as a further stretch of des- potism, William introduced a regulation, formerly established in his continental dominions, to prevent nocturnal riots and conflagrations, by which the common people, on pain of death, were obliged to extinguish their fires and candles on the ringing of a bell, which, from the purpose intended, had derived the appellation of couvrefeu, corrupted by the English into curfew. In the year 1 080, a book of judgment was begun by order of the king, who ap- pointed commissioners to make a survey of the kingdom, and who completed their work in two volumes, in 1086. It was called Domesday-book, "b-3cause," as Carte states, "every man was to receive his doom, or be judged by it in case any dispute about the value, tenure, payment, or services of his lands, should arise upon the collection of the king's ordinary reve- nue, or raising extraordinary taxes." This valuable record, having served ever since for a decisive evidence in such disputes, is lodged in the office of the chamberlains of the exchequer. William died at Rouen, September 10, 1087, and was succeeded by his son Wil- liam II, surnamed Rufus, on account of his red hair. To gain the national con- sent, William hastened from Normandy to England, seized the principal fortresses on the southern coast, and the royal treas- ure at Winchester, by the influence of which, and of the primate, to whom he is said to have made the most solemn en- ENGLAND. 171 gagements to govern with justice and mercy, he so far prevailed as to be crown- ed at Westminster, September, 1087, in an assembly of the chief barons and pre- lates, and to be acknowledged as their sovereign by all the other vassals of the crown, in their oaths of allegiance before the end of that year. The royal treasure seized at Winches- ter, beside jewels, gold, plate, and other articles, consisted of sixty thousand pounds of coined silver, which may be estimated as equal to at least a million sterling at the present time. Notwithstanding the influence of this treasure, which William spared not in the application, and the oaths of allegiance recently sworn, a conspiracy was formed in 1088, by the barons, for the dethrone- ment of the new monarch, and the eleva- tion of his brother Robert to his place. During the period that AVilliam was engaged in making war on his brother Robert in 1091, Malcolm, king of Scot- land, took the opportunity of his absence from England, to gratify the rapacity of his followers with the spoil of the north- em counties. This outrage William am- ply revenged. Malcolm did him homage, and received from him the manors and the pension which he had enjoyed under the Conqueror. But William, on his re- turn from Normandy, visited Carlisle, from which he expelled the lord of the district, and peopled the city with a colony of Englishmen from the south. Whether this settlement was considered to be an act of invasion by Malcolm, is uncertain ; but a new quarrel was created between the nations, and on the 1 3th of November, 1093, Malcolm received his death by the sword of Morel, Mowbray's steward. His queen, Margaret, survived him only four days ; on which occasion the Athel- ing Edgar was placed on the throne, and restored the children of his sister Marga- ret to their former honors. Ever since Harold had effected the reduction of Wales, the natives acknow- ledged themselves the vassals of Eng- land ; but their ancient hostility was not extinguished, and, in the year 1094, the natives of every district in Wales were in arms. Their momitainous country bade defiance to the heavy cavalry of the Normans, and the best William could effect, was to adopt his father's policy, and draw a chain of castles round the country, to stop their further incursions. In the following summer, messengers arrived to William, at a time when he was hunting in the New Forest, with in- telligence that his former enemy Helie had defeated the Normans, and was lay- ing siege to Mans ; upon which he pro- ceeded with such speed to that place that Helie had scarcely time to save himself by flight. The king ravaged the lands of his enemies, and then returned to Eng- land, where he found Robert de Mow- bray at the head of a rebellious party. This nobleman was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon barons ; he inherited from his uncle, the bishop of Constance, 280 manors ; and was moreover allied, by blood, or affinity, to all the first families in England. He was joined in the rebel- lion by many northern earls, but was at length compelled to surrender, and lived thirty years a prisoner in the castle of Windsor. In 1 100, the duke of Guienne wishing to join the Crusade to the Holy Land, applied to William to advance him mo- ney on his province, to w^hich the latter readily agreed, and was about to pay the money and acquire possession of the ter- ritories, when an accident terminated his life. He was hunting in the New Fo- rest, and had alighted from his horse after a short chase, when a stag suddenly start- ing up near him, a French gentleman, named Walter Tyrrel, let fly an arrow at the animal, which glancing from a tree, en- tered the king's breast and pierced him to the heart. Tyrrel immediately fled, and the king's body was found by the country people and interred without cer- emony at Winchester. On the death of William II, Henry, the youngest son of the Conqueror, has- tened to Winchester, seized the royal treasure in spite of the resistance of the keeper, and proceeded direct to London, where he was proclaimed king by the great council of state, and was crowned on the following Simday at Westminster Abbey as Henry I. Duke Robert, the rightful heir of Eng land, both by primogeniture and his treaty 172 ENGLAND. with Rufus, had delayed so long his re- turn from the Crusade, in which he had acquired the highest reputation by his valor and generosity, that he lost the op- portunity of entering into the possession of this kingdom, which he otherwise might have accomplished without oppo- sition. Arriving in France about a month after William's decease, he obtained un- opposed possession of the Norman duchy, and made vigorous preparations to en- force his claim to the English crown with the troops of Normandy, aided by most of the Normans in England, who revolted from Henry, probably through the influence of those great barons, who, having estates in both countries, may have wished a perpetual union of the kingdom and duchy. When Henry returned to England from Normandy, after defeating Duke Robert, he was requested by Stephen, a Norman mariner, to allow him the honor of con- veying him in his vessel, " the White Ship," to England, saying, he had car- ried his father when he went to the con- quest of England. Henry made answer, that he had selected a vessel for him- self, but he would intrust his son and treasures to the White Ship. Accord- ingly the young prince, who was in his eighteenth year, with Richard and Ade- la, natural children of the king, and a number of noble ladies and knights, set sail at sunset ; but in consequence of the revelling and feasting which had pre- viously taken place on the deck, the di- rection of the vessel was neglected, and she struck against a rock called the Cat- terage. Fitz-Stephen immediately low- ered the prince into a. boat, ordering it to row back to land ; but the shrieks of Adela moved the generous youth to re- turn to her assistance, and, in a short time the ship went down, carrying with her three hundred persons to the deep. A nobleman, Geoffrey L'Aigle, and Ber- trand, a butcher of Rouen, were alone saved by clinging to the topmast ; but only one, the last named, lived to recite the tale, as it was on a November night, and the nobleman perished from extreme cold. From that day king Henry was never seen to smile. The prince had married, six months before his death, ! Matilda, the daughter of Fulk of An- jou, and she was left a widow at the age of twelve years. She remained some time with the king, who behaved towards her with the affection of a pa- rent ; .she then returned to her father, and ten years afterwards took the veil, in the convent of Fontevraud. Henry while hunting near St. Denis le Froment, in Normandy, was seized with an acute fever, of which he died on the seventh day. His bowels were there taken out, and deposited in the church of St. Mary, at Rouen, which had been foiuided by his mother. His body hav- ing been embalmed, was conveyed to England, and interred in the abbey of Reading, which he had founded and rich- ly endowed. Henry preserved, throughout his reign, a great regard for the administration of justice ; and the severity with which he punished flagrant crimes, caused his sub- jects to believe he was " the lion of jus- tice" described in the prophecies of Mer- lin. In 1 125, the king found it necessa- ry to punish the coiners, who abused the licence they received from the royal trea- sury, to enrich themselves. Another grievance redressed by Henry was the royal claim of purveyance. Whenever the king moved from place to place, he was attended by a number of prelates, barons, and officers, each of whom was followed by a long train of dependants, who were accustomed to enter, without cermony, the houses of the farmers and husbandmen to live at free quarters, and, in the insolence of superiority, to sell, burn, or waste, what they could not consume. A commission of judges was appointed to examine the attendants of the court and the most culpable of them were punished with the loss of an eye, a hand, or a foot. It appears from ancient writers that the punishment of mutilation was thought more useful than that of death. The sight of the latter was confined to few, and the impression was soon obliterated ; but the culprit who suffered mutilation carried about with him the evidence of his punish- ment, and admonished all who saw him of the consequence of violating the laws. He relieved the tenents of the crown of ENGLAND 173 the oppression exercised by the caprice of the royal officers, who collected the rents in kind, by ordering a new survey to be made of the royal demesnes, and an equitable rent to be paid in money. In short, it appears, that w^here the king's own interests were not concerned, he showed no reluctance to punish the exactions and rapacity of others. The intervening space between the death of Henry I, and the arrival of his daughter Matilda in England, was one of rapine and confusion — it being a re- ceived opinion, that there could be no violation of the king's peace until the new king had ascended the throne and received the homage of his subjects. In consequence of this doctrine, the great- est outrages were committed. The vio- lence of the people was chiefly directed to the destruction of the royal forests, which Henry's passion for the chase had led him to protect with the most vexa- tious tyranny. While that monarch lived, the whole country was covered with beasts of chase ; he had forbidden the ba- rons to hunt on their own estates with- out his permission. " You might," writes a contemporary, " have seen them wan- dering in herds of a thousand together ; within a few days after his death, you could not discover two heads of deer in a whole forest." Before Matilda could arrive to claim tlie crown, which had been left her by her father, Stephen availed himself of the interest of his brother, the bishop of Winchester, to seize it for himself. These young men stood in the relationship of nephews to the deceased king ; their mo- ther, Adela, who married the Count de Blois, being sister to Henry I. Stephen had himself sworn allegiance to Henry's daughter, Matilda, but to do away with any difficulty on that head, his steward, Hugh Bigod, swore that the late king, on his death bed, had disinherited his daughter, and left the crown to his ne- phew Stephen, whose affability and be- nevolence had gained the love of all, and the people were inclined to favor his pretensions. The citizens of Lon- don proclaimed him king, and he was crowned on the 22d December, 1135, before the prelates and barons had assem- bled to signify their acquiescence. He had long been the most popular nobleman in England ; the high bom he won by courtesy, the low by mixing in their sports and pastimes, and he was beloved by all ; so that, in a short time, they who at first were inclined to demur had joined the torrent, and the succession of Ste- phen was admitted by the whole nation. In the meajitime Matilda landed in Eng- land with her brother the earl of Glou- cester, and being joined by several pow- erful barons, a civil war ensued, which proved the most calamitous in the Eng- lish annals. Stephen performed his part with vigor and courage, but being taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln, in M41, his party was broken up, and Matilda was acknowledged queen. Ow- ing to her haughty conduct, an insur- rection was excited against her govern- ment. The earl of Gloucester was soon after taken prisoner and exchanged for Stephen, and Matilda was induced to re- tire into Normandy ; and the contest was carried on by her son Henry Plantage- net. An armistice, however, took place, in 1153, and it was agreed that Stephen should reign during his life, and that Hen- ry should succeed him. Soon after this pacification, Stephen died at Canterbury, on the 25th of October, 1154, and was buried in the convent which he himself had founded at Feversham. The lower classes, and especially the agriculturalists appear to have suffered the severest distress during the reign of Ste- phen. The situation of two competitors for the throne, subjected the inhabitants to the caprices and cruelties of their dif- ferent adherents ; when one party in- flicted an injury, the other hastened to retaliate ; and both gloried in the com- mission of barbarities which would have disgraced their pagan forefathers. Henry being in Normandy at the time of Stephen's death, a continuance of stormy weather detained him at Barfleur, and delayed his arrival in England for more than six weeks. On the 19th of Decem- ber, 1154, Henry was crowned with his queen, at Westminster, and from that period the principal object of his ad- ministration seemed to be to repair the evils which civil war had occasioned du- 174 ENGLAND. ring the preceding reign. The same month which witnessed the coronation of Henry, was signalized by the succes- sion of Nicholas Breakspear to the throne of the Vatican. This prelate is the on- ly Englishman who ever sat in the chair of St. Peter. The English felt proud of this elevation of their countryman, and an embassy was sent by Henry to con- gratulate pope Adrian, the name assumed by the new pontilf. Many of the useful measures adopted by Henry have been attributed to the ad- vice of Thomas a Becket, who, on Ro- ger de Pont being promoted to the see of York, was made archdeacon of Canter- bury ; but the jealousy entertained by the prelate of York of Becket's abilities "ren- dered him a great enemy. Becket's abili- ties soon gained him the notice and friend- ship of Henrj', who appointed him his chancellor, made him tutor to his son, and conferred on him many other sub- stantial proofs of the royal favor ; such as the wardenship of the tower of Lon- don, the custody of the castle of Berk- hamstead, and the honor of Eye, with the services of one hundred and forty knights. The splendor of his course more than equalled the rapidity of his rise to favor ; his table was open to eve- ry person who had business at court. Lingard states, that " it often happen- ed that the number of uninvited guests could not be accommodated at table ; and then Becket, that they might not soil their garments when they sate on the floor, was careful to have it daily covered with fresh straw." Nor did the chancellor act only as a councillor to the king, for he served, as occasion required, the oflice of a negotiator or a warrior. When Theobald died, in 1161, all eyes were turned towards Becket as the fu- ture archbishop of Canterbury. Henry, however, was in no hurry to part with the episcopal revenue, and kept his intention locked up within his own breast for thir- teen months, and then told his chancel- lor to prepare himself for the dignity. Becket accepted it ; he was ordained priest, and the next day was consecrated by Henry of Winchester, in the presence of the king and his courtiers. From the period of Becket's promotion to the see of Canterbury, he renounced his luxurious habits, and practised a dai- ly course of secret mortifications. In lieu of the train of knights and noblemen who formerly waited on him, he selected a few companions from the most exempla- ry and learned of the clergy ; his diet was abstemious ; his charities were abun- dant ; his time was divided into certain portions, alotted to prayer and study, and the episcopal functions. Amidst many discordant statements, it is difficult to fix on the original cause of dissension between the king and his archbishop, but that which brought them into immediate collision was a controver- sy respecting the jurisdiction of the ec- clesiastical courts. A man in holy orders had debauched the daughter of a gentleman in Worces- tershire, and then murdered the father to prevent the effects of his resentment. The atrociousness of the crime produ- ced a spirit of indignation among the people ; and the king insisted that the assassin should be tried by the civil ma- gistrate. Becket opposed this, alleg- ing the privileges of the church. This produced a warm contest between the king and archbishop, and the latter se- cretly left the kingdom and repaired to the pope at Sens. Several fruitless at- tempts were made towards an accommo- dation between the king and Becket ; but at length the mutual aim of both made a reconciliation necessary. But no- thing could exceed the insolence with which Becket conducted himself upon his first landing in England. Instead of retiring quietly to his diocese with that modesty which became a man just par- doned by his king, he made a progress through Kent, in all the splendor and magnificence of a sovereign pontift'. As he approached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, men of all ranks and ages, came forth to meet him, and celebrated his triumphal entry with hymns of joy. Thus confident of the voice and hearts of the people, he began to launch forth his thunders against those who had been his former opposers. The archbishop of York, who had crowned Henry's eld- est son in his absence, was the first against whom he denounced sentence of ENGLAND. 175 Assassination of archbishop Bccktt. suspension. The bishops of London and SaUsbury, he actually excommunicated. One man he exconmiunicated for hav- ing spoken against him ; and another for having cut off the tail of one of his horses. Henry was in Normandy, while the primate was thus triumphantly para- ding through the kingdom ; and it was not without the utmost indignation that he received information of his turbulent insolence. When the suspended and excommunicated prelates arrived with their complaints, his anger knew no bounds. " What an unhappy prince am 1," said the king, " who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of a sin- gle insolent prelate, whom I have raised from the lowest station to be the plague of my life, and the continual disturber of my government." Upon hearing which, four knights who were present, Reginald Fitzurse, William Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, and Richard Brito, considering that passionate expres- sion to be a royal licence, secretly pro- ceeded to Saltvvood to arrange their oper- ations ; and each bound himself by oath to carry off or murder Becket. For this purpose they proceeded to the primate's house, abruptly entered his apartment, and began by intimidating him. Pre- tending to have received their commission from the king, they ordered him to ab- solve the excommunicated prelates. He replied, that he was willing to do so, (with the exception of the archbishop of York, whose case was reserved for the consideration of the Pope,) on condition that they previously took the accustomed oath of submitting to the determination of the church. When the primate had entered his cathedral, during the hour of vespers, the same laiights with twelve companions, in complete armor, entered ; and Hugh de Moreville asked, " Where is the traitor ?" To this no answer was made ; upon which Fitzurse asked, " Where is the archbishop ?" and Becket replied, " Here I am, the archbishop, but no traitor. Reginald, I have granted thee many favors ; what is thy object now ? If you seek my life, I command you, in the name of God, not to touch one of my people." He was then told he must instantly absolve the bishops ; he answered, " Till they offer satisfac- tion, I will not." " Then die !" exclaim- ed the aasassin, aiming a blow at his head, Avhich bore away his cap, and wounded him on the crown. The bishop 176 ENGLAND. joined his hands, and boAved his head, saying, " In the name of Christ, and for the defence of his church, I am ready to die." A second stroke threw him on his knees ; and a third laid him on the floor, at the foot of St. Bennet's ahar. Thus, on the 29th of December, 1170, at the age of fifty-three, perished this extraor- dinary man, a martyr to what he deemed his duty, the preservation of the privileges and immunities of the church. When the news of Becket's death reached Normandy, the king was so strongly aflected, as to decline company and food for several days. He knew not, says a contemporary of that period, how to behave to the murderers. To punish them for that they had understood he wished them to do, seemed imgener- ous ; to spare them was to confirm the general suspicion, that he had ordered the murder. He therefore left them to the judgment of the spiritual courts. In consequence, the guilty knights travelled to Rome, and were enjoined by Alexan- der to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where some, if not all of them, died. The king, to avoid the immediate con- sequences which he had so much reason to fear from the anger of Alexander, di- verted the attention of his subjects by an expedition to Ireland. In battle, the Irish are said to have measured the valor of their combatants by their contempt for artificial assistance ; and when they saw the English knights cased in iron, pro- nounced them to be void of real courage. On the 12th November, 1170, Henry arrived in Dublin, where a wooden pal- ace had been erected for his reception, as he chose rather to allure, than to com- pel, submission. This conduct obtained him a nominal homage from all but the princes of Ulster ; they refused to visit the king, or to acknowledge his authority. However, in 1 175, a treaty of " final con- cord" was concluded, by which it was j decreed that Roderick, king of Con- j naught, should govern, under the English : crown, as long as he performed the ser- 1 vices to which he was bound, and Rod- , erick surrendered one of his sons as a j hostage to Henry for his fidelity. j Soon after this, Henry was disturbed j by quarrels in his own family, and which j probably originated in his own domestic conduct. Henry had for several years de- serted his consort for a succession of mis- tresses ; particularly Rosamond, daugh- ter of Walter Clifford, usually denomina- ted " Fair Rosamond." Though, in their early years, he had indulged his children to excess, that affection, as they grew up, gradually changed into the tyranny of a despotic and jealous sovereign. His queen, Eleanor, who knew herself to be an object of indifference to the king, en- couraged and fomented the discontent of her sons. Prince Henry, who had mar- ried Margaret, the daughter of Louis, fled to his father-in-law at Chartres. Rich- ard and Geoffry followed the steps of their brother, and the queen also ab- sconded. In this dilemma, the oflended monarch had recourse to the bishops of Normandy, who, in an admonitory letter, advised the queen's return to her hus- band ; but she persevered in her refusal, and having put on male attire, was se- cured by the friends of her husband, and confined by him during the remainder of her life. Henry after many domestic troubles, died near Tours, to which place he had repaired, in order to adjust a peace with the French king, and was succeeded by his son Richard. Although Richard showed some marks of regret for the loss of his father, he evidently thirsted too much for the exer- cise of real power and independent do- minion, to feel much sorrow, when the death of his predecessor gave him the sovereignity of England. He remained a short time on the continent, to take for- mal possession of his foreign territories, and to settle the differences between the crowns of fVance and England. In the meantime, he sent immediate orders for the liberation of his mother Eleanor, whom he appointed regent of the king- dom, until his arrival in this country. On the 13th of August, 1189, he landed at Portsmouth ; the chief of the nobility met their sovereign at Winchester, and on the 3rd of September, he was crown- ed with great pomp and magnificence at Westminster. The day was, however, disgraced by an inhuman massacre of the Jews, who at this period were, in ENGLAND. 177 every Christian country, the principal if not the sole, bankers. Their profits were enormous ; and, as there was no law in existence to regulate the interest of money, their demands rose in proportion to the wants of the borrowers. They liad been protected under the late reign by Henry ; but as Philip, the French king, had banished them from France, they feared that similar measures might be adopted by Richard ; to obviate which, the Jews had hastened from every coun- try to London, with valuable presents to the king. Richard had issued a procla- mation, forbidding all Jews to enter the church during the coronation service, or to come into the place while his majesty should be at dinner ; but some of these unfortunate people had mixed with the crowd at the coronation, and entered the palace. Their appearance there excited popular auger, and a report having been spread that the king had given a general permission to his subjects to kill them, every Jew who had the temerity to ap- pear in the street was murdered, and every house belonging to that people was set on fire. It was in vain that Richard despatched the justiciary with several knights to disperse the rioters ; the work of murder continued till the next morn- ing. It was equally vain that, by pro- clamation, he took the Jews under his protection ; the example of the capital was followed in all the principal towns in England ; they were every where plun- dered and murdered. After the fatal battle of Tiberias, Acre, Sidon, Ascalon, and Jerusalem succes- sively fell into the hands of the sultan Saladin. Tyre alone remained in the possession of the Christians ; and if the struggle was still faintly maintained, it was owing to the exertions of thousands from Europe, whose misguided zeal led them annually to perish under the walls of Acre. The considerations of danger that would have deterred a more prudent monarch sensed only to excite the ambi- tion of Richard. He had taken the cross during the reigTi of his father ; and now an expedition to the Holy Land offered such attractions to his adventurous spirit, that he spent the four months he passed in England in preparing for the Crusades, 23 and chiefly in raising money on terms that were dishonorable to himself and in- jurious to his successors. The demesne lands and the offices belonging to the crown were exposed to public sale ; he received bribes from Geoffry, the natural son of Henry, who, according to the wish of his father, was now archbishop of York ; also from the bishop of Durham, and the king of Scotland, to whom he resigned the right of superiority over the crown of that country, which had been acquired by Henry. The kings of England and France, having engaged to make the pilgrimage to the Holy Land together, an army of more than a hundred thousand men, in the double character of warriors and pil- grims, assembled, to march under their banners. Previous to Richard's departure from England, he added to his mother's dower the lands that had been settled on Ma- tilda, queen of the first Henry, and Alice, the relict of Stephen ; and in order to attach his brother John to his interests, he gave him about one-third of his king- dom. On the 23rd of September, in the year 11 90, both the kings had reached the port of Messina in safety. Philip occu- pied a royal palace within the walls, and the English prince had a house in the suburbs, which was surrounded with vineyards. Richard was profuse in the disposal of money ; at Christmas, he invited to his table every gentleman of the two armies, and gave to each, after dinner, a present proportionate to his rank. The queen dowager having arrived Avith Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre, to be the consort of Richard, she was anointed and crowned on her bridal day by the bishop of Evreux. Richard's conduct displeased the allies, who were waiting his presence at Acre, which place ha^-ing endured a siege of more than two years under the direction of Saladin, surrendered to the valor of the Crusaders on the 10th of June 1191, a few days after the arrival of Richard, who, though laboring under the weakness of an intermittent fever, was carried, in the intervals between the fits, to the trenches, and superintended the opera- 178 ENGLAND. Battle between Richard and Saladin. tions of his army. After numerous pro- posals, made and rejected by each party, a negotiation took place, in which it was agreed that Saladin should surrender the city, and that the Turks, as a ransom for their lives, should restore the holy cross, and set at liberty 1500 captives. The term of forty days was assigned for the performance of the conditions, and some thousands of hostages were detained by the Christians. The nations of Christendom received intelligence of this conquest as a prelude to the deUvery of Jerusalem ; but the general joy was damped on learning that the king of France was about to return home. In justification of this step, it was stated that his health was deeply impaired by sickness, but, in fact, the two kings had never cordially co-operated togeth- er ; and the temper of Richard was so irritable, that all were obliged to submit to liis caprice, or come to open hostilities ; so that the friends of Philip contended he would advance the cause of the Cru- sade by Avithdrawing from the army. He therefore quilted Acre, and left 10,000 of liis followers under the command of his vassal, the duke of Burgundy. The forty days had nearly expired which had been fixed for the performance of the treaty between Saladin and Richard, when the former refused, under diflerent pretexts, to perform his part of it, and king Rich- ard declared that the hostages should pay the foreit of his perfidy with their lives. In these wars neither party had been sparing of the blood of their captives ; on that occasion the hostages were led to the summit of a hill, and 2,700 infidels were butchered ; and at the same time almost an equal number, that had fallen to the lot of the king of France, were massacred on the walls of Acre, by the duke of Burginidy. After this bloody deed, Richard conducted his army, now reduced to 30,000 men, from Acre to Jaffa, near which place he obtained a complete victory over Saladin. A want of union in opinion had hith- erto operated against the success of the Crusaders ; as personal interests or na- tional jealousy continually threw some obstacle in the way of general co-opera- tion. But in the following siunmer all seemed unanimous, and demanded, with one voice, to march against Jerusalem, and Richard returned for that purpose to ENGLAND. 179 Bethany. Then with Jerusalem before his eyes, he recommended the selection of twenty counsellors, who should decide upon oath whether it were better to be- siege that capital, or Cairo, the capital of Egypt, from whence Saladin drew his supplies. To the astonishment of all, they preferred the latter ; so that the king led them back to Acre, notwithstanding the remonstrances of his followers. The duke of Burgimdy composed a song, in which he severely censured this conduct in the British king ; and the latter, in re- venge, wrote a satire on the personal vices of his opponent. On the retreat of the Christians, Saladin poured his army into the town of Jaffa, upon which Rich- ard hastened to its succor, and, by per- forming prodigies of valor, succeeded in raising the siege. His exertions, how- ever, brought on a fever, and he conde- scended to ask for an armistice, which was agreed upon for three years. At this treaty Saladin insisted on the destruction of Ascalon ; and, in return, he granted to the pilgrims free access to the holy sepul- chre. Thus ended a Crusade which had cost Europe the lives of more than 200,000 of her bravest warriors, which had drain- ed the nobles of their long hoarded wealth, and shown to the high-minded chivalry of France and England that a handful of " infidels" could resist the united attacks of pope, kings, and people. The worst enemy of the Crusaders might certainly be traced to their own internal dissen- sions. They could neither agree while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor yet unite their conquests imder one government after they had made them. The states they did form, instead of assisting, made war upon each other, and latterly even on the Greek emperors, and thus became an easy prey to the common enemy. The invading armies were dissolute in their habits, and their licentiousness was viewed with abhor- rence by their abstemious and intellectual opponents. Previous to his return to Europe, Richard, on taking a last view of the shores of Asia, on the 9th of October, 1193, is said to have exclaimed, " Most holy land, I commend thee to the care of the Almighty ! May he grant me life to return and rescue thee from the yoke of the infidels ! " Whilst these things were passing abroad, Richard's English subjects were suffering from the rapacity of his minis- ters, and the ambitious views of his broth- er John. At his departure for Pales- tine, the king had entrusted the reins of government to William de Longchamp, a Norman of obscure birth, on whom the most costly preferments were bestowed. He was first made chancellor, then bishop of Ely, afterwards, grand justiciary, and, lastly, papal legate in England and Scot- land; which placed him during the king's absence, at the head of the church and the state. This twofold authority he exer- cised in the most despotic manner. England was in a state of civil dis- sension, when the news arrived of Rich- ard having set out on his return from Acre, and a general impatience prevailed to behold this champion of the cross. After repeated disappointments, all Eu- rope was electrified at learning that Henry VI, of Germany, had purchased the royal captive from Leopold of Austria, for the sum of 60,000/., and that he was con- fined in one of the castles of the Tyrol. Whilst his English subjects were using every exertion to procure the liberty of their sovereign, John repaired to Paris, and leagued with Philip, king of France, in the invasion of Normandy. Several fortresses yielded ; but Rouen was saved by the exertions of the earl of Essex. Longchamp, who still remained in ex- ile, was the first to discover the retreat of his royal master. By repeated solicita- tions he obtained permission to conduct the king to the diet at Hagenau, where he answered the accusations alleged against him, in so manly and persuasive a manner, that the cold-liearted emperor ordered his chains to be struck off; show- ed him the respect due to a crowned head ; and consented to treat about the amount of his ransom. The negotiations for procuring the king's liberty occupied four months. At the end of that time one hundred and fifty thousand marks was fixed upon as the price to be paid ; the other conditions were that Richard should restore Isaac, the late emperor of Cyprus, to his liberty, 180 ENGLAND. but not to his dominions ; and to deliver Isaac's captive daughter to her uncle, the duke of Austria. Henry, in return, pro- mised to set the king at liberty on receipt of the money ; to aid him against all his enemies ; and to invest him with the feu- dal sovereignty of Provence. Richard, with a view to bind the emperor more firmly to his interest, adopted the strange expedient advised by his mother, which was, by the delivery of the cap from his head to resigir the crown into the hand of the emperor, who restored it to him again to be held as a lief of the empire with the obligation of a yearly payment of five thousand pounds. But John and the French king offered a more tempting bait to keep Richard in captivity. This, however, the German princes and barons, who were security for Richard's freedom, would not agree to. The money was raised by a tax upon the people ; and such was the poverty of the nation, or the peculation of the agents employed, that a second, and even a third collection was obliged to be levied on the impoverished and murmuring inhabitants. Richard ultimately perished in a quar- rel with the viscount of Limoges, in Normandy, with -whom the king was dis- satisfied, because the baron refused to give to him the whole of a treasure found on his estate of Vidomar. As Richard was going round the walls with one of his officers, on the 26th of March, 1199, he was wounded in the shoulder by an archer named Gourdon. An imskilful surgeon drew out the head of the arrow, but mortification ensued. On learning his danger, Richard ordered the man to be brought into his presence, and asked him, " VVhat injury did I ever do to thee, that thou shouldst kill me ?" The soldier replied, "My father and two brothers fell by your sword ; and you intended to have hanged me. You may now satiate your revenge. I should cheerfully suffer all the torments that can be inflicted, were I but sure of having delivered the world of a tyrant, who has drenched it with blood and carnage." This spirited answer struck Richard with remorse, and he ordered Gourdon to be set at liberty, with one hundied shillings to take him home. As soon as Richard's death was known, John was crowned as his successor to the throne of England. According to the right of hereditary succession, the crown should have descended to Arthur, duke of Britany, who was the son of John's brother, GeofTry. One of the first acts of John's sove- reignty was to obtain a divorce, (on the usual plea of consanguinity,) from his wife, Hadwisa, whom he had married twelve years before, and to form another matrimonial connection. With this intent he sent ambassadors to Lisbon, to de- mand the princess of Portugal ; but be- fore he could receive an answer, having accidentally seen Isabella, daughter to Aymor, count of Angouleme, he was captivated with her beauty. She had been publicly promised and privately espoused to Hugh, count of La Marche ; but the glitter of a crown seduced the faith of both father and daughter; and John conducted Isabella as liis bride to England. The count La Marche appeal- ed to the justice of Philip of France ; and the latter, glad of an excuse to hmn- ble his powerful rival, entered the field against John. The consequence of this war was, that John lost the best portion of his possessions in France. During that contest, however, he took his nephew, Arthur, who had previously been allowed to reside with the French king, prisoner, and confined him in a dungeon of the castle of Rouen, from which place he suddenly disappeared a few weeks after. The silence observed by his imcle re- specting the circumstance was considered a proof that the young prince was mur- dered ; report attributed the manner of his death to the dagger of John, and he whispers of suspicion were soon convert- ed into a general belief of the king's guilt. The Bretons swore to be revenged on the murderer of Arthur, and pro- ceeded to settle the succession to the dukedom, which was claimed for Alice, daughter of Constantia, and Guy de Thouars, Avhom she had married after the death of her first husband, GeofTry. Phi- lip summoned John to prove his innocence before the French peers ; John refusing, he soon after, with the Bretons, entered his dominions, and the king returned to ENGLAND. 181 England, leaving the direction of a pow- erful army to his general, the earl of Pembroke. Such, however, was the success of Philip, that Normandy was soon re-annexed to the French crown, after a separation of 292 years. John next engaged in a contest with the Roman pontiff. It originated in an exclusive right, claimed by the monks of Christ church, and founded on ancient custom, to elect their prelates ; and this they exercised on the demise of arch- bishop Hubert, when the junior part of the monks assembled clandestinely in the night, and placed Reginald, their sub- prior, on the archiepiscopal throne, with- out, as was usual on all former occasions, applying for the royal license. Soon after John became involved in a contest with the Pope, in which he was obliged to submit to great humiliations, and in 1215, he was compelled by his subjects to give them the " Magna Char- ta," — the charter of their liberties. This charter was afterwards extended and confirmed by several kings. John, how- ever, had no intentions of adhering to its provisions ; but as soon as he could col- lect a sufficient force, he renewed the war against his subjects, and died in the midst of civil broils in 1216. John was succeeded by his son, Henry HI, who had only just completed his tenth year. He had a long, but through his own weakness, an vmquiet reign. Under him, in 1265, was established the lower house of parliament, or house of commons. He died in 1272, and was succeeded by his son, Edward I, who was Avise and brave, and one of the most distinguished in the line of English kings. At the time of his father's death he was in Palestine, and nearly two years elapsed before he reached England. He was crowned in Westminster Abbey, August 19, 1273. Soon after this event, Llewellyn, prince of Wales, having refused to swear fealty as a vassal to the throne of England, Edward advanced with his fleet across the Dee, and cut off the communication between Snowden and the sea. The Welsh suffered so much from famine, that lilewellyn was compelled to surrender on the conditions prescribed by the con- queror, but which Edward afterwards rendered easy, by the terms of friendship which he extended to the chieftain, and to his brother David. Shortly after this event, Llewellyn married Eleanor de Montfort, daughter of the late earl of Leicester, and who was then the king's prisoner. To David he was a liberal protector ; yet a very short period sufficed to convince Edward that his bounty had been bestowed on a faithless and un- worthy object. The Welsh had imbi- bed, from their ancestry, an antipa- thy towards the English. They beheld with grief the gradual extinction of their national usages, the distribution of the cantreds into hundreds and shires, and the introduction of English laws and English judicatures. David, with all his obligations to Edward, felt dissatisfied ; even Llewellyn had, or pretended to have, causes of complaint, and lent a willing ear to the inflammatory suggestions of his brother, who headed the rebellious party. The Welsh poured from their moun- tains into the marshes, and laid the coun- try waste with fire and sword. But the struggle was of short duration, as the Welsh leader was killed by an English knight, and his head sent to London. The independence of Wales expired with Llewellyn ; but the better to secure the permanency of his conquest, Edward spent the following year in Wales, dur- ing which period his son Edward was born at Caernarvon. From the final pacification of Wales to the commence- ment of the troubles in Scotland, was an interim of four years ; and much of that period was spent by the monarch in settling disputes between the kings of France, Aragon, and Sicily ; all of whom were consigned within a few months to the tranquillity of the grave. The French regency invited Edward to assume the office of mediator ; but while he was en- gaged in the concerns of foreign states, the people of England complained that he neglected the interests of his own kingdom. The refusal of a supply by the parlia- ment admonished liim to return ; and he soon found in the unfortunate situation of Scotland, ample field for the exercise 182 ENGLAND. of his policy and liis ambition. Ed- ward's sister, Margaret, had married Alexander, king of Scotland, by whom she had two sons, who both died, and one daughter, married to Eric, King of Nor- way, the latter had also a daughter Mar- garet ; and now, by the death of the infant princess, the posterity of the three last Scottish kings had become extinct ; and the crown of Scotland was claimed by thirteen competitors. Some of the leading Scottish barons invited Edward to take the place of arbi- trator, and his ambition led him to main- tain his claim to the appointment, as a right inherent in his own crown, because, he said, being the superior lord, the kings of Scotland reigned but as his vassals. In consequence of this acceptance, the king summoned the barons, prelates, and commons of Scotland to meet him at Norham, on the borders of the two king- doms ; in the church of which place, Brabancon, the English justiciary, an- nounced Edward's arrival for the purpose of settling the right of succession to the crown. The true heir was to be found in the descendants of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother to king William, and from the eldest daughter of whom had sprung John Baliol, lord of Galloway. 'I'o him the crown was adjudged, for which he did fealty to king Edward, as sovereign lord of the realm of Scotland. Baliol soon felt the consequence of this disgraceful vassalage, as every suiter who was dissatisfied with the king's decision, appealed to Edward as his superior lord ; and in the first year of his reign, he was served with four citations to answer in the court of England : in every other respect the conduct of Edward towards Baliol Avas generous and honorable. But Baliol was soon involved in an endless quarrel with a powerful adversary, Mac- duft", the son of Malcolm, earl of Fife, which, with the frequency of appeals, that he refused to answer, alTorded a pretence for dissatisfaction ; a succession of difficulties divided the general inter- ests of the Scottish people, and a war was the result, which deprived Baliol of the crown. Baliol was deposed by the English king, and removed to the Tower of Lon- don, which was assigned him as a resi- dence by Edward. After three years the royal captive was allowed to retire into Normandy, Boniface, the pontiff, having become responsible for his future good conduct, which we have cause to think was never infringed upon, as no further mention is made of Baliol until his death, in 1 305. After that event, Edward made a tour through Scotland, and found every sword sheathed, and every knee ready to bend to him as their lord ; but the mon- arch had learned that oaths, extorted from a conquered people, impose but a feeble restraint on the spirit of independence. No sooner had the king settled the gov- ernment of Scotland, than William Wal- lace rekindled the flame of Scottish pa- triotism. He was soon joined by a large body of troops, headed by sir William Douglas ; they were at first successful, but were at length defeated at the battle of Falkirk. Wallace escaped into the woods, but after the fortress of Stirling had surrendered to Edward, he was taken and brought to London, where he was tried and basely executed as a traitor. Towards the close of the king's reign, Comyn, one of the claimants to the Scot- tish throne, was slain by the hand of his rival, Bruce. Edward immediately sent orders to his lieutenant, Aymar de Val- ence, to chastise the presumption of Bruce ; and all the young nobility of Eng- land were summoned to receive, in com- pany with prince Edward, the honor of knighthood, previous to accompanying that prince on an expedition to Scotland. The king knighted his son within the pal- ace ; and the prince conferred a similar honor in the abbey church on his two hun- dred and seventy champions. The king vowed before God that he would avenge the death of Comyn, and besought the peo- ple, in the event of his death, during the expedition, to keep his body unburied, till they had enabled his son to fulfil his vow. His son then swore he would not sleep two nights in the same place, until he had entered Scotland to execute his father's commands. His example was applauded and foUow^ed. The next morning, the prince, with his knights' companions, departed for the borders. The king followed by easy journeys, but ENGLAND. 183 was obliged from weakness to remain in the neighborhood of Carlisle, where his military tenants joined him. In the mean time Bruce had assmiied the title of king, and was crowned at Scone without opposition. But after a series of disasters, he was obliged to take shelter in Ireland. At the end of winter the exiles issued from their retreat. Bruce, who soon collected a large num- ber of followers, in one instance defeated the English army, which proved such a source of vexation to Edward that he de- termined to advance into Scotland ; but the exertion of mounting his horse threw him back into his former state of weak- ness, and having proceeded only six miles in four days, he expired at Burgh, on the Sands, on the 7th of July, 1307, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirly-tifth of his reign. This king's reign is mainly distin- guished by the subjugation of Wales, which at his death was firmly united to the English crown. Edward was twice married, and had seventeen children. Edward II, surnamed of Caernarvon, from the place of his birth, was the first royal prince who bore the title of Prince of Wales. Besides the many advantages bequeathed him by his noble father, he was much beloved by the English peo- ple, who hoped for great prosperity un- der his government. But they entertain- ed a better opinion of the young king than he deserved ; as an unfortunate at- tachment to Piers Gaveston was produc- tive of the most fatal results. Whatever portion he inherited of the disposition of his father was obliterated by the trifling manners and example of his companion, with whom he joined in the pursuit of dissipation and pleasure. His royal pa- rent having, by frequent admonition, and occasional punishment, vainly tried to in- stil into his mind the love of worthy ob- jects, had banished Gaveston from the kingdom ; and when he did so, required from him a solemn promise that he would never return without the royal consent. He however was recalled, but he was the source of many troubles till he was beheaded. Being at peace with his own subjects, Edward thought this a favorable time to go to Scotland ; for, while he had been contending for a favorite, he had contrived to lose a crown. Bruce had made slow, but constant progress in obtaining the in- dependence of his country, and the cele- brated battle of Bannockburn, ended in the defeat of the English army. Soon after this victory, Bruce endeav- ored to enter into a treaty with the Eng- lish monarch, but as Edward denied to him the title of king, the negotiation was soon at an end, and Bruce turned his arms towards Ireland, which had long presented a state of dissension and war- fare. Accordingly, Edward Bruce, broth- er to the king of Scotland, landed at Car- rickfergus with an army of six -thousand men, all bent upon emancipating the na- tives from the yoke of their English op- pressors ; and his first victories gave him such powerful influence with the inhabi- tants, that they unanimously crowned him as their king. His inactivity, how- ever, caused the destruction of the differ- ent septs who had joined him ; and, al- though assisted by the presence of his brother Robert, king ofi Scotland, such numbers of the army perished through want, fatigue, and the inclemency of tlxe weather, that Robert Bruce soon became dissatisfied with his Irish expedition, and hastened back to his native dominions. During the continuance of the war in Ireland, the English had sufiered the miseries of pestilence and famine. A deficiency in the harvest of 1314 created general alarm ; so that it became difficult to obtain a supply of bread even for the royal table ; and this calamity increased to such an alarming height, that the poor were reduced to feed on roots, horses, dogs, and the most loathsome animals. The want of nourishment, and the insa- lubrity of the food, produced dysenteries and other epidemic disorders among the people ; and the king, at the suggestion of the citizens of London, suspended the breweries, as a measure, " without which, not only the indigent, but the middle classes must inevitably have perished through want of food." During this pe- riod of unexampled distress, the Scotch, taking advantage of the calamitous sea- son, poured down in great numbers upon the English borders. The dissensions 184 ENGLAND. between the king and the barons frus- trated the means of resistance, which might otherwise have been offered, and the northern counties were ravaged with impunity; until, at length, a truce for two years was concluded through the inter- ference of pope John. The hostilities between England and Scotland were now concluded by a truce of thirteen years, and queen Isabella, un- der the pretence of effecting a reconcilia- tion between her royal consort and her brother, Charles le Bel, took a journey to France, and contrived to get her son Ed- ward there also, a boy of twelve years of age. Whilst there, the queen was joined by Mortimer, with whom she lived on terms of great intimacy. Charles had succeeded his brother Philip to the throne of France, and had latterly formed several frivolous pretexts to quarrel with the king of Eng- land. It had been artfully suggested to the papal envoys, employed by the pon- tiff to restore peace between the two kings, that Charles might be induced to grant to the solicitations of a sister what he would withhold from an indifferent negotiator. Edward fell into the snare, and Isabella proceeded with a splendid retinue to France. Months passed away, and neither mother nor son appeared in- clined to revisit England. Isabella, at length, appeared at the head of the insurgents at Orewell, in Suf- folk. In a council purposely summoned on the occasion, several instances were detailed of the king's brutal conduct to- wards his queen; and it was declared she could not return to her consort with- out being in evident danger of her life. Under this and similar pretexts, the queen, aided by Mortimer, and the remnant of the Lancastrian faction, worked upon the credulity of the people, the great bulk of whom, now struggling with the effects of disease and famine, were in a fit state for revolution. When Isabella approached the capital, Edward found it requisite for his safety to seek concealment, and re- tired with a small retinue to the marches of Wales, where lay the estates of Hugh Spencer. At Bristol, it was ascertained that the king had taken shipping for Lun- dy, a small isle in the mouth of the Bris- tol Channel, which had been previously fortified and stored with provisions. A proclamation was immediately made, sum- moning him to return and resume the government. The barons and prelates assumed the power of parliament, and re- solved, that by the king's absence the realm had been left without a ruler, and they declared the young prince guardian of the kingdom, in the name, and by the right, of his father. The king having landed at Swansea, M^as conducted to the strong fortress of Kenilworth, where he was treated as a prisoner. A deputation came, who used promises and threats to induce him tore- sign the crown, which it appears he ac- ceded to, and his son Edward, who was in his fourteenth year, was declared king. The custody of his person was given to sir John de Maltravers, who, to conceal the place of his residence, successively transferred the royal prisoner from Ken- ilworth to Corfe, Bristol, and Berkeley castles ; and, by severity, endeavored to deprive him of his reason, or to shorten his life. From the period of his son's coronation, the deposed monarch suffered every indignity which the malice of his keepers could invent. During the illness of lord Berkeley, who had been joined with sir John Maltravers in the guardian- ship of the unfortunate king, he was mur- dered at Corfe castle, by the introduction of a red-hot iron into his bowels, and the corpse was privately buried in the abbey church of St. Peter, at Gloucester. The part acted by Isabella in this tra- gedy is, however, much more atrocious than that of any other queen in the annals of our country. It has been proved that she left England with the most friendly professions, and that she was actually cognizant of the murder of her husband, which she might have prevented by the slightest effort with her party. Edward, the son of the preceding mon- arch, commenced his reign in 1327. At first the whole power of the government was. usurped by Isabella. The Scots now taking advantage of the unsettled state of the political horizon in this part of the island, crossed the Tees, and be- gan to ravage Durham. Bruce now' col- lected an army of 20,000 men, which principally consisted of cavalry, and by ENGLAND. 185 the rapidity of his movements, eluded the vigilance of the English forces, which were headed by the youthful Edward, who, by proclamation, promised the honor of knighthood and an annuity of 1 00/, for life to the first who should bring him in- telligence of the Scots. Thomas de Roke- by gave the required information ; but the English were completely foiled in this campaign. In the ensuing spring, peace was concluded between the two nations. Edward resigned, by a solemn treaty, every claim of superiority over Scotland, and consented that the dominions of Bruce, his friend and ally, should form a kingdom distinct from that of England, without subjection, right of service, claim, or demand whatsoever. It was also agreed that Jane, the sister of the English king, should marry David, the eldest son of Bruce ; and that the sum of 30,000 marks should be paid to Edward, as a compen- sation for the damages inflicted by the Scottish army in the last invasion ; which sum, on the marriage of her daughter at Berwick, Isabella divided between her- self and Mortimer. The arrogance of this man now ex- ceeded all bounds. He assumed the re- gal authority in coimcil, and filled the court with Ms dependents, maintaining a guard of 180 knights for his own secu- rity. Such conduct excited the jealousy of the gi-eat barons ; his scandalous fa- miliarity with Isabella, the murder of the late king, and the public disapprobation of the recent peace with Scotland, con- curred to embolden the enemies of Mor- timer, and associations were formed to remove him from the court. As the dis- content of the nation increased, many strange reports were circulated and be- lieved. Among others it was asserted, that the late king was still living in Covfe castle, under the custody of sir John Deverel. The earl of Kent was sur- rounded by the agents of Mortimer, who, under the guise of friendship, drew him into a snare which cost him his life. He, with the archbishop of York and bishop of London, was arrested on the charge of having conspired to depose the young king, and replace his father on the throne. At eighteen years of age, Edward had a son by his wife Philippa, and the king, 24 feeling the degraded situation in which he was placed by his mother, consulted with lord Montacute, and, acting under the advice of that nobleman, he resolved to assume the regal authority ; and a plan was arranged to arrest Mortimer during the session of the parliament at Nottingham. For this purpose, Monta- cute gained the confidence of sir William Eland, governor of the castle, in which the royal party resided during the session, as every precaution was taken for Morti- mer's security. Through a subterraneous passage, leading from the west side of the rock to the castle, the king's friends were introduced ; and having seized Mortimer, he was brought before the parliament to answer to the following charges : — That he had fomented the dissensions between the late king and his queen ; — that he had illegally assumed that power which, by law, was vested in the king's council alone ; — that of his own authority he had removed the late king from Kenilworth to Berkeley, wliere he caused him to be put to death ; — that by his agents he had caused the earl of Kent to believe his brother was alive, and then procured the earl's death on pretence of treason ; — and that he had embezzled the royal treasures, &c. The peers retired with the bill of impeachment, and after some delibera- tion, declared all the charges to be noto- riously true ; they therefore condemned Mortimer "to be drawn and hanged as a traitor and enemy of the king and kingdom." The attention of Edward was now drawn to the affairs of the Scottish bor- der, and he induced the English parlia- ment to give its approbation to a renewal of the war. The English were victorious at the battle of Halidon Hill, when sir Archibald Douglas, the regent of Scot- land, with six earls, and many barons, fell on the field of battle ; and Baliol was seated on the throne of Scotland. In a short period, however, the cause of inde- pendence again triumphed ; though, as long as Baliol was supported by the king of England, he rose victorious from every disaster ; but from the moment that Ed- ward determined to claim the crown of France, the war with Scotland was suf- fered to languish, and fortress after for- 186 ENGLAND. Naval battle of tress surrendered to David, the son of Robert Bruce. It had been the policy of the French crown to support the Scot- tish kings against the power of England. Edward beheld this conduct with dis- pleasure, and his enmity was strengthen- ed by the advice of Robert of Artois. Having obtained the aid of several conti- nental princes and sovereigns, the Eng- lish monarch sailed with a numerous fleet from Orwell to Antwerp. To de- fray the expenses of this expedition, Ed- ward had recourse to subsidies, tallages, and forced loans ; he pledged his jewels and his crown, and seized for his present use, the tin and wool of the year. The allies who had promised their assistance to Edward were unwilling to come into the field ; and for twelve months he did nothing more than ravage the country in his march, and burn many villages, and exercise all the annoyances to the gov- ernment, and cruelty to the inhabitants, which the practice of war had rendered usual on similar occasions. In vain did pope Benedict XII, represent to Edward that his ambition and the interested views of his allies, were leading him into diffi- culties and disgrace. Although the king had disbanded his armv, and had involved Sluys in 1340. himself in debt to the amount of 300,0007, he persisted in his purpose, and set forth his claim to the French crown in two proclamations, issued at Ghent, in which he assumed the title of king of France, and quartered in his arms the French lilies with the English lions. Leaving his queen at Ghent, as a hos- tage for his speedy return, Edward re- visited England, and obtained from his parliament an imprecedented supply. This time Edward sailed with a gallant fleet from Orwell, and obtained so com- plete a victory over Philip, who had as- sembled, with the aid of the Genoese and Normans, a powerful fleet in the har- bor of Sluys, that the French ministers were fearful of informing their monarch of the disaster. His buffoon first hinted it to him by calling the English cowards ; and when the king asked the reason, he replied, that they had not the courage to leap into the sea like the French and Normans. After a fruitless attempt to gain the earldom of Flanders for his son, Edward collected a numerous force, consisting solely of his own subjects, and sailed to the coast of Normandy ; which province was so defenceless, that, while the fleet ENGLAND. 187 burnt the vessels in the different harbors, the army pillaged the country, set fire to the villages, and collected prisoners. Ed- ward's object was to cross the Seine, and lay siege to the town of Calais. This was rendered so difficult on account of the bridges having been purposely des- troyed, that a crossing could only be ef- fected by stratagem, which he at length accomplished over the Seine and the Somme ; and having got possession of Crotoi, he issued his orders to make the necessary preparations in the event of a battle, as the French army was then at Abbeville. The spot on which Edward determined to receive the enemy, was an eminence which rose on a gentle ascent a little behind the village of Crecy. On the morning of the 26th of August, 1346, Edward drew up his army in three lines on a gentle slope, with a wood be- hind, where he placed baggage and horses. His cavaliers were to fight on foot ; as, from the smallness of the Eng- lish numbers, "one eighth of the French," says Froisart, but at most one third, — it was requisite they should keep together and fight on the defensive. Edward, after riding through the ranks and exhort- ing his soldiers, cheerfully commanded them to sit down, to take ample refresh- ment, and in repose await the enemy. Philip in the mean time was leading forth his numerous host from Abbe- ville : it was an army lately gathered, obeying many chiefs, some Genoese, some Germans ; undisciplined, weak, and disorderly, from its very numbers. From Abbeville to Crecy was a march of three or four leagues. The hour was late, and the French were tired ere they approached the English line. Philip was advised to halt and await the follow- ing day : he gave orders for so doing ; but such was the rivalry of the chiefs, that each would have his banner next the enemy, and in the disorder they approach- ed too near the English to retreat or de- fer the action. The choleric Philip, too, when he saw the English array, and its small extent, became anxious to annihi- late his enemies. He ordered the Geno- ese cross-bowmen to begin the action ; they were reluctant, and pleaded fatigue. *' Kill the lazy ribalds !" said the count d'Alen44 FRANCE of the kingdom, that they consented to maintain an army of 30,000 men during the war. To supply the other exigen- cies of government, they revived the du- ty on salt, and added a variety of other imposts ; but at the same time appoint- ed a committee of their own number to take care that the money was solely ap- propriated to the public service. The pleasure which John derived from these grants, and the suppression of some disturbances which happened about this time, was soon destroyed by the news that the prince of Wales had marched with an army of 12,000 men from Bor- deaux ; and, after ravaging Agenois, Q uercy, and the Limousin, had entered the province of Berry. The young Avar- rior had penetrated into the heart of France with this trifling body of forces, in hopes of joining the duke of Lancaster in Guienne. But he found that his scheme was impracticable ; the country before him Avas too well guarded to permit his advancing further ; and all the bridges behind were broken down, which eflec- tually barred a retreat. In this embar- rassing situation, his perplexity was in- creased, by being informed that the king of France was actually marching at the head of 60,000 men to intercept him. He at first thought of retreating ; but finding it impossible, he determined calmly to await the approach of the enemy ; and, notwithstanding the disparity of forces, to hazard a battle. It was at a place called Maupertius, near Poictiers, that both armies came in sight of each other. The French king might with ease have cut off all supplies from the English ; but such was the im- patient valor of the French nobility, and such their certainty of success, that it might have been fatal to attempt repress- ing their ardor to engage. In the mean time, while both armies were drawn out, and expecting the signal to begin, they were stopped l)y the appearance of the cardinal of Perigord, who attempted to be a mediator between them. However, John, who made himself sure of victory, would listen to no other terms than the restitution of Calais, with which the Black Prince refusing to comply, the on- set was deferred till the next morning, for wliich both sides waited in anxious suspense. I During this interval, the young prince ' strengthened his post by new entrench- I ments ; and placed 300 men in ambush, with as many archers, who were com- j manded to attack the enemy in flank du- ring the heat of the engagement. Hav- j ing taken these precautions, he ranged I his army in three divisions ; the van was commanded by the earl of Warwick, the rear by the earls of Salisbury and Suffolk, and the main body by himself. In like manner, the king of P'rance arranged his forces in three divisions; the first com- manded by the duke of Orleans ; the se- cond by the dauphin, attended by his younger brothers ; while he himself led up the main body, seconded by his youngest and favorite son, then about fourteen years of age. As the English were to be attack- ed only by marching up a long narrow avenue, the French suflered greatly from their archers, who were posted on each side, behind the hedges. Nor were they in a better situation upon emerging from this diflicult pass, as they were met by the Black Prince himself at the head of a chosen body of troops, who made a fu- rious onset upon their forces, already in great disorder. A dreadful overthrow ensued ; those who were as yet in the lane recoiled upon their own forces ; while the English troops who had been placed in ambush took that opportunity to increase the confusion, and confirm the victory. The dauphin and the duke of Orleans were among the first that fled. The king of France himself made the utmost efforts to retrieve by his valor what his rashness had forfeited ; but his single courage was unable to stop that consternation which had now become general through his army ; and his cav- alry flying, he found himself exposed to the enemy's fury. At length, spent with I fatigue, and despairing of success, he yielded himself a prisoner. This dreadful defeat, which happened in the year 1356, almost ruined the gov- ernment then established in France ; and the miseries which ensued from this cause were greatly augmented by intes- tine commotions. The dauphin, who had now assumed the government, was alto- FRANCE. 245 gether unable to control a turbulent and seditious people at such a crisis. On the expiration of the truce in 1359, Edward again set sail for France, and anchored before Calais, with a fleet of 1,100 sail, assumed the title of king of France, and augmented his array to 100,000 men. The dauphin, finding him- self unable to withstand so great a power, was obliged to act on the defensive ; choosing the city of Paris for his station, and allowing the English to ravage all the open country. At last, after a long and destructive march, Edward arrived at the gates of Paris ; but the prudence of the dauphin and citizens of that metropolis had ren- dered it impregnable to the attacks of fam- ine as well as the assavdts of an army. The war continued in this state till 1360, when Edward proposed bringing hostili- ties to a conclusion ; for the English king saw that, notwithstanding all the victories he had gained, the French showed not the least disposition to favor his claim of succession ; the king of Na- varre was a dangerous rival, and the caution of the dauphin in avoiding an en- gagement deprived him of the advantages he might expect from his valor and mili- tary skill. Thus a conference was opened at Bretigny in the Chartraine ; and peace was at last concluded on the following conditions : That king John should pay for his ransom, at difTerent periods, three milUons of crowns of gold ; Edward should for ever renounce all claim to the kingdom of France ; and should remain possessed of the territories of Poictou, Xaintonge, I'Agenois, Peri- gord, the Limousin, Quercy, Rouvergne, I'Angoumois, and other districts in that quarter, together with Calais, Guisnes, Montreuil, and the county of Ponthieu on the other side of France. Some other stipulations were made in favor of the al- lies of England, as a security for the ex- ecution of these conditions. Charles, surnamed the Wise, succeeded his father on the throne of France ; and this monarch, merely by the force of a finely conducted policy, and even though suffering some defeats, restored his coun- try once more to tranquillity and power. The English, by their frequent levies, had been quite exhausted, and were una- ble to continue an army in the field. Charles, on the other hand, cautiously forbore coming to any decisive engage- ment ; but was contented to let his ene- mies waste their strength in attempts to plunder a fortified country. When they were retired, he then was sure to sally forth and possess himself of such places as they were not strong enough to defend. He first fell upon Ponthieu ; the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates to him ; those of St. Valois, Rue, and Crotoy, imitated the example, and ihe whole country was, in a little time, reduced to ! total submission. The southern prov- ' inces were, in the same manner, invaded by his generals with equal success ; while the Black Prince, destitute of sup- plies from England, and wasted by dis- ease, was obliged to return to his native country, leaving his affairs in the south of France in a state of ruin. In this exigence, the resentment of the king of England was excited to the ut- most pitch ; and he seemed resolved to take signal vengeance on his enemies of the continent. But the fortunate occa- sion was now elapsed, and all his suc- ceeding designs were marked with ill success. The earl of Pembroke and his whole army were intercepted at sea, and taken prisoners by Henry, king of Castile. He established once more the house of Valois on the throne of France, but did not long live to enjoy his good fortune. He died in the year 1380, at the age of 44, of the effects of poison formerly given him by the king of Na- varre. The courtly palace of Charles the Wise was of the most splendid descrip- tion. It has been thus vividly pourtrayed by a late historian : — " Represent to yourself a spacious hall, the walls cov- ered with the finest silken tapestries ; imagine, at certain distances, that there are sideboards for wine, laden with de- canters of gold and silver ; also side- boards for plate, adorned in profusion with rich jewelry, purchased with the fines paid by suiters. Suppose also, un- der a high canopy of velvet, several ta- bles of different sizes, to which you as- cend by steps covered with the richest 246 FRANCE. velvets ; in the midst of these, and under a festoon of cloth of gold, place a table for the king. Is the picture complete in your mind ? Well, then, behold the mon- arch approach in the centre of his grand train ; he is clothed in garments shining with gold and jewels ; he sits, with the crown on his head, yet placing himself be- low the archbishops and the bishops, al- though above all the other persons assem- bled. By whom think you is he served ? By the great nobles of the realm ? No. By digiutaries of the church 1 No ; those who attend the king are princes — even his brothers. Observe the im- mense number of officers, either of the hall or kitchen, clad in silk vestments, the colors of their respective functions, in the midst of the serjeants-at-arms, or of guards holding maces and lances in their hands, or surrounded by a crowd of servants, who carry torches to illumin- ate the feast ; all these persons come, go, return, pass, and repass each other without the slightest disorder or confu- sion. Meanwhile, the minstrels, accord- ing to custom, place trumpets to their lips, and by their flourishes amuse both the guests and spectators. " At the last course of the feast, the hypocras and wine are served ; and the king, who had washed before the repast, washes afterwards ; grace appropriated to royalty is then said, and wine and spices are handed round. Then the lung withdraws, preceded by the ushers and esquires of the body, and followed by the court. Meanwhile the queen takes her repast, on solemn occasions, in a different apartment to that occupied by the king ; sits in the midst of the prin- cesses and ladies, whilst a sedate male personage, at the bottom of the table, talks to her seriously upon the actions and manners of celebrated characters in former times." Charles V was succeeded by the dau- phin, who was crowned as Charles VI. This monarch was at times afflicted with insanity, and his relatives the dukes of Bur- gundy, 13ourbon and others, were intrust- ed with the government. Their conflict- ing interests, however, brought trouble and confusion into their public aflairs. Henry V, of England, taking advantage of this state of things, assembled a nu- merous fleet and army at Southampton ; and having induced all the military men of the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of conquest, he put to sea, and landed at Harfleur, at the head of an ar- my of 6,000 men-at-arms, and 24,000 foot, mostly archers. His first operations were upon Har- fleur ; which being closely pressed, prom- ised on a certain day to surrender, unless relieved before that time. The day ar- riving, and the garrison, unmindful of their engagement, still resolving to de- fend the place, Henry ordered an assault to be made, took the town by storm, and put all the garrison to the sword. From thence the victor advanced farther into the country. But although the French made but a feeble resistance, yet the climate seemed to fight against the in- vading army, as a contagious dysentery carried ofi" three-fourths of Henry's troops. In this situation, he had recourse to a singular expedient, to inspire his troops with confidence in their general. He challenged the dauphin, who commanded in the French army, to single combat, of- fering to stake his pretensions on the event. This challenge as might natural- ly be expected, was rejected ; and the French, though disagreeing internally, at last seemed to unite at the appearance of common danger. An army of 14,000 men-at-arms, and 40,000 foot, was by this time assembled under the command of count Albert, and was so placed as to intercept Henry's weakened forces on their return. The English monarch, when it was too late, repented of his in- road into a country where disease and a powerful army every where threatened destruction ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In this retreat, which was at once both painful and dan- gerous, Henry took every means to in- spire his troops with patience and per- severance ; and showed them in his own person the brightest example of deter- mined courage. He was continually harassed on his march by flying parties of the enemy ; and whenever he attempt- ed to pass the river Somme, across which his march lay, he saw troops on the oth- er side ready to oppose his passage FRANCE. 247 However, he was so fortunate as to seize by surprise a passage near St. Quintin, which had not been sufficiently guarded ; and there he safely carried over his army. But the enemy was still resolved to in- tercept his retreat ; and after he had pass- ed the small river of Terlrois at Blangi, he was surprised to observe from the heights the whole French army drawn up in the plains of Agincourt ; and so posted, that it was impossible for him to proceed on his march, without coming to an engagement. A battle accordingly took place, in which the English obtain- ed a victory, the most remarkable per- haps recorded in history. {See England.) This victory was, however, attended with no immediate eifects. Henry still continued to retreat after the battle, and carried his prisoners to Calais, and from thence to England. In 1417, he once more landed an army of 25,000 men in Normandy, and prepared to strike a decisive blow for the crown of France, to which the English monarchs had so long made pretensions. At this period the whole of France appeared as one vast theatre of crimes — murders, injus- tice, and devastation. The duke of Or- leans was assassinated by the duke of Burgundy ; and the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell by the treachery of the dauphin. Henry having defeated the dauphin, fixed his residence at Paris ; and while Charles had a small court, he was at- tended with a very magnificent one On Whitsunda)'', 1421, the two kings and; their two queens, with crowns on their | heads, dined together in public ; Charles receiving apparent homage, but Henry commanding with absolute authority. The death of Charles VI followed, and Charles VII succeeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing could be more deplorable than the situation of that monarch on assuming his title to the j crown. The English were masters of almost all France ; and Henry VI, though yet but an infant, was solemnly invested with regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bedford was at the head of a numerous army, in the heart of the kingdom, ready to oppose every insurrec- tion ; while the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a firm confederacy with him, still remained steadfast, and second- ed his claims. Yet, notwithstanding these favorable appearances, Charles found means to break the leagues formed against him, and to bring back his subjects to their natural interests and their duty. His first attempts were, however, to- tally destitute of success. His authority was disputed even by his own servants ; advantage after advantage was gained against him ; and a battle fought near Verneuil, in which he was totally defeat- ed by the duke of Bedford, seemed to render his affairs altogether desperate. But from the want of new supplies, Bed- ford was obliged to retire into England ; and in the meantime, his vigilant enemy began to recover from his late consterna- tion. Dunois, one of his generals, at the head of 1,000 men, compelled the earl of Warwick to raise the siege of Mon- targis ; and this advantage, slight as it was, taught the French that the Eng- lish were not invincible. A new circumstance, apparently of the most trivial kind, tended to entirely change the fortune of the campaigTi, and place the French government in its prop- er position with reference to the Euro- pean powers. In the village of Domre- mi, near Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Lorrain, there resided a countiy girl, about twenty-seven years of age, called Joan de Arc. This girl had been a ser- vant at a small inn ; and in that humble station had submitted to those hardy em- ployments wliich fit the body for the fa- tigues of war. She was of an irre- proachable life, and contentedly fulfilled the duties of her situation, and was re- markable only for her modesty and love of religion. But the miseries of her country seemed to have been one of the greatest objects of her compassion and regard. Her mind, excited by these objects, began to feel a new impulse, which she was will- ing to mistake for the inspirations of heaven. Convinced of the reality of her own admonitions, she had recourse to Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed him of her destination by heaven to free her native country from its invaders. Baudricourt treated her at first 248 FRANCE. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. with neglect ; but her iTiiportunities at length prevailed, and willing to make a trial of her pretensions, he gave her some attendants, who conducted her to the court which at this time resided at Chinon. The French court were probably sen- sible of the weakness of her pretensions ; but they were willing to make use of any artifice to support their declining fortunes. It was, therefore, given out that Joan was actually inspired ; that she had been able to discover the king among a num- ber of his courtiers, although he had laid aside all the distinctions of his authority ; that she had told him some extraordi- nary secrets, which were only known to himself; and that she had demanded, and minutely described, a sword in the chnrch of St. Catherine de Fierbois, which she had never seen. The pop- ulace being thus prepared for her appear- ance, she was armed cap-a-pie, and shown in that dress to the people. She was then brought before the doctors of the university ; and they, tinctured with the credulity of the times, or Avilling to second the imposture, declared that she had actually received her commission from above. When the preparations for her mission were completely blazoned, the next ob- ject was to send her against the enemy. The English were at that time besieging the city of Orleans, the last resource of Charles, and every thing promised them a speedy surrender. Joan undertook to raise the siege ; and, to render herself still more remarkable, girded herself with the miraculous sword, of which she be- fore had such extraordinary notices. Thus equipped, she ordered all the soldiers to confess themselves before they set out ; she displayed in her hand a conse- crated banner, and assured the troops of certain success. Such confidence on her side soon raised the spirits of the French army, and even the English, who pretended to despise her efforts, felt them- selves secretly influenced Avith the ter- rors of her mission. A supply of provi- sions was to be conveyed into the town ; , Joan, at the head of some French troops, I covered the approach, and entered Or- leans at the head of the convoy which she had safely protected. While she Avas leading her troops along, a dead si- i lence and astonisbment reigned among tbe English ; and they regarded with re- I ligious awe that temerity which they ' thought nothing but supernatural assist- FRANCE. 249 ance could inspire. But tliey were soon roused from their state of amazement by a sally from the town ; Joan led on the be- sieged, bearing the sacred standard in her hand, encouraging them with her words and actions, bringing them to the trenches, and overpowering the besiegers in their own redoubts. In the attack of one of the forts, she was wounded in the neck with an arrow ; but instantly pulling out the weapon with her own hands, and getting the wound quickly dressed, she hastened back to head the troops, and to plant her victorious banner on the ram- parts of the enemy. These successes continuing, the English found that it was impossible to resist troops animated by such superior energy ; and Suffolk, who conducted the attack, thinking that it might prove extremely dangerous to re- main any longer in the presence of the victorious enemy, raised the siege, and retreated with all imaginable precaution. From being attacked, the French now in turn became the aggressors. Charles armed a body of 6,000 men, and sent them to besiege Jergeau, whither the earl of Suffolk had retired with the detach- ment of the English army. The city was taken ; Sutlblk yielded himself a prisoner ; and Joan marched into the place in triimiph at the head of the army. A battle was soon after fought near Pa- tay, where the English Avere worsted as before, and the generals Scales and Tal- bot were taken prisoners. The raising of the siege of Orleans was one part of the Maid's promise to the king of France ; the crowning him at Rheims was the other. She now declared that it was time to complete that ceremony ; and Charles, in pursuance of her advice, set out for Rheims at the head of 12,000 men. The towns through which he passed opened their gates to receive him ; and Rheims sent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his approach. The ceremony of his coronation was there performed with the utmost solemnity ; and the Maid of Orleans, (for so she was now called,) seeing the completion of her promise, desired leave to retire, alleging that she had now accomplished her mission. But her services had been so great, that the king could not think of parting with her ; 32 he pressed her to stay so earnestly, that she at length complied with his request. A tide of successes followed the per- formance of this solemnity ; Laon, Sois- sons, Chateau-Thierri, Provins, and many other fortresses in that neighborhood, submitted to him on the first summons. On the other hand, the English found themselves deprived of the conquests they had gained, in the same manner as the French had formerly submitted to their power. Their own divisions, both abroad and at home, unfitted them en- tirely for carrying on the war ; and the duke of Bedford, notwithstanding all his prudence, saw himself divested of his strong holds in the country, without be- ing able to stop the enemy's progress. In order, therefore, to revive the declin- ing state of his affairs, he resolved to have Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing that the natives would be pleas- ed by the splendor of the ceremony. In 1430, Henry was accordingly crowned, all the vassals that still continued under the English power swearing fealty and homage. But it was now too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to give a turn to the affairs of the English ; the great body of the people had declared against them, and the remainder only waited a convenient opportunity to follow the example. An accident ensued soon after, which, though it promised to promote the Eng- lish cause in France, in the end served to hasten its fall. The duke of Burgun- dy, at the head of a powerful army, had laid seige to Compeigne ; and the Maid of Orleans had thrown herself into the place, contrary to the wishes of the gov- ernor, who did not desire the company of one whose authority Avould be greater than his own. The day after her arrival, the Maid of Orleans headed a sally ; and having twice driven the enemy from their entrenchments, she was at last obliged to retire, placing herself in the rear to protect the retreat of her forces. But on attempting to follow her troops into the city, she found the gates shut, and the bridge drawn up, by order of the governor, who had long been plotting to betray her to the enemy. Nothing could exceed the joy of the 250 FRANCE besiegers, in having taken one who had | been so long a terror to their arms. The i service of Te Deum was publicly cele- i brated on this occasion ; and it was hoped, that the capture of this cxtraordi- 1 nar}' person would restore the English to their former victories and successes. The duke of Bedford was no sooner inform- ed of her being taken than he purchased her of the count Vendome, who had , made her his prisoner, and ordered her I to be committed to close confinement. ' The credulity of both nations was at ' that time so great, that nothing was too absurd to gain belief that coincided with ' their passions. As Joan but a little be- fore, from her successes, was regarded as a saint, she was now, upon her captivity, ' considered as a sorceress, forsaken by : the demon who had granted her a falla- ' cious and temporary assistance. Ac- cordingly it was resolved in council to send her to Rouen to be tried for witch- I craft. The university of Paris joined in the same request. Several prelates, among whom the cardinal of Winches- 1 ter was the only Englishman, were ap- pointed as her judges. They held their ' court in Rouen, where Henry then resi- ded ; and the Maid, clothed in her for- mer military apparel, but loaded with irons, was produced before this tribunal. Her behavior betrayed neither weakness nor submission, but she appealed to God and the pope, for the truth of her former revelations. She was found guilty of| heresy and witchcraft, and sentenced to I be burnt alive, the common punishment for such offences. But previous to the infliction of this dreadful sentence upon her, they were ! resolved to make her abjure her former^ errors ; and at length so far prevailed, i that she publicly declared herself willing to recant. This was what her enemies desired ; and, willing to show some ap- pearance of mercy, they changed her sentence into perpetual imprisonment. But the vindictive spirit of her enemies was not yet satiated. Suspecting that the female dress, which she had con- sented to wear, was disagreeable to her, they purposely placed in her apartment a suit of men's apparel. Joan struck with the sight of a dress in which she had gained so much glory, immediately threw off her penitent's robes, and put on the forbidden garment. Her impru- dence was considered as a relapse into her former transgressions. She was con- demned to be burnt alive in the market- place of Rouen ; and this infamous sen- tence was executed with brutal severity. From this period, the English power in France may be said to have ceased. The city of Paris returned to a sense of its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com- manded it for the English, was contented to stipulate for the safe retreat of his troops to Normandy. At length, both parties began to tire of a war, which, though carried on but feebly, was yet a burden greater than either could support. But the terms of peace insisted upon by both were so wide of each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could be ex- pected. A truce, therefore, for twenty two months, was concluded in 1443. No sooner was this agreed upon, than Charles employed himself with great judgment in repairing those ills to which his kingdom, from the continuance of wars, both foreign and domestic, had so long been exposed. He established dis- cipline among his troops, and justice among his governors. He revived agri- culture, and repressed faction. In 1449, the truce was allowed to ex- pire. The quarrels of York and Lan- caster had commenced, and England was unable to defend her foreign possessions. Normandy was invaded. The gallant Talbot, commander of the English, could not preserve Rouen with a disaffected population, and Charles recovered with- out loss of blood the second capital of his dominions. The only blow struck by the English for the preservation of Normandy was at Fourmigny near Bay- eux. They had been successful in driv- ing back the count of Clermont, when the constable appeared with a fresh army, attacked the English in turn, and routed them. In the result of this action, Charles saw clearly the advantages of his reform in the army. Native French archers here faced their ancient rivals. Normandy was for ever lost to the English after this action or skirmish. The fol- lowing year Guienne was invaded by FRANCE. 251 the count de Dunois. He met with no resistance. The great towns at that day had grown weakhy, and their maxim was to avoid a siege at all hazards. Thus Bordeaux, after having summoned the English by their public crier to come to their assistance, — a voice as likely to be heard by the battling Yorkists and Lan- castrians as if it had been trumpeted in their isle, surrendered to Charles. The submission of the Bordelais was, how- ever, but short. They rebelled ; the veteran Talbot came to their aid, at the head of 5,000 English. The French were engaged in the siege of Castillon, when Talbot marched against them. His first approach drove in the franc Arch- ers. This success emboldened him to attack the intrenched camp of the French. Though now eighty years of age, Talbot on foot led his men-at-arms to the as- sault. The fight was bravely sustained on both sides, till the English general was struck down by the fire of a culver- in. His son, lord Lisle, flung himself on the body of his parent. " Fly, my son," said the expiring Talbot ; " the day is lost. It is your first action, and you may without shame turn your back to the en- emy." Lord Lisle, nevertheless, togeth- er with thirty nobles of England, was slain before the body of Talbot. With that hero expired the last hopes of his country in regard to France. Guienne was lost as well as Normandy ; and Calais remained to England the only fruit of so much blood spilt, and so many victories achieved. On the death of Charles, his son Louis XI succeeded to the throne, who, after a life spent in continual deceit, hypocrisy, and cruelty, received warning of his ap- proaching end by a fit of apoplexy with which he was seized in the year 1480. He lay speechless and motionless for two days ; after which he partially re- covered, but never completely regahied his health and strength. His illness, however, neither prevented him from pur- suing the schemes of his ambition, nor from using the same methods as before to attain them. He seized, without any pretence, the estates of the duke of Bour- bon, the only nobleman in the kingdom whose power could give him any cause of suspicion ; yet, notwithstanding his assiduity for the interest of the dauphin, he kept him a kind of prisoner in the castle of Ambloise, permitting none but his own servants, or persons of the mean- est rank, to have access to him. He banished his own consort, the mother of the dauphin, to Savoy, and endeavored to inspire the prince with aversion towards her. Louis, after a long and sanguinary reign, died in 1483. His death was oc- casioned by a second stroke of apoplexy. Charles VIII, who succeeded his fa- ther, Louis XI, in 1483, was only four- teen years of age at the time of his death; but though he might, even at that age, have ascended the throne without any material violation of the laws of France, yet it was judged necessary to have a regent on account of the king's delicacy of constitution and want of education. Three competitors appeared as candi- dates for this important trust, viz, John, duke of Bourbon, a prince of the blood, and who had, till the age of sixty, maintained the most unblemished character ; Louis, duke of Orleans, presumptive heir to the crown, but who from his being only twen- ty years old himself, seemed incapaci- tated on that account from undertaking such an important office ; the third com- petitor was Anne, called the lady of Beaujeu, the eldest daughter of Louis, to whom the latter had in the last moments of his life committed the charge of the j kingdom, with the title of governess. The I claim of this lady was successful. The premature death of Charles in 1498, was supposed to have been owing to his irregular life, which had for some time ! impaired his health, and brought on evi- j dent symptoms of his approaching disso- lution. At last he relinquished his irreg- I ularities, and retired with the queen to j the castle of Ambloise. Here, in pass- ' ing through an arched door, he struck ; his head with violence against the top. No unfavorable symptoms appeared at the time ; but soon afterwards, as he conversed with liis confessor, and avowed ' his design of observing the nuptial fidel- i ity he owed to the queen, he suddenly fell backward in a fit of apoplexy. He , recovered his voice three times, and ut- tered some expressions of devotion ; but 252 FRANCE. instantly relapsed, and in a short time expired, notvvilhstanding every assistance that could be given. We may now take a brief view of the state of France at the close of the fom-- teenth century. The whole country was then emerging from the horrors of feu- dalism : it had burst the fetters of bon- dage. A large portion of the people were enfranchised, and thereby a third class (of burgesses) was added to the two already existing bodies of nobles and clergy. The cities, before deserted by the monarch, the nobles, and the church dignitaries, began to increase in opu- lence and consequence ; their number, moreover, had gradually risen to 2,000 regular and fortified boroughs. Supported by their respective charters, the burgess- es exercised a sovereign power over their own civic economy, regulated the pay and number of their garrison troops, ap- pointed the officers, and even commenced war with neighboring towns or lordships, without interference from higher powers. The nobles, however, still affected a proud and high-minded independence, reckless of kingly coercion ; and the in- stitutions of feudalism, although yield- ing rapidly to the influences of luxury and civilization, were, in some respects, main- tained with the tenacity which habit and prejudice had imparted. The nobles, besides, possessed the privilege of refu- sing, at will, to follow their king to the field, except in case of a defensive war ; and the sovereign was prohibited, as yet, from maintaining a standing army. An augmentation of wealth and power to the sovereign was, nevertheless, produced by the law which gave to the lord para- moimt all fiefs, of which the natural heirs had become extinct ; and the practice, then recently introduced, of fixing the majority of the king at his fourteenth instead of his 21st year, assigned into the hands of the monarch the authority which would otherwise have been vested in one or more of the proud nobility during the period of minority. Influenced by these and other circumstances, the manners of the French began, at this period, to lose the chivalric, or rather barbarous, pecu- liarities which had formerly character- ized their civil commotions, their domes- tic policy, their very literature, and their diversions. The manufacture of arms had been hitherto carried on, independent of the city mechanic, within the very walls of the castle ; and even women were em- ployed in the preparation of arrows and lances, and several other descriptions of light weapons. But the recent discovery of Roger Bacon had begun to humble the pride of these nobles. Not only was the very existence of their habitations endan- gered by the new method of artillery ; but their capability of infringing upon the demesnes of others diminished by its success. The art of fortification would require from henceforward the sciences of arithmetic and geometry ; and as the inhabitants of towns, from their mechani- cal and commercial occupations, far sur- passed, in such knowledge, the proud and ignorant nobility, the importance of the burgesses began, in respect to warlike affairs, to gain the superiority. During the changes which the other orders of society experienced, the clergy preserved, or, perhaps, increased their ascendency. In some cities the bishop shared the temporal jurisdiction with the lord paramount : it was by no means un- usual to see a powerful baron constrained to hold the bridal of an abbe, and at meal-time to stand behind his chair, un- less the proud ecclesiastic chose to utter the condescending permission to sit down. Nor was this usurpation of authority and overweening influence of the clerg}-, in those days, peculiarly enjoyed in France. In the councils of other princes ; in the regulation of finance ; in the ad- ministration of justice ; in all departments of pubhc business, the clergy possessed the predominating influence; for often- times, even the helmet and sword were not considered incompatible with the priestly habit ; and when occasion re- quired, or self-interest called, the priestly hand was raised to strike a sturdy blow, to gain fresh concessions, or defend its already acquired rights. By the death of Charles VIII, the throne of France passed from the direct line of the house of Valois, and Louis, duke of Orleans succeeded to the throne. At the time of his accession he was in FRANCE. 253 his thirty-sixth year, and had long been taught prudence in the school of adversity. During the administration of the lady Beaujeu, he had been constantly in dis- grace ; and after his connection with the duke of Britany had spent a very consid- erable time in prison. During his reign, Henry VIII, of Eng- land, invaded France, and took Terruenne and Tournay ; and the Swiss invaded Burgundy with an army of 25,000 men. In this difficult situation of affairs the queen died, and Louis put an end to the opposition of his most dangerous enemies, by negotiating marriages with different branches of his family. To Ferdinand of Spain, he offered his second daughter for either of his grandsons, Charles or Ferdinand ; and to renounce in favor of that marriage, his claims on Milan and Genoa. This proposal was accepted ; and Louis himself married the princess Mary, sister to Henry VIII of England. He did not long survive this marriage, but died on the 2nd of January, 1514 ; and was succeeded by Francis /, coimt of Angouleme and duke of Bretagne and Valois. The new king was no sooner seated on the throne, than he resolved on an ex- pedition into Italy. He assembled for this purpose, at Lyons, an army of 60,000 men, the most formidable in number that P^'rance had yet equipped. There were 2,500 gentlemen cavaliers, each attended by his suite of four or five horsemen. These were the Gensdarmerie. The lansquenets, or hired German infantry, amounted to 22,000. Six thousand Gas- con infantry, as many more French pro- miscuously levied, and 3,000 pioneers, completed the army. The rear-guard advanced under the constable Bourbon to clear the passage of the Alps, and to force the Swiss from the post of Susa, which blocked up the only two known roads across the mountains. To find or make another path became necessary, in order to turn the impregnable position; and fortunately a guide xmdertook to lead the French over the Cottian Alps into the marquisate of Saluces. Even for the army to pass was a work of difficulty, but their artillery was what the French captains chiefly relied on to discomfit the Swiss. To drag cannons over deep valleys and precipitous steeps was more than Hanni- bal had achieved, and was afterwards one of the principal boasts of the army that conquered at Marengo. The sol- diers of France accomplished the task, however, and penetrated into Italy by the sources of the Po. The Italians did not suspect the possibility of so hardy an en- terprise. Prospero Colonna was travers- ing Piedmont, at the head of the papal cavalry to join the Swiss, and was re- posing at Villefranche, when the town was surprised, and Colonna himself, and his troops, taken prisoners by La Palisse and d'Aubigny. The news of this sur- prise soon reached the Swiss, and they abandoned in a rage their now useless po- sition, retreating to Milan, and pillaging the towns they were obliged to evacuate. Their disappointment produced quarrels between the chiefs. The cardinal of Sion reproached one of the captains of Berne, with partiality to the French. The captain and his soldiers, by way of retort, demanded their pay ; and the car- dinal, the sworn enemy of France, was obliged to fly from their clamors. This opened the way for negotiation. The king, with the rest of his army, had in the mean time crossed the Alps, and lay encamped at Marignano. The prow- ess of the Swiss was dreaded, and the terrific day of Novara was held in remem- brance. Consequently, when they de- manded a large sum of money for them- selves, and a pension for Maximilian Sforza, in return for evacuating the Mi- lanese, the terms were granted. Francis raised the money instantly by borrowing of his officers ; and envoys M^ere already despatched with the stipulated sum, when tidings were brought to the constable, that the Swiss, in heu of concluding a treaty, were meditating an attack. The cardinal of Sion had, in fact, hurried back to Milan on the first news of the accom- modation. He called his countrymen round him, harangued them, and rekindled that hatred to the French for which his- tory assigns no sufficient cause. The Swiss determined to surprise the French, to carry the artillery in the first attack, and turn it on their enemies, an operation so successful at Novara. Bour- 'M FRANCE. bon, however, was prepared for them. The artiller\', consisting of seventy pieces, were placed behind an intrenchment, commanding the road ; the lansquenets were stationed to guard it, Avhile the cav- iilry, drawn up behind, and on each side, waited to observe the order of the Swiss. They came on in silence, without drum or trumpet ; a cloud of dust, raised by their speed, announcing, nevertheless, tlieir approach. It was the middle of September, several hours after noon. The Swiss came in one compact column, rushing on the artillen^"-, and against the lansquenets, those rivals in their merce- nary profession of war, whom they hated, and whom they swore that day to extermi- nate. Attirstthe lansquenets recoiled from the furious charge of the Swiss : some of the cannon were already captured ; when the cavalry and the black bands, the king himself amongst them, extended in the fonii of wings, and took the phalanx of the Swiss on either side in flank. The lans- quenets, thus supported, took courage. The first charge of the Swiss, so univer- sally victorious, was here not decidedly successful, and hanng no longer the ad- vantage of an impulse, their pikes became less formidable. Obliged to face enemies that almost surrounded them, their pha- lanx was split into numerous bodies which continued the combat, not only till sun- set, but even till the moonlight failed them. Some of these bodies succumbed, however : one yielded to a charge led by the king himself; the Swiss throwing down their halberds, and crying,"France!" in token of submission. Towards mid- night, utter darkness stopped the com- bat, and both parties, intermingled, slept or kept watch in little bands amongst their enemies. The king himself reposed on the stock of a cannon. When day broke, both armies rallied ; the Swiss to form their original phalanx ; the French round their cannon, which were again plied with true aim and fear- ful alacrity. The Swiss renewed the attack. The lansquenets still held the intrenchment ; the rest of the army as- sailed the enemy in flank. After some hours' fighting, the Swiss began to des- pair. They now condescended to ma- ncEuvre, and despatched a considerable I body to turn and attack the French camp in rear ; but it was too late ; the division was beaten back, and naught was left for the Swiss but to retreat. This they did in good order and undaunted ; though pursued not only by the victorious French, but by the Venitians, who arrived at the close of the action. The count de Petig- liana, the Venitian general, desirous to share in the combat, charged the retreat- ing Swiss, and perished. Thus did the young monarch signalize the very commencement of his reign by a splendid victory gained over the most renowned soldiers in Europe, and those whom the French had most to fear. The veteran Trivulzio, who had seen seven- teen pitched battles, called all of them " child's play," in comparison with that of Marignano, which he designated as the "battle of giants." Yet it is more remark- able for the glory won, than for the blood spilled in it. Trivulzio, the king, the constable of Bourbon, the duke of Lor- raine, and Bayard, Avere all wounded or unhorsed, or in imminent peril. He who most distinguished himself was Claude count de Guise, brother of the duke of Lorraine : he commanded the black bands, and had fallen, pierced by innu- merable wounds ; from which he never- theless recovered, and lived to found an illustrious name. The principal of the slain were, a prince of the house of Lor- raine, one of the house of Bourbon, and the prince of Talmont, elder son of La Tremouille. One of the first acts of the king, after the action, was to receive knighthood from the hand of Bayard, "the chevalier without fear and without reproach." Sensible of the honor done to him by the choice. Bayard vowed that the sword which had knighted so valiant a monarch should never be wielded ex- cept against the infidels. "When he had uttered tliis vow," quoth his secretar)'-, who was his historian, "he took two leaps, and returned the sword to its scabbard." The duchy of Milan was conquered by the victory of Marignano. The Swiss, who held the fortress of the capital, sur- rendered it, being hard pressed by the armies of Peter of Navarre, which were now in the service of the French king. FRANCE. 255 Maximilian Sforza abandoned his rights in return for a pension of 30,000 crowns, which he was to enjoy in France, "no- wise discontented," he said, "to be de- hvered from the tyranny of the Swiss, the caprices of the emperor, and the bad faith of the Spaniards." On the death of the emperor Maximil- ian in 1581, Francis used every endeav- or to be appointed his successor ; but the emperor had exerted himself so much in favor of Charles V, of Spain, that he found it quite impossible to succeed; and from that time an irreconcilable enmity existed between the two monarchs. In 1521, this ill-will produced a war ; which was continued with various degrees of success till 1524, when P>ancis having invaded Italy, and laid siege to Pavia, he was utterly defeated before that city, and taken prisoner 24th of February. Francis by making many concessions and promises, which he afterwards viola- lated, was released from captivity. The war was renewed with Charles, who in- vaded France, but without success ; nor was peace fully established till the death of Francis, which happened on the 3rd of March, 1547. He was succeeded by his son Henry II, then twenty-nine years of age.* In the beginning of his reign, * It was the care of the new king to celebrate the obsequies of his predecessor in the most mag- nificent style. The bishop, who pronounced the funeral oration, used a bold metaphor, which gave occasion to the bigots of the Sorbonne to show their zeal. King Francis, according to the worthy prelate, had been of so holy a life, that his soul had gone straight into paradise without passing through the flames of purgatory. The denial of purgatory was a favorite tenet of the re- formers. The Sorbonne forthwith accused the preacher of heresy ; they sent a deputation to St. Germain to make known their complaint to the king. Mendosa, a chief officer of the court, first received it ; and by a facetious speech, saved Henry from an act of injustice. " Calm your- selves, gentlemen," said he to the deputies of the Sorbonne ; " if you had known the good king Francis as well as I did, you would have better understood the words of the preacher. Francis was not a man to tarrj' long any where ; and if he did take a turn in purgatory, believe me, the devil himself could not persuade him to take any thing like a sojourn there." The famous duel between Jamac and Chataig- neraie, was the first striking event of Henry's reign. They had both been pages in the court of Francis I. Chataigneraie was a stout youth, given to quarrel, skilled at his weapon, and re- an insurrection occiured in Guienne, ow- ing to the oppressive conduct of the offi- cers who levied the salt tax. The king despatched against the insurgents two j bodies of troops ; one commanded by the duke of Aumale, son of the duke of Guise, the other by the constable. The nowned for his hardihood ; he excelled in those rude and martial e.vercises which the dauphin Henry loved, and was consequently a favorite ! with him. Jarnac, on the contrary, was a beau, ' given to gallantry-, and fond of dress and ele- ' gance ; a taste which he indulged to an extent I beyond his apparent means. It happened that ' once in the society of Henry, Chataigneraie con- temning such taste and such a mode of life, asked Jarnac, where he found resources for such ei- j pense ! Jarnac replied, " that although his fatlier I was liberal in his allowances, yet that he obtained j an increase of funds through his stepmother, with I whom he had made himself a favorite." This passed. But Chataigneraie construed the words of Jarnac into an insinuation that he enjoyed the favor of his stepmother in a criminal sense. He mentioned this to Henry, who repeated it to Diana of Poitiers. The calumny circulated in whis- pers, and at length reached the ears of Jamac's j father. The son was summoned. In horror he disavowed the crime, and succeeded in exculpat- ing himself. He followed this up by appearing before Francis in the presence of the court, and I declaring, that whoever had given birth to such I a report " lied in his throat." The dauphiin took this deadly insult to himself; he, howe- \ ver, could not come forward. The rude Cha- taigneraie did, and asserted that he had heard 1 Jamac boast of having been too intimate with his stepmother. A challenge, of course, was the consequence, and Francis was besought by the antagonists to appoint the field for a combat, the j issue of which was to decide the guilt or inno- cence of Jarnac. Francis, however, forbade the duel, either averse to the absurd principal of ju- dicial combat, or aware how much the imprudence of his son had been the occasion of the quarrel. I On Henry's accession, Jarnac renewed his chal- ; lenge and demand. The king consented. The lists were prepared at St. Germain ; Henry and his court were witnesses. When the antagonists met in the inclosed field, the slender Jarnac seem- ed unable to resist the powerful Chataigneraie ; he ! retired before his blows, covering himself with his buckler, until seizing an opportunity, he wounded his adversary in the back of the leg, and completely disabled him. The victor, how- j ever, spared his adversary. Having in vain asked ; Chataigneraie to recall the calumnies that he had ' uttered, Jarnac advanced towards the monarch, and, by the usual courtesy of placing it at the : sovereign's disposal, waived his right to his ene- my's life. The fierce Chataigneraie scorned to be thus spared ; he refused chirurgical aid ; even ■ tore his wounds open when they had been dressed, and died. Such was the judicial combat, in which I may be said to have originated the modern duel. 256 FRANCE, first acted with the greatest moderation, and easily brought back the people to their duly ; the other behaved with the greatest haughtiness and cruelty ; and though the king afterwards remitted ma- ny of his punishments, yet from that time the constable became an object of dislike to the people. In 1548, the king began to execute the edicts, which had been made against the protestants ; and, thinking the clergy too mild in the prosecution of heresy, erected for that purpose a chamber com- posed of members of the parliament of Paris. At the queen's coronation, which happened this year, he caused a number of protestants to be burned, and was himself present at the spectacle. The reign of his successor, Francis II, was remarkable only for the persecu- tion carried on against the protestants, which obliged them to take up arms in their own defence. This occasioned several civil wars ; the first of which commenced in the reign of Charles IX, who succeeded to the throne in 1560. This first war continued till the year 1562. In order to understand the events which occurred during the reign of the latter monarch, it appears necessary to take a retrospective view of the origin and pro- gress of the reformed religion in France, under Francis II. The new doctrine had spread greatly at court, as well as in the capital and provinces. The Chris- tian Institutes of Calvin were dedicated to that king. His sister, the queen of Navarre, protected his disciples, while they were persecuted by the clergy and the parliament. The spirit of the new religion was increased and invigorated, and the numbers who professed it were greatly augmented, by the massacre of Cabrieres and Merindol, and by the ex- ecutions which were imprudently multi- plied by Henry II. Thus, at the acces- sion of Francis II, Calvanism had gained a firm and wide fooling, and could count among its professors several men of great talents and influence. Admiral Coligny, and his brother d'Andelot, and cardinal Chatillon, were firm friends to a reforma- tion ; and the prince of Conde inclined to the same side. The court, oa the contrary, seemed resolved to crush the Calvinists, by the most open and violent measures. Instead of correcting the er- rors, which had given offence, even to conscientious catholics, new observan- ces, still more superstitious, were en- joined. Images of the Virgin, and of the saints, were placed at the corners of the streets, with tapers lighted up before them ; round these, the populace assem- bled, singing hymns, and compelling the passengers to put money into little box- es, for the expense of the illumination. If a man did not bow to these images, and stop with marks of reverence, while the people were paying this worship, he was either knocked down, dragged to prison, or insulted. These, however, were trifling evils, to which the protes- tants were exposed. Courts of ecclesi- astical judicature, invested with inquisi- torial powers, were erected, denominated Chamhrcs Ardentcs, from the severity of their punishments. To these the cog- nizance of heresy was entrusted. The strictest search was made to discover offenders ; and as the protestants, in or- der to conceal themselves, were obliged to meet by night, they were charged with committing in these assemblies the most dreadful crimes. Thus goaded on to resistance, they only waited for a fit opportunity and season to protect them- selves by force of arms ; and this was soon supplied them, by the mixtiure of folly and wickedness which the court displayed. The civil wars between the catholics and protestants commenced in 1650. The duke of Guise and his fami- ly were the most bitter opponents of the protestants, whose cause was sustained by the prince of Conde, admiral Coligny, and the king of Navarre. Catherine of Medicis, the mother of Francis II, and Charles IX, was a woman of great ta- lents and address ; she was, however, cruel, rapacious, and deceitful, and for a long period was the sovereign of France. Both Catherine and her son, being con- vinced that the destruction of the pro- testants could be effected only by intrigue, resolved to exert all the powers of their minds to carry it on in such manner as might most effectually deceive the pro- posed victims of it. With this view they FRANCE. 257 pretended to be averse to the measures of the Guises as unfriendly to the pro- testants ; and even treated them with coolness and indifference. The king proposed to give his sister Margaret in marriage to Henry of Navarre, as a fur- ther proof of his change of sentiments, and further security to the protestants. This proposal was readily accepted ; and so deeply laid were the plans of Cathe- rine and her son, that even the Admiral Coligny, notwithstanding a letter which he received, putting him in mind of the faithless characters of them both, was deceived by their specious conduct and professions. Catherine, having so often been foiled in her attempts to crush the protestants, both by open and secret measures, was resolved that her present plan should not be frustrated by precipitation : for two years she permitted France to enjoy the blessings of tranquillity : and during the whole of this period, the conduct both of herself and of the king, continued such, as effectually lulled the suspicions of the most timid and apprehensive protestants. At last having succeeded in persuading the admiral to come to Paris, along with the most considerable men of the protes- tant party, in order to assist at the cele- bration of the marriage of Margaret and Henry, Catherine and the king resolved to hasten the catastrophe. The marriage was celebrated on the 17th of August, 1572 ; and, on the 22d of that month, Coligny was wounded by a shot from a window, as he was going to his house. Upon learning this, the king paid him a visit, promised to find out and punish the assassin, and to all appearance was filled with indignation and sorrow for the accident. Two days after this, on the 24th of August, the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew, took place. When the king gave his directions re- specting it, he added, with his customary oaths, " Since it is to be done, take care that no one escapes to reproach me." The direction of the massacre was en- trusted more especially to the Duke of Guise ; and the signal for its commence- ment was to be given by striking the great bell of the palace. Coligny, regu- lar in his habits, and still weak with his 33 wounds, had retired to rest on the eve of St. Bartholomew very early ; but he was roused by the noise of the assassins, who had surrounded his house. A German, of the name of Beznie, entered his cham- ber ; and the admiral, suspicious of his designs, prepared to meet his fate with calm and firm resignation. Scarcely had he uttered the words " Young man, you ought to have respected my age, and my infirmity ; but you will only shorten my life by a few days or hours," when the German plunged his sword into his bo- som, and afterwards threw the corpse into the court. The Duke of Guise be- held it in silence ; but Henry, Count of Angouleme, natural brother to the king, gave it a kick with his foot, exclaiming, " Courage, my friends ; we have begun well, let us also finish well."* * As soon as the events we have related, which did not occupy much time, had taken place at the residence of the Admiral and at the Louvre, the alarm-bell sounded from the Palace of Justice. This was the signal for all the sub- ordinate agents of the consjiiracy in the different parts of the town to commence their operations. Tavannes and several of his associates immedi- ately appeared on horseback in the streets ; and, riding about in all directions, called out to the people to kill the Hugonots, telling them that such was the command of the king, who desired that not a single heretic should be suffered to escape. From this moment the slaughter was universal and indiscriminate. Inflamed with the wildest fury of religious hatred, to which, in many cases, fear, revenge, and other malignant passions added double force, (for many doubtless believed that in thus imbruing their hands in the blood of their fellow-citizens, they were only de- stroying those who would otherwise have massa- cred them,) the multitude set no bounds to their ferocity and cruelty. Persons of both sexes and of all ages equally fell victims to their unpitying rage. Every house supposed to be tenanted by persons of the obnoxious religion was broken into. The inmates sometimes attempted to fly or to hide themselves, but rarely offered any resistance. It was all headlong fury on the one side, and as- tonishment and consternation on the other. Nor were all those who perished, protestants. Many took advantage of the confusion of this popular tempest to satiate their private and personal en- mities, and to wreak on a brother of the same faith the hoarded hatred of years. All the worst passions of the human heart were let loose ; but their one wild cry was Blood ! Blood ! On that terrible sabbath blood reeked from the principal streets of Paris as from a field of battle. The bodies of the slaughtered, we are told by a co- temporary chronicler, of men, of women, of chil- dren, and of infants, were heaped together into 258 FRANCE. For five days did the massacre continue. I tion of the soldiery, and imbued their The catholic citizens, who had been se- hands, without remorse, in the blood of cretly prepared, by their leaders, for such their neighbors, their companions, and a scene, zealously seconded the execu- even their nearest relations. Among the carts, and so carried down and shot into the river, in which they might be seen every where floating and tumWing, while its waters were turned red by the blood that flowed from them. The gen- 1 eral description which De Thou gives us of the horrors of the scene is, especially in his own elo- I quent Latin, exceedingly striking. " The people," he says, " incited against their fellow-countrymen by the captains and lieutenants of the city guard, who were flying about in all directions, rioted in the frenzy of a tjoundless license ; and all things wore an aspect of wo and affright. The streets resounded with the uproar of the crowds rushing on to slaughter and plunder, while ever and anon the lamenting cries of persons dying or in peril met the ear, or the carcasses of those who had been murdered were seen tossed forth from the windows of theirdwellings. The courts, and even the inner apartments, of many houses were filled with the slain ; dead bodies were rolled or dragged along the mire of the highways ; the bloody pud- dle overflowed the kennels, and ran down at dif- ferent places in streams to the river ; an innumer- able multitude perished, not only of men, but likewise of pregnant women and children." But a few individual pictures, which we shall now proceed to select, will convey a clearer idea of the atrocities of this infamous massacre. We have already stated that the attendants of Coligny, and the protestant gentlemen who resi- ded m his house, fled by a window in the roof, and that a few of them succeeded by this means for a time in eluding their pursuers. x\mong these was the young Teligny, recently married to the daughter of the Admiral, a gentleman of distinguished qualiflcations, and universally re- garded by his party with the warmest attachment. He had been observed making his way along the roof of a house by several persons belonging to the court ; but, although he was one of those whom they had been particularly charged not to allow to escape, they could not find it in their heart to kill him, " of so sweet a nature was he," says the old chronicler, " and so much beloved by all to whom he was known." He was afterwards discovered by some soldiers in a garret, and even they, upon learning his name, went away and left him unharmed. But some other soldiers, belong- ing to the guard of the Duke of Anjou, coming shortly after to the place where he was hid, de- spatched him along with several individuals of the Admiral's suite, (who were with him.) This they did, it is related by command of their captain, L'Archan ; althoug-h that person had heretofore been Teligny 's familiar friend. But all such con- nections between those not professing the same faith were now broken and forgotten. Among others who perished was the celebrated Peter Ramus, one of the most intrepid spirits of modern times, and whose whole life nearly had been as stormy as its termination was now misera- ble. He was at this time Professor of Philosophy and Eloquence in the College of Prcsles (which stood in the south-eastern quarter of the city, at the corner of the Rue des Carmes) ; a dignity which he had held for above twenty years, although the civil commotions by which the kingdom had so long been agitated had frequently compelled him to retire for a season from the performance of its duties. He had, however, returned to Paris and to his academic sanctuary on the general pacifica- tion of 1570. Being a zealous opponent not only of the ancient religion, but likewise of the philo- sophy which had long reigned in the schools, he was regarded with particular enmity by the ad- herents of the prevailing faith. It is asserted by the authority we last quoted, that the murderers were sent to his college, within which he had concealed himself, by one Jaques Carpentier, his personal enemy. " Being found by them," con- tinues the writer, " he gave them a considerable sum of money to save his life. Nevertheless, he was massacred, and throvim from the window of a high chamber to the ground ; so that his entrails were scattered over the pavement, after which they wer.e dragged along the streets, the body being all the while scourged by some scholars, spurred on by their masters, to the great disgrace of good letters, of which Ramus made profession." Another notice supplies us with an instance of the manner in which individuals took advantage of the opportunity aff"orded them, by the unbridled license of the moment to destroy those who were on any account obnoxious to them, or of whom they desired to rid themselves. After relating the heroic conduct of the wife of Anthony Mer- lanchon (who, while both herself and her husband were in the hands of the murderers, maintained the profession of her religion with unshrinking resolution, and exhorted her husband to follow her example), the chronicler proceeds ; — " This example of female constancy is marvellous and greatly to be praised. On the contrary, the mal- ice and cruelty of the wife of a joiner living in the Rue des Prouvelles, a man advanced in life, was strange and monstrous. For being during the night thrown into the river he saved himself by swimming to the bank, and thence having climbed up by the great beams of the bridge, he came entirely naked near to the Culture of St. Catherine, where his wife had taken refuge with a relation of her own, and where he thought also he might remain in some security. But, in place of taking him in, his wife made them send him back, and chase him away all naked as he was, so that the poor man knew not where to go ; and, being found next morning in the street in such a condi- tion, was speedily retaken and drowned." Although, as has been already mentioned, the victims of the St. Bartholomew in general made scarcely even an attempt to defend themselves, ^ still several instances occurred in which the per- FRANCE. 25< most illustrious victims, beside Coligny, were the Count de Rochefoucalt and Te- ligni, who had married the daughter of son attacked did not fall before he had maintained a severe struggle with his assailants. Among others may be mentioned the Sicur de Guerchy, who, wrapping his mantle around his arm, fought with his sword, the only weapon he had, till he sunk under the blows that fell upon him from all sides. Tavervy also, the lieutenant of the Pa- trole, when the bloodthirsty mob attacked his house, defended himself by the assistance of one of his soldiers, with great bravery, so long as his ammunition lasted. He was at last, however, overpowered. " Being then killed," it is said. " and his furniture and most precious jewels car- ried off, the soldiers laid hold of a lady, his sister, who was in bed, sick and at the point of death, and dragged her naked through the streets, till she breathed her last in their hands." The next relation which we shall quote is cu- rious in several other respects, as well as for the evidence which it affords of the baser motives which mingled with the religious zeal of many of the most active among the murderers to urge them on through their bloody work. The reader will remark the illustrations of interesting points of antiquarian research which our extract presents in its references to " the bell of the window," {la sonnette de la fencstrc), and the time-piece worth seven or eight hundred crowns. The gold-wire- drawer {le tiretir d'or), who figures in this narra- tive, was a person of the name of Cruce, who made himself conspicuous above all his fellows by his enormous butcheries. " Often," says De Thou, " have I with horror seen and heard that man, truly worthy of crucifixion {vere criiz dig- num), boasting with tremendous ferocity as he extended his bare arm, that with that he had him- self slaughtered more than four hundred persons during the massacre." " Maturin Lussaut, goldsmith to the Queen- mother, dwelling in the Rue St. Germain, near the Miroir, hearing the bell of his window ring, came down stairs, and as he opened his door was pierced through with a sword by the gold-wire- drawcr. His son, hearing the noise, came down in all haste, and received a great blow from a sword on the back. Nevertheless, he fled to- wards the house of a tailor, who would not, how- ever, 0])en the door to him ; and by that means he was despatched by a ruffian, who on rifling him found in the pocket of his breeches a very handsome watch, of the price of from seven to eight hundred crowns, which the wire-drawer having perceived, began to throw himself into a passion, and to vent his rage on this ruffian, and was going to kill him, alleging that he had come to poach upon another's manor. But the other having resisted his violence, this wire-drawer went off to make report of the matter to the Duke of Anjou, who kept the watch, paying ten crowns for it, which he made be given to the murderer. The servant, a young girl of sixteen, took refuge in the house of a velvet manufactur- er, who wished to make her promise to go to | the admiral. The Count de Montgomery, and the Vidame of Chartres, with near a hundred others, who lodged on the south mass, and while she was disputing with him, the murderers came upon her and killed her. After having in this manner slain Lussaut, they shut the door and went away. Frances Baillet, his wife, an honorable lady, having learned from a young man named Rene, what had happened to her husband and her son, went up to the garret, and, opening a window to make her escape to the court of her neighbor, as many others had done, the fall she received was so violent that she broke both her legs. The murderers having re-entered the house, and perceiving this window open and the house empty, so threatened and terrified the person next door, (who had concealed the womaa in his cellar), that he told them where she was. Then they took her, and dragged her by the hair for a great way along the streets ; and, perceiv- ing bracelets of gold on her arms, that they might not have the trouble of unfastening them, they hacked off her two hands ; and as she be- moaned to herself their extreme cruelty, a cook who was in the crowd thrust a spit through her body, which remained fixed in it. Some hours afterwards the body thus mutilated was dragged into the river. The two hands lay for several days on the pavement, where they were gnawed by the dogs." But we cannot afford space for any more of these horrid relations. Of the persons massacred " the great number," says the writer of the Me- moirs, " were killed by powerful stabs with dag- gers and poniards. Those were treated with the least cruelty. For the others were tortured in all the parts of their bodies, mutilated of their limbs, mocked and outraged by taunts still sharper than the points of the swords by which they were pierced." Several old men, he goes on to state, being seized and brought down to the river, were first knocked on the head against the stones of the quay, and then thrown half dead into the water. In one of the streets a number 6f boys of nine or ten years of age, were seen dragging about an infant yet in swaddling-cloths by a rope tied round its neck. Another little child, on being laid hold of, began to laugh and to play with the beard of the stranger in whose arms it found it- self; but the man, untouched by its simple inno- cence, thrust his dagger into its bosom, and then tossed it into the river. " The paper would weep," concludes our author, " if I were to recite the horrible blasphemies which were uttered by these monsters and incarnate devils during the fury of so many slaughters. The uproar, the continual sound of arquebuses and pistols, the lamerttable and affrighting cries of those in agony, the vocif- erations of the murderers, tlie dead bodies thrown from the windows, or dragged through the mire with strange hootings and hissings, the smashing of doors and windows, the stones which were thrown against them, and the pillaging of more than six hundred houses — all this, long continu- ed, could only present to the eyes of the reader a perpetual image of e.xtreme misery in all its forms," 260 FRANCE. Massacre of St. Bartholomews. of the Seine, escaped on horseback, half naked ; but they were pursued and over- taken by the Duke of Guise, who cut in pieces nearly the whole of them. The young King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, exempted from the general destruction, were brought before Charles, and commanded to abjure their rehgion. The King of Navarre consent- ed ; but the Prince hesitating, Charles, in a transport of rage, exclaimed, " Death, mass, or the bastile !" The violence of this threat intimidated the Prince ; and recanting his heresy, he received absolu- tion from the Cardinal of Bourbon. During the greater part of the massa- cre, Charles posted himself at one of the windows of his palace, from which he not only saw and encouraged the assassins, by frequently calling ^ut, " Kill, Kill !" but even repeatedly fired upon the mise- rable fugitives. The same barbarous orders were sent to all the provinces of the kingdom ; and they were faithfully obeyed in Lyons, Orleans, Rouen, Bourges, Angers, and Toulouse. In Provence, Dauphiue, and some other parts, the Protestants were protected. The Viscount Orthes, who commanded in Bayonne, in reply to the order which he received, wrote back to the king, that Bayonne contained loyal citizens and brave soldiers, but that among them he was not able to find one executioner. The Bishop of Liseux, on this occasion, conducted himself in a manner becoming the religion of which he was the minister ; for when the com- mandant of that place communicated to him the orders of the court, he answered, " You must not execute them ; those whom you are commanded to destroy are my flock ; it is true they have gone astray, but I shall use my endeaA'ors to bring them back to the right fold. The gospel does not say, that the shepherd should spill the blood of his flock ; on the contrary, I read in it, that I ought, if ne- cessary, to spill my blood for them." These instances of humanity were, how- ever, few ; and it is supposed that, throughout France, 25,000 Protestants perished, and in Paris alone 10,000. As a justification of this dreadful and unparalleled massacre, Charles pretend- ed, that the Protestants had formed a con- spiracy to seize his person ; and that, in his own defence, he had been imder the necessity of giving orders for its execu- tion. But the real motive and object FRANCE. 261 M'ere by no means thus concealed ; nay, they were even displayed to public no- tice, by the proceedings of the parliament and the court. The former ordered an annual procession to celebrate the deliv- erance of the kingdom ; and the latter had a medal struck, with a legend, inti- mating, in express terms, that piety had armed justice on this occasion. Still more unequivocally were the real causes of the massacre of St. Bartholomew dis- played, by the feelings with which the intelligence of it was received at Rome and in Spain. In both, public rejoicings were held, and solemn thanks were re- turned to God for its success, under the name of the " triumph of the church militant." Among the protestants, it excited the most deep and penetrating horror, and no where to a greater degree than in England. Fenelon, the French ambassador at the court of St. James, gives the following striking picture of his first audience after the massacre was known : " A gloomy sorrow sate on every face ; silence, as in the dead of night, reigned through all the chambers of the royal apartments ; the ladies and the courtiers, clad in deep mourning, were ranged on every side ; and as I passed by them, in my approach to the queen, not one bestowed on me a favora- ble look, or made the least return to my salutations." The effect of the massacre on the pro- testants was directly the reverse of what the king expected ; but exactly such as a knowledge of human nature, and of reli- gious zeal and enthusiasm, would have anticipated. Galvanism, instead of being destroyed, became more formidable by despair ; and a thirst for revenge, united to an ardent spirit of civil and religious liberty. A fourth civil war was kindled. The protestants assembled in large bo- dies, and took refuge in the strong places which belonged to their party. In these, now fatally convinced that their only al- ternative was open rebellion — if rebellion it might be called — or persecution, they resolved to defend themselves to the last extremity. At their head appeared the King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, both of whom abjured a religion which they had been compelled to profess. Ro- chelle made a desperate defence against the duke of Anjou, who lost almost all his army before it. The siege continued eight months, during which time the citi- zens repelled nine general, and twenty particular attacks, and at.length obliged the duke to grant them an advantageous peace. The town of Sancerre was de- fended with equal bravery for upwards of seven months ; nor did the inhabitants surrender till they had obtained the pro- mise of liberty of conscience. About this time, the duke of Anjou was elected king of Poland ; and the miseries of France daily increasing, Gharles em- braced the pretence afforded by the ele- vation of his brother to conclude a treaty with the protestants which he did not intend to keep, and to which they never trusted. During the first years of the reign of Henry III, who succeeded his brother Gharles, the war with the protestants was carried on with indifferent success on the part of the catholics. In 1575, a peace was concluded, known by the name of the Edict of Pacification, the substance of which was, that liberty of conscience, and the public exercise of re- ligion, were granted to the reformed, without any other restriction than that they should not preach within two leagues of Paris, or any other part where the court was ; party chambers were erected in every parliament, to consist of equal numbers of catholics and protestants, be- fore whom all causes were to be tried ; the judgments against the admiral, and, in general, all who had fallen in the war, were reversed ; and eiglit towns were given up to the protestants. This edict caused the Guises to form an association called the Gatholic League. In this league, though the king was men- tioned with respect, he could not but see that it struck at the very root of his authority ; for, as the protestants had al- ready their chiefs, so the catholics were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the chief of the league ; and were, by the very words of it, to execute what- ever he commanded, for the good of the cause, against any, without exception of persons. As Heary IV was a protestant, or at 262 FRANCE. least one who greatly favored their cause, | he was at first acknowledged by very few except those of the protestant party. As the king of Spain had laid claim to the ; crown of France, Henry no sooner found himself firmly eeated on the throne, than he formally declared war against Spain ; and in 1 597 entered upon the quiet pos- session of his kingdom. The king's first care was to put an end to the religious disputes which had so long distracted the kingdom. For this | pui'pose he promulgated the celebrated | edict, dated at Nautes, April 13, 1598. It re-established, in a most solid and ef- fectual manner, all the favors that had ever been granted to the protestants, by other princes ; adding some which had not been thought of before, particularly j the allowing them the free admission to all employments of trust, profit, and hon- 1 or ; the establishing chambers in which the members of the two religions were equal ; and the permitting their children | to be educated without constraint in any ■ of the universities. Soon after he con- cluded peace with Spain upon very ad- vantageous terms. On the death of Henry IV, the queen- mother assumed the regency, which, during the minority of Louis XIII, was only remarkable for the intrigues of the courtiers. In 1617, the king assumed the government himself, banished the queen-mother to Blois, caused her favor- ite marshal d'Ancre to be killed, and chose for his minister the celabrated car- dinal Richelieu. In 1620, a new war broke out between the catholics and protestants, Avhich was carried on with great fury on both sides ; and we may judge of the spirit which actuated both parties, by what happened at Negreplisse, a town in Quercy. This place was be- sieged by the king's troops, and it was resolved to make an example of the in- habitants. The latter, however, abso- lutely refused to surrender upon any terras. They defended themselves brave- ly ; but the city being at last taken by storm, they were all massacred, without respect of rank, sex, or age. Both par- ties, however, became weary of such a destructive war ; and a peace was con- cluded in 1621, by which the edict of Nantes was confirmed. This treaty, however, was of short duration. A new war broke out, which lasted till the year 1628, when the edict of Nantes was again confirmed. This put an end to the civil wars on account of religion in France. Historians say, that in these wars above a million of men lost their lives ; that 150,000,000 hvres were spent in carrying them on ; and that 9 cities, 400 villages, 2,000 churches, 2,000 monasteries, and 10,000 houses, were burnt or destroyed during iheir continuance. The following year the king was at- tacked with a slow fever, which nothing could allay. The year after, however, he recovered, to the great disappointment of his mother, who had been in hopes of regaining her power. She was arrested ; but found means to escape into Flanders, where she remained till the conclusion of his reign. Richelieu, by a masterly train of politics, though himself a violent catholic, supported the protestants of Germany and Gustavus Adolphus against the house of Austria ; and, after quelling all the rebellions and conspiracies which had been formed against the government of France, he died some months before Louis XIII, in 1643. Louis XIV, surnamed Le Grand, suc- ceeded to the throne when he was only five years of age. During his minority, the kingdom was placed under the ad- ministration of his mother, Anne of Aus- tria. The prince of Conde filled a pro- minent situation in the early part of this reign : sometimes a patriot, sometimes a courtier, and sometimes a rebel. He was opposed by the celebrated Turenne. The nation of France was involved at once in civil and domestic wars ; but the queen-mother having made choice of car- dinal Mazarine, for her first minister, he found means to divide the domestic ene- mies of the court so effectually among themselves, that when Louis assumed the reins of government into his own hands, he found himself the most abso- lute monarch that had ever sat upon the throne of France. He had the good for- tune, on the death of Mazarine, to put the domestic administration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert, who formed, FRANCE. 263 new systems for the glory, commerce, and manufactures of France, all which he carried into effect. The Grand Mo- 7iarque, as he was called, was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, promoting the interests of his subjects only that they might better answer the purposes of his greatness. By his impolitic and imjust revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the year 1685, the protestants were obliged to take shelter in England, Hol- land, and different parts of Germany, where they established the silk manufac- tories, to the great injury of the commerce of their own country ; and in the end, he raised against himself a confederacy of almost all the other princes of Europe. He was, however, so fortunate in the se- lection of his officers, that he was enabled successfully to oppose this alliance for many years ; and France seemed to have attained the highest pitch of military glory, under the conduct of those renowned gen- erals Conde and Turenne. At length, the English, under the duke of Marlborough, and Austria, under prince Eugene, ren- dered the latter part of Louis' life as miserable as the beginning of it was splendid. His reign, from the year 1702 to 1711, was one continued series of de- feats and calamities ; a^id he had the mortification of seeing those places taken from him which, in the former part of his reign, were acquired at the expense of many thousand lives. Just as he was reduced to the desperate resolution of collecting his people and dying at their head, he was saved by the English tory ministry deserting the cause of liberty, withdrawing from their allies, and con- cluding the peace of Utrecht in 1712. The year before the peace, his only son, the duke of Burgundy, died, together with the duchess and their eldest son ; and his only remaining child was left at the point of death. The king himself survived till the month of September, 1715 ; but on the 14th of that month ex- pired, leaving the kingdom to his great- grandson Louis, then a minor. By the last will of Louis, he had de- volved the regency during the minority of the young king upon a council, at the head of which was the duke of Orleans. That nobleman, however, appealed to I the parliament of Paris, who set aside ! the will of the late king, and declared him sole regent. His first acts were extremely popular, and gave the most favorable ideas of his government and character. He restored to the parlia- ment the rights which had been taken from them of remonstrating against the edicts of the crown, and compelled those who had enriched themselves during the calamities of the former reign to restore their wealth to the rightful owners. He also took every method to efface the ca- lamities occasioned by the unsuccessful wars in which his predecessor had en- gaged ; promoted commerce and agricul- ture ; and, by a close alliance with Great Britian and the United provinces, seem- ed to lay the foundation of a lasting tranquillity. The spirit of conquest having now in a great measure subsided, and that of commerce taken its place, France be- came the scene of a remarkable commer- cial project. This was the famous Mis- sissippi scheme, began in 1716. John Law, a Scotchman, was the author of it ; and the greatness of the idea recom- mended it to the duke of Orleans. His project was to pay off the national debt, by the introduction of paper money. A bank was accordingly established, which was soon declared royal, and united with the Mississippi, or West India company, from whose commerce the greatest riches were expected. The opinion that had long been prevalent, that the neighbor- hood of the river INIississippi contained inexhaustible treasiures, was the origin of this expectation. It would appear, that Law himself, who at first regarded the Mississippi scheme as merely subor- dinate and auxiliary' to his plan of paper credit, was in a short time beguiled by it The bubble was soon blown to bursting. In 1719, the notes which he fabricated, exceeded in nominal amount fourscore times the real value of the current coin of the kingdom. At first, only the debts of the state had been paid off in this pa- per ; but afterwards, so extreme was the I eagerness to obtain a share in the scheme, that they were circulated very widely through the kingdom. At length, the late financiers, in conjunction with the 264 FRANCE. great bankers, exhausted the royal bank, by continually drawing upon it for large sums. The consequence of this was, that every one wanted to convert his notes into cash ; and public credit sunk all at once. Law himself was obliged to flee. Upwards of 500,000 sufferers pre- sented their whole fortunes to govern- ment, in paper, which after liquidating these debts, charged itself with the enor- mous sum of 1,631,000,000 of livres, to be paid in specie. Scarcely had the kingdom recovered from this event, when the didve became minister, but did not long enjoy this post. His irregularities had brought on a num- ber of maladies, under which he in a short time sunk, and was succeeded in his administration by the duke of Bour- bon Conde. The king had been married when very young, to the infanta of Spain, though the marriage had never been com- pleted. The princess, however, was now brought to Paris, and for some time treated as queen of France ; but as Louis grew up, it was easy to see that he had contracted an inveterate hatred against the intended partner of his bed. The minister, therefore, at last consented that the princess should be sent back ; an affront so much resented by the queen, her mother, that it had almost produced a war between the two nations. The dissolution of the marriage of Louis was the last act of Conde's ad- ministration ; and the procuring of a new match, was the first act of his successor, cardinal Fleury. The princess selected was the daughter of Stanislaus Lesczin- ski, king of Poland, who had been de- posed by Charles Xll, of Sweden. The princess was destitute of personal charms, but of an amiable disposition ; and though it is probable that she never possessed the love of her husband, her excellent qualities commanded his esteem ; and the birth of a prince soon after their mar- riage removed all the fears of the people concerning the succession. Cardinal Fleury continued the pacific schemes pursued by his predecessors, though they were somewhat interrupted by the war which took place between Poland and Russia, in which the former was defeated. The disputes between Spain and England, in 1737, very little affected the peace of France ; and it must be remembered to the credit of the min- ister Fleury, that, instead of fomenting the quarrels between the neighboring po- tentates, he labored incessantly to keep them at peace. He reconciled the Ge- noese and Corcisans, who were at war ; and his mediation was accepted by the Ottoman Porte, v/ho at that time carried on a successful war with the emperor of Germany, but made peace with him at the intercession of the cardinal. All his endeavors, however, proved at last ineffectual. On the death of the emperor Charles VI, in 1740, the last prince of the house of Austria, his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, claimed the Austrian succession, which comprehend- ed the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe- mia, the duchy of Silesia, Austrian Sua- bia, Upper and Lovs^er Austria, StjTia, Carinthia, Carniola, the four forest towns, Burgaw, Brisgaw, the Low Countries, Friuli, Tyrol, the duchy of Milan, and the duchies of Parma and Placeutia. Among the many competitors who pre- tended a right to share, or wholly to in- herit, these extensive dominions, the king of France was one. But as he wished not to awaken the jealousy of the Eu- ropean princes by preferring directly his own pretensions, he chose rather to sup- port those of Frederic III, who laid claim to the duchy of Silesia. This brought on the war of 1740. It was ter- minated in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la Chapelle ; but to this Louis, who se- cretly meditated a severe vengeance against Britain, only consented that he might have time to recruit his fleet, and put himself somewhat more upon an equality with that country. But while he meditated great exploits of this kind, the internal tranquillity of the kingdom was disturbed by violent disputes be- tween the clergy and parliaments of France. In the preceding reign there had been violent contests between the Jansenists and Jesuits concerning free-will and other obscure points of theology ; and the opinions of the Jansenists had been declared heretical by the celebrated papal bull named Unigenitus ; the recep- tion of which was enforced by the king, FRANCE, 265 in opposition to the parliaments, the arch- bishop of Paris, and the body of the people. The archbishop, with fifteen other prelates, protested against it as "an infringement of the rights of the Galli- can church, of the laws of the realm, and an insult on the rights of the people themselves. The duke of Orleans fa- vored the bull by inducing the bishops to submit to it ; but at the same time stop- ped a persecution which was going on against its opponents. Thus matters passed over till the conclusion of the peace ; a short time after which the jealousy of the clergy was awakened by an attempt of the minister of state to in- quire into the wealth of individuals of their order. To prevent this, they re- vived the contest about the bull Unigeni- tus ; and it was resolved, that confes- sional notes should be obtained of dying persons ; that these notes should be signed by priests who maintained the au- thority of the bull ; and that, without such notes, no person could obtain a vi- aticum, or extreme unction. On this oc- casion the new archbishop of Paris and the parliament of that city took opposite sides ; the latter imprisoning such of the clergy as refused to administer the sacra- ments excepting in the circumstances abovementioned. Other parliaments fol- lowed the example of that of Paris ; and a war was instantly kindled between the civil and ecclesiastical departments of the state. In this dispute the king inter- fered, forbade the parliaments to take cognizance of ecclesiastical proceedings, and commanded them to suspend all pros- ecutions relative to the refusal of the sa- craments ; but, instead of acquiescing, the parliament presented new remon- strances, refused to attend to any other business, and resolved that they coiUd not obey this injunction without violating their duty as well as their oath. They cited the bishop of Orleans before their tribunal, and ordered all writings, in which its jurisdiction was disputed, to be burnt by the executioner. By the assist- ance of the military, they enforced the administration of the sacraments to the sick, and ceased to distribute that justice to the subject for which they had been originally instituted. The king, enraged 34 at their contumacy, arrested and impris- oned four of the members who had been most obstinate, and banished the remain- der to Bourges, Poictiers, and Auvergne ; while, to prevent any impediment from taking place in the administration of justice by their absence, he issued letters- patent, by which a royal chamber for the prosecution of civil and criminal suits was instituted. The counsellors refused to plead before these new courts ; and the king, finding at last that the whole nation was about to fall into a state of anarchy, thought proper to recall the parliament. The banished members entered Paris amidst the acclamations of the inhabit- ants ; and the archbishop, who still con- tinued to encourage the priests in refus- ing the sacraments, was banished to his seat at Conflans ; the bishops of Orleans and Troyes were in like manner banished, and a calm for the present restored to the kingdom. The tranquillity thus established was of no long duration. In the year 1756, the parliament again fell under the displeas- ure of the king by their imprudent per- secution of those who adhered to the bull Unigenitus. They proceeded so far in this opposition, as to refuse to re- gister certain taxes absolutely necessary for the carrying on of the war. By this, Louis was so provoked, that he suppressed the fourth and fifth chambers of inquests, the members of which had distinguish- ed themselves by their opposition to his will. He commanded the bull Unigenitus to be respected, and prohibited the sec- ular judges from ordering the administra- tion of the sacraments. On this, fifteen counsellors of the great chamber re- signed their offices, and one hundred and twenty-four members of the diflferent par- liaments followed their example. An attempt was made by a fanatic, named Damien, to assassinate him ; and the king was actually wounded though slightly be- tween the ribs, in the presence of his son, and in the midst of his guards. The assassin was put to the most painful tor- tures ; in the midst of which he persist- ed, in the most obstinate manner, to de- clare that he had no intention to kill the king, but that his design was only to wound him, that God might touch his 266 FRANCE. heart, and incline him to restore peace to ' his dominions. I The unfortunate resuUs of the war of 1755 had brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when Louis implored the assist- , ance of Spain ; and on this occasion the | celebrated Family Compact was signed, j by which, with the single exception of the American trade, the subjects of France I and Spain were naturalized in both king- 1 doms, and the enemy of the one sover- eign was invariably to be looked upon as the enemy of the other. At that time, however, the assistance of Spain availed very little ; both powers were reduced to the lowest ebb, and the arms of Britain were triumphant in every quarter of the globe. The peace concluded at Paris in the year 1763, though it freed the nation from a most destructive and bloody war, did not restore its internal tranquillity. The parliament, eager to pursue the vic- tory they had formerly gained over their religious enemies, now directed their ef- forts against the Jesuits, who had obtained and enforced the bull Unigenitus. That once-powerful order, however, was now on the brink of destruction. A conspi- racy formed by them against the king of Portugal, and from Avhich he narrowly escaped, had roused the indignation of Europe ; and this was still further in- flamed by some fraudulent practices of which they had been guilty in France. Le Velette, the chief of their mission- aries at Martinico, had, ever since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, carried on a very extensive commerce, insomuch that he even aspired at monopolising the whole AVest India trade, when the war with Britain commenced in 1755. Le- onay and GoullVc, merchants at Mar- seilles, in expectation of receiving mer- chandise to the value of two millions from him, had accepted of bills drawn by the Jesuits to the amount of a mil- lion and a half. They were, however, disappointed by the vast number of cap- tures made by the British ; in conse- quence of which they were obliged to apply to the society of Jesuits at large ; but they, either ignorant of their true in- terest, or too slow in giving assistance, suffered the merchants to stop payment ; and thus not only to bring ruin upon themselves, but to involve others in the same calamity. Their creditors de- manded indemnification from the society at large ; and, on their refusal to satisfy them, brought their cause before the par- liament of Paris. In the course of the I investigations, the volume containing the I constitution and government of the order : itself was appealed to, and produced in open court. It then appeared that the order of Jesuits formed a distinct body I in the state, submitting implicitly to their chief, who alone was absolute over their lives and fortunes. It was likewise discovered that they had, after a former expulsion, been admitted into the king- dom upon conditions which they had never fulfilled, and'to which their chief I had refused to subscribe ; consequently j that their existence at that time in the I nation was merely the effect of tolera- I tion. In this critical moment, however, ' the king interfered, and by his royal man- date suspended all proceedings against them for a year; a plan of accommodation was drawn up, and submitted to the pope, and general of the order ; but tire latter, by his ill-timed haughtiness, entirely over- threw the hope of reconciliation. The king withdrew his protection, and the parUament redoubled their efforts against them. The society itself was dissolved, and its members declared incapable of holding any clerical or municipal offices ; their colleges were seized ; their effects confiscated, and their order destroyed. The parliament, having gained this victory, next made an attempt to set bounds to the power of the king himself. But every appearance of opposition was at last silenced by the absolute authority of the king. In the midst of this pleni- I tude of poAver, however, which he had so ardently desired, his health daily de- clined, and the period of his days was CAadently at no great distance. He died on the 10th of May, 1774, of the small pox, which he received in a most viru- j lent form from one of his mistresses. Louis XVI, grandson to the former, ascended the throne, in 1774, in the j twentieth year of his age. When the I death of the king was announced to him, he was sitting with Marie Antoinette, his FRANCE. 267 queen. Both at once knelt and exclaim- ed, " My God ! guide us, protect us, we are too young to reign." His father, the devout dauphin, had intrusted the prince's education to the due de la Vauguyon, a noble of rigid and ascetic piety. This man bred up the future heir to the throne of France as if he were destined to be a monk ; and took care not to render him not only scrupulously ignorant of all polite learn- ing, but even of history and the science of government. The very external ap- pearance of Louis betrayed this tutelage ; he was slovenly, melancholy, ungraceful, bashful, and so diffident, that his eyes often shrunk from the regaj^d of his meanest subject ; with all this, he had been inspired with such a religious hor- ror of carnal affections, that he remained for many years on no closer terms than those of mere politeness with his young and lovely queen. Such was the char- acter of the new sovereign, called to administer the realm at the most critical period of its history. In order to secure himself against the disease which had proved fatal to his predecessor, submit- ted to inoculation, with several others of the royal family. Their quick and easy recovery contributed much to extend that practice throughout the kingdom, and to remove the prejudices which had been entertained against it. The king had no sooner regained his health than he applied himself diligently to extinguish the differences which had taJien place between his predecessor and the people. He removed those from their employments who had given cause of complaint by their arbitrary and op- pressive conduct ; and he conciliated the affection of his subjects by removing the new parliaments and recalling the old ones. Although the French monarch was of a mild disposition, and not destitute of generosity of sentiment, yet his own and the public exultation had been openly and constantly proportioned to the suc- cess of the Americans in their contest with Britain ; the princes of the blood and chief nobility Avere eager to embark in support of the cause of freedom ; and the prudence of the king and his most confidential ministers alone restrained their ardor. The fatal events of the former war were still impressed on the mind of Louis ; and he would not consent to ex- pose his infant marine in a contest with a nation who had so lately broken the uni- ted strength of the house of Bourbon. Two agents from the United States, Si- las Deane and Dr. Benjamin Franklin, had successively arrived at Paris ; and though all audience was denied them in a public capacity, still they were private- ly encouraged to hope that France only waited the proper opportunity to vindi- cate in arms the independence of Ameri- ca. In the mean time the American cruisers were hospitably received in the French ports ; artillery and all kinds of warlike stores were freely sold or liber- ally granted to the requisitions of the col- onists ; and French officers and engi- neers with the connivance of government, entered into their service. Some changes were about this time introduced into the different departments of state. The conduct of M. Necker in the finances had been attended with uni- versal approbation ; and M. Taboureau de Reux, his colleague, had resigned his situation, but still retained the dignity of counsellor of state. To aftbrd full scope to the genius of M. Necker, Louis determined no longer to clog him with an associate ; but, with the title of director-general of the finances, submit- ted to him the entire managc^ient of the funds and revenue of France. In the ensuing year, the count de St. Germains, secretary at war, died ; and the prince de Montbarey, who had already filled an inferior situation in that department, was now appointed to succeed him. In the mean time, Louis' negotiations with foreign courts were not neglected. He concluded a new treaty of alliance with Switzerland; vigilantly observed the motions of the different princes of Germany, on the death of the elector of Bavaria ; and when closely questioned by the English ambassador, lord Stor- mont, respecting the various Avarlike pre- parations which were continued through the kingdom, he replied, that at a time when the seas were covered Avith Eng- lish fleets and American cruisers, and 268 FRANCE when such powerful armies were sent! to the New World, it became prudent for liim also to arm for the security of the colonies and the protection of the commerce of France. The king well knew that the remonstrances of Great Britain, and the importunities of the agents of the United States, would soon compel him to adopt some decisive line of conduct. This was hastened by an event highly unfavorable to England, in the failure of General Burgoyne's expe- dition, and the capture of his army. The news of that event was received at Pa- ris with unbounded exultation. M. Sar- tine, the superintendant of marine, was eager to measure the naval strength of France with that of Great Britain ; the queen, who had long seconded the ap- plications of the American agents, now espoused their cause with fresh ardor ; and the pacific inclinations of Louis being overborne by the suggestions of his min- isters and the influence of his queen, it was at length determined openly to ac- knowledge the independence of the Uni- ted States of America. Dr. Franklin and Silas Deane, who had hitherto acted as private agents, were now acknowledged as public am- bassadors from those states to the court of Versailles ; and a treaty of amity and commerce was signed between the two powers in the month of February, 1778. The duke of Noailles, ambassador to the court of London, was in the month of March, instructed to acquaint that court with the above treaty. At the same time he declared, that the contracting parties had paid great attention not to stipulate any exclusive advantages in favor of France, and that the United States had reserved the liberty of treating with every nation whatever on the same footing of equality and reciprocity. But this stipulation was treated by the Bri- tish with contempt ; and the recall of lord Stormont, our ambassador at Ver- sailles, was the signal for the commence- ment of hostilities. In the year 1780, new changes in the French ministry took place. M. Bertin had resigned the office of secretary of state ; the prince de Montbareyhad retired from the post of secretary at war, and was succeeded by the marquis de Segur. But the most important removal was that of M. Sartine, who had for several years presided over the marine department, and . whose unwearied application and ability had raised the naval power of France to a height that astonished Europe. This year the king fixed on the anni- versary of his birth-day to render it mem- orable by a new instance of humanity ; and he abolished for ever the inhuman custom of putting the question, as it was called, by torture ; a custom which had been so established by the practice of ages, that it seemed to be an inseparable part of the constitution of the courts of justice in France. ,At the same time, to defray the charges of war, he con- tinued to diminish his own expenditure ; and sacrificing the appearance of regal magnificence to the ease of his subjects, dismissed at once above 400 officers belonging to his court. Unhappily, however, the popular dis- contents were excited next year by the dismissal of their favorite minister M. Necker. He had conceived the arduous but popular project of supporting a war by loans without taxes ; and the rigid economy which he had introduced into all the departments of the royal house- hold, and the various resources that pre- sented themselves to his fertile genius, had supported him amidst the difficulties that attended this system. But his aus- terity of temper had not rendered him equally acceptable to the sovereign and his subjects ; and the repeated reforms he had recommended were represented as inconsistent with the dignity of the crown ; he was, therefore, in 1781, dis- missed from his office of comptroller- general ; and M. Joli de Fleuri, coun- sellor of state, was appointed to that im- portant department. The year of Neck- er's dismissal was nevertheless a glo- I rious one for France and America. The minister of marine, De Castries, chosen by him, proved his talents by the suc- j cesses which his combination and activi- ; ty procured. A French army, wafted over the Atlantic, united with that of 1 Washington, whilst the French naval ; force, concentrated in the Chesapeake, , materially aided the operations of the FRANCE. 269 the land army. Sir Henry Clinton com- j treaty ; and France throughout her ex- manded in New York, Cornwallis in tensive dominions, beheld peace once Virginia. Threatening both points, and , more established. thus preventing them from mutual aid, i But, however exalted her present situ- Washington and the French suddenly ation might appear, the seeds of future turned their combined force against the , commotion were already apparent to an Virginian army. Cornwallis fortified | attentive observer. The applause that himself in York-Town ; and he was soon j had attended the parliament of Paris in attacked by the French on one side, and } their struggles with the late king might by the Americans on the other. The | be considered as the first dawn of free- two gallant nations, rivalling each other dom ; the language of that assembly had in zeal, could not fail to be victorious ; boldly inculcated to their countrymen the English were beaten from their their natural rights, and taught them to works, and lord Cornwallis was reduced look with a less enraptured eye on the to the disgrace of capitulation. Many noble names, soon to be famed in French annals, here first distinguished them- selves. In addition to La Fayette and Rochambeau, were the due de Lauzun, afterwards de Biron, who perished in the revolution, Alexander Berthier, Ma- thieu Dumas, and the vicomte deNoailles. The defeat of the count de Grasse hap- pened next year, and impressed the kingdom with general grief and conster- nation. Immense preparations were, however, made for the operations of 1783 ; and, in conjunction with the courts of Madrid and the Hague, Louis was determined this year to make the most powerful efforts to bring the war to a conclusion. But in the midst of these preparations, the A^oice of peace was lustre that surrounded the throne. The war in America had contributed to en- large the political ideas of the French ; they had on that occasion stood forth as the champions of liberty, in opposition to regal power ; and the officers on their re- turn imparted to the provinces of France the flame of freedom which had been kindled in the wilds of America. From that moment the French, instead of si- lently acquiescing imder the edicts of their sovereign, canvassed each action with bold and rigid impartiality ; while the attachment of the army, which has ever been considered as the sole founda- tion of despotism, gave way to the en- thusiasm of liberty. We have already noticed the public dissatisfaction that had attended the dis- again heard; and Louis Avas induced to mission of M. Necker ; his transient suc- listen to the proffered mediation of the ' cessor, M. de Fleury, had retired from two potentates in Europe, the emperor i the management of the finances in 1783, of Germany and the empress of Russia, i and the more transient administration of The count de Vergennes, who still oc- M. d'Ormesson had expired in the same cupied the post of secretary of foreign ! year that gave it birth. On his retreat, affairs, was appointed to treat with Mr. M. de Calonne, who had successively Fitzherbert, the British minister at Brus- i filled with acknowledged reputation the sels, but who had lately proceeded to office of intendant of Mentz, and after- Paris to conduct this important negotia- wards of the provinces of Flanders and tion. The way was already smoothed Artois, was nominated to the post of for the restoration of the public tran- comptroller-general. This gentleman, quillity, by provisional articles signed at eloquent in conversation and polished in the conclusion of the previous year be- his manners, fertile in resources, and lib- tween the United States of America and eral in the disposal of the public money, Great Britain, and which were to coihsti- soon rendered himself acceptable to the tute a treaty of peace finally to be con- sovereign. But he did not enter upon his eluded when that between France and new and arduous station favored by the Great Britain took place. Preliminary breath of popidarity : he was reported to articles were accordingly agreed upon ! be more able than consistent, and not to and signed at Versailles : these were have tempered the ardor of his spirit by soon after succeeded by a definitive ; the severity of deep research ; and the 270 FRANCE. people, amidst repeated loans, regretted that severe simplicity which had charac- terised the administration of M. Necker. The treaty of commerce concluded in the year 1786 with Great Britain was a new source of discontent. Though re- garded by the English manufacturers as far from advantageous, it excited in France still louder murmurs. It was represented as likely to extinguish those infant establishments which were yet unable to vie with the manufactures of England that had attained maturity ; but the market that it held out for the wines and oils of France was passed over in si- lence, while the distress of the artisan M^as painted in the most striking colors. And when the edict for registering the loan at the conclusion of the last year, and which amounted to the sum of three millions three hundred and thirty thou- sand pounds, was presented to the par- liament of Paris, the murmurs of the people, through the remonstrances of that assembly, assumed a more legal and formidable aspect. The king, however, signified to the select deputation that were commissioned to convey to him their remonstrances, that he expected to be obeyed without farther delay. The ceremony of the registering accordingly took place on the next day ; but it was accompanied with a resolution, import- ing " that public economy was the only genuine source of abundant revenue, the only means of providing for the necessi- ties of the state, and restoring that credit which borrowing had reduced to the brink of ruin." The king was no sooner informed of this step, than he commanded the attend- ance of the grand deputation of parlia- ment ; when he erased from their records with his own hand the resolution that had been adopted ; and observed, that though it was his pleasure that the parliament should communicate, by its respectful representations, whatever might concern the good of the public, yet he never would allow them so far to abuse his clemency as to erect themselves into the censors of his government. At the same time, more strongly to mark his displeas- ure at their expostulations, he superse- ded one of their officers, who had appear- ed most active in forwarding the obnox- ious resolution. M. de Calonne, however, though grati- fied by the approbation of his sovereign, could not but feel himself deeply morti- fied by the opposition of the parliament. His attempts to conciliate that assembly had proved ineffectual ; and he experi- enced their inflexible aversion at the criti- cal juncture when their acquiescence might have proved of the most essential service. An anxious inquiry into the state of the public finances had convinced him that the expenditure by far exceeded the revenue. In this situation, to impose new taxes was impracticable ; to con- tinue the method of borrowing was ruin- ous ; to have recourse only to economical reform, Avould be found wholly inade- quate ; and he hesitated not to declare, that it would be impossible to place the finances on a solid basis, but by the re- formation of whatever was vicious in the constitution of the state. To give weight to this reform, M. de Calonne was sensible that something more was necessary than the royal au- thority ; he perceived that the parliament was neither a fit instrument for introdu- cing a new order into public affairs, nor would submit to be a passive machine for sanctioning the plans of a minister, even if those plans were the emanations of perfect wisdom. Though originally a body of lawyers, indebted for their ap- pointments to the king, there was not an attribute of genuine legislative assembly but what they seemed desirous to engross to themselves ; and they had been sup- ported in their pretensions by the plau- dits of the people, who were sensible that there was no other body in the na- tion that could plead their cause against royal or ministerial oppression. To sup- press, therefore, the only power of cou- tj'ol that remained, and to render the gov- ernment more arbitrary, was deemed too perilous a measure ; yet to leave the par- liament in the full possession of their in- fluence, an influence that the minister was convinced would be exerted against him, was at once to render his whole system abortive. In this dilemma, the only expedient that suggested itself was to have recourse FRANCE. 271 to some other assembly, more dignified that fixed for the opening of the meeting, in its character, and which should in a j He was succeeded in the department of greater degree consist of members from • foreign affairs by the count de Montmo- the various orders of the state and the different provinces of the kingdom. This promised to be a popular measure ; it im- plied a deference to the people at large, and was expected to prove highly accept- able. But the true and legitimate as- sembly of the nation, the states-general, had not met since the year 1614 ; nor could the minister flatter himself with the hope of obtaining the royal assent to a meeting which a despotic sovereign could not but regard with secret jealousy. rm, a nobleman of unblemished charac- ter. But his loss at this critical juncture was severely felt by M. de Calonne ; he alone, of all the ministers, having entered with warmth and sincerity into the plans of the comptroller-general. The cheva- lier de Miromesnil, keeper of the seals, was avowedly the rival and enemy of that statesman. The mareschal de Cas- tries, secretary for the marine depart- ment, was personally attached to M. Necker ; and the baron de Bretuil, sec- Another assembly had occasionally been ' retary for the household, was deeply en- substituted in the room of the states-gen- 1 gaged in what was called the Austrian eral : this was distinguished by the title system. of the Notables ; and consisted of a num- ber of persons from all parts of the king- dom, chiefly selected from the higher orders of the state, and nominated by the It was under these difllculties that M. de Calonne, on the 22d of February, first met the assembly of the Notables, and opened his long-expected plan. He be- king himself This assembly had been ' gan by stating, that the public expendi- convened by Henry IV ; again by Louis ture had for centuries past exceeded the now once more sum- revenue, and that a very considerable de XIII ; and was moned by the authority of the present monarch. The writs for calling them together were dated on the 29th of December, 1786 ; and they were addressed to seven princes of the blood, nine dukes and peers of France, eight field mareschals, twenty- two nobles, eight counsellors of state, four masters of requests, eleven archbishops and bishops, thirty-seven of the heads of the law, twelve deputies of the pays d'ctats, tlie lieutenant civil, and twenty-five magistrates of the different towns of the kingdom. The number of members was 144 ; and the 29th of Janu- ary, 1787, was the period appointed for their meeting. Upon the arrival of the Notables at Paris, however, the minister found him- ficiency had of course existed ; that the Mississippi scheme of 1720 had by no means, as might have been expected, re- stored the balance ; and that under the economical administration of cardinal Fleury the deficit still existed ; that the progress of this derangement under the last reign had been extreme ; the defi- ciency amounting to three millions ster- ling at the appointment of the abbe Terray ; who, however, reduced it to 1,675,000?. ; it decreased a little under the short administration that followed, but rose again, in consequence of the Avar, under the administration of M. Nec- ker ; and at his own accession to office, it was 300,330,000 livres. In order to remedy this growing evil, M. Calonne recommended a territorial self yet unprepared to submit his system ■ impost, from which no rank or order of to their inspection, and postponed the ; men were to be exempted ; and an in- opening of the council to the 7th of Feb- quiry into the possessions of the clergy, ruary. A second delay to the 14th of , which hitherto had been deemed sacred the same month was occasioned by the from their proportion of the public bur- indisposition of M. de Calonne himself, dens ; the various branches of internal and that of the count de Vergennes, pre- taxation were also to undergo a strict ex- sident of the council of finance and first amination : and a considerable resource secretary of state ; and a third procrasti- , was presented in mortgaging the demesne nation was the necessary result of the lands of the crown, death of the count on the day previous to | The very necessity for these reforms 272 FRANCE, was combated with a degree of boldness and force of reasoning that could not fail of deeply impressing the assembly ; and instead of meeting with a ready acquies- cence, the comptroller-general was now launched into the boundless ocean of po- litical controversy. M. Necker, previ- ous to his retirement, had published his Compte rendu au Roi, in which France was represented as possessing a clear surplus of 425,000^. sterling ; this per- formance had been read with avidity, and probably contributed to estrange from the author the royal countenance ; but the credit of it was ably vindicated by M. de Briennc, archbishop of Toulouse. M. de Calonne met with a still more formidable adversary in the count de Mi- rabeau. This extraordinary man, rest- less in his disposition, licentious in his morals, but bold, penetrating, and enter- prising, had visited every court in Europe. He had been admitted at one time to the confidence of the minister ; and had been directed, though in no ostensible charac- ter, to observe at Berlin the disposition of the successor of the great Frederick : in this capacity he was frequently expo- sed to neglect and disappointment ; his letters were often left unanswered ; dis- gust succeeded to admiration ; and he who entered the Prussian court the inti- mate friend, returned to Paris the avowed enemy, of M. de Calonne : while the archbishop arraigned the understanding, the count impeached the integrity, of the comptroller-general. The eloquence of M. de Calonne, how- ever, might have successfully vindicated his system and reputation against the cal- culations of Brienne, and the invectives of Mirabeau ; but he could not support himself against the influence of the three great bodies of the nation. The ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been free from all public assessments ; and had the evil gone no farther, it might have been still perhaps borne with pa- tience ; but through the shameful custom of selling patents of nobility, such crowds of new noblesse started up, that every province in the kingdom was filled with them. The first object with those who had acquired fortunes rapidly, was to pur- chase a patent ; which, besides gratify- ing their vanity, afibrded an exemption to them and their posterity from contribu- ting proportionably to the exigencies of the state ; the magistracies, likewise, throughout the kingdom enjoyed their share of these exemptions ; so that the whole weight of the taxes lell on those who were least able to bear them. The minister's design, then, of equal- ising the public burdens, and by rendering the taxes general diminishing the load borne by the lower and most useiul class- es of people, though undoubtedly great and patriotic, at once united against him the nobility, the clergy, and the magis- tracy : and the event was such as might be expected ; the intrigues of those three bodies raised against him so loud a clam- or, that finding it impossible to stem the torrent, he not only resigned his place on the 12th of April, but soon after retired to England from the storm of persecution. The dismission of M. de Calonne had left France without a minister, and al- most without a system ; and though the king bore the opposition of the Notables with admirable temper, yet the disappoint- ment that he had experienced sunk deep into his mind. Without obtaining any re- lief for his most urgent necessities, he per- ceived too late that he had opened a path to the restoration of the ancient consti- tution of France, which had been under- mined by the crafty Louis XI, and had been nearly extinguished by the daring sangiunary councils of Richelieu under Louis XIII. The Notables had indeed demeaned themselves with respect and moderation, but at the same time they had not been deficient in firmness. The appointment of the archbishop of Tou- louse, the vigorous adversary of M. de Ca- lonne, to the office of comptroller-general, probably contributed to preserve the ap- pearance of good humor in that assembly ; yet the proposed territorial impost, or gen- eral land tax, which was an object so ar- dently coveted by the court, was rejected. Louis, therefore, deprived of any further hope of rendering the convention subser- vient to his embarrassments, determined to dissolve the assembly ; which he ac- cordingly did, with a very moderate and conciliatory speech to the members on their disiTiissioa. FRANCE. 273 Thus disappointed of the advantage which he had flattered himself he would have draw^n from the acquiescence of the Notables, the king was obliged now to recur to the usual mode of raising money by the royal edicts ; among the meas- ures proposed for which purpose were the doubling of the poll-tax, the re-estab- lishment of the third-twentieth, and stamp duty. But the whole was strongly dis- approved by the parliament of Paris ; and that assembly, in the most positive terms, refused to register the edict. Louis was obliged to apply, as the last resort, to his absolute authority ; and by holding what is called a bed of justice, compelled them to enrol the impost. The parliament, though defeated, were far from subdued ; and on the day after the king had held his bed of justice, they entered a formal protest against the edict ; declaring, "that it had been registered against their approbation and consent, by the king's express command ; that it nei- ther ought nor should have any force ; and that the first person who should pre- sume to attempt to carry it into execution, should be adjudged a traitor, and con- demned to the gallies." This spirited declaration left the king no other alter- native than either proceeding to extremi- ties in support of his authority, or relin- quishing for ever after the power of rais- ing money upon any occasion without the consent of the parliament. Painful as every appearance of violence must have proved to the mild disposition of Louis, he could not consent to surrender, with- out a struggle, that authority which had been so long exercised by his predeces- sors. Since the commencement of the present discontents, the capital had been gradually filled with considerable bodies of troops ; and about a week after the parliament had entered the protest, an i officer of the French guards, with a party of soldiers, went at break of day to the house of each individual member, to sig- j nify to him the king's command, that he should immediately get into his carriage, and proceed to Troves, a city of Cham- pagne, about seventy miles from Paris, without writing or speaking to any per- son out of his own house before his de- parture. These orders were served at 35 the same instant ; and before the citizens of Paris were acquainted with the trans- action, their magistrates were already on the road to their place of banishment. Pevious to their removal, however, they had presented a remonstrance on the late measures of government, and the alarming state of public affairs. In stating their opinions on taxes, they de- clared, that neither the parliaments, nor any other authority, excepting that of the three estates of the kingdom, collectively assembled, could warrant the laying of any permanent tax upon the people ; and they strongly enforced the renewal of those national assemblies, which had rendered the reign of Charlemagne so great and illustrious. The king had endeavored to soothe the Parisians by new regulations of economy, and by continual retrenchments in his household ; but these instances of attention, which once would have been received with the loudest acclamations, were now disregarded under their afflic- tion for the absence of their parliament. His majesty, therefore, in order to regain the affections of his subjects, consented to restore that assembly ; abandoning at the same time the stamp duty and the territorial impost, which had been the sources of dispute. These measures were, however, insufficient to establish harmony between the court and the par- liament. The necessities of the state still continued ; nor could the deficiency of the revenue be supplied but by extra- ordinary resources, or a long course of rigid frugality. About the middle of No- vember, 1787, in a fidl meeting of the parliament, attended by all the princes of the blood and the peers of France, the king entered the assembly, and proposed two edicts for their approbation ; one was for a new loan of 450,000,000 livres, near 1 9,000,000/, sterling ; the other Avas for the re-establishment of the protestants in all their ancient civil rights ; a measure which had long been warmly recommend- ed by the parliament, and which was prob- ably now introduced to procure a better reception to the loan. On this occasion the king delivered himself in a speech of uncommon length, filled with professions of regard for the 274 FRANCE. people, but at the same time strongly ex- pressive of the obedience he expected to his edicts. Louis probably imagined that the dread of that banishment from which the members had been so lately recalled would have ensured the acquiescence of the assembly ; but no sooner Avas per- mission announced for every member to deliver his sentiments, than he was con- vinced that their spirits remained totally unsubdued. An animated debate took place, and was continued for nine hours ; when the king, wearied by perpetual op- position, and chagrined at some freedoms used in their debates, suddenly rose and commanded the edict to be registered without further delay. This measure was most unexpectedly opposed by the duke of Orleans, first prince of the blood; who, considering it as an infringement of the rights of parliament, protested against the whole proceedings of the day as being thereby null and void. Though Louis coiild not conceal his astonish- ment and displeasure at this decisive step, he contented himself with repeat- ing his orders ; and immediately after, quitting the assembly, retired to Ver- sailles. On the king's departure the par- liament confirmed the protest of the duke of Orleans ; and declared, that as their deliberations had been interrupted, they considered the whole business of that day as of no efiect. It was not to be supposed that Louis would suffer so bold an attack on his power with impunity. Accordingly, a letter was next day delivered to the duke of Orleans, commanding him to retire to Villars Cotterel, one of his seats about fifteen leagues from Paris, and to receive no company there except his own family ; at the same time, the abbe Sabatiere, and M. Frcteau, both members of the parliament, and who had distinguished themselves in the debate, were seized under the authority of letlres de cachet, and conveyed, the first to the castle of Mont St. Michel, in Normandy, the last, to a prison in Picardy. This act of des- potism did not fail immediately to rouse the feelings of the parliament. On the following day they waited on the king, and expressed their astonishment and concern that a prince of the blood-royal had been exiled, and two of their mem- bers imprisoned, for having declared in his presence what their duty and con- sciences dictated, and at a time when his majesty had announced that he came to take the sense of the assembly by a plurality of voices. The answer of the king was reserved and imsatislactory, and tended to increase the resentment of the parliament. With a view to diminish the influence of parliament, it was determined again to convene the Notables. Accordingly, about the beginning of May, Louis ap- peared in that assembly ; and after com- plaining of the excesses in which the parliament of Paris had indulged them- selves, and which had drawn down his reluctant indignation on a few of the members, he declared his resolution, in- stead of annihilating them as a body, to recall them to their duty and obedience, by a salutary reform. M. de la Moignon, as keeper of the seals, then explained his majesty's pleasure to establish a com- pleniere or supreme assembly, to be com- posed of princes of the blood, peers of the realm, great officers of the crown, the clergy, mareschals of France, governors of provinces, knights of different-orders, a deputation of one member from every parliament, and two members from the chambers of council, and to be summon- ed as often as the public emergency, in the royal opinion, should render it requisite. If the assembly of the Notables listen- ed in silent deference to the project of their sovereign, the parliament of Paris received it with every symptom of aver- sion. That body strongly protested against the establishment of any other tribunal ; and declared their final resolu- tion not to assist at any deliberations in the supreme assembly which his majes- ty prepared to institute. A more unex- pected mortification occurred to the king in the oppo-sition of several peers of the realm ; these expressed their regret at beholding the fundamental principles of the constitution violated ; and while they were lavish in their professions of at- tachment to the person of their sovereign, concluded with apologizing for not enter- ing on those functions assigned them in the plenary court, as being inconsistent FRANCE. 275 witli the true interests of his majesty, which were inseparable from those of the nation. Rebellion now quickly spread through- out the more distant provinces ; at Ren- nes in Britany, and Grenoble in Dau- phine, the people broke out into acts of the most daring outrage. In the latter city several hundreds of the inhabitants perished in a conflict with the military ; they yet maintained their ground against the soldiery ; and the commanding ofB- cer ; at the entreaties of the first presi- dent, readily withdrew his troops from a contest into which he had entered with reluctance. The different parliaments of the kingdom at the same time express- ed their feelings in the most glowing lan- guage ; and strongly urged the necessity of calling together the states-general, the lawful council of the kingdom, as the only means of restoring the public tranquillity. Louis now plainly saw that a compli- ance with the public wishes for the re- establishment of the states-general was absolutely necessary, in order to avoid the calamities of a civil war which im- pended upon his refusal. It was not, however, till after many a painful struggle that Louis could resolve to restore an assembly, whose influence must naturally overshadow that of the crown, and whose jurisdiction would confine within narrow limits the bound- less power he had inherited from his fathers. An arret was issued in August, fixing the meeting of the states-general to the first of May, in the ensuing year ; and every step was taken to secure the favorable opinion of the public during the interval. New arrangements took place in the administration ; and M. Necker, whom the confidence of the people had long followed, was again introduced into the management of the finances ; the torture, which by a former edict had been restricted in part, was now entirely abol- ished; every person accused was allowed the assistance of counsel, and permitted to avail himself of any point of law ; and it was decreed, that in future sentence of death should not be passed on any person, unless the party accused should be pronounced guilty by a majority at least of three judges. The time appointed for the convention of the states-general was now approach- ing ; and the means of assembling them formed a matter of difficult deliberation in the cabinet. The last meeting, in 1614, had been convened by appHcation to the bailiwicks. But this mode was liable to several strong objections ; the bailiwicks had been increased in number and jurisdiction, several provinces having since that period been united to France ; and the numbers and quality of the mem- bers were no less an object of serious attention : it was not till the the close of the year, therefore, that the proposal of M. Necker was adopted, which fixed the number of deputies at one thousand, and ordained that the representatives oi' the third estate or commons, should equal in number those of the nobility and clergy united. The eyes of all Europe was now turn- ed on the states-general ; but the moment of that assembly's meeting was far from auspicious. The minds of the French had long been agitated by various rumors ; the unanimity that had been expected from the different orders of the states, was extinguished by the jarring preten- sions of each ; and their mutual jealous- ies were attributed by the suspicions of the people, to the intrigues of the court, who were supposed already to repent of the hasty assent which had been extorted. A dearth that prevaded the kingdom in- creased the general discontent ; and the people, pressed by hunger, and inflamed by resentment, were ripe for revolt. The sovereign also, equally impatient of the obstacles he continually encountered, could not conceal his chagrin ; while the influence of the queen in the cabinet was again established, and was attended by the immediate removal of M. Necker. The dismission of that minister, so long the favorite of the public, was the signal for open insurrection ; the Parisians as- sembled in vast numbers ; the guards refused to oppose and stain their arms with the blood of their fellow citizens ; the count d'Artois and the most obnox- ious of the nobility thought themselves happy, in eluding by flight, the fury of the insurgents ; and in a moment a revo- lution was accomplished, the most re- 276 FRANCE. markable, perhaps, of any recorded in [ history, and one which may be said to form an important epoch in the history of society* * There is no scene, no portion of history, that can be regarded under so many different views, as the REVOLUTION upon which we now enter. To some, it is all crime, — to others, all glory. With many, the prevailing sentiment has been to regard the French nation as if it were an indivi- dual actuated by one perverse will, and flinging itself from pure' love of mischief, into the agonies of suffering and the depths of crime. Such per- sons have had hitherto but a wide anathema to bestow upon that hapless people. In this, they have treated them with similar humanity to that with which men used to treat the leprous, — ex- cluded them at once from society, sympathy, charity and good-will ; regarding their malady as a crime and a sin, and looking with eyes of hate on what had better merited our pity. Revolution is one of the maladies of kingdoms, or rather the crisis of a malady. It may proceed from some latent vice in the constitution, from dissipation, from mismanagement. To avert such, is often no more in the power of the nation or of the individual, than it is to be all-sound and all-wise. From early times there was something wrong in the framework of French society. These defects have been noted ; above all, that marked division of classes, which refused amalga- mation. Their mutual and oft-renewed struggles have been seen. The people, the great mass, not of the poor and ignorant, but often of the wealthy and enlightened, were conquered and borne down in the combat. Their defeat, they could have forgiven ; but the extravagant use which the upper classes had made of their vic- tory, revolted the fallen. The clergy grasped one third of the lands of the kingdom, the no- blesse another ; yet the remaining third was bur- dened with all the expense of government. This was reversing the social pyramid, and placed it upon its ape.x. To reform this state of things was necessary. Flesh and blood could not bear it. Intellect, more powerful still, rebelled against it. Owing to the great exertions of the latter, in print and orally, all men were agreed as to the necessity of this change. Louis XVI, however uneducated, felt and owned the need ; but he was at first young, weak because ignorant, and dared not to break through the trammels of a court. The monarch, never- theless, made every effort to bring about the de- sired reform peaceably. He intrusted the task first to Turgot, whose schemes were repulsed by the magistracy, Necker made no political attempt. Calonne next tried. He was defeated and over- thrown by the clergy and noblesse. Brienne then was driven to repeat the attempt, and the magistracy tri])ped up him. What resource was left ! To recur to the people. But this was re- volution. True! but who rendered it indispen- sable 1 Not the people, who were all the time tranquil; not the monarch, who did his utmost; not the queen — no. It was the resistance, the At this period the secidar peerage consisted of forty-four members, of whom the duke de Uzes was the oldest, and the dukes of Choiseul and of Coigny were the most recently created. The six ec- clesiastical peers, however, had held the peerage from the earliest times. They were, the archbishop of Rheims, and the five bishops of the family duchy of Hugh Capet. The secular peers (among whom the archbishop of Paris had a place, from 1690, as duke of St. Cloud) merely form- ed the highest class of the lower nobility ; but there were six families (branches of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy, Gri- maldi, Rohan, Tremouille, and Latour d'Auvergne, residing in France) who preserved the rank of sovereign princes. The first estate of the realm was the clergy, which, if it did not enjoy the rank, enjoyed all the exemptions of the nobility from taxes and most of the pub- lic burdens, and had the first voice in the states-general. But the privileges attached to every class of nobility, even to the new and ofiicial nobility, were important. They consisted in an exemption from the prin- cipal burdens of the state, particularly the common land-tax^ military service, the corvees, the quartering of soldiers, &c. The nobles were indeed subject to a tax on personal property, but this was alto- gether disproportionate to that on real estate, and was very unequally assessed. The nobility, with the clergy and some orders (the Maltese knights, the order of St. Lazarus, &c,) held by far, the great- er portion of the soil, and exercised over the peasants, attached to their estates, the usual seigneurial rights of jurisdiction, and enjoyed exclusively the right of hunt- ing, &c. These exclusive rights, extend- ing even to very small things, as the keeping of pigeons, owning of rabbit-war- rens, &c, had become intolerably oppres- sive to the peasants. In some parts of the country, villenage, which was abol- ished on all the crown lands in 1779, still existed. It is very difficult to determine the re- false, the blind resistance, of the privileged or- ders, — noblesse, clergy, magistracy, against the lower, — that precipitated the revolution, and flimg all power at last into the bands of the commons. FRANCE. 277 venue of the nobility before the revolution. Necker estimated the whole income from the landed property (with the exception of the crown lands, and the possessions of the knights of Malta, and the clergy) at about 400,000,000, to which is to be added the tithe of the clergy. The pro- portion of the nobility to the rest of the population, if we may believe the old es- timate of Moheau, was as 1 to 250 ; this proportion, however, varied in different provinces. But although the nobility, as owners of the soil, and as members of the clergy, or officers of the government, absorbed the greatest part of the national income, and hardly left the peasant and the artisan, the common necessaries of life, still they refused to bear their pro- portion of the expenses of the state, and opposed all the plans of reform, not only those of Necker, whom they hated, but also those of Calonne, a minister entirely devoted to the court and the aristocracy. Besides this, the embarrassments of gov- ernment were chiefly occasioned by the never-ending claims of the nobility, to- gether with the prodigality of the court of Louis XV, and the disorders in the administration, which were themselves, effects of the aristocratic spirit that had infected every department of the state. The third estate, consisted of the rest of the natioTi, after deducting the clergy and the nobility, and comprised more than twenty-nine thirtieths of the nation. To this class also belonged, as far as their social connections were concerned, the new nohlcsse, who had acquired titles from the possession of office, but were despised by the old nobility as upstarts and intruders. This circumstance was a double source of complaint to the na- tion. The whole weight of the taxes fell upon the lower classes with such an inconceivable severity, increased by the insolence, and frequently by the cruelty of the lords of the soil and their officers, by the abuses of a corrupt and arbitrary administration of justice, and, on the part of the government, by a system of taxa- tion equally corrupt, arbitrary, and pre- posterous, — that general impoverishment , and suffering were the necessary conse- | quences ; thence came the bitterness and fury, with which the peasants in manyj places, and the lower classes in the cities, fell upon their nobles and those in power, when the signal of opposition was raised. The court assembled the states at Versailles, thinking more easily to influ- ence their proceedings. Neither the clergy nor the nobility at- tended at the hall of the sittings for the ve- rifying of the powers. The urgent repre- sentations of the states to avoid a schism having been rejected, they constituted themselves a National Assembly, and de- clared every other kind of representation illegal. This vigorous measure overaw- ed the court, which prepared several im- portant concessions, and brought troops into the hall, in order to support them. When the king, at his sitting, ordered the states to separate into three cham- bers, the states remained, declaring the inviolability of the representatives ; and Mirabeau intimated that they would yield only to the force of bayonets. From this period the people assumed a real sovereignty, and though a part only of the nobility and the majority of the cler- g}^ united themselves to the great body at first, the rest severally joined it, in deference to the king, and to the neces- sity of the case. Still were the privi- leged orders strong enough to disturb, if not to resist, the stream of events ; they conspired, and 20,000 soldiers surround- ed Paris. At this juncture, M. Necker was once more dismissed. This took place on Saturday, the 11th of July, 1789. On Sunday the 12th, the idle crowd of the Palais Royal learned the tidings of his dismissal. It was the spark upon the train, the desired pretext found. Camille Desmoulins, a low demagogue, took the lead ; harangued the mob ; showed himself armed ; and, plucking a branch, put a leaf in his hat by way of cockade. His example was applauded and imitated. Waxen busts of Necker and Orleans were then seized in a neigh- boring shop, crowned with laurel, and carried in procession through the streets. Near the Place Vendome the procession came in contact with a German regiment. Blows and shots were exchanged. A soldier of the royal guards was said to have been killed in the ranks of the poo- 278 FRANCE. pie. For this cause, and from previous jealousy, some hundreds of the guards issued from their barracks near the spot, drew up, and fired upon the Germans. 'J'he prince de Lambesch, commandhig them, ordered a retreat, to avoid blood- shed ; whilst effecting this through the gate of the garden of the Tuilleries, an aged person was slain. Cries of ven- geance followed. The populace has- tened in search of arms. The Hotel de Ville, where the electors, self-consti- tuted as a municipality, were in the ha- bit of daily assembling, delivered up all preserved in that establishment. They ordered the establishment of a civic guard ; a vain and late attempt to separate the armed citizen from the armed ruffian. Thus passed the 12th; the 13th saw the fermentation increase, though un- marked by events. On the morning of the 14th of July, an army of 40,000 men, armed with offensive weapons of every description, aided by a few hundred sol- diers, commenced their march through Paris with the full determination of de- stroying the Bastile. They first attack- ed the Hopital des Invalides, where a large magazine of arms was kept. Scarce- ly any resistance was made by the guards, which consisted merely of a few disabled pensioners ; the magazine was taken, and 20,000 muskets placed at their disposal. They then went quickly towards the Bastile, and demanded of the governor, that the prisoners should be set at liberty, and the fortress surren- dered to the people. The governor seem- ed disposed to comply, and ordered the outer gate to be opened. But no sooner had they entered than the gate was shut upon them, and the soldiers of the garri- son fired on the people through the loop holes and turrets. The multitude with- out, hearing the firing and learning the treachery of the governor, instantly as- saulted the place on all sides ; they brought the cannon from the king's garde meuhle, in the Place I^ouis XV, one of which was inlaid with silver, and planted them against the Bastile until a breach was made, when it was taken by storm. The enraged multitude then seized the governor and other officers ; took pos- session of the guard room, armory and magazine ; broke the windows, set fire to the furniture, and threw open the doors of the prisons ; their inhabitants were brought out and carried in triumph through the streets, of Paris. The people now, with the concurrence of the committee, set about the entire destruction of the Bastile. The city ar- chitects were employed to conduct the ork, and that immense pile of buildings hich had stood for 489 years, was in few days destroyed so that not one stone was left upon another. The court was overcome with aston- ishment, and, willing to gratify the people, now ordered the dismissal of the troops, and the recall of Necker. Paris nom- inated Bailly, who presided at the Ten- nis Court, its mayor ; and La Fayette be- came commander of the national guards. The king came to Paris from Versailles, and received from Bailly the tri-colored cockade, the mark of his union with the people, who saluted him with every mark of pleasure. But these feelings were but of short duration ; the nobility emi- grated, and the public agitation con- tinued daily to increase. Robbery suc- ceeded to confusion. The clergy and nobility consented to give up their privi- leges for the public peace ; and in one memorable night, (August 4,) every ves- tige of feudalism was annihilated by the voice of the deputed nobles and prelates. Their constituents were far from sub- scribing to this act of disinterestedness, wrested from them in a moment of fear and enthusiasm, and the discontent of these orders united with the menaces of foreig-n troops, tended to increase the exasperation of the people ; every where they were ready to take up arms. The king and queen vacillated towards each party by turns. Now they seemed by their presence to approve of the counter-revo- lutionary vows ; again they would hold interviews (especially the queen) with known aristocrats, and evidently acted on the mere intimidation of the moment. On the 2nd of October, a banquet was given by the body-guards to the officers of the newly arrived regiment ; those of the national guard of Versailles were also invited. It took place in the palace-the- atre. Wine circulated ; entliusiasm was FRANCE. 279 excited. The soldiers of the regiments were admitted into the building; cups being handed to them, they drank to the health of the queen, and of the king. With drawn swords the banqueters pledg- ed them. The queen, hearing of the fete, presented herself with the dauphin. A fresh effusion of loyalty ensued. Swords again flashed with vows to sup- port the royal cause, whilst the military band played the air of CcEur de Lion, " Richard, Omon Roi, Vunivers t'uban- donne .'" Accounts of the fete soon came to exasperate the Parisians, and to offer the agitators a pretext to excite tumult. Or- leans, who might pretend to the regency, if the king was frightened away to Metz, had his interest in producing insurrec- tion at this moment. A crowed of women was adroitly employed to besiege the guard, and the Hotel de Ville. They could only be diverted from setting fire to the edifice by an invitation to proceed to Versailles. The tocsin, in the mean time, was sounded. The rabble, armed with pikes, forks, and sticks, crowded to the square, and soon marched off to Ver- sailles, to ask bread of the assembly. La Fayette soon after arrived at the Ho- tel de Ville. The assembled companies of the national guard awaited him. Though bearing this title, these troops were not citizens, but mere mercenary troops. They, too, demanded to march upon Versailles, La Fayette in vain dis- suaded them ; he was constrained to lead them. All Paris followed in their wake. This movement took place on the 5th of October. On the very same day, in the assembly, the popular party first showed itself fully: Petion, Robespierre, Gregorie, started up with denunciations, giving vent to the extreme of revolution- ary langTiage. Already they began to accuse and threaten Mirabeau, the repre- sentative of the bourgeoise. The only hope for the monarch, at this time, was to have rallied to the latter party ; and his adhesion would have completed its separation from the ultra-revolutionists, who at this time were but in the feeble- ness of birth. It was this day, however, that the monarch was advised to set him- self at variance with the vote of the as- sembly, and to disapprove of their con- stitution. The horde of women and rabble reached Versailles in the afternoon ; they penetrated into the assembly, de- manding bread, and saying that the aris- tocrats and the archbishop of Paris had bribed the millers not to grind corn. Mounier was despatched to the palace ; the women accompanied him thither, but the crowd was stopped at the iron railing in front of the chateau ; twelve were, however, admitted, to lay their complaints before the king. At his aspect and that of the queen, their fury was dumb ; they returned to their comrades, satisfied and charmed with their benign reception ; these, amazed and angered at such a change, threatened to hang their unfor- tunate envoys. The troops were drawn up in front of the chateau, consisting of the body guard, the regiment of Flanders, and the na- tional guard of Versailles. Although the two latter had joined in the famous banquet, the grenadiers of Flanders be- ing the first to propose the health of the queen, yet now both were ill-affected, and openly vowed their opinions. Three hundred of the body guard formed thus the entire force upon which the king had to depend. Yet causes of exasperation had been given both to the people and the assembly, and even now Louis refu- sed to fly. Some of the people in the mean time mingled with the soldiers ; M. de Savonniers, of the body guard, came to drive them away with his drawn sabre, though striking merely Avith the flat of the weapon ; he was wounded instantly by a shot. The national guard of Versailles took part with the popu- lace, and fired upon the body-guards, which, too weak to contend with such a force, were compelled to retire. Towards midnight La Fayette arrived, at the head of the Parisian guard and a fresh host of rabble ; having made them take, during their march, a vain oath to be well conducted and loyal. He made his appearance at the palace, promised tranquillity, and demanded that, as a mark of confidence, the external guard of the chateau should be committed to his I troops. No doubt the general made this 280 FRANCE. arrangement with the best intentions ; but he was not sufficiently suspicious of the sanguinary and anarchic party that was now raising its head, supported by tlie money and the confidence of Orleans. That prince was seen amongst the mid- night groups, and on the road ; his agen- cy must be allowed, though history can- not as yet assign the measure of his in- fluence. All remained quiet through the night ; the soldiers, the rabble, the wo- men, round their fires. La Fayette had retired to rest, but in a lodging far from the chateau. A friend, an ofllcer in whom he had confidence, should have watched. The person and guards of his sovereign were intrusted to his care, and their safety was neglected. No upright- ness of character can here shelter him from censure. About half an hour after five, some of the boldest of the mob, bribed, there can be little doubt, to an act that no popular object could prompt, roam- ed along the vast extent of the palace, trying the possibility of entrance at one of its many gates. They found an ave- nue unguarded, summoned their chosen comrades, and rushed up the staircase. A garde du corps, perceiving the move- ment, had already fired from the win- dow ; and now this faithful troop, though not numbering more than a dozen, de- fended each door and apartment against the mo.b, under whose blows they fell one by one. The shouts and horrid im- precatiojis of the ruflians indicated plain- ly that the queen was the object of their fury. " We will cut off her head ! Tear out her heart !" Mismandre, the survi- vor of the gardes du corps, had time to gain the apartments occupied by the queen, opening and crying to her attend- ants, "I am alone against 2,000 tigers: we are conquered ; save the queen !" As the unfortunate princess fled, he who had just spoke the generous word of warning fell under the blows of his pur- suers. They mangled Ids remains with disappointment and rage, on perceiving that their prey was flown. A more numer- ous troop of the body-guard occupied the doors through which Marie Antoinette had retreated ; the assassins had but the satisfaction of making villanous jibes upon her yet warm couch. La Fayette at this moment arrived, and by his exer- tions prevented a renewal of their at- tempt, or of the slaughter. The rest of the gardes du corps were spared ; the ruffians contenting themselves with de- capitating the dead, and fixing their gory heads on pikes to adorn their triumph. The mob and Parisian army outside now exulted in the achievement of this barbarous feat. " The king to Paris !" was the universal cry ; denial was vain. The monarch assented, and showed him- self in the balcony in token of obse- quiousness. The queen was then called for, with the same shout that the Romans were wont to hail a gladiator into their circus ; Marie Antoinette appeared, the dauphin in her arms. " No child ! no child !" cried the barbarians. The meaning Avas evident ; they wanted a victim. With unshaken courage, the queen appeared alone : a musket was pointed at her ; but the heart of the as- sassin failed through awe, not through mercy. La Fayette knelt, and kissed her hand ; he, indeed, did his utmost to repair the fatal negligence of the morn- ing. At midday took place the removal of the royal family to the Tuilleries. The journey was dreadful, not only in its actual circumstances, but as a dread- ful foreboding of what was to come. Before, around and behind the royal fam- ily, were a mob of frantic women, de- bauched and drunken, attended and cheered by men, if possible, more diabol- ical than themselves. The procession was headed by two men, who with their arms naked and bloody, displayed aloft on their pikes, the heads of two of the garde du corps, whom they had massa- cred. Thus the authority of the king was first destroyed, then his power, now all respect for him. The imprudence of the courtiers had served both as cause and pretext to this disaster, which the popu- lar force effected, stirred in part by the gold of Orleans and the intrigues of agi- tators. La Fayette and the national as- sembly were mere spectators : the tide was too strong for this middle party ; its leaders kept themselves indeed afloat, but the wind and tide of circumstances wafted them on a headlong course. There was but one man at that epoch PRANCE. 281 who truly understood the crisis, and saw whither things tended ; this was Mira- beau, a profligate, but not altogether a politically dishonest man. He received afterwards pecuniary aid from the court, but not until his conviction led him to unite with it. As for the constitutionalists, their ideas were excellent, and their rea- soning plausible ; but struggling against the spirit of the nation, they neutralized efl^orts which more wisely directed, might still have supported the middle class and the friends of order against the conspir- ators and ultra-revolutionists. Aristocra- cy, not such as conquest or feudality might found, but such as great and illus- trious qualities give birth to, and time fosters into dignity — is indeed a natural element of every society. It is wise to uphold its existence ; but if a feudal aris- tocracy, like that of France, abuse its superiority, and grind, by its oppression, deep hate of its name into the feelings and prejudices of the people, it is vain to hope for the continuance or re-estab- lishment of that noblesse. The dire necessity of circumstances must be sub- mitted to. This Mirabeau saw ; this Mounier, Necker, Lally, did not see. They were theorists, — doctrinaires, to use a modern expression, — pursuing their one idea athwart the opposed and bristling prejudices of the nation. This is neces- sary to explain their ill success, as well as the irritation and hostility excited by efforts which, to Englishmen, appear at first sight honest, bold, and wise. They were all, except the last. Twenty months now elapsed of com- parative tranquillity. There is no strik- ing event ; much intrigue, indeed, fiery debating, the training, dividing, and forming of parties. The revolutionary monster slumbered, stirring at times, and showing life by starts, but not awaken- ing fully. La Fayette possessed most power out of the assembly ; and he ex- ercised it with a firmness, a disinterest- edness and courage, that did him immor- tal honor. His first act was to drive the duke of Orleans to exile. It is not well known whether his departure was procur- ed by menace or inducement. His ab- sence had certainly the effect of allowing agitation to subside. 36 The assembly pursued its legislative labors. They appropriated to the state all ecclesiastical property. As it was impossible to bring such a prodigious portion at once to sale, the church-lands were made over to each commune or par- ish, which was allowed time to sell and pay into the treasury the price. The Avant of a supply of specie soon after obliged the assembly to represent this debt due to the government by the dif- ferent municipalities in bonds, called assignats. These they passed to a pro- digious amount, forming a paper money not without advantage, had not the facili- ties of its supply been grossly abused. The constituent assembly divided France into departments, breaking up the old distinction and frontiers betwixt provin- ces. It abolished parliaments, and re- modelled the judicature. Tithes and feudal services had been previously done away with. Titles of honor were now abolished, Matthieu de Montmorency being foremost to make the sacrifice. This career of legislation was, one would think, sufficiently democratic. It fully satisfied the middle classes. La Fayette, and those who rallied round him, as well as the majority of the as- sembly. Within its precincts, the dem- agogues, who designed to form and head a popular party, with diflicidty found an opportunity to develope their sentiments or forward their plans. They succeed- ed, however, in becoming masters of a club, first established by the moderate friends of liberty. This, on the removal of the king and assembly to Paris, had installed itself in the Convent of the Jacobins. Here, as violence gained ground, the moderates, such as La Fay- ette, seceded and formed a separate club. Barnave, a young protestant barrister, and the Lameths, assumed the lead in the Jacobins at their departure. This trio envied and detested equally Mira- beau and La Fayette, and seemed actua- ted more by the ambition of pre-emi- nence than by any profound conviction or principle, to separate and form a schism. They coquetted with the genuine party of the lower orders rather than embraced it. Talents alone gave them support. Mirabeau was actuated by more inde- 282 FRANCE. pendent opinions. Towards the end of 1789 he began to rein in the zeal which hitherto had borne him headlong in the path of revolution. His ardor cooled, and he could not but disapprove of that con- stitution which he had contributed to form. " He thought it too democratic for a mon- archy ; for a democracy there was a king too much." His sagacity saw the im- practicability of the existing system. He, consequently, leagued secretly with the court to support the crown, and recover for it a portion of strength requisite for its existence. La Fayette, on the contrary, held firm to the constitution now estab- lished. It was not in the power of the king to unite in his behalf two such pow- erfid men, who in fact represented the same cause, — that of the middle orders. Ijouis XVI is accused of irresolution by some writers, of insincerity by others. Never was a man more deserving of com- miseration and excuse. In February, 1790, we find him embarked frankly with the nation, coming down spontaneously to the assembly, and giving an uncalled- for adhesion to its acts, that excited uni- versal enthusiasm. In July of the same year he presided over the famous Federa- tion, or union of the Parisians with depu- tations from the provinces, to swear to the constitution on the altar of the coun- try. Talleyrand was the ofticiating bishop in this ceremony, so minutely detailed and honored by French historians, though in itself a pomp of little importance, a fete at once to celebrate the anniversary of the destruction of the Bastile, and to honor the birth of a constitution destined to be ephemeral. Many weeks of the same summer were passed by the royal family at St. Cloud ; escape from thence would have been most practicable, but was not once contemplated. Hence we may infer, that Louis had resigned himself to his humbled position, and resolved to look for no other than le- gislative support. The emigrant noblesse, collecting first at Turin, and afterwards at Coblentz, endeavored with their wonted imbecility and ill success to stir up re- bellion in the provinces, for which the discontent of the clerg}'-, and consequently of the devout, gave them ample facilities. They solicited Louis to sanction their plans and join their meditated armaments. He had already suffered too much by their counsels, to listen to thern again. The marquis de Bouille at that time fixed the attention and hopes of the royalists within the kingdom. He still commanded at Metz, restraining the froward spirit of the soldiers, and even mastering a sedition amongst them, by his firmness. A simi- lar mutiny broke out at Nancy. Bouille marched against it at the head of troops, of which he had so little reason to be con- fident. Nevertheless, when remonstrance failed to bring the mutineers to a sense of duty, Bouille charged them, beat them, and sent the ringleaders captive to Paris. This was alone sufficient to raise the monarch's hopes. But how could he re- sist the opinions and counsel of Mirabeau, when this leader of the redoubtable as- sembly owned as his opinion, that roy- alty, in order to exist, must b« raised from its present prostrate condition ; that this must be effected by a force foreign to the assembly ; and that the only means to bring about this end was, that the king should retire to Metz, beyond the power of the Parisians, and there, at the head of an independent force, treat with the na- tion, if he could not with its present rep- resentatives, and conclude some more equitable adjustment between the rights of the crown and those of the people. Such was the plan of Mirabeau, and it gained at once the monarch's approbation. But a fatal event came to retard it, and deprived Louis of what he most wanted, — a man of capacity to conduct him. Mira- beau kept his ascendency in the assem- bly to the last. Barnave and the Lameths in vain endeavored to shake his supre- macy. On the great question, whether the power of deciding on war or peace should rest with the monarch or the na- tion, Mirabeau took the monarchic side. His enemies saw the opportunity, and attacked him with a virulence and truth that would have overborne any other man. The Jacobins made use of their arm, and the " great treason of count Mirabeau" was cried through the streets. " I had no need of this example," cried the orator, " to learn, that there is but one step from the capitol to the Tarpeian rock." Mirabeau's eloquence conquered FRANCE. 283 in the assembly, and even partially ex- culpated him with the multitude. The 28th of February, 1791, was the day of his most memorable triumph. The emi- grants, collected at Coblentz, were me- nacing France with their own force, and with that of the sovereigns of Europe. It was proposed to stop the tide of emi- gration, by intrusting the power of grant- ing passports to a committee of three persons. Mirabeau exclaimed against such an inquisition. " As for me," cried he, " I should feel myself absolved from my oath of allegiance to any govern- ment, that had the infamy to propose this dictatorial commission. I swear it — " (loud cries interrupted him). "The pop- ularity that I have so ambitioned, and that I have enjoyed like many others, is not a feeble reed. I will fix it deep in the earth. I will make it vegetate and live in the soil of justice and reason." This bold allusion, more to his purposes than to the question, was received with a blind applause, that maddened the popu- lar leaders. They cried out against Mi- rabeau as a dictator. " Silence, ye thirty voices !" was his rejoinder. His last triumph was his greatest. The ora- tor died, like a general, in his crowning victory. He returned thence to a bed of sickness, from which he never arose. That organic disease of the heart, sup- posed principally to affect men of strong passions and eloquence, carried him off. " After my death," said he, " the factions will soon tear the last shreds of the monarchy." Though deranged in his plans by this loss, Louis still persevered in them, and meditated escape. The severity of the assembly towards the priesthood who refused to take the oaths wounded the king's conscience ; and even the most meek, when touched in that point, be- come stubborn and determined. In the month of April the royal carriages were ordered to the palace ; Louis and his queen descended for the purpose of vis- iting St. Cloud. At the sight the popu- lace collected, surrounded the carriage, and forbade it to advance. La Fayette came in time to preserve his sovereigns from insult, but not to procure their lib- erty. They were obliged to return to their apartments. A more secret mode of escape was then planned. The em- peror Joseph at this time promised to march an army to the relief of his unfor- tunate brother. The emigrants, on their side, proffered their aid and counsels. But Louis preferred depending upon Bouille, who, under his direction, form- ed a camp of some faithful regiments on the frontier near Montmedy. The king hoped, by reaching it in safety, to avoid the reproach, at least, of emigration ; and without foreign aid, as he afterwards as- serted, to raise up Liberty upon a firmer basis. The time of flight was fixed for the night of the 19th of June. Bouille gave orders, in consequence, for troops and detatchments to meet the king at the bridge of Sommeville and at St. Mene- hould, to escort and protect his progress, should he succeed in reaching those towns. Unfortunately, owing to some difficulty excited by the female attend- ants on the royal family, the departure was put off" to the following night, by which means, although word was sent to Bouille, the detatchments were no long- er in waiting for the king when he arri- ved. A private door in her apartment had been prepared by the queen ; issuing by this in three parties, the royal family gained the courts, and crossed them, the king with his children reaching the rue de I'Echelle without impediment. Here a fiacre awaited them. But the queen had in the mean time lost her way, the garde du corps who conducted her, being ignorant of Paris. She chanced to meet La Fayette, but passed unrecognized by him, and joined the rest at length after much wandering and trouble. The hack- ney-coach, driven by M. de Fersen in disguise, then bore them to a distant part of the city. At the gate St. Martin they quitted it for a berlin drawn by post- horses, and were soon on the road to Chalons. The king's brother, afterwards Louis XVII I, took, on the same night, the road to Flanders, and succeeded in reaching the frontier. The carriage bearing the royal family reached Chalons in safety, and subse- quently St. Menehould. The detachments of Bouille, weary of waiting, had al- 284 FRANCE. ready taken their departure. At St. Mcnehould Louis was recognized by Drouet, son of the postmaster ; but the carriage was tlien setting off. Drouet set off also by a cross road, and reached Varennes, the next place of haU, and within but two stages of Bouille's camp, before the fugitives. There were no post-horses in Varennes, but an officer of Bouille was appointed to have a relay in waiting. There were no symptoms of horses or guards about the hour of eleven at night when the royal family entered the town. They were obliged to alight, to question, to parley with the postillions ; whilst Drouet had aroused the munici])al officer, and called together the national guards of the Canton. Whilst the carriage was slowly proceed- ing under an arch that crossed the road, Drouet, with the well-known Billaud, and one or two others, stopped it, de- manding their passports. The gardes du corps on the box wished to resist. The king forbade them. Here the pres- ence of a man of resolution was wanted, Bouille had designed the marquis d'Ag- oult to accompany the monarch, but his place had been usurped by an obstinate old woman, governess of the prince and princess. They were now conducted before the procureur of the town; and, the national guards crowding in, Louis Av-as arrested. The troops of Bouille's army arrived also, but refused to rescue him. An aid-de-camp of general La Fayette soon after made his appearance, bearing a decree of the national assem- bly for the re-conveyance of the fugi- tives to Paris. Thus within an hour, a league, of safety, the unfortunate Louis and his family found themselves captive, and on their return to a capital, which, if it had before loaded them with contumely, Avould now, most likely, observe no mod- eration in cruelty. The assembly al- ready showed that its opinions had taken a deeper dye of republicanism since the flight. Petion, a rude and rigid demo- crat, with Barnave, the rival of Mirabeau, were the commissaries who re-conducted the king. Seated in the royal carriage, Barnave, with the sensibility ever at- tendant upon talent, felt his sympathy awakened for the sufferings of the fallen family. During the eight days of their painful journey, he continually conversed with the monarch, and felt each moment deeper respect for a character so amiable and so just. Petion, on the contrary, a man of few ideas, held rigid in those which he professed, and piqued by being obliged to play an inferior part, merely murmured that he cared for naught save a republic. Previous to the return of the king to Paris, it was placarded, that whoever insulted him should be beaten ; whoever applauded him should be hang- ed. He was received, then, with that silence which Mirabeau called " the les- son of kings."* The national assembly suspended the king from Iris functions, less as a pun- ishment than to satisfy the popular out- cry. The leaders of the mere rabble, the anarchists, now showed their heads openly under the guise of republicans. The Jacobins, whom Barnave and the Lameths deserted, started into full activ- ity under the guidance of the most furi- ous demagogues. In the assembly ihey argued, that the king's flight was abdica- * A group in the Palais Royal were discussing in great alarm the consequences of the King's flight, when a man dressed in a thread-bare great- coat leaped upon a chair and addressed them thus : — " Citizens, listen to a tale, which shall not be a long one. A certain well-meaning Nea- politan was once on a time startled in his even- ing walk, by the astounding intelligence that the Pope was dead. He had not recovered his aston- ishment, when behold, he is informed of a new disaster, — the King of Naples was also no more. ' Surely,' said the worthy Neapolitan, ' the sun must vanish from heaven at such a combination of fatalities.' But they did not cease here. The Archbishop of Palermo, he is informed, has also died suddenly. Overcome by this last shock, he retired to bed, but not to sleep. In the morning he was disturbed in his melancholy reverie by a rumbling noise, which he recognized at once to be the motion of the wooden instrument which makes macaroni. 'Aha!' says the good man, starting up, 'Can I trust my ears 1— The Pope is dead — the King of Naples is dead — the Bishop of Palermo is dead — yet my neighbor the baker makes macaroni !' Come ! The lives of these great folks are not then so indispensable to the world after all." The man in the great-coat jumped dowm and disappeared. "I have ca\ight his meaning," said a woman amongst the listen- ers. " He has told us a tale, and it begins like all tales — There was once a King anda Qiieen.'^ FRANCE. 285 tion, and that nothing remained but to proclaim the republic. The majority- were, however, still attached to their constitution, and pleaded that the mon- arch was irresponsible. Enraged at their want of predominance in the assembly, the Jacobins endeavored to agitate the people, and caused a petition to be pre- pared for dethi-oning Louis. This was to be laid on the altar of the country in the Champ de Mars for universal signa- ture, an apt organization of sedition. Im- mediately La Fayette and Bailly, by the orders of the municipality, marched at the head of troops to the scene of tu- mult, carrying a red flag, as a token that martial law was in force. They in vain endeavored to disperse the mob. Two invalids were torn in pieces by them, out of hatred to military uniform ; and the troops were threatened with attack. La Fayette first ordered them to fire in the air to intimidate the rioters. It had no eftect. And at last, beneath a serious and well-directed discharge, several hun- dreds fell, slain or wounded, and the rest dispersed. The leading Jacobins slunk in terror to their hiding-places. Robes- pierre did not show himself for many days. This triumph, however, or the necessity of having recourse to it, served but to render the assembly unpopular. The public was weary of them, and long- ed for its successor, as it was wont to hail a new reign. The assembly deter- mined to show itself disinterested. It proceeded to complete and give the last touches to the constitution, the immor- tality of which it fondly argued. Bar- nave, in the excess of his late loyalty, had hoped to have modified its democrat- ic principles : and the right side, or par- tisans of the English constitution, are accused of having marred his efforts by their hostility or neglect. According to the terms of this consti- tution, the constituent assembly gave place to a new meeting of representa- tives, and committed the fault of exclud- ing from it its own most valuable members. The legislative assembly was elected ac- cording to the opinions of the moment, and republicanism prevailed. A consul- tation was shortly after held concerning the abolition of the monarchical power. In the mean time, the allies were sta- tioned at Coblentz, waiting for an oppor- tunity of introducing, by force of arms, the original state of affairs into France. Whatever opinion may be entertained of the constituent assembly, the mere enumeration of its labors will astonish posterity. It organized the national guard, and constituted the army of the line according to the strictest principles of liberty ; it practically applied the principle of the separation of the author- ities ; instituted a real jury and justices of the peace ; made rural, municipal, and penal laws ; freed industry from monopoly ; restored the property of the church to the circulation, to agriculture, and to the exchequer ; suppressed taxes, entries, and exemptions ; and, above all, regulated public instruction, and placed it on a basis which subsequent changes have not been able to destroy. In the constituent assembly the aristo- cratic party visibly declined. The roy- alists, Mounier, Clermont, Tonnere, and Lally Tolendal, could scarcely find any support ; neither could the republicans, Petion, Buzot, and Robespierre. That imposing majority, in which were Ra- baut St. Etienne, Chapelier, Montmor- ency, Noailles, Volney, Sieyes, the ori- ginator of projects, the profound Duport, the Jansenist Camus, the judicious Bar- nave, the lawyer Thouret, the skilful Lameth, and so many other celebrated men, among whom was the great Mira- beau, stood steadfast. The legislative assembly was divided into three parts : the moderate republicans, of whom may be mentioned the eloquent Verginaud, the virtuous Condorcet, Brissot, and Guadet, the logician Gensonne ; and those who were called the Girondists, (because the deputation from the Gironde were the most distinguished of them,) the Cordeliers, who suffered Danton to direct their club, Camille Desmoulines, Fabre d'Eglantine ; and the constitutional loyalists, who offered but a feeble resist- ance to enemies supported by popular opinion. At first the majority assumed the attitude of hostility to the royal pow- er, both by restraining it, and by failing in the respect due to its functions. The king made some resistance, by opposing 286 FRANCE. to some decrees that were offered to him for his sanction, his veto, the right of wliich the constitution gave him. But this right was ilhisory, and without suffi- cient strength to secure respect The Girondist Petion was now elected mayor of Paris, and procured a decree for the closing of the club of royalists called Fueillans. The property of the emigrants was sequestrated, and a new oath was required of the priests. Un- fortunateIy,-some unpopular ministers in- creased the peoples' distrust of the royal power, and at the moment when the as- signats were depreciated at home, infor- mation was received from St. Domingo that the disturbances which had taken place between the whites and the men of color, in the time of the constituent assembly, had become much more se- rious, since the blacks had taken part in them. News also arrived of massa- cres in different cities of the kingdom, especially at Avignon, where one party desired union with France, according to the decree of the constituent assembly ; while the other wished to remain under the government of the pope. Terrible reprisals were made upon this party in the "massacre of the Glacier," (1792,) but the assassins were pardoned. The emigrant princes were now denounced at the bar of the assembly, and war was evidently coming on. In the midst of this universal agitation, the king was without any adequate support. He ap- peared to turn to the side of the Giron- dists, and took a ministry of their choice ; among whom were Roland, whose wife is so celebrated for her republican vir- tues, her writings and her death, and Dumouriez, afterwards so successful as a general. It was the latter who per- suaded the king to enter the assembly and declare war against Austria. But the assembly was disposed to un- dertake a still more important contest at home ; it continued to contend with the king, who at once thwarted the measures of his new ministers, and corresponded with the princes. They began by de- priving him of the means of defence and attack, by disbanding his constitutional guard, and decreed the formation of a camp of 20,000 men near Paris. It was evident they wished either to dethrone the king, or to induce him, by dint of mortifications, to abdicate. The unfortu- nate Louis adopted several hasty and un- seasonable measures, amongst which was the act of dismissing his ministry. Im- mediately after this was known, the in- habitants of Paris rose, and, passing the assembly with symbols grotesquely hide- ous, went to the Tuilleries to insist upon placing the red bonnet upon the head of the king. The Girondists and Petion were accused of aiding this seditious conduct ; they, at least, had suffered it ; but, when the latter was suspended from his authority by the king, he was restored by the assembly. Suddenly, La Fayette appeared at the bar of the assembly, at the head of an armed force, to demand the punishment of the guilty and the closing of the Jaco- bin club, a step which, though it aston- ished the demagogues of the day by its boldness, effected nothing ; it was sup- ported by no authority present, and*ven the terrified court yielded it no sanction. The king had an insurmountable dislike to receiving any constitutional assistance. He was now evidently and naturally looking for protection from without. Three places that had been taken by gen- eral Luckner, had been just retaken by the enemy ; on this, the animosity against the king seemed redoubled, and the Jaco- bins demanded his deposition, when a scene of a singular description occurred in the assembly ; a woman had made an appeal to concord from the gallery, and painted, in a very lively manner, the evils of anarchy ; on which a deputy seized the opportunity of proposing to his col- leagues to rally round the constitution ; that the one party should renounce every after-thought of a republic, and the other should give up the project of an aristo- cratic chamber ; at once all present ap- peared inspired with the spirit of recon- ciliation ; they mingled with each other ; they ran to embrace those on the oppo- site benches. But in a moment these feelings died away, and they resumed their resentment and their opposition. The winding up of this catastrophe was now fast approaching ; it was decided by a declaration that the country was in danger ; FRANCE. 287 and, when the annual confederation of the 14th of July was held, the cry was "Petion or death !" for the parties always attached themselves to some man in vogue. The leaders of the Jacobin club * resolved * Three men of terror, whose names will long remain, we trust, unmatched in history by those of any similar miscreants, had now the unrivalled leading of the Jacobins, and were called the Tri- umvirate. Danton deservesto be named first, as unrival- led by his colleagues in talent and audacity. He was a man of gigantic size, and possessed a voice of thunder. His countenance was that of an Ogre on the shoulders of a Hercules. He was as fond of the pleasures of vice as of the practice of cruelty ; and it was said there were times when he became humanized amidst his debauch- ery, laughed at the terror which his furious de- clamations excited, and might be approached with safety, like the Maelstrom at the turn of tide. His profusion was indulged to an extent hazardous to his popularity, for the populace are jealous of a lavish expenditure, as raising their favorites too much above their own degree ; and the charge of speculation finds always ready cred- it with them, when brought against public men. Robespierre possessed this advantage over Danton, that he did not seem to seek for wealth, either for hoarding or expending, but lived in strict and economical retirement, to justify the name of the Incorruptible, with which he was honored by his partisans. He appears to have possessed little talent, saving a deep fund of hy- pocrisy, considerable powers of sophistry, and a cold exaggerated strain of oratory, as foreign to good taste, as the measures he recommended were to ordinary humanity. It seemed wonder- ful, that even the seething and boiling of the rev- olutionary cauldron should have sent up from the bottom, and long supported on the surface, a thing so miserably void of claims to public dis- tinction ; but Robes{)ierre had to impose on the minds of the vulgar, and he knew how to beguile them, by accommodating his flattery to their pas- sions and scale of understanding, and by acts of cunning and hypocrisy, which weigh more with the multitude than the words of eloquence, or the arguments of wisdom. The people listened as to their Cicero, when he twanged out his apos- trophes of Pauvre Peiiple, Pcuple vertueux ! and hastened to execute whatever came recommend- ed by such honied phrases, though devised by the worst of men for the worst and most inhu- man of purposes. Vanity was Robespierre's ruling passion, and though his countenance was the image of his mind, he was vain feven of his personal appear- ance, and never adopted the external habits of a sans culotte. Amongst his fellow Jacobins, he was distinguished by the nicety with which his hair was arranged and powdered ; and the neat- ness of his dress was carefully attended to, so as to counterbalance, if possible, the vulgarity of his person. His apartments, though small, were ele- on an open attack upon the authorities ; the refusal of the assembly to encourage their animosities against La Fayette, still further exasperated them. At length the enemy invaded the frontiers ; the mani- gant, and vanity had filled them with representa- tions of the occupant. Robespierre's picture at length hung in one place, his miniature in anoth- er, his bust occupied a niche, and on the table were disposed a few medallions exhibiting his head in profile. The vanity which all this indi- cated was of the coldest and most selfish charac- ter, being such as considers neglect an insult, and receives homage merely as a tribute ; so that, while praise is received without gratitude, it is withheld at the risk of mortal hate. Self-love of this dangerous character is closely allied with envy, and Robespierre was one of the most en- vious and vindictive men that ever lived. He never was known to pardon any opposition, af- front, or even rivalry ; and to be marked in his tablets on such an account was a sure, though perhaps not an immediate, sentence of death. Danton was a hero, compared with this cold, cal- culating, creeping miscreant ; for his passions, though exaggerated, had at least some touch of humanity, and his brutal ferocity was supported by brutal courage. Robespierre was a coward, who signed death-warrants with a hand that shook, though his heart was relentless. He pos- sessed no passions on which to charge his crimes ; they were perpetrated in cold blood, and upon mature deliberation. Marat, the third of this infernal triumvirate, had attracted the attention of the lower orders, by the violence of his sentiments in the journal which he conducted from the commencement of the Revolution, upon such principles that it took the lead in forwarding its successive changes. His political exhortations began and ended like the howl of a blood-hound for murder ; or, if a wolf could have written a journal, the gaunt and famished wretch could not have ravined more eagerly for slaughter. It was blood which was Marat's constant demand, not in drops from the breast of an individual, not in puny streams from the slaughter of families, but blood in the profu- sion of an ocean. His usual calculation of the heads which he demanded amounted to two hun- dred and sixty thousand ; and though he some- times raised it as high as three hundred thousand, it never fell beneath the smaller number. It may be hoped, and, for the honor of human na- ture, we are inclined to believe, there was a touch of insanity in this unnatural strain of fero- city ; and the wild and squalid features of the wretch appear to have intimated a degree of alienation of mind. Marat was, like Robespierre, a coward. Repeatedly denounced in the Assem- bly, he skulked instead of defending himself, and lay concealed in some obscure garret or cellar among his cut-throats, until a storm appeared, when, like a bird of ill omen, his death-screech was again heard. Such was the strange and fa- tal triumvirate, in which the same degree of can- 288 FRANCE. festo of the duke of Brunswick irritated and distressed the people ; and Petion instituted in the sections a deliberation as to the expediency of deposing the king. On the 9th of August, the insurrection that was in preparation was denounced to the assembly, which was composed of constitutional nobles. A frightful tumult took place in the hall, where poniards were brandished ; as the night advanced, the tocsin sounded, when the Swiss guards, some ex-nobles, and volunteers of national or disbanded guard, repaired to the palace to defend the king. He now accepted the proposition made to him by Rcederer, the chief attorney of the department, to seek an asylum in the midst of the assembly, after enlarging Pe- tion, who had been detained a prisoner in the palace. The insurrection, how- ever, proceeded. The Jacobin club had installed in the commune a municipality devoted to Danton ; confusion reigned in the palace, until the Marseillais, who formed the advanced guard of tho mob, though at first repulsed by the brave Swiss, returned with fury to the charge ; and their cannon, aided by a multitude armed in haste, entirely overthrew the ancient throne of France. The assembly, in confusion, pronounced the deposition of the king, and removed him to the Temple with his family ; while the statues of all the kings, even that of Henry IV, and the insignia of royalty, were trampled under foot by the mob. An extraordinary tribunal, over which Danton, the minister of justice, presided, shed torrents of blood. The first days of September were signalized by the mas- sacre of several thousand citizens, with whom the prisons were crowded ; and those detained by the high court insti- tuted at Orleans for crimes against the state were assassinated. Soon after midday, on the 2nd of Sept. as the mob gathered in the Place before the Hotel de Ville, a number of priests nibal cruelty existed under different aspects. Danton murdered to glut his rage ; Robespierre, to avenge his injured vanity, or to remove a rival whom he envied ; Mavat, from the same instinc- tive love of blood, which induces a wolf to con- tinue his ravage of the flocks long after his hunger under accusation, amounting to twenty- four, were brought forth and placed in coaches to be transferred to the prison of the Abbaye. They set forth escorted by the Marseillais and by the mob, who pur- sued them with execrations and menaces. They reached at length the court of the prison, where Maillard and his band await- ed the first victims of the day. As each ecclesiastic descended from the carriage, he was stricken dowm by a hundred blows. Of the twenty-four, the abbe Sicard, the philanthropic instructor of the deaf and dumb, alone escaped, and that almost by miracle. Billaud-Varcennes, officer of the municipality, arrived just as the last victim fell, and exclaimed, " People, you do your duty! Immolate your enemies!" "There is nothing more to do here," cried Maillard ; " to the Carmes !" This was a convent, in which two hundred of the principal ecclesiastics of the kingdom were confined. One by one they were led forth and massacred. Some of the assassins had particular victims, to des- patch, and were obliged to wipe the faces of the dead in order to ascertain whether the task was surely fulfilled. Thence the assassins returned to the Abbaye, and proceeded in form. They prepared a table. Maillard constituted himself judge, with a dozen aids or as- sessors. He called for a hst of the pris- oners, which was delivered, the very jailer fainting with horror at the scene which must follow. Maillard then ad- dressed his comrades with the mockery of reason and calmness ; and passed a panegyric upon justice. " Do you," said he to the band of assassins, "place your- . selves outside the gate. When I pro- nounce that the culprit should be trans- ferred to La Force, strike him down and slay him as he goes out." The artifice was applauded, as preventing struggles and difiiculties ; and the prisoners sum- moned. The first were Swiss. They met with no favor ; were ordered out of the gate and massacred. Next Mont- morin was brought forth, he whose mock acquittal served as a pretext for these crimes ; and underwent his fate. This scene was continued till late in the night ; the assassins pausing at times to refresh themselves with wine. The wo- FRANCE. 289 Murder of Princess dc Lamballe. men, however, were spared. The daugh- ter of the singular Cazotte saved her aged parent. Mademoiselle de Sombreuil made the same eflbrts in behalf of her father, when a ruffian presented her with a goblet of blood, saying, " Drink, drink the blood of the aristocrats !" To have some claim to pity, she actually swallow- ed the horrid draught, and M. de Som- breuil was spared. Others were pre- served by the display of courage, and ex- torted pardon by exciting admiration ; such is the caprice of crime. One thou- sand livi-es are registered in the books of the municipality as payment for these deeds. Each prison presented a similar scene. The number massacred is calcu- lated at 13,000. Amongst those confined at La Force was the unfortunate and lovely princess de Lamballe, the friend of Marie Antoinette. She met no mercy. The pen refuses to trace the horrors committed on her re- mains. Her head, borne on a pike, was brought in procession to the Temple, where the commune had confined Louis and his queen. They were startled bj^ the unusual tumult, and demanded the cause. Rushing to look at a window, Marie Antoinette was prevented by her 37 guards. She pressed for explanation ; and it was given ; "they sought to pre- vent herbeholdingthe head of the princess Lamballe !" She fainted at the word in the arms of the no less wretched monarch. Whilst the municipality, under the or- ders of the minister of justice, thus perpe- trated the disgrace of the nation, the le- gislative assembly, ashamed, indignant, but powerless, sat witnessing the crimes which its conduct had hiduced, and which it could not prevent. Its legal authority was expiring; the elections had already commenced for returning tlie members of the future convention ; not, however, ere it had abdicated all real power and influence in favor of the san- guinary commune. Thus the first nation- al assembly expired in an act of folly, the last in blood and crime. While the French were thus destroying each other, they resisted invasion with astonishing devotion and firmness ; the king of Prussia, who had penetrated as far as the plains of Champagne, was checked in his march by Dumouriez, and beaten by Kellerman ; 300,000 men hastened, at the call of their country, to the frontiers, with an enthusiasm that only belonged to the period of the revolution. 290 FRANCE The legislative assembly had summon- ed a convention, vv'hich, on the 21st of September, began its operations by abol- ishing royalty, and proclaiming the re- public. It immediately assumed to itself the whole power, even the judiciary ; for it proceeded to judge Louis XVI, whom oidy part of its members had accused. The enemy was at the gates, and an- archy and treason existed in the interior ; to proceed, a species of dictatorship, the French say a despotism, was neces- sary. This monstrous despotism had a thou- sand heads, and three principal directing powers ; the convention, the Jacobin club, and the commune of Paris ; the two last were the most real, and certainly the most illegal. The assembly was shared between the Girondists and the Jacobins, when the struggle finally commenced. The former pos essed fine talents ; the latter derived their strength from the club and the commune. The execrable Ma- rat and the horrible Hebert assisted these, by rousing the passions of the people with the bait of an impossible equality, until they drew the Marseillais into their party ; and a man who, under the calm external show of moderation and patriotism, concealed a cruel fanati- cism, a man, whose wickedness can only be accounted for from his envy, Robes- pierre, conceived the design of elevating himself on the ruins of the state. In vain did the courageous Louvet attack him ; the hypocrite of citizenship meditated a terrible vengeance, in which all France was doomed to suffer. The Mountain, or the Jacobins, (so called from their sitting on the high seats of the amphitheatre of the hall of the convention,) formed the first thought of sacrificing Louis as a victim to the con- solidation of the republic. It is said that the Girondists wished to save him ; but several of them condemned him. Males- herbes in vain exerted the eloquence of friendship in favor of the king. Vergni- aud also made some ineffectual efforts ; but the hall of the convention was sur- rounded by a ferocious mob, who threat- ened the judges ; while the mountain dictated the sentence. The guilt of the unfortunate monarch was almost unani- mously voted ; one-third of the assembly, however, wished for an appeal to the sanction of the people ; 387 voted for his death ; 334 demanded either imprison- ment, banishment, or death, with a formal reprieve. The sentence of death was pronoun- ced early on the morning of the 17th of January, (1793,) after a sitting which had been continued throughout the night from the preceding day. M. Males- herbes, his counsel, was the first person who communicated this decision to the unfortunate monarch. Having been ad- mitted into the tower of the Temple about nine o'clock in the morning, M. Malesherbes found his majesty, he tells us, seated in the shade, his back being turned to a lamp which was placed on the mantel-piece, his legs supported on the table, and his face covered with his hands. He had been fully prepared for the tidings which M. Malesherbes came to announce to him, and was much less moved than the good old man who had to make the distressing communication, and who had not till the last ceased to hope for a different result. His faithful valet, Clery, has given us a minute and interesting detail of the conduct of his royal master during the few remaining days he was permitted to live. In con- versing with Clery after M. Malesherbes had retired, he expressed himself satis- fied that little was to be expected from the demand for a delay in the execution of the sentence, which it had been de- termined shoidd be addressed to the Con- vention. It afflicted him patricularly, he said, that the duke of Orleans, his relation, had voted for his death. What occasioned him most grief and anxiety in regard to his own fate was the deso- late state in which he must leave his wi- dow and family. He expected to have seen M. Malesherbes again that even- ing ; but he did not make his appear- ance, not having, it appears, been admit- ted when he applied at the gate of the prison. The continued absence during the next and the following days of this, the only friend whom he had been per- mitted to see, gave the king much unea- siness. During the 18th, he employed himself principally in reading ; the vol- FRANCE. 291 ume wluch he chose being that of Hume's History of England, which contained an account of the death of Charles I. On the 19th, at nine in the morning, Gobeau, an officer of the municipality, presented himself, accompanied by Ma- they, the jailor ; for the purpose, as he stated, of taking an inventory of the king's effects. While Gobeau, assisted by Clery, was employed at this work, Mathey stood before the fire, with his back to it and his coat tucked up ; nor did he show any inclination to shift his position when his majesty, who had been sitting for some time in a small ad- joining closet without a chimney, ap- proached to warm himself. This rude- ness and inhumanity provoked Louis to forget for a moment his usual meekness ; and, in a somewhat sharp tone, he de- sired the man to stand a little aside. Mathey said nothing, but retired. On the 20th, which was Sunday, he was occupied during the earlier part of the day in reading and writing, as was his custom. At two o'clock the min- isters of justice and of foreign affairs, and some ten or twelve other persons, composing what was called the Execu- tive Council, made their appearance, conducted by Santerre. As soon as they had entered the apartment, Garat, the minister of justice, without taking off his hat, addressed his majesty as follows : "Louis, the National Convention has charged the Provisionary Executive Coun- cil to communicate to you its decrees of the 15th, 16th, 17th, 19th, and 20th of January; the secretary of the Council will read them to you." Grouvelle, the secretary, then, unfolding a paper which he held in his hand, proceeded to read the decrees in a weak and tremulous voice. They consisted of four articles, and declared, in substance, that Louis Capet, the last king of the French, hav- ing been guilty of conspiring against the liberty of the nation, should undergo the punishment of death ; that the appeal to the nation, which he had claimed, should not be allowed; but that the Executive Council should see to the execution of the sentence within twenty-four hours. Louis listened to these intimations with- out emotion ; and receiving the paper from Grouvelle, deliberately folded it up and deposited it in his pocket-book. Then taking out another paper, he presented it to Garat, requesting him to lay it imme- diately before the Convention ; but when the minister appeared to hesitate about accepting it, Louis said that he wdVjld read it to him before putting it into his hands, which he did immediately in his usual tone of voice. It contained a de- mand, first, for a delay of three days to enable him to prepare himself for death, and permission to see, for that purpose, a priest whom he should name, and whose safety should be perfectly secured ; sec- ondly, for some relaxation of the constant surveillance to which he had recently been subjected, two guards having been stationed in his apartments, whose orders were never to allow him to be a moment out of their view, either during the day or the night ; and thirdly, for the privilege, during the time he was to live, of seeing his family when he chose, and without any one being present. He also requested that the Convention would, after his death, permit his family to retire without moles- tation to whatever country they might wish to go to ; and he recommended those who had adhered to liim in his ad- versity, and whose services he had not the means of recompensing, as well as many aged persons, females and children, to whom he had been in the habit of dis- pensing charity, to the benevolence of the nation. When he heard it read, Ga- rat took the paper, and promised that he would forward it immediately to the Con- vention. The Council then retired. On dinner being brought in immediately after this, it was found that the mimici- pality had given orders that the use of a laiife should no longer be allowed to their prisoner. "Do they believe me such a fool," said the king, " that I would attempt my life ? I am innocent of the crimes which they impute to me, and I shall die without fear." No one else spoke. The king ate little, cutting the meat with his spoon ; and the dinner was over in a few minutes. About six o'clock in the evening Garat and Santerre returned, when the former informed his majesty that his letter had >92 FRANCE. been laid before the Convention, and that they had decreed that he should be per- mitted to call in what minister of religion he might think proper, and to see his fam- ily freely, and without any one being present. The nation, it was added, al- ways great, and always just, would see to ftie condition of his family, and pay his creditors whatever might be due to them ; but as to his demand for a delay of three days, upon that the Convention had passed to the order of the day. Nothing more, therefore, now remain- ed to the unfortunate king, except to avail himself, as the time permitted, of the scanty privileges which had been ac- corded to him. He prepared, in the first place, to see his wife and children ; but it was some time before every thing coidd be arranged for the interview. Although the decree of the Convention seemed to have given him permission to meet them alone, it was determined, in order to sat- isfy the letter of the previous instructions which had been issued by the municipali- ty, that his guard should observe what took place through some panes of glass which were in the door of the dining- room, the door itself being shut ; and that consequently the interview should take place in that apartment. At last, soon after eight o'clock, every thing being in readiness, his majesty sent to desire the presence of the objects of his affection. The messenger was absent on his er- rand about a quarter of an hour. " Du- ring this interval," says Clery, the king re-entered his closet, coming from time to time to the door, with symptoms of the liveliest emotion. At half-past eight the door opened ; the queen appeared first, holding her son by the hand ; then the princess royal and madame Elizabeth : all threw themselves into the arms of the king. A deep silence reigned for some minutes, interrupted only by sobs. The queen made a movement, with the object of leading his majesty towards his chamber. " No," said the king, " let us pass into this room — I can only see you there." They entered, and I shut the door, which was a glazed one. The king sat down, the queen placing herself on his left, madame Elizabeth on his right, the princess royal almost opposite to him, while the young prince remained standing between liis legs ; all were bent towards him, and often clasped him in in their arms. This scene of grief lasted for an hour and three quarters, during which it was impossible to hear any thing that was said ; we could only perceive that after every expression of the king, the sobs of the princesses redoubled, lasting for some minutes, and that then the king re-commenced speaking. At a quarter past ten the king rose first, and all followed him ; I opened the door ; the queen held the king by the right arm ; their majesties gave each one hand to the dauphin ; the princess royal, on the left, clung to the king with her arm around his waist ; madame Elizabeth on the same side, but not quite so far in advance, had seized the left arm of her august brother ; they moved some steps towards the door, uttering the most agonizing groans. "I assure you," said the king, "that I will see you to-morrow morning at eight." "You promise us," repeated they all together. " Yes I promise you." " Why not at seven ?" said the queen. " Well then," answered the king, " at seven — adieu !" He pronounced this adieu in so impressive a manner that their distress and sobbing were redoubled. The princess royal fell down in a swoon at the feet of the king, to whom she clung ; I lifted her up, and assisted mad- ame Elizabeth in supporting her ; the king, wishing to put an end to this lacer- ating scene, bestowed upon them once more the most tender embraces, and then had the strength to tear himself from their arms. " Adieu — adieu !" he said, and re- entered his chamber. Before this the abbe Edgeworth de Firmont, the priest whom the king had desired to be sent for, had been brought to the tower ; and during this distressing interview he was in an adjoining closet, where his majesty joined him immediate- ly after his family had retired. When supper was over, at wdiich the king eat sparingly, but with appetite, the necessa- ry articles for the celebration of mass the following morning were sent for to the neighboring church of the Capuchins in Marais. The remainder of the night, till j half past twelve, Louis passed with his ' I FRANCE. 293 confessor. He then retired to bed ; and having desired his valet to awaken him at five, fell immediately into a profound slumber. The noise made by Clery in lighting the fire awoke him at the hour at which he had desired to be called ; when he rose and proceeded to dress, remarking that he had slept well, a refreshment of which he had had ,much need from the fatigues of the preceding day. At six o'clock the performance of mass com- menced ; after which his majesty took the sacrament. He then took Clery aside, and putting into his hands a seal which he had taken from his watch, and a ring he used to wear, he ordered him to give the one to his son, and the other to the queen ; " Tell her ," said he, "that I quit it with pain." " This little packet," he continued, " contains the hair of all my family ; give it also to the queen. Say to her, to my dear children, to my sister, that I had promised to see them this morning, but that I wished to spare them the distress of so cruel a separation. Alas, how much it costs mc to leave them without receiving their last embraces ! I charge you to carry them my farewell." He uttered these last words in a voice of the deepest sorrow, and with the tears rolling down his cheeks. The following is the conclusion of Cla- ry's narrative : " Paris had been under arms since five o'clock ; we heard the beating of the generale, the clashing of arms, the trampling of horses, the wheel- ing about of cannons, which they were placing and displacing every instant ; all these noises resounded through the tow- er. At nine the noise augmented, the [ doors were thrown open with obstrepe- 1 rous jar, and Santerre, accompanied by I seven or eight members of the municipali- ! ty, entered at the head of ten gendarmes, '. whom he ranged in two lines. At this commotion the king came forth from his \ closet. " You are come for me ?" said j he to Santerre. "Yes." "I beg one minute," he replied, and re-entered the closet. He returned immediately, his j confessor following him. The king held his testament in his hand, and, address- ing himself to one of the members of the mimicipality, a priest who had taken the oaths, named Jacques Roux, who hap- pened to stand foremost, "I request," he said, that you will give this paper to the queen — to my wife." " That is no busi- ness of mine," answered the priest, while he refused to receive the manuscript ; " I am here to conduct you to the scaffold." His majesty then addressing himself to Gobeau, another member of the munici- pality, requested him to take charge of the paper and deliver it ; adding, " You may read it ; it contains some dispositions with which I am desirous that the Com- mune should be acquainted." I stood behind the king, near the fire-place, when he turned round, and I presented to him his great coat {redingote.) "I do not re- quire it," said he, "give me only my hat." As I gave it to him, his hand met mine, which he clasped for the last time. " Gen- tlemen," said he, addressing himself to the members of the municipality, " I should wish Clery to remain with my son, who is accustomed to his attentions ; I hope that the Commune will entertain this request." Then looking to Santerre, he added, " Let us go." These were the last words which he pronouncd in his apartment. At the top of the stairs he met Mathey the jailor, and said to him, " I spoke a little sharply the day before yesterday to you — do not bear me a grudge for it." Mathey made no reply, and aflected even to retire when the king spoke to him. I remained alone in the chamber, struck down with grief, and almost deprived of feeling. The drums and trumpets announced that his majesty had quitted the tower. An hour after, voUies of artillery and cries of Vive la Nation ! Vive la Republique ! were heard. The best of kings was no more. The Abbe Edgeworth, who accompa- nied Louis to the scaffold, has given us an account of the progress of the king from his prison to the place of execution, as well as of his last moments. In crossing the court of the Temple he twice turned round and looked up to the apartments in which his family were con- fined, as if to bid them his last farewell. At the entry of the second court a car- riage stood waiting with two gendarmes standing at the door, one of whom en- tered, and took his place in front on the 294 FRANCE. approach of the King. The King him- 1 self, his confessor, and the other gen- darme then successively followed ; the door was shut by the last, and they drove j off at a slow pace. From the first Louis avoided all conversation, but continued j to peruse a breviary which M. Edgeworth had given him, occasionally reciting along with that gentleman certain psalms ap- plicable to his situation. Their progress lasted nearly two hours. " All the streets," continues the Abbe, " were lined with several rows of citizens, armed some with pikes, and others with mus- kets. Besides this, the carriage itself was surrounded by an imposing body of troops ; and, to complete their precau- tions, they had placed before the horses a multitude of persons with drums, that the noise of these instruments might drown any cries which might be raised in favour of the King. But whence could such cries have proceeded ? No- body appeared either at the doors or windows, and in the streets were only to be seen the rows of armed citizens. In this manner the carriage arrived amidst the deepest silence at the Place Louis XV, and stopped in the middle of a large empty space which had been formed around the scaflbld. This space was surrounded by cannons ; and beyond it, as far as the eye could reach, was to be seen a multitude in arms. As soon as the King perceived that the carriage had stopped, he turned towards me and said, " We have reached the place, then, if I am not mistaken." The particulars that follow we collect from difTerent narratives. It appears that immediately on the carriage halting, one of the executioners advanced and opened the door, on which the two gendarmes rose to step out ; but before they went, the King, with a firm and dignified ac- 1 cent, charged them with the protection of I his confessor from any insult to which he might be exposed after his death. He j then descended to the ground with a steady step. He was dressed in a brown | coat, a white vest, gray-coloured small clothes, and white stockings. " On de- scending from the carriage," says San- son (the person who executed the sen- tence,) in a narrative which M. Dulaure has printed, " he was told that it would be necessary to pull off his coat'; he made some difficulty as to this, saying that they could execute him as he was. When it was represented to him that the thing was impossible, he himself assisted in pulling off his coat. He made the same difficulty when his hands were going to be tied, but offered them of his own accord, when the person who was with him (M. Edgworth) observed that it was the last sacrifice. He then in- quired if the drums were not to cease beating. We replied that we did not know, which was the truth. He ascend- ed the scaffold, and wished to advance to the front, as if for the purpose of speaking ; but it was represented to him that the thing was impossible. He then suffered himself to be conducted to the spot where we placed him, and from which he called out with a very loud voice : People, I die innocent ; then, turn- ing to us, he said G entlemen, I am inno- cent of all they accuse me of ; may my blood cement the happiness of Frenchmen. These were his true and last words." " To render homage to the truth," con- cludes Sanson, "he sustained the whole with a sang-froid and a firmness which astonished us all. I remain very much convinced that he had derived this firm- ness from the principles of religion, Avith which no person ever appeared more penetrated than he was, or more persua- ded of their truth." According to the Abbe Edgeworth (and his account is confirmed by M. Goret) Louis was prevented from con- tinuing his address by a man on horse- back, dressed in the uniform of a national guard, who rushing suddenly sword in hand, and with ferocious cries, upon the persons with the drums, compelled them to beat their instruments with re- doubled vigor. This was Santerre, then commander-in-chief of the national guard. Several voices were raised at the same time," proceeds M. Edgeworth, " to encourage the executioners ; they themselves appeared to acquire more confidence, and, seizing forcibly the most virtuous of kings, they drew him under the axe, which, at a single stroke made his head fall from his body. All this FRANCE. 295 was the work of a few seconds : the youngest of the executioners (he did not appear to be more than eighteen years of age) immediately took up the head and showed it to the people, making the round of the scaffold; he accompanied this monstrous ceremony by the most atro- cious cries and the most indecent ges- tures. The deepest silence reigned at first ; after a short time some cries of Vive la Republique arose. By degrees the voices so exclaiming grew more numer- ous ; and in less than ten minutes the cry became that of the whole multitude, and all their hats were waving in the air." The influence of the Mountain or ultra democratic party, continued to in- crease rapidly in the convention after the death of the king. La Vendee now rose, and the continent as well as England armed in hostility to the convention, whom nothing seemed to in- timidate. Fourteen armies, without ex- perience, and merely with the aid of pa- per-money, were set in motion. Custine took Mentz ; Montesqieu invaded Savoy ; Lille repulsed the Austrians, who bom- barded the city ; and Dumouriez, making a descent upon Belgium, carried the re- doubts of Jcmappe with the bayonet, now substituted for the old French tactics. The generals had only to sound the Mar- seillais hymn, and the citizen soldiers saw in the republic a futurity of peace and prosperity; although the roots of what was called the tree of liberty had been saturated with blood. A descen- dant of Turenne was honored with the title of the first grenadier in France : a Biron marched against the royalists in La Vendee. The young Orleans fought for national independence, while his father, under the name of Egalite, passed from the Mountain, where he sat, to the scaffold where he perished. But the Mountain men still meditated vengeance on the Girondists for their superiority, their constant opposition to \ their atrocities, their denunciations of Marat, and their causing the arrest of Hebert. After a new attempt at assassin- ation, the Mountain ordered an insurrec- tion. A hired multitude went on the 31st May, to dictate to the representation and on the 2nd of the next month de- manded twenty-two heads that had been pointed out to it among the Girondists ! The proscribed all perished, with the exception of one who survived the entire revolution, the virtuous Languinois. The first attack on the inviolability of the representation became a fatal example. Seventy-three deputies were decreed in a state of arrest ; and though a constitu- tion was drawn up, it was strangled in its birth, and the revolutionary government, or regime of terror, was organized, the ad- ministration of which was the guillotine, and its functionaries the executioners. On learning the proscription of the Gi- rondists, a young, enthusiastic Norman girl, named Charlotte Corday, resolved to avenge their fall. For this purpose she set out from Caen in Normandy and arrived in Paris on the 11th of July, and spent some days in seeing the abodes and learning the motions of the sanguin- ary triumvirate. She determined to im- molate one of them ; and Marat appear- ed to her to be the most guilty and most atrocious. But he no longer went abroad to the convention ; suffering under a con- tinual fever, which he allayed by frequent baths, and indulged by denunciations and proscriptions, sent forth either in his daily journal, or in letters to the convention. He was then clamorous, like a hound for his meal delayed, that Custines and Bi- ron, the two generals in command, were aristocrats worthy of condemnation and the guillotine. Charlotte Corday went to the abode of the monster; a female with whom he lived denied her entrance : she insisted, saying she had matters of importance to communicate, having just arrived from Caen. Marat, who was extended in his bath in an adjoining chamber, caught the word, cried out that the young girl should be admitted, and eagerly commenced inquiries relating to the Girondist deputies then at Caen. He carefully noted down her replies, mutter- ing, " they shall all go to the guillotine," when Charlotte Corday approached and plunged a knife into his breast. His cry for help brought his mistress ; and she, a crowd. The monster had expired, the words of blood still in his mouth. Charlotte Corday stood by unmoved, in the calm serenity of heroism, avowing 296 FRANCE. and glorifying in the deed. Such was lier countenance at her trial ; such did it continue at her execution, which took place in a few days after, amidst the ex- ecrations of the mob ; whilst Marat was borne to his tomb lamented by thousands. The convention is a political phenom- enon, which has existed but once ; and its terrible power was wielded by men of the lowest ambitions. The Mountain was a volcano, which vomited its fires over Europe, while it inundated France with its incendiary lava ; and the Jaco- bin club, the caves where the thunder- bolts of power were forged. Still these fanatics of liberty remained poor, while they were denouncing death on the rich ; as they depopulated the earth, while they were promising themselves to share its blessings and live like brethren. Ev- ery thing in fact was immolated to the fierce inflexibility of their passions. Some attempts, however, were made to shake off this frightful yoke. The Girondists and constitutionalists, who had been proscribed as moderate men and as wishing to break the unity of the republic, rose at Caen and Lyons ; when the convention decreed that Lyons should be destroyed. Marseilles was decima- ted, and its name suppressed. Toulon opened its gates to the English, but Nan- tes repulsed the Vendeans. The Moun- tain sent out its chiefs on all sides to es- tablish its power; a revolutionary army followed them ; they established in fact a mission of terror, and extended their works of death even to St. Domingo. The Noyades of Carrier and the atroci- ties of licbon are well known. Every where tribunals of blood were in horri- ble activity; even the camps were not an asylum ; Houchard, who had just con- quered the English at Ilondcoot, soon followed his predecessor Custine to the scaffold. To crown these evils, industry and commerce were prescribed. Requi- sitions and a maximum, which heavily taxed provisions, produced a famine ; the west of France was soon in a state of revolution, caused by the same men who pronounced as legislators the abolition of the punishment of death, and founded the conservatories and the polytechnic school. I The most remarkable event in the mil* itary history of 1793, is the siege of Tou- lon, not so much from its importance, as from its first bringing to light the talents of Napoleon Buonaparte. He was born in Corsica, of a good family, in 1769, and educated at the artillery school of Brienne. As all the students of this establishment, and, indeed, all intended to hold rank in the army under the ancient regime, were noble, the officers emigrated at the com- mencement of the revolution ; Buonaparte and three comrades being the only ones that remained of his regiment. The place of an ofhcer of artillery could not be supplied from the lower and uninform- ed ranks of life, as those of the line were in France ; and thus he found himself, at the age of twenty-four, with the rank of major, and the chief of his army be- fore Toulon. Two successive generals appointed to command the siege were totally ignorant of their profession. The members of the convention present with this army were self-sufficient, and still less capable of conducting a siege. The task fell upon young Buonaparte, who had not only to devise good counsel, but to make it prevail. The latter he effect- ed by reports and written plans, that pro- ved his talents to the war committee at home, as his acts proved ihem to the be- sieging army. Instead of making a reg- ular attack upon the main fortification, he proposed to get possession of the prom- inent points commanding the harbor, which would render it untenable to the English fleet. Were this once eflected, the motley garrison he knew would not hold the town. Although amounting to 14,000, it numbered but 3000 English. Even their commander, O'Hara, was ta- ken in a sortie. The important posts designated by Buonaparte were captured ; and as the cannon from them reached the fleet the evacuation of the town was decided on. The English, in departing, set fire to the magazines, and to the French fleet, consisting of nine vessels of the line and four frigates ; a melan- choly spectacle to the men of Toulon, an exasperating one to their republican con- querors. The circumstances of the siege were, however, useful to the cause of the latter. It proved an example to awe FRANCE 297 all towns and parties from mounting the white flag of the Bourbons, or from re- ceiving under any pretext the enemies of their country within their walls. Great talents were certainly displayed in the committee of public safety, a se- lect part of the Mountain faction. But Carnot had only begun to secure victory to the French arms by his arrangements, when he had to contend with the treason of Dumouriez. This general had deliv- ered up to the enemy the commissaries of the convention, who were coming to bring him instructions, and take him back to the guillotine. So far he acted in self-defence ; but before he emigrated, he endeavored to unite the French and the Germans against the republic to which he owed allegiance, in order to march to Paris. The lines of Weissemburg had also been siurendered by traitors Robespierre was at this period (1794) at the zenith of his prosperity. He had sacrificed his old associate in crimes, Danton, who saw in the revolution the means of enriching himself, and who was afterwards disowned by the rigid Jaco- bins ; and science, reputation, and talents became but the watch-word for proscrip- tion and death. At last this prince of homicides closed his career, by making the Mountain itself tremble, demanding those purifications which threatened to attaint even the executioners themselves. Billaud Varennes first shook off the yoke ; the Jacobin speculators, the re- mains of Danton's party, who saw them- selves in danger, united with the remain- ing part of the Girondists, and, on the 9th of Thermidor, Tallien braved and un- masked the villain, whom St. Just, his confidant, in vain attempted to defend. Cries of " down with the tyrant" issued from every mouth, Robespierre and his party were hurried away ; but the .mob, at the sound of the tocsin, rose in their favor. Barras now put himself at the ' liead of the national guard, in the name I of the convention ; and they easily made I themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville. ; Robespierre was at last overcome ; and 1 after having attempted self-destruction, I he received his well merited death blow.* ■ For some time there had been skimiishes in But a cruel re-action blemished this cri- sis ; the Thermidorians proscribed the Mountain in their turn ; and the royalists the convention betwixt Robespierre and some of the old Mountainists, who showed an inclination to form an opposition. Amongst thcni were Bourdon, Tallien, Fouche, Barras. With these now united the malcontents of the two commit- tees. The report of Vadier was publicly read, despite the efforts of Robespierre. He retired indignant from the convention, and the commit- tee ; thus imitating the false steps of Danton, and leaving his friends, Couthon and St. Just, to strive alone against CoUol, Billaud and Barrere. In the Jacobins, however, Robespierre continued still paramount. Possessed of them, the organ of popularity, and of the municipal force under Henriot, he thought he might defy the conven- tion. He retired from it, meaning thereby to convey a warning and a menace. But conven- tion and committee continued their labor, the party in opposition gathering numbers, consisten- cy, and force, for the struggle that was approach- ing. The Jacobin tyrant was reported to demand the heads of half the assembly, and much more than half were terrified in consequence, and alarmed into resistance. He took counsel with his immediate friends. The more furious press- ed him to seize his antagonists on his own indi- vidual authority. But this appeared to him too bold a step ; it would alienate the armies. An insurrection in form, another 31st of May, ap- peared the preferable mode. But he hoped to obviate even the necessity of this by intimidation. The Jacobins were accordingly worked up to a proper pitch of e.xcitement, and on the 25th of July, the 7th Thcnnidor, a menacing petition — a similar one had preceded the 31st of May — was presented to the convention. It was received in silence. The members feared alike to reprobate or applaud. On the following day, Robespierre appeared, ascended the Tribune, and developed in a speech of many hours the conduct of his whole political life, his aims, his wrongs, his for- bearance towards the convention, but at the same time his determination to uphold the revolution. In plain language, what he meant to utter was this : I am in a minority, both in the legislature and the government, and the convention, and the committees. Restore me to my influence, or There ensued a considerable tumult in the assembly. Billaud and Vadier each defended himself Panis accused Robespierre of prepar- ing lists of proscriptions in the Jacobin club, more especially against Fouche. Bourdon at length proposed instead of ordering the speech to be printed, to refer it to the committees. " That i« to my enemies," exclaimed the dictator. " Name them whom you accuse," was the reply ; in oth- er words, " Tell us how many heads you de- mand." Had Robespierre had the courage at this moment to designate a dozen of his enemies, and prove at the same time his cordiality with the rest, the twelve would most probably have been sacrificed, aivd the tyrant still upheld in his reign. He refused to name his victims ; and as each be- 298 FRANCE. rising in the south organized themselves into companies of assassins. lieved himself on the fatal list, the only safety was in resistance. The morrow, 9th Thcrmidor, 27th of July, proved decisive. The night was spent by both | parties in making preparations for the struggle. | When the silting opened, St. Just got posses- sion of the tribune, and, under pretence of read- ing a report, commenced a denunciation. He had already uttered the name of Tallien, when that deputy rose to order, asserting that St. Just, not having consulted with the committee, had no right to read the report. " Let us at once tear asunder the veil," said Tallien, commencing his attack. But Billaud-Varennes, as member of the committee, and more entitled than Tallien to denounce, interrupted Tallien, and assumed the lead against Robespierre. He told the assembly that the Jacobins had sworn yesterday to slaugh- ter the convention, and that their only hope con- sisted in firmness. He then launched out into a ferocious philippic against Robespierre, who rushed to the tribune to answer. But universal cries of "Down with the tyrant !" drowned his voice, and prevented him from being heard. Tal- lien succeeded Billaud, already triumphant. The refusal to hear Robespierre presaged his fall. "Yesterday," said Tallien, " I was present at the meeting of the Jacobins, and I shuddered for my country. There I saw forming the army of the new Cromwell, and I armed myself with a poniard to pierce his breast (Tallien showed the weapon) in case the convention had not courage to pass the decree of accusation." Tallien then propo- sed the arrest of Henriot, and that the assembly should sit in permanence until the menaced in- surrection was put down, and the guilty seized. This was passed with acclamation. Robespierre, at the foot of the tribune all this time, tried to gain possession of it, begged to be heard, and foamed at the mouth in frenzy of exertion and despair. But the assembly would not hear him. Barrere at length got up. It is said that he had in his pocket two speeches, one for, one against, Robespierre. Seeing the state of feeling, he produced and spoke the latter. It defended the committees, and accused the tyrant. Tallien again followed. It is remarkable, that in all this rage, this ample theme of denunciation against so manifest a tyrant, there was no eloquence, no overwhelming force of accusation. As guilty themselves as Robespierre, Billaud and Tallien dared not tax him with his crimes. The fears of the convention, however, gave it energy. They dreaded even to listen to Robespierre, lest they should be more awed by his voice than by his vengeance. In vain he asked to be heard. He turned to all sides of the assembly ; clamors only answered him. " President of assassins," cried he, " for the last time I ask the liberty to speak." His voice and his strength here failed him. " The blood of Danton stifles thee," ob- served a member. " Ha ! it is Danton you would avenge," replied he, snatching at the least advantage. His arrest was now unanimously de- The Jacobins in 1795 made some fur- ther struggles for power: the Thermido- creed. Robespierre the younger started up, and demanded to be included in the decree ; Couthon, St. Just, and Lebon were also added. They were ordered to the bar, and descended with im- precations ; but not a huissier, or officer of the house, could be found bold enough to take the dreaded men into arrest. At length some gen- darmerie were procured to take charge of them. The debate had lasted all day, and the arrest was not pronounced till evening. The mayor and commune remained in suspense, but Henriot collected his gendarmerie, and refused to obey the order of the convention depriving him of the command. The keepers of the several prisons were in the same interest ; they refused to receive the arrested members, who were rescued and con- veyed to the Hotel de Ville. Thus were the two rival powers each in its head-quarters ; the con- vention at the Tuilleries, Robespierre and his friends at the commune. Each was in posses- sion of a certain part of the armed force ; but so feeble, that it seemed impossible to strike a de- cisive blow on that night. Robespierre was grievously disappointed in finding that the rabble had not flocked to his standard. Henriot tried in vain to raise the fau.xbourgs ; but this could only be done by a certain low class of agitators, such as the Anarchists and the Cordelier club united and held in pay. In crushing these, Robes- pierre had destroyed the instruments, and the officers in fact, of insurrection, and no aid was hence to be obtained. Here then was his blun- der. In ruining the mob party, he had cut away his own support. The commune, however, had some reliance on the sections, and the national guard attached to them. But the convention, despatching two of its members to each section, proved more active than the commune, or than Robespierre, who was stupified rather than exci- ted to exertion by this his final peril. Henriot, too, was an nnfit, a drunken commander. He had been seized in the evening at the palace of the convention, and afterwards liberated by his friends. His approach had thrown the assembly in a panic, and they had voted to die at their posts. On recovering from their fears, they ap- pointed Barras general, and other deputies to act under his command. The sections answered the appeal of the convention. None but the can- noniers adhered to the commune ; and these were shaken in their firmness by emissaries who penetrated amongst them, and acquainted them with the decree outlawing the Robespierres and their party. The apathy of the populace, the want of spirit in the leaders, who scarcely show- ed themselves, but remained in secret and irres- olute council, contributed to the defection of the cannoniers, the greater part of whom drew off at length, and abandoned the Hotel de Ville. Thus, about midnight, when the force under the orders of the convention surrounded the Hotel and oc- cupied the place, there was scarcely a sign of resistance. Even within the doors, in the man- sion and stronghold of the commune, there was il FRANCE. 299 rians opposed to them tlie " golden youth of Frerou," an armed association of all those who had to avenge some victim of the system of terror, and who sung the " awakening of the people !" On the 12th of Germinal an assemblage of the people, excited to violence by the fam- ine, was dispersed, and seA^enteen Moun- tain men were arrested ; Billaud and Col- lot were transported to Guinea. The remainder of the Mountain, however, ob- tained some advantage on the 1st- of Prairial, by getting possession of the hall of the convention, where the deputy Feraud was assassinated. Already had the terrible Faubourg advanced in a col- umn. The Thermidorian committees were conquerors at last without striking a blow; the 31st of May was cruelly avenged ; and six Mountain men doomed to death, put an end to their own lives. little opposition. A few gendarmes were able to make their way up the staircases, and to surprise the conspirators. There is considerable diversity in the narra- tives of their final capture. A gendarme, named Meda, was most instrumental. In the account which he has written, the whole credit is assigned to him. It was he who first seized Henriot, who commanded the attack, and who first rushed amongst the conspirators, shooting Robespierre through the jaw with a pistol, and slaying another who resisted. Meda's account is, however, set aside by both Tiiiers and Mignet, although the deputies of the convention attributed to him the chief honors of the attack, and although the as- sembly voted him thanks. According to the prevailing account, Henriot was thrown from a window, from which young Robespierre also flung himself. Robespierre the elder discharged a pis- tol at his own head, which, however, took effect but in the jaw. St. Just and Couthon were sent to the Conciergerie. Robespierre was conveyed to the committee-room of public safety, the hall of his reign, laid on the table on which he had signed so many death-warrants, and left there to await his fate. Their outlawry rendering trial unnecessary, they were executed on the following day. Robes- pierre never spoke after his capture, despite the host of questions put, and imprecations heap- ed upon him. He died, as well as St. Just, with the wonted courage of the time in facing death. His brother and Henriot were decapitated also, though already expiring from the effects of their fall. Simon, the cobbler, and barbarous tutor of the unfortunate son of Louis the Sixteenth, was executed also. At this time the acclamations and applause of the more respectable citizens were heard mingling with those of the rabble round the fatal scaffold. A peace was then concluded with the Vendeans, who still entertained the hope of an approaching restoration of the house of Bourbon. By the adoption of a new constitution, on the 23rd of October, 1795, France secured for itself greater stability in its external and internal affairs. According to this constitution, the legislative power was vested in two councils ; the council of five hundred with whom all laws ori- ginated, and the council of the ancients consisting of 250 members, which adopt- ed or rejected the laws sent up to them from the other council. The executive power was vested in the hands of five directors, one of whom was elected an- nually. After that Prussia, Spain, Tus- cany, and the Elector of Hesse-Cassel had concluded a treaty with France ; Austria, England, and Russia, united in a triple alliance, on the 28th of Septem- ber, 1795, with the design of vigorously prosecuting the war. The emigrants also who had assembled in the Breisgau under the prince of Conde, proclaimed the count of Provence (Louis XVIIl) king. But the French armies, on the renewal of the campaign, entered Ger- many and Italy as victors ; and the civil war in the Vendee was finally put down by Hochein 1796. The history of France has been be- fore likened to a river ; the deep majes- tic current of the monarchy burst its banks at the revolution, and spread over an immense extent, forming in its wide in- undation a lake with islands interspersed with various channels, inlets, too intricate and vast for the eye to grasp at one view. Now, however, as the revolution draws to its close the current narrows ; and, like water at the termination of a lake, we see the large events of a nation's history contract and deepen, in order to run in the bounded channel of an individ- ual's fortune. In other words, the history of France becomes for a long and glori- ous period identified with the life of Na- poleon Bonaparte. The affair of Toulon opened his ca- reer ; thence he joined the army of Italy ; where, employed as an engineer, he had full opportunity of studying a field of warfare destined soon to be that of his 300 FRANCE. reputation. Suspended and put into arrest after Thermidor, he was released on an energetic remonstrance, but left without employment. He betook himself to Pa- ris, where, after some time, he was order- ed to La Vendue. But it was not merely active service that could satisfy him, but an ample field ; he refused to serve against the Vendeans, but remained in the capital making his way in society, and meditating an ambitious marriage, since a campaign such as he sought was denied. The rebellion of the sections in Vendemiaire occurred ; Bonaparte, through Barras, took the command against them, and was successful ; in recom- pense he was appointed general of the army of the interior, — of that, in other words, destined to act as guards to the directory. From this command he was appointed, in March, 1796, to that of the army of Italy. His marriage with the widow of general Beauharnois happen- ing simultaneously with the appointment, gives some foundation to the rumor that tiie interests of her friends, combined with his own, procured for him the com- mand of an army of activity. Josephine, much older than Napoleon, was a native of St, Domingo, or Hayti, of engaging person, and seems to have inspired him with sincere passion. In the commencement of the war, the Netherlands had principally attracted the attention of the forces of the French. Here conquerors, and being secure from hostilities on the Lower Rhine by peace with Prussia, and on the side of the Py- renees by that with Spain, they bent their eflbrts first to the invasion of Germany by the Upper Rhine. The campaign of 1795 had in this quarter not been attend- ed with success ; whilst on the Mediter- ranean a partial victory, in which the counsels of Bonaparte had no small share, had shown Austria to be far more vulnerable in that quarter. Whilst Mo- reau, a cautious rather than an active general, was sent to replace Pichegru on the Rhine, Bonaparte was despatched to Italy with an army totally destitute of warlike equipments. He marched from Genoa ; defeated the Austrians and Pied- montese in the battles of Montenotte fought on the 12lh of April, 1796, and of Milesimo on the 14th of the same month; compelled the king of Sardinia to con- clude a treaty of peace, in which Savoy and Nice were given up to France ; on the 8th of May crossed the Po ; on the succeeding day forced Parma to consent to an armstice ; on the 10th, defeated general Beaulieu at Lodi ; on the 20th, proclaimed the freedom of the Lombard- ese ; in the month of June compelled Modena, Naples, and the Pope to con- clude an armstice ; defeated General Wurmser — who had succeeded Beaulieu in command — on the 3rd of August at Lonado, and on the 5th of that month at Castiglione, forcing him to retire into the fortress of Mantua ; advanced against the Tyrol ; defeated Alvanzi at Arcole on the 15th of November, and at Rivoli on the 14th January, 1797 ; concluded the peace of Tolentino, in which the Pope yielded Avignon to France ; and Bolog- na, Ferrara, and Romagna to the Cisal- pine republic, on the 19th of February ; defeated the archduke Charles at Lison- zo ; and signed preliminaries of peace with Austria at Leoben on the 16th of April, 1797, which formed the basis of the peace of Campo Formio, conclu- ded on the 17th of October following. During these victories in Italy, Jour- dan penetrated from Dusseldorf into the Upper Palatinate, and Moreau from Kehl to Munich, after having concluded a peace with Baden and Wirtemberg, in August, 1796. But the archduke Charles crossed over to the left bank of the Danube on the 17th of August, and defeated Jour- dan at Neumark on the 22d, at Amberg, on the 24th, at Wurtzburg on the 3d of September, at Grossen on the 16th, and at Altenkirchen on the 20th of Septem- ber ; by which victories he compelled Moreau likewise to retire from Bavaria, a retreat which he accomplished, with consummate prudence and skill, in the face of the surrounding Austrians. After the overthrow of the constitution of the Venetian republic on the 22nd of May, 1797, occasioned by a rising of the Venetian against the French troops sta- tioned in their territory, Austria, in the peace of Campo Formio, gave up the whole of Belgium to France, and recog- nized the Cisalpine republic, to which FRANCE. 301 she surrendered Milan and Mantua ; while, on tlie other hand, she received from the Venetian states, Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the neighboring districts extending to the Adige. The remainder of the Venetian dominions, and the state of the duke of Modena were annexed to the Cisalpine republic ; and the seven islands belonging to Venice were ceded to France. In the period between the peace of Campo Formio and the renewal of the war, a directorial government was formed in Batavia, on the 22nd of January, 1799, under French influence. The ancient constitutions of Switzerland were ex- changed, after a series of bloody strug- gles, for the new constitution of the Hel- vetian republic in March, 1798; and Berthier, on the 10th of February, 1798, founded a republic with a consular con- stitution at Rome, and led pope Pius VI, prisoner to France, where he died the following year. Bonaparte embarked on the 22nd of May, 1798, for Egypt; and after having subdued the Mamelukes, penetratad even into Syria, but was com- pelled to abandon the siege of Acre, and to retrace his steps into Egypt. At Aboukir he defeated the Turkish forces, and leaving Kleber in the command of the army, retur^ped to Europe in Septem- ber, 1799, at the moment that France had exhausted herself in the new war against Austria and Russia, with whom the Porte had coalesced. A new war was begun in November, 1798, by the king of Naples, Ferdinand IV, who had marched into Rome Avith the design of re-establishing the dominion of the Pope, whereupon the French in- stantly proclaimed war against Naples, and likewise against Sardinia, under the pretext of these powers having secret correspondence with the enemies of France. General Joubert, on the 9th of December, 1798, forced the king of Sar- dinia to relinquish Piedmont ; and Cham- pionnet in the same month defeated the Neapolitans under Mack, and on the 25th of January, 1799, proclaimed the Par- thenopeian republic. These successes in Italy, where the French had also erected Tuscany into a republic, were lost in the beginning of the war with Russia and Austria in March, 1799, when the arch- duke Charles defeated the French under Jourdan at Ostrach in Suabia on the 21st of March, and at Stobach on the 26th ; whilst Kray defeated Scherer at Past- rengo in Italy on the 26th of March, at Verona on the 30lh, and at Margnano on the 5th of April ; after which Suwarrow, at the head of the Russians and Austrians, engaged the French at Cassano on the 27th of April. Moreau succeeded Sche- rer in the command of the French forces ; but Macdonald — who after Champion- net's arrest, commanded the French at Naples — retreated, after Scherer's de- feat, from Naples into Upper Italy. He fought with great valor from the 12th to the 1 8th of June, at Piacenza, against the Russians and Austrians, who opposed his march to Mantua, but was forced to join Moreau with the remains of his army. The Russian, Austrian, and French ar- mies again measured their strength in the battle of Novi, on the 1 5th of August, which was begun by Joubert, and con- tinued by Moreau, after the former had received a mortal vv^ound. After this en- gagement, in which the French were defeated, both armies retreated into strong positions ; and the Russian and Austrian forces separated, the first intending to penetrate into Switzerland, to unite with another Russian army under Korsakow. Massena defeated the united forces of Korsakow and the Austrians under Hotze, at Zurich, on the 25th and 26th of Sep- tember, by which victory he maintained himself upon the boundaries of Germany and Switzerland, and prevented the arch- duke Charles from crossing the Rhine ; and Brune, on the 9th of September, and 6th of October, defeated the Russians and English troops who had landed in the Netherlands. The greatest disunion, meanwhile, prevailed in Paris between the directory and the legislative body. Bonaparte arrived in Paris on the 15th of October, 1799. In concert with the director Sieyes, he abohshed the third French constitution, by occupying the hall of the legislative body with troops, on the 9th of November, 1799, or the 1 8th of Brumaire, according to the French republican almanac. Sieyes, himself, and Roger Ducos, were named consuls 302 FRANCE ad interim, till the new constitution thus forced upon France was proclaimed on the 13th of December, and general Bo- naparte nominated first consul, Camba- ceres and Lebrun being appointed second and third consuls. The executive power was vested in the three consuls. A sen- ate of eighty members, who were to liold their office for life, a tribunal of one hun- dred members, and a legislative assembly of three hundred members, composed the other branches of the government. The strength and energy of the new govern- ment made itself visible in the immediate union of the best leaders of all parties, and the return of many thousand emi- grants in the humbler ranks of life. In Italy, at the beginning of 1800,. the French retained scarcely any of their conquests, except the republic of Genoa, and this the Austrians were preparing to wrest from them. In the city of Genoa, Massena took the command, and resolved to defend it to the last extremity. In the beginning of April, the Austrian ge- neral Melas, and a British fleet, invested it so completely, that the communication with France was cut off. General Melas j having thus prevented the possibility of its relief, left some troops before it, and marched with the main body against the French general Suchet, whom, on the 7th of May, he totally defeated. In con- sequence of this defeat they crossed the Var, and entered France, and the Aus- tiian general became master of the whole department of the maritime Alps. On the Rhine, general Moreau was opposed to general Kray ; but the latter was fettered by the orders which he re- ceived from the council of war at Vienna, whereas Moreau refused to act according to the instructions sent him by the Chief Consul, except where his own judgment and observation convinced him they were wise and practicable. The plan of Mo- reau was to cross the Rhine ; in this he succeeded, and drove Kray before him as far as Ulm : here he fortified himself ; but Moreau, manoeuvring in such a man- ner as to threaten to cut him off from his magazines, the Austrians were obliged to fight at Hochstet. The French were victorious, and the Austrian general, after in vain endeavoring to oppose the enemy again at Newburg, was obliged to fall back to Ingolstadt. The electorate of Bavaria was conquered : the hereditary domiuions of Austria were threatened, and at Vienna, the popidace demanded peace. The affairs of Austria, were not more promising on the side of Italy. The army of reserve that had been collected at Dijon, marched, as soon as the cam- paign opened on the Rhine, towards Italy, Bonaparte joined them near the lake of Geneva ; and the passage of the Alps was immediately prepared to be under- taken. The difficulties only served to stimulate the ambition, the energy, and the talents of Bonaparte. The trunks of trees were hollowed into the forms of troughs, that the cannon might slide along in them ; the gun carriages were conveyed on sledges, and the wheels on poles. Their passage was over Mount St. Bernard, which the men could only ascend one by one, moving with the ut- most caution. The descent was still more dangerous ; but so admirably were the measures of Bonaparte planned and executed, that scarcely any lives were lost ; and none of the cannon or provi- sions were left behind. Thus Avas ef- fected the passage of a numerous and well-appointed army over the Alps, — an enterprise so extraordinar}^, that the Aus- trians, from a firm conviction that it was absolutely impracticable, never thought of opposing it. Aosta, the fort of Bard, Ivria, Romagno, and Vercelli.were taken. The Tessino was crossed ; Milan entered without opposition ; valuable magazines were captured at Pavia ; and Placentia fell into the possession of Bonaparte, who, by his sudden and unexpected ap- pearance, and by his subsequent mas- terly manoemTcs, completely out-gener- aled Melas. He did not arrive, however, in time to relieve Genoa ; for Messena, after one of the most obstinate defences recorded in history, during which 15,000 of the inhabitants are said to have perished by disease and famine, was compelled to surrender to the Austrian and British commanders on the 5th of June. As soon as Genoa fell, Melas despatched General Ott with 30 battalions to check FRANCE. 303 the progress of the French, who hitherto had not penetrated further than Piedmont ; but that general having suffered a dread- ful defeat at Mon Abello, Melas collected his whole force between Allessandria and Tortona. Here, on the 14th of June, Avas fought the battle of Marengo : for nine hours the Austrians were victorious ; but an imprudent or unskilful movement of General JVlelas, which was instantly taken advantage of by General Dessaix, who made a vigorous charge with a body of fresh cavalry, turned the fate of the day. The victory was purchased by the death of Dessaix, to whose memory due honors were paid by his grateful countrymen. On the 3rd of Dec. 1 800, was fought the battle of Hohenlinden, in which Moreau defeated the archduke John, and entirely routed his army. This was followed by the conclusion of a treaty with Austria, in its own name and that of the German empire, but without the concurrence of England, on the 9th of February, 1801. In this peace — which was signed by Joseph Bonaparte and Cobenzel, — the course of the Rhine was fixed as the limit between France and Germany. Those German princes who lost their territories beyond the Rhine by this new arrange- ment, were to be indemnified by addi- tional possessions on the right bank of that river. In Italy, the course of the Adige was fixed as the boundary between Austria and the Cisalpine republic, and the former power gave the Breisgau and Ortenau to the duke of Modena. The territories of the grand duke of Tuscany were erected into the kingdom of Etruria, which was given to the hereditary prince of Parma, according to a treaty between France and Spain : the grand duke being to be indemnified in Germany, for the j loss of his territories. After this peace, Portugal also con- cluded a treaty with France, on the 29th of September, 1801 ; and Russia and I Turkey, on the 8th and 9th of October, I concluded a treaty upon the statu quo. Great Britain, by concluding the peace \ of Amiens, on the 27th of March, 1802, j retired from the struggle ; retaining Cey- j Ion and Trinidad, but engaging to restore all the other captured colonies, to re- j establish the order of the knights of St. John, at Malta, and to guarantee all the possessions of the Porte. France, on the other hand, guaranteed the existence of the kingdoms of Naples and Portugal. The states-consultat of the Cisalpine republic, which had assumed at Naples, on the 26th of January, 1 802, the name of the Italian republic, made choice of Bona- parte for its president ; and on the 3rd of August, 1802, the French also nominated him consul for life, after that he had found- ed the order of the Legion of Honor in May, 1802, and concluded with the new-elected pope, Pius VII, on the 15th of July, 1801, a concordat for the Galil- ean church, which "was published in April, 1802. The business of the indem- nification in Germany was concluded and accomphshed in 1802 and 1803, at Rat- isbon, by France and Russia, according to a secret convention concluded between these two powers on the 10th of October, 1801. An armament despatched under Leclerc for the reduction of Domingo was baffled ; and neither Napoleon nor the Bourbons could succeed in again reducing this island, which gained its political independence after a bloody struggle. A conspiracy against the life of the first consul, by Georges and Pichegru, was adopted by some of Bonaparte's friends as a pretext for introducing a pro- posal to the senate to change the con- sular government into an hereditary one. The first consul having given his as- sent to the proposal of the senate on the 5th of April, 1 804, the senatus-consultus, by decree of the 18th of May, placed Napoleon Bonaparte, as hereditary em- peror, at the head of France ; and on the 2d of December, pope Pius VII, solemnly anointed the new monarch, who himself placed the imperial crown upon his own head. The Italian republic of course followed the example of France ; and on the 15th of March, 1805, having named their president king of Italy, Na- poleon, on the 26th of May, with his own hands also placed the new crown of the Lombardian kings upon his own head, and Avas anointed by the arch- bishop of Milan. During his presence in Italy, the senate of the Ligurian republic 304 FRANCE. demanded and obtained the incorporation of the Genosee state with the French empire, on the 4th of June, and the small republic of Lucca, was transformed in the same year into an hereditary princi- pality for the princess Eliza, sister of Napoleon. These transactions excited the suspi- cions of Great Britain, and a new and third coalition was concluded at St. Pe- tersburg, on the 11th of April, by the English ambassador lord Gower, prince Czartorinsky, and the chamberlain Novo- siltzoff. Austria joined this coalition on the 9th of August; and Sweden like- wise took part in it by the treaties of sub- sidy which she concluded with England. Austria seemed to meditate the prin- cipal blow in Italy, where the archduke Charles was opposed to marshal Mas- seaa ; at the same time 25,000 French marched under St. Cyr from Naples into Upper Italy, after a treaty of neutrality had been concluded between France and Naples, on the 21st of September, 1805. The Austrian army in Germany was commanded by the archduke Ferdinand and general Mack. This army penetra- ted into Bavaria in September, 1805, and demanded that the elector should either unite his army with the Austrian forces or disband it. Upon this the elector as- sembled his troops in the Upper Palati- nate, whence they marched into Fran- conia, whilst he himself proceeded to Wirtemberg, where he joined Napoleon. The same course was adopted by the dukes of Wirtemberg and Baden. Napoleon now left the camp of Bou- logne, where he had been employed with idle preparations for invading England, I and on the 2d of October arrived at lAid- 1 wigsburg in Wirtemberg. The next day he issued a declaration of war. The corps of Bernadotte and the Bavarians ! having marched towards the Danube, through the neutral province of Anspach, belonging to Prussia, the latter power, which had assembled its armies in the neighborhood of the Russian frontier, issued a note on the 14th of October, renouncing its obligations to France ; and by the treaty of Potsdam, concluded on the 3d of November, during the stay of the emperor Alexander at Berlin, promised to take part in tlie coalition against France upon certain conditions. The Prussian armies, in conjunction with the Saxons and Hessian forces, took up a hostile position extending between the frontiers of Silesia and the Danube. But the Austrian armies in Suabia had been rapidly turned and defeated by the French, in a series of operations extend- ing from the 6th to the 13lh of October; upon which general Mack, the Austrian commander, in the infamous capitulation of Ulm, dated the 17th of October, sur- rendered with 28,000 men, but the arch- duke Ferdinand by constant fighting reached Bohemia. The French now penetrated through Bavaria and Austria into Moravia ; and after having obtained possession, in November, of the defiles of the Tyrol, and driven back several Rus- sian corps in a series of skirmishes at Limbach, Amstetten, and Krems, they occupied Vienna on the 13th of Novem- ber, and afterwards took possession of Presburg. The battle of Austerlitz deci- ded this war, which lasted only two months ; and the archduke Charles, hav- ing received information of the event in Suabia, retired through the German provinces, after having fought a dreadful battle upon the Adige, which lasted tliree days. The emperors of Russia and Austria now rallied their forces at Olmutz. They were at the head of 80,000 men, whilst Bonaparte did not muster more than 60,000. Confident of victory, on the 27th of November, they marched from Olmutz towards the French, who were concentrated to the eastward of Brunn. Napoleon, who had studied the ground in his rear, retreated before the enemy, drawing his right wing back more than j the rest of the army. KutusofF, seeing I this, and taking it for weakness, deter- mined to turn the right wing of the French, and so threaten to cut off their army from Vienna. Bonaparte thus, by drawing his army as nearly as was wise to one point, suggested to his enemies the idea of turning and surrounding him ; a dangerous project for them, since it , extended their lines, and exposed their weak points to an enemy, vigilant, drawn I together, and enabled to protrude an FRANCE. ' 305 overwhelming force in any one direction. Had the Russians an idea that this re- treat and concentration of the French were dictated by art, ihey would of course not have committed themselves. But the French did every thing to affect hesi- tation and timidity: they not only retired, but, in partial encounters, showed a disposition to fly. To the proposals of Alexander, Bonaparte answered hesita- tingly. He received the aid-de-camp sent to him on the outskirts of the camp, as if to avoid its weak state being seen. Works were thrown up. An interview, as the pretext of four and twenty hours' truce, was begged. In short, a hundred petty artifices were employed to persuade the Russians that the French meditated a retreat; and that the former should lose no time, not only to attack, but also to intercept. On the 1st of December the combin- ed army completely fell into the trap. The chief force was pushed on to the extreme left, whilst the troops on the rest of the line, diminished for this purpose, descended from heights in front of the French, in order to move towards the left also. Napoleon might have posted his army on these heights, and would have done so, had his object been merely to repulse or check the enemy ; but his aim was to defeat and destroy them ; and he therefore yielded them the heights, which, being separated by ravines be- tween, favored his project for cutting the Austrian line, when weakened by its ex- tension and its march to take the French in flank. Bonaparte Avatched anxiously the motions of the enemy in advance of Austerlitz ; and no sooner did his acute eye perceive their forces thrown to their left, and the number, in front of him, on and around the line of heights dimin- ished, than he exclaimed, " Yon army shall be at our mercy ere to-morrow's sun sets." Nay, so certain was he of this, that he determined to communicate his confidence to his soldiers ; and informed them in a printed circular or order of the day, that " the enemy, in marching to turn the French right, had exposed their own flauk." On the evening of the first, the firing commenced on the menaced point, the right of the French. Napo- 39 leon galloped thither, made his disposi- tion for the morrow, and returned on foot through the ranks and bivouacs of his soldiery. The morrow was to be the anniversary of his coronation : they promised him the Russian colors and cannon as a gift in honor of his fete. Soult commanded the main right wing, called by some the centre, because Da- voList led a division still further off', to oppose the object of the enemy in turn- ing the French or taking them in the rear. Bernadotte was the general of the centre, Lannes at the left, Murat and the cavalry behind the two latter, Bessieres in reserve, Avith Oudinot and the guard. The sun rose on the 2nd of December, 1805, with unclouded brilliancy; it was hailed and remembered long as the sun of Austerlitz. Its rays discovered the Austrians and Russians disseminated on, around, and behind the heights before the village of Austerlitz, whence the allied emperors watched the first effect of their chief effort against the French right. Here the battle began ; Soult and Da- voust supporting the attack with their wonted activity and skill, greatly aided by their positions, which were amongst flooded and marshy ground, with the ice too weak to support the tread. All that Bonaparte required of these generals was to hold their ground for a certain number of hours ; his aim being to attack simul- taneously with his left and centre that portion of the enemy in front of him, which he proposed to cut ofl" from their engaged wing. Napoleon delayed long, however, to give the signal for this attack, so little looked for by the enemy. He feared lest they might recall their troops from their left. No sooner, however, did he hear the sound of battle fully en- gaged in that direction, than he gave the word. His generals hurried from him, each to his post; Lannes, Bernadotte, Legrand, St. Hilaire, each at the head of his division, advanced. The allied col- umns at this moment were descending from the heights, in the direction of their left, where they looked for the brunt of the battle. They never expected to find it before them, Bonaparte having sedu- lously concealed the force and motions of his army. The Russians were thus 306 FRANCE. surprised, and attacked during an oblique march, by cohnnns their equals or supe- riors in strength. They Avere cut in two, routed, and separated one from the other. The French grained the heights, pushing their enemies into the defiles. This, no doubt, took time to effect ; but the details can be imagined, if the ma- noeuvres be comprehended, and the result seized. Between Austerlitz and the heights thus won by the French was still the Russian reserve, with the emperor in person ; his choicest troops, the guard for instance, commanded by the grand duke Constantine. These two were marching towards the left, when to their astonishment the French skirmishers and cavalry charged in amongst them. It was a scene of surprise and confusion. The emperor, however, aided by Kutu- soff, rallied his men. The Russian guards and other regiments charged ; and the French, a moment since victorious, were driven back. Some regiments that had even formed squares were broken into and routed by the impetuosity of the Russians. Napoleon did not see what was taking place, Austerlitz being hid- den from him by the heights. His ear, however, caught sounds that did not augur lictory, and he instantly sent Rapp, his aid-de-camp, to see what was the matter. Rapp galloped off with some squadrons of the guard, rallied stragglers as he advanced, and saw, as he came up, the menacing position of affairs, the Rus- sians victorious, and sabring the French, who were driven from their broken squares. They were already bringing cannon to play upon Rapp, when the latter, crying out to his men, " to avenge their comrades and restore the day," charged at full speed amongst the Rus- sians. This gave the routed French time to breathe and rally. They group- ed and formed : Rapp returned to the charge. Half an hour's obstinate strug- gle and carnage took place, which ter- minated in the rout of the Russian guards before the eyes of the two emperors. This feat achieved, Rapp rode back to acquaint Napoleon that all the foe in the direction of Austerlitz were in flight. On other points victory had been already assured. The left of the allies — the left, on the efforts of which so much had been built — was now cut off; it was completely destroyed or taken. The most dreadful feature of its route was the attempt of several squadrons to escape over the lakes : the ice at once gave way under the accumulated weight, and thou- sands of the brave men perished. Such was Austerlitz. Savary had best summed it up in calling it " a series of mancEUvres, not one of which failed, that cut the Russian army, surprised in a side march, into as many portions as ccftumns were directed against it." The battle of Austerlitz was followed, on the 4th of December, by an interview between Napoleon and Francis H., and an armistice between both powers was con- cluded on the 6th. By the treaty of peace of Presburg, signed by Talleyrand, the prince John of Lichtenstein, and count Stadion, on the 26th of the same month, Austria yielded its A^'enetian pos- sessions to the kingdom of Italy ; the Tyrol and several German countries to Bavaria ; Breisgau to Baden ; and other Suabian possessions to Wirtemberg ; she also recognised the elector of Bavaria and Wirtemberg as kings, and the elector of Baden as sovereign elector ; and obtain- ed on the other hand, the greater part of the bishopric of Saltzburg, now erected into an electorate for the grand duke of Tuscany, the bishop being indemnified by the principality of Wurtzburg, taken from Bavaria, with the title of elector and all the rights of sovereignty, and the hereditary dignity of a grand-master of the Teutonic order. But during the vic- torious course of the armies of France by land, she suffered, a sensible loss by sea ; the united fleets of France and Spain, under Villeneuve and Gravina, being wholly defeated off cape Trafalgar, on the 21st of October, by Admiral lord Nelson. On the 15th of December, the empe- ror concluded a treaty with Prussia at Vienna, in which the aUiance between both these powers was renewed, and a reciprocal guarantee of the ancient and newly-acquired states exchanged. France pretended to give Hanover to Prussia : and on the other hand Prussia FRANCE. 307 yielded to France, Anspach, Cleve, and Neufchatel. Prussia was now obliged to act offensively against England, as well by taking possession of Hanover as by excluding English vessels from the rivers which flow into the North Sea. Napoleon gave the province of Anspach to the king of Bavaria, who was directed to resign the dukedom of Berg, which, being united with the Prussian part of Cleve, was given to Murat, the brother- in-law of Napoleon, who, on the 13th of March, was named duke of Cleve and Berg. Neufchatel was also given to marshal Berthier, with the title of Prince. Joseph, the elder brother of Napoleon, was by an imperial decree of the 13th of March, 1806, named king of Naples and Sicily, which had been conquered by marshal Messena, who marched with an army from Upper Italy into Naples, on account of a pretended breach of neu- trality occasioned by the landing of the English and Russians. But Ferdinand IV took refuge in Sicily with his family ; and that island being protected by the English fleet, formed merely a nominal appendage to the crown of Joseph Bona- parte. With the principality of Lucca given to his sister Eliza, the emperor now united Masso-Carrara and Carfag- nana, which he detached from the king- dom of Italy. He also named prince Eugene Beauharnois, son of the empress Josephine by her first husband, viceroy of Italy, and married him to the daughter of the king of Bavaria ; the minister Talleyrand received the nominal title of prince of Benevento ; Bernadotte was proclaimed prince of Ponte Corvo ; and Louis, the second brother of the emperor, was proclaimed hereditary and constitu- tional king of Holland. The constitution of the German empire, which had lasted for above 1000 years, was overthrown on the 12th of July, 1806, to make way for the Rhenish confederation, of which the emperor Napoleon was named protector. The misunderstandings which had arisen between France and Russia, es- pecially after the occupation of Cattaro by the Russians, were only suspended for a moment by the treaty concluded on the 20th of July, 1806, by the French general Clarke, and the Russian minis- ter Oubril. The emperor Alexander refused to ratify this peace after the for- mation of the Rhenish confederation ; and the same reason instigated England to break off the pending negotiations of peace with France. Prussia assembled an army in August, 1806, which entered Thuringia, and after some negotiations at Dresden, was joined by 22,000 Sax- ons ; while at the same moment lord Morpeth proceeded to the Prussian head- quarters, and after some negotiations, on the 1st of October, the Prussian ultima- tum was delivered to France. This document demanded the withdrawment of the whole French army from Germa- ny, and announced the intended forma- tion of a northern league, which was designed to comprehend all those coun- tries which were not already included in the Rhenish league. These propositions having been con- temptuously rejected, the struggle began with the advance of the French troops upon the Prussian left wing. The grand duke of Berg forced the passage of the Saal at Saltzburg on the 8th of October, and on the 9th, the Prussians and Sax- ons were defeated at Schleiz. On the 1 0th the French left wing defeated the united corps of Prussians and Saxons at Saalfeld, where prince Louis of Prussia was killed; and on the 14th the bat- tles of Jena and Auerstadt decided the fate of the countries between the Rhine and the Elbe ; upon which Napoleon de- clared Saxony a neutral province, and marched instantly upon Berlin, whilst the grand duke of Berg and marshal Soult pursued the divisions of the Prussian army through Thuringia. The prince of Ponte Corvo defeated the Prussian reserve under the prince Eugene of Wir- temberg at Halle, on the 17th of October, 1806, and marshal Ney laid siege to Magdeburg. On the 22d of October, Napoleon arrived at Wittenberg, and on the 27th entered Berlin. The fortresses of Spandau, Crustrin, Stettin, Magde- burg, Glogau, and others, instantly sur- rendered ; indeed, with the exception of Colberg, commanded by Gneisenau, and Graudenz, all the Prussian fortresses ultimately capitulated ; and the prince of Hohenlohe, at the head of 16,000 308 FRANCE Prussians, laid down his arms at Prenz- low on the 28th of October. Blucher alone ofl'ered a show of resistance ; but retired to Lubeck, where he surrendered on the 7th of November, after having fought the corps of Bernadotte, Soidt, and the grand duke of Berg. Before the second series of operations connected with this important struggle commenced in Southern Prussia, Napo- leon had taken possession of the do- mains of the elector of Hesse, the duke of Brunswick, the prince of Fulda, the Hanseatic towns, and all the Prussian provinces between the Rhine and the Elbe. A proclamation, signed by Dom- browski and Wybicki, two chiefs of an- cient Polish families, on the 3rd of No- vember, called upon the inhabitants of that part of Poland which had fallen to the lot of Prussia in the course of the three partitions, to rise for the recovery of their ancient independence, and a new Polish army quickly joined the French, who entered Warsaw on the 2nd of No- vember. Before the struggle began with the Russians upon the right bank of the Vistula, the elector of Saxony, by the peace of Posen, on the 11th of Decem- ber, 1806, joined the confederation of the Rhine, as an independent sovereign. The five dukes of Saxony also joined the Rhenish confederarion by the treaty of Posen on the 15th of the same month. Beyond the Vistula, the war between France and Russia was opened on the 24th December, 1806, by the fight of Czarnowo, in which the French carried the Russian redoubts upon the left bank of the Ukra. On the succeeding morn- ing, Davoust drove field-marshal Kam- enskji out of his position near Nasielsk ; and on the day following the marshal renounced the command-in-chief, in which he was succeeded by Benningsen. After an obstinate struggle at Pultusk against the latter, and at Golymin against Buxhouden, the Russians retreated to Ostrolenka, and Benningsen suddenly transported the theatre of war into East- ern Prussia, where the Russians, on the 23rd of January, 1807, attacked the ad- vanced posts of the prince of Ponte Corvo, who engaged them on the 25th at Mohrungen, and by his mancEuvres cov- ' ered the flank of the French army until a junction was formed. After continual fighting from the 1 st to the 7th of Febru- ary, 1807, the battle of Eylau took place on the 8th. On the morning of the 8th, the Rus- sians were drawn up in front of Eylau, on which town, and on all its issues, their artillery opened a furious fire. Un- der this the French were obliged to come forth in order to engage in the battle. Great difference exists as to the stated numbers of each army : they were prob- j ably equal ; the Prussians under Lestocq I being absent on one side, Ney and Ber- ' nadotte on the other. The aim of both generals was to overthrow his adversa- ry's left. Bonaparte, in addition, sent strong columns against the Russian cen- tre; but these, in the midst of smoke, and a heavy fall of snow, which prevent- ed their seeing, missed the right direc- tion, and got engaged between the Rus- sian right and centre. Thus the head of I the column was flanked on both sides, I whilst the reserve charged them in front. There ensued a dreadful scene of confu- sion and slaughter ; and Bonaparte was obliged, in order to extricate his troops, to send on his cavalry and reserve to charge, which increased the fury and indecision of the battle. Davoust by this time had arrived, by a considerable circuit, on the left flank of the Russians, and drove it in. It folded up, as it were, about to make a steady retreat, when the Prussians under Lestocq arri^-ed, and re- newed the engagement. Davoust re- treated in turn. But, at the same time, Ney arrived with his division on the other extremity of the Russians. Thither Avas transported the heat of combat. Mutual and inveterate charges took place 1 betwixt him and Benningsen. Order I there was no longer any. The Rus- sians, huddled together in a small space, refused still to quit the ground ; and the ; French being in equal confusion, their generals in vain endeavored to bring them ; in formed or decisive masses on the foe. It was, in fact, a drawn battle; the slaughter incalculable on either side, and I rendered more frightful by the snow I which covered the ground, and which I still fell upon the woimded, dyeing itself FRANCE. 309 with tlieir blood. The Russians had not yielded their ground on the day of bat- tle ; but they had been dreadfully cut up, with no succor to expect, while Berna- dotte's fresh division was still behind Napoleon's. Benningsen, therefore, re- treated on the following day. The emperor had contemplated mak- ing the same movement ; but on the disappearance of the Russians, he re- mained at Eylau an entire week, and then retired to occupy with his army the line of the river Passarge, his head-quar- ters being established at Osserode. During a pause of several months, in which both armies recruited themselves, Dantzic was besieged and bombarded by Lefevre, and General Kalkreuth was compelled to capitulate on the 24th of May, after marshal Lannes had defeated a body of Russians who had landed at Weichselmunde with the view of raising the siege. At last, after a series of skir- mishes between the different divisions of the hostile armies, the decisive victory of the French over the Russians at Fried- land, took place on the 14th of June, 1807. Bonaparte remembered that it was the anniversary of Marengo, and wel- comed it as betokening good fortune. Forming his columns in the passes of the woods, he allowed Benningsen, the Russian general, to cross the bridge of Friedland with the greater part of his array. The Russian did not suspect that the whole army of the French were lying in wait for him when he thus ven- tured. But the several columns soon issuing from the wood, their caimon get- ting info position and opening upon him, convinced Benningsen that he was forced to fight at a disadvantage, and without the possibility of retreating. He drew out his line, however, — its left communi- cating with the bridge. At this point Napoleon of course directed his chief attack, to cut off the enemy. Ney led it ; and in his ardor to reach the bridge, he was routed, and the head of his col- umn broken. Dupont supported him and rallied the men. Napoleon, however, thought best to achieve the victory with | his artillery, which from many points j played upon the Russians, who were now concentrated and formed in squares. | Heavy charges of cavalry now and then filled the pause of carmon ; and at length, towards evening, the Russians having much suffered, and many of their squares broken, the French infantry again advanced with musketry, and completed the victory. As the cannon' raked the bridge, there was no retreating by it. The Russians flung themselves into the river ; but the attempt to swim across was impracticable to the Russian soldier, charged and accoutred as he was. Thou- sands were drowned, in addition to those who perished in the field. Such was the decisive victory on which Napoleon reckoned, and which he had long desired, as the means of disposing the Russian emperor to an accommodation. Konigsberg now surrendered. Ben- ningsen had retreated with his army be- yond the Niemen, the natural boundary of Lithuania. The French soon arrived in pursuit upon its banks. The Russians demanded an armistice. It was granted ; and preparations made for an interview between the emperors. The first instant of repose, Napoleon issued a proclama- tion to his army : " In ten days' cam- paign," said he, "you have taken 120 pieces of cannon ; killed, wounded, or taken 60,000 Russians, Konigsberg, its shipping, &c. From the banks of the Vistula you have flown to the Niemen Avith the rapidity of the eagle. Soldiers ! you are worthy of yourselves and of me !" A raft was now prepared in the midst of the Niemen, off Tilsit. On the 25th of June the emperors met upon this raft, embraced, and conversed for a con- siderable space. On the following day Alexander crossed to the town of Tilsit, and the two emperors were soon upon terms of friendship and equality. A peace was concluded on the 8th of July, between France and Russia, by Talley- rand, prince Kurakin, and Labanof-Ros- trow ; and on the 9th of .J.:ly, between France and Prussia by Talleyrand and count Kalkreuth, after an interview be- tween the three monarchs upon the Nie- men, and subsequently at Tilsit. In this peace Prussia lost the principality of East Friesland, the county of Mark, the principality of Minden, and the county of Ravensberg ; the principalities of 310 FRANCE Hildeshiem, Paderborn, and Munster ; • the counties of Tecldenburg and Lingen; i the electorate of Hanover, with the prin- j cipality of Osnabruck ; the greatest part ! of ancient Mark, and the dukedom of Magdeburg ; the principalities of Hal- berstadt, Eichsfeld, and Erfurt ; the ] county of Mansfield ; the ancient free towns of Nordhausen, Muhlhausen, and Goslar ; the ancient abbacies of Qued- linburg, Essen, Elten, and Weiden ; the principality of Bayreuth, the circle of Kottbuss, the whole of Southern Prussia, the whole of new Eastern Prussia, and a considerable part of Western Prussia, with the Netz district, including Dant- zic, — territories containing upwards of one half of the former population of Prussia. From these districts and other coun- tries conquered by France, were formed two new states: viz. the kingdom of Westphalia, and the dukedom of Warsaw. The ancient department of Bialystock, containing 2150 British square miles, and a population of about 200,000 souls, was annexed to Russia ; and on the oth- er hand Russia yielded the little princi- pality of Jever to the kingdom of Hol- land. By the peace of Tilsit, Jerome, Napoleon's youngest brother, was ac- knowledged Idng of Westphalia, and the king of Saxony was flattered with the title of duke of Warsaw. Upon the in- tercession of Russia, the dukes of Meck- lenburg-Schwerin, Oldenburg, and Co- burg, were reinstated ; and France and Russia exchanged reciprocal guarantees of their possessions, and of those of the other powers included in this peace. After the peace of Tilsit, Napoleon returned by Dresden — where he signed, on the 22d of July, the constitution of i the dukedom of Warsaw — to Paris. The constitution of the kingdom of Westpha- lia was signed by Napoleon, at Fontain- bleau, on the 15th of November, 1807. The other northern German princes had, in April, 1807, joined the Rhenish con- federation at Warsaw, with the exception ' of the two dukes of Mecklenburg, and - the duke of Oldenburg, who did not join the confederation till the following year. | The above events are of so important \ a character as to render a brief recapitu- lation necessary. We have seen that the senatus consulte organique declared Napoleon emperor of the French, and the imperial dignity hereditary in his family. This decree of the senate regu- lated the privileges of the imperial family, the inheritance, the titles and appanages of its members, and their particular re- lations to the person of the emperor. The civil list remained as it had been fixed by the constitution of 1791, and amounted to 25,000,000 livres annually. At the same time were established the great officers of the empire, to whom the marshals and covirt officers belonged ; and the supreme imperial tribunal, which was to judge offences of members of the imperial family and of the higher officers of state, high treason, and all crimes against the state or the emperor. The electoral colleges also received a precise organization. The senate remained; but the appointment of the senators, and the right of fixing their number, were given to the emperor. The legislative body was also preserved ; but the tribu- nate, which alone ventured on opposition, was suppressed August 19, 1807. The new emperor was now crowned with his wife, in the presence of Pius YH, in the church of Notre Dame. March 18, 1805, the emperor of the French was made king of Italy, and sol- emnly crowned in Milan, and the order of the iron crown was established. Genoa (the Ligurian republic) and the principality of Guastalla were soon after incorporated with France. Lucca and Piombino were erected into a duchy, and conferred on one of the emperor's sisters, and Parma and Placenza were placed under the French government. The emperor of Austria and many German princes ac- knowledged Napoleon as emperor. In April, 1805, the Russian and Swed- ish charges d'affaires left Paris, and the French ambassadors Petersburg and Stockholm. Sweden concluded a sub- sidy treaty with England, and Russia entered into a third coalition with Eng- land against France. The French had already taken possession of Hanover. The emperor of France now rigor- ously prohibited the introduction of Eng- lish manufactures wherever his power FRANCE. 311 extended, and threatened England with a descent. Pitt therefore drew Austria into the coalition ; and the French army marched from their encampment at Bou- logne to Germany. The war was of short duration. The surrender of an Austrian army, under Mack, at Ulm, and the battle of Austerlitz produced the peace of Presburg, in which Austria was compelled to sacrifice about 21,190 square miles, and 3,000,000 of inhabit- ants, (among them the Tyrolese). Napoleon was thus enabled to bestow on his allies the rulers of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, royal crowns and full sove- reignty, which they did not enjoy under the German empire. The latter was also granted to Baden. Each of these three states likewise received a conside- rable increase of territory and inhabit- ants. The kingdom of Italy was en- larged by the addition of 10,600 square miles, and France obtained a decided predominance over the German princes. The victory of the English at Trafalgar over the united fleets of France and Spain, destroyed an armament which had cost j six years of preparation and 60,000,000 i francs, 1640 cannons, and 15,000 men fell into the hands of the victors. Napoleon now changed his system against England. Instructed by repeated | experience that he never could meet the | English successfully by sea, he resolved to conquer them by land, and attempted, by the continental system, to suppress all intercourse with England. With this view, he abandoned Hanover to Prussia, which involved that power in a war with • England. The dynasty of Naples was declared to have forfeited the throne, on account of the breach of its engagements j with France. Joseph Bonaparte Avas ' made king of Naples and Sicily ; Louis, | the second brother of Napoleon, king of Holland ; Napoleon's son-in-law, Eugene I Beauharnois, whom he had adopted, was created viceroy of Italy, and married to ; the daughter of the king of Bavaria ; ] Alexander Berthier, the companion in arms of the emperor, was created prince of Neufchatel ; Talleyrand, the minister of foreign affairs, prince of Benevento ; Bernadotte, prince of Ponte-Corvo ; Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Cleves | and Berg; and Stephanie Beauharnois, niece of the empress, whom Napoleon had adopted, was given in marriage to the crown-prince of Baden. All those who immediately belonged to the new dynasty, or were united with it, were to be attached to France by a federative system. The accession of Bavaria, Wirtemburg, and Baden to the federal system of the "great empire," and the incorporation of the electorate of Hano- ver with Prussia, had torn asunder the political union of the German states. Napoleon established the confedera- tion of the Rhine, of which he was re- cognised protector, July 12 , and Francis II resigned the imperial crown of Ger- many, August 6. The affairs of Spain now began to oc- cupy the attention of Napoleon ; one of his first objects, however, was to destroy the English influence in Portugal. A French army, in concert with a Spanish one, marched against that kingdom, the partition of which had been concerted between France and Spain, on the 27th of October, 1807 ; the northern part be- ing given to the house of Parma ; the southern part to the prince of Peace, Go- doi ; and the middle, on the conclusion of peace, to the house of Braganza. Tus- cany was to be given to France, and the king of Spain to be declared protector of the three states erected out of Portugal ; the Spanish monarch was also to assume, after the maritime peace should be con- cluded, the title of emperor of both Ame- ricas. In conformity with this treaty, Tuscany was given up to Napoleon in 1807, and afterwards incorporated with France ; and marshal Junot, duke of Braganza, entered Lisbon on the 30th of November, after the royal family had embarked with their treasures, and a few of the principal nobility, in a British fleet, for the Brazils. But in 1808 the Span- ish nobility, tired of the government of the prince of Peace, formed a plot to raise Ferdinand VII to the throne, and free their country from foreign influence. The palac*e of the prince of Peace was assail- ed by a mob on the night of the 17th of March ; and king Charles IV, in whose name the government had been carried on, resigned the throne in favor of his 312 FRANCE. son. But Napoleon refused to acknow- ledge Ferdinand VII, and Charles IV resumed the regal dignity ; and on the 5th of May, finally resigned all the rights of his house in Spain and India, into the hands of Napoleon. Ferdinand VII, Avas constrained to acquiesce in this renun- ciation on the 10th, and both father and son now became pensioners of the French conqueror, who nominated his brother Joseph, then king of Naples, king of Spain and India. The people now rose en masse to vindicate their rights, and that struggle commenced in which the patriotic Spaniards were so warmly and successfully supported by the British troops under lord Wellington. The breaking out of the national war in Spain, afforded Austria a convenient opportunity for re-establishing her former influence in Germany and Italy. In 1809, therefore, Austria declared war against France, and advanced her armies into Bavaria, Italy and the dukedom of War- saw. Ir. the preceding autumn, Napo- leon and Alexander of Russia had an hi- terview at Erfurth, and the consequence of their alliance was, that a Russian aux- iliary army now advanced against Austria into Gallicia. Napoleon, with the aid of the Bavarians and Wirtenbergers, defeat- ed the Austrians at Abensberg, on the 20th, at Eckmuhl, on the 22nd, and at Ratisbon, on the 23rd of April. On the 4th of July, the French, re- enforced by the Saxons, the army of Eu- gene, and that of Marmont from Dalma- tia, were concentrated in the island of Lobau, to the number of 150,000. There was scarcely room for the troops to re- pose. Napoleon ordered the original bridge opposite Essling, which had been destroyed by the Austrians a few days before, to be repaired, as if he intended to cross by its means. This was but to deceive the Austrians. In the night three more bridges, ready prepared, were fixed lower down, and the French army crossed on the night of the 4th and morn- ing of the 5th. The archduke instantly found his batteries and preparations idle. Instead of fronting the Danube, he was obliged to extend his line perpendicular to it, from behind Aspern to Wagram, and from thence behind a little river on his left. The 5th was spent in manoeuver- ing and cannonade, the Austrians retiring from Essling. Towards evening, Bona- parte wished to dislodge tliem from their connnanding position at Wagram, but his troops were beaten back and routed. Both armies slept on the field, and in their positions, the French without a fire, Napoleon in a chair. On the morning of the 5th commenced the famous battle of Wagram. The Aus- trian centre was on the high ground near that village. As the French on the pre- ceding evening, had been repulsed with ease from it, the archduke thought it strong to keep, and easy to maintain. He threw his chief force, therefore, into his wings. The Austrian right attacked Massena near Aspern and the Danube, and drove him back with such rout that his four divisions crowded into one. Da- voust, on the right, was able to resist with more success. But on Massena's side the battle seemed lost. That gene- ral, from the effects of a fall, was in a carriage, not on horseback ; his troops, unanimated by his presence, shrunk from the enemy, whose cannon enfiladed the line. For a long time Napoleon Avas in doubt, riding on a white charger in the midst of this raking fire, which Savary calls "a hail-storm of bullets." At length he resolved to allow his wings to resist as they might, and to fling all his disposa- ble force once more upon the Austrian centre at Wagram. He sent Lauriston first against it with 100 cannon, at full trot, with orders to approach very near. He knew the weakness of the xlustrians at Wagram would not allow them to ad- vance from the position. The infantry under Macdonald followed Lauriston, Bessieres supporting both with the caA'^- alry of the guard. Macdonald's charging columns arrived just as the artillery of Lauriston had made large breaches in the Austrian bodies. The French rushed into the gaps. A diversion from the ex- treme right aided them, and the centre of the archduke Charles, at Wagram, was driven in, routed, and the wings abandoned. It was then an easy task to take in the flank of the corps already vic- torious over Massena. In short, the seve- ral portions of the Austrian army fled FRANCE. 313 from the field in disorder, separated from one another. Both armies displayed great valor. The loss of the Austrians amounted to 27,000 killed and wounded. The loss of the French was nearly equal. The archduke retreated, constantly fight- ing, to the heights of Znaym. This vic- tory led to the peace of Vienna, which was signed on the 14th of October, und in which Austria was obliged to re- sign the sovereignty of three millions of subjects. By the peace of Vienna, Austria re- signed Sahzburg, Berchtolsgaden, and the Innviertel and Hansruckviertel, which were given to Bavaria ; the whole of Western Gallicia, and a part of Eastern Gallicia, with the town of Cracow, which were united to the dvdiedom of Warsaw ; the circle of Villach in Carinthia ; the dukedom of Krain, the district of Trieste, the county of Gorz, whh Friaul and Cro- atia upon the right of the Saave, and Fi ume ; of which — united with Dalmatia, Istria, and Ragusa, which Avere taken from the kingdom of Italy — Napoleon, on the 15th of October, 1809, formed the new state of the lUyrian provinces. The Teutonic order was now abolished, and its possessions given to those princes in whose dominions they lay. Russia ob- tained the circle of Tarnapole, in East- ern Gallicia, containing 400,000 souls. With this peace was connected the dis- solution of the marriage between Napole- on and Josephine, in December, 1 809 ; and the emperor's second marriage with the archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria, in April, 1810. This peace also occa- sioned a considerable change in some of the Italian and German dominions ; the southern half of Tyrol was united with the kingdom of Italy, in the place of those countries taken from the latter, and annexed to the Illyrian provinces ; Bavaria obtained for the cession of this part of the Tyrol, besides the already mentioned acquisitions, the old Prussian principality of Bayreuth and Ratlisbonne, from the prince Primate, whose state Napoleon raised to the grand-dukedom of Frankfort, and enlarged with the greater part of the principality of Fulda, and the county of Warsaw. Previous to the breaking out of the 40 war with Austria, the provinces of Urbi- no, Ancona, Macerata, and Caraerino, had been united, on the 2nd of April, 1808, with the kingdom of Italy, because the pope had refused to exclude the Eng- lish from the ports of his state. Napo- leon, during his residence at Vienna, abolished the temporal power of the pope, on the 17th of March, 1809, and united the remaining territories of the states of the church with France, to which he had previously united Pied- mont, Liguria, Tuscany, and Parma, be- sides Savoy and Nice. A pension was assigned to his holiness ; and the city of Rome declared an imperial and free city. The pope was conducted to Fontainbleau, where Napoleon concluded a second con- cordat with him, in which, though the pope did not resume his temporal juris- diction, he obtained the right to keep ambassadors at foreign courts, to receive ambassadors, and to appoint several bishoprics. In 1812, Russia made common cause with Great Britain in opposing the con- tinental system of Napoleon. The em- peror left Dresden on the 29th of May, for the purpose of joining his army in Eastern Prussia, whilst the archbishop of Mechlin appeared as his ambassador in Warsaw, where the re-establishment of the kingdom of Poland was formally proclaimed on the 28th of June, six days after Napoleon had announced the open- ing of the second Polish war. He now- crossed the frontiers of Russia, and the Russian armies retreated into the interior of the empire without offering any formi- dable resistance to his advance, except at the strongly fortified position of Smo- lensk, which was taken by storm on the 17th of August, after a brief but bloody struggle ; the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly, firing the town on his retreat. On the 5th of September the French came in view of their enemies, posted on heights extending southward from the village of Borodino. Driving them from an advanced redoubt. Napoleon estab- lished his line opposite to theirs, and prepared for a battle on the morrow. He refused to manoeuvre on their flanks, or menace to intercept them, lest such a movement should bring about their re- 314 FRANCE. treat, and put oiF the engagement. The French army was about 120,000 strong; the Russians were perhaps more. The 6th of September was the day long sought by Napoleon. He was on horseback be- fore <1 ay break, saw the sun rise in splen- dor, like that of Austerlitz. Two fresh arrivals from Paris were announced ; the one a chamberlain, with a portrait of the young king of Rome ; the other, Fabvier, with tidings of the loss of the battle of Salamanca by Marmont. Shaking off the ideas excited by both, Napoleon is- sued a short address : — " Soldiers ! here is the battle you have so much desired. Victory must depend on you. We need one, in order to have abundance, good quarters, and a speedy return to France. Conduct yourselves as at Austerlitz and Friedland. Let people say of each of you with pride — ' He was at that great battle in the plains of Moscow.' " The left of the French, under the vice- roy, was at Borodino, beyond the stream ; the Russian right opposed to it was well fortified. Prince Eugene was ordered to follow this example. The other bo- dies of the Russians, their centre and left, under Barclay and Bagration, were also fortified, each on its summit ; Bar- clay by a large re'Joubt, Bagration by several batteries. The French, as usual, had the disadvantage of attacking. The plan of Bonaparte was to carry first the batteries of Bagration, and then take the great central redoubt in flank. Accord- ingly the action, though commenced on all points, chiefly lay in the attack of Davoust upon the batteries. It was gal- lantly supported, and as gallantly resisted. The general of the attacking division, Campans, was wounded ; Rapp, who suc- ceeded him, was wounded also ; and Davoust himself hurt by the fall of his horse, which was killed under him. The attack on the right, in consequence, fal- tered ; but victory came from the left, where Napoleon least expected it. The viceroy of Italy, Eugene Beau- harnois, instead of holding back, accord- ing to his orders, pushed forward into Borodino, got possession of it, and im- proving his advantage, dashed across the river, to attack the great redoubt. The colmnn of Davoust had, in the mean time, rallied ; its second effort drove Bagration from his batteries ; his soldiers still re- turned to recover them, but in vain. Their efforts, however, restored confidence to the Russian army. Borodino was again menaced by Cossacks, Eugene's attempt upon the central redoubt repulsed, and Bagration himself rallied to cover Bar- clay's flank. The French were not used to meet with this stubborn resistance, these alternations of fortune. Again, how- ever, they returned to the charge, and what Fain calls a third battle was fought towards evening on the contested points. Finally, the Russians were beaten from the great redoubt, and abandoned the field. The battle of Moskwa, or Borodino, was won dearly. Eight generals fell on the part of the French. The heroic Ba- gration killed, was a loss as severe lo the Russians. Moscow, however, was won. Kutusoff reluctantly abandoned the hope of defending it, — consequently it was evacuated by the inhabitants who carried with them their most valuable effects. On the 14th of September the French army entered it, and Napoleon took up his residence at the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars. Two days afterwards, flames suddenly burst forth in various quarters of the city ; the conflagration rapidly spread, and all means used to stop it were unavailing ; in the issue the whole city was reduced to ashes, and the French, being thus de- prived of all the means of subsistence on which they had depended, commenced their retreat, after having made proposals of peace to the czar, which were not ac- cepted. The extraordinary severity and earliness of the winter destroyed the re- treating army, although they struggled with great valor against the pursuing Russians in several fights, and particular- ly at the passage of the Beresina, on the 27th of November. {See Russia.) The wreck of the French army re- treated at first under the command of the king of Naples, and subsequently under the viceroy of Italy, through Prussia and 'Poland into Saxony. Napoleon himself hastened with a small suite through Dresden and Mentz towards France, where he employed the winter months in raising new levies of troops, with which FRANCE. 315 he appeared towards the end of April in Thuringia. Tne capitulation of general York, who commanded the Prussian aux- iliary corps upon the Vistula, on the 30th of December, 1812, to the van-guard of the corps of Wittgenstein, before any breach of alliance had occurred between his coimtryand France, materially affect- ed the issue of the war. In this capitu- lation general Massenbach joined the following day, and the public voice in Prussia loudly demanded war with France. On the 23rd of January, 1813, the king of Prussia went from Berlin to Breslau, where he signed the treaty of Kalisch, and entered into an alliance with Russia. The armies of these newly united powers sustained a considerable loss at Lutzen on the 2nd of May, and at Bautzen on the 2 1 st and 22nd, in engage- ments with the French, upon which an armstice of ten weeks was concluded. Although Napoleon had now recruited his army, and effected an alliance with Denmark — the alliance of Austria and Sweden with Russia and Prussia, and the unanimous and hearty consent with which the subjects of these powers, irri- tated by the bondage in which they had for a long series of years been kept by France, seconded the efforts of their gov- ernments, altogether threw such a physi- cal and moral preponderance into the scale against the cause of the French emperor, that even the successful defence of Dresden on the 27th of August, and the success of his arms at Lowenberg, in Silesia, on the 21st of August, could not save his army from the successive de- feats of Grossbeeren on the 23rd, of Katzbach on the 26th, of Culm and Nol- lendorf on the 30th of August, of Denne- witz on the 6th of September, and of Wittenberg, on the 30th of the same month. Having united his forces for one tremendous effort in the neighborhood of Leipsic, Napoleon was defeated in an engagement fought during the 16th, 17th, and ISih of October, and compelled to evacuate that town, and retreat upon the Rhine, through Thuringia, followed by the allied troops. After a severe struggle at Hanau, on the 30th of October, in which the Bavarians, luider the command of Prince Wrede, took a decisive part against the French, Napcleon crossed the Rhine. The fortresses occupied by the French in the rear of the allied army were in- vested, while the main armies pressed forward, and the isolated French corps were driven back into the provinces of the Rhine, Holland, and Belgium. The advance of the Prussian general, Bulow, into the Netherlands, enabled that coun- try to throw off the French yoke, and re- call the prince of Orange from England, who assumed the title of sovereign prince. Wellington now crossed the Pyrenees, and in the battle of the Nieve, on the 10th and 13th of January, 1814, trans- ferred the war to the French soil, while the allies defeated the French armies in their own country, at Bar sur Aube in Champagne, on the 24th of January, I 1814. Napoleon had the advantage over j Blucher at Brienne on the 29th of Jan- uary, but was forced to retreat at La Ro- ' chiere, where the allies had concentrated j their forces. He now retired between I the Loire and the Marne, with the view I of covering Paris ; and it was not with- I out difficulty that Blucher succeeded in penetrating the French line. Napoleon, however, obtained a partial success against the Russians and Wirtenbergers ; but the successful advance of the army of the north under Bulow gave a favora- ble turn to the affairs of the allies. Na- poleon by his mancEuvres tried to trans- i fer the war to the rear of the allied ar- j mies, but Marmont retreated, on the 25th of March, after the fight of Fere-Cham- penoire upon Paris ; and on the 31st of I March the French capital surrendered to • the allies. Alexander now declared, in the name of the allied sovereigns, that they would : not negotiate with Napoleon Bonaparte, i nor with any of his family ; that they j acknowledged the right of France only to the territory embraced within its an- I cient limits under its kings ; and, finally, that they would acknowledge and guar- antee the government which the French nation should adopt. They therefore invited the senate to establish a pro\ds- I ional government for the administration j of the country, and the preparation of a 1 constitution. Accordingly the senate as- 316 FRANCE. iMmlint;: of Louis A'K/7/ at Calais. seniblod, April 1, under the presidency of Talleyrand, whom, with lour other members, thoy charged with the provis- ionary government. On the next day, it declared that Napoleon and his I'amily had forfeited the throne of France. The legislative body ratitied this decree, which tlie provisionary government published, and soon aller made kviown the recall of Louis XVHI, to the throne of France. Meanwhile Napoleon had resigned the crown unconditionally in favor of his son at Fontainbleau. A treaty was conclud- ed the same day ceding to him the island of Elba. The Bourbons were restored to the throne of France by the senate. But it is verv questionable whether the nation received them with joy. Louis XVIII landed at Calais * April * With Louis landed also the duchess of An- gouleine, the prince of Conde, and liis son the duke of Bourbon. Upon landing, he pressed the diicli- ess of Angouleme to his breast, and said, " I hold •gain the crown of my ancestors. If it were of roses, I would place it on your head, as it is of thorns, it is for me to wear it." The memory of his landing upon French ground is perpetuated by a Doric column of marble erected at Calais, and the trace of his first footsteps is carefully pre- served in brass. 24, and entered Paris, May 3, 1814. A plan of a constitution had already been adopted by the senate, April 5, and by the legislative body on the following day. This fundamental law was to bo confirm- ed by Louis XVIU. before ascending the throne ; but he merely issued the decla- ration of St. Ouen, in which, as king of France and Navarre, he publicly declar- ed his adoption of the princi[)h's of the new constitution, as his brother, the count d'Artois, had already done in the character of lieutenant-general of the king- dom ; but reserved for himself the right of revising the document, which bore marks of the haste in which it had been drawn up by the senate. The administration of Louis excited the discontent of the French people, es- pecially of the Parisians, who could not tolerate the restoration of the ancient forms and principles. In this state of public feeling, nothing could be more fatal for the royal government, than the sudden re-appearance of Napoleon at Cannes, on the coast of France, on the 1st of March, 1815. These circumstances explain why, without the existence of an actual con- spiracy in favor of Napoleon, the meas- FRANCE. 317 ures taken to oppose his progress were unsuccessful ; why the army and a great part of the nation declared for him ; and why, after a march of eighteen days, which resembled a triumph, he was able to enter Paris without shedding a drop of blood. The king and his partisans left the country. Napoleon immediately annulled most of the royal ordinances, dissolved the two chambers, and named a new ministry. He declared that he should content himself with the limits of France as settled by the peace of Paris, and that he would establish his govern- ment on liberal principles. But he could not satisfy the expectations of the differ- ent parties ; much less could he avert the danger of a new war with Europe. As soon as the news of Napoleon's landing in France was received at Vien- na, the ministers of all the allied powers, who were assembled in congress there, declared Napoleon the enemy and dis- turber of the repose of the world ; and that the powers were firmly resolved to employ all means, and unite all their ef- forts, to maintain the treaty of Paris. For this purpose, Austria, Russia, Eng- land, and Prussia, concluded (March 25) a new treaty, on the basis of that of Chaumont, whereby each power agreed to bring 1 50,000 men into the field against Napoleon, who, on Ids part, was inde- fatigable in making preparations for war. At the same time, he published the ad- ditional act to the constitutions of the empire, and summoned the meeting of the Champ de Mai, which accepted that act, June 1. On the 7th of June, the new chambers met. The army expressed great attach- ment to him, but the nation was less con- fident. Ilis greatest difficulty was the want of supplies. The expedition of Murat against Austria (April, 1815) frus- trated the secret negotiations of Napo- leon with the court of Vienna, so that war was unavoidable. The armies of the allies formed a cordon around the frontiers of France, extending from Os- tend to Switzerland, and beyond it to Italy. Napoleon with his main army, advanced to meet the English and Prus- sians, under Wellington and Blucher, who were approaching from the Nether- I lands. After some skirmishes with the j outposts on the frontiers, the French at- tacked the Prussians at Thuin on the Sambre, (June 15,) and drove them back. On the 16th, Napoleon gained a victory over the Prussians, in the plains of Fleurus. In consequence of the retreat of the Prussians, the duke of Wellington retir- ed on Waterloo. The position which he occupied was good, but towards the centre it had various weak points. It ran from the Brussels road to the right, about a mile and a half in length ; and then turned very sharply to the right, and crossed the road from Nivelle to Namur ; these two roads cross each other, so that the British position formed nearly a quarter circle. At the turn of the bottom of a slope, Avas a farm and orchards, called Mount St. John, which was the key of the position, and the front of the centre. On their left, the British communicated with the Prussians at Wavre, through Ohaim. At half past 1 o'clock in the forenoon of the 1 8th, Bonaparte began to put his troops in motion ; and, about an hour afterwards, one of his corps attacked the country-house on the right of the British, where the Nassau troops were posted ; these were obliged to give way ; but the house itself was so well defended, that the French could not gain possession of it. This attack on the right of the Bri- tish centre, Bonaparte accompanied with a dreadful fire of artillery ; under the cover of which, he made repeated attacks of cavalry and infantry, sometimes mixed, and sometimes separate, from the centre to the right : but the skill of the duke of Wellington, and the admirable moral courage and physical strength of his troops, were unconquerable. Agaiii.st one of these attacks of the French cav- alry, General Picton, who was with his division on the road from Brussels to Charleroi, advanced with the bayonet. The French, stnick with astonishment at the circumstance of infantry advancing to the charge of cavalry, fired, and then fled. At this moment, General Picton ! was unfortunately killed. The English hfe guards next advanced against the 49th aod 105th regiments of French in- 318 FRANCE. fantry ; to their support the cuirassiers came up : the most sanguinary cavalry fight perhaps ever witnessed, was the con- sequence ; but the British were victori- ous, and the cuirassiers were annihilated. The battle had now lasted above five hours ; during which Bonaparte had lost an immense number of men, by his des- perate charges, without being able to make any decisive impression. The duke of Wellington, kept his troops en- tirely on the defensive ; but though he thus had saved their strength as much as possible, yet they were beginning to be exhausted, and he frequently turned his anxious and vigilant eye to that quarter where he expected the Prussians to arrive. At break of day, the Prussian anny had began to move ; the 2d and 4th corps marched to take up a position whence they might attack the French on the rear, if circumstances proved favorable. The 1st corps was to operate on the right flank of the French ; and the 3d corps was to follow slowly in order. About 5 o'clock, Bonaparte perceived the advance of part of the Prussian army, which at first he seems to have supposed to have been the division of his own army under Marshal Grouchy, who had been posted on the rear of the allies to take advan- tage of their anticipated defeat. As soon, however, as he ascertained that it was the Prussians, he repeated his attacks with cavalry and infantry, supported by artillery, in a more desperate and mur- derous manner than ever ; but the British were immoveable. At last, about seven in the evening, he made a last eflbrt, put- ting himself at the head of his guards. He succeeded for a moment in driving back the Brunswickers ; but the duke of Wellington, putting himself at their head, and animating them by a short speech, restored the combat. At this critical moment, the Prussians came up : Gen- eral Bulow advanced rapidly on the rear of the right wing of the French ; and Marshal Blucher had joined in person with a corps of his army to the left of the British army, by Ohaim. The duke of Wellington headed the foot-guards ; spoke a few words to them, which were replied to by a general hurrah ; and his grace guiding them on with his hat, they marched at the point of the bayonet, to close action with the imperial guard ; but the latter began a retreat, in which they were imitated by the whole French army. The British, completely exhaust- ed, left the pursuit to the Prussians, who, coming fresh to battle, soon changed the retreat of the French into a rout, the most destructive, perhaps, ever known. In this battle, nearly 300 pieces of cannon were taken, and upwards of 14,000 pris- oners. The loss of the French in kill- ed, especially on the 16th, when the Prussians neither gave nor received quar- ter, was immense ; on the 16th and 18th, it could not have amounted to less than 40,000 men. On the 16th, the Prussians lost about 16,000 men; and on the 18th, the duke of Wellington's army about 13,000. As Napoleon saw that France was lost to him, he resigned the crown, on the 22nd of June, in a proclamation to the French nation, and at the same time declared his son emperor, under the title of Napoleon II. A provisional govern- ment, at the head of which was Fouche, was vested with the administration of the state. Napoleon left the capital, and surrendered himself to the power of Great Britain. The army of the allies had, in the meantime, arrived at Paris, where on the 3rd of July, a military convention was concluded by Blucher and Wellington, with marshal Davoust, according to the articles of which, the French army retir- ed behind the Loire, and Paris was sur- rendered to the troops of the allies. On the 6th they entered Paris ; and, on the following day, Louis XVIIl, a second time took possession of his throne. A new chamber of deputies was now con- voked, the French army behind the Loire was disbanded, and an order was issued for the formation of a new army. Severe measures were adopted against the ad- herents of Napoleon. After much nego- tiation, the treaty of Paris was concluded between the allies and Louis XVIII, on the following conditions : — the limits of France was to remain as in 1790 ; France was to surrender four fortresses ; the duchy of Bouillon ; that part of the FRANCE. 319 depavment of the Lower Rhine situated on the left bank of the Lauter ; a part of the district of Gex ; and the part of Sa- voy which had been left to France in 1814; in all, 434,000 inhabitants. She was bound not to erect any fortress within three leagTies of Basle, in the place of the fortifications of Hiiningen, which had been demolished immediately after its surrender ; renounced her claims to the principality of Monaco ; agreed to pay to the aUies a contribution of 700,000,000 francs ; to give up seventeen citadels for from three to five years, and to support 150,000 troops of the allies within her frontier^. The French government was further bound to satisfy the lawful claims of in- dividuals, corporations, or institutions, in the countries of the allies, and to restore ail the treasures of literature and art, which the French had carried off from conquered countries. The last article was executed while the foreign troops were in Paris. Finally, P'rance agreed to abolish the slave-trade unconditionally. This treaty was signed by Richelieu, the president of the new ministry, ap- pointed in September, 1815. The law of the 29lh of October, 1815, granted to the government the extraordinary power of confining all persons suspected of de- signs against the king and the state, without previous conviction by a judicial tribunal, and often without publicity. Finally, the two chambers passed the law of amnesty proposed by the king, (January 6, 1816,) by which all those who had voted for the death of Louis XVI, or had accepted ofiices from Na- poleon during the hundred days, were for ever banished from the kingdom. Though the Bourbons endeavored to build up an aristocratical and absolute monarchy, many of their measures had a contrary effect. The nobles had ceas- ed, in France, to form an aristocracy. Their great numbers and little wealth ; the mixture of political elements they presented^ — the noblesse of the ancien regime and of the imperial dynasty, the one the offspring of feudalism, the other of the revolution — the soldier of Conde, and the officer of the republican army who encountered him in the field ; their total want of any political privileges ; these, with some other circumstances, had left the noblesse entirely without consequence. Even the peers at the present period, do not contain many aris- tocratical elements. As they are with- out the immense wealth and patronage of the British peerage, they exercise lit- tle influence ; and they follow, rather than lead, the nation. One of the meas- ures of the late dynasty, which had re- coiled upon themselves, was the allowing only those to vote, and to be eligible to office, who paid the highest taxes. As the nobility were not rich, it very often happened that barons and counts could neither be eligible nor even electors, while rich manufacturers, bankers, &c, enjoyed these privileges. Those very persons whom it was the great object of the government to exclude from the legis- lature, were the persons who paid the highest taxes, and, consequently, were electors, and frequently were elected. The Bourbons did not understand France, and had gradually alienated the nation ; the latter knew the sentiments of the Bourbons ; they knew what they had to expect from the new ministry, and were determined, from the beginning, not to tolerate their illegal projects. The political history of the year 1830, commenced, March 2, by a speech from the throne, which announced that war had been declared against Algiers on ac- count of the insults oflered to the French flag (the dey had also struck the French consul at a public audience, on receiving an answer in the affirmative to his ques- tion whether the debt due from France to Algiers, had been settled) ; that active negotiations were on foot to effect a re- concihation between the members of the Braganza family ; and that the revenue of 1829, though less than that of the preceding year, exceed the estimates of the budget. The speech ended with the following words : " Peers of France, deputies of the departments, I do not doubt your co-operation in the good I de- sire to do. You will repel, with con- tempt, the perfidious insinuations which malevolence is busy in propagating. If guilty intrigues should throw any obsta- cles in the way of my government. 320 FRANCE. which I cannot and will not anticipate, I I should find force to overcome them, in my resolution to preserve the public peace, in the just confidence I have in the French nation, and in the love which they have always evinced for their kings." The funds fell as soon as the speech was made public. There was a consid- erably majority in the chamber of depu- ties against the ministers. Royer-Col- lard was re-elected president. On the 18th of March, the usual deputation of the chamber, with the president at their head, presented to the king the answer of the chamber. The address declared, in a frank, but respectful tone, that a con- currence did not exist between the views of the government and the wishes of the nation ; that the administration was ac- tuated by a distrust of the nation ; and that the nation, on the other hand, was agitated with apprehensions which would become fatal to its prosperity and its re- pose. " Sire," continued the address, " France does not wish for anarchy any more than you wish for despotism." Never was a more firm yet prudent warn- ing given to a king. The king replied, by expressing his regret that the concur- rence which he had a right to expect from the deputies of the departments, did not exist ; he declared that his resolu- tion was fixed, and that the ministers would make known his intentions. The peers had answered on the 10th, by a mere echo of the speech from the throne. Chateaubriand's address on this speech was a bold attack on the ministers. The two chambers were immediately con- voked for the next day, (the 19th,) to receive a communication from the gov- ernment, when the chambers v/ere de- clared to be prorogued until September 1, the same year, — a measure which produced great excitement throughout France. The journals became more active than ever. The Jesuitical and royalist journals exulted in the measure, and praised the ministry for its firmness, whilst the liber- al papers began to predict the events which have since taken place. They were conducted, in general, with great decorum, whilst the ministerial journals were filled with abuse and reproaches of their opponents, whom they denounced as traitors and enemies of the throne. To the hatred of the liberals against Fo- lignac and his colleagues was added con- tempt for his imbecility. A society was formed in Paris for the purpose of print- ing journals in such departments and dis- tricts as were destitute of them, and re- moving the impediments to their publi- cation occasioned by the refusal of prin- ters to lend their presses to papers op- posed to the measures of govenmient. In Britany, an association was formed to refuse the payment of taxes not regu- larly granted by the chamber of dep- uties. The members of this association agreed to assist each other in case of prosecution. The association was de- nounced, but was acquitted by the cour royale at Paris. 221 deputies had voted for the answer to the king's speech, and 181 against it. The names of 221 Avere printed in hand bills ; the number 221 were seen on snuff-boxes, &c, and un des 221 soon became an honorable title. Benjamin Constant, however, declared himself, in the Gazette de France, against the answer. Government prohibited the sale of snuff-boxes, &c, and published a list of prefects, dismissed or transfer- red to other departments ; purified, as the ministerials called it, all branches of the administration ; appointed many of the most servile partisans judges, prose- cuted the journals, and men of letters, many of whom were national favorites, and continued, though in the minority, to treat their opponents as traitors, and de- liberately insulted the nation. April 1, coimt Villele had a long inter- view with the king, and the papers as- serted that negotiations were on foot to recall him to the ministry. Prince Po- ligTiac seemed to have become more violent in proportion to his weakness ; and it Avould seem as if schemes of ven- geance had mingled with his absurd ideas of governing France. The anniversary of the entry of Charles X, (then count d'Artois,) into Paris, in 1814, was celebra- ted, April 13. All the public bodies made flattering speeches, and received gracious answers, and all the pageantry of mon- archy, though of a very different com- FRANCE. 321 plexion from what was soon to follow, was displayed. We have already mentioned the diffi- culties which existed between the king of P^rance and the dey of Algiers, and the intimation, in the king's speech, of his determination to take effectual measures on this point. A war with Algiers was in every shape agreeable to the adminis- tration. The same reason, which was one of the inducements to the war with Spain, the desire of making the army familiar with the name of the Bourbons and the drapeau Mane, still existed. But there were other reasons which rendered a war with reasonable probability of suc- cess, particularly desirable for the minis- try at this moment. It enabled them to assemble an army, which, in case of necessity, might be used at home, and even if it were absent at Algiers, the military preparations might be useful for their purposes. They hoped that a war of this kind would divert the public at- tention, and victory would at once render them popular with a nation so enthusias- tically fond of military glory. In both calculations the ministry, as we shall see, were grievously mistaken. Count Bour- mont, the minister of war, was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition, and admiral Duperre the commander of the fleet. April 20, 1830, the Moniteur stated the reasons for the war to be, that the dey had raised the ancient tribute of 17,000 francs per annum to 60,000, and finally to 200,000 francs ; that, though this sum was duly paid from 1820 to 1826, the dey had been unfavorable to the in- terests of the French nation, insulted the French flag, and struck the French con- sul, &c. May 10, the army consisting of 37,577 infantry and 4,000 horse, em- barked at Toulon, and the fleet, consist- ing of ninety-seven vessels, of which eleven were ships of the line and twenty- four frigates, set sail. June 14, at four o'clock, the army began to disembark at Sidi Ferrajh, on the coast of Africa. May 17, the royal ordinance dissolv- ing the chamber appeared in the Moni- teur. At the same time, new elections were ordered, and the two chambers convoked for August 3. The Moniteur of June 15, contained a proclamation of 41 the king, in which he called upon all Frenchmen to do their duty in the col- leges, to rely upon his constitutional in- tentions, &c. In this proclamation are these remarkable words ; — " As the father of my people, my heart was grieved ; as king, I felt insulted. I pronounced the dissolution of that chamber." It ends I thus — " Electors, hasten to your colleges. Let no reprehensible negligence deprive them of your presence ! Let one senti- ! ment animate you all ; let one standard [ be your rallying point ! It is your king j who demands this of you ; it is a father I who calls upon you. Fulfil your duties, j I will take care to fulfil mine." The j elections for the new chamber took place in the latter part of June and in July. The activity and talent displayed in the opposition papers during this struggle were admirable. Though the success of the army in Algiers became known during the electoral struggle at home, and though all parties exulted in the success of the French arms, it appears that the ministry gained no popularity by it. All the re- turns of the new elections, indicated a strong majority against the ministry, so that, in the beginning of July, intelli- gent men spoke of a change of the min- istry as a natural consequence, and the funds rose ; but the infatuated ministry had determined otherwise. It preferred to attack the charter, violate the social contract, and expose France to a civil war, rather than to yield. The ministerial papers now began to assert that, after the enemies in Africa were subdued, those at home remained to be conquered. They began to utter the phrase coup d'etat, which several papers, under the more direct influence of the clergy, actu- ally demanded. During this time the king and queen of Naples visited Paris, and many festivals took place, strongly in contrast with the state of political affairs. The king also ordered Te Deum to be sung in all churches of the kingdom for the victory of his army in Africa, the news of which reached Paris (July 9) four days after the capture of Algiers. The capital was illuminated. In several departments numerous con- flagrations had taken place, which were evidently the work of incendiaries. Ma- 322 FRANCE. ny people, whether reasonably or not, believed these atrocities lo have been perpetrated by the instigation of the min- istry. This appears from the cries of the populace, when prince Polignac was arrested — " This is the monster who has burned our houses. Hang him, Hang him !" Of the 221 who voted for the answer of the chamber, 220 were re-elected. The liberals in the new chamber were 270, the ministerial members 145, and fifteen were undecided. In consequence of this result, the ministers made a " re- port to the king," setting forth at length the dangers of a free press, of which they say, " At all epochs, the periodical press has only been, and from its nature must ever be, an instrument of disorder and sedition ;" and calling upon the king to suspend the liberty of the press, a measure authorised, as they asserted, by the fourteenth article of the charter, which declares that the king has the power to make all regulations and ordi- nances for the execution of the laws and the safety of the state. " The state," they said, " is in danger, and your ma- jesty has the right to provide for its safety. No government can stand, if it has not the right to provide for its own safety ; besides, the eighth article of the charter only gives every Frenchman the right of publishing his own opinions, but not, as the journals do, the opinions of others ; the charter does not expressl)^ allow journals and the liberty of the press. The journals misrepresent the best intentions of government ; and the liberty of the press produces the very contrary of publicity, because ill-inten- tioned writers misconstrue every thing, and the public never knows the truth." This report, to which its consequences have given a considerable degree of his- torical importance, is one of the shallow- est and most preposterous state papers on record. It combines the most unconsti- tutional principles wdth miserable sophis- try and the verbiage of despotism. The Polignac ministry had resolved to violate the constitution, and wanted talents to play the despot. History proves that nothing is so violent and so blind as bigotry, religious or political ; and this was the characteristic of the whole par- ty, priests and laymen, who supported or rather instigated Polignac. Meetings of opident citizens were now held for the purpose of considering what course to pursue ; and they resolved not to pay the current taxes, lest the money should be applied to the final subjugation of the chamber of deputies and the pe- riodical press. The Bourse or Exchange was crowded to excess. In every face their Avas either stupefacticm or alarm. There were at this time in Paris the de- puties representing the electors of the city, and some of the deputies from other parts of the kingdom. They assembled, to the number of thirty-two, and deliber- ated at the house of the deputy, M. La- fitte, the banker. A number of constitu- tional peers hastily met at the duke de Choiseul's. At each of these meetings it was resolved not to submit. The peers signed a protest, and sent it by a deputa- tion to the king, who refused to receive it. This rejection strengthened the re- solution of the deputies, and forty cou- riers were sent with despatches to towns and villages Avithin one hundred miles of the metropolis, representing the out- rageous conduct of the government, and urging the inhabitants to co-operate with the Parisians in a determined stand for the liberties of France. In the meantime the government was on the alert, and sent a general officer to Grenelle, and another to Anglers, for mil- itary purposes. The military command of Paris was intrusted to the marshal duke of Ragusa (Marmont). Troops were ordered in from the barracks with- in fifty miles around ; and the guards in the city were doubled. Towards the evening, bodies of gendarmerie were stationed about the Bourse, and on the Boulevards. In consequence of the bank refusing to discount bills, the manufac- turers perceived it had not confidence in the government, and they immediately discharged their workmen. These arti- sans congregated in the difTerent streets and reported what had happened to list- ening throngs. Lovers of news rushed to the offices of journals which contained second editions, with the obnoxious ordi- nances. The ministers were not willing FRANCE. 323 that a knowledge of their own acts? should extend to the provinces. Most of the papers put into the post-office were with- held, and the prefect of the police, M. Maugin, issued the annexed ordinance. " We, Prefect of Police, &c, seeing the ordinance of the King, dated the 25th inst., which puts again in force ar- ticles 1, 2 and 9, of the law of the 21st October, 1814, &c, have ordained, and ordain as follows : — "Art. 1. Every individual who shall distribute printed writings, on which there shall not be the true indication of the names, profession, and residence of the author and of the printer, or who shall give to the public the same writings to read, shall be brought before the commis- sary of police of the quarter, and the writings shall be seized. " 2. Every individual keeping a read- ing-room, coffee-house, &c, who shall give to be read journals, or other writings, printed contrary to the ordinance of the king of the 25th inst., relative to the press, shall be prosecuted as guilty of the misdemeanors which these journals or writings may constitute, and his es- tablishment shall be provisionally closed. " 3. The present ordinance shall be printed, published, and posted up. " 4. The commissary chief of munici- pal police, the commissaries of police, shall be enjoined to see the execution of it. It shall be addressed to the colonel of the city of Paris, commander of the royal gendarmerie, to cause the execu- tion of it as far as he is concerned." This ordinance, which was posted on the walls in all parts of the city, height- ened the general discontent. It was plain there were to be fewer papers, and each with only such a small amoimt of adulterated intelligence as Prince Polig- nac and his confederates should sanction. Newspapers v/ith a Frenchman's coffee in the morning are essential to his exist- ence. He neither does, nor can he do, without them. M. Maugin's ordinance was honored with as much contempt as the ordinance of Polignac and the other members of the government. The offi- cers of this functionary cleared the cof- fee-houses and reading-rooms of visiters, and shut up these and other places of re- sort for amusement or refreshment. By order of the police, the theatres were closed. These precautionary measures were by no means effective. The gov- ernment spies prowled in redoubled num- bers, and were enabled to inform their em- ployers that all Paris was in a state of high sedition. In the course of the day the gendar- merie were objects of popular dislike, which was chiefly manifested by words. Several shops and public buildings were closed ; and, much earlier than was cus- tomary, ail the shops in the Palais Royal were shut up. Young men, chiefly the sons of tradesmen, paraded the streets with walking sticks containing small swords, which they drew occasionally and flourished in the air, at the same time uttering loud cries of " Vive la Charte." Charles X came privately to Paris, and slept at the duchess de Her- ri's ; while many of the Parisians passed the night in devising means for opposing the arbitrary domination he had assumed. About noon, on Tuesday, the police and a large force of gendarmes, mounted and on foot, appeared before the office of a very popular journal, called the Na- tionnel. They found the door fast closed ; and being refused entrance, broke in, seized the types, and carried the redac- teur-en-chef to prison, leaving five mount- ed gendarmes to blockade the entrance of the street. The same force proceed- ed to the office of the Temps, another popular newspaper, where, the door being blockaded and admission denied, a smith was sent for to break it open, but he re- fused to act. Another smith was pro- cured, who picked the lock and opened the door. Still there was no entrance ; for the door-way within was barricaded, and a body of printers inside vowed to defend the blockaded pass, and the press, with their lives. The commissaries of police, however, by some means got in, and seized the papers that remained and the types. A deputation of peers left Paris for St. Cloud ; but the court had taken a head- long course, and perversely determined on enforcing its mandates. The deputies assembled, and were understood to have unanimously resolved, that the ministers 324 FRANCE. having placed themselves out of the pale of the law, the people would be justified in refusing payment of the taxes ; and that all the deputies should be summoned to meet on the 3rd of August, the day first appointed for their convocation. By twelve o'clock, there were, at least, 5000 people in the Palais Royal. The multi- tude was increased by printers thrown out of employment from the suppression of the journals, and by workmen dis- missed from the manufactories. The ferment rapidly heightened, especially among groups of electors of 12/. a year, whom the ordinances disfranchised, who listened to harangues from speakers : mounted on chairs. All work was now abandoned, every manufactory closed, and detachments of artisans with large sticks traversed the j streets. Troops of gendarmes patrolled i the streets at full gallop to disperse the j accumulating crowds. The people were ! silent, and at an early hour the shops throughout Paris were closed. Troops of the royal guard and soldiers of the line came pouring in. The people look- ed sullen and determined. The chief points of rendezvous were the Palais Royal, the Palais de Justice, and the Bourse. There were simultaneous cries of " Vive la Charte .'" — " Down with the absolute king !" — but no conversation — no exchange of words with each other. The king was at the Tuilleries. In the Place Carousel there was a station of several thousands of the military, includ- ing the lancers of the royal guard, with a great number of cannon. At the Place Vendome a strong guard of infantry was stationed around the column, to guard the ensigns of royalty upon it from being defaced. Crowds of people assembled on the spot and menaced the troops. On Wednesday morning, July 28, the shops of Paris were closely shut, and the windows fastened and barred, as if the inhabitants of the city were in mourning for the dead, or in apprehen- sion of approaching calamity. The toc- sin sounded, and the people flocked in from the fauxbourgs and different quar- ters of the city. That determined enemy to oppression, the press, had been at work during the night. Handbills were profusely distributed, containing vehe- ment philippics against the king and his ministers, and summoning every man to arm for his country, and to aid in ejecting the Bourbons. Placards were constantly posted up and eagerly read. During the preceding night an organization of the people had been arranged. All the arms that could be found at the theatres, and remaining in the shops of armourers that had not been visited the evening before, were seized and distributed. Every other kind of property was respected. Strong detachments guarded the difler- ent hotels of the ministers. Loud cries and shouts were constantly heard of " Down with the Jesuits !" — " Down with the Bourbons !" — " Death to the ministers !" Each man strove to provide himself with a musket, a pistol, a sword, a pole with a knife, or some cutting instrument to form a weapon of offence. Troops continually arrived from St. Denis, St. Cloud, and other military stations. Rude barricades were hastily thrown up in diflTerent places to prevent the attacks of cavalry. Se- veral telegraphs, including that on the church des Petits Peres, were dismount- ed. Groups of the people, armed with sticks, bayonets, pikes, and muskets, re- moved or effaced all the insignia and em- blems of royalty. A red flag was hoist- ed on the gate of St. Denis, amidst the shouts of the people. Tri-colored flags were promenaded in the streets, and tri- colored cockades and breast-knots were worn, not only by the French, but by the English and foreigners of all nations. The royal arms and other ensigns of the gov- ernment of Charles X that were move- able, were burned in the Place Publique. All Paris was in insurrection. Every movement of the people portended a ter- rible conflict. The government reposed in security upon a Wind and implacable dignity. A deputation was formed of the follow- ing eminent deputies : — Messrs. general Gerard, count de Lobau, Lafitte, Casimir Perrier, and Mauguin. — Amidst the fire of musketry they went to the marshal duke of Ragusa. M. Lafitte represented to the marshal the deplorable state of the capital ; blood flowing in all direc- tions J the musketry firing as in a town FRANCE. 325 taken by storm. He made him person- ally responsible, in the name of the as- sembled deputies of France, for the fatal consequences of so melancholy an event. The marshal replied — " The honor of a soldier is obedience." " And civil hon- our," replied M. Lafitte, " is not to mas- sacre the citizens." The marshal said, " But, gentlemen, what are the condi- tions you propose ?" Without judging too highly of our influence, we think that we can be answerable that every thing will return to order on the following con- ditions : — The revocation of the illegal ordinances of the 25th of July, the dis- missal of the ministers, and the convoca- tion of the chambers on the 3rd of August." The marshal replied, " that, as a citizen, he perhaps mightnot disapprove, nay, even might participate in the opinions of the deputies ; but that, as a soldier, he had his orders, and he had only to carry them into execution — that, however, he engaged to submit these proposals to the king in half an hour. But," said the marshal, " if you wish, gentlemen, to have a confer- ence on the subject with M. de Polignac, he is close at hand, and I will go and ask him if he can receive you." A quar- ter of an hour passed, the marshal return- ed with his manner much changed, and told the deputies that M. de Polignac had declared to him that the conditions pro- posed, rendered any conference useless. " We have then civil war," said M. La- fitte. The marshal bowed, and the de- puties retired. It had been known among the people that the deputies were to have a communi- cation with the duke of Ragusa ; and during the conference, and for some short time after, though the public feeling was intense, the assembled multitude was perfectly still, and mixed freely among the troops. As soon, however, as Polig- nac's answer was made known, " that ministers would enter into no compromise or concession," war, and war to the knife, commenced ; and never were witnessed more heroic acts of personal bravery, and more generous disregard of selfish feelings than were displayed by the citi- zens of Paris on this memorable day and night. The drums of the national guards soon beat " to arms !" The populace answered the call amid the incessant ringing of the tocsin, and the struggle began in earnest. About two o'clock a cannon on the bridge near the March^ aux Fleurs, raked with grape-shot the quay, while the troops were resolutely attacked by the people, and several of the guards led ofl', killed, or wounded. There was a tremendous conflict in. La Halle, the great market-place of the Rue St. Denis. The royal guard were early in possession of it. All the out- lets were speedily closed by barricades, from behind which, from the corners of the various streets, and from the win- dows of the houses, the people fired on the guards, and there was a terrible slaughter on both sides. The hottest en- gagement seems to have been in the Rue St. Honore, opposite the Palais Royal, where the military were assembled in great force, and the people resisted their assailants with desperate determination. At the Place de Greve they fiercely contended with the household troops, the Swiss guards, and compelled them to fly with great loss. In the Rue Mont- martre an attack was made by the duke de Ragusa in person. During part of the day the Place des Victoires was oc- cupied by some troops, among whom was a part of the fifth regiment of the line, who had gone over to the national guards established at the Petits Peres. About two o'clock the duke de Ragusa arrived at the place at the head of fresh troops. He drew them up opposite the Rues du Mail, des Fosses, Montmartre, Croix des Petits Champs, and Neuve des Petits Champs, He immediately commanded a charge, and on both sides several men were kill- ed or wounded. The marshal directed his troops down the Rue du Mail, and they scoured the Rue Montmarte without much difficulty till they reached the Rue Joquelet, where the people were prepar- ed. Each house was armed and guarded. The black flag was displayed on the Porte St. Denis and other edifices. As soon as the firing ceased, the peo- ple made preparations for the next day by strengthening the barricades and in- creasing their number. They were as- sisted by women and even children. The remainder of the afternoon and 326 FRANCE, evening, and the whole of the night, was spent in raising these important obstruc- tions to the evolutions of cavalry. Ex- cellent materials were at hand in the paving stones ; they were dug up and piled across the streets in walls breast high, and four or five feet thick. These walls were about fifty paces distant from each other. Hundreds of the finest trees were cut down for blockades. Nothing could be more effective for the defence of a large open town like Paris, traversed in every direction by long narrow streets, overlooked by houses of six, seven, and eight stories, than such barriers scienti- fically constructed. All the means that industry and ingenuity could devise, in so short a time, w^ere carried into exe- cution, for the energetic stand and as- sault determined to be made against the military in the morning. At day-break on Thursday the tocsin sounded " To arms !" and the people be- gan to assemble rapidly and in great crowds. The military, whose guard- houses had been destroyed, were chiefly quartered at the Louvre and the Tuille- ries, the Swiss and the royal guards be- ing posted in the houses of the Rue St. Honore and the adjacent streets. At the same time, the students of the Polytech- nic School joined the citizens nearly to a man ; they then separated, proceeding singly to different parts to take the com- mand of the people, and nobly repaid the confidence reposed in them. The garden of the Tuilleries was closed. In the place du Carousel were three squadrons of lancers of the garde royale, a battal- ion of the third regiment of the guards, and a battery of six pieces, also belonging to the guards. About one o'clock in the afternoon, a party of the royal guards and of Swiss, to the number of nearly 800 men, ap- peared on the Place de Greve. A brisk fire commenced, but the national guards not being in sufiicient strength, were obliged to give ground, and to suffer the royal guards to take possession of their post. The royal guards had scarcely made themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville, when they were assailed on all sides with a shower of bullets from the windows of the houses on the Place de Greve and in the streets abutting on the quay. The royal guards resisted vigor- ously, but were ultimately compelled to retreat along the quay ; their firing by files and by platoons succeeding each other with astonishing rapidity. They were soon joined by fresh troops of the royal guard and of Swiss, including 100 curiassiers of the guard, and four pieces of artillery, each of them escorted by a dozen artillerymen on horseback. With this terrible re-enforcement they again advanced on the Hotel de Ville, and a frightful firing began on all sides. The artillery debouching from the quay, and their pieces charged with cannister shot, swept the Place de Greve, in a terrific manner. They succeeded in driving the citizens into the Rues de Matroit and du Mouton, and entered for the second time that day into their position at the Hotel de Ville. But their posession of it did not continue long ; for they were soon again attacked with a perseverance and courage which was almost irresistible. Their artillery ranged before the Prefec- ture of the Seine and the Hotel de Ville threatened death to thousands. Hundreds of the constitutionalists were killed by the fire of the Swiss guard from the windows of this edifice. It was erected in 1 600, and though it does not appear to possess any of the charac- teristics of strength in a military sense of the word, yet its gates being of im- mense thickness furnished a good defence from the musketry of the attacking par- ties. The Hotel de Ville was afterwards employed as the head-quarters of La Fayette and the provisional government. The Rue St. Honore, for two days, was a perpetual scene of slaughter. The Louvre, except the picture gallery, was on all sides attacked and defended at the same moment, and for hours. In the court of the Louvre a field-piece was planted, which commanded the Pont des Arts, being exactly opposite the Institute. Here the fighting was so dreadful and so main- tained, that the front of the building of the Institute was speckled with musket and grape shot. One cannon ball smash- ed a portion of the wall, and from its elevation did dreadful execution in sweep- ing the bridge. The attack on the Tuil- FRANCE. 327 levies was over in two or three hours. A young man marched with a tri-colored flag at the head of the attacking bour- geois. A thousand balls, fired from the front of the chateau, whistled by him without touching him. He continued to march with perfect sang froid, but with, at the same time, an air of importance, up to the triumphal arch, and remained there until the end of the battle. While the people and the military were combating at the Place de Greve, the Louvre, and the Tuilleries, troops were arriving by the Champs Elyse'es. A great party of the people, and many na- tional guards, with two pieces of cannon, were hastening along near the Place Louis XVI, towards the Barrier St. Etoile, when a large troop of dragoons arrived, made a desperate charge, and cut down the people without mercy, who made a very bold stand. Many of the soldiers solemnly vowed that they would not continue to obey orders to massacre their brothers and sons. Their nimibers were thinned, they were fatigued, dis- heartened, discomfited, beaten, and fled. At Chaillot, a district of Paris, verging on the route to St. Cloud, the inhabitants, though few in number, sustained the fire of five regiments of the guards, who at- tempted to eflfect their retreat by the bar- rier of Passy. At length, all the royal troops left the capital by the way of the Champs Elysees, and in their retreat were fired upon by the people. At night, part of the town was illum- inated, particularly the streets of St. De- nis, St. Martin, St. Jacques, and the neighborhood of the Hotel de Ville. Perfect tranquillity prevailed throughout the city. Strong patrols silently paraded the streets, passed gently from barricade to barricade, and disarmed individuals whom fatigue and the heat of the weath- er, more than wine, had rendered incapa- ble of employing their weapons usefully. A deputation from Charles X at St. Cloud, arrived at the Hotel de Ville ear- ly in the morning. It consisted of the marquis de Rastoret, chancellor of France ; M. Semonville ; and count d'Argout, peer of France. They announced that Charles X had named the duke de Morte- mart president of the coimcil, and that he was willing to accept a ministry chosen by him. At eleven o'clock, the deputies and peers then in Paris assembled in their respective halls, and established regular communications with each other. The duke de Mortemart was introduced to the chamber of deputies, and delivered four ordinances signed, the previous day, by Charles X. One of them recalled the fatal ordinances of the 25th ; another convoked the chambers on the 3rd ; the third appointed the duke de Mortemart president of the council ; and the fourth appointed count Gerard, minister of war, and M. Casimir Perier, minister of fin- ance. The reading of these ordinances was listened to with the greatest atten- tion. At the termination profound silence continued ; — no observation was made ; — the deputies passed to other business. The duke de Mortemart returned to ac- quaint his master that he was no longer acknowledged as king of France. The manner in which the duke and his com- mxmications were received by the depu- ties was an announcement that Charles X, had ceased to reign. July 31, the deputies published a pro- clamation, declaring that they had invited the duke of Orleans to become lieuten- ant-general of the kingdom. At noon of the same day, Louis Philippe d'Orleans issued a proclamation, declaring that he had hastened to Paris, wearing the "glo- rious colors" of France, to accept the invitation of the assembled deputies to become lieutenant-general of the king- dom. A proclamation of the same date appointed provisional commissaries, for the different departments of government, as follows ; for the department of justice, M. Dupont-do I'Eure ; of finance, baron Louis ; of war, general Gerard ; of the marine, de Rigny ; of foreign afl^airs, M. Bignon ; of public instruction, M. Guizot ; of the interior and public works, M. Casimir Perier ; signed Lobau, A. de Puyraveau, and Mauguin de Schonen. The king, Avith his family, had fled to St. Cloud. History has but few events to show that can be compared with the struggle in Paris. The Parisians left their hab- itations to fight, without organization, we 328 FRANCE. might almost say, without arms, against some of the best troops in the world ; and for what ? Were they a rabble driven by hunger, or a rebellious nobility endeavoring to wrest new privileges from the monarch ? No : they were men who would not sulTer themselves to be stripped of their civil rights, but firmly and manfully defended them with their lives. It is in this respect a great moral revolution, and forms a brilliant epoch in the history of France. The king and his household fled on July 31, from St. Cloud to Rambouillet, a small place six leagues W. S. W. of Ver- sailles. Three commissioners, Messrs. De Schonen, marshal Maison, and O'Dil- lon Barrot were sent to treat with him. They informed the authorities at Paris, under date of August 3, that the king wished to leave France by way of Cher- bourg ; to restore the crown jewels, which he had taken from Paris, &c. These concessions were produced by the advance of the national guard toward Rambouillet. On the morning of Aug. 2, the abdication of Charles X, and the dauphin, Louis Antoine, was placed in the hands of the lieutenant-general. The abdication, however, was made in favor of the duke of Bordeaux. A letter of the king, of August 2, appointed the duke of Orleans lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and ordered him to proclaim the duke of Bordeaux, king, under the title of Henry V. August 3, (the day originally fixed for opening of the session), the chambers met. The lieutenant-general addressed the peers and the deputies, and announ- ced the abdication of Charles. Casimir Perier was chosen president of the chamber, which had acted during the late memorable events, under the vice presi- dent Lafitte. August 6. The chamber of deputies declared the throne of France vacant, de jure and de facto, and discussed those changes of the charter, which we have already given in the former part of this article. On the 7th, new changes were adopted, and it was voted to invite the duke of Orleans to become king of the French on condition of his accepting these changes ; the vote stood 219 in fa- vor, 33 against. The whole number of deputies is 430 ; so that 219 is not only an immense majority of those present, but a majority of the whole chamber. On the 8th, the chamber went in a bo- dy to the duke of Orleans, and offered him the crown, which he accepted ; and on August 9, he took the prescribed con- stitutional oath. A majority of the cham- ber of peers actually present concurred in these measures. In the middle of November, 1831, alarming riots occurred at Lyons, in con- sequence of a dispute between the work- ing weavers, their employers, and the civic authorities, respecting the rate of wages. The insurgents seized on the prefect and general Ordoneau, the civil and military leaders, and took possession of the city, after driving out the troops. In their first excitement, the rioters col- lected some valuable properly, to which they set fire ; but this feeling soon sub- sided, and the discontented afterwards behaved with moderation till the arrival of the duke of Orleans, at the head of 50,000 men, when they submitted, and order was restored. At the beginning of February of the following year, a conspiracy to de- throne Louis Philippe, and re-establish the late dynasty, was detected in Paris. About 300 arrests took place, and large sums of money, received as bribes, were found on the persons of some prisoners. In June, 1833, marshal Soult declared the intention of the French government not only to relinquish Algiers, but to en- courage its colonization from France. Since that time, the whole coast from Oran to Constantine has been subjected to the government of Algiers ; and the fortifications of the city itself have been repaired and greatly strengthened. Thus the determination of the French govern- ment to retain possession of the new col- ony is no longer doubtful. The present condition of France is prosperous. Agriculture, manufactures and commerce are in a flourishing state. Great attention is paid to the education of all classes. The arts and sciences are highly cultivated, and among her learned men, are to be found the greatest scholars of the age. GERMANY. 329 GERMANY. Germany is divided among such a number of sovereigns, native and foreign, and its natural boundaries are so obscure- ly marked, that it is difficult, and at first sight seems improper, to describe it as a single country. But when it is consid- ered, that, in respect to name, language, and inhabitants, it possesses a unity of character, from which it derives a fair and solid claim to occupy a separate place among the divisions of Europe, and that although its extreme limits are not easily ascertained, the great mass of which it is composed is sufficiently identified, we trust we shall be justified in making it the subject of a separate article. Our most accurate, full, and important information respecting ancient Germany, is derived from Tacitus. He gives the names and locations of the numerous tribes inhabiting the country, which it appears comprehended about one third part of Europe. The ancient Germans were distin- guished by their blue eyes, red hair, and large stature. Their children were al- ways kept naked and dirty ; every mother suckled her own infants, and did not commit them to the care of maid-servants or nurses. There was no distinction in the mode of rearing the master and slave. They lived among the same cattle, and lay on the same ground, till age caused them to be separated, and superior valor marked out the free-born. They were not permitted to marry early in life : the more numerous a person's kinsman and relations by marriage were, the more comfortable and respectable was his old age : it was no advantage, but rather considered a misfortune and disgrace, to be childless. The uncle, by the mother's side, regarded his nephews with the same affection as their father ; every man's children were his heirs and suc- cessors, without any testament ; if there were no issue, the brothers of the de- ceased inherited the property, and then his uncles, by his father's or mother's side. The ancient Germans were utterly ignorant of arts and agriculture. Tacitus 42 expressly says, that in his time they had no cities ; and though Ptolemy reckons up 90 places, which he calls cities, in all probability they were only rude forti- fications, erected to secure the women, children, and cattle, while the men were engaged in warfare. They had not even regular and connected villages, but each individual fixed his dwelling were it suit- ed his convenience, or pleased his fancy. Neither stones, nor bricks, nor tiles, were employed in erecting their habita- tions. They were equally rude and ill supplied with respect to their govern- ment. The clothing used by all the Germans was a loose mantle, fastened with a clasp, or, when that could not be procured, with a thorn. The rich, how- ever, sometimes were clothed in a gar- ment girt close, and showing the shape of every limb. The tribes who dwelt towards the north clothed themselves in furs : the dress of the women was not different from that of the men, except that they sometimes wore linen robes of their own manufacture, and adorned them with purple. The principal employment of the men, in time of peace, consisted in hunting the various sorts of game, with which the forests of Germany were plentifully stocked : their herds of cattle formed the principal object and source of their wealth. The country, though considerably varied, was in general cover- ed with M'oods, or deformed by marshes ; and the indolence and ignorance of the inhabitants prevented them from render- ing any large portion of it fit for the growth of corn. Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce ; the scarcity of iron appeared from their weapons, which, for the most part, were spears tipt wdth a short and narrow piece of iron. With this spear, and with a shield, their cav- alry went to battle. The infantry had also missile weapons, which they threw to a great distance, with wonderful force and unerring aim. Their warriors were either naked, or dressed in a loose and light mantle. Their shields of wood, or osier, were distinguished and ornament- 330 GERMANY. ed with a variety of colors ; some of the chiefs wore cuirasses, and a (cw helmets. Their horses were slow, un- manageable, and not remarkable for their beauty. On their cavalry, therefore, they seldom placed much reliance in the hour of battle, their principal strength in gene- ral consisting in their infantry, which were drawn up, either mixed with the cavalry, or in several deep columns by themselves. They fought by families and clans ; and while they fought, they were encouraged by the presence of their wives and children. Their mothers and wives dressed their wounds : carried re- freshments to them while fighting ; and exhorted them to deeds of bravery. Their armies were totally devoid of discipline ; they rushed to battle Avith dissonant shouts. Sometimes by their native valor, they prevailed over the disciplined troops of the Romans ; but they knew not how to rally or retire ; a repulse was a sure defeat; and when they were defeated, the destruction of their army almost in- evitably followed. The ancient Germans had no temples, but performed their religious rites in groves, or in woods, forests, and desert places. They adored the sun, the moon, the fire, and the earth. Jupiter was wor- shipped under the name of Thor, or Thoran, the Thunderer. Odin, or Wo- din, appears to have been their Mars, or god of battle. The supreme deity was worshipped under the name of Esus, or Hesus, and under the emblem of an oak, which was consecrated to him. They had no druids, though their priests bore some resemblance to them in several points of their authority. The priests exerted the influence wliich they pos- sessed over the fears and superstition of their countrymen, frequently to very use- ful purposes. They maintained silence and decency in the popular assemblies ; and during a solemn procession of the goddess Erlha, the sound of war was hushed, quarrels were suspended, arms laid aside, and the blessings of peace and harmony were enjoj^ed. In war, too, the influence of the priests was con- spicuous. The consecrated standards, which during peace were kept concealed from the vulgar eye in the recesses of the sacred groves, were placed in the front of the battle ; and the army of their enemies was devoted in the most solemn manner to the gods of war and of thun- der. They were taught by their priests, that a brave man was the favorite of their gods ; while the coward, Avho had lost his shield, was devoted equally to con- tempt and banishment in this world, and shut out from the enjoyment of a future state. A life spent in arms, and a glo- rious death in battle, they were taught assuredly led to a happy futurity, either in this or in another world. The passion of the ancient Germans for play was extremely powerful. In their sober moments they applied to dice, as to a serious and important concern, and with such resolved and blind eager- ness to gain or lose, that when every thing else was gone, they risked their liberty and persons on the last throw. The loser, though more powerful or more noble than the winner, submitted to vol- untary slavery, and sufllered himself to be bound and sold. Still, however, notwith- standing the strong and general preva- lence of the spirit of gaming, some shame was attached to it, which induced the Avinner to dispose of the slave he had ac- quired in this way, by commerce, in order to wipe oft' the scandal of the transaction. The slaves of the Germans were much bet- ter treated, and of a higher class than the slaves of the Romans ; each had his own dwelling ; he was indeed bound to give his master, from the fruits of his own labor, a certain portion of grain, and a certain number of cattle ; but when he had given these, his labor was his own. The invasion of Italy by the Cimbri and Teutones ; their defeat by Marius, A. M. 3909 ; the invasion of Gaul by the borders of the Rhine, under Arioris- tus, and their defeat by Julius Caesar, A. M. 3950, are almost the only events of consequence in the history of Germany, before the Christian era, of which we have any certain account. When Ca;sar had completed the conquest of Gaul, he j divided it into the Celtic, the Aquitanic, and the Belgic provinces ; in the last, all the German provinces on the left side of ; the Rhine were comprised. In the reign ' of Augustus, a further division took pLice, GERMANY. 331 and the country lying between the Meuse, the Scheldt, and the Rhine, was separa- ted from the Belgic Gaul, and formed into a province called Germania cis- Rhonanas. In A. M. 3995, the famous Arminius, at the head of the Cherusci, massacred three Roman legions under Varus, between the Lippe and the Ems. In the third century of the Christian era, the German tribes formed different asso- ciations for their common defence against the Romans. Of these the most remark- able were the Saxons, comprising those who dwelt on each side of the Elbe ; tho Alemanni, formed by the nations be- tween the Rhineji the Mayne and the Lech ; the Francici, by the nations be- tween the Rhine, the Mayne, and the Weser ; and the Thuringians by the nations between the Mayne, the Danube and the Hartz. Charlemagne was the first who united Germany under one sceptre. Soon after the division of the empire of Charlemagne, the feudal system gain- ed a consistency and firm footing, so that by degrees it overpowered the influence and authority of his descendants. In consequence of the weakness of the Carlovingian princes, the dukes and counts converted their hereditary posses- sions, which the)^ parcelled out among their barons, and those among their vas- sals. The principal of these in Germany were, the dukes of Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, Suabia, and Lorraine. These usurpations, joined to the incapacity of the Carlovingian princes, caused the house of Charlemagne to decline rapidly. In Germany, on the abdication of Charles the Fat, the people, from respect to the placed the empire were extended, chiefly by Otho the Great. This monarch subdued the kingdom of Italy, deUvered the pope, and fixed the imperial crown in the name and nation of Germany. From that era, A. D. 962, two maxims of public jurisprudence were introduced ; 1st, That the prince, who was elected in the German diet, acquired from that instant the kingdoms of Italy and Rome ; and 2d, That he could not legally assume the titles of Emperor and Augustus, till he had re- ceived the crown from the hands of the pope. It has already been mentioned, that in the time of Tacitus, the Germans did not live even in villages ; as, however, they spread themselves over the country on the west of the Rhine, they began to inhabit villages, and even to construct towns ; so that at an early period, after the Triboci, Nemetes, and Vangions, settled in the country between the Rhine and the Vosges, the cities of Strasburg, Spire, Mentz,and Worms, are mentioned. Under the Francic sovereigns, cities were multiplied ; and by Henry the Fowler they were particularly encouraged by a singular institution. From the troops stationed in Germany, he chose every ninth soldier ; the remaining eight were to sow and till the land, and to carry the produce to the ninth, whose business it was to build habitations for himself and his companions. By degrees, the lower order of the people united themselves to these soldiers ; and the Emperor order- ed the courts of justice, fairs, tourna- ments, &c, to be held in the cities they constructed. His example was followed in the other parts of Germany, so that in memory of Charlemagne, crown on the head of Arnold, a natural [ a short time it scarcely contained a d son of Carloman, and after the decease : trict of any extent which had not its of Arnold, on Louis, his son. On the { city. To each of them exclusive priv- death of Louis, they elected a duke of j ileges were granted ; the most important Franconia for their king, and then a of which were the jus stapulcB and the Saxon line of princes. jus geranii ; by the former, all commodi- The emperors of the house of Saxony reigned from A. D. 911 to A. D. 1024. They were, Henry I, surnaraed the Fowler ; Otho I, surnamed the Great ; Otho II, Otho III, and Henry II. During the period that the throne was filled by the Saxon emperors, the limits of the ties brought into them were exposed to public sale ; by the latter, all commodi- ties imported or exported, were to be weighed or measured by the public weights or measures of the city, for which it was entitled to a duty. At first, the chief magistrates were of noble birth, 332 GERMANY. but, by degrees, the chief offices were \ opened to the people at large. Thus, | soon after the era of the Saxon Enipe- 1 rors, there were in almost every town three different classes, — nobles, citizens, i and slaves ; but, about the beginning of! the 12th century, Henry V, eniranchised all slaves in cities who were artisans. The emperors of the house of Fran- conia were called to the throne after the Saxon emperors ; they reigned from 1027 to 1137. They consisted of Con- ard II, who conquered the kingdom of; Burgundy; Henry III, who conquered, the country between the Inn and the i Lech, now called Lower Austria ; Henry IV, and Henry V ; on the death of the | last, Lothaire, the Saxon, was elected i king of Germany. Under Henry III, I the empire of Germany had its greatest j extent. It comprehended Germany, Italy, j Burgimdy, and Lorraine. Poland and other Slavonian districts, were tributary to it ; and Denmark and Hungary ac- knowledged themselves its vassals. The Emperors of Germany at this period af- fected to consider all Christendom as forming a royal republic, of which the Emperor was chief. In consequence of this assumed supremacy, they claimed the exclusive right of creating kings ; and the states of the empire proclaimed war against the Duke of Poland for hav- ing taken to himself the title of king in 1077. Soon after reaching this point of power and grandeur, the empire began to decline, principally owing to the rapid extension of the feudal system. In every province, the subjects of the law were the vassals of a private chief ; and the standard which he received from his sovereign, was often raised against him. The power of the Emperors was also curtailed by the incn^asing influence and possessions of the clergy ; and the bish- oprics in Germany became equal in ex- tent and privileges, and superior in wealth and population, to most of the secular states. The emperors were gradually deprived of the privilege of filling up the ecclesiastical and secular benefices ; and at length each sovereign was reduced to a recommendation, once in his reign, I to a single prebend in each church. l"he by the sentence of their peers ; the ap- pointment of the son to the duchy or county of his father, which in the first age of the monarchy was solicited as a favor, was at length extorted as a right ; and this right was claimed even by col- lateral or female branches. The emperor Henry IV, of Germany, in attempting to preserve the rights of the empire relative to the nomination of the pope was opposed by Paschal HI, who excommunicated the emperor, for the alleged crime of introducing schisms into the church. Whilst the emperor la- bored under this calamity, his unnatural son Henry, took up arms against him, and having obtained possession of his person, the archbishops of Mentz and Cologne, were seni to inform him of his deposition, and to demand the crown, and other regalia. Henry having remon- strated in vain, he put on his royal orna- ments, and seating himself in a chair of state, addressed the unfeeling prelates to this effect ; " Here are the ensigns of that royalty with which we were invested by God and the princes of the empire ; if you disregard the wrath of Heaven, and the eternal reproach of mankind, so much as to lay violent hands on your sovereign, and strip us of them by force, we are not in a condition to defend our- selves from such an outrage." This ex- postulation had no effect ; the bishops snatched the crown from Plenry's head, and, dragging him from his seat, pulled off the imperial robes by force ; whilst he lifted his streaming eyes to heaven, ac- knowledging the sins of his youth, and imploring God to punish the perjury and insolence of his inhuman enemies. This took place A. D. 1106. The emperors of the house of Suabia succeeded to those of the house of Fran- conia, and held the empire from A. D. 1138 to A. D. 1254. They were, Con- ard III ; Frederic I, surnamed Barba- rossa ; Henry VI ; Philip ; Otho IV ; Frederic II ; and Conard IV. The principal events in the history of the lat- ter princes of the Franconian line, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, were produced or influenced by the con- tests between the popes and the empe- rors ; and the principal ground of these GERMANY 333 Deposition of Henry IV, Emperor of Germany. contests was the claim of the popes to the supreme dominion of every part of the Christian world, both in temporal and spiritual concerns. This claim gave rise to the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibelines ; of which the former were attached to the popes, and the latter to the emperors. These two factions kept Germany and Italy in perpetual agitation during three centuries ; and during this period, the imperial authority continued to decline. The next period, between 1254 and 1272, is generally called by the German writers, the Great Interregnum. During it, six princes claimed to be emperors. The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, Count of Hapsburgh. From him till the ultimate accession of the house of Austria, the empire of Ger- many was held by the following empe- rors. Rodolph, Count of Hapsburg, elec- ted A. D. 1273. Adolph, Count of Nas- sau, elected A. D. 1292. Albert I, Arch- duke of Austria, elected A. D. 1298. Henry, Count of Luxemburg, elected A. D. 1308. Louis V, Duke of Bavaria, elected A. D. 1314. Charles, King of Bohemia, A. D. 1347. Winceslaus, King of Bohemia, A. D. 1378. Robert, Elector Palatine, A. D. 1400. Sigis- raond. King of Hungary, A. D. 1410. and Albert I, duke of Austria, A. D. 1438. During the period between the last acces- sion of the house of Hapsburg and the election of Charles V, the empire was possessed by the following emperors. Frederic III, elected A. D. 1440; Max- imilian I, elected 1493 ; and Charles V, elected A. D. 1519. During this period, the boundaries of the Germanic empire, the form of its government, and the rise of its towns, particularly those which composed the Hanseatic league, are the chief subjects of consideration. The emperor was al- ways elective ; but great alterations took place in the mode of election. In early periods, the emperor was chosen by the people at large ; afterwards the nobility and principal officers of state possessed the privilege exclusively ; by degrees it was engrossed by the five great officers, the chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the great butler, and the great master. At first they contented themselves with proposing a candidate to the general body of electors. After- wards they confined the whole right of election to themselves. This mode was 334 GERMANY. finally settled in tlie reign of Charles IV, by the celebrated constitution, called the Golden Bull, which fixed the right of election in four spiritual and three tempo- ral electors. These were, the King of Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Mar- grave of Brandenburg, the Count Pala- tine of the Rhine, and the three arch- bishops of Meutz, Treves, and Cologne. Subsequently, the Duke of Bavaria and the Duke of Brunswick Lunenburgh were added. The multitude of princes, bishops, al)bots, and male and female no- bles, who, under various names, possess- ed sovereign rights, though all recogni- zed the emperor as their feudal lord, were divided into the primitive states, or those which had always been held of the emperor, as the duchies of Saxony aud Bavaria, the Palatinate, and several bish- oprics ; those which arose on the ruin of the Guelphic family, in consequence of the confiscation of the possessions of Henry the Lion ; those which arose from the ruins of llie Suabian family, and those which arose principally during the interregnum. But though the exclusive privilege of choosing the emperor was confined to the electors, they formed only one branch of the diet. The other two branches consisted of the princes, and of the free and imperial cities of Germany. In pro- cess of time, the college of princes and prelates purged themselves of a promis- cuous multitude. They reduced to four representative votes the long series of in- dependent counts, and totally excluded the nobles, 60,000 of whom had often appear- ed in the field of election. The cities of Germany, the origin and first state of which has been already noticed, insensi- bly became divided into the free cities, or those which held immediately of the emperor, and had a voice at the diet ; the mixed cities, or those under the protec- tion of some prince, which had no voice; and the municipal cities, entirely subject to the states. The Hanse towns also arose during the same period. They were originally united for the support and en- couragement of their commerce. Bremen and several sea-ports in Livonia first es- tablished the confederacy. At one time 80 towns were included in it. They were divided into four classes ; the Vandallic, I or the cities on the Baltic between Ham- burgh and Pomerania ; over these Lu- beck presided ; the Rhinarian, or cities on the Rhine, at the head of which was Cologne ; the Saxon, the cities in Saxony and Westphalia, over which Brunswick presided ; and the Prussian, the cities in Prussia and Livonia, at the head of which was Dantzic. From the beginning of the 15th centurj^ Lubeck was regarded as the head of the whole confederacy. In the following century it declined ; in the middle of the 17th, it was almost wholly confined to Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen. Their political existence ter- minated in 1806. Another important event in this period of the history of Germany, is the division of the territories of the empire into cir- cles. The first division of Germany was into the Upper and Lower, or south- ern and northern states. The line divi- ding them was supposed to be drawn easterly from the mouth of the Mayne. It was afterwards geographically divided into the states lying on the principal rivers, as the Danube, Rhine, &c. Maxi- milian the First divided it into ten cir- cles, viz, Bavaria. Franconia, Suabia, Lower and Upper Saxony, Lower and Upper Rhine, Westphalia, Austria, and Burgimdy ; but the last, comprising High Burgundy or Franche Compte, and the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, was soon afterwards separated from the empire. During the same period, the diets which had been frequently held, were regularly and solemnly established, con- sisting, as has been already noticed, of three classes : the college of electors of ecclesiastical and secular princes, and of imperial towns. This division was finally established at Frankfort in 1580. The three colleges deliberated separate- ly. The agreement of them all, as well as the consent of the emperor, was necessary to form a resolution or law of the empire. Maximilian I, also established the im perial chamber, and the Aulic council. The president of the former was appoint- ed by the emperor ; the assessors by the states. The Court Palatine, or Aulic Council, was established as a check on the imperial chamber. During the va- GERMANY. 335 cancy of the throne, its powers where suspended ; but the imperial council act- ed under the vicars of the empire. There was no appeal from one to the other ; the dernier resort was the diet. From the accession of the house of Austria to the imperial throne, the history of Ger- many may properly be sought for imder the article Austria. It will be neces- sary here, however, to notice the lead- ing events ; first, from the division of the house of Hapsburg into its Spanish and German lines, till the final extinction of the latter in the house of Lorraine, or the period between 1558 and 1745 ; and, secondly, from the marriage of Maria Theresa, till the abdication, by the emperor of Germany, of the imperial government of the empire, and the for- mation of the confederation of the Rhine, or the period between 1745 and 1806. The principal events in Germany during the first period, were the war of thirty years, which began in 1618 and ended in 1648 ; the war for the succes- sion of Spain, which began in 1700 and ended in 1713 ; the war for the succes- sion of Poland, which began 1733, and ended 1735 ; and the war for the suc- cession of Austria, which began in 1740 and ended in 1748. The war of thirty years was principally owing to the re- ligious disputes of the 16th century. The Reformation of religion in Ger- many, by Martin Luther and others, was the commencement of an important era in the religious and civil history of the world. This event is dated A. D. 1517, when Tctzel, an agent of pope Leo X, began to publish indulgences, and brought them into Germany and offered them for sale. Leo X was a man of pleasure and ambition, who exhausted the papal trea- sury, and took this method to raise mo- ney ; but the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, together with the gross immorality of Tetzel and his associates, gave offence to many re- ligious persons. Luther at this time was a professor of divinity at Wittenburg, and when Tetzel came into the vicinity, he boldly and eloquently protested against the iniquity of these indulgences, and other papal doctrines, and the vices of the monks. He also published his sen- timents, which spread over Germany with great rapidity, and were read with the greatest eagerness. Leo and his agents, alarmed by the progress of Lu- ther's sentiments among all classes of people, excommunicated him as a heretic, and would have probably put him to death, had he not been befriended by some of the princes of Germany, who were friendly to the new doctrines he set forth. * In 1520, the pope issued a bull, or proclamation, threatening him with destruction as an excommunicated heretic, * Being at Augsburg in 1518, whither he had been summoned to answer for his opinions, Lu- ther declared he could not renounce opinions founded in reason, and derived from Scripture, and at the same time delivering a formal protest, the cardinal asked, " What do you mean 1 Do you rely on the force of arms 1 When the just punish- ment and the thunder of the pope's indignation break in upon you, where do you think to re- main ]" His answer was, " Either in Heaven or under Heaven." Luther was at length summoned to appear be- fore the diet at Worms, to answer for his heresy. The emperor Charles V, having granted him a safe conduct, he yielded obedience and set out for Worms. While on his journey, many of his friends (whom the fate of Huss under similar cir- cumstances, and notwithstanding the same secu- rity of an imperial safe conduct, filled with solici- tude) advised and entreated him not to rush wantonly into the midst of danger. But Luther superior to such terrors, silenced them with this reply : — " J am lawfully called,'" said he, " to ap- pear in that city : and thither I will go in the 7hame of the Lord, though as many devils as there are tiles on the houses were there combined against me." When Luther arrived at Worms, greater crowds than had appeared at the emperor's public entry, assembled to behold him. At his appearance be- fore the diet he behaved with great decency and firmness. When called upon to recant his opin- ions, Luther replied, in a truly exalted manner, " Except I can be convinced by clear reasoning, or by proofs taken from the Holy Scriptures, I neither can nor will recant, because it is neither safe nor advisable to do any thing which is against my conscience. Here I stand ; I cannot do other- wise ; so help me God ! Amen !" Luther per- sisting in this answer, he was dismissed from the assembly under a strong escort, and was permit- ted by the emperor to return from Worms. Luther, after this, in 1534, translated the bible into the German language, wrote many works, and labored with unwearied zeal in propagating the doctrines of the reformation. He had during his life the pleasure of seeing vast numbers of the people adoj)ting his sentiments, and the re- formed religion firmly established in many parta of Europe, 336 GERMANY. unless he should within sixty days pub- licly recant his errors, and burn his own books. Amid a vast assemblage of peo- ple at Wittenburg, Luther threw the pa- pal bull, with the volumes of the canon law into the fiames, renounced the au- thority of the pope, exhorted the princes of Europe to shake off the oppressive yoke which they had so long borne, and ofler- ed thanks to Almighty God that he was selected as the advocate of true religion, and a friend to the liberties of mankind. At the diet of Augsburg, 1530, the pro- testant princes of Germany delivered in their confession of faith, and afterwards formed the league of Smalkald against the emperor. At the peace of Passau, the free exercise of the Lutheran reli- gion was permitted. In consequence of the disputes regarding the succession to the Duchies of Cleves and Juliers, the protestant princes formed a confederacy, called the Evangelical Union, at the head of which was the Elector Palatine. To this the Catholics opposed the confed- eracy called the Catholie League, and placed at its head the duke of Bavaria. From 1618, when open war began, till the peace of Westphalia in 1648, Ger- many was a scene of deA'^astation. By this peace, the empire underwent con- siderable changes ; the Swedes obtained Pomerania ; the house of Brandenburg obtained Magdeburg, Minden, &c ; Al- sace was conquered by France ; and Lu- satia ceded to Saxony. The war for the succession of Spain not producing any changes in the Germanic empire, need not be particularly noticed ; the same re- mark applies to the war for the succes- sion of Poland. In Charles VI, the male stock of the house of Hapsburg expired ; in his grand- son Joseph, the two lines of this family, after a separation of 1100 3rears were reunited. On the decease of Charles VI, Maria Theresa, his only daughter, suc- ceeded him. The first events of import- ance, after her accession, was the war of seven years. In consequence of the king of Prussia invading Saxony and Bohemia, the Aulic Council voted his conduct a breach of tlie public peace; and the diet of the empire passed a de- cree to the same effect. This made it a war of that kind, which the publicists of Germany call a war of execution of the empire. The event of the war was, that a mutual oblivion and restitution took place. The next war was occasioned by the extinction of the house of Bavaria ; it ended in the peace of Saxe-Teschen, by which the right of the Elector Palatine to the succession was allowed, with the exception of some districts of land be- tween the Danube, the Inn, and the Salze, which was ceded to Austria. No event affecting the Germanic em- pire took place after this till the French revolution. By it the German states on the left of the Rhine were first over- whelmed ; afterwards the power of Aus- tria was reduced ; Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, raised to the rank of king- doms, and their territories considerably increased, principally by the annexation of the smaller states. Shortly after the treaty of Presburg, most of the princes in the western and southern divisions of Germany separated themselves from the Germanic body, and formed themselves into a league, under the protection of the emperor of the French, under the title of the Confederated Slates of the Rhine. By the act of the confederation, all the laws of the empire were abrogated with respect to these states ; their com- mon interests were to be discussed in an assembly of the league at Frankfort, di- vided into two colleges of kings and princes ; the members of the confedera- tion to be independent of foreign powers, and not to enter into any kind of service except among themselves; the emperor Napoleon to be protector of the alliance ; all the princes, counts, &,c, within the circle of the aUied territory to be subject to the confederation ; every continental war in which the emperor of the French or the confederated states might be en- gaged, to be common to both ; the con- tingents to be as follows ; France 200,000 men ; Bavaria, 30,000 ; Wurtemberg, 12,000; Baden 8,000; Berg 5,000; Darmstadt 4,000 ; Nassau, Hohenzol- lern, and the others, 4,000 ; other Ger- man princes were to be admitted into tho alliance, when conducive to the common interest. By a solemn act, dated at Vienna on G E Pv. M A N Y . 337 the 6th of August, 1806, the emperor of | assembly have but seventeen votes. Aus- Germany after adverting to the conse- j tria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, quences of the treaty of Presburg, and | Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hes- to the formation of the confederation of , se-Dannstadt, Holstein, and Luxembero- the states of the Rhine, absolved all his ; have each one vote. The other votes German provinces and states of the em- j are collective. pire from the reciprocal duties towards Austria presides in both diets, and has the Germanic empire ; and the electors, ; the casting vote in the smaller assembly, princes and states, and all that belonged j The deputies have the character of ple- lo the empire, from the duties by which ' nipotentiaries, are responsible to their they were united to him as their legal respective governments only, and are, chief; at the same time abdicating the ; therefore, governed by the instructions of imperial government of the Germanic their courts, not by their own convictions. empire, renouncmg the title of emperor of Germany, and assuming that of em- peror of Austria. With the fall of Napoleon, the confed- eration of the Rhine was dismembered. — Bavaria, and the other members succes- sively, joining the allies against their for- mer protector, — and was succeeded by the Germanic confederation, formed June the 8th, 1814, according to the words of the document, to secure the indepen- dence and inviolability, and to preserve the internal peace, of the states. Ger- many thus presents again the semblance of a political whole, which in reality possesses no strength, even in time of peace, as many instances show. It is only necessary to mention the fruitless decrees of the Germanic diet, respecting the arbitrary ordinances of the elector of Hesse-Cassel against the holders of the old domains, tlie,excesses and follies of the duke of Brunswick, and the want of any general system for promoting the internal navigation of the country. In time of war, its inefficiency must be still more apparent. At present, the Ger- manic confederation can be considered only as an imperfect union, directed prin- cipally by the two most powerful mem- bers, Austria and Prussia, which entered into it reluctantly, withholding several of their provinces from the confederacy. The confederation consists of thirty- rhe chief objects of the German con- federation are the following: — 1. The independence and integrity of the states ; with this is connected the right of ex- amining the disputes between members of the confederation and foreign states, and of obliging the former to yield, if they are judged to be wrong. 2. The mutual protection of the states against each other, or the preservation of the confederacy. 3. The internal tranquilli- ty of the separate states is left to the care of the respective governments ; but in case of the resistance of the subjects to their government, the confederation may assist the latter. The confederacy may even interfere, without being called upon by the government, if the commo- tions are of a dangerous tendency, or if several states are threatened by danger- ous conspiracies. A central commission for political examinations is instituted at Mentz, which has been engaged for a numl:)er of years in the investigation of revolutionary plots. 4. The establish- ment of representative constitutions in all the states belonging to the confedera- tion. Article 13 says — all the states of the union shall have landes-standische Verfassungen. This landes-standische has been since explained in such a way that mockeries of constitutions, like that of Prussia, have been thought sufEcient to answer the claims of the aance, where he arrived in safety. Cromwell, in the mean time, returned in triumph ; and his first care was to pass an act for abolishing royalty in Scotland, and annexing that kingdom as a conquer- ed province to the English common- wealth. It was, however, allowed to send a few members to the British par- liament. Every part of Great Britain being now perfectly subdued, the parlia- ment next turned their arms against the Dutch. In this undertaking the parlia- ment's principal dependence lay in the activity and courage of Blake their ad- miral, who, though he had not embarked in naval command till late in life, yet surpassed all that preceded him in courage and naval skill. On the other hand the Dutch opposed to him the celebrated ad- miral Van Tromp. The several engage- ments which followed served rather to show the excellency of the admirals than to determine their superiority. At last the Dutch proposed a treaty of peace, to which the parliament gave a very unfavor- able answer, as they knew that while the force of the nation was employed at sea, it would, in some measure, serve to coun- terbalance the formidable power of Crom- well by land. To prevent this, and to secure the attachment of the army, he resolved to seize the sovereign power. He persuaded the officers to present a petition for payment of arrears and re- dress of grievances. His orders were I obeyed ; a petition was drawn up and : presented, in which the oflicers, after de- I manding their arrears, desired the par- I liament to consider how many years they I had sat, and what pretensions they had formerly made of their designs to new- i model the house, and establish freedom on I its broadest basis. They alleged that it ; was now full time for them to give place ! to others ; and, however meritorious their I actions might have been, yet the rest of the nation Iriad some right in their turn to manifest their patriotism in defence of their country. The house then appoint- GREAT BRITAIN. 355 ed a committee to prepare an act which ' stated that all persons who presented such petitions for the future should be ! considered guilty of high treason. To this the officers made a very warm re- ; monstrance, and the parliament as angry a reply. Cromwell being informed of j this altercation, suddenly rose up, and turning to major Vernon, exclaimed, ; " that he was compelled to do a thing that made his hair stand on end." Then has- tening to the house with three-hundred [ soldiers, and with marks of violent indig- nation on his countenance, he entered, took his place, and attended to the de- j bates for some time. When the question was ready to be put, he suddenly rose, and overwhelmed the parliament with re- proaches for their tyranny, ambition, op- pression, and robbery of the public. Upon which, stamping with his foot, which was the signal for the soldiers to enter, the place was immediately filled with armed men. " It is you," said Cromwell, " that have forced me upon this. I have sought the Lord night and day, that he would rather slay me than put me upon this work." Then pointing to the mace, " Take away that bauble," cried he ; af- ter which, turning out all the members and clearing the hall, he ordered the doors to be locked, and putting the keys in his pocket, returned to Whitehall. The change of government which was thus effected had been anticipated by many of the continental powers. France proposed an alliance, but the pride of Louis would not allow him to style Crom- well brother, and the latter refused the term of cousin ; at length the distinction of " Monsieur le Protecteur" was adapted with success, and the treaty would have been concluded but for the massacre of the protestants, which took place in France. Meantime two armaments sail- ed with secret instructions. One com- manded by Blake was destined for the capture of the Spanish fleet, laden with treasure from the Indies ; though the pre- tended object of his voyage was to chas- tise the pirates. A discovery of his in- tention caused Philip to frustrate its ex- ecution, and Blake was compelled to be satisfied with having destroyed the fleet off" Tunis. The other expedition was conducted by Penn and Venables, and intended for the conquest of St. Domingo. Cromwell was aware that among his dependents there were many who had energy enough to become powerful op- ponents, should he assume the entire gov- ernment of the state at this period ; he therefore placed the executive authority in the hands of those who were entirely devoted to himself, to insure the return of that power into his own keeping. The period that intervened between the dis- solution of the long parliament and the election of a protector, was signalised by the name of the " Barebone Parlia- ment," from the name of one of its prin- cipal members. It was impossible such a legislature as this could stand ; even Cromwell him- self began to be ashamed of their absur- dities. He had carefully chosen those who were entirely devoted to his inter- ests, and these he commanded to dismiss the assembly. They accordingly met by concert ; and observing to each other that this parliament had sat long enough, they hastened to Cromwell, with Rouse their speaker at their head, and into his hands resigned the authority with which he had invested them. Cromwell ac- cepted their resignation with pleasure ; but being told that some of their num- ber were refractory, he sent colonel White to clear the house of such as ven- tured to remain there. This shadow of a parliament being thus dissolved, the officers, by their own authority, declared Cromwell pro- tector of the commonwealth of England. The mayor and aldermen were sent for to give solemnity to his appointment, and he was instituted into his new office at Whitehall. He was to be addressed by the title of highness ; and his power was proclaimed in London, and other parts of the kingdom. It was now, indeed, necessary that some person should take the supreme command ; for affairs were brought into such a situation, by the dis- sensions of the contending parties, that nothing but absolute power could prevent a renewal of bloodshed and confusion. The government of the kingdom was ad- justed in the following manner. A coun- cil was appointed, which was not to ex- 356 GREAT BRITAIN. ceed twenty-one, nor to be under thirteen ' persons. These were to enjoy their offi- ces for life, or during good behavior ; and, in case of a vacancy, the remaining members named three, of whom the pro- tector chose one. The protector was appointed the supreme magistrate of the commonwealth, with such powers as the king was possessed of. 'J'he power of the sword was vested in him jointly with the parliament when sitting, or with the council at other times. He was obliged to summon a parliament once every three years, and to allow them to sit five months without adjournmeni. A standing army was established of 20,000 foot and 10,000 horse ; and fimds were assigned for their support. The protector enjoyed his of- fice for life ; and on his death, his place was to be supplied by the council. Of all these clauses the standing army was sufficient for Cromwell's purpose ; for while possessed of that instrument, he could mould the rest of the constitution to his pleasure. He chose his council from among his officers, who had been the companions of his dangers and vic- tories, to each of whom he assigned a pension of 1,000^. a year. He took care to have his troops, upon whose fidelity he depended for support, paid a month in advance ; the magazines were also well provided, and the public treasure man- aged with frugality and care ; while his activity, vigilance, and resolution, were so well exerted, that he discovered every conspiracy against his person, and every plot for an insurrection, before they took elfect. Cromwell continued to govern, though without assuming the title of king, in as absolute a manner as any prince in Eu- rope. As he was feared at home, so he commanded respect abroad. He granted religious toleration, caused justice to be : faithfully administered, and his officers of government were generally men of i moral and religious principles, and vice ' was discountenanced at his court. He refused the title of a king. In his private life he was exemplary ; though some- what of an enthusiast, yet he appeared i deeply impressed with religious feelings.] By some writers he has been represented i as a religious hypocrite ; but, as it has | been well observed, this supposition is con- tradicted by the whole tenor of his life. He was delivered from this life of anxie- ty by a tertian ague, of which he died, September 3, 1658, after having governed nine years. Oliver Cromwell was succeeded in his office of protector by his son Richard, who immediately called a parliament. To this assembly the army presented a remon- strance, desiring some person for their general in whom they could confide. The house voted such meetings and re- monstrances unlawful ; upon which the officers surrounding Richard's house, forced him to dissolve the parliament ; and soon after he signed an abdication of the government. His younger broth- er Henry, who had been appointed to the command in Ireland, followed Rich- ard's example, and resigned his commis- sion without striking a blow. The officers, thus left at liberty, re- solved to restore the rump parliament as it was called, consisting of that remnant of a parliament which had condemned Charles. They were no sooner reinsta- ted in their authority, however, than they began to humble the army by cashiering several favorite officers, and appointing others in whom they could have more dependence. The officers immediately resolved to dissolve the assembly. Lam- bert, one of the general officers, drew up a chosen body of troops ; and, placing them in the streets which led to West- minster-hall, when the speaker Lenthall proceeded in his carriage to the house, he ordered the horses to be turned, and very politely conducted him home. The oth- er members were likewise intercepted ; and the army returned to their quarters to observe a solemn fast, which generally either preceded or attended any signal triumph. A committee was then elected of twenty-three persons, of whom seven were officers. These they invested with sovereign authority ; and a military gov- ernment was established. Upon hearing that the officers had by their own authority dissolved the parlia- ment, General Monk, who was then in Scotland, with 8,000 veteran troops, pro- tested against the measure, and resolved to defend the national privileges. As GREAT BRITAIN. 357 soon as he put his army in motion, he found himself eagerly sought after by all parties. Monk now proceeded with his army towards London. The gentry, on his inarch, flocked round him with addresses, expressing their desire of a new parlia- ment ; but that general still continued his march to within a (ew miles of the capi- tal, when he sent the parliament a mes- sage, desiring them to remove such for- ces as remained in London to country quarters. Some of the regiments will- ingly obeyed this order ; and such as did not, Monk compelled by force ; after which he took up his quarters with his army in Westminster. The house voted him thanks for his services, and he in return desired them to call a free parlia- ment. He afterwards arrested eleven of the most obnoxious of the common council of the city ; broke the gates and portcullises, and then returned in triumph to his quarters at Westminster. The commons were now greatly alarmed. They tried every method to gain off the general from his new alli- ance. Some of them even promised to invest him with the dignity of supreme magistrate, and to support his usurpation. But Monk was too just or too wise to listen to their proposals ; he resolved to restore the secluded members, and by their means to bring about a new election. The restoration of the expelled mem- bers was easily effected ; and their num- ber was so much superior to that of the " rump parliament," that the chiefs of this last party now thought proper to withdraw in their turn. The restored members began with repealing all those orders by which they had been expelled. They renewed and enlarged the general's commission ; fixed a proper stipend for the support of the fleet and army ; and, having passed these votes, they dissolved themselves, and gave orders for the immediate as- sembling of a new parliament. Mean- while, Monk new-modelled his army for the purposes he had in view. Some of- ficers presented him with an address, in which they promised to obey implicitly the orders of the ensuing parliament. He approved of this engagement, which he ordered to be signed by all the differ- ent regiments ; and this furnished him with a pretence for dismissing all the of- ficers by whom it was rejected. The new parliament being assembled, the thoughts of all were turned towards the king ; when at length Monk gave di- rections to Annesly, president of the council, to inform them that sir John Granville, a servant of the king's, who had been sent over by his majesty, was now arrived with a letter to the house of commons. This message was received with the greatest joy. Granville was called in, the letter read, and the king's proposals immediately accepted. He offered a general amnesty to all persons whatsoever, and that without any excep- tions, but what should be made by parlia- ment. He promised to indulge scrupu- lous consciences with liberty in matters of religion ; to leave to the examination of parliament the claims of all such as possessed lands with contested titles ; to confirm all these concessions by act of parliament ; to satisfy the army under general Monk with respect to their ar- rears, and to give the same rank to his officers when they should be enlisted in the king's army. In consequence of this agreement be- tween the king and parliament, Monta- gue, the English admiral, waited on his majesty to inform him that the fleet ex- pected his orders at Scheveling. The duke of York immediately went on board and took the command as lord high ad- miral. The king afterwards embarked, and landing at Dover, was received by the general. He entered London on the 29th of May, 1660, which was his birth day ; and was attended by an innumera- ble multitude of people, who testified their joy by the loudest acclamations. Charles II was thirty years of age at the time of his restoration, and his first measures were calculated to give univer- sal satisfaction. After repeated solicitations, the act of indemnity passed both houses, with the exception of those who had an immedi- ate hand in the king's death. Even Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, though dead, were absurdly considered as proper objects of resentment ; their bodies were dug from their graves, dragged to the 358 GREAT BRITAIN. place of execution, and, after hanging some time, buried under the gallows. The army was now disbanded that had for so many years governed the nation ; prelacy, and all the ceremonies of the church of England, were restored ; and at the same time the king pretended to preserve an air of moderation and neu- trality. The court now set an example of a very difi'erent kind in the opposite ex- treme to that of Cromwell's ; nothing but scenes of license and festivity were to be seen ; the horrors of the late war be- came the subject of ridicule ; the formal- ity of the sectaries was displayed on the stage, and even laughed at from the pulpit. In the midst of these scenes of dissi- pation, the old and faithful followers of the royal family were left unrewarded. Numbers who had fought both for the king and his father, and who had lost their whole fortunes in his service, still continued to pine in want and oblivion ; while their persecutors, who had acquired fortunes during the civil war, were per- mitted to enjoy them without molestation. The wretched royalists petitioned and murmured in vain ; the monarch fled from their expostulations to scenes of mirth and festivity ; and the act of in- demnity was generally said to have been an act of forgiveness to the king's ene- mies, and of oblivion to his friends. In 1661, the Scotch and English par- liaments vied with each other in their protestations of devotion to the king. In England, monarchy and episcopacy were raised to the greatest splendor. The bishops were permitted to resume their seats in the house of peers ; all military authority was acknowledged to be vested in the king. He was empowered to appoint commissioners for regulating cor- porations, and expelling such members as had intruded themselves by violence, or professed principles dangerous to the constitution. An act of uniformity was passed, by which it was required that every clergyman should be re-ordained, if he had not before received episcopal ordination ; that he should declare his assent to every thing contained in the book of common prayer, and should take the oath of canonical obedience. In consequence of this law, above 2000 of the presbyterian clergy resigned their cures at once. In Scotland the right of the king was asserted in the fullest and most positive terms to be hereditary and divine. His creatures said that his power extended to the lives and posses- sions of his subjects, and from his ori- ginal grant was said to come all that they enjoyed. They also voted him an addi- tional revenue of 40,000/. These feelings of excessive loyalty, however, were dissipated by the profuse extravagance of the king, and the sale of Dunkirk to the French for 40,000/, caused universal discontent in the minds of the people. In 1662, Charles married the Infanta of Portugal, whose portion amounted to 500,000/, with the fortress of Tangier in Africa, and Bombay in the East Indies. At this period, a complaint from the merchants that they had sustained seri- ous injuries by the non-performance of the English treaty with the Dutch, led Charles to a declaration of war against the states of Holland. The step in it- self was an imprudent one ; but he sent out a fleet, such as England had never before brought together, and with his brother superintended the naval prepara- tions. The duke of York, as high admi- ral, imfurled his flag on board the Royal Charles, and proceeded with ninety eight ships of the line and four fire-ships to the coast of Holland. At the king's suggestion, that something of the order observed in military affairs should be at- tended to in naval engagements, the im- proved mode of fighting in a line and regular form of battle was adopted, and their first engagement, on the 3rd of June, 1665, proved victorious. The news of that victory arrived in London, when its inhabitants were suflering imder the most severe of human calamities. This was the great plague, which swept off" 100,000 persons. This dire visitation was followed by another, still more dread- ful. A fire broke out in the city of Lon- don, and spread with such rapidity, that no efforts could extinguish it, till it laid in ashes the principal part of the city. This calamity, though it reduced thou- sands to beggary, ultimately proved bene- GREAT BRITAIN. 359 Grcal Fire in Loiidon. ficial to the metropolis, as it rose from ' its ruins in greater beauty than ever ; and ; it is remarkable that not a single life was i lost. The blame of this fire was laid on ; the catholics. The Dutch war was ex- claimed against as unsuccessful and un- necessary, and Charles himself became sensible that all the ends for which he had undertaken it were likely to be frus- trated. A treaty was, therefore, entered into, which was concluded at Breda, on the 21st of July, 1667. By this treaty the only advantage gained by Britain was the cession of the colony of New York, in America. A religious insurrection in Scotland gave fresh gi'ounds of uneasiness,' and that was no sooner suppressed than a greater evil was apprehended in the ex- hausted state of the treasury ; so greatly increased by the difficulty of procuring loans. In consequence of these embar- rassments, the king prudently allowed part of the fleet to lay by, when the Dutch admiral, De Witt, taking advan- tage of a congress at Breda, where the different powers were engaged in dis- cussing their various interests, left the Texcl, and proceeded with seventy sail to the buoy off the Nore. Their success in being able to ride triumphantly in the river, where they destroyed the Royal James, the Oak, and the London, was deeply regretted by the whole nation. Soon after this event, three treaties of peace with England, signed by the powers of Holland, France, and Den- mark, put a stop to furtJier hostilities. Charles' temper which at first was easy and careless, became arbitrary and cruel. His tyranny was such, that the party in England, that still cherished their former ideas of freedom, resolved to restore liberty to their country Ijy dethro- ning the king. The principal conspira- tors were Monmouth, Shaftesbury, Rus- sel, Essex, Howard, Algernon Sidney, and John Hampden, grandson to the great man of that name. Monmouth engaged the earl of Macclesfield, lord Brandon, sir Gilbert Gerard, and other gentlemen in Cheshire. Lord Russel opened a correspondence with sir Wil- liam Courtney, sir Francis Knowles, and sir Francis Drake, who promised to raise the western parts of England. Besides these there were subordinate conspirators, who frequently met together unknown to Monmouth and his council Among these was colonel Rumsey, an 360 GREAT BRITAIN. old republican officer ; lieutenant-colonel Walcot ; Goodenough, under-sheriff' of London ; and a number of the inhabit- ants of London. These men undertook the desperate resolution of assassinating the king in his way to Newmarket. Rumbold, one of the party, possessed a i'arm upon that road, called the Rye- house, and from thence the conspiracy Avas called the " Rye-house plot." 'J'hey intended to stop the king's coach by overturning a cart, and shooting him through the hedges. The house in which the king lived at Newmarket accidentally took fire, and he was obliged to leave that town eight days sooner than was expected ; to which circumstance he owed his safety. Soon after this the conspiracy was discovered. The trial of lord W. Russel was prin- cipally celebrated for the assistance which he received from lady Russel, who was actively engaged in his defence. After his condemnation his father of- fered 100,000Z to save his life ; and lady Russel also used both prayers and en- treaties for the same purpose. But the king was inflexible, and lord Russel was beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields, on the 21st of July, 1682. Russel, Sidney, and Walcot, were executed ; Essex destroyed himself ; Hampden was fined 40,000/ ; and scarce- ly one escaped who had been in any manner concerned, except the duke of Monmouth. The government of Charles was now as absolute as that of any prince in Europe ; but to please his subjects by an act of popularity, he married the lady Anne, his niece, to prince George, bro- ther to the king of Denmark. This was the last remarkable transaction of this extraordinary reign. On February 2nd, 1685, about eight in the morning, the king was seized with a fit of apoplexy. By being blooded, he was perfectly re- stored to his senses ; and there were great hopes of his recovery the next day. On the fourth day the physicians de- spaired of his life, and therefore sent for the queen. She threw herself on her knees, and asked his pardon for all her offences. He replied, that she had of- fended in nothing ; but that he had been guilty of offences against her, and asked her pardon. He spoke with great affec- tion to the duke of York ; and he advised him to adhere to the laws with strictness, and invariably to support the church of England. Having requested the bishops to with- draw, as well as several of the lords who attended his death-bed, he sent for Hud- dlestone, a catholic priest. In the pre- sence of the duke, the earl of Bath, and Trevannion, a captain in the guards, Huddlestone gave the extreme unction to the king, and administered to him the sacrament according to the rites of the church of Rome. The doors were then thrown open. Six prelates, who had before attended the king, were sent for to give him the sacrament. The bishop of Bath and Wells read the visitation of the sick, and, after he had said that he repented of his sins, the absolution. The king assisted with seeming devotion at the service. He professed his appro- val of the church of England ; and ex- pired on the 6th of February, 1685, between eleven and twelve o'clock ; hav- ing reigned twenty-five years. The first act of James IPs reign was to assemble the privy council ; where, after some praises bestowed on the mem- ory of his predecessor, he made profes- sions of his resolution to maintain the established government both in church and state ; and stated that as he had already ventured his life in defence of the nation, he Avould still go as far as any man in maintaining all its just rights and privileges. The king, however, soon showed, that he was not sincere in his promises. All the customs, and the greater part of the excise, which had been voted to the late king for his life only, were levied by James without a new act for that pur- pose. He went openly to mass with all the ensigns of royalty, and prepared the way for the return of Catholicism. But whilst passive obedience was ob- tained at home, a storm was gathering abroad which formed the prelude to that great revolution which forced James and his posterity to become exiles and aliens from their kingdom and home. For a considerable length of time the prince of GREAT BRITAIN, 361 Orange had entertained hopes of ascend- ing the British throne, and had even used all his endeavors to exchide James from it. Monmouth, who, aiter his last con- spiracy, had been pardoned, but ordered to depart the kingdom, had retired to : Holland. He was received by the prince of Orange with the highest marks of distinction. But when the news of Charles's death arrived, the prince appa- rently dismissed Monmouth, though he still kept up a close correspondence with him. The duke retired to Brussels, and resolved to invade England, and seize upon the crown for himself. He was seconded by the duke of Argyle, who intended to form an insurrection in Scot- land ; and while Monmouth attempted to make a rising in the west of England, it was resolved that x^rg^yde should also use his endeavors in the north. The gen- 1 erosity of the prince of Orange, however, did not correspond with the warmth of his professions, as the unfortunate duke j derived from his own plate and jewels his whole supply for the war. I Arg}^'le Avas the first who landed in Scotland, where he published a manifes- to, put himself at the head of 2,500 men, and endeavored to influence the people in his favor. But a formidable body of the king's forces coming against him, his army fell away ; and he himself, after being wounded in attempting to escape, was taken prisoner by a peasant who found him standing up to the neck in water. He was carried to Edinburgh, where, after suflfering many indignities, he was publicly executed. Monmouth landed in Dorsetshire with scarce one hundred followers. His name, however, was so popular, and so great was the dislike of the people to James on account of his religion, that in four days he had assembled a body of above 2,000 men. Monmouth continued to make rapid progress, and in a short time found him- self at the head of 6,000 men ; but was daily obliged to dismiss great numbers for want of arms. The king was not a little alarmed at his success. Six regi- ments of British troops were called over from Holland ; and a body of regulars, to the number of 3,000, were sent, under 4G [ the command of the earl of Feversham and Churchill, to check the progress of the rebels. They took post at Sedge- more, a village in the neighborhood of Bridge water, and were joined by consi- derable numbers of the country militia. Here Monmouth made a stand. He drove the royal infantry from their ground, and was on the point of gaining a com- plete victory, when the cowardice of Gray, who commanded the horse, brought all to ruin. This nobleman fled at the first onset ; and the rebels, being charged in flank, gave way, after three hours' contest. About three hundred Avere kill- ed in the engagement, and one thousand in the pursuit. Monmouth fled aboA^e twenty miles from the field of battle, till his horse sunk under him ; he then alighted, and, exchanging clothes with a shepherd, fled on foot, attended by a German count, who had accompanied him from Holland. He was, however, taken, and on his way to London, wrote a submissive letter to the king, promising discoveries, should he be admitted into his presence. He also wrote to the queen dowager ; he sent a letter to the reigning queen, as well as to the king himself, and begged his life, when ad- mitted into his presence. But all his entreaties and submissions Avere of no avail. James told him that he was much adjected with his misfortunes ; but that his crime A\^as too dangerous in its ex- ample to be left unpunished. In his last moments he behaved with a magnanimity worthy of his former courage. Circum- stances are said to have attended his death that created great horror among the spectators. The executioner missed his blow, and struck him slightly on the shoulder. Monmouth raised his head from the block, and looked him full in the face, as if reproaching him for his mis- take. He struck him twice again, but with feeble strokes ; and then threw the axe from his hands. The sheriff for- ced him to renew his attempt ; and the head of the duke, Avho seemed already dead, was at last severed from his body. Those concerned in the duke of Mon- mouth's conspiracy were punished with the greatest severity. Immediately after 362 GREAT BRITAIN the bsltle of Sedgemore, Fevcrsham hung ' more than twenty prisoners ; and was j proceeding in his executions, when the j bishop of Bath and Wells informed him ! that these unhappy men were by law I entitled to a trial, and that their execu- ; lion would be deemed a real murder. Nineteen were put to death in the same manner at Bridgewater by colonel Kirke, '. who laid waste the whole country with- \ out making any distinction between friend or foe. His own regiment had the j ironical title of Kir/ce''s lambs. It does not, however, appear, that these cruelties | were committed I)y the direction, or even with the approbation, of James ; any more than the legal slaughters that were committed by Judge Jefieries, who was sent down to tr}^ the delinquents. The | natural brutality of this man's temper was inflamed by continual intoxication. No fewer than eighty were executed by his orders at Dorchester ; and on the whole, at Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, two hundred and fifty are computed to have fallen by his hand ; nor were wo- men exempted from the general severity, but sufiered for aflbrding protection to their nearest relatives. Jefleries on his return was immediately created a peer, and soon after vested with the dignity of chancellor. James now endeavored to establish the catholic religion and a more absolute form of government. He publicly sent the earl of Castlemaine amljassador ex- traordinary to Rome, in order to express j his obedience to the pope, and reconcile | his kingdoms to the catholic communion, j This proceeding was too precipitate to be liked even by the pope himself; and therefore the oidy return he made to this embassy was the sending a nimcio to England. The nuncio made a public and solemn entry into Windsor, which did not fail to add to the general discon- tent ; and because the duke of Somerset refused to attend the ceremony, he was dismissed from his employment as one of the lords of the bedchamber. Soon after this, the Jesuits were per- mitted to erect colleges in different parts of the kingdom, and to exercise the ca- tholic worship in public. In 1668, a second declaration for lib- erty of conscience was published in the same terms as the former ; but with this peculiar injunction, that all divines should read it after service in their churches. The clergy disobeyed this order ; and a petition was presented to the king by a conclave of bishops, in which they sta- ted they could not read his declaration consistent with their own consciences, or the respect they owed to the protestant religion. As the petition was delivered in pri- vate, the king summoned the bishops be- fore the council, and there questioned them as to whether they would aclinow- ledge it, which they did ; and on their refusal to give bail, an order was imme- diately signed for their commitment to the Tower, and the crown lawyers re- ceived directions to prosecute them for a seditious libel. The king gave orders that they shoidd be conveyed to the Tow- er by water. The people Avere no soon- er informed of their danger, than they ran to the river, and imploring their bless- ing, and calling upon heaven to protect them, &LC. The very soldiers by whom they were guarded knelt down before them, and asked their forgiveness. The 29th of June, 1688, was fixed for the trial of the bishops ; and their return was still more splendidlj'- attended than their imprisonment. Twenty-nine peers, a great number of gentlemen, and an im- mense crowd of people, waited upon them to Westminster-hall. The dispute was learnedly managed by the lawyers on both sides. The jury withdrew into a chamber where they passed the whole night ; but next morning they returned into court, and pronounced the bishops not guilty. Westminster-hall instantly rang with loud acclamations, which were communicated to the whole extent of the city. They even reached the camp at Hounslow, where the king was at dinner in lord Feversham's tent. As the king found the clergymen eve- ry where avjerse to his measures, he next tried the army. He thought that if one regiment should promise implicit obe- dience, their example would induce oth- ers to comply. He therefore ordered one of the regiments to be drawn up in his presence, and desired such as were GREAT BRITAIN. 363 against his late declaration of liberty of conscience should lay down their arms. He was surprised to see the whole bat- talion ground their arms, except two officers and a few catholic soldiers. The birth of the prince of Wales in- creased the fears of his subjects in pro- portion as it raised his security and hopes. In the reign of a prince to be educated under the prejudices of such a father, nothing but a continuance of the same unconstitutional measures could be ex- pected. The prince of Orange was at this time in constant communication with the disafl'ected portion of the gentry, and he sent an envoy with instructions to apply in his name to every religious sect in the kingdom. To the church-party he sent assurances of favor and regard ; and pro- tested that his education in Holland had in no way prejudiced him against episcopacy. To the non-conformists he sent exhortations, not to be deceived by the insidious caresses of their known ene- my, but to wait for a real and sincere protector, &c. In consequence of these insinuations, the prii»ce soon received in- vitations from the most considerable per- sons in the kingdom. The prince had a lleet ready to sail, and troops provided for action, before the beginning of June, 1688 The king of France was the first who gave James any intimation of his danger, and oftered to assist him in repelling it. James having thus declined the assist- ance of his friends, was struck with as- tonishment to find that the states of Hol- land not only intended to declare war, but were rapidly preparing a fleet to in- vade England. To avoid this storm, James oftered to enter into any alliance with the Dutch for their common security. He replaced, in all the counties of England, all the de- puty-lieutenants and justices who had been deprived of their commissions for their adherence to the test and penal laws. All these concessions, however, were too late ; they were regarded as the ef- fects of fear, and not of repentance. Indeed, it is said, he very soon gave proofs of his insincerity ; for hearing that the Dutch fleet was dispersed, iie recalled some concessions he had made in favor of Magdalen college ; and to ] show his attachment to the catholic I church, at the baptism of the prince of i Wales, he appointed the pope one of the ' sponsors. j In the mean time, William set sail from Helvoetsluys with a fleet of near five hundred vessels, and an army of above fourteen thousand men. He was driven back by a dreadful storm ; but he ' soon refitted his fleet, and again set sail for England, and, after a voyage of two days, landed at Broxholme, in Torbay, on the 5th of November, and ' the prince was quickly joined by the I gentry of the counties of Devon and j Somerset. These were followed by the defection of the army. Lord Colchester, son to the earl of Rivers, first deserted to the prince. Lord Cornbury, son to the earl j of Clarendon, carried off' three regiments of cavalry at once ; and several officers of distinction informed Eeversham, their general, that they could not in honor fight against the prince of Orange. Soon af- ter this the uidiappy monarch found him- self deserted by his own servants. Lord Churchill had been raised from the rank of a page, and had been invested with a high command in the army ; he had been created a peer, and owed his whole fortune to the king's bounty, yet even he deserted among the rest, and carried with him the duke of Grafton, natural son to the late king, colonel Berkely, and others. Even the prince of Denmark, and Anne, James' favorite daughter, re- solved to take part with the prince of Orange. When the king was informed of this, he was stung with bitter anguish. j " God help me," cried he, "my own , children have forsaken me." On the 30th of November, 1688, j James sent three noblemen to treat with I the prince of Orange. But though the latter knew that the king's commission- ers were in his interests, his conduct showed plainly that he now thought the ', time of treating was past. For some time he would not admit them to an au- dience ; and when he did, would give no satisfactory answer. James now be- gan to fear for his personal safety. But what most aflfected him was the terrors of the queen for herself and her infant 364 GREAT BRITAIN. son. He therefore resolved to send fftiein abroad. They crossed the river in a boat, at Whitehall, in a stormy and rainy day. They wore carried to Graves- end in a coach, under the conduct of the count de Lauzun ; and a yacht, com- manded by captain Gray, which lay there ready for the purpose, soon transported them in safety to Calais. The king was now resolved to leave the kingdom at once. He threw the great seal into the Thames ; he left none with any authority to conduct affairs in his absence ; and vainly hoped to derive advantage to his affairs from anarchy and disorder. Notwithstanding all the en- treaties and remonstrances of his parti- zans to have him remain, he effected his escape into France. James having thus abandoned his domin- ions, the prince of Orange, by the desire of the house of lords, the only member of the legislature remaining, summoned a parliament by circular letters ; but the prince, unwilling to act upon so imper- fect an authority, convened all the mem- bers who had sat in the house of com- mons during any parliament of Charles II, and to these were added the mayor, aldermen, and fifty of the common coun- cil of the city of London ; and the prince, being thus supported by an assembly de- riving its authority from himself, wrote circular letters to the counties and cor- porations of Great Britain to call a new parliament. The house was principally composed of the whig party, and thanks were given to the prince of Orange for the deliver- ance he had brought them ; after which they proceeded to settle the kingdom. A bill was passed by both houses, that king James II, having endeavored to sub- vert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between the king and his people, and having, by the advice of Jesuits and other persons, violated the fundamental laws, and with- drawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdicated the government, and that the throne was thereby vacant. It was agreed that the prince and prin- cess of Orange should reign jointly as king and queen of England ; while the administration of government should be placed in the hands of the prince only. The marquis of Halifax, as speaker of the house of lords, made a solemn tender of the crown to their highnesses, in the name of the peers and commons of Eng- land. The prince accepted the ofl'er ; and on that very day, February 13th, 1689, William and Mary were proclaim ed king and queen of England. During the troubles in England, which had terminated in placing William on the throne, the two parties in Ireland were kept in tranquillity by their mutual fears. The protestants were alarmed at the prospect of another massacre ; and the catholics expected every day to be in- vaded by the joint force of the English and Dutch. Their terrors, however, were ill formded ; for though Tyrconnel sent several messages to the prince, that he was ready to deliver up the kingdom to any force that might make a surrender ap- parently necessary, his off'ers were al- ways rejected. William was persuaded by the marquis of Halifax that, should Ireland yield, no pretence could remain for keeing an army in pay. These argu- ments induced William to so utterly ne- glect Ireland, that it may be considered one of the greatest blemishes in his whole reign. The whole military force of Ireland at that time amounted only to 4,000 men, and of these only 600 were in Dublin. Having no pay from the king, they sub- sisted by depredation, and regarded no discipline. The protestants in the north armed themselves in their own defence ; and the city of Londonderry, relying on its situation and a slight wall, shut its gates against the new-raised army. Prot- estant parties in the mean time rose every where, declaring their resolution to unite in self-defence, to preserve the protestant religion, to continue their dependence on England, and to promote the meeting of a free parliament. To preserve appearances, William now sent general Hamilton, an Irishman, ac- companied by a catholic nobleman, to treat with Tyrconnel ; but instead of persua- ding that lord to yield to William, this messenger advised him to adhere to James. In the mean time, James him- self assured the lord deputy that he was GREAT BRITAIN. 365 ready to sail from Brest with a powerful j armament. Hamilton, from the hopes of this aid, marched against the northern insurgents. They were routed with con- siderable slaughter at Dromore ; and Hillsborough, where they had fixed their head-quarters, was taken without resist- ance ; the city of Londonderry, however, resolved to hold out to the last extremity. The cause of James was sustained in Scotland, for a short period, by the gallant earl of Dundee ; his death, however, was fatal to the hopes of James in Scotland. On the 7th of March, 1689,7ames em- barked at Brest. The whole force of his expedition consisted of fourteen ships of war, six frigates, and three fire-ships. Twelve hundred of his native subjects in the pay of France, and 100 French offi- cers, composed the whole army of James. He landed at Kinsale, without opposition, on the 12th of the month, where he was received with the greatest joy. Being received at Dublin with the ap- pearance of universal joy, James imme- diately ordered, by proclamation, all pro- testants who had abandoned the kingdom to return. He commanded, in a second proclamation, all catholics, except those in his army, to lay up their arms, and put an end to the robberies and depredations which they had committed in the violence of their zeal. He raised the value of the currency by a proclamation ; and he summoned a parliament to meet on the 7th of May, to settle the affairs of the kingdom. The protestant clergy repre- sented their grievances in an address ; and the university of Dublin appeared with complaints and congratulations. He assured the first, of his absolute protec- tion and a full redress ; and he promised the latter, not only to defend, but even to enlarge their privileges. On the 8th of April, James left Dublin, resolving to lead his army against the in- surgents in person. They retired before him, and the king laid siege to London- derry. The besieged made a vigorous resistance ; but being reduced to the last extremity, they would have been obliged to surrender, had not they been relieved, on the 28th of July, by seven ships laden with provisions, upon which the siege was immediately raised. The bad success of the early part of the campaign, and the unhappy situation of the protestants in Ireland, at length induced William to attempt their reUef in person. Accordingly, he left London on the 4th of June, 1690, and arrived at Carrickfergus on the 14th of that month. From thence he passed to Lisburn, the head-quarters of the duke of Schomberg. He reviewed at Lough-Britland his army, which consisted of 36,000 men, and was composed of English, Dutch, Germans, Danes, and French. Being supplied with every necessary, they seemed absolutely certain of victory. The Irish army, hav- ing abandoned Ardee at their approach, fell back to the south of the Boyne, where was fought the celebrated battle of the Boyne, July 1st, 1690, in which the forces of William were victorious. . In the beginning of the year 1692, an action of unexampled cruelty disgraced the government of William in Scotland, namely, the murder of the clan of Mac- don aid. Macdonald and his followers had delayed to take the oaths of allegi- ance till the very last day allowed was come. He on that day went to fort Wil- liam, but he found no officer empowered to administer them ; another day there- fore necessarily elapsed, before they could reach the sheriff of the county. They then took them, one day beyond the prescribed time, and returned to their homes, as they thought, in perfect safety. By the representation, however, of the earl of Breadalbane, the king, " whose chief virtue," says SmoUet, " was not humanity," signed the warrant for their deaths, and captain Campbell, with a party of soldiers, was sent to the glen ; and, on declaring upon his honor, that his views were friendly, he was enter- tained there in a most hospitable manner for fifteen days ; when, after passing the evening with the Macdonalds, he, in the midst of the night, ordered the dreadful deed to commence, and thirty-eight per- sons were surprised in their beds, and basely murdered by him, who had been their guest, and his soldiers. It was the intention to murder all the males under seventy, but as some portion of the troops did not secure the passes in time, the rest 366 GREAT BRITAIN Baltic of La Hogiic. escaped. The women and children, in- deed, were spared the bayonet ; but in the midst of a cokl wintry night, and in a waste covered with snow, they were all turned naked from their ho*ises, and left to perish. The total reduction of Ireland, and the dispersion of the Highland chieftains who favored his cause, did not entirely put an end to the hopes of James. His princi- pal expectations were founded on a con- spiracy among his English adherents, and in the succors promised him by the French king. A plot was first formed in Scotland by sir James Montgomery ; but it was discovered. The French resolved to make a de- scent upon England in favor of James. In pursuance of this scheme, the French king supplied James with an army con- sisting of a body of French troops, some English and Scotch refugees, and the Irish regiments which had been transported into France from Limerick, and were now become excellent soldiers by long discipline and severe duty. This army was assembled between Cherbourg and La Hogue, and was commanded by king James in person. More than 300 trans- ports were provided for landing it on the opposite coast ; and Tourville, the French admiral, at the head of 63 ships of the ! line, was appointed to favor the descent. i Llis orders were, at all events, to attack j the enemy, in case they should oppose I him ; so that every thing promised the I banished king a change of fortune. These preparations on the side of i France were soon known at the English I comt, and everv precaution taken for a ! vigorous opposition. All the secret I machinations of the banished king's ad- herents were discovered to the English ' ministry by spies ; and by these, they found that the tories were more faithful than even the whigs, Avho had placed king William on the throne. The duke of Marlborough, lord Godolphin, and even the princess Anne herself, were vio- 1 lently suspected of disaffection. Prepa- } rations, however, were made with great i tranquillity and resolution, to resist the ' growing storm. Admiral Russel was ' ordered to put to sea with all possible i expedition ; and he soon appeared with j ninety-nine ships of the line, besides I frigates and fire-ships. At the head of ' this formidable fleet he set sail for the ! coast of France ; and, near La Hogue, , he discovered the enemy under Tourville, GREAT BRITAIN. 367 who prepared to give him battle. The engagement began between the two ad- mirals with great bravery, and the rest of the fleet soon followed their example. The battle lasted for ten hours ; but at last victory declared on the side of num- bers : the French lied for Couquet road, having lost four ships in the first day's action. The pursuit continued for two (lays following : three French ships of the line were destroyed the next day, and eighteen more, which had taken re- fuge in the bay of La Hogue, were burnt by sir George Rooke. This engagement, which happened on the 21st of May, 1692, put a final period to the hopes of James. William died, March, 1701, aged 52, having reigned thirteen years. He was succeeded by the princess Amie, who had married George prince of Denmark. She ascended the throne in the 38th year of her age, to the general satisfaction of all parties. William had died on the eve of a war with France ; and the pre- sent queen, who generally took the ad- vice of her ministry on every important occasion, was now urged by opposite councils ; a part of her ministry being inclined to ^war, and another to peace. At the head of those who opposed a war with France was the earl of Rochester, lord lieutenant of Ireland, first cousin to the queen, and the chief of the tory fac- tion ; at the head of the opposite party was the earl, afterwards duke of Marlbo- rough, and so well known for his victo- ries over the French. After giving the reasons for both their opinions, that of Marlborough preponderated : the queen resolved to declare war ; and communi- cating her intentions to the house of com- mons, by whom it was approved, Avar was proclaimed accordingly. In this declaration of war, Ivouis Avas taxed Avith having taken possession of a great part of the Spanish dominions ; with design- ing to invade the liberties of Europe, to obstruct the freedom of navigation and commerce ; and with having offered an unpardonable insvdt to the queen and her throne, by acknowledging the title of the pretender ; he was accused of attempt- ing to imite the crown of Spain to his own dominions, by placing his grandson upon the throne of that kingdom, and thus, of endeavoring to destroy the equality of power that subsisted among the states of Europe. This declaration of Avar on the part of England was seconded by simi- lar declarations by the Dutch and Ger- mans, all on the same day. The first attempt that Marll)orough made to deviate from the general prac- tices of the army was to advance the subaltern officers, Avhose merits had been hitherto neglected. Regardless of se- niority, wherever he found abilities, he Avas sure to promote them ; and thus he had all the upper raidis of commanders rather remarkable for their skill and talents than for their age and experience. In his first campaign, in the beginning of July, 1702, he repaired to the camp at Nimeguen, where he found himself at the head of 60,000 men, Avell provided with all necessaries, and long disciplined by the best officers of the age. He was opposed on the part of France by the duke of Burgundy, a youth of very little experience in the art of Avar ; but the acting general Avas the marshal Boufllers, an officer of courage and activity. But Avherever Marlborough adA'anced, the French Avere obliged to retire before him, leaAdng all Spanish Guelderland at his discretion. The duke of Burgimdy finding himself obliged to retreat before the allied army, returned to Versailles, leaving Boufflers to command alone. Boufflers retired to Brabant : and Marlborough ended the campaign by taking the city of Liege, in Avhich was found an immense sum of money and a great number of prisoners. At the commencement of the campaign of 1704, the duke of Marlborough in- formed the Dutch, that it Avas his inten- tion to march to the relief of the empire, Avhich had been for some time oppressed by the French forces ; and the states gave him full powers to march as he thought proper, Avith assurances of their assistance in all his endeavors. The French king, finding Boufffers no longer capable of opposing Marlborough, ap- pointed the marshal de Villeroy to com- mand in his place. But Marlborough, Avith about 13,000 troops, advanced by hasty marches to the banks of the Da- 368 GREAT BRITAIN. nube ; he defeated a body of French and Bavarians stationed at Donauert to op- pose him ; then passed the river, and laid under contribution the dukedom of Bavaria, which had sided with the ene- my. Villeroy, wlw at first attempted to follow his motions, seemed all at once to have lost sight of the enemy ; nor was he apprised of his route till informed of his successes. But, in the mean time, marshal Tallard prepared by another route to obstruct Marlborough's retreat with an army of 30,000 men. He was soon after joined by the duke of Bavaria's forces ; so that the French army in that part of the continent amounted to 60,000 veterans, commanded by two of the most able generals in France. To oppose these powerful armies, the duke of Marlborough was joined by a body of 30,000 men under the celebrated prince Eugene. The allied army, with this re-enforcement, amounted to about 52,000. After various marches and countermarches, the two armies met at Blenheim. A terrible engagement en- sued, in which the French were entirely defeated, with a tremendous loss. Soon after finishing the campaign, the duke repaired to Berlin, where he procured a re-enforcement of 8,000 Prussians to serve under prince Eugene in Italy. Thence he proceeded to negotiate for succors at the court of Hanover ; and soon after returned to England, where he was re- ceived with every possible demonstration of joy. The most remarkable transaction, how- ever, of this year, and indeed of this whole reign, was the union between the two kingdoms of Scotland and England. Though governed by one sovereign since the time of James I, of England, yet each nation continued to be ruled by its respective parliament ; and often profess- ed to pursue opposite interests to those of its neighbor. The union had often been unsuccessfully attempted before. In all the former proposals on that head, both nations were supposed to remain free and independent ; each Idngdom having its own parliament, and subject only to such taxes and other commercial regulations as those parliaments should judge expedient for the benefit of their respective states. After the destniction of the Darien colony, William had en- deavored to allay the national discontent, by proposing that a union should take place between the two nations. The terms now proposed were the same with those formerly held out, viz, a federal union, somewhat like that of the states of Holland. With this view the Scots were prevailed on to send twenty com- missioners to London ; who, with twen- ty-three on the part of England, met at Whitehall, in the month of October, 1702. Here they were honored with a visit from the queen, but the treaty was entirely bro- ken off, at this time, by the Scottish com- missioners insisting that the rights and privileges of their countrymen, trading to Africa and the Indies, should be preserv- ed and maintained. It was, however, re- sumed in the year 1706, when the com- missioners again met on the 1 6th of April, in the council-chamber of Whitehall. — The Scottish commissioners still propos- ed a federal union ; but the English were determined on an incorporation, which should not afterwards be dissolved by a Scottish parliament. Nothing but this, they said, could settle a perfect and last- ing friendship betwixt the two nations. — The commissioners from Scotland, how- ever, still continued to resist that article which subjected their country to the same customs, excises, and regulations of trade as England ; but the queen being per- suaded to pay two visits in person to the commissioners, exerted herself so effect- ually, that the majority was at last gained over ; and all the rest yielded, though with reluctance, excepting Lochaber of Carnwath, who could not be persuaded either to sign or seal the treaty. The articles of the treaty were ratified by parliament, with some trifling varia- tions, on the 25th of March, 1707; when the duke of Queensberry finally dissolv- ed that ancient assembly, and Scotland ceased to be a separate and independent kingdom. On the conclusion of the treaty, the queen informed both houses of the Eng- lish parliament, that the treaty of union, with some additions and alterations, was ratified by an act of the parliament of Scotland : that she had ordered it to be GREAT BRITAIN. 369 laid before them, and hoped it would meet their approbation. She observed, that they had now an opportunity of put- ting the last hand to a happy union of the two kingdoms : and that she should look upon it as a particular happiness if this great work, so often attempted be- fore without success, could be brought to perfection in her reign. Objections, however, were raised by the tory par- ty; but they were too weak to be heard with any attention, and the union was finally completed on the 1st of May, 1707, when the island took the name of " The United Kingdom of Great Britain." The last campaign of the duke of Marlborough, which happened in the year 1711, was equally successful. He was opposed by marshal Villars, who had commanded the French in the battle of Malplaquet; and, by marching and coun- termarching, induced the enemy to quit a strong line of entrenchments without striking a blow, which he came after- wards and took possession of. This enterprise was followed by the taking of Bouchain, which was the last military achievement of this great general. From the beginning of the war, which had now continued nine years, he had per- petually advanced, and scarcely ever retreated before his enemies, nor lost an advantage he had obtained over them. He most frequently gained the enemy's posts without fighting ; but where he was obliged to attack, no fortifications were able to resist him. He had never be- sieged a city which he did not take, nor engaged in a battle in which he did not come off victorious. Thus the allies had reduced under their command Spanish Guelderland, Limbourg, Brabant, Flan- ders, and Hainault ; they were masters of the Scarpe, the capture of Bouchain had opened for them a passage into the heart of France, and another campaign might have made them masters of Paris ; but on the duke's return from this cam- paign, he was accused of having taken a bribe of 6,000Z. a year from a Jew, who had contracted to supply the army with bread ; and the queen on that account dismissed him from all his employments. On the removal of this great general, the 47 command of the British forces was given to the duke of Ormond. But little was effected by that general, and a peace was concluded in 1713. In this treaty it was stipulated that Philip, now acknowledged king of Spain, should renounce all right to the crown of France, the union of two such powerful kingdoms being thought dangerous to the liberties of Europe. It was agreed that the duke of Berry, Philip's brother, and after him in succession, should also re- nounce his right to the crown of Spain, in case he became king of France. It was stipulated that the duke of Savoy should possess the island of Sicily with the title of king, together with Fenes- trelles, and several other places on the continent; which increase of dominion was in some measure made out of the spoils of the French monarchy. The Dutch had the barrier granted them which they so much desired ; and if the crown of France was deprived of some dominions to enrich the duke of Savoy, on the other hand, the house of Austria was taxed to supply the Avants of the Hollanders, who were put in possession of the strongest towns in Flanders. The fortifications of Dunkirk were demolish- ed. Spain gave up Gibraltar and the island of Minorca. France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Sco- tia, and Newfoundland, but was left in possession of Cape Breton, and the lib- erty of drying fish upon the shore. The British stipulated that the French pro- testants, confined in the prisons and gal- leys for their religion, should be released. For the emperor it was stipulated, that he should possess the kingdom of Na- ples, the duchy of Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands. The king of Prussia was to have Upper Guelderland ; and a time was fixed for the emperor's acceding to these articles, as he had for some time obstinately refused to assist at the nego- tiation. This celebrated treaty was signed at Utrecht on the last day of March, 1713. This year was also remarkable for an attempt of the Scottish peers and com- mons to dissolve the union. This mo- tion was overruled in the house, but the discontent of the people still continued ; 370 GREAT BRITAIN. addresses were prepared, and matters were in danger of coming to extremities, when the attempt of Charles Stuart to regain his kingdom, in 1715, so divided the minds of the people, that no unani- mous effort could afterwards be made. The history of the latter part of this reign consists entirely of the intrigues of the whigs and tories against each other. The violent dissensions between these two parties, their unbounded licentious- ness, cabals, and tumults, made the queen's situation very disagreeable, her health declined, and on the 28lh of July, 1714, she fell into a state of insensibili- ty. Notwhhstanding all the efforts of the physicians, the distemper gained ground so fast, that next day they de- spaired of her life. All the members of the privy council, without distinction, were now summoned from the different parts of the kingdom. A letter was sent to the elector of Hanover, informing him of the queen's situation, and desiring him to repair to Holland, where he would be attended by a British squadron to con- vey him to England. At the same time they despatched instructions to the earl of Strafford, at the Hague, to desire the states-general to be ready to perform the giiarantee of the protestant succession. On the 30th of .Tuly the queen seemed to be somewhat relieved by the medi- cines which had been given her. She rose from her bed about eight in the morning and walked a little. She was soon after seized with an apoplectic fit, from which, however, she somewhat re- covered, but expired the following morn- ing a little after seven o'clock, in the forty-ninth year of her age. This prin- cess, like all the rest of her family, seemed rather fitted for the duties of private life than a public station ; being a pattern of conjugal fidelity, a good mother, a warm friend, and an indulgent mistress ; and to her honor it certainly must be recorded, that during her reign none suflered on the scaffold for treason. The queen had no sooner resigned her breath than the privy council met, and three instruments were produced, by which the elector of Hanover appointed several of his known adherents to be added as lords justices to the seven great officers of the kingdom. Orders also were immediately issued out for pro- claiming George king of England, Scot- land, and Ireland. The regency ap- pointed the earl of Dorset to carry him the intimation of his accession to the crown, and to attend him in his journey to England. They sent the general of- ficers, in whom they could confide, to their posts ; they re-enforced the garrison of Portsmouth, and appointed the cele- brated Mr. Addison secretary of state. The king first landed at Greeenwich ; where he was received by the duke of Northumberland, captain of the life-guard, and the lords of the regency. From the landing place he walked to his house in the park, accompanied by a great number of the nobility and other persons of dis- tinction. George I was fifty-four years old when he ascended the British throne. His mature age and experience, his nu- merous alliances, and the general tranquil- lity of Europe, all contributed to establish his interests, and promise him a peaceable and happy reign. His virtues, though not shining, were solid. To firmness, reso- lution, and perseverance, he joined great application to business. A rebellion now commenced in Scot- land. The earl of Mar, assembling 300 of his vassals in the Highlands, pro- claimed the pretender at Castleton ; and setting up his standard at Braemar, as- sumed the title of lieutenant-general of his majesty's forces. To second these attempts, two vessels arrived from France, with arms, ammunition, and a number of officers, together with assurances to the earl that the pretender himself would shortly come over to head his own forces. In consequence of this promise, the earl soon found himself at the head of 10,000 men, well armed and provided. He se- cured the pass of Tay at Perth, where his head-quarters were established ; and made himself master of the whole prov- ince of Fife, and all the sea-coast on that side of the frith of Forth. He marched from thence to Dumblain, as if he intended to cross the Forth at Stirling bridge ; but there he was informed that the duke of Argyle, who on this occasion was appointed commander-in-chief of all the forces in North Britain, was advanc- GRE AT BRITAIN. 371 ing against him from Stirling with all his own clans, assisted by some troops from Ireland. Upon being soon joined by some of the clans under the earl of Seaforth, and others under general Gor- don, an experienced officer, he resolved to oppose the enemy, and directed his march towards the south. The duke of Argyle, apprised of his intentions, and to prove his attachment to the present government, resolved to give him battle in the neighborhood of Dum- blain. In the morning he drew up his army, which did not exceed 3500 men in order of battle ; but he found himself greatly outflanked by the insurgents. The duke, therefore, perceiving, the earl mak- ing attempts to surroundhim, was obliged to alter his dispositions, which on ac- count of the scarcity of general officers, was not done so expeditiously as to be finished before the rebels began the at- tack. The left wing of the duke's army received the centre of the enemy, and supported the first charge without shrink- ing. It seemed even for a while victo- rious, and the earl of Clanronald was killed. But Glengarr)', who was second in command, led on the troops with such determined bravery that they obtained a complete victory over that wing of the royal army. In the mean time, the duke of Argyle, who commanded in person on the right, attacked the left of the enemy, and having entirely broken that wing, and driven them over the river Allan, he returned to the field of battle ; where, to his great mortification, he found the ene- my victorious, and patiently waiting for the assault. However, instead of renew- ing the engagement in the evening both parties drew oft', and both claimed the victory. All the advantages of a victory, however, belonged to Argyle. He had interrupted the progress of the enemy ; and in their circumstances delay was de- feat. In fact, the earl of Mar soon found his losses and disappointments increase. The castle of Inverness, of which he was in possession, was delivered up by lord Lovat, who had hitherto professed to j act in the interest of the pretender ; and j many of the clans, seeing no likelihood | of coming to a second engagement, re- turned quietly home. I In the mean time, the rebellion was still more unsuccessfully prosecuted in England. Upon the first rumor of an insurrection, government imprisoned sev- eral lords and gentlemen of whom they had a suspicion. But these precautions were not able to stop the insurrection in the western counties, where it was already begun. All their preparations, however, were weak and ill conducted ; every measure was betrayed to government as soon as projected, and many revolts were repressed in the very outset. The uni- versity of Oxford was treated with great severity on this occasion. Major-gener- al Pepper, with a strong detachment of dragoons, took possession of the city at day-break, declaring that he would in- stantly shoot any of the students who should presume to appear without the limits of their respective colleges. The insurrection in the northern coun- ties came to greater maturity. In the month of October, 1715, the earl of Der- wentwater and Mr. Forster took the field with a body of horse, and being joined by some gentlemen from the borders of Scotland, proclaimed the pretender. Their first attempt was to seize upon Newcastle, in which they had many friends ; but finding the gates shut against them, they retired to Hexham. To op- pose these, general Carpenter was de- tached by government with a body of nine hundred men, and an engagement was hourly expected. The rebels had two methods by which they might have conducted themselves with prudence and safety. The one was to march directly into the western parts of Scotland, and there join general Gordon, who com- manded a strong body of Highlanders. The other was to cross the Tweed, and boldly attack general Carpenter, whose forces did not exceed their own. From the infatuation attendant on the measures of that party, neither of these counsels were pursued. They took the route to Jedburgh, where they hoped to leave Carpenter on one side, and to penetrate into England by the western border. This was the efl^ectual means to cut themselves oflf either from retreat or as- sistance. A party of Highlanders who had joined them by this time, at first re- 372 GREAT BRITAIN fused to accompany them in such a des- perate incursion, and one half of them actually returned to their own country. At Brampton, Mr. Forster opened his commission of general, which had been sent him by the earl of Mar, and there he proclaimed the pretender. They con- tinued their march to Penrith, where the body of the militia that was assembled to oppose them fled at their appearance. From Penrith they proceeded by the way of Kendal and Lancaster to Preston, of which place they took possession with- out any resistance. But this was the last stage of their ill-advised excursion ; for general Wills, at the head of seven thousand men, came up to attack them, and from his activity there was no esca- ping. They now, therefore, began to raise barricades about the town, and to put the place in a posture of defence, re- pulsing the first attacks of the royal army with success. Next day, however, Willis was re-enforced by Carpenter, and the town was invested on all sides. In this situation Forster hoped to capitualate with the general ; and accordingly sent Colonel Oxburg, who had been taken prisoner, with a trumpeter to propose a capitulation. This, however. Wills re- fused ; alleging that he would not treat with rebels, and that the only favor they had to expect was to be spared from im- mediate slaughter. They accordingly laid down their arms and were put under a strong guard. All the noblemen and leaders were secured, and a few of their officers tried for deserting from the royal army, and shot by order of a court-mar- tial ; the noblemen and considerable offi- cers were sent to London, and led through the streets pinioned and bound together, to intimidate their party. The pretender, as a last effort, resolved to hazard his person among his friends in Scotland. Passing, therefore, through France in disguise, and embarking in a small vessel at Dunkirk, he arrived, after a voyage of a few days, on the coast of Scotland, with only six gentlemen in his train. He passed vmknown through Ab- erdeen to Feteresso, where he was met by the earl of Mar, and about thirty no- blemen and gentlemen of the first quali- ity. There he was solemnly proclaimed ; and his declaration, dated at Comercy, was printed and dispersed. He went from thence to Dundee, where he made a public entry ; and in two days more he arrived at Scoon, where he intended to have the ceremony of his coronation per- formed. He ordered thanksgivings to be made for his safe arrival ; he enjoined the ministers to pray for him in their churches ; and, without the smallest share of power, went through all the cere- monies of royalty. Having thus spent some time in unimportant parade, he re- solved to abandon the enterprise with the same levity with which it was underta- ken. Having made a speech to his grand council, he informed them of his want of money, arms, and ammunition, for undertaking a campaign, and therefore deplored that he was obliged to leave them. He once more embarked on board a small French ship that lay in the har- bor of Montrose, accompanied by several lords, his adherents ; and in five days ar- rived at Gravelines. The rebellion being ended, the law was put in force with all its terrors ; and the commons, in their address to the crown, declared they would prosecute in the most rigorous manner the authors of the late rebellion ; and their measures were as vindictive as their resolutions were speedy. The earls of Derwent- water, Nithisdale, Carnwarth, and Win- town, the lords Widerington, Kenmuir, and Narine, were impeached ; and, upon pleading guilty, all but lord Wintown re- ceived sentence of death. No entreaties could prevail upon the ministry to spare these unhappy men. The house of lords even presented an address to the throne for mercy, but without effect ; for the king only answered, that on this, as on all other occasions, he would act as he thought most consistent with the dignity of the crown and the safety of the peo- ple. Orders were accordingly despatched for executing the lords Dernwentwater, Nithisdale, and Kenmuir, immediately ; the rest were respited. Nithisdale, how- ever, had the good fortune to escape. Derwentwater and Kenmuir were brought to the scaffold on Tower-hill at the time appointed. Both underwent their sen- tence with calm intrepidity, and seem- GREAT BRITAIN. 373 ingly less moved than those who beheld them. In 1721 was formed the celebrated South Sea Company, better known as the " South Sea bubble," which resulted similarly to that formed by John Law, in France, termed the " Mississippi Com- pany," in 1716. In a few months the bubble burst, — the people awaked from their dreams of riches, and found that all the advantages they expected were mere- ly imaginary, while thousands of families were involved in one common ruin.* ♦Ever since the revolution, government had been accustomed to borrow from mercantile bod- ies, and among the rest, from the South Sea Com- pany. Sir Robert Walpole having conceived a design of lessening the interest paid to those companies, from 6 to 5 per cent., the several companies agreed to receive it ; and the South Sea Company accordingly, to whom the govern- ment owed 10 millions, were satisfied to lend it for 500,000/. a year. While the public was reap- ing this obvious advantage, Sir John Blount, a man who had been born a scrivener, proposed, in the name of the South Sea Company, to lessen the national burthen still further, by permitting the South Sea Company to buy up the debts of the other companies. The South Sea Company was to redeem the debts of the nation, out of the hands of the private proprietors, who were creditors to the government, on whatever terms they could make ; and for the interest of this money, which they had thus redeemed, and tak- en into their own hands, they would be content- ed, to be allowed for 6 years, 5 per cent., and then the interest should be reduced to 4 per cent., and be redeemable by parliament. For these purposes, a bill passed both houses, and, as the directors of the South Sea Company could not, of themselves alone, be supposed to be possess- ed of money sufficient to buy up these debts of the government, they were empowered to raise it, by opening a subscription, and granting annui- ties to such proprietors as should think proper to exchange their security, namely, the crown, for the South Sea Company. The bait held out to adopt the latter security, was the chimerical pros- pect of having their money turned to great ad- vantage, by a commerce to South America, where it was pretended, that settlements were to be granted to the English by Spain. The directors' subscription books were immediately crowded ; the delusion spread, and the subscriptions soon sold at a prodigious increase of price. But the multitude, who had paid so dearly for a stock of visionary value, soon awoke from their dreams of opulence, and thousands found themselves involv- ed in ruin. Parliament, however, was determin- ed, as far as they could, to strip the directors of their ill-gotten gains. All directors of the com- pany were removed from their seats in the House of Commons, or offices of state ; and after pun- Soon after the breaking up of the par- hament in 1727, the king resolved to visit his electoral dominions of Hanover. Having appointed a regency in his ab- sence, he embarked for Holland, and stopped on his first landing at a small town called Voet. Next day he proceed- ed on his journey ; and in two days more arrived at Delden, to all appearance in perfect health. He supped there very heartily, and continued his journey early the next morning ; but between eight and nine ordered his coach to stop. It being perceived that one of his hands lay mo- tionless, his attendants attempted to quick- en the circulation by chafing it between their own. As this had no effect, the surgeon who followed on horseback was called, and he rubbed it with spirits. — Soon after, the king's tongue began to swell, and he had just strength enough to bid them hasten to Osnaburgh, and then fell into a state of insensibility, from which he never recovered, but expired about eleven o'clock, June 10, 1727, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. His body was conveyed to Hanover, and in- terred with those of his ancestors. On the accession of George II, the two great parties into which the nation had so long been divided, again changed their names, and were now called the court and country parties. Through the principal part of this reign, there seems to have been two objects of controver.sy which rose up in debate at every session, and tried the strength of the opponents ;■ these were the national debt and the num- ber of forces to be kept in pay. The government, on the present king's acces- sion, owed more than 30,000,000/ of money ; and though there was a long continuance of profoimd peace, yet this sum was found constantly increasing. — Demands for new supplies were made every session of parliament, either for the purposes of securing friends upon the continent, or guarding the kingdom from internal conspiracies, or of enabling the ministry to act vigorously in conjunction ishing the delinquents, the legislature allotted, out of the profits of the South Sea scheme, seven millions to the ancient proprietors, while the re- maining capital stock was divided among all the proprietors, at the rate of 33/. per cent. 374 GREAT BRITAIN. with the powers in alliance abroad. It was A'ainly alleged that those expenses were incurred without prescience or ne- cessity ; and that the increase of the na- tional debt, by multiplying and increasing taxes, would at last become an intolerable burden. These arguments were offered, canvassed, and rejected ; the court party was constantly victorious, and every de- mand was granted with cheerfulness and profusion. In 1739 war was declared with Spain ; and soon after, admiral Vernon, with six ships only, destroyed all the fortifications of Porto Bello, and came away victori- ous with scarcely the loss of a man. As the war was thus successfully com- menced, supplies were cheerfully granted for its prosecution. Commodore Anson was sent with a squadron of ships to op- pose the enemy in the South Sea, and to co-operate with admiral Vernon across the isthmus of Darien. This squadron was to act a subordinate part to a formi- dable armament that was to be sent to New Spain ; but through the mismanage- ment of the ministry both these schemes were frustrated. The other expedition ended still more unfortunately. The ar- mament consisted of twenty ships of the line, and almost an equal number of frig- ates. The most sanguine hopes of suc- cess were still entertained ; but the min- istry kept back the fleet without any rea- son, till the season for action, in Ameri- ca, was almost over. At last, however, they arrived before the city of Carthage- na, and became masters of the strong forts which defended the harbor. But the rainy season commenced with such violence, that it was impossible for the troops to continue their encampment. — To these calamities was added the dis- sension, between the sea and land com- manders, who blamed each other, and could be only brought to agree, in one measure, viz, to re-embark the troops, and withdraw them as quick as possible. In the spring of 1745, prince Charles, the grandson of James II, took leave of his father at Rome. Having made a vow, in the presence of the pope, and his cardinals, that he would never for- sake his religion, he, with Patrick Gra- ham, his confessor, the marquis of TuUi- 1 bardine, general Macdonald, and a few attendants, passed through France, by land, and vi.sited Louis in his camp. — He obtained from the king, four thousand pounds in money, and two thousand stand of arms, for the use of Scotland ; and, accompanied by the duke de Boque- feuille, with twenty ships of the line, was proceeding towards Brest, in order to land at the nearest English port, when the appearance of a superior fleet, com- manded by Admiral Norris, caused them to turn back, and a violent gale dispersed, and greatly damaged their shipping, so as entirely to frustrate the intended inva- sion. The prince and his friends were in a small vessel, in which they reached the western side of Scotland, and stand- ing for the coast of Lochaber, landed be- tween the isles of Mull and Skye, on the 10th of August, 1745. Charles knelt down to kiss the earth on his landing, upon which the confessor cut a turf, and presenting it to him, in- stalled him, by authority of the pope, regent for his father, whom he styled James III. Charles was at this time twenty-five years of age. His appear- ance was prepossessing ; and to a great share of manly beauty he added a most enterprising spirit. When the young adventurer arrived at Perth, he performed the ceremony of proclaiming his father king of Great Britain. From thence proceeding tow- ards Edinburgh, his forces continually increased, and he entered the capital without opposition ; but was unable, from want of cannon, to reduce the castle. Here he again proclaimed his father, and promised to dissolve the union, Avhich was considered one of the great national grievances. In the mean time, sir John Cope resolved to give the enemy battle. The rebels attacked him near Preston- pans, and in a short time put him and his troops to flight, with the loss of 500 men. This victory gave the Stuart party great influence ; and had the prince marched directly to England, he might have accomplished his object ; but he was amused by the promise of succors which never came, and thus induced to remain in Edinburgh till the season for action was lost. He was joined, how- GREAT BRITAIN. 375 ever, by the earl of Kilmarnock, lord BalmerinOjlords Cromarty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitsligo, and the eldest son of lord Lovat, who, with their vassals, considerably in- creased his army. While Charles was thus trifling away his time at Edinburgh, the British ministry were taking effectual methods to oppose him. Six thousand Dutch troops, that had come over to the assistance of the crown, were despatched northward under the command of general Wade. The duke of Cumberland soon after arrived from Flanders, and was followed by another detachment of dra- goons and infantry, well disciplined and inured to action ; and besides these, volunteers offered themselves in every part of the kingdom. At last, Charles resolved upon entering England. He crossed the western bor- der, and took the town of Carlisle ; after which he continued his march south- ward, having received assurance that a considerable body of forces would be landed on the southern coasts to make a diversion in his favor. He established his head-quarters at Manchester, where he was joined by about 200 English formed into a regiment, under the com- mand of colonel Townley. From thence he pursued his march to Derby, intending to go by the way of Chester into Wales, where he hoped to be joined by a great number of malcontents ; but this was prevented by the factions among his followers. Being now advanced within 100 miles of London, that capital was in the utmost consternation ; and had he proceeded with the same expedition he had hitherto used, perhaps he might have made him- self master of it. But he was rendered incapable of pursuing this or any other rational plan, by the discontents which began to prevail in his army. In fact, the young prince was but the nominal leader of his forces ; his generals, the Highland chiefs, being averse to subor- dination, and ignorant of command. — They were now unanimous in their reso- lution to return to their own country, and Charles was forced to comply. They retreated to Carlisle without any loss ; and from thence crossing the rivers Eden and Solway, entered Scotland. They next marched to Glasgow, which was laid under severe contributions. Near Stir- Ung, they were joined by lord Lewis Gordon, at the head of some forces which had been assembled in his absence. — Other clans likewise came in ; and from some supplies of money received from Spain, and some skirmishes with the royalists, in which he was victorious, the young prince's affairs began to wear a more promising aspect. Being joined by lord Drummond, he invested the castle of Stirling, in the siege of which much time was consumed to no purpose. General Hawley, who commanded a considerable body of forces near Edin- burgh, undertook to raise this siege, and advanced towards the rebel army as far as Falkirk. After two days spent in mutually examining each other's strength, an engagement ensued, in which the king's forces were entirely defeated, with the loss of their tents and artillery. The duke of Cumberland having arri- ved, was put at the head of the troops at Edinburgh, which amounted to about 14,000 men. With these he advanced to Aberdeen, where he was joined by several of the nobility attached to the house of Hanover ; the enemy in the mean time retreating before him. He next advanced to the banks of the Spey, a deep and rapid river, where the rebels might have disputed his passage ; but their contentions with one another were now risen to such a height, that they could scarce agree in any thing. At last they resolved to wait their pursuers. — An engagement ensued at Culloden, near Inverness, in which the troops of Charles were defeated with great slaughter, and a final period was put to all the hopes of the young adventurer. The con- querors behaved with the greatest cru- elty, refusing quarter to the wounded, the unarmed, and the defenceless. The duke immediately after the action order- ed thirty-six deserters to be executed : the conquerors spread terror wherever they came ; and after a short space, the whole country round was one dreadful scene of plunder, slaughter, and deso- lation. Immediately after the engagement, the young prince escaped with a captain of 376 GREAT BRITAIN. Fitzjames's cavalry ; and when their horses were fatigued, they both alighted, and separately sought for safety. There is a striking resemblance between the adventures of Charles II, after the battle of Worcester, and those of the young prince after the battle of Culloden. He was continually pursued by the troops of the conqueror, there being a reward of 30,000/ offered for taking him either dead or alive. In the course of his ad- ventures, he had occasion to trust his life to the fidelity of above fifty individ- uals, not one of whom could be prevailed upon to betray him. For six months the unfortunate Charles continued to wander in the wilds of Glengary, often hemmed round by his pursuers, but still rescued by some pro- vidential accident from the impending danger. At length a privateer belonging to St. Maloes, hired by his adherents, arrived in Loch Nanach, in which he embarked with Cameron of Lochiel, his brother, and a few other exiles. They set sail for France, and after having been chased by two English men-of-war, arrived in safety near Morlaix in Bre- tagne. In the year 1749, a scheme was en- tered upon, which the nation in general imagined would be very advantageous. This was the encouraging those who had been discharged from the army or navy to become settlers in Nova Scotia. The English and French renewed the war, for the possession of this tract of country, which soon after spread with such terrible devastation over every part of the globe. Negotiations, followed by active hos- tilities, again commenced in 1756 ; four operations were undertaken by the Brit- ish in America at once. Colonel Monk- j ton had orders to drive the French from j their encroachments upon the province of Nova Scotia ; general Johnson was sent against Crown Point ; general Shir- ley against Niagara, to secure the forts on the river ; and general Braddock against Fort du Quesne. In these expe- ditions, Monkton was successful ; John- j son also was victorious, though he failed in taking the fort against which he was sent ; Shirley was thought to have lost the season for operation by delay ; and Braddock was defeated and killed. The British, however, made reprisals at sea ; and in this they were so suc- cessful, that the French navy was unable to recover itself during the continuance of the war. The British about this period achieved several splendid victories both in the eas- tern and western part of the world, which were generally ascribed to the vigorous administration of William Pitt, who about this time came into power. An expedi- tion was set on foot, in the American colonies, against Cape Breton, under general Amherst and admiral Boscawen ; another, under general Abercrombie, against Crown Point and Ticonderoga ; and a third, under brigadier-general Forbes, against Fort du Quesne. The fortress of Louisbourg, which defended the island of Cape Breton, was very strong both by nature and art. But the activity of the British surmounted every obstacle, the place was surrendered by capitulation, and its fortifications were demolished. The expedition against Fort du Quesne was equally successful ; but that against Crown Point once more miscarried. General Abercrombie at- tacked the French in their entrenchments, was repulsed with great slaughter, and obliged to retire to his camp on Lake George. But though in this respect the British arms were unsuccessful, yet, upon the whole, the campaign of 1758 was greatly in their favor. The taking of Fort du Quesne served to remove from the colonies the terror of the incursions of the Indians, while it interrupted the correspondence along a chain of forts with which the French had environed the British settlements in America ; so that the succeeding campaign promised great success. In 1759, it was resolved to attack the French in several parts of their empire at once. General Amherst with a body of 12,000 men was commanded to attack Crown Point ; general Wolfe was to un- dertake the siege of Quebec ; while gene- ral Prideaux and sir William Johnson were to attack a French fort near the cata- racts of Niagara. This last expedition was the first that succeeded. The siege GREAT BRITAIN. 377 was commenced with every appearance of success ; but general Prideaux was killed in the trenches by the bursting of a mor- tar, so that the whole command devolved on general Johnson. A body of French troops, sensible of the importance of the place, attempted to relieve it, but were utterly defeated and dispersed ; soon after which, the garrison surrendered prison- ers of war. On his arrival at the forts of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, gene- ral Amherst found them deserted and destroyed. There now remained, there- fore, but one decisive blow to reduce all North America under the British domin- ion ; and this was by the taking of Que- bec, the capital of Canada. This expe- dition was commanded by admiral Saun- ders and general Wolfe. The enterprise was attended with difficulties which ap- peared insurmountable ; but general Wolfe engaged and put to flight the French un- der Montcalm ; though, to the great re- gret of the British, their general was killed in the action. {See Canada.) The surrender of Quebec was the con- sequence of this victory, which was soon followed by the subjugation of all Canada. The following season, indeed, the French made an effort to recover the city ; but by the resolution of governor Murray, and the appearance of a British fleet under the command of lord Colville, they Avere obliged to abandon the enterprise. The whole province was soon after reduced by the prudence and activity of general Amherst, who obliged the French army to capitulate ; and it has since remained annexed to the British empire. About the same time also the island of Gauda- loupe was reduced by commodore More. After some inconsiderable successes at Crevelt, the duke of Marlborough dying, the command of the British forces de- volved on lord George Sackville. Amis- understanding arose between him and prince Ferdinand, which appeared at the battle of Minden that was fought shortly after. Lord George pretended that he did not understand the orders sent by the prince, and in consequence did not obey them. The allies gained the victory, which would have been more decisive had the British commander obeyed his orders. 48 After this victory it was imagined that one re-enforcement more of British troops would terminate the war in favor of the allies ; and that re-enforcement Avas quickly sent. The British army in Ger- many was increased to thirty-thousand men, and sanguine hopes of conquest were generally entertained. These hopes, however, were ill-founded. The allies were defeated at Corbach, but retrieved their honor at Exdorf. A victory at Warberg followed shortly after, and ano- ther at Zierenberg ; after which both sides retired into winter quarters. On the 25th of October, 1760, George II died suddenly. He had risen at his usual hour, and observed to his attend- ants, that as the weather was fine, he would take a walk into the gardens at Kensington, where he then resided. In a few minutes after his return, being left alone, he was heard to fall heavily. As soon as he was placed on a bed, he de- sired that the princess Amelia might be sent for ; but before she could reach the apartment he expired, in the seventy- seventh year of his age, and thirty-third of his reign. An attempt was made to bleed him, but without effect ; and after- wards, the surgeons, upon opening him, discovered that the right ventricle of the heart was ruptured, and a great quantity of blood discharged through the aperture. No prince ever ascended the throne of Great Britain under happier auspices than those which attended the elevation of George III. He had long lived se- questered from all participation in the measures of government, and in retire- ment, surrounded only by a few friends and dependents. One of the most remarkable transac- tions about this period, was the renewal of the charter of the bank of England,* in 1763, for which the latter paid the sum of 1,100,000/ into the exchequer as a present to the public, besides the ad- vancing a million to government upon exchequer bills. Another, and still more momentous affair, however, was the con- sideration of a variety of methods to raise a revenue upon the American colonies. * The bank of England was chartered in 1693, in the reign of William and Mary. 578 GREAT BRITAIN. The reason assigned was the defraying the necessary expenses of defending them. The colonies contained upwards of two millions of inhabitants, and it was considered that a large revenue might be raised from such a numerous body. In 1772, the parliament was principally employed in considering the affairs of the East India Company, whose servants had assumed the power of forming a com- mercial intercourse with each other ; by which they exclusively maintained the right of traffic in inland produce. They bought and sold at their own prices, and exercised such arbitrary measures as im- poverished the natives, and exhausted their resources. They even extended this combination so far as to deprive the landed proprietors of their leases, and dispose of the land for their own profit. The soil became consequently neglect- ed, a scarcity of food was the result of British avarice ; pestilence and disease succeeded to famine, and the company became embarrassed, through the rapacity of their agents and servants. A loan was granted them by government ; but general Burgoyne, who had been chair- man of the committee of inquiry, pro- posed the examination of lord Clive, res- pecting the manner in which he had ac- quired the sum of two hundred and thir- ty-four thousand pounds, during his short residence in India. The attention of government was, in 1774, directed to certain documents and papers, relating to what was termed the republican spiritof the Bostonians, arising from the very measure which had been adopted to relieve the East India Com- pany — the permission for them to export a quantity of tea free of duly to Ameri- ca ; and which excited general dissatis- faction among the colonists, who were previously resolved to prevent the impor- tation of the article, a quantity of which had been thrown into the sea. In dis- cussing this subject, the opposition said that the disturbances in America had arisen in taxation ; and suggested a mo- tion for inquiry into the conduct of min- isters, respecting the degree of violence which had provoked this resistance. In- quiry was instituted only in regard to the misconduct of the Americans. The ministers, in taking this partial view of the case, considered only two points as essential ; to satisfy the East India Com- pany for their tea, and to resent the in- sult oflered to Britain ; for which pur- pose they proposed a bill to shut up the port of Boston. This was opposed by Fox, as unjust and inexpedient, without hearing the accused party. But this ve- ry obvious piece of justice was not con- ceded ; and the bill for closing the port of Boston passed the house, and another bill for changing the government of Massa- chusetts. A fleet of seA^eral ships of war was sent to Boston, and general Gage appointed governor. When the order of the English to close the port of Boston reached Ameri- ca, a copy of the act was circulated through all the provinces, and they re- solved to spend the first of June, the day appointed to put the act into execution, in fasting and prayer. While each pro- vince was framing resolutions, the other bills reached Massachusetts. These raised their irritated feelings to the high- est pitch, and they formed an association, in which they bound themselves, by a solemn league and covenant, to break off all commercial intercourse with Great Britain, until the Boston port bill, and other acts, should be repealed, and the colony restored to its ancient rights. General Gage took the precaution to place some regiments at Boston. All the colonies, except Georgia, united in their resolves to resist taxation. A gen- eral meeting of congress was fixed for the 15th of September, at Philadelphia, in which they declared their willing alle- giance to his majesty, and most explicitly explained their wish not to separate from the mother country ; but they maintained that they had a mutual right to partici- pate in all the rights and privileges of British free-born subjects. Lastly, they drew up a petition to the king in most respectful language, in which they firmly, but humbly, implored his majesty that they might enjoy liberty, and disclaimed all pretensions to any new privileges, but earnestly praying to be restored to their former rights, on an equality with other British subjects. This was sub- scribed by all the delegates. GREAT BRITAIN. 379 A petition from America M-^as refused acceptance by the king, who referred it to the house. The earl of Chatham, who had absented himself in consequence of declining health, now left his sick cham- ber to try the effect of his eloquence in averting the evils which threatened the country. He proposed a petition to his majesty to recall the troops from Boston ; but all attempts to frustrate the minister's favorite measure were ineffectual ; and on the 3rd of February, Massachusetts Bay was declared in the house to be in a state of rebellion. Re-enforcements were forthwith sent from England, under the command of generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton. The first battle was fought on the 17th of June, on Bunker's Hill, near Charles- town. Here, though the English were victorious, the Americans, without pecu- niary resources or military discipline, showed a degree of courage and devoted- ness to the cause of liberty which must entitle them to the admiration of posterity. Great dissatisfaction was expressed in parliament at a motion for increasing the number of soldiers in America, it having been stated by ministers that the Ameri- cans were cowards, who would not stand the fire of the English army, and that only a small number of our regular troops would be sufficient to intimidate them into submission ; whereas they found they were opposed by men equally brave, and enthusiastically devoted to the cause of independence. The direction of the campaign in America had devolved on general Howe, from the return of general Gage to Eng- land. Owing to the perseverance of Washington, the English troops evacua- ted Boston in March, and sailed for Ha- lifax. Sir Henry Clinton, and sir Peter Parker, brought fresh troops, with which they proceeded to the Carolinas ; but from their lateness in leaving England, and other causes, did not gain the ex- pected advantages. The congress, which continued to sit and enact laws, still courted conciliation, and waited the re- sult of their petition to the king. When it was ascertained that nothing short of abject submission would satisfy the moth- er country, it declared the allegiance of America was forfeited by the deprivation of the king's protection, and they resolv- ed to form a constitution which should secure their rights. This resolution was followed by a solemn renunciation of their union with the British crown, and a declaration that they were now free and independent states. This took place July 4th, 1776. General Howe was joined by his brother, lord Howe, and the campaign opened with the battle of Long Island, on the 26th of August, from which the Americans effected a retreat to New York, without losing a man, and the Brit- ish troops took possession of Long Island. This was followed by the capture of New York on the 21st of September. In England, the attention of parliament was called from the state of America to the consideration of a conspiracy formed in the East Indies, against lord Pigot, governor of Madras, which ended in his recall, as also that of the members of the council who opposed him. On the 30th of May, the earl of Chat- ham once more appeared in the house, to try anew his endeavors to save his country. He moved an address to the throne, in which he stated the insidious conduct of France, in silently assisting the views of America ; and he strongly recommended a cessation of hostilities, and a removal of the grievances which had been practised on the Americans. His admonitory advice was, as before, disregarded. This session of parliament opened with an account of general Howe's suc- cess, accompanied with anticipations of new victories. In one month after, in- telligence was brought that general Bur- goyne and his army were prisoners of war at Saratoga. At the same time it was represented that France had signed a treaty with America. Lord Chatham, aware that it would be derogatory to England freely to acknow- ledge the independence of America, came to the house to perform his duty in delivering his sentiments on the subject ; he had spoken with energy, and had risen to speak a second time, when pressing his hand on his heart, he fell down in a convulsive fit, from which he never re- 380 GREAT BRITAIN. covered, and died a few days after, in his seventieth year. The king of Spain now followed the example of the French monarch, and ac- knowledged the independence of the American colonies. The ruinous ten- dency of the war was now so strik- ingly apparent, that it became neces- sary for those who had a just sense of the dangerous situation of their country, who wished well to its interests or even to prevent its destruction, to exert their most powerful efforts to put an end to so fatal a contest. Accordingly, on the meeting of the commons, several mo- tions were made to bring about a recon- ciliation between the two countries. During the debates which followed, lord John Cavendish remarked, that " The American war had been a Avar of malice and resentment ; without either dignity in its conduct, probability in its object, or justice in its origin." These motions Avere strongly opposed by the ministry, and every exertion made to reduce the colonies again to obedience. The mea- sures, however, that they pursued, at length, became unpopular with all par- ties, and consequently the administration of lord North was dissolved, and a new one formed, at the head of which was the marquis of Rockingham. Peace was as strongly advocated by the new ministry as war was by the preceding one ; but, before we give the result of the negotiations between this coimtry and America, a brief account of the military and naval events will best explain the re- lative situation in which the other Euro- pean powers stood with regard to Great Britain and America. The advantage hitherto gained by the French in their naval engagements with the British fleet, had proceeded from their keeping at a great distance during the time of action, and from their good fortune and dexteri- ty in gaining the wind. At last, the French admiral, de Grasse, probably prompted by his natural courage, deter- mined, after an indecisive action on the 9th of April, 1782, to risk a close en- gagement with his formidable antagonist Rodney. The result of this action was the entire defeat of the French fleet, but it was universally allowed that in this engagement the French behaved with the greatest valor. De Grasse himself did not surrender till 400 of his men were killed, and only himself and two others remained without a wound. The captain of the Cssar, after his ensign staflf was shot away, and the ship almost battered to pieces, caused his colors to be nailed to the mast, and thus continued fighting till he was killed. The vessel, when taken, was a mere wreck. Other French oflicers behaved in the same manner. A great disaster befel the Spaniards, before Gibraltar, which happened in the month of September, 1782. Thus all parties were taught that it was high time to put an end to their contests. The af- fair of Cornwallis had shown that it was impossible for Britain to conquer Ameri- ca ; the defeat of De Grasse had ren- dered the reduction of the British pos- sessions in the West Indies impracticable by the French ; the final attack on Gib- raltar, and its relief afterwards by the British fleet, put an end to that favorite enterprise, in which almost the whole strength of Spain was employed. {See Spain.) Immediately after the change of min- istry, negotiations for a general peace were commenced at Paris. Mr. Gren- ville was invested with full powers to treat with all the parties at war ; and was also directed to propose the inde- pendence of the thirteen United Provin- ces of America, in the first instance, instead of making it a condition of a general treaty. Admiral Digby and general Carleton were also directed to acquaint the American congress with the pacific views of the British court, and with the off'er to acknowledge the inde- pendence of the United States. The independence of the United vStates was acknowledged by Great Britain, and pre- liminary articles of peace were signed, Novemijer 30, 1782, which were ratified by the two governments, January 20, 1783. At the same time peace was concluded between Great Britain, France and Spain. In the year 1785, Mr. Pitt introduced a plan of parliamentary reform, which bid fair to be successful. It proposed GREAT BRITAIN. 381 that one Imndred members should be added to the popular interest, and the right of election extended to 100,000 persons who were previously disqualified. But as the majority of the house were averse to this plan, the bill was not per- mitted to be formally brought in. In the month of June of this year, Mr. Pitt laid before the house the amount of the claims of the American loyalists who had been reduced to poverty by their adherence to Great Britain during the American war ; they amounted to 471,000/, and Mr. Pitt proposed that 150,000/ should be granted to the claimants for present re- lief, and a future and permanent provision to be made by lottery. In the ensuing spring Mr. Pitt propo- sed a plan of financial regulation, which had long engaged his attention, and which has since been a fruitful source of spec- ulation and argument with statesmen and pohticians. The outline of this plan was to establish a sinking fund for the grad- ual liquidation of the national debt. One million was the sum annually to be placed in the hands of the commissioners, in quarterly instalments of 250,000/ each. This fund was not to be alienated to any other purpose. The debates on the sub- ject were long, and conducted with great ability by both parties, but at length it was adopted. A remarkable event took place on the 2nd of August, 1786, which might have been attended with very serious conse- quences. As the king was alighting from his carriage at the gate of St. James's palace, a woman named Margaret Nich- olson, who was waiting there under pre- tence of presenting a petition, struck at him with a knife, but without inflicting any injury. The woman was immedi- ately taken into custody, and appearing, on several examinations, to be insane, was sent to Bethlehem hospital. This affair excited a very general expression of loyalty ; the city of London address- ed the throne in terms of congratulation, and the example was followed by all the corporations and public bodies of the kingdom. This year the prosecution against Warren Hastings, for his misconduct while governor in India, was commen- ced, which terminated in an impeach- ment of that gentleman. The conductor of this prosecution was Edmund Burke. The French revolution produced great excitement in England, but little, how- ever, of historical interest occurred until the declaration of the war between the two nations. England, at the commencement of her long contest with France, took into her pay a large body of German troops, and the duke of York joined the allies, who confided to him the care of the army, which in the summer of 1793 besieged Valenciennes. The trenches were open- ed on the 14th of June, 1793. The in- habitants wished to surrender ; but the violence of the bombardment prevented their assembling. Much of the labor of the siege consisted of mines and coun- termines. Some of these having been successfully sprung by the allies, the town surrendered on the 27th of July by capitulation to the Duke of York, who took possession of it in the name of the emperor. The siege of Mentz was going on, but it suffered so much from famine, at last, that, after an unsuccessful attempt by the French for its relief, it surrendered on the 22nd of July. The leading people of Toulon, in the south of France, now entered into a ne- gotiation, and submitted to Lord Hood, under condition that he should preserve the town and shipping for Louis XVII, and assist in restoring the constitution of 1789. The siege of Toulon was com- menced by general Cartaux, in Septem- ber. Neapolitan, Spanish, and English troops, were brought by sea to assist in its defence. In November, Cartaux was removed to the army in Italy, and Dugom- mier succeeded him. General O'Hara arrived with re-enforcements from Gibral- tar, and took upon him the command of the town under a British Commission. On the 30th of November, the garrison made a powerful sally to destroy some batteries erecting upon the heights. The allies succeeded in their object ; but, elated by the facility of their conquest, rushed forward in pursuit of the flying enemy, and were met by a strong French force that was drawn out to protect the fugitives. O'Hara now came from the 382 GREAT BRITAIN. city to bring off his troops ; but was wounded and taken prisoner. The total loss of the allies in this affair was esti- mated at nearly 1 ,000 men. The French had now mustered in full force around Toulon, and prepared for the attack. It was begun on the 19th of December, and was chiefly directed against Fort Mul- grave, defended by the British. This fort was protected by an entrenched camp, thirteen pieces of cannon, ihirty-six and twenty-four pounders, &c, five mortars, and 3,000 troops. Such was the ardor of the assault, that it was carried in an hour, and the whole garrison destroyed or taken. The allies, finding it impossi- ble to defend the place, in the course of the day embarked their troops, after hav- ing set on fire the arsenal and ships. A scene of confusion ensued, unparalleled in the history of modern wars. Crowds of the inhabitants, of every rank and age, hurried on board the ships, to avoid the vengeance of their enraged countrymen. Some of the inhabitants began to fire upon their late aUies ; others in despair plunged into the sea, making a vain effort to reach the ships ; thirty-one ships of the line were found by the British at Toulon ; thirteen were left behind, ten were burnt; four had been previously sent to the French ports of Brest and Rochefort, with 5,000 republicans who could not be trusted ; and Great Britain obtained by this expedition three ships of the line and five frigates. At this siege first appeared in com- mand, as lieutenant of artillery, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was destined to form so prominent a figure in the future direction of the kingdom of France. After this, the seat of war was princi- pally in the Netherlands. The British forces under the command of the Duke of York, the Austrian and Dutch armies, opposed the French forces, under the command of Pichegru and Jourdan. — The allied armies experienced a series of defeats, and the duke of York escap- ed being made prisoner only by the fleetness of his horse. On the Rhine, the war was equally successful on the part of the French. During the course of this summer, Corsica was subdued by Great Britain : and the whole of the French West India islands, except a part of Gaudaloupe, yielded to the British troops, under sir Charles Grey and sir John Jervis. On the 1st of June, 1794, the British fleet, under earl Howe, gained a most splendid victory over the French fleet, to the west of Ushant. The French committee of safety had purchased, in America, im- mense quantities of grain and other stores. These were embarked on board 160 sail of merchantmen, convoyed by six sail of the line. Lord Howe sailed to intercept this valuable convoy. The French fleet sailed to protect it. On the morning of the 28th of May, the fleets came in sight of each other. Lord Howe had prev- iously despatched six ships of the line, under admiral Montague, to intercept the French convoy, M'hile he should engage and detain the grand fleet. The French despatched eight sail to compete with the British, in this attempt. In the course of the 29th, lord Howe got to windward of the French fleet. His force was twenty-five, and theirs twenty-six sail of the line. The following day he bore down upon them and broke their line. — The engagement was one of the sever- est ever fought. The French admiral, in less than an hour after the close ac- tion commenced in the centre, crowded off with twelve of his ships. The Brit- ish fleet was so much disabled, or sepa- rated, that several of the French disman- tled ships got away under sails raised on the stump of their foremast. Seven sail of the line, however, remained in possession of the British, and two were sunk. In the mean time, admiral Mon- tague fell in with the French convoy, but it was now guarded by fourteen sail of the line. As he could not encounter such a force, he returned home, and it was safely conveyed into port. Thus, by one of those contradictions which of- ten occur in human affairs, the British fleet was victorious, and yet the French were left masters of the sea, and obtain- ed their great object — provisions. The French towards the close of 1796, attempted an invasion of Ireland ; but the plan was ill-concerted, and conse- quently failed. At the opening of the session, in the end of 1796, his majesty GREAT BRITAIN. 383 took notice of the invasion which the enemy had projected against England. — Mr. Pitt brought forward the business in the house of commons, and pointed out the means by which he proposed to raise 15,000 men, to be divided between the land and sea service ; to raise a supple- mentary number, or levy, of 60,000 for the militia, and 20,000 cavalry, which, with a few alterations and amendments, were agreed to. But, in mentioning the supplies for the year, which amounted to 27,647,000/, and explaining the different articles of expenditure, the minister al- luded to an expense of a particular na- ture, which had been incurred during the interval of parliament. As it would have been a matter of very great delicacy, to have brought forward a public discussion on the propriety of advancing a sum to a foreign court in the critical situation of the country, ministry had granted to the emperor, without a public discussion, the sum of 1 ,200,000Z. This transaction was canvassed soon after, and the popu- lar party reprobated it with the utmost acrimony. While the parliament were thus divided, an alarming mutiny broke out in the navy, which has ever been the pride and glory of the British nation. — The seamen had addressed several let- ters to earl Howe, soliciting a redress of grievances, particularly as to provisions, in which, it seems, they had been impos- ed upon, both as to quantity and quality ; but as these letters were anonymous, his lordship paid no attention to them. This apparent neglect, produced a general cor- respondence by letter, through the whole fleet; and on the 14th of April, when the signal was made to prepare for sea, a general revolt ensued ; and, instead of weighing anchor, the seamen of the ad- miral's ship gave three cheers, which were echoed by the other ships. Dele- gates were then appointed for each ship, to represent the whole fleet ; and the cabin of the admiral's ship was appoint- ed as the place of their deliberation. — Petitions were drawn up and presented to the admirals upon the spot, stating their demand of an increase of wages, and of some regulations for their benefit with respect to the ratio of provisions. On the 18th, a committee of the admiral- ty arrived at Portsmouth, who made sev- eral propositions to reduce the men to obedience ; the lords of the admiralty next conferred with the delegates, who assured their lordships, that no arrange- ment would be considered as final, until it should be sanctioned by the king and parliament, and guarantied by a procla- mation for a general pardon. Matters remained in this situation till the 23rd, when earl Howe returned to his ship, hoisted his flag, and, after a short address to his crew, informed them that he had brought a redress of all their grievances, and his majesty's pardon for the off'end- ders : after some deliberation, these offers were accepted, and every man returned to his duty. All disputes seemed now to be settled, but it was quickly circulated among the sailors that the government deluded them with vain hopes. The flame of mutiny was rekindled ; and on the 7th of May, when lord Bridport made the signal to weigh anchor, every ship at St. Helen's refused to obey. A meeting of the dele- gates was ordered on board the London ; which vice-admiral Colpoys opposed, and gave orders to the marines to level their pieces at them ; a skirmish ensued, in which five of the seamen were killed. The whole crew of the London now turned their guns towards the stern, and threatened to blow all aft into the water, unless their commanders surrendered ; which they reluctantly did, and admiral Colpoys and captain Grifliths were con- fined for several hours. The seamen continued in this mutinous state till the 14th of May, when lord Howe at length arrived from the admiralty with plenary powers to inquire into and settle the matters in dispute ; he was also the wel- come bearer of an act of parliament, which had been passed on the 9lh, grant- ing an additional allowance, as well as his majesty's proclamation of pardon for all who should immediately return to their duty. Matters being thus adjusted, the sailors appeared satisfied ; the offi- cers were generally reinstated in their commands, the flag of disaffection was struck, and the fleet prepared to put to sea to encounter the enemy. Such, however, is the propensity of the human 384 GREAT BRITAIN. mind, when gratified in one point, to entertain new desires, that the success of the seamen on this occasion encour- aged another part of their body to make farther claims. The sailors at the Nore insisted on a more punctual discharge of arrears, a more equal distribution of prize-money, and a general abatement of the severity of discipline. They chose delegates from every ship, one of whom, a seaman named Richard Parker, being appointed president, assumed the com- mand of the fleet. The flag of admiral Buckner Avas struck on the 23rd of May, and the red flag, the symbol of mutiny, hoisted in its stead, while they transmit- ted a statement of their demands to the admiralty. At this alarming height of the mutiny, a deputation of the lords, with earl Spencer at their head, pro- ceeded to Sheerness ; but finding the sailors rather increasing in disobedience than inclined to submission, they depart- ed, after stating that they need expect no concessions whatever further than what had been already made by the legislature. The mutineers now proceeded to force a compliance with their demands, by blocking up the Thames, and refusing a free passage up and down the river to the London trade. Two merchantmen ships were robbed of provisions, and some ships of war, that refused to accede to the combination, were fired upon. — Ships of neutral nations, however, col- liers, and a few small craft, were allowed a passport, signed by Richard Parker, president of the delegates. No hopes of accommodation appearing, every ne- cessary measure was taken to compel the seamen to return to their duty. An act of parliament was passed for prevent- ing all intercourse with the mutinous ships, and government ordered all the buoys to be removed from the river Thames and the neighboring coasts. — Preparations were also made at Sheer- ness against an attack from the mutineers, who seemed to meditate the bombard- ment of the place ; and, after the rejection of the last attempt at a reconciliation through the medium of lord Northesk, measures were taken by lord Keith and sir C. Grey to attack the fleet from the works with gun-boats. Happily, how- ever, the defection of some of the ships, with other strong s^miptoms of disunion, rendered the application of force unne- cessary ; and on the 10th of June, several ships having pulled down the red flag, the rest followed their example within a few days, and went under the guns of the fort. Admiral Buckner's boat was then sent to the Sandwich, with a picket guard of soldiers, to arrest Parker, who was very peaceably surrendered to them, with about thirty other delegates. They were soon after brought to trial ; several were executed, but the greater part re- mained under sentence till the signal victory of admiral Duncan, in the month of October, when they were pardoned. In the beginning of this year the pub- lic mind was considerably agitated also by another event, which at first threaten- ed to overwhelm in ruin the pecuniary resources and commerce of the country : the bank of England stated that it must suspend its payments in specie. Though, doubtless, the large sums of money sent abroad as subsidies to foreign princes by government had diminished the quantity of gold and silver in Great Britain, one powerful cause for this event seems to have been the terror of invasion : this induced persons at a distance from the metropolis, to withdraw their money from the hands of those bankers with whom it was deposited; and from the country bankers the demand for specie soon reached the capital. In this alarming state government found themselves com- pelled to interfere, and an order of the privy council was issued on the 26th of February, prohibiting the directors from issuing any cash in payment till the sense of parliament could be taken on that subject. The business was imme- diately laid before parliament, when the most violent debates ensued. Measures were adopted for maintaining the means of circulation, and supporting and main- taining the public and commercial spirit of the kingdom ; and the ferment and alarm which had been raised by this unexpected event was soon allayed. — During this year the war on the part of Great Britain was almost exclusively confined to naval operations, in which the skill and activity of her seamen were GREAT BRITAIN. 385 displayed to great advantage, and was in- variably crowned with victory. Through the influence of the French, Spain had been induced to declare war against England, and a Spanish fleet of twenty- seven sail of the line, while attempting to join a French armament, was attacked by sir John Jervis with fifteen sail ; the issue of which obtained for the English commander the title of earl St. Vincent, and the thanks of the parliament. At no period of British history were there so much zeal and courage displayed by all ranks of the British nation. Be- fore the spring the enemy finally aban- doned the threat of invasion, and directed their fleet to sail for Egypt, accompanied by a great number of transports. This formidable armament was closely pur- sued by admiral Nelson, and though the French troops had eff'ected a landing before he came up with it, he overtook their fleet in the bay of Aboukir, and obtained, 1st August, 1798, tlie menaora- ble victory of the Nile. About this time an extensive and dan- gerous conspiracy was formed for erect- ing Ireland into an independent republic. About this time, also, the French fitted out an expedition for the invasion of Ire- land. Their forces consisted of one ship of eighty guns, eight frigates, a schooner, and a brig. Being discovered by the squadron under sir J. B. Warren, after an action of nearly four hours, the La Hoche with three other ships struck to the British. They were full of men, and every thing necessary for the establish- ment of a formidable force in Ireland. Parliament assembled on the 20th of November, 1798, when his majesty, in a speech from the throne, noticed particu- larly the late victory obtained by the fleet under admiral Nelson. Scarcely any victory ever produced consequences of such importance. The grand seignior, who had paid little attention to the first invasion of Egypt, now declared war, in the name of all mussulmans, against "the host of infidels who had invaded the land from whence the sacred territory of Mecca is supplied with bread." The powers on the continent were inspired with fresh vigor ; and a coalition was formed between the emperors of Russia 49 and Germany and the king of Great Britain. On the Rhine the French were j repeatedly defeated and pursued by the j Austrians ; g:eneral Suwarrow drove them from all their conquests in Italy. I About the end of this year a niisunder- standing took place between the Austrians and Russians, in consequence of which ' the emperor Paul abandoned the coali- j tion. About the same time Bonaparte, j hearing of the reverse of fortune which I the French armies had suffered in Eu- rope, left his army in Egypt, returned to j France, and, abolishing the directory, obtained the appointment of an executive commission of three consuls, of which he I himself was the chief or first. To ren- j der himself popular in this high station, { and to cast the odium of continuing the war upon others, he addressed a letter to the king of Great Britain on the sub- ject of a general peace ; but the British cabinet conceiving that the new French government could as yet give no security for terms of peace, refused to enter into any negotiation for that purpose. This refusal occasioned several violent debates in the British parliament ; but the minis- try had still a great majority, and prepa- rations were made for prosecuting the war. Austria also continued the contest ; but Bonaparte was now ( 1 800) at the head of the French army, Avhich quickly retrieved the losses of the preceding campaigns, and, after the decisive battle of iyiarengo, in the month of June, Aus- tria was obliged to sue for peace ; while the northern powers, in consequence of Bonaparte's victorious career, seemed eager to court his favor by forming de- signs against Britain. The emperor Paul, naturally fickle and hasty, formed a close alliance with him ; and, in con- junction with the Danes, Swedes, and Prussians, began to renew their former engagements for establishing a new code of maritime laws, inconsistent with the rights, and hostile to the interests of Bri- tain. Towards the end of this year a scarcity of provisions pressed heavily on all ranks of people in Britain. By a long and almost constant series of rainy weather, the crop of 1799 was materially injured, and the harvest retarded. The crop of 1800 was nearly as deficient. 386 GREAT BRITAIN. The people, who had now expected re- lief, felt persuaded that the scarcity was not altogether occasioned by the failure of the crops, but by artful combinations, so that a general odium was raised against all who traded in grain, or any of the necessaries of life ; they were held up to popular obloquy as monopolists and forestallers ; the sole authors of the mis- eries of the people ; men for whose crimes it was impossible to devise an adequate punishment. Parliament was summoned, principally for the purpose of taking the subject into consideration ; and by prohibiting the exportation of grain, and granting a bounty on imported corn, &LC, the dread of famine was averted. Although a change had now taken place in the British cabinet, the new ministry, who had always given their most decided and strenuous support to the measures pursued by Mr. Pitt, pro- fessed to have the same views, and to act upon the same principles. They re- peatedly affirmed that the dispute with the northern powers was so important to the prosperity and glory of Britain, that it could neither be relinquished nor com- promised ; that, since the combined pow- ers were determined to persist in their unwarrantable pretensions, it became necessary for Britain to assert her rights by force of arms. A formidable fleet was assembled at Yarmouth, which was entrusted to sir Hyde Parker, and under him to lord Nelson, and rear-admiral Greaves. They sailed from Yarmouth on the 20th of March, and, forcing the passage of the Soimd, anchored before Copenhagen on the 30lh of the same month. The Danes had made very for- midable preparations for their reception : the battle commenced at ten o'clock on the 2nd of April, and continued with great fury for four hours. The result was the capture or destruction of eighteen sail of Danish ships. This victory struck the members of the confederacy with terror, and they were further weakened by the death of the emperor Paul, as his successor, Alexander, refused to join in the league against Britain. While the British arms were thus em- ployed before Copenhagen, accounts of the final success of her troops in Egypt reached England the day after the pre- liminary articles of peace had been sign- ed in London, by M. Otto on the part of the French republic, and lord Hawkes- bury on that of his Britannic majesty. By these. Great Britain agreed to restore all her conquests except the island of Trinidad, and the possession of Ceylon : the Cape of Good Hope was to be a free port to all the contracting parties ; the island of Malta was to be restored to the order of St. John of Jerusalem ; Egypt was given back to the Ottoman Porte, and Portugal was to be maintained in its integrity ; the territory of Rome and Naples was to be evacuated by the French, and France was to recognise the republic of the Seven Islands ; the fishery of Newfoundland was to be established on its former footing ; and, lastly, the contracting parties were to name the plenipotentiaries to meet at Amiens, for the formation of a definitive treaty. The definitive treaty was ratified in March, 1 802, and in the meanwhile the first con- sul displayed his restless ambition by sending a large armament to St. Domin- go, which obliged the British to send a powerful fleet to watch its motions. Towards the conclusion of this year, the subjugation of Switzerland by the consular armies of France, attracted gen- eral attention. Britain loudly remonstra- ted with the rider of France on his con- duct towards the brave Swiss. These remonstrances, however, as they were unaccompanied by any Avarlike disposi- tions, produced no efl^'ect ; and Switzer- land was placed in the hands of the first consul's dependents. About this time the French nation declared Bonaparte consul for life, with the power of nomi- nating his successor. On the 23rd of July, 1803, an insur- rection broke out in Ireland, which, from its supposed connection with the projects of the enemy, created considerable, and, as it appeared afterwards, undue alarm. Its instigators were a band of political enthusiasts, whose director and principal mover was Robert Emmett, a young man of distinguished talents. They had form- ed the design of establishing an inde- pendent Irish republic ; and hoped to accomplish it by striking a decisive blow GREAT BRITAIN. 387 in the capital, possessing themselves of the seat of government, and proclaiming a new constitution which they had pre- pared. An armed mob collected for this purpose, which marched through the principal streets of Dublin, unresisted, on their way to the Castle. They, how- ever, soon lost all sense of subordination to their leaders, and meeting a carriage in which were lord Kilwarden and his nephew Mr. Wolfe, they dragged them from it, and butchered them on the spot. One circumstance attended this act of atrocity which showed that the infatua- tion of popular fury could not wholly extinguish the inherent generosity of the Irish character. The daughter of the venerable and ill-fated nobleman was likewise in the carriage, and, to his earnest appeal to their humanity, they replied, that they would sacrifice him and his male companion, but they would spare the lady. They then allowed her to pass through their entire column without in- jury or interruption. The insurgents were at length dispersed, and the whole insurrection was speedily extinguished. On the communication of this event to parliament, a bill was passed for trying the rebels by martial law, and another for suspending the habeas corpus act in Ireland. Several of the leaders of the insurrection, among whom was Emmett, having been apprehended, were tried for high treason in Dublin, by a special commission, and underwent the sentence of the law. In consequence of the seizure of Han- over by the French armies, and the in- terruption of British commerce on the Elbe and Weser, a squadron now block- aded the mouths of these rivers ; and af- terwards compelled the French to aban- don the once important colony of St. Do- mingo. The negro chiefs, on this, issued a proclamation declaring the indepen- dence of the island. In the East Indies, under the able management of the marquis of Wellesley, Great Britain triumphed still more deci- dedly. To counteract any danger from a possible union of the Mahratta against the British interest, the marquis Corn- wallis, as early as 1789, had concluded the treaty of Poonah, which was after- wards frustrated by the ambition and ra- pacity of Dowlut Rao Scindia, who had succeeded Madhagee Scindia, in 1794, and whose conduct tended to favor the de- signs of France against the British em- pire in India. After a brilliant campaign of five months, a powerful confederacy was dis- solved by a treaty which extended and consolidated the dominions of the British, while it annihilated the influence of the French in India. The king, early in February, 1804, became seriously indisposed, and the country was agitated and alarmed at the sudden incompetency of the sovereign. His illness continued avowedly from the 14th of February to the 14th of March, when the lord chancellor declared that " the king was in such a state as to warrant the lords commissioners in giving the royal assent to several bills." A further proof of his convalescence was given by his appearance in public, and by the change of his ministers early in May, by which Mr. Pitt was placed at the head of the administration. Napoleon had for a considerable time been making extensive preparations for the invasion of Great Britain. But the result of the battle of Trafalgar, one of the most brilliant achievements in the annals of naval war, soon rendered his designs on that island almost hopeless. The commencement of hostilities with Spain, at the close of 1804, extended the circle of maritime war and victory to the Brit- ish navy. The French admiral, Ville- neuve, commanding the combined French and Spanish fleets, early in 1805, was pursued by lord Nelson, from the Medi- terranean to the West Indies. Villeneuve on his return to Europe, fell in with the British squadron commanded by sir R. Calder, oft' Cape Finisterre ; and after an engagement in which he lost two ships, made his way unmolested to Cadiz. On the 19th of October admiral Villeneuve came out of Cadiz with the combined French and Spanish fleets, and on the 21st was defeated by Nelson in a gen- eral engagement off" Trafalgar. This victory cost England the life of her greatest admiral, but utterly ruined the naval power of France and Spain. After 388 GREAT BRITAIN. r:=^-:r ^-^ z====. ===^^^^^^ ,^;,tji ipg^g Kl^^i^'l*: 1111^3^: ■■ ^l^^fr% Death of lord Nelson. the battle, the body of Nelson was brought home in the Victory, which he had com- manded in person, and in which he died. His funeral was solemnized at the public expense. The victory of Trafalgar, momentous as it was, only destroyed the weaker arm of France. It was not a coimterpoise to the triumph of Napoleon over Mr. Pitt's third and last coalition. He quit- ted Paris on the 24th of September, 1805, to join his army ; took Ulm on the 17th of October, with its artillery, maga- zines, and garrison of 30,000 men, and entered the capital of Austria, without resistance, on the 15th of November ; pursued the fugitive court of Vienna, and the allied armies of Austria and Russia, into Moravia ; and on the 2nd of December obtained the decisive A'ic- tory of Austerlitz, which put an end both to the campaign and the coalition, and made Napoleon the dictator of con- tinental Europe. These events are said to have hastened the death of Mr. Pitt, who expired a short time after the vic- tory of Trafalgar. A new administra- tion was in consequence formed, and Mr. Fox and lord Grenville were placed at the head of it. After this the prince of Wales took a more prominent station in the political events of the period. England and France now negotiated, for the first time since the revolution, in a tone of mutual conciliation and courtesy. Mr. Fox's hopes were not sanguine. His blended firmness and mildness, however, did much and might have done more, if his health had not given way before he had been four months in the ministry. The late hours and fatigue to which he was subjected as leader in the house of commons may be said to have proved fatal to him. A system of vexatious de- bate was organized against him in that house. Lord Castlereagh rose to debate "the princijjle" of the clause for limited service in the mutiny bill, after the prin- ciple had been already under discussion for eleven hours ; and between frivolous divisions and speaking against time, the house was kept sitting from four till seven in the morning. The ministers were released, even then, only by a sort of capitulation. Sheridan, when this sys- tem became apparent, proposed that the ministerial members, distributed into par- ties of twenty, should go home to rest, GREAT BRITAIN. 389 and come back to relieve guard after they had slept and breakfasted. Notwithstanding the severe illness of Mr. Fox, he continued to direct the ne- gotiations and dictate the despatches from his couch, until the progress of his disease rendered all application to business not only dangerous but impossible. On the 13th of September, 1806, he expired. The British campaigns of the penin- sular war, one of the most memorable in the annals of mutual destruction among nations, and decidedly the most memora- ble and glorious in the annals of Eng- land, began in the summer of this year. It is necessary, however, to recur for a moment to Napoleon's army, which was under the command of his favorite gene- ral, Junot, who at this period was in pos- session of Portugal, and had, by a master stroke of policy, obtained complete pos- session of Portugal without firing a single gim. The insurrection in Spain, how- ever, soon communicated itself across the frontier to his Spanish auxiliaries. Six- teen Spanish battalions revolted at Opor- to, and were disarmed by him, with the rest of their countrymen. His force was thus reduced to about 25,000 men. In- surrections now broke out in the north of Portugal ; he was threatened in his com- munications with France. The Spanish insurrection of Andalusia and Estrema- dura,and the appearance of a British force at Ayamonte, disturbed the province of the Algarves in the south. The French garrisons and detachments were, after a short time, generally enveloped in insur- rection, and in some minor conflicts over- powered by numbers ; Junot's position, already critical, seemed desperate upon the appearance of a British fleet in the Tagus, with general Spencer and his division on board. He called a council of officers ; the result of this and a second military council was, that Junot should concentrate his force upon Lisbon, with a view to defend the capital and left bank of the Tagus to the last extremity ; se- curing, at the same time, his retreat by Elvas, on Madrid, Segovia, or Valladolid. Whilst general Spencer, who had aban- doned Portugal, very opportunely for the French, was seeking, but not meeting, adventures in the south, and sir Arthur Wellesley, who had sailed from Cork on his first peninsular expedition, with from 9,000 to 10,000 men, was conferring with the junta of Gallicia and the Bishop of Oporto, Junot had time to execute the essential, and by far the most difficult part of his design — that of concentrating his forces towards Lisbon. Sir Arthur Wellesley began the landing of his troops on the 1st, at the little fortress of Figueira, but did not complete it until the 8th, and, being re-enforced by general Spencer, commenced his first movement on the 9th of August. The French general Laborde, with a force short of 3,000 men, advanced from Lisbon to watch and retard, rather than resist, the march of the British, gave battle on the 17th, at the village of Roli- ca, signalised himself in this unequal contest, and fell back in good order. On the 1 9th the British commander took a position in advance at the village of Vi- miera, where he halted twenty-four hours. On the night of the 20th, or rather at day-break on the 21st, a stafli'-officer has- tily announced to him the advance of Junot with his main army. Tlie British general would not believe it ; day-light, however, convinced him of the fact. An advanced guard of French cavalry was seen moving from Torres Vedras. The surprise of sir Arthur Wellesley was natu- ral; Junot's disposable force was scarcely half sir Arthur's, now further re-enforced by the divisions which had just landed under generals Acland and Anstruther ; but with extraordinary activity and bold- ness he had left Lisbon, concentrated his disposable forces at Torres Vedras, and, at the head of only 9,200 men, tried the hazard of a battle with 16,000 British troops, supported by Portuguese auxil- iaries. The French charged impetuously at several points, were foiled in the first shock by the steadiness and numbers of the British, and after a short but gallant conflict retreated on Torres Vedras, with the loss of ten pieces of cannon, and 2,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. Sir Harry Burrard had arrived to take the chief command on the 20th ; witness- ed the battle of the 21st as a spectator; took the command after the engagement, and overruled sir Arthur Wellesley's pro- posal for an immediate pursuit. He had 390 GREAT BRITAIN. also checked the advance of Sir Arthur the preceding day. The still formidable organization of the French in their re- treat, their great superiority in cavalry, the expectation of re-enforcements under sir John Moore, and the utter deficiency of the British in cavalry, cavalry and artillery horses, vv^ere the grounds of his opinion. The question between the two British commanders is speculative, un- certain, and purely military ; but the tide of opinion has run in favor of the great captain. Junot halted at a short distance from the field of battle, before the defile of Torres Vedras, re-formed his battalions with quickness and facility, and called a council of war. He held a second coun- cil next morning (the 22nd). Upon a comparison of his resources with those of the British, his position was judged untenable. It was resolved that nothing remained but to fall back upon Lisbon, and defend it to the last extremity, or obtain "an honorable capitulation." Ac- cordingly general Kellerman, son of the marshal, was sent to the British head- quarters, under pretence of conferring respecting the prisoners and wounded, with written terms of capitulation. Sir Harry Burrard, who had superseded sir Arthur Wellesley on the evening of the 21st, was himself superseded by sir Hew Dalrymple on the 22nd. The folly of such arrangements is obvious ; but it was ascribed to the ministers at home, who unwisely dictated points of attack, and the plan of the campaign, without an ade- quate knowledge of the country. Sir Hew had hardly assumed the command, when Kellerman was seen approaching with an escort of cavalry, and a flag of truce ; the result was the conclusion of an ar- mistice, and of the celebrated convention of Cintra, in pursuance of which the French were to be conveyed with their arms, baggage, and military honors, in British ships to France. Sir Hew Dalrymple was recalled, sir Arthur Wellesley returned on leave of ab- sence ; and after some time sir Harry Bur- rard resigned his command, and also came to England, and was succeeded by sir John Moore, who was now elevated to the chief command of the troops in Portugal. On the 6th of October sir John Moore received orders from England to advance with 25,000 men, into Spain, where he should be joined by 10,000 more, ac- tually on their way from England to Corunna, under the command of sir Da- vid Baird. It was left to his discretion whether he should enter Spain by sea or land. He chose the latter, set out on the 26th of October upon his fatal, but not in- glorious, expedition, reached the frontier at Almeida on the 8th, and occupied Salamanca with his advanced posts on the 13th of November. Supposing this direct route impossible by gun carriages and cavalry, he sent his artillery and cavalry with an escort by the circuitous route of Elvas, Badajos, Merida, and Talavera, to fall into and rejoin him by the great road of Madrid and Valladolid. This division of his force, and the addi- tional march of 150 leagues, has been severely judged by French military wri- ters ; not, however, as the fault of sir John Moore, but as part of the system of slow and safe movements adopted by the British generals. Sir John Moore ought, perhaps, to have staked the lives and eflbrts of his men with less caution and humanity. The French generals gave more to hazard, and drew more recklessly upon the stamina of human effort and endurance. Sir John Moore halted at Salamanca. His situation was one of the most discouraging. He found the course of operations dictated to him ill-chosen, the Spanish armies with which he was to co-operate dispersed, the Spanish junta ignorant, incapable, perverse, and Napoleon with his lieuten- ants bearing upon him with an over- whelming force ; his opinion wavered. This, in a great emergency, is more fatal than resolute error ; he determined to fall back upon Portugal, and sent the neces- sary orders to sir David Baird in Gallicia. Intelligence reached him that Madrid was imitating the resistance of Saragos- sa ; the junta and Mr. Frere urged upon him the enthusiasm of the Spaniards, and the necessity of operating to relieve " the heroic capital ;" he abandoned his intention of a retrograde movement, and formed the design of advancing upon Valladolid, so as to menace the enemy's i GREAT BRITAIN. 391 communications. An intercepted des- patch fortunately discovered to him an error which would have proved fatal, and the real position of the enemy. Madrid had held out but a single day ! A French corps was advancing by Talavera upon Badajos, under Lefebvre, to cut off his retreat upon Portugal ; another under Soult was marching to intercept the route to Corunna ; and Napoleon himself was advancing upon Valladolid with the corps of Ney, and the cavalry of the imperial guard under Bessieres, to manceuvre ac- cording to circumstances, with the hope of making the British lay down their arras. Moore, thus formidably pressed, marched upon Toro, formed a junction with Baird on the 21st of December, and concerted with the Spanish general, Romana, an attack upon the corps of Soult. Lord Paget distinguished him- self, in passing, by a brilliant affair of cavalry at Sahagun. The British troops supposed themselves approaching a de- cisive battle, and looked with confidence to the result. Napoleon, on the other hand, who was aware of the British movement against Soult, announced in an order of the day, " that the hour was at last arrived when the Engli.sh leopard sliould fly before the French eagles," and had his head quarters on the 25th at Tordesillas. Intelligence had, in the mean time, reached sir John Moore, that Soult, re- enforced by the corps of Junot, which had capitulated in Portugal, was advanc- ing upon Astorga, while Napoleon him- self was moving upon the same point by the great road of Madrid, with the corps of Ney and the cavalry of Bessieres. To risk a battle under such circumstan- ces could only have been folly. Di- viding his force, he retreated by two routes, upon Benevente, where he arrived on the 26th ; his rear-guard separated from the advanced-guard of the French only by the river Esla. The British had broken down the bridge in their rear. General Lefebvre Desnouettes forded the river at the head of three squadrons of the chasseurs of the imperial guard, at- tacked the British pickets, whom he thought unsupported, soon found himself enveloped by the British cavalry under Lord Paget and general Charles Stew- art (lord Londonderry,) retreated, and was wounded and made prisoner, with about seventy men, in his attempt to cross the Esla. The French again formed themselves on the opposite bank for a desperate charge to rescue their com- mander, when they found their return ef- fectually checked by the advance of five light field-pieces, which opened upon them with grape-shot. They fought gal- lantly, and retreated in good order from an overwhelming superiority of num- bers. Sir John Moore continued his retreat upon Villa Franca. It was now the end of December. The weather and roads were dreadful. Baggage, ammunition, and guns, were destroyed and abandoned, and horses shot by their riders, to pre- vent their falling into the hands of the en- emy. The army threw aside all discip- line, and the horrors of the retreat be- came indescribable. The men deserted their colors, abandoned themselves to pillage, and were left behind to perish by hunger, cold, drunkenness, the sabres of the enemy, or the rage and vengeance of the Spanish peasantry, infuriated by the excesses of the British on their route. The superior officers lost all control, and the inferior shared the excesses of the men. But the chief officers, in the first instance, had assumed the freedom of opinion, of a civil democracy ; and the body of the army, corrupted by their ex- ample, now committed the excesses of military anarchy. Sir John Moore un- happily lost his temper, and issued angry orders of the day, in a case demanding the sternness of Roman discipline. After a march of twenty-five leagues in forty- eight hours, sir John Moore arrived at Lugo, on the 6th of January. The en- cumbered state of the roads, occasioned by the quantity of baggage, ammunition, carts, guns, and slain horses, abandoned by the British, fortunately retarded the march of the French. Napoleon having ordered Marshal Soult to " drive the j English into the sea," bad fallen back upon Valladolid, whence he reached Paris on the 23rd of January, to prepare against the storm which had gathered I against him in Germany. 392 GREAT BRITAIN. Sir John halted his troops at Lugo, from | the 6th to the 9th. On the 8th, both ar- mies prepared for action. A partial af- fair took place, and sir John Moore con- tinued his retreat next morning. On the 11th, the British advanced-guard beheld the walls of Corunna and the sea with a cry of joy, like that which burst from the Greeks in the retreat of the 10,000. From the r2th to the 16th, sir John Moore was occupied in strengthen- ing his position and embarking his sick, wounded, cavalry, and part of his artille- ry ; ready to give battle, but unmolested by the French. On the 16th, marshal Soult, being now joined by the columns of his rear-guard, attacked the British. He charged the right with great impetu- osity ; but w^as repulsed by Moore's ju- diciously placed reserves. Sir David Baird, who commanded the right, had his right arm shot away ; and sir John Moore himself, Avhilst directing and cheering a charge of the forty-second, was mortally wounded by a cannon ball ; sir John Hope succeeded to the com- mand. The French were repulsed at all points. Night separated the combat- ants ; and next day the British troops were embarked for England. After the British army had embarked from Corunna, the French emperor bent all his eftbrts to the subjugation of Spain. A number of fugitives from the army of Castanos, which was defeated at Tudela on the 23rd of November, 1809, had re- treated to Saragossa, and, together with its martial citizens and armed peasants from the country, composed a body of 50,000 men, under the command of the renowned Palafox. The siege was con- ducted by the duke of Montebello, one of the ablest of the French generals. On the 26th of January the French made their grand attack. About noon on the following day the breach was practi- cable, and the assailants entered the city. General Lacosta, and a great number of their bravest officers and men, fell in the assault. The determined re- solution of the inhabitants, who disputed every inch of ground, and converted every house into a fortress, reduced the French to the necessity of mining and blowing up the houses. The Spaniards, on their part, had recourse to counter- mining ; and the effects of this subter- ranean war were dreadfully destructive. During these operations the batteries kept up an incessant fire ; and, by mining and blowing up the houses as they pro- ceeded, the French, on the 17th of Feb- ruary, at length became masters of the city. No fewer than 20,000 of its brave defenders were at this time buried under its ruins. A series of disasters now occurred to the patriot cause. The French army in Catalonia made three powerful attacks on that of the Spaniards under general Reding. In the last of these the Span- ish general, after an obstinate conflict, in which he was severely wounded, was on the 12th of March, driven from his posi- tion, and compelled to retire to Tan-ago- na. Soon after general Cuesta was de- feated on the 29th of March, at Medel- lin, and obliged to retreat to Monasterio. The patriots about this time recovered Vigo ; but their casual advantages were sunk in the long train of disasters which followed, and the French made them- selves masters of the centre of Spain. On the 22nd of x\pril, sir Arthur Wel- lesley landed at Lisbon, with large re-en- forcements. Instantly repairing to Coim- bra, he put himself at the head of the allied forces, and advanced against Opor- to, at the same time detaching marshal Beresford to occupy the fords of the Up- per Douro. Here marshal Soult, finding himself in danger of being attacked, judged it necessary to retreat into Galli- cia. Meanwhile, marshal Victor had made himself master of Alcantara ; upon which the British commander returned to the south, and Victor retired to his for- mer station on the Gaudiana. Sir Arthur Wellesley, on the 20th of July, effected his junction with Cuesta at Oropesa ; but marshal Victor, aware of his danger, had by this time crossed the Tagus. The British and Portuguese ar- my now marched along the banks of the river towards Olalla, and took an advan- tageous position near Talavera de la Reyna. Early, on the morning of the 28th, the enemy attacked the 13ritish in force, making a demonstration also on the opposite quarter. The battle contin- GREAT BRITAIN. 393 ued at intervals during the whole day, and ended in the final repulse of the French. Marshals Ney, Soult, and Mortier, then advanced in great force upon the rear of the allies, and it became necessary for them to retreat to Badajos. On the east- ern side of the peninsula, general Blake, after a fruitless attempt to recover Sara- gossa, was attacked and totally routed by the duke of Albufera (marshal Suchet) on the 1 9th of June ; and this disaster was followed by a much greater : for the central army, said to consist of 50,000 men, under the marquis Anizaga, advanc- ing upon Madrid, with the view of pass- ing the Tagus at Aranjuez, was encoun- tered on the 19th November, by the French, under king Joseph, assisted by the marshals Soult, Mortier and Victor, at O^ana, near the south bank of that river, when the action terminated in a signal victory on the part of the French. The vanquished army retreated in con- fusion beyond the mountains. In the month of December the strong and im- portant fortress of Gerona, after a long resistance, surrendered to marshal Au- gereau. An undertaking of some moment oc- cupied the attention of the British min- istry during the summer of 1 809 : the memorable Walcheren expedition. To- wards the end of July an army of 40,000 men was collected under the command of the earl of Chatham, assisted by a na- val force, under the direction of sir Rich- ard Strachan. The principal object of the expedition was to gain possession of the islands commanding the entrance of the Scheldt, and the port of Flushing. The armament invested Flushing on the 1st of August. A dreadful cannon- ade and bombardment commenced on the 13th, which on the 15th produced from the commander of the garrison, general Monnet, a request for a suspension of arms. This was followed by the surren- der of nearly 6,000 men prisoners of war. During the sieg-s of this place, a great number of troops from the Belgic and nearest French provinces, were assem- bled for the defence of Antwerp ; so that an attack upon that important place, and the fleet lying under its fortifications, 50 whatever might have been its success at the commencement of the enterprise, was now thought too hazardous. The troops Ukewise were becoming sickly, and lord Chatham was induced to depart for Eng- land on the 14th of September, with the greatest part of his army. In the middle of September, a requisition was made for a number of the peasantry of the island to repair and strengthen the fortifications of Flushing ; and, near the end of October, a hundred artificers ar- rived from England with building materi- als. Towards the middle of November, however, the demolition of the works and basin for shipping was begun ; and on the 23rd of December, Walcheren was completely evacuated by the British army, one-half of which were either dead or on the sick list. Lord CoUingwood, who had succeed- ed Nelson in the chief command of the ships in the Mediterranean, having pro- posed to general Stuart an expedition against the islands of Zante, Cephalonia, and others, whilst the French should be occupied with the defence of Naples, a joint force from Messina, Malta, and Cor- fu, was arranged for this purpose, and on the first of October, it anchored in the bay of Zante. On the following day, a capitulation was agreed on, by which all that group of islands surrendered to the British arms, and the old government was restored. Mr. Jefferson having been succeeded in the office of president of the United States of America, by Mr. Madison, in 1809, the embargo, which had been se- verely felt from its long continuance, was repealed, and an act substituted prohibit- ing all intercourse with France and Eng- land, with a proviso, that, if either na- tion rescinded its obnoxious decrees, the prohibition relative to that nation should cease. Mr. Erskine, the English envoy in America, was consequently empower- ed to promise, that, if the American in- terdiction of July, 1807, were withdrawn, the commerce of America with the French colonies, should be placed on the same footing as in times of peace, the British cruisers being allowed to capture all vessels trading contrary to this re- striction. But Mr. Erskine ventured also, 394 GREAT BRITAIN. without proper authority, to declare the orders in council rescinded from the 10th • of June, 1809, on the general engage- ment " that an envoy extraordinary would be received by the president, with a dis- position correspondent to that of his Britannic majesty." The British gov- ernment, however, refused its ratification to this agreement. At the commencement of 1 8 1 the cause of Spanish independence, as far as it de- pended on the people of Spain, was al- most hopeless. The most interesting events of the campaign occurred on the side of Portugal. I'he great eftbrt of France was to obtain entire possession of that country. For this purpose it had been determined to commence with the reduction of the fort of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida. As soon, therefore, as the capture of Oviedo and Astorga had set at liberty a part of the French troops employed to keep in check the Spaniards of the northern provinces, marshal Ney began to invest the former, and it sur- rendered July 10th. In the mean time marshal Massena arrived from France, to take the command of the army destined for the conquest of Portugal, and con- sisting of about 80,000 men. Almeida was next invested, and the trenches were opened in the middle of August. It was garrisoned by 5,000 men, partly English and partly Portuguese, commanded by British oihcers, and its governor was brigadier-general Cox. The vigor of the defence would proba- bly have long retarded its fall, had not a bomb alighted on the principal magazine, which occasioned a terrible and most destructive explosion. Massena now withheld his fire, and sent a flag of truce offering terms of capitulation, which, on the 27th of August, were acceded to. The great contest for the possession of the country was now to commence. Dur- ing the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo the prin- cipal post of the British army was at Guarda, whence the French lines might be described, but nothing of consequence could be undertaken for its relief. After the surrender of Almeida, lord Welling- ton concentrated the different divisions of the allied army, and began his retreat towards Lisbon. He had formed a de- fensive plan, to which he steadily ad- hered. At the same time he put fully into practice the efficacious though severe policy of entirely destroying all the re- sources of the coimtry in the line of march. On the 21st of September all the force under Massena was concentra- ted at Viseu, where he halted for a time ; during which lord Wellington passed to the right of the Mondego, and occupied with his centre and left wing the Si- erra Busaco, which extends to that river. Massena, on arriving in front of his po- sition on the 26th, resolved upon an at- tack. The French pushed up the heights with great courage in different parts, and one division reached the sum- mit of the ridge ; they were, however, met with equal resolution at the point of the bayonet, and were finally repulsed with great loss, 2,000 men being left on the field. The loss of the English and Portuguese was also considerable. Mas- sena now made a circuitous march upon Coimbra ; but lord Wellington anticipa- ted his object, and arrived there before him. The place, however, affording no advantages for defence, he continued his retreat to the strong lines of Torres Vedras. The isles of Bourbon and France, in the Indian Ocean, which had so long been a great annoyance to the East India trade, were this year brought under the dominion of Great Britain. Lord Minto, governor-general of India, having laid the plan for their reduction, a body of Europeans and Sepoys, about 1,600 of each, sailed from Madras, and, being joined by about 1 ,000 more from another settlement, the whole under the command of lieutenant-colonel Keating, with a fleet of men-of-war and transports, the expe- dition arrived early in July off the island of Bourbon. Dispositions were made for an attack on the principal town, St. Denis, but it was prevented, on the 8th, by an offer to capitulate on honorable terms, Avhich were granted. The other town, St. Paul, was taken possession of on the 10th, and the whole island sub- mitted. In the month of November, a body of troops, consisting of 8,000 or 10,000, from India and the Cape of Good Hope, GREAT BRITAIN. 395 commanded by major-general sir John Abercrombie, and a fleet mider admiral Bertie, took possession of the Mauritius, or Isle of France. The garrison was sent to France, and to be at their own disposal. This was the most valuable of the remaining French possessions to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. Three frigates were afterwards des- patched to destroy the French batteries on the coast of Madagascar, which being eftected, there was not left to France, at the beginning of the following year, any portion of land in either the East or West Indies, nor yet any in the Indian Ocean. The differences between the govern- ments of Great Britain and the United States of America still remained unad- justed. On the recall of Mr. Erskine, Mr. Jackson had been sent to succeed him ; but the firm and unyielding tone taken by him, with the disavowal of Mr. Erskine's agreement, contributed to ren- der him unacceptable ; and the American plenipotentiary in London was instructed to demand his recall. Mr. Galatin, treasurer of the States, now sent letters to the different collectors of the customs, announcing the abolition of the restric- tions with regard to France, she having revoked her edicts, but declaring that they would be revived in full force with regard to Great Britain on the ensuing 2nd day of February, should she not in like manner have revoked her decrees. By a second letter he gave his opinion that in the case above mentioned, all British goods arriving subsequently to the 2nd of February would be forfeited. The princess Amelia expired on the 2nd of November, 1810, and the king's mind received a shock from the illness and death of the princess, from which he never recovered. The Prince of Wales now took upon himself the execu- tive duties as regent. The regency par- liament was opened on the 12th of Feb- ruary, 1811. The British campaign of 1812 in the peninsula was signalised only by the victory of Salamanca and the retreat of Burgos. The British troops occupied the frontier of Portugal, in an attitude which menaced Ciudad Rodrigo, whilst the French were disposed in an extended line from Salamanca to Toledo. Lord Wellington, taking advantage of the want of concentration of the French, and the detachment of two French corps on par- ticular services, invested Ciudad Rodrigo on the 8th, took it by assault on the 1 9th of January, and was created by the cortes duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, and a grandee of the first class. Having put this place in a state of defence, he re-occupied for a moment his position on the Coa ; and invested the stronger place of Badajos on the 16th of March. The garrison was still commanded by the French gen- eral Philippon, who had distinguished himself by his successful defence of the place in the preceding year. The trench- es were opened by the British on the night of the 17th. Part of the works were destroyed by an impetuous sally of the garrison on the 1 9 th. On the morn- ing of the 26th a fort, called La Picurina, was furiously cannonaded, and taken by storm in the evening. The garrison made a desperate, but ineffectual sally to recover it. On the 6th of April the bat- teries had effected three practicable breaches. At ten at night three columns advanced to the breaches, whilst another division proceeded to escalade a castle to the right, on the Giiadiana. The as- sault at all points was terrible. After two hours' carnage the castle and the breaches were carried, and the besieged driven in from the outworks. The fight- ing continued nearly two hours more in the streets, until general Philippon, who had retreated into a church with what remained of the garrison, surrendered. The loss was so dreadful on the side of the assailants as to render it doubtful whether the capture was a sufficient compensation. Marshal Soult was in the mean time marching from Seville for the relief of Badajos, and already within two days' march, when he received news of its fall. He immediately turned back upon Andalusia, and was pursued and harassed in his rear-guard by a division of British cavalry under sir Stapleton Cotton. Lord Wellington, having left the Gua- diana, proceeded with his main army against marshal Marmont,who had cross- ed the frontier into Beira. Marmont 396 GREAT BRITAIN. having made a demonstration against Almeida, advanced to Sabugal ; but in- formed of the movement of Wellington, repassed the Agiieda on the 23rd of April. While Marmont w^as engaged in making corresponding dispositions, general Hill Avas despatched by lord Wellington to attack the strong fort and bridge of Alma- rez, on the Tagus. General Hill exe- cuted this service by a brilliant coup-de- main, and having destroyed the bridge and forts, cut ofl" the communication be- tween Marmont and Soult. On the 12th of June, lord Wellington crossed the Agueda, and encamped on the 16th within two leagues of Salamanca. Marshal Marmont at the same time aban- doned Salamanca, moved upon the Douro, and crossed it on the 29th at Tordesillas, where he received a strong re-enforcement. After various movements and partial affairs, the two main armies, under Wel- lington and Marmont, came to a general engagement, on the 22nd of July, at the heights called Arapiles, near Salamanca. The time from day-break to one o'clock passed in preliminary movements, and partial attacks. Marmont then opened a heavy fire upon the allied front, and the Portuguese gave way. This advantage was followed on the part of Marmont by complicated movements, executed with- out that unison and vivacity which could alone cover their irregularity and compli- cation. A French division separated and committed itself by a rash movement in advance against the British right. Lord Wellington perceived both errors, and took advantage of them by strengthening his right, and making an impetuous attack. This masterly movement decided the battle, and has obtained the praise of all the French historians of the campaign. On the 23rd the retreating French met the advanced guard of king Joseph, on his way to join Marmont. That general had precipitated the engagement under very disadvantageous circumstances, and it had in consequence failed. Clausel retreated through Valladolid upon Burgos. liOrd Wellington having continued in hot pursuit of the enemy to Valladolid, which he occupied on the 30th, had his head quarters on the 4th of August at Cuellar, where he posted a strong detachment to observe the line of the Douro, arrived at Segovia on the 5th, and marched through the mountain roads and passes to Madrid. The Spanish capital was evacuated by king Joseph on the 1 1th ; and entered by lord Wellington, amidst enthusiastic de- monstrations of joy, on the 12th of Au- gust. The army of Marmont was still disorganised, and that of king Joseph too weak to make head against lord Welling- ton. Soult saw that nothing short of a concentration of the French armies could compel lord Wellington to fall back upon Portugal, and accordingly raised the siege of Cadiz, with the intention of abandoning Andalusia, on the 25th of August. This event was more important, and created a greater sensation, than even the flight of Joseph from the capital. The cortes, so long pent up in the Isle of Leon, were now free, and with a wis- dom rarely exercised in moments of ex- ultation, conferred on lord Wellington the command in chief of the Spanish armies. The capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos had raised him from a vis- count to an earl ; the victory of Sala- manca and occupation of Madrid, made him a marquis. General Clausel, finding that lord Wellington no longer pursued him, and had bent his course upon Madrid, re-oc- cupied ValladoUd on the 19th of August; re-organised his army ; was re-enforced by general Souham, and sent out a strong detachment, which compelled general Anson to recross the Douro. Lord Wel- lington, startled by this offensive attitude of an army which he had thought wholly incapacitated, left Madrid on the 1st, and arrived at Valladolid on the 5th of Sep- tember. Clausel again retreated upon Burgos. Souham here took the command in place of Clausel, who was suflering from his wound received at the battle of Salamanca, left a garrison of 1 ,800 or 2,000 men in the castle of Burgos, and removed his head-quarters to Briviesca. Lord Wellington had not the neces- sary battering train for a regular siege ; but Burgos was the only dep6t which remained to the French army of Portugal, and he determined to attempt the capture of this fortress by breaches, mines, and assaults. After thirty-five days' siege, GREAT BRITAIN. 397 during which he sprang four mines, made five breaches, aud as many assaults, and encountered two vigorous sallies, he abandoned the enterprise, and commen- ced a retreat, which proved nearly as disastrous as that of sir John Moore, and, by his own account, still more disorderly. Lord Wellington threw away time, and above 2,000 men, upon the castle of Bur- gos, with a fatal pertinacity ; he found at last the united armies of king Joseph and Soult bearing upon him, the army of Marmont (under Souham) threatening his communications, and nothing left to him but a precipitate escape back to the Douro. This retreat continued from the 20th of October to the 24th of November, when Wellington arrived at his former head-quarters on the frontier of Portugal. King Joseph returned once more to Madrid ; Soult, who took the chief com- mand of the combined French armies, established his head-quarters at Toledo, with his right resting on Salamanca ; and lord Wellington took up his winter quar- ters in a strongly protected line upon the frontier. The campaign was now ended. Whilst the lieutenants of Napoleon were thus engaged with the British in the peninsula, he pursued in person his career of valor, victory, and military genius, from Wilna to Moscow, and at the close of the Spanish campaign was already surrounded with the horrors of his Russian retreat. The campaign of this year in Spain commenced with an attack of Suchet's (13th of April) on the line of the allies, in which, however, he was repulsed. Before the end of May, lord Wellington moved in great force by the route of Sal- amanca towards Madrid ; the new king once more quitting the capital. On the approach of the British, the enemy con- tinued his march towards the Ebro. The allies, by a sudden movement to the left, having crossed that river near its source, found the French encamped in front of the town of Vittoria, under the command of Joseph Bonaparte and marshal Jour- dan ; Soult having been summoned to the aid of Napoleon. On the 21st of June, lord Wellington resolved upon at- tacking them. The battle began with a severe contest for the heights of Arlan- zon, on the left of the French. These being at length carried by general Hill, he passed a rivulet which ran through the valley, as did general Picton at the head of another division. Nearly at the same time general Graham, on the oppo- site wing, forced his passage over two bridges thrown across the stream ; on which, after a severe contest, the whole French army retreated in good order on Vittoria, whence they continued their march towards Pampeluna. A great number of cannon, and stores of all kinds to a vast amount, now fell into the hands of the allies, and the retreat of the French became so rapid as not to permit them to carry off their baggage; 115 pieces of cannon, and 415 wagons of ammunition, fell into the hands of the victors. The centre of the French retreating army having maintained itself on the Spanish side of the frontier, general Hill made an attack upon them with a com- bined force of British and Portuguese, and obliged them to withdraw into France. Marshal Soult joined the army on the 13th of July. On the 24th, he collected his right and left wings, and a part of his centre, at St. Jean Pied de Port, to the amoimt of 30,000 or 40,000 men, and made an attack on an English post at Roncevalles, in which he was victo- rious, and the neighboring posts were consequently withdrawn. Various ope- rations of attack and defence were now carried on. The siege of St. Sebastian had, in the meantime, been proceeding under sir Thomas Graham ; and an un- successful attempt to storm the place had been made on the 25th of July, which occasioned severe loss. On the 31st of August it was again stormed by order of lord Wellington, and though attended with peculiar and unforeseen difficulties, the effort succeeded, at the cost of 2,300 in killed and wounded. On the 7th of October, lord Welling- ton entered France, by crossing the Bi- dassoa at different fords. The strong fortress of Pampeluna, which had been blockaded from the time of the battle of Vittoria, was induced to accept of a ca- pitulation on the 31st. Lord Wellington 398 GREAT BRITAIN, now put into execution a plan which he had projected to force the centre of the enemy, and estabUsh the alhed army in the rear of their right. The attack was made on the 10th of November, and af- ter a variety of actions, which occupied the whole day, the purpose was attained. The French, during the night, quitted all their works and posts in front of St. Jean de Leon ; and, being pursued on the next day, retired to an intrenched camp in front of Bayonne. On the 9th of De- cember the river Nive was crossed by a part of the allied army ; and on the four following days several desperate attacks were made by the French during the completion of this passage, which were finally repelled, and the enemy, after great loss, withdrew to his intrench- ments. The British and Portuguese, during these days, lost between 4,000 and 5,000 in killed, wounded and miss- ing. The year closed with lord Wel- lington's obtaining a firm footing on the French territory. In 1812, war was declared by the United States against Great Britain. The Americans directed their principal efforts against Canada. They were, however, unable to effect any thing of importance in the way of conquest. On the ocean they were much more success- ful. A treaty of peace between the two powers was signed at Ghent, December 25th, 1814. The great battle of Waterloo was fought June 18th, 1815. (See Nether- lands.) This is one of the most impor- tant events in British history. It decided the fate of Napoleon, and gave peace to Europe. The marriage of the princess Charlotte, on the 3rd of May, 1816, was an event which excited the greatest joy. All the circumstances tended to give un- alloyed satisfaction. It was a marriage of choice, in which political calculations had no weight. The chosen husband was the third son of a minor German prince, a captain of cavalry in the Aus- trian service, with hardly any other for- tune than his sword. His advantages of person, the reputation of an amiable character, and an accomplished mind, and, above all, his being the choice of the princess, made him the popular idol of the hour. At nine in the evening, the marriage was solemnised with extraor- dinary magnificence in the apartment called the crimson chamber, in Carlton House. The duke of Clarence introdu- ced the bride, and the prince regent gave her away. In the course of the ensuing summer it was observed that the princess and her father did not meet as frequent- ly as they had previously done. This circumstance was ascribed to their hav- ing again disagreed about the princess of Wales, it being then the intention of the regent to separate himself from his wife by a divorce. But the plan was abandoned through the spirited conduct of her daughter, and no open act of hos- tility was entered into against the prin- cess of Wales during the life of the princess Charlotte. The death of the young princess took place on the 18th of November, a few hours after having given birth to a still-born child. On the 23rd of January, 1820, died the duke of Kent, fourth son of George III, a prince of humane and manly character, leaving behind him an infant princess, a few months old, since become heir pre- sumptive to the crown. On the following 28th of the same month died George III, and it is pleasing to observe that he had scarcely a moment of physical pain to disturb his last hour. George IV went through the usual for- malities on his accession to the throne ; and the ministers of the regent, having resigned their seals of office to the king, received them back as a matter of course. The remains of George III were deposit- ed in that last abode of royalty in Eng- land, the vauh in St. George's Chapel at Windsor, on the 16th of February. Parliament had adjourned from the 2nd to the 1 7th of February. On that day lord Castlereagh presented a message from the crown, announcing a speedy j dissolution, and recommending an imme- 1 diate provision for the indispensable exi- gencies of the state, in the interval be- tween the dissolution of the present and > the return of a new parliament. A simi- j lar communication was made by lord Liv- ' erpool to the house of lords. After ad- j dresses of condolence had been voted to , the king and the duchess of Kent, some GREAT BRITAIN. 899 strictures had been passed by the oppo- sition on the singularity of making parlia- ment formally acquainted with the period of its duration beforehand, and the sup- plies had been brought under discussion, a topic by far the most marked, not alone of the year, but of the age, in this coun- try, was incidentally touched on. The late princess of Wales, now queen of George IV, was no longer prayed for in the liturgy. Mr. Hume condemned this omission. Lord Castlereagh deprecated the discussion of so delicate a matter. The members of the opposition, who were in the confidence and interest of the queen, either from want of communi- cation with her, or the fear of acting prematurely, maintained a guarded re- serve. About this period a conspiracy was discovered to have been formed by an individual named Thistlewood, and a band of about a dozen murderous despe- radoes. Their plot was to murder the ministers of the crown whilst sitting at a cabinet dinner at the house of Lord Har- rowby, then rush out, raise the standard of insurrection, and constitute themselves the heads of a provisional government. The plot was disclosed to the ministers, who made arrangements for surprising the savage criminals in their den, at the moment when they were to issue from it for the perpetration of their crime. They were captured on the 23rd of February, by the police and military, in Cato-street near the Edgware road, and after a strict examination and trial, several of them were executed. The public mind was now engaged and excited by one engrossing topic — the dis- sensions between George IV and his con- sort. The queen's movements from the Alps towards England, during the latter part of the month of May, were announced by her friends with menacing triumph, and watched by her husband and his party with much bravado, but with manifest signs of fear. It may here, however, be expedient, to advert for a moment to some preceding circumstances. The degradation of the princess of Wales had been contemplated two years before, and abandoned only through the remonstrances of her daughter. Scarcely however had the princess Charlotte de- scended into the grave, when the sub- ject was secretly revived. In 1818, two emissaries had been sent to Italy, charged with a secret commission to collect evi- dence respecting the conduct of the prin- cess of Wales. Arrived at Milan, these persons (Messrs. Coke and Powel) were joined by two other agents — colonel Browne, an Englishman well acquainted with the language and character of the people, and an Italian named Vimercati. This commission sat for a considera- ble time, and collected a great mass of evidence. The accession of her husband placed the princess in a new and curious situa- tion. She had ceased to be princess of Wales, and not having been duly an- nounced, was not recognized as queen of England. But neither the forms of diplo- macy abroad, nor the regal power and hatred of her husband at home, could de- prive her of the new and important rights with which she became invested as queen consort. The accession of George IV, had but recently taken place when he proposed to his cabinet to commence proceedings against her. His object was a divorce ; but by the process contem- plated, she would be put upon her trial for high treason. The ministers had be- fore them at this time the whole of the evidence taken by the Milan commission- ers, but they still declined proceeding ; and, finding the king intractable, tendered their resignations. For twenty-four hours the crown was without responsible min- isters ; an attempt made to form an ad- ministration under lord Wellesley failed, and the former ministers were reinstated. The first overt act against the queen was the exclusion of her name from the liturgy in its new form. After a fruitless negotiation between lord Hutchinson and Mr. Brougham, the queen at once returned to England. She landed at Dover on the 6th of June. Nei- ther the king nor his ministers contem- plated her arrival, and the commandant received her with a royal salute. Had this ceremony been omitted, the vast multitude, the banners, the shouts, and the real enthusiasm which met her on the beach, would have consoled her. 400 GREAT BRITAIN. From Dover to London, her journey was a continually increasing triumphant pro- cession. The metropolis poured out her vast population, as if to give her assu- rance that she had friends. The proces- sion w^ent along Pall Mall, — halted for a moment, accidentally or from design be- fore Carlton House, and shouted its cla- morous exultation in the ears of her hus- band. It was said that he saw her from one of the upper windows, and remarked in terms of levity and aversion, how well she looked. No residence was prepared for her ; and she proceeded to the house of alderman Wood, in South Audley- street. Parliament was sitting at the time. The king went in state to give the royal assent to such bills as had passed both houses ; and, having gone through this ceremony, left lord Liverpool charged with the fol- lowing message, to be immediately on his departure delivered to the house of lords : — " The king thinks it necessary, in con- sequence of the arrival of the queen, to communicate to the house of lords certain papers respecting the conduct of her ma- jesty since her departure from this king- dom, which he recommends to the imme- diate and serious attention of this house. " The king has felt the most anxious desire to avert the necessity of disclo- sures and discussions, which must be as painful to his people as they can be to himself; but the step now taken by the queen leaves him no alternative. " The king has the fullest confidence that, in consequence of this communica- tion, the house of lords will adopt that course of proceeding which the justice of the case, and the honor and dignity of his majesty's crown may require. " George R." The papers referred to were laid on the table under seal, in a green bag. A similar message and sealed bag were pre- sented to the house of commons by lord Castlereagh. Both ministers announced the intention to move an address to the king, and the reference of the papers to a secret committee on the following day. A solemn silence was observed by the lords, probably from an impression that their house would be constituted a high court to try the queen. In the house of commons several op- position members expressed themselves with great vehemence on the subject. The proceedings of both houses on the 7th, were looked to with the deepest in- terest. Lord Liverpool having moved a ceremonial address, which contained no pledge or opinion, proposed that the pa- pers on the table should be submitted to a secret committee of fifteen peers, to be appointed by ballot. It was hitherto pre- sumed, that the course to be pursued against the queen, was an impeachment for treasonable conspiracy. Lord Liver- pool announced that such a course could not be adopted. The queen's alleged partner in guilt, Bergami, an alien, was not amenable as a traitor to the crown of England : to constitute conspiracy there must be at least two criminals ; and the queen, therefore, could not be accused of having conspired. The pro- ceeding by impeachment was understood to have been already adopted in the cab- inet, when this new and obvious light fortunately crossed the mind of the chan- cellor. The address was agreed to with- out opposition, and the secret committee appointed by ballot the following day. On the 26th of June, whilst the secret committee were still sitting, lord Dacre presented a petition from the queen, in which she protested against any secret inquiry, demanded time to bring her wit- nesses from abroad, and requested to be heard by her counsel. Messrs. Brougham, Denman, and Williams, afterwards pre- sented themselves at the bar. The first two spoke with great energy of the hard- ships of the queen's case, and the neces- sity of delay. On the 4th of July the secret committee made its report. Lord Dacre next day presented a petition from the queen, to be heard against it by her coimsel. This was refused; and lord Liverpool, in pursuance of the report, brought in a bill of pains and penalties. It was entitled " An act to deprive her majesty queen Caroline Amelia Elizabeth of the title, prerogatives, rights, privileges, and exemptions of queen consort of this realm, and to dissolve the marriage be- tween his majesty and the said Caroline GREAT BRITAIN. 401 Tnal of Queen Caroline. Amelia Elizabeth." The bill was read a first time, and a copy ordered to be sent to the queen. The first reading having taken place, counsel were heard on behalf of the queen ; but with the restriction that they should limit themselves to the time and mode of proceeding. The second read- ing was fixed for the 17th of August. — On the 1 1th of July the queen petitioned, and on the 14th lord Erskine moved that she should be furnished with a list of the witnesses against her. This advantage she would have had of right, in common with every other British subject, were the form of proceeding an indictment or impeachment for high treason. But the majority of the lords, under the direction of lord Eldon, took advantage of a legal technicality to withhold from her the great aegis of the subject against perjured wit- nesses and the abuse of the power of the crown. A specification of the charges, which she declared was necessary for enabling her to produce defensive evidence, was also refused. On the 19th of August, lords Grey and King made successive and ineffec- tual attempts, by motions, to quash the 51 investigation ; after which the attorney- general stated his case in support of the bill. This statement occupied two days, the 1 9th and 2 1 st of August. The close of it was drowned by drums, trumpets, and tumultuous acclamations, which an- nounced the approach of the queen. The examination of the witnesses immedi- ately began, and soon produced a re- markable incident. The queen upon hearing the clerk of the house call the name of Theodore Majocchi, the third witness, started from her seat with an indis- tinct cry, and retired from the scene. He had long been her confidential servant ; and her cry no doubt originated in surprise and indignation at his ungrateful treachery. The limits of this article will not per- mit us to detail the records of the inves- tigation. On the 7th of September the case against the queen was closed. An adjournment took place, to allow the ne- cessary time for preparation to the other side. On the 3rd of October Mr. Broug- ham stated the queen's defence at great length, and with surpassing power. He was ably followed by Mr. Williams on the same side. The examination of the queen's witnesses continued to the 24th of October. 402 GREAT BRITAIN. The evidence against the bill being closed, Mr. Denman went over the case, not only with distinguished eloquence, but with a freedom and fearlessness which reached the utmost license of defence. The kings's attorney and solicitor oc- cupied four days, the' 27th, 28th, 29th, and 30th, in replying. All the counsel on both sides who spoke, eminently dis- tinguished themselves. The examina- tion of witnesses and the addresses of counsel having been brought to a close the discussion on the second reading of the bill began on the 2nd, and continued by adjournment to the 6th of November. It was then read a second time, by a ma- jority of 123 to 95. Lord Dacre was charged by the queen with a protest, which he presented to the house. The queen not having appeared in person at the bar, it was received only as her rep- resentation of her case. The house having gone into committee, a discussion took place on the divorce clause. Some bishops, and other supporters of the bill, resisted this clause from religious scru- ples, or the dread of recrimination by the queen upon her husband, of which a significant menace was thrown out at the commencement of the proceedings by Mr. Brougham. But the opposition peers voted for it, and it was carried by a majority of 120 to 62. This majority, the result of a parliamentary manoeuvre, proved fatal on the third reading. Many peers, who would have voted for the bill without, voted against it with the divorce clause ; and, on the 10th of November, it was read a third time by a dishearten- ing majority of 108 to 99. The queen petitioned to be heard by counsel against its passing. Lord Liverpool, in reply, declared that, with so small a majority, in the actual state of the public feeling, he and his colleagues abandoned the bill. The house adjourned over to the 26th of November. In the interval the queen demanded, and was refused, a royal pal- ace for her residence. On the 26th, af- ter the routine business of the house of commons had been gone through, Mr. Denman rose to present a message from the queen on the subject of this refusal. He h^d but just commenced reading it, ! when the usher of the black rod present- ed himself at the bar. His appearance caused an explosion of loud and tumult- uous murmurs. His lips moved, but not a word spoken by him could be heard. The speaker, however, left the chair, paced the floor amidst cries of shame, and other exclamations of more distinct import, proceeded to the house of lords, with the ministers and their friends in his train, and was informed that the ses- sion of parliament was prorogued. Thus ended, in defeat and disgrace, the do- mestic war which George IV carried on for twenty-five years against his consort. The next session of parliament com- menced on the 22nd of January, 1821, and it was opened by the king in person, with a speech characterized by a great degree of moderation. In the mean time the queen enjoyed a protracted tri- umph over her husband and her enemies, for days and even weeks after the evi- dence had been closed against her, per- sons of rank and character, who had previously stood aloof, now made her visits of respectful attention, whilst the road to her residence at Brandenburgh House was thronged with processions, bearing addresses of support and con- gratulation, and the tables of the houses of both lords and commons at the same time were loaded with petitions in her favor. The pretensions of her majesty were supported by strong minorities, and lord Tavistock moved a resolution of censure on the general system of meas- ures pursued against her, which, although not carried, tended to show the power she still had over the minds of the peo- ple. On the 11th of July, 1821, the house of commons was once more, and for the last time, occupied with the sub- ject of the queen. Mr. Hume moved an address to the king, the object of which was to secure the queen's participation in the honors of the approaching corona- tion ; the usher of the black rod knocked at the door whilst he was reading his resolution, and the session was immedi- ately prorogued. The coronation was fixed to take place on the 19th of July, and a correspond- ence took place between the queen and lord Liverpool, in which she demanded, GREAT BRITAIN. 403 and the minister refused her, participa- tion in the ceremony. She next memo- riahzed the privy council in support of her claim. A committee of the privy council, after hearing Mr. Brougham and Mr. Denman on her side, and the attor- ney-general on the other, decided against her. She then demanded, without effect from lord Sidmouth, the home secretary, and lord Howard of Effingham, the dep- uty earl marshal, a suitable place to view the ceremony ; and her last appeal was to the archbishop of Canterbury, by whom she desired to be crowned a day or two after the king, but the archbishop said that he could act only in obedience to his majesty. The morning of the 19th shone brightly upon the splendid ceremonial of the cor- onation, when the queen, unmoved by the entreaties of her friends, proceeded to the door of the Abbey, but was refused admittance by the officers on duty, and she was compelled to retire amidst ming- led expressions of disapprobation and applause. The proud spirit and mascu- line energy of the queen supported her but a short time longer ; and on the 30th of July, whilst at Drury Lane Theatre, she was taken seriously ill, and on the 17th of August closed her troubled life at Brandenbiurgh House, having directed in her will that the words, " Here lies Caroline the injured queen of England," should be her epitaph. On the 14th of the same month, the officers of the throne entered into a disgraceful contest with her majesty's executor for the pos- session of her mortal remains ; and they were conveyed fromBrandenburgh House to Hanover, after having been treated with every indignity which the govern- ment could devise. Whilst these events were carried on, the king was on his way to visit Ireland, and the news reached him on board the Irishpacket. It was said, that on receiving the intelligence of his wife's death, that he wished to land privately. He left Ireland on the 5th of September, arrived in Lon- don, on the 16th, and, on the 24th, left England for Hanover, where he made his public entry on the 11th of October. On the 5th of May, 1821, Napoleon Bonaparte departed this life at St. He- lena? It may be proper to observe that his confinement on that island — ^the treat- ment he received — the unsparing rigor with which he was watched by sir Hud- son Lowe — and his immoveable firmness under all his sufferings, have disarmed the hatred of most of his cotemporaries, and increased the respect of his adhe- rents. He maintained his character in the miseries of exile as in the palace of the Tuilleries. The last session of the reign of George IV was opened by commission, on the 4th of February, 1830. He did not live to witness its close, or the great political events which rendered this a memorable year. For the two previous years, he had almost wholly secluded himself at Windsor. His infirmities had been growing rapidly upon him. He had fre- quent attacks of gout, tendency to in- flammation, oppressed breathing, and depression of spirits ; his person had also reached a most remarkable degree of corpulency. His illness became serious at the be- ginning of the year, but was studiously concealed, and, if mentioned in the news- papers, authoritatively denied. About the middle of April, however, his state was such that the court physicians were called in, and bulletins of his health were periodically made piiblic. These an- nouncements were vague and reserved, and passed, it -was said, under his own eye. At one period he was declared convalescent, and the bulletins discon- tinued, by his authority over the physi- cians, against their judgment; — such was the self-delusion with which he clung to life. But his disease was not merely dangerous, it was incurable, being gen- erally considered as an ossification of the heart. Seized with a fit of coughing, he burst a blood-vessel, and expired, leaning on the arm of an attendant, at three o'clock in the morning of the 26th of June, 1830. The close of this monarch's life, af- forded an apt illustration of the fact that " kings have no friends," — tLat is to say, in their regal capacity; and the monarch whose life we have thus briefly chroni- cled, was but little likely to excite inter- est for his real welfare as a man. His 404 GREECE. manners were admitted by all to be those of the most finished gentleman ; and yet •we find him early in life selecting the very refuse of society for his boon com- panions. He thus accumulated debts to an enormous amount, which were after- wards defrayed by the national purse. In his father's quiet circle he might have benefitted by the example of every do- mestic virtue ; but he commenced the duties of a wedded life by sending his own kept mistress to be the companion of the future queen of England. She was for a time protected by the straight- forward right-heartedness of her father- in-law, and it is not at all singiUar, that after his death she should have fallen a victim to a persecution almost unheard of in the annals of English historj', — if, at least, we except those originating in the tender mercies of Henry the Eighth. But the end of this king furnishes a fear- ful example to those who imagine that high rank and station supply an apology for neglecting the ordinary duties of life. He who had ruled the sceptre of three kingdoms, found but one companion to soothe the pain and agony of his dying hour, and that companion was one of his humblest menials, while the titled mis- tress, who had been for years the inmate of his palace, and the recipient of his bounty, was the first to fly from the scene of horrors which she had assisted in creating. William IV, brother of the late king, came to the throne on the 26th of June, 1830. On the 2nd of November, 1830, the session of parhament was opened by the king in person. In the house of lords, the marquis of Bute moved an ad- dress in answer to the king's speech, in the course of which the duke of Welling- ton took occasion to declare his firm determination to oppose every species of parliamentary reform. This uncalled-for declaration appears to have at once de- cided the fate of the administration, as we find his grace and sir Robert Peel, on the 16th of November, respectively announcing to the two houses the resig- nation of the ministry. The new ad- ministration, which was immediately formed, illustrated the extraordinary change which had thus been rapidly brought about in the government of the country, by the late ministry's attempt at resisting reform of every kind. High tory principles of the most uncompromis- ing character were at once swept before the tide of popular indignation, and the political, literary and scientific knowledge which took the place of mere rank and aristocratic pretension, furnishes a new and splendid era in the history of Great Britain GREECE The early history of Greece, like that of mo.st other countries, is involved in obscurity and fable. Its original inhabit- ants, generally considered as the de- scendants of Javan, son of Japhet, ap- pear to have led a migratory and savage life, sheltering themselves in caves and huts, feeding upon acorns, clothing them- selves with skins, and gradually associa- ting in small bodies for their mutual sup- port against the wild beasts of the woods and mountains, by which they were every where surrounded. Many different wan- dering hordes, of whom the Greek wri- ters give no satisfactory account, seem to have successfully overrun the coun- try ; sometimes mixing with the ancient inhabitants, and sometimes driving them from their possessions. These, in their turn, expelled and plundered others ; and a state of petty piratical warfare character- ized the first ages of every Grecian set- tlement. These plundering excursions became so general, that all the shores, both of the continent and the islands, are said to have been deserted, and the lands cultivated only at a considerable distance from the sea. From this state of barba- rism, the inhabitants of Greece began to emerge at an earlier period than those of any other country in Europe ; and this advantage they seemed to have owed GREECE. 405 entirely to their communication with the civilized nations of the East. Its islands were visited by the Phenician navigators, who introduced the knowledge of the precious metals. A people, named Pe- lasgi, apparently from Asia, extended their dominion over all the northern parts of the country ; and various contempo- rary colonies from Egypt, (of whose migration the cause is not known, but for which the supposition of some political revolution may easily account,) appear to have founded the principal Grecian states. The island of Crete, which seems to have been occupied, and its inhabitants enslaved by some of these adventurers, first attained a considerable degree of civilization under Minos, about 1 000 years before the christian era ; and became the general foundation of legisla- tion and jurisprudence to the other set- tlements. Of these, Sicyon and Argos are considered as the most ancient, and as having been founded nearly at the same time, about 80 years before the reign of Minos, and 1080 before the christisin era. Of the provinces without the peninsu- la, Thessaly (next to Crete, the most an- cient scene of Grecian story,) first be- came celebrated for the wisdom of its princes, who extended their sway at an early period as far as the Corinthian Isthmus. In that country, always fam- ous for its horses, the Centaurs were first known, who are supposed to have been a band of foreign adventurers of superior attainments to the more southern Greeks of their time. From a port in Thessaly, sailed the expedition of the Argonauts under Jason, who may be con- sidered as merely the leader of one of the most considerable piratical expeditions which had hitherto been undertaken. Bce- otia, though a country originally subject to earthquakes and inundations, yet, from its great fertility, attracted at an early period the attention of adventurers ; and a Phe- necian colony under Cadmus is under- stood to have founded its principal city of Thebes. The numerous fabulous sto- ries relating to its history, comprehending the adventures of Bacchus, Amphion, Amphitryon, Hercules, Laius, (Edipus, Eteocles, and Polynices, serve at least to prove that it must soon have become a flourishing and powerful state ; and the war, which it sustained against seven uni- ted potentates, the subject of the Thebaid by Statins, presents the first instance of a political league, and a regular warfare, recorded in the annals of Greece. Mio- lia, though not inferior to the adjoining countries in early civilization, and though sufficiently celebratad in the histories of its heroes Tydeus, Meleager, and others, yet, from the dangers of its seas, being much excluded from the intercourse of more civilized nations, made little compa- rative progress in political improvement, and for several centuries, even after the Trojan war, had little communication with the rest of Greece. Phocis, Doris, and Locris, also afford no materials for history at this early period ; and the only remaining state, whose origin is worthy of being narrated from tradition, is that of Attica. The first king of this coun- try is said by some to have been Ogyges, whose name, however, is not mentioned by the older Greek historians, and who is conjectured at the utmost to have been only the leader of a band of Boeotians, who, having been driven from their own country by an inundation, had taken re- fuge in the adjoining districts of Attica. The first, at least, who introduced regu- lar government and the arts of civiliza- tion among the Athenians, was Cecrops, the leader of a colony from Egypt, who introduced the worship of the goddess Athena, or Minerva ; and thus gave a name, if not also a beginning, to the city of Athens. He is considered as the founder of the celebrated court of Areo- pagus ; and, in consequence of his wise institutions, aided by the natural security of the country from invasion, strangers were attracted, population increased, and civilization made more rapid progress than in any other province of Greece. Of his successors, little is recorded even by tradition, till the time of iEgeus, con- temporary with Minos, king of Crete, and the father of the renowned Theseus, whose romantic history bears no incon- siderable resemblance to that of the Gothic knight-errants, and whose wise measures as king of Athens laid the foun- dation of its future greatness. By the 406 GREECE. united influence of persuasion and au- thority, he consolidated, in one well re- gulated government, the independent dis- tricts in Attica, and endeavored to se- cure the stability of his improvements, by procuring the approbation of the Del- phic oracle. Though well entitled, by his political regulations, to be ranked among the most illustrious patriots of ancient times, he is nevertheless repre- sented, in his future history, as having forfeited the esteem of his subjects, and having at last died in exile. After him the sovereignty of Attica was held by Menestheus, a descendant of the royal family, and the leader of the Athenian troops in the Trojan war. These petty states, each of which was governed by its respective sovereign, and all of them independent of one another, were continually at war among them- selves, and exposed to he incursions of foreign barbarians. To obviate these evils, and to secure, as far as possible, the general tranquillity, an assembly was formed of deputies from the different countries of Greece, whose business it was to decide all disputes between the states of which the association was com- posed, and to concert measures of defence against their common enemies. This was called the council of the Amphictyons, from its supposed founder Amphictyon, one of the sons of Deucalion, and king of Attica ; but its original constitution, and the period of its commencement, cannot be satisfactorily ascertained. It is sup- posed by sir Isaac Newton to have com- menced about a century before the Trojan war. Besides its primary object of es- tablishing a kind of national law among the Greeks, its attention was principally occupied in managing the concerns of the Delphian oracle. But, though its decrees were respected, its power was not very efficacious. It contributed to restrain the violence of wars, but was not able to prevent their frequent occurrence. It derived its greatest consequence from the increasing fame of the oracle at Del- phi ; and the superintendence of the religious institutions of Greece became ultimately its principal office. It is not mentioned by Homer ; but its ex- istence seems to be implied in the ready union of the Grecian states against Troy. Frequent piratical excursions appear to have been carried on between the in- habitants of the eastern and western coasts of the ^Egean sea ; and the rape of Helen by Paris, the son of Priam, may be considered, according to Hero- dotus, as an act of retaliation for some similar injury received from the Greeks by the Trojan people. An outrage, how- ever, so nearly affecting one of the great- est princes of Greece, and aggravated by a breach of the rights of hospitality, was considered as demanding the united vengeance of the Grecian chiefs ; and the hope of returning home enriched with the spoils of Asia, presented no small incentive to the expedition. The extensive influence also of Agamemnon king of Argos, and brother of the injured Menelaus, urged on the general confed- eracy; and, under his supreme command, the chosen warriors of every Grecian state, from the southern extremity of Peloponhesus to the northern regions of Thessaly, assembled at the port of Aulis in Bceotia. The fleet, consisting of 1200 open vessels, conveyed to the Trojan coast an army of 100,000 men, who speedily compelled the enemy to take refuge within the walls of their city ; but, unable to surmount its strong and well defended fortifications, they attempted its reduction by excluding every kind of succor and supplies. Obliged, however, to detach large bodies from their army to procure subsistence for themselves, they were unable to prevent the Trojans from again taking the field, and receiving every requisite relief to their wants. In this way the siege was prolonged for the space often years : and even at the last, the house of Priam was not overthrown without the aid of stratagem and treach- ery. But, while the allied Greeks tri- umphed over Troy, it was to each of them a victory dearly purchased. Few of the princes, who witnessed the suc- cessful termination of their expedition, were permitted to enjoy, in their native country, the renown and repose which their exertions had earned ; but, having made no provision for the administration of their affairs during their absence, were GREECE. 407 either murdered at their return by some usurper of their power, or compelled to re-embark with their adherents, in quest of distant settlements. The Athenian state, which seems to have made the nearest approach to a settled government, suffered least by the absence of the com- mander of their army ; and regular mag- istrates supplied the place of their chief. In this city, Orestes, the son of Agamem- non, obtained an asylum ; and, after re- maining seven years in exile, found means to avenge his father's death, and to recover the throne of Argos, which he held with great power and reputation till his death. Here terminates the history contained in the vsTitings of Homer, who seems to indicate, that the concluding events which he records were within the reach of his own memory ; and whose works, in fact, contain almost the only materials for an account of the heroic age. He afibrds at least the best and most authentic view of the political and domestic state of the Greek people, during the period which preceded his death ; and to his poems we may refer for a description of the religion, government, arts, and manners of the early Greeks. The ancient Pe- lasgian inhabitants of Greece are said by Herodotus to have prayed and sacrificed to gods, to whom they gave no name or distinguishing appellation; and the works of Hesiod still more clearly prove tkat they drew their first notions on the sub- ject of religion from Oriental traditions. Their future system of polytheism seems to have been imported by the Egyptian colonists ; but to the principal divinities thus introduced, their own lively fancy soon added a multitude of other imagin- 1 ary beings, presiding over every mountain and river, every season and production ; and these were arranged by Hesiod and Homer into a kind of system of the most extravagant and inexplicable description. There is neither omnipotence nor omni- presence among the attributes which the last mentioned poet ascribes even to the father of the gods ; neither perfect good- ness nor perfect happiness in the heaven, which he assigns as their residence. — An incomprehensible power, denomina- ted Fate, is represented as directing all events ; and it seems to have been the principal office of Jupiter to superintend the execution of its decrees. Idolatry, as denoting the worship of visible objects, was at this period unknown ; and even temples appear to have been rare. — Prayers were addressed as to invisible deities ; and sacrifices, the only duty which they seem to have been considered as expecting from their worshippers, were offered upon altars erected in the open air. A few crimes are sometimes denounced as exposing to the vengeance of the gods, but morality in general finds very little support in the religion of this period. Soothsayers, who professed to foresee future events, were sufficiently numerous ; but fixed oracles had not yet attained any extensive celebrity. The salutary doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments, was taught in those days ; but the ridiculoiis absurdities, with which it was clothed, tended, when men had learned to despise the fables, to throw contempt also upon the momentous truth which they had veiled. The form of government was monarchical, and in some degree hereditary; but the authority of the kings was extremely limited, and always controlled by established cus- toms. It was the universal prerogative of the prince to exercise the judicial power, to superintend the institutions of religion, to command the armies, and to direct the ordinary business of the com- munity ; but, in any extraordinary or very important measure, he was required to consult, not only a council of the princi- pal men, but also an assembly of the people ; and a high degree of personal strength and accomplishments seems to have been always necessary to maintain his authority. It is generally admitted that letters were introduced into Greece from Phos- nicia by Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, at the lowest calculation, 1045 years be- fore Christ ; but it is equally ascertained, that the use of writing had not become common till more than 400 years after his time ; and nothing, in the whole his- tory of the ancient Greeks, is more difficult to be explained than the high state of excellence, which the language 408 GREECE. had attained in the days of Hesiod and Homer, while so Uttle of it could have been reduced to Meriting. In the absence of letters, poetry seems to have been in- vented, or at least to have been originally employed for the assistance of memory. Laws, among the early Greeks, were always promulgated in verse, and fre- quently sung in public. Morality was taught, and history related in the same manner. All, who wished either to in- struct or amuse their fellow-citizens, were thus necessarily poets ; and they who possessed so important a talent, were considered as sacred characters, favored and inspired by the gods. The first poetry of the Greeks was uniformly accompanied with music, and both string- ed and wind instruments are mentioned by Homer. But there are no means of ascertaining its peculiar features ; and, however powerful may have been its ef- fects, it appears to have been extremely simple and inartificial in its composition. Their agriculture appears to have been carried on with considerable regularity ; and the practice of manuring, as well as ploughing and sowing, is expressly men- tioned by Homer. Wine was made from the vine, and oil from the olive ; but the principal source of wealth was found in pasturage ; and cattle were made, in place of coin, the usual measure of the value of commodities. Commerce was chiefly carried on by an exchange of articles ; and the foreign trade of the Grecian cities was principally in the hands of the Phoe- nicians. There were Greeks, indeed, in the days of Homer, who pursued a kind of coasting traffic among them- selves ; but the profession of a merchant for gain was not held in much estimation, and was less respected than even that of pirate. Their navigation was very im- perfect ; and they used oars more fre- quently than sails. Their ships had no decks ; and the largest that went to Troy, contained only 120 men. Anchors were unknown ; and the vessels, when in port, were either moored to large stones on the shore, or were actually drawn out of the water upon the beach. The early Greeks, in short, were rather boatmen than seamen ; and, indeed, to this day, the skill of the navigator is of little avail in their narrow and tempestuous seas. They had little knowledge of astronomy ; and marked the length of the year by twelve revolutions of the moon, reckon- ing the months to consist of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately. But, in progress of time, they learned to fix the seasons more correctly by the rising and setting of the stars ; and had arranged them in constellations, much in the same manner, and with the same names as at the present day. They considered in- ternal diseases as inflicted by the imme- diate hand of the Deity, and as therefore beyond the reach of human skill. Their medical art was thus restricted to the practice of surgery, which was held in high esteem ; but which seems to haA'e extended no farther than the extraction of a weapon, or any other extraneous body, from a wound, and the application of a few simples to stop a hcemorrhage, or to assuage inflammation. Their archi- tecture was more improved than most other arts ; and Homer speaks of houses built of polished stone, with large and numerous apartments. Other mechanic arts were not exercised as distinct trades ; and even princes were frequently their own carpenters. Ornamental works, however, in metals, wood, &c, were not uncommon in those days ; but the greater part of the trinkets and more luxurious utensil's in use among the early Greeks appear to have been procured from the Phoenician merchants. Their principal study, and most constant practice, was the art of war ; and they seem to have improved considerably upon that tumult- uary warfare, which is generally prac- tised among barbarous nations. Their infantry were commonly heavily armed with helmet, breastplates, greaves, and shield ; and were regularly drawn up in close ranks or phalanxes, marching in steady silence under their respective leaders. Cavalry were not yet employ- ed in their battles ; but chariots were generally used by the chiefs, as the means of conveying them more rapidly along the line, and of annoying more eflTectually a flying army. The skirmish- ing of the commanders, however, in front of the troops, and their mixing with the soldiers in the heat of the fight, left little GREECE. 409 room for the exercise of generalship ; and their fashion of stopping in the midst of the action to strip the slain, sufficient- ly marks their want of military discipline and skill. They encamped with much regularity, sleeping under their cloaks, or sheltering themselves with huts ; and generally fortified their post, when ex- posed to the attack of a powerful enemy; but, though a small guard might be pla- ced at an outpost, they were unacquaint- ed with the important precaution of stationing and relieving a line of sentinels. In the frequency of war, courage was regarded as the highest virtue ; and the manners of the early Greeks were deci- dedly barbarous. Quarter was rarely granted to a fallen enemy ; and the cap- ture of a city was succeeded by the massacre of all the men who were able to bear arms, and by the captivity of the women and children. The spirit of hos- pitality, however, was generally diffused, and tended often to alleviate the miseries of military devastation. Women appear, as well as men, to have united the high- est rank with the humblest occupations, but evidently enjoyed a greater degree of influence and freedom, than has been usual in subsequent ages among oriental nations. There has been supposed to exist, a striking resemblance between the manners and sentiments of the Greeks in the heroic age, and those of the Gothic nations of Europe, except that the latter displayed more generosity in war, and gentleness towards the fe- male sex, than their ancient prototypes. The period immediately succeeding the Trojan war, affords few lights to his- tory, and is even involved in deeper ob- scurity than the heroic age. Supposing Homer to have lived within half a century of the Trojan war, his works maybe allow- ed to supply a tolerable record of the previous events best authenticated by tradition, and of the most important oc- currences which took place during his own life. His history terminates with the accession of Orestes to the throne of Argos ; and total darkness thenceforth rests upon the historian's path, relieved only by a few uncertain glimmerings, till the first Persian invasion of Greece. About 80 years after the destruction of 52 Troy, a great revolution took place, which dissipated ancient traditions, stop- ped the progress of civilization, and changed the governments, and even the population, of most of the Grecian states. The descendants and partizans of the celebrated Hercules had found a refuge in Doris from the persecutions of Eurys- theus ; but had never ceased to prefer their claims to the kingdom of Argos, and even to the dominion of all Peloponnesus, Twice had they attempted, without suc- cess, to make their way through the isth- mus. But at length, the great grandson of Hyllus, the oldest son of Hercules, cross- ed the Corinthian gulf with a powerful armament, and speedily overran the whole peninsula, with the exception of Arcadia and Achaia, where Tisamenus, son of Orestes, made a resolute and successful stand. All the rest of the conquered country was divided among the princes of the Heraclides, and their allies from Doris and iEtolia ; and the greater part of the old inhabitants either emigrated from the oppressions to which they were subjected, or were reduced by the inva- ders to a state of servitude. A new dis- tinction of the Grecian people was the consequence of tliis revolution. The Pelasgian name, which had pre- vailed on the continent, and the Lelegian in the islands, had, at an early period but for reasons not clearly ascertained, given place to the -^Eolian and Ionian ; the lat- ter designation being applied principally to Attica with its colonies, and the former to all the rest of Greece, both within and without the peninsula. Out of these two four distinctions of the Grecian people arose, after the irruption of the Heracli- des. In all the immediate establishments and distant colonies of these invaders, the Doric name and dialect prevailed. The Athenians rose to such pre-eminence, as to give rise to a new designation, namely, the Attic. Excepting them and the Megarians, who retained the Doric name, all the other Greeks, without the isthmus, claimed ^'Eolic origin ; and the Ionian name and dialect was retained only by those lonians who had migrated to Asia and the Islands. Except in the rugged province of Arcadia, nothing re- mained unaltered : and the Dorian inva- 410 GREECE. ders brought every thing back to that ruder state, in which they had lived among their native mountains. Disputes soon arose among these allied princes, respecting the partition of the conquered countries. Internal dissensions, occa- sioned by their turbulent subjects, were continually raging in their respective governments. The enterprising Arca- dians seldom suffered them to rest from external hostilities. And, by all these concurring causes, Peloponnesus was rapidly falling back into that state of an- archy and barljarisni, in which it had been before the time of Pelops and Hercules. Nothing tended so effectually to resist this tendency to disunion and turbulence, as the revival and regular establishment of the public games, by Iphitus, sovereign of Elis. These athletic games, as is evident from the writings of Homer, had been occasionally celebrated, under the superintendance of different princes ; and at the funerals of eminent men, many traditions prevailed, that Eleia and Pelo- ponnesus had frequently been the chosen scene of these contests, and the resort of princes from various parts of Greece. Iphitus, therefore, having procured a fa- vorable response from the oracle at Del- phi, established a regular festival for that purpose, to be held every four years at Olympia, in the territory of Elis. Solemn sacrifices were to be offered to Jupiter and Hercules, and games celebrated in honor of these divinities. In these games, all Greeks were free to partake ; and for a certain period, before their commence- ment, as well as after their conclusion, a general annistice was ordained to take place. The territory of Eleia, particu- larly, was to be at all times counted sa- cred, and secured from every hostile en- croachment. This Olympian meeting, instituted about half a century after the return of the Heraclides, served as a common capital to the Grecian people, and contributed more effectually than could possibly have been anticipated, to the advancement of arts, science, and civilization, in all the different states. A general revolution in the government of every state, began about the same pe- riod to take place, from causes very im- perfectly known. The republican spirit, which seems to have existed in all of them, even under their early monarchical constitutions, acquired so much strength, that, in a few ages, monarchy was every where abolished, and the name of tyrant applied to all Avho attempted its support, even under the mildest form. In the reign of Darius, the son of Hys- taspes, the power of the Persian arms was extended on every side of that vast empire. All was subdued to the west, as far as Macedonia. Amyntas, the king of that country, acknowledged subjection to the Persian monarch ; and the Gre- cian isles soon began to feel his ambi- tious and overwhelming influence. Cy- prus, Samos, Lesbos, Chios, and most other islands on the Asiatic coast, were either persuaded or compelled to admit his supremacy. Most of them, accord- ing to the uniform policy of the Persians, were nevertheless allowed to retain their own magistrates and laws. One of their own nation was appointed to preside as governor ; and this person, whatever was his personal character, was always, from his official situation, denominated Tyrant by the Greeks. Athens itself, hard press- ed by the powerful alliance Avhich the La- cedemonians had formed against them, had begun to solicit the protecting aid of Persia ; but Artaphernes, satrap at Sar- dis, having patronised the pretensions of the tyrant Hippias, whom they had driven from his power, they were filled with de- testation of the Persian name, and the more readily consented to assist the lo- nians in Asia, who had revolted against the authority of Darius. These, how- ever, were speedily reduced ; and the Persian monarch, in order to punish Athens and Eretria, who had given aid to the insurgent states of Asia, or rather prosecution of his ambitious views for the enlargement of his dominions, sent a powerful army into Greece, under the command of his son-in-law Mardonius. Darius had previously despatched he- ralds to each of the Grecian States, demanding earth and water as an ac- knowledgment of his supremacy ; and, if wholly independent of each other, the greater part would probably have soon submitted to the Asiatic yoke. But, hap- pily for Greece its little commonwealths GREECE. 411 were at that time so united together by reciprocal treaties and obligations, and especially by a formal confederacy under the Lacedemonians, that a kind of gen- eral tribunal existed for the punishment of treachery or cowardice, which enabled them, in a great measure, to act as one nation. Macedonia, which had formerly paid homage, was more effectually sub- dued, and compelled to pay tribute to the Persian king. Thebes, by the influence of a faction, and a few other cities, par- ticularly iEgina, made submission to his demands ; but the Lacedemonians and Athenians were so indignant at the requi- sition of Persia, that, forgetting the law of nations and of humanity, they put the heralds to death with the utmost ignominy and barbarity. The Athenians, who had been at war with the ^gineiae, and were thus the more excited to adopt opposite measures to their hostile neighbors, ac- cused them at Sparta of desertion from the common cause of Greece ; and the chief persons of that state were instantly ordered to be seized as traitors to their country. Little progress was made by the invading army. The Persian fleet lost nearly three hundred vessels by a storm in doubling the promontory of Athos ; and the land forces suffered so severely from the Brygians, a people of Thrace, that the season for military oper- ations was lost, and the whole armament was led back to winter in Asia. A se- cond army, under the command of Ar- taphernes, son of the late satrap of that name, and of Datis, a Median nobleman, avoiding the circuitous march by Thrace and Macedonia, sailed from Cilicia in a numerous fleet, reduced every island and appurtenance of Greece in their way, and approached the frontiers of Attica, with the exiled tyrant Hippias as their guide, before any measures had been con- certed by the Greeks for the general security. A messenger was now despatched from the Athenians to Sparta, with the intelli- gence of the capture of Erelria, and, at the same time, with a request for assist- ance to themselves. The Lacedemonians readily promised their utmost aid ; but, in ' conformity to a superstitious law, unwor- thy of their boasted political wisdom, j declared that they could not take the field before the full moon, of which it then wanted five days. Lnmediate assistance from Sparta being thus denied, it became a question with the ten generals, whom the Athenians had chosen to command their army, whether they should venture to meet the enemy in the field, or apply their whole exertions to prepare for a siege. Opinions were equally divided, and the decision was, by ancient custom, referred to the polemarch Archon, who was persuaded by Miltiades to recom- mend an immediate engagement ; a mea- sure obviously contrary to all principles of defensive war, but rendered necessa- ry by the dread of internal factions in the city. The Persian army, amounting, according to the lowest calculation, to 100,000 infantry, and 10,000 cavalry, accustomed to conquer, and having fre- quently engaged the Greeks of Asia and Cyprus, advanced with confidence as to certain victory. The amount of the Athenian force has been stated as low as 9,000 heavy-armed infantry, and 1,000 Plataeans, who had bravely hastened to share the desperate struggle for the free- dom of their country. Various consid- erations, however, make it probable, that the regular Grecian troops, now opposed to the Persians, were not much less than 20,000, with about an equal number of armed slaves. With this army, still fear- fully inferior to the invading host, the genius of Miltiades, who was well ac- quainted with the nature of the Persian troops seconded by the determined brave- ry of his soldiers, gained, on the plain of Marathon, a most decisive victory, and drove the routed Persians to their ships with great slaughter. But this distin- guished commander, having failed in a subsequent expedition against the iEgean islands, which had submitted to the Per- sians, was, by the base machinations of party spirit, condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents, and died in prison of the wounds which he had received. The death of Darius, the revolt of Egypt, and the disputes which arose about the right of succession to the throne of Persia, procured to the Greeks a re- spite of several years from any farther attempts against their independence. But 412 GREECE Xerxes, the young Persian monarch, was sufficiently ardent to revenge the disgrace which the arms of his nation had sus- tained, and to prosecute those schemes of conquest which his predecessors had planned. Four years are said to have been employed in preparations for the punishment of Athens, and the reduction of Greece ; and an army was collected, more numerous than had ever before, or than has ever since, been known in the annals of the world. To prevent the dis- asters, which might attend the convey- ance of armament by sea, as well as to provide for the future security of the in- tended conquest, a canal, navigable for the largest gallies, was, (according to the united testimony of all the Greek histo- rians and geographers,) actually formed across the isthmus, which joins mount Athos to the continent of Thrace. Two bridges of boats also, the one to withstand the winds and the other the current, were extended across the Hellespont nearly between Abydos and Sestos, where the strait is about seven furlongs in breadth. Early in the spring, the army moved from Sardis, the principal place of rendezvous ; and seven days and nights are said to have been occupied in passing the bridges of the Hellespont. The land and sea forces met at Doriscus, near the mouth of the Hebrus, where, according to Hero- dotus., the Persian monarch reviewed his enormous army, which is said to have been composed of twenty-nine different nations. This historian estimates the effective strength of the infantry at 1,700,000 fighting men, and the cavalry at 80,000, exclusive of attendants and fol- lowers, whose number defied calculation. The fleet consisted of 1 ,207 galleys of war, carrying about 277,600 men ; be- sides transports, store-ships, and a variety of smaller vessels, amounting, at a gross calculation, to 3,000, and their crews to 240,000. The land forces marched from Doriscus in three columns, every where adding to their numbers, by compelling the youth of the countries through which they passed, to follow their standards. They met again at Acanthus, where they were joined by the fleet, which then pro- ceeded through the canal of Athos, into the bay of Therme, where the whole army coming up, formed an encampment, extending from Therme and the borders of Mygdonia to the river Haliacmon, near the confines of Thessaly. The Greeks, in the mean time, were slow in concert- ing any measures for their common de- fence ; and many of the smaller republics readily made the required submission to the Persian monarch, whose sway had been experienced by many Grecian states to be much less oppressive than that of the domineering rule of the Spartan oli- garchy, to which the greater part of them had long been subjected. The deter- mined resistance of the Athenian people first arrested the progress of the Asiatic host; and to them chiefly belongs the honor of having preserved Greece from a foreign yoke. To this daring resolu- tion they were prompted, not entirely by the love of freedom, but by the dread of certain punishment. The whole arma- ment was ostensibly prepared for their destruction, and their courage therefore was nearly that of despair. Their suc- cess at Marathon may have thrown a ray of hope through the gloomy prospect be- fore them ; and, at this critical moment, they happily possessed in Themistocles a leader of extraordinary talents, pecu- liarly fitted for conducting the arduous contest. Deputies from the confederated states at length assembled at Corinth, to consult respecting the conduct of the war; and an attempt was at first made to defend the passes into Thessaly. An army of 10,000 men from the different states, joined by all the Thessalian cavalry, was actually sent to occupy the vale of Tempe ; and was competent to have defended the pass against any number of assailants. But the Grecian leaders, alarmed by the accounts which they received ol' the mul- titude of their invaders, and understand- ing that there was another opening into Thessaly, which they did not think them- selves strong enough to occupy, were struck with a sudden panic, and, embark- ing their troops, returned to the Corin- thian isthmus; while the Thessalians, now left to their fate, made an immediate submission to the demands of Xerxes. It was next resolved to make a stand at the pass of Thermopylae, which afforded every possible advantage to an inferior GREECE. 413 Leonidas with the Spartan band at Therviojnjla . force; but their mutual jealousies and selfish anxiety to reserve their strength for their proper defence, prevented the assembling of a sufhcient body of troops ; and not more than 4000 men, most of them Arcadian mountaineers, were col- lected to dispute the passage with the whole Persian army. Xerxes having halted several days at Therme, to procure proper intelligence and guides, resolved to proceed by Up- per Macedonia into Thessaly, and reach- ed the neighborhood of Thermopylae without opposition. His fleet after suf- fering an immense loss by a storm in the bay of Caslhan?e, entered the Pelasgian gulf ; and the Grecian fleet, which was stationed off Artemisium to support the army at Thermopylse, succeeded in cap- turing fifteen galleys, which had been dispersed by the tempest. This favora- ble event at once revived their spirits, and added greatly to the strength of their little navy. Xerxes, in the mean time, having fixed his head quarters at the town of Traches, in the Malian plain, waited for four days, in expectation that the Greeks would yield to his numbers, and leave him an uninterrupted passage. A herald also was despatched to Leoni- das, who commanded at Thermopylae, requiring him to deliver up his arms ; to whom the Spartan replied, with laconic brevity, " Come and talce them." The Persian monarch, therefore, on the fifth day, ordered the Medes and Cissians of his army to bring Leonidas and his Greeks into his presence. These being quickly repulsed, the Persian guards, called "the immortal band," were marched to the at- tack. Their numbers were unavailing on so a narrow a field ; their short spears were very inferior in close fight to the longer weapons of the Greeks ; and their repeated and courageous efforts, to which Herodotus bears ample testimony, made no impression. The assault was renew- ed on the following day, in hopes that wounds and fatigue might exhaust the little army of the Greeks ; but still with- out the smallest prospect of success. A Persian detachment, however, having penetrated during the night by another pass, and surprised the Phocians, who had been intrusted with its defence, showed themselves, on the morning of the third day, far in the rear of the Gre- cian army. Information of this fatal ad- vantage being conveyed to Leonidas, it was immediately resolved that they should 414 GREECE, all retreat to their respectivfe cities, and preserve their lives for the future wants of their country. Leonidas, however, in obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade its soldiers, under whatever dis- advantage, to flee from an enemy, re- solved to devote his life to the honor and service of his country. Animated by his example, every Lacedemonian and Thes- pian under his command, determined with him to abide the event. The Thebans also, on account of the disaffection of their city to the Grecian cause, were de- tained, rather indeed as hostages than as auxiliaries.* Leonidas stationed his lit- tle band at the wall of Thermopylae, where the pass was scarcely 50 feet wide ; and all of them resolved to sell their lives to the enemy at the dearest rate. With the fury of men resolved to die, they rushed against the advance of the Persian army, and made a dreadful slaughter of the crowded and ill-discip- lined multitude. Numbers of them were forced into the sea, and many of them expired under the pressure of their own people. Leonidas fell early in the fight, at the head of his troops ; but the en- gagement was continued, with advantage to the Greeks, till the Persian detach- ment came in sight of their rear. They then retreated to the narrowest part of the pass, where the Thebans began to sue for mercy, and were most of them taken prisoners. The surviving Lacede- monians and Thespians gained a little rising ground, where they fought in the midst of a surrounding host, till they were utterly cut to pieces. In the con- duct of the Spartan prince, there was wisdom as well as magnanimity. His example checked the disposition which prevailed among the Greeks, to shrink from the Persian power ; and gave a convincing proof to the invaders, at how vast a price of blood they would purchase their conquest. During the transactions at Thermopylae, the Grecian fleet gained several advantages over that of the Per- sians ; and about two hundred galleys of the latter, attempting to take the Greeks in the rear by sailing round Euboea, were * In the army at Thermopylae there were ori- ginally 300 Lacedemonians, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans. totally lost in a storm. Having received intelligence of the fall of Leonidas, and the retreat of the rest of the army, the Grecian fleet retreated from Artemisium, and sought the interior seas of Greece. The Persian army experienced no op- position in their march through Doris and Boeotia, which, excepting the cities of Thespiae and Plataea, had always been adverse to the confederacy of the Greeks. Phocis alone, of all the provinces be- tween Thessaly and the Isthmus, remain- ed faithful to the cause of the Grecian independence. Its territories, therefore, were ravaged without mercy by detach- ments of the enemy ; while the main body advanced in a direct course to the devoted city of Athens. The Pelopon- nesian troops having resolved to confine their operations to the defence of the peninsula, Attica was completely aban- doned to the whole weight of the invad- ing host. Athens was filled with alarm, and all were convinced that their destruc- tion was inevitable. The oracle at Del- phi, however, having recently pronounc- ed, that " the wooden wall" alone would afford an impregnable refuge to them- selves and their children, Themistocles, who had probably himself suggested the response, persuaded his countrymen that they were thus directed to embark on board their fleet. Their families and ef- fects were in conformity to his advice, immediately transported to Salamis, iEgi- na, and Trsezene ; and all the males who were able to bear arms repaired to the ships. A few of the poorer citizens, who were unable to bear the expense of a re- moval, and some others, who conceived the answer of the oracle to point out their citadel, which is built of wood, as the place of safety, refused to abandon the city. The Persian army, advancing from Thebes, burned the forsaken cities of Thespiae and Plataja ; and experien- ced no resistance till they reached the citadel of Athens, which was immediate- ly invested ; and, being taken by assault, all within its gates were put to the sword. The commanders of the Grecian fleet, which was now assembled in the bay of Salamis, alarmed by the intelligence of the fall of Athens, had resolved in a council of war to retreat without delay, GREECE. 415 when Themistocles, addressing Eurybi- atles the Lacedemonian, who had the chief command, threatened, if such a re- solution were adopted, to withdraw the whole of the Athenian ships, which com- posed nearly one-half of the allied fleet, and either to make peace with the ene- my, or seek some distant settlement for his deserted people. His advice prevail- ed, and it was determined to await the approach of the enemy in the straits of Salamis. This Athenian chief, however, still fearful lest some of the squadrons should depart, is said to have accelerated the approach of the Persians, by causing their monarch to be privately informed, that the Greeks were planning a retreat, and that he would thus lose the most fa- vorable opportunity of destroying their whole navy at one blow. His stratagem was attended with entire success. The Persian fleet hastened to make a general attack ; while their army lined the adja- cent shores, and their monarch himself was seated upon an eminence to view the approaching battle. His fleet amounted to 1200 galleys, and that of the confede- rated Greeks to 300 ; but the narrow strait prevented the numerous ships of the Persians from being regularly brought into action, and the crowded situation rendered it impossible for the Phenician squadron to avail themselves of the su- perior swiftness of their galleys, and skill of their seamen. The very zeal of the Persian commanders to distinguish them- selves in the presence of their monarch, tended to increase the confusion. The resolute and persevering attacks of the Greeks, aided by the united talents of Themistocles and Aristides, allowed not a moment's respite to the enemy to re- store order, or recover from alarm. The confusion soon became so general, that even flight was impracticable, and the sea itself (according to the description of the scene by the poet ^schylus, who fought on board the Athenian fleet) became scarcely visible from the quantity of wreck and corpses floating on its surface. Forty Grecian galleys are said to have been sunk or destroyed ; but most of the crews saved themselves on board of the other ships, or on the neighboring shore of Salamis. But the Persians had no refuge ; and their defeat was attended with immense loss. Still the remains of their fleet were so large, that the princi- pal port of Attica could not admit half its numbers ; and the Greeks were ex- pecting a renewal of the action on the following day. But the Persian com- manders appear to have concerted no measures on the supposition of a retreat ; and a hasty order during the night, di- rected the whole fleet to steer immedi- ately for the Hellespont. The army, thus destitute of the supplies derived from the ships, and unprovided with suf- ficient magazines on land, fell back upon the friendly province of Boeotia, and speedily retreated into Thessaly. Three hundred thousand men were chosen to remain, under the command of Mardoni- us, to complete the conquest of Greece in the following summer. Of this num- ber, 60,000 of the best troops were se- lected as a royal guard, to accompany their monarch as far as the Hellespont, on his return to Persia. The rest of the immense multitude which he had led into Greece, left to their own resources, suf- fered beyond description, from the haste of their march, and the want of maga- zines. They subsisted by rapine from friends as well as foes ; and were reduc- ed at last to eat the very grass from the ground, and the bark from the trees. — Disease destroyed, whom famine had spared ; and the towns of Thessaly, Ma- cedonia, and Thrace, were crowded with the sick and the dying. Upon reaching the Hellespont, the bridges were found to have been destroyed by the violence of the current and the storms ; but the fleet had arrived to transport the wretch- ed remains of the Persian host ; and its discomfited monarch proceeded to Sar- dis, not indeed entirely unattended, as some of the Greek historians relate, but with such a diminished retinue as might almost be called nothing, when compared with the incalculable numbers who for- merly surrounded his person, and obeyed his command. Early in the following spring, the Per- sian fleet assembled at Samos ; and Mar- donius, having attempted without success, to detach the Athenians from the Gre- cian confederacy, compelled them again 416 GREECE. hastily to abandon their country ; and, without opposition, regained possession of Athens. The Athenian people, under the protection of their fleet, withdrew to Salamis ; and there, though deprived of their country, and disappointed of the timely assistance which they ought to have received from the Peloponnesian states, still rejected, with the most en- thusiastic magnanimity, all the concilia- tory proposals of Persia. The Lacede- monians, who were at the head of the allies, at length ashamed of their ungene- rous and dastardly delays, despatched an army of 5,000 Spartans and 35,000 He- lots, under the command of Pausanias. These were joined at the isthmus by the other Peloponnesian troops, and by the Athenian army under Aristides. Mardo- nius, secretly apprized of their march, gave up the city of Athens and its sur- rounding territories, to be pillaged by his troops, and fell back upon his magazines in Boeotia, where he extended his camp along the course of the Asopus to the frontiers of Platsea. The confederated Greeks, animated by the propitious omens which had been indicated at their solemn sacrifices, ad- vanced with confidence to meet the Per- sians, and pitched their camp at the foot of Mount Cithasron, on the opposite side of the river Asopus, composing a force of 110,000 men. Mardonius, who appears from the account given by Herodotus, to have been deficient neither in courage or policy, anxious to draw the Greeks from their advantageous position, harass- ed them greatly with incessant charges by his cavalry ; and more than ten days were spent in various evolutions, on both sides, to gain the superiority of the ground, and to induce each other to com- mence the attack. In one of these move- ments, the greater part of the Grecian troops, excepting only the Tegeans, La- cedemonians, and Athenians, actually fled to the walls of Plataea ; and the Per- sian commander, imagining the retreat to be general, hastily advanced with his infantry as to certain victory. A fierce engagement ensued, in which the Persian soldiers, though insufficiently armed for close fight, and unequal to the Greeks in the practice of war, discovered no inferi- ority in point of courage and enterprise ; and were often seen, in their vigorous assaults, seizing and breaking with their hands the long spears of their opponents. Multitudes perished in these vain at- tempts to penetrate the Spartan phalanx. Their efforts, after repeated failures, be- gan to relax. The Greeks advanced in their turn; and confusion soon became general among the Persian infantry. — Their commander Mardonius, while lead- ing on a chosen body of cavalry to sup- port his broken troops, received a mortal ' wound ; and his fall was the signal for flight to the whole Persian army. Arta- bazus, next in command, who is said to have dissented from his general in the conduct of the battle, as soon as he was assured of the rout of the main body, retreated with 40,000 men towards Pho- cis ; but the Persian and Ba30tian cavalry still kept the field, and afforded consid- erable protection to the flying infantry. The Lacedemonians and Athenians, how- ever, having succeeded in carrying the Persian camp by assault, a dreadful slaughter ensued ; and excepting the detachment which had escaped under Artabazus, only 3,000 finally survived of 200,000 Asiatics, who composed the rest of the army of Mardonius. In the mean time, the Grecian fleet, which had re- mained during the summer inactive at Delos, was encouraged, by a private as- surance of the favorable disposition of the lonians, to attack the Persian fleet at Samos. The Persian admiral, having suffered the Phenician squadron to de- part, in the idea that the season was too far advanced for naval operations, as soon as he received intelligence of the ap- proach of the Greeks, hastily sailed from Samos ; and, passing to the opposite promontory of Mycale, drew his galleys upon the beach, and prepared to defend them on shore. The Greeks, resolving to attack the fortified camp, disembarked their forces in two divisions, one imder the command of Xanthippus the Athenian, and the other led by Leotychides the Lacedemonian. The former arriving first at the Persian entrenchments, im- mediately commenced the assault ; and, aided by the Greeks in the Persian ser- vice, had entered the rampart, before the GREECE. 417 Lacedemonians came up. The other I the greatest benefits from ita effects. — Asiatics instantly fled from the Athenian | They found their country laid waste, and assailants ; but the native Persians re- 1 their city in ruins ; but, in consequence sisted with the utmost bravery, till the chiefly of their naval superiority, and a arrival of the Lacedemonians, when they succession of great commanders, they were completely overpowered, and al- : rapidly attained that supremacy in most entirely cut to pieces. The victo- Greece, which the Lacedemonians had rious Greeks, after carrying off the most hitherto enjoyed ; and by the able conduct valuable part of the spoil, set fire to the | of Cimon, the most distinguished of all camp, and consumed the whole of the their leaders, soon reached the summit of Persian fleet on the very same day that their political influence and military their army was annihilated at Plataea. — power. The Lacedemonians had not This successful resistance of Greece to j been inattentive observers or inactive the Persian invasion holds out an en- opponents of the growing consequence couragmg example to all free states, to maintain their independence against any power, however formidable ; and clearly shows, that an obstinate determination never to submit, accompanied with wise counsels and steady discipline, will rarely fail of ultimate success. The Persian war, indeed, was not yet terminated. — The Greeks, in their turn, became the assailants and invaders. They prepared to protect the lonians, who had thrown off the Persian yoke, and jiarticularly to restore freedom to those Grecian cities in which the Persians had left garrisons. Under the Spartan general Pausanias, but especially under Cimon the Athenian, they carried their victorious arms to Byzantium, to the island of Cyprus, and even into Egypt. By a double victory gained on the river Eurymedon, under of the rival state ; but, usually slow in their counsels, (and weakened by an earthquake which had laid their capital in ruins, and by a consequent insurrection of the Helots, which reduced them to the necessity of requiring aid from their neighbors,) had long evaded an open rupture with the Athenian republic. The latter people, however, accustomed to war, elated with success, swayed by a turbulent democracy, and unable longer to disguise their ambitious designs upon the liberties of Greece, not satisfied with repeated interferences and aggressions against the ancient allies of Lacedemon, proceeded at length to make a direct and unjustifiable attack upon its armies, while returning from the protection of Doris, against the inroads of the Phocians. — Aided by the Argians and Thessalians, the last mentioned commander, both over they met the Lacedemonians and their the fleet and army of Persia on the same i Peloponnesian allies at Tanagrain Boeo- day, its naval strength was so broken, tia. After a severe action of two days, and its land forces so disheartened, that i and great slaughter on both sides, the offensive operations against Greece were | Athenians were compelled to retreat, and totally intermitted ; and it became the , the Spartans pursued their march with- boastof the Grecian states, that no armed out farther obstruction, ship of Persia was to be seen westward In the view, however, of raising a of the Chelidonian islands, or the en- state without the peninsula, to balance trance of the Euxine, and that no Persian the power and curb the ambition of troops dared to show themselves within I Athens, they formed a close aUiance a day's journey of the Grecian seas. But with the Thebans, and willingly seconded the ambitious views and political jealous- their attempt to recover that supremacy ies which arose among the confederated states of Greece, during the prosecution of these successful operations, prepared greater evils for their country than all that they had endured, while struggling under the pressure of the Persian hosts. The Athenians, though apparently the greatest sufferers by the invasion, deriyed 53 in Bceotia, which they had been accus- tomed to claim before the event of the Persian war. But the Athenians under Myronides speedily regained the influ- ence which they had lost by their defeat at Tanagra ; and all Bceotia, with the exception of Thebes, was broug:ht either into their alliance, or under their domin- 418 GREECE. ion. Burdened at length by the variety of their military operations, and even by the extent of their conquests, they were disposed to enter into negotiations with their Peloponnesian adversaries ; and by the good offices of Cimon, whom they recalled from exile, and who had always been greatly esteemed at Lacedemon, a truce of five years was concluded between the rival powers. But after the death of that distinguished commander, who had uniformerly exerted himself to divert the military spirit of the Greeks from internal wars, hostilities were again renewed. — The Athenians, however, being hard pressed, and even invaded by the Pelo- ponnesian confederates, as well as en- cumbered by the numerous islands and colonies subject to their empire, a second time sought an accommodation ; and a truce was concluded for the space of thir- ty years, upon terms by no means advan- tageous to their influence. But the con- stitution of Greece, composed of so many small and independent states, was unfa- vorable to a long continuance of general tranquillity. Its governments were so distinct, that no common authority could prevent the occurrence of partial wars ; and yet so connected, that war in any part always endangered the peace of the whole. This was more especially the consequence of a practice, which had become universal among the weaker states, to provide for their protection by courting the alliance, or rather acknowl- edging the dominion, of one of the two leading republics of Lacedemon or Athens. These two rival powers also differed considerably in the political principles which they respectively fa- vored, the former being generally the patroness of aristocracy, and the latter of democracy. Hence their influence was extended, according as one or other of these opposite factions prevailed in the different states ; or rather, according as their arms were severally crowned with success, the party to which they were friendly gained the ascendency, and suc- ceeded in bringing the state which it ruled to the side of Sparta or of Athens. This constant rivalship, never wholly dormant, and kept in continual excite- ment by the frequent quarrels of the minor commonwealths, at length gave rise to the long and bloody contest of the Pelopormesian war. The Athenians, having assisted the Corcyraeans against the Corinthians, were formally accused by the latter people, joined by many other complainants, of having broken the truce, and insulted the Peloponnesian confederacy. An assembly of deputies from the difl'erent states, of which that confederacy was composed, having met at Sparta, a great majority decided for an immediate recourse to arms ; and even the historian Thucydides admits, in the most explicit terms, that a general sentiment of indignation had been excited among a large portion of the Grecian people, by the arbitrary and oppressive sway of the Athenian republic. The two hostile confederacies, though very diff'erently composed, divided be- tween them very equally the force of the Greek nation. All the Peloponnesian states, except the Argians, who remained neutral, joined the Lacedemonians. In Northern Greece, the Megarians, Boeo- tians, Locrians, Phocians, &c, formed a part of the same alliance ; and external assistance was expected from the king of Persia, and the Grecian colonies of Italy and Sicily. The Athenians had a few allies, and some of them not very zealously inclined to their cause. The principal were the Thessalians, and Acar- nanians, and the islands of Corcyra, Za- cinthus, Chios, and Lesbos. But all the other islands of the iEgean Sea, except Melos and Thera, and all the wealthy Grecian cities of Thrace, of the Helles- pont, and of Asia Minor, were tributary subjects of Athens, and entirely subject to its control. The Spartan king Archi- damus, who had the chief command of the Peloponnesian forces, amounting to 60,000 men, advanced slowly to the in- vasion of Attica ; but, before actually commencing hostilities, he once more proposed the terms of accommodation, which the Athenians had formerly reject- ed. The celebrated Pericles, who had long directed the councils of Athens, and who is supposed to have plunged bis country into war, for the purpose of pro- longing his personal influence in the state, easily induced Jiis fellow citizens GREECE. 419 to refuse all farther negotiation ; but all his extraordinary talents were necessary to persuade the Athenian people to adopt measures of defence, to which they were reduced by the power of their enemies. Abandoning their country to the ravages of the hostile army, they were compelled to secure themselves and their effects within the walls of the metropolis, filling the temples, the turrets of the ramparts, the tombs even, and the lowest hovels, with their wives and children. Pericles, reproached and threatened as the princi- pal author of their calamities, and vehe- mently urged to meet the invaders in the field, directed all his attention to the de- fence of the city and preservation of good order. The Lacedemonians and their allies, having exhausted the means of subsistence, and loaded themselves with plunder, returned to Peloponnesus, and dispersed to their respective cities. The Athenian fleet, in the mean time, ravaged the coasts of Peloponnesus, tak- ing, in its return, the island of ^Egina ; and, towards the end of autumn, Pericles, with the whole of the land forces, laid waste the neighboring territory of Me- gara. At the commencement of the se- cond summer, the confederates under Archidamus again entered and ravaged the country of Attica ; while a more dreadful scourge, a pestilential fever, re- sembling the modern disease of the plague, raged in the crowded streets of the city. The war, however, was not arrested by this awful calamity ; and, for several years, was regularly conducted in the same manner. The Peloponnesian states were so superior in land forces, that they annually invaded the territories of the Athenians, who could not risk a general action without exposing them- selves to certain ruhi ; yet the confede- rates were, on the other hand, so igno- rant of the art of attacking fortified places, that they could make no impression upon a city like Athens, defended by 30,000 men, and supplied by a powerful fleet. The war thus continued to rage, for many years, with nearly the same suc- cess, and equal losses on both sides. It consisted in a succession of partial en- gagements, hasty excursions, and distant sieges, which never afliected the main object in view, or brought the contest one step nearer to a conclusion. Partaking also in a great degree of the nature of a civil war, it was carried on with a spirit of ferocity rarely exemplified among civ- ilized nations ; and, through the time of its continuance, the very age of Socrates himself, was an era, at least in the history of Athens, characterized by the high per- fection to which arts and sciences, philo- sophy and refinement, had been brought ; yet, in no period of Grecian history, were more atrocious barbarities committed. Every transaction has been minutely re- corded by the Athenian historians, Thu- cydides and Xenophon, who were con- temporary with most of the events which they describe ; and our account must be greatly compressed, not from the scarcity, but from the abundance of materials. The league, headed by the Athenians, was almost entirely under their command; while that of Peleponnesus, being com- posed of independent states, was continu- ally changing in its component parts, and liable every instant to be utterly dis- solved. Had the Athenian people there- fore steadily adhered to the plan of Peri- cles, and, renouncing every idea of con- quest, confined themselves to a defensive war by land, and offensive operations by sea, they might ultimately have triumphed over their numerous opponents ; and, at least, have inflicted more serious injuries than they could have received. From the excessive diversity and disproportion of the forces engaged in the contest, the one overrunning the land, and the other scouring the seas and coasts, the war was inevitably spun out to an indefinite length ; and often were both parties, wearied of their accumulated sufferings, desirous of peace ; but proposals for ne- gotiation were as often prevented by the vain ambition of Cleon, who had suc- ceeded, at the death of Pericles, to the direction of the Athenian councils, and by the warlike spirit of Brasides, the bravest of the Spartan leaders. After their death, a truce was concluded for the space of fifty years ; and every thing was restored to the same situation in which it had stood at the commence- ment of hostilities ; but mutual hatred, and boundless ambition, had acquired 420 GREECE. such hold of the minds of the principal men on all sides, that the appearance of concord was of short duration. New leagues and new dissensions arose, which led to reciprocal recriminations and par- tial hostilities ; but it was not till the ex- piration of nearly seven years, that they again came to an open rupture. Athens was the aggressor, and the ambition of Alcibiades was the sole cause of the renewal of hostilities. This celebrated character, with all his accomplishments and talents, was guided by principles so inveterately vicious, that he alone may be charged with having accelerated the ruin of the Athenian state, and completed the corruption of its citizens. He per- suaded the people, without any other rea- son, except that the city Egesta in Sicily had solicited the assistance of the Athe- nians, to undertake the conquest of that island ; but scarcely had the expedition in which he was appointed a commander, commenced its operations, when he was recalled to stand his trial upon a charge of impiety. Aware of the caprices of his countrymen, he took refuge in Pelo- ponnesus; and, enraged by the sentences pronounced against him in his absence, he instigated the Lacedemonians to as- sist the Syracusans, and to attack the Athenians, while their army was engaged in the remote and romantic enterprise whichhimself had planned. The Sicilian expedition terminated in the most disas- trous manner ; and almost the whole of the Athenian army was destroyed or taken captive. The Lacedemonians, support- ed by a powerful confederacy, and assist- ed even by the Persian viceroys, invaded Attica, blockaded the city of Athens, and would speedily have terminated the war by its reduction ; but Alcibiades, having been expelled from Sparta on account of his licentious practices, exerted himself to detach their Persian allies, and to re- trieve the falling hopes of his country. Recalled by the army, and raised to the chief command by the unanimous voice of the people, he recovered many of the lost colonies, defeated the fleet of the confederates, and so alarmed the Lacede- monians, that they were ready to have treated for peace ; but the Athenians, intoxicated with success, prolonged the war, and, insensible to their interest, again threw away the instrument of their victories. Their fleet having sustained a trifling loss while Alcibiades was absent, and employed in levying contributions in Ionia, for the support of his forces, he was instantly disgraced by the fickle voice of the populace, and the power of Peloponnesus again acquired the ascen- dancy. The confederates, taught by ex- perience, had exerted themselves to in- crease the number of their ships, and had at length succeeded in attaining also a portion of that maritime skill, which had hitherto given to the Athenians so deci- ded a superiority by sea. The Athenian navy, however, trusting to their long ac- knowledged eminence, and elated by a victory which they had gained over the Spartan fleet at Arginusa, near Lesbos, despised their enemies and neglected all ordinary precautions, with unexampled imprudence. Lysander, the ablest of the Lacedemonian generals, having succeed- ed to the command of the allied fleet, and taken the city of Lampsacus upon the coast of the Hellespont, resolved to avail himself of that self-confidence which guided the councils of the Athenian cap- tains. In order to increase their insolent security, he repeatedly declined battle, which they daily off'ered him, but kept his own crew prepared for action at a moment's warning. Having learned that they regularly drew their fleet ashore on the open beach at Aigospotami, on the opposite coast, not more than two miles from his own station, and then suflered the soldiers and crews to disperse over the adjoining country in quest of lodgings and provisions, he easily found means to surprise them in this unguarded con- dition, made himself master of their whole fleet except nine galleys, and took prisoners the greater part of their forces, by which it had been manned. A striking instance now occurred of that savage barbarity, with which the diff'erent pow- ers in the Peloponnesian war were gen- erally chargeable. The Athenians had resolved, in their assurance of victory, to cut ofl" the right hand of every prisoner whom they should capture ; and this in- tended cruelty, with many similar acts which they had perpetrated, was imme- GREECE. 421 diately requited by a general massacre of the captives at Aigospotami. Lysan- der, with his own hand, cut down their general Philocles, after reproaching him with having first set the example among the Greeks of such violations of the laws of war ; and, upon this signal, about 3,000 Athenian citizens were butchered in cold blood by the allied troops. The Lace- demonian commander, now completely master of the seas, speedily reduced the principal colonies and dependencies of Athens ; and then hastened, with a fleet of 200 galleys, to blockade the port of that devoted city, while the land forces of the confederates at the same time sur- rounded its walls. No assault was at- tempted, and its reduction was left en- tirely to the sure operation of famine. The haughty and turbulent citizens dis- covered not even the courage of despair in their defence ; but were solely anxious to avert the sentence of utter extermina- tion, with which they were threatened by some of the allied states. The Lacedemonians, however, proba- bly as much from policy as generosity, secured for them more favorable terms, and saved their persons from servitude and slaughter. But it was determined, as a measure absolutely necessary to the safety and repose of Greece, that their tyrannical spirit should be eflectually humbled, and their power as a state en- tirely broken. They were spared upon the following conditions ; that all their ships of war should be surrendered, ex- cept twelve ; that the long walls and the fortifications of Peirseus should be des- troyed ; that all exiles and fugitives should be restored to the rights of the city ; that the Athenians should hold always as friends or enemies those states, who were the allies or the adversaries of La- cedemon ; and should be ready to attend the Spartan power, by sea or land, as they might receive orders. These terms being accepted, the Spartan fleet entered the Peiraeus, and the army took possession of the walls. The fortifications, which had been condemned, were instantly thrown down, to the sound of military music, and their demolition celebrated with triumph as an era of recovered freedom to Greece. The popular assembly was abolished ; the government changed from democracy to oligarchy ; and thirty magistrates were appointed to form the new administration of the commonwealth. Such was the termination of the Peloponnesian war, in its twenty-seventh year ; and Lacede- mon, now in alliance with Persia, having again become the leadingpower in Greece, the aristocratical interest reigned para- mount in almost every Grecian state. Sparta, having recovered her influence in Greece, acted not less tyrannically than on former occasions ; and, under the ambitious projects of Lysander, be- came daily more corrupted in her princi- ples of policy. The thirty magistrates, who had been placed at the head of the Athenian state, were supported by as- sistance from Lacedemon, in the most atrocious acts of cruelty and injustice ; and the other Grecian cities were pro- hibited even to afford a refuge to the un- happy Athenians, who fled from their oppressors. Not contented with cutting off their political adversaries, the thirty tyrants, under the direction of Critias, pro- ceeded to murder upon frivolous pretences, all persons whose riches they wished to seize ; and the slightest murmur against their oppressions was punished with im- prisonment, exile, or death. In the space of eight months, fifteen hundred citizens were sacrificed to their avarice or ven- geance ; and Xenophon goes so far as to afhrra, that their short reign was more destructive to Athens, than the preceding war of thirty years. At length, however, Thrasybulus, at the head of his exiled countrymen, drove the tyrants from their seat of abused power, and restored the ancient democratical form of government at Athens. By his wise moderation the spirit of retaliation was restrained, a gen- eral amnesty proclaimed, and tranquillity restored to the Athenian state. But what- ever was the form, tyranny was too gene- rally the spirit of the Grecian governments, and especially of the pure democracy at Athens. Equally unjust and cruel as the most lawless despots, they were often much more inconsistent with themselves, and fickle in their proceedings. While they allowed their poets, for their amuse- ment, to ridicule the gods upon the stage, they punished their sages, who endea- 422 GREECE. vored, for their instruction, to introduce worthier sentiments of religion. By their sentence, the celebrated Socrates, (whom even the thirty tyrants had spared, though he often opposed their measures,) was iniquitously put to death. The Greeks were again involved in a contest with Persia, by the attempt of Cyrus the younger to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes. That ambitious prince be- ing governor of Asia Minor, and friendly to the Spartans, persuaded them to join his standard with 13,000 Grecian troops ; but, excepting their leader Clearchus, they are said to have been entirely ig- norant of his views upon the Persian crown. The celebrated retreat of the remains of this army, after the death of Cyrus, generally called the retreat of the ten thousand, is considered as one of the most extraordinary exploits recorded in the annals of the military art ; and by proving the weakness of Persia, is sup- posed to have had considerable influence in promoting the Macedonian invasion, and conquest of that extensive but feeble empire. It had the more immediate eff"ect of encouraging an expedition, under Ages- ilaus, king of Sparta, to recover the liberty of the Grecian colonies in Asia. Assist- ed by 30 captains, with Lysander at their head, he fdled all Asia with a dread of his arms ; and was preparing to carry the war into the heart of the empire, when he was suddenly recalled for the protec- tion of his own country. The Persian monarchs had discovered a more easy and effectual defence against Grecian valor than their most numerous armies had been able to provide ; and, by a sea- sonable distribution of bribes among the leading men of the different states, suc- ceeded in turning the arms of these war- like republics against one another. The Thebans were first gained to their inter- ests, who easily succeeded in persuading the Athenians. Even Argos and Corinth, two Peloponnesian states, joined the con- federacy, to which were added Acarna- nia, Ambracia, Leucadia, Eubcea, part of Thessaly, and Chalcidice in Thrace. — The haughty tyranny of Lacedemon fur- nished sufficiently ostensible reasons for the union ; and Persian gold readily sup- plied the arguments which were wanting. The confederates sustained a severe check in the vicinity of Corinth, and were afterwards defeated by Agesilaus at Coroneia, with great loss on both sides ; but Phamabazus, assisted by the Athe- nian commander Conon, having defeated the Lacedemonian fleet, completely de- stroyed their influence in Asiatic Greece. They proceeded even to ravage the coasts of Laconia ; and, assisting the Athenians to rebuild their long walls, which con- nected the Peirajus with the city, again laid the foundation of their naval power. After various vicissitudes and intrigues, all parties became tired of war, and disposed to peace. The Lacedemonians, though still superior in the field, yet destitute of the aid which they had formerly derived from the Persian treasury, were straitened in their pecuniary resources ; and Phar- nabazus, the friend of Athens, having been succeeded in Lydia by Teribazus, the new Satrap, became favorable to the in- terests of Sparta. By the able negotia- tions of Antalcidas, the Lacedemonian, the Persian monarch was brought in as mediator, or rather dictator, for a general pacification among the states of Greece, of which the conditions were simply these; "that all cities on the continent of Asia, together with the islands of Clazo- mene and Cyprus, should belong to the Persian empire ; and that all other Gre- cian cities, small and great, should be completely independent, except that the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Sciros, should remain as formerly under the do- minion of Athens." Against all who should refuse these terms, the court of Persia declared itself ready to unite with those who accepted them, and to render every assistance by land and sea, to re- duce the refractory. The weaker states were well pleased to be secured in their independence. The Athenians were gra- tified by the exception in their favor. The Thebans, anxious to preserve their authority over the smaller towns of Bceo- tia, wished to stipulate for that superior- ity ; but were compelled to concur in the terms. And the Lacedemonians, while they lost nothing by abandoning the Asiatic Greeks, whom they had already been obliged to desert, gained the great object of the war, — the separation of the GREECE. 423 states which had combined against them, and the emancipation, especially, of the Bosotians from the growing power of Thebes. They soon showed that they accounted themselves to have established their supremacy, and were the first to disturb the general tranquillity. They de- molished the fortifications of Mantinaea, as a punishment for the disaffection of its citizens to the Lacedemonian interests, during the preceding wars. They march- ed against Olynthus, a Grecian city of Thrace, because, by associating the smaller towns in its vicinity under one government, it was considered as in- fringing the conditions of the late treaty; though its only offence was the increase of its strength by a wise and liberal poli- cy, which ought to have been emulated, rather than opposed by the other Greeks. They interfered also, in the most unjus- tifiable manner, in the political contests which agitated the Theban state ; and, by this rash measure, gave rise to a long and complicated struggle, which ended only with the general overthrow of Gre- cian independence. Their general Phae- bidas, returning from an expedition against the Olynthians, was persuaded to join the leader of the aristocratical party in Thebes, and to occupy the citadel with a Lacedemonian garrison. This unauthor- ized step, though at first disapproved by the government of Sparta, was finally sanctioned, by their retaining possession of the fortress thus treacherously seized, and by their bringing to trial and pun- ishment the chief of the adverse fac- tion, as if they had been the constituted judges of Thebes. For the space of four years, they succeeded in holding the Thebans under the most humiliating subjection ; but suddenly the Theban exiles, with the assistance of the Athe- nians, by one of the boldest and best conducted exploits recorded in history, recovered possession of their power in the city, and compelled the Lacedemo- nians to evacuate the citadel. With difficulty the Thebans at first withstood the armies of Sparta, by act- ing on the defensive ; but gradually im- proving in military skill, they learned to face in the field, and to combat, even with inferior numbers, the experienced troops of their powerful adversary. Under the able direction of Epaminondas and Pelo- pidas, they ventured, though then without an ally, to persevere in the unequal con- test ; and, in the famous battle of Leuc- tra, the bloodiest action hitherto known in Greece, these distinguished command- ers, by their skilful dispositions, and the enthusiastic courage with which they in- spired their troops, defeated an army nearly four times the number of their own. Never had the Lacedemonians, before that day, retreated from an inferior force, or lost in any one engagement so many of their citizens. Another of their boasts, "that never had the women of Sparta beheld the smoke of an enemy's camp," was now also done away. The victorious Thebans, headed by Epaminondas, and joined by many of the Grecian states, ravaged the Lacedemo- nian territories to the very suburbs of the capital ; and on their return reinstated the Messenians, whom the Spartans had driven from their country. The Lacede- monians, alarmed not merely for their supremacy but their safety, secured as- sistance from Athens, from Syracuse, and even from Persia, while the The- bans were hard pressed by a war in Thes- saly, against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae. Pelopidas, however, having been des- patched to the Persian court, succeeded in recommending himself to the esteem of the monarch, and in turning his friend- ship to a state which had never been at war with Persia. Thebes, intoxicated with her rising power, which she owed chiefly to the abilities of her leaders, ob- stinate in maintaining her authority over the cities of Boeotia, which was perhaps necessary for her resistance to Lacede- mon, and aiming to become the arbitress of Greece, which her sudden elevation provoked many of the states to regard as unpardonable presumption, may be con- sidered as at this period the cause of the continuation of hostilities among the Greeks. Sparta, however, was equally obstinate in refusing to acknowledge the independence of the Messenians, and war was prolonged for some time with little effect, chiefly between the confederates of the two principal powers. The The- bans, having at length terminated the war 424 GREECE. with Thessaly, with the loss of their able general Pelopidas, were at liberty to take part more effectually in the transactions of Peloponnesus. A civil war having broken out in Ar- cadia between the cities of Mantinaea and Tegea, the Thebans supported the cause of the latter, while the Athenians and Lacedemonians declared for the former. The very existence of Sparta was threat- ened by the bold and enterprising mea- sures of Epaminondas, who had nearly taken the city by surprise ; but, frustrated in his plan by the activity of Agesilaus, he returned and gave battle to the Lace- demonians and their allies at Mantinsea, where he was mortally wounded in the moment of victory, and where with him the power of the Theban state expired. A general pacification succeeded, upon the basis of the former treaties prescribed by Persia, that every city should be in- dependent ; but the Lacedemonians still persisting in their wish to reduce the emancipated Messenians, were excluded from the treaty, and remained nominally at war with the confederates of Thebes. Exasperated by the friendly dispositions which the Persian court had manifested to the Thebans, and perhaps expecting to acquire some pecuniary resources for the recovery of their power in Greece, they sent an army to aid the insurgents in Egypt. After the death of Agesilaus, on his return from Africa, little occurs in the history of Greece deserving of notice, till the appearance of Philip of Macedon. A great change had taken place in Gre- cian poUtics. There was now no lead- ing state, either of the aristocratical or democratical interests; and, though every city exercised a jealous watchfulness to prevent any overbearing superiority in another, there were no extensive confed- eracies or hostilities; but lassitude, in- decision, and divisions, pervaded the nation, and paved the way for the uni- versal subjugation of their liberties by the Macedonian monarchy. In consequence of the blow given to the Spartan power in the battle of Man- tinaea, and the decline of Thebes after the loss of Epaminondas, Athens remained the most prominent and respected of the Grecian republics. In want, however, of any salutary check from a powerful rival, its government became extravagant and irregular in the most extraordinary de- gree ; the inconsiderate voice of the mul- titude deciding every measure, frequently ratifying at night what they had rejected in the morning, and ready to follow every varying scheme of every flattering orator. The citizens also, sinking into unbounded luxury, declined all military service, and resorting to the aid of mercenaries, en- gaged in hostilities chiefly for the pur- pose of collecting plunder, or of extort- ing tribute. Every marauding expedition was approved, provided the leaders brought home a sufliciency of treasure to provide amusements for the people, and to bribe the orators to silence. The official men, in short, inadequately re- warded by their regular salaries, learned, as is almost uniformly the case, to re- compense themselves ; and the people, either becoming necessitous by their idle attendance on political matters, or injudi- ciously supported by the public funds as an encouragement to population, actually depended for their subsistence upon the sacrifices, feasts, and spoils, connected with their military expeditions. While Athens was in this situation, strangely feeble in the whole constitution of its government and population, yet by means of its naval force still the principal repub- lic in Greece, a rival to its power arose in a quarter, which had hitherto attracted little attention, and had even been regard- ed by the Grecian states as undeserving of their notice. Though the kings of Macedonia pretended to be the descend- ants of Hercules, the Greeks considered them as no part of their nation, but always treated them as barbarians. This king- dom had existed more than four hundred years, but had generally stood in need of protection from Athens or from Sparta ; and had never risen to a capacity of par- taking in the eminence of these republics. But it now furnished an example, similar to that of Thebes, of the power of one distinguished individual to accomplish, in favorable circumstances, the most im- portant revolutions. It was in Thebes, indeed, that the new leader of the Mace- donians had received his best instructions in the arts of pohcy and war. Philip GREECE. 425 had been taken to that city as a hostage when he was only ten years of age, and had been carefully educated under the eye of Epaminondas, assisted by the cel- ebrated Pythagorean philosopher Lysis. At twenty-four years of age he ascended the throne of Macedon, and gave early indication of his talents for government. At the period of his accession, he found himself at war with the Athenians, who supported one of his competitors for the kingdom. Having defeated his adver- sary, who was slain in the action, he in- stantly liberated, and loaded with favors, all the soldiers of Athens whom he had taken prisoners. Having discovered that the Athenians were intent upon the re- covery of Amphipolis, which they claimed as one of their colonies, but which he had seized as the key of his dominions on that frontier, he was equally reluctant to put it in their power, or to come to a rupture for which he was not prepared. With his usual consummate policy, there- fore, he declared it in the mean time a free city, and left the inhabitants to main- tain their own independence. A peace and alliance were ratified be- tween the Macedonian prince and the city of Athens ; but their agreement was of short duration. A contest speedily commenced, which led to the subver- sion of Grecian freedom by the arts and arms of Philip ; but which owed its ori- gin as much to the unprincipled aggres- sions of the Athenian democracy, as to the ambitious views of the Macedonian monarch. While in full alliance and co- operation with Philip against the Olyn- thians, they suddenly indicated their hos- tility to his interests, by detaching the town of Pydna from his kingdom, and making a direct attempt to possess them- selves of Amphipolis. Failing in their design, it was soon after occupied by Philip, and rendered a strong barrier be- tween his dominions and those of the Grecian states. Before this time had com- menced " the Sacred War," undertaken by the Boeotians, Locrians, Thessalians, &c, in order to punish the Phocians, who had ploughed a field sacred to Apol- lo at Delphos, and had refused to dis- charge the fine which the council of the Amphictyons had sentenced them to pay, 54 as an atonement for the sacrilegious deed. They were supported by the La- cedemonians, Athenians, &c, and Philip, well pleased to leave the Grecian states to exhaust their strength against each other, had employed himself in the mean time in extending his power in Thrace, and in attaching Thessaly to his inter- ests, by delivering its cities from the op- pressive sway of the tyrants of Pherae. Irritated, however, by the defection of Olynthus from the Macedonian to the Athenian alliance, he laid siege to that city ; and, having gained possession of the place by bribing a party of its inhab- itants, he razed its walls, to the ground, and sold the people for slaves. The Sacred War, which was still carried on by both parties with the most sanguinary retaliations, next aflbrded him a fair op- portunity of bringing his power into full contact with the Grecian states. Pro- fessing to adjust, as arbitrator, the matter in dispute, promising to the Phocians his protection against the fury of their enemies, and soothing the Athenians by the reports of his friends, that he was secretly intending to humble Thebes rather than Phocis, he marched an army into Greece ; gained quiet possession of the Phocian cities ; secured to that peo- ple, as he had promised, their personal safety ; but procured, or at least sanc- tioned, a decree of the Amphictyonic As- sembly, annihilating their political exist- ence as a nation, and expelling them from the number of the Grecian states represented in the council. He was himself elected in their place as a mem- ber of the Assembly ; invested with the double vote which they had enjoyed ; and usually denominated in their future operations the Amphyctonic general. The Athenians refused to acknowledge his election ; and manifested, in all their measures, an ambition even more unprin- cipled and indefensible than that of the Macedonian monarch. Guided rather by the inflammatory eloquence of De- mosthenes, than by the pacific counsels of Phocion, they plunged at length into a destructive contest with their powerful rival and neighbor. A second Sacred War again drew Philip into the midst of Greece. The Locrians of Araphissa 426 GREECE. having encroached upon the consecrated ground of Delphos, and having refused to obey the decrees of the Amphictyonic council, the Macedonian monarch was invited, as tlreir general, to vindicate their authority by force of arms. Many of the Grecian slates were now alarmed, and not without reason, by the forward- ness of Philip to interfere in their poli- tics, and by the reluctance which he showed to withdraw his army, after the punishment of the Amphissians. De- mosthenes hastened to Thebes, where he succeeded in rousing the utmost enthusi- asm for the liberties of Greece, and per- suaded the Thebans to adopt the imme- diate resolution of uniting with the Athe- nians, to resist the dangerous progress of the Macedonian influence. In vain did Phocion recommend, and Philip request, the Athenians to lay aside their measures for instant hostilities. They excluded the former from the command of their army, and marched without delay to join their Theban allies against the enemy. The two armies, consisting of about 30,000 on each side, came to a general engagement at Cheronea. The battle was long doubtful. Alexander Avho was only seventeen years of age, at the head of a chosen body of noble Macedonians, cut down the Sacred Band of Thebes ; and the Athenians, for a time successful, but urging their advantage with impru- dent impetuosity, were overwhelmed by the Macedonian phalanx under Philip. The vanquished Avere treated with a de- gree of clemency and generosity, of which there had been few examples in Grecian warfare. Philip hastened to stop the slaughter of the flying Greeks, and dismissed the Athenian prisoners without ransom, and voluntarily renewed his former treaty with that republic. To the Thebans he readily granted peace ; but stationed a Macedonian garrison in their citadel. Py this decisive victory, he secured the most entire ascendency in Greece ; and, on that side, there was little farther left for his ambition to desire. Either, however, with a view to ex- tend his conquests, or in order to unite the Greeks more firmly under his power, he planned the invasion of the Persian empire, and procured himself to be ap- pointed generalissimo in the expedition. No measure could have been conceived more popular in Greece. A general council of the states was summoned, and the quota determined which each of them was to furnish. Philip exerted himself with extraordinary activity to complete his formidable preparations ; and his whole army, in the most perfect state of military discipline and equipment, was in readiness to cross the Hellespont. But, in the midst of his greatest splen- dor, while solemnizing, before his de- parture, the nuptials of his daughter Cleopatra, surrounded by his guards and principal officers, and receiving, among the assembled states of Greece, little less than divine honors, he was stabbed to the heart by a desperate assassin. Upon the accession of Alexander to the throne of Macedonia, Avhen only twenty years of age, the different na- tions whom his father had brought under his dominion made an attempt to regain their independence ; and Demosthenes exerted all his powers of persuasion to engage the Greeks to unite against the youthful successor of the formidable Philip. But Alexander having punished the Thracians, Illyrians, and other bar- barians, for their indiscretion, turned, with the utmost expedition, the whole weight of his arms upon Greece. The Thebans, who had massacred the Mace- donian garrison, which Philip had placed in their citadel, having refused the offer of a free pardon made to them by Alex- ander, upon condition of their surrender- ing the principal leaders of the insurrec- tion, were defeated with great slaughter, their city given up to be pillaged, and the inhabitants sold as slaves. These dread- ful acts of severity filled the Athenians with alarm, and an embassy was instantly despatched to implore the clemency of the Macedonian prince. Alexander at first insisted that ten of their principal orators should be delivered into his hands ; but was at length satisfied with the ban- ishment of Charidemus, and expressed the highest regard for the republic of Athens. The other states hastened in like manner, to make their submission ; and, in one campaign, the whole nation of the Greeks acknowledged his supre- GREECE 427 macy. Having assembled their deputies at Corinth, and renewed the proposal of invading the Persian empire, he was ap- pointed, as his father had been, to the chief command. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse, the sum of seventy talents, and provisions only for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont, and, in travers- ing Phrygia, visited the tomb of Achilles. Darius Codomanus, resolved to crush at once this inconsiderate youth, met him on the banks of the Granicus, with 1 00,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. The Greeks swam the river, their king leading the van, and attacking the astonished Per- sians, left 20,000 dead upon the field, and put to flight their whole army. Drawing from his first success a presage of con- tinued victory, Alexander now sent home his fleet, leaving to his army the sole al- ternative, that they must subdue Asia or perish. Prosecuting their course for some time without resistance, the Greeks were attacked by the Persians in a nar- row valley of Cilicia, near the town of Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 ; but their situation was such that only a small part could come into action, and they were defeated with pro- digious slaughter. The generosity of Alexander was dis- played after the battle of Issus, in his at- tention to his noble prisoners, the mother, the wife, and family of Darius. To the credit of Alexander, it must be owned that humanity, however overpowered, and at times extinguished by his passions, certainly formed a part of his natural character. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the submission of all Syria. Da- mascus, where Darius had deposited his chief treasures, was betrayed and given up by its governor. The Phoenicians were pleased to see themselves thus avenged for the oppression they had suffered under the yoke of Persia. He directed his course towards Tyre and desired admittance to perform a sa- crifice to Hercules. The Tyrians shut their gates, and maintained for seven months a noble defence. The city was at length taken by storm ; and the victor glutted his revenge by the inhuman mas- sacre of 8,000 of the inhabitants. The fate of Gaza, gloriously defended by Baetis, was equally deplorable to its citi- zens, and more disgraceful to the con- queror. Ten thousand of the former were sold into slavery, and its brave de- fender dragged at the wheels of the vic- tor's chariot. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and the whole country sub- mitted without opposition. Amidst the most incredible fatigues, he now led his army through the deserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father Jupiter Am- nion. On his return he built Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile, afterwards the capital of the Lower Egypt, and one of the most flourishing cities in the world. Twenty other cities of the same name were reared by him in the course of his conquests. It is such works as these that justly entitle the Macedonian to the epithet of Great. By rearing in the midst of deserts those nurseries of pop- ulation and of industry, he repaired the waste and havoc of his conquests. But for those monuments of his glory, he would have merited no other epithet than that assigned him by the Brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer. Returning from Egypt, Alexander tra- versed Assyria, and was met at Arbela by Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. The Persian had proffered peace, con- senting to yield the whole country from the Euphrates to the Plellespont, to give Alexander his daughter in marriage, and the immense sum of 10,000 talents. But these terms were haughtily rejected, and peace refused, but upon the unqualified submission of his enemy. The Persians were defeated at Arbela, with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius fled from prov- ince to province. At length betrayed by Bessus, one of his own satraps, he was cruelly murdered ; and the Persian em- pire, which had substituted for 206 years from the time of Cyrus the Great, sub- mitted to the conquerer, 330 B. C. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, firmly persuaded that the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the whole habitable globe. He penetrated to the Ganges, and would have advanced to the Eastern Ocean, had the spirit of 428 GREECE. his army kept pace with his ambition. But his troops, seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed. He returned to the Indus, from whence, sending round his fleet to the Persian Gulf vmder Nearchus, he marched his army across the desert to Persepolis. Indignant that he had found a limit to his conquests, he abandoned himself to every excess of luxury and debauchery. The arrogance of his nature, and the ar- dor of his passions, heightened by con- tinual intemperance, broke out into the most outrageous excesses of cruelty, for which, in the few intervals of sober re- flection, his ingenuous mind suffered the keenest remorse. From Persepolis he returned to Babylon, and there died- in a fit of debauch, in the thirty third year of his age, and thirteenth of his reig-n, 324 B. C. Demosthenes once more made a no- ble attempt to vindicate the national free- dom, and to rouse his countrymen, the Athenians, to shake off the yoke of Ma- cedon. But it was too late. The paci- fic councils of Phocion suited better the languid spirit of this once illustrious peo- ple. After a variety of conflicts and revolutions, the whole of Greece was re- duced to the state of a Roman province, under the name of Achaia. But Greece, though subject to the Ro- man arms, soon acquired, by her arts of peace, a silent superiority over her con- querors. The victors became the disci- ples of the vanquished ; and the most distinguished Romans learned, in the Grecian schools of philosophy, to regard the country which they held in subjec- tion, with the gratitude -and respect due to a benefactor. These considerations probably contributed to secure to the in- habitants of Greece a milder exercise of authority, and more distinguished marks of favor, than were enjoyed by any other province under the yoke of Rome. After Greece became a Roman prov- ince, the history of this country has been more or less mixed and identified with that of its conquerors. Though the splendor of Constantinople, during the time of its prosperity, might have reflect- ed some lustre upon Greece, yet it gain- ed scarcely any thing under the various [emperors who filled the throne, for a length of time previous to its fall, and i who were most of them hurled from it I by the hand of violence. The Latins, the enemies of the Greek emperors, seiz- ed on the Morea, and laid it wasteas did the Sicilians and Normans afterwards. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the Venetians invaded the coun- try, took Athens, and extended their pow- er over a great part of the continent and some of the islands ; but, republicans as they were, they treated in the most des- potic manner the serfs of the Morea : still, as they wished to realize some ad- vantage from their conquest, they en- couraged the people to cultivate agricul- ture, and it is to them that they owe the numerous plantations of olives, &;c, the remains of which are still found in vari- ous parts of the Greek islands. Histori- ans assure us, they contrived to manage this country so well, that they realized a revenue of 300,000 crowns ; and they rebuilt several ancient fortresses, which were judged necessary to secure their dominion in the Archipelago. But Ve- nice having experienced changes in her own domains, she consequently lost her distant possessions ; and, at the begin- ning of the eighteenth century, the Mo- rea was wrested from her grasp. The Turks having again become masters of the peninstfla, made the inhabitants feel the weight of their iron sceptre, and im- posed their karatch, or capitation tax, as a price at which they consented to spare the lives of the vanquished. The inter- ference of christian powers, especially of Russia, in the year 1770, only tended to increase the miseries and aggravate the bondage of the unhappy Greeks. — Peter the Great had, there is no doubt, laid the foimdation of a plan for assisting them, and driving their oppressors out of Europe ; and the empress Catharine, fol- lowing the views of her predecessor, sent a fleet of twenty sail towards the close of the year 1769, which took pos- session of several islands, attacked the Turkish fleet, and finally succeeded in destroying it. The call to the Greeks on this occasion to arm themselves, and shake off the yoke, was instantly obeyed, and an insurrection took place through- GREECE. 429 out the Morea, and also in many of the islands of the Archipelago. The Rus- sian fleet, however, was recalled, and the poor Greeks abandoned to their fate. — The Albanians ravaged the country in conjunction with the Turks, who carried off a great multitude of the inhabitants into slavery. At the time of the expedition of the French into Egypt, the Greeks, strongly incited by the events of the war, which was thus approaching them, waited for them as liberators, with the firm resolu- tion of going to meet them and regaining their liberty ; but again their hopes were disappointed, and the succors they ex- pected from France were removed to a distance. The brave Rhigas, at once a poet and a warrior, and the author of the celebrated national air in imitation of the Marseillois, which is to this day the war song of the Greek troops, perished at Bel- grade by the hands of the oppressors of his country ; but his blood, and that of other less celebrated chiefs, only served to in- crease the national discontent, instead of discouraging it. Having waited in vain, in the midst of the great events which, in several respects, have changed the whole face of Europe in this century, the Greeks, taking counsel only of their despair, and indignant at living always as Helots in the ruins of Sparta and Athens, when nations of but yesterday were recov- ering their rights and recognising their social relations, rose against their des- potic masters, perhaps with greater bold- ness than prudence. The first decided movement took place in the year 1800, when the Servians, provoked by the cruelty of their oppres- sors the Turks, made a general insurrec- tion, which was headed by their celebra- ted chief Czerni George, who had served as a sergeant in the Austrian service, and afterwards became a bandit chief. He was possessed of much energy of charac- ter and bravery. Under him the Servians obtained several victories. He blockaded Belgrade, and one of the gates being sur- rendered to him, he made his entry into the city and slaughtered nearly all the Turks that were found in it. In the mean time Russia openly declared war against the Porte in 1807, and carried on the war until the year 1812, when the treaty of Bucharest was negotiated ; and though some efforts were made to obtain a concession in favor of their Servian al- lies, yet one difiiculty after another being stated by the Porte, a peace was at length concluded, as before, upon such terms as left the insurgents to their fate. The Turks and Greeks never became one nation ; the relation of conquerors and conquered never ceased. However abject a large part of the Greeks became by their continued oppression, they never forgot that they were a distinct nation ; and their patriarch at Constantinople re- mained a visible point of union for their national feelings. As early as 1809, a society had been formed at Paris for the liberation of Greece. In 1814, the He- taireia was formed in Vienna, but the re- volution began too early for their plans. A Walachian, Theodore Wladimiresko, left Bucharest, January 30th, with sixty pandoors, and instigated the peasants to revolt, promising them the protection of Russia and the restoration of their old rights. The Arnaouts, who were sent against him, joined him, and he soon be- came master of little Walachia, at the head of 5,000 men. The Greeks in Mol- davia likewise rose, under prince Alex- ander Ypsilanti, a major-general in the Russian service. The revolution in the Morea began on the 23rd of March, 1821, at Calavrita, a small place in Achaia, where eighty Turks were made prisoners. On the same day, the Turkish garrison of Patras fell upon the Greek inhabitants ; but they were soon relieved. In the ancient La- conia, Colocotroni and Peter Mavromi- chalis roused the people to arms. The archbishop Germanos collected the pea- sants of Achaia ; and in Patras and oth- er places the Turks were compelled to retreat into the fortresses. As early as April 6th, a Messenian senate assembled in Calamata ; and the bey of Maina, Pe- ter Mavromichalis, as commander-in- chief, proclaimed that the Morea had shaken off the yoke of Turkey to save the christian faith, and to restore the an- cient character of their country. " From Europe nothing is wanted but money, arms, and counsel." From that time the suf- 430 GREECE. fering Greeks found friends in Germany, France, Switzerland, England, and the United States of America. The cabinets of the other European powers, on the con- trary, threw every impediment in the way of the Hellenists, until they were finally obliged against their inclination, to inter- fere in their favor. Jussuf Selim, pacha of Lepanto, having received information of these events from the diplomatic agent of a European power, hastened to relieve the citadel of Patras, and the town was changed into a heap of ruins. The mas- sacre of the inhabitants was the signal for a struggle of life and death. Almost the whole war was thenceforward a suc- cession of atrocities. It was not a war prosecuted on any fixed plan, but merely a series of devastations and murders. The revolution spread over Attica, Boeo- tia, Phocis, ^Etolia, and Acarnania. The ancient names were revived. At the same time the islands declared them- selves free. In the beginning of April the wealthy merchants and ship-owners, the bold mariners of Hydra, Spezzia, and Ispara, who had long before been gained over to the cause of liberty, erected an independent government in Hydra. They fitted out their vessels for war, and the blue and red flag of the Hetaireia soon waved on nearly two hundred vessels. While the conduct of the Moreots has but too often drawn on them the just re- proach of their compatriots, the former have gained a name in history, which be will honored as long as an invincible love of liberty, and bold and inflexible courage in an unequal struggle are prized. The Hydriots cruised in the Turkish wa- ters, and blockaded the ports. In some isl- ands the Turks were massacred in revenge for the murder of the Greeks at Patras ; and, in retaliation, the Greeks were put to death at Smyrna, in Asia Minor, and in those islands which had not yet shak- en off" the Turkish yoke. The exasper- ation was raised to the highest pitch by the cruelties committed against the Greeks in Constantinople, after the end of March. On mere suspicion, and often merely to obtain possession of their property, the divan caused the richest Greek mer- chants and bankers to be put to death. The rage of the Mussulmans was parti- cularly directed against the Greek cler- gy. In April, Gregory, the patriarch of Constantinople, was murdered, with his bishops, in the metropolis. In Adriano- ple, the venerable patriarch, Cyrillus, who had retired to a life of solitude, and Proesos, archbishop of Adrianople, and others, met the same fate. When the first Turkish squadron left the Dardanelles, May 19th, the Greeks constantly pursued it with their fire-ships, avoiding, at the same time, a general en- gagement ; and, June 8th, they attacked a vessel of the line, which had got ashore at Tenedos, burned it, and compelled the rest of the squadron to put back to the Dardanelles. June 15th, the Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took possession of the ancient Cydonia, now the Greek city of Aivali ; but, after they had retired, the Turks burned the city, and 35,000 of its inhabitants either perished or were driven from their homes. The ill success of their expedition added fresh fuel to the rage of the Turks. The Greeks in the island of Candia, who had avoided all participation in the insurrec- tion, were disarmed, and their archbish- op and several clergymen executed. But the peasants in the mountains, and the inhabitants of the small island Sphakia, called the Suliots of Candia, refused to give up their arms, collected and drove the Turks back again into the towns. From that time, the struggle continued, and the Turks, though supported by sev- eral thousand men from Egypt, were never again able to make themselves masters of the islands. They, however, maintained themselves in the cities. On the island of Cyprus, where also there had been no appearance of an in- surrection, the Greeks were disarmed in November, 1821, and almost all the in- habitants of Larnica, with the archbishop and other prelates, murdered. The pea- sants now united for mutual protection ; as a punishment for which, sixty-two vil- lages were burned in August, 1822. Similar atrocities were committed by the Turks at Scala Nuova, in Rhodes, and at Pergamos, after the Greeks had surprised the latter place. In Smyrna, also, new cruelties were committed ; and the European consuls did not succeed GREECE 431 until November, 1821, in inducing the pacha to put a stop to the enormities of the Turks. But in the European provin- ces of Turkey, the cruelties against chris- tians continued, as the sultan had issued a new hatti-sheriff, calling upon all Mus- sulmans to take arms against the Giaours. This order was not pubhshed in Constan- tinople, for which the populace, in that place, revenged themselves by setting fire to the city, Avhenever news of ill success exasperated them against the Greeks. The great Turkish fleet under the ca- pudan pacha, Kara Ali, strengthened by Egyptian, Tunisian and Algerine vessels, had, indeed, driven away the Greek flo- tillas, supplied the Turkish garrisons in the Morea with troops, arms, and provi- sions, burned the small village of Galax- idi, in the gulf of Lepanto, and taken some small Greek fishing craft in the harbor of this place. Yet the fleet had eflected nothing decisive. Hardly had it returned to the Dardanelles, when the Greek fleets renewed their system of blockade, and became, as formerly, masters of the iEgean sea and the gulf of Saloniki. Meanwhile, Demetrius Ypsilanti had ar- rived at Hydra, with prince Alexander Cantacuzeno, with authority from his brother, Alexander Ypsilanti. In Hydra, the unfortunate result of the struggle in Walachia was not yet known. Deme- trius promised the aid of Russia, and announced the restoration of the Greek empire. Yet it was with great difficulty that he succeeded in being appointed, on the 24th July, 1821, archistrategos or commander-in-chief of the Peloponne- sus, the Archipelago, and all the libera- ted provinces, and, as such, in being placed at the head of the Greeks in the Morea, where the dissensions among the capitani, and the undisciplined state of the soldiery, had a most injurious effect. Soon after, the principal Turkish fortress, Monembasia, surrendered to prince Can- tacuzeno, and Navarino to Demetrius Ypsilanti ; but the rapacious Moreots did not observe the articles of capitulation. Demetrius, disgusted at this disorder, declared his intention to leave Greece, unless he were invested with power to put a stop to this licentiousness, which he received, at least nominally. At the same time, the senate of Calamata united with that of Hydra, in order to assemble a congress of deputies from all Greece, at Calamata. Whilst Mavrocordato and others were making these preparations, Demetrius Ypsilanti was closely besieg- ing Tripolizza, the chief fortress of the Turks, situated in the plain of Mantinaea, in the centre of Greece. The garrison was on the point of surrendering, when the appearance of the Turkish fleet, in the waters of the Peloponnesus, gave them new courage. But in order to in- duce the Turkish troops to make an ob- stinate resistance, from fear of the ven- geance of the Christians, the Turkish commanders at Tripolizza ordered eighty priests and noble Greeks, who had been brought there, in part, by the treacherous invitations of the beys, to be all murdered, excepting two. After two thousand Al- banians had received permission to de- part, and the negotiations with the Turks were broken off, Tripolizza was taken by storm. The last post was surren- dered, on terms of capitulation, by the gallant Kiaja Bey; but the Moreots could not be restrained, and 8,000 Turks per- ished. Even the Albanians were at- tacked, and some of them plundered. In Tripolizza, the Moreots gained their first heavy cannon, and the place became the seat of the soi-disdnt Greek government, until it was transferred to Argos. Sixty deputies from all the provinces of Greece formed the first national assem- bly in Epidaurus on the 1 0th of January, 1822, under the presidency of Mavrocor- dato, which, January 13, the Greek new year's day, proclaimed a provisional con- stitution. Its principles were the follow- ing : the annual election of all chief magistrates of the provinces, districts and communities ; laws were to be made by the concurrent votes of the delegative and executive councils ; the execution of laws was to rest with the execu- tive council, which appointed the eight ministers ; the independence of the judi- ciary was to be provided for ; this branch of government was to be exercised by the district, provincial, and supreme courts. The congress then elected the thirty -three members of the legislative and the five 432 GREECE. members of the executive council ; Mavro- cordato was elected president ; Theodore Negris, secretary of state of the executive council ; Ypsilanti, who had expected this place, was appointed president of the le- gislative council, but never discharged the duties of his office. Finally, the congress of Epidaurus issued a manifes- to, January 27, 1 822, in which they pro- nounced the union of the Greeks under an independent federative government. This arrangement at first was not so beneficial as had been expected. A peo- ple so long enslaved, and so deficient in civilization, could not at once establish a wise and firm government. The central government fixed its seat at Corinth, and, at a later period again at Argos. The numerous Greek population of the flourishing and defenceless Island of Scio had declined every invitation to engage in the revolution; but in March, 1822, a Greek fleet from Samos, vmder Logotheti, having appeared on the coast, the pea- sants, who labored under the greatest oppressions, took up arms and great dis- orders occurred. At this moment the great Turkish fleet made its appearance. In order to punish Scio, the capudan pacha abandoned his plan of operations against the Morea, and landed 15,000 of the most barbarous of the Asiatic troops, after the Sciots had rejected the off'er of amnesty. The islanders were beaten, and in a few days the beautiful island of Scio was changed into a scene of fire and blood. It was with great difficulty, and at the risk of their own lives, that the European consuls (among whom the courageous French consul Digeon was distinguished,) and the captains of some European vessels, were able to save a few hundred Greeks. Part of the people escaped to their vessels, and others con- tinued the struggle of despair in the mountains. Here they carried on a pro- tracted warfare with the Turkish troops, and exhibited a devotion to the cause of liberty worthy of the cause in which they were engaged. The European consuls, by means of a pastoral letter of the archbishop, and by the written assurance of the surviving hostages, that the Sciots might trust the oflered amnesty, if they would deliver up their leaders and their arms, finally effect- ed the submission of the peasants. Still murders, burnings, and pillaging did not cease. According to the Turkish lists, down to the 25th of May, 41,000 Sciots, mostly women and children, were sold into slavery. A similar fate was prepared for Ipsara, Tine, and Samos. But the Ipsariots, having already made prepa- rations to send their families to the Morea, hovered round the Turkish fleet with seventy small vessels, among which were several fire-ships, called hcphmstia, which were as ingeniously constructed as they were skilfully directed. Forty- three Ipsariots and Hydriots devoted themselves to death, rowed with their scampavias (a kind of gun-boats) into the midst of the fleet of the enemy, which still lay in the road of Scio ; and in the night of June 18, 1822, captain George attached fire-ships to the ship of the cap- udan pacha and to another vessel of the line. The former blew up, with 2,286 men ; the latter was saved. The capu- dan pacha was mortally wounded, and carried on shore, where he died. The Turks were at first stupified ; but their rage soon broke out, and the last traces of cultivation, the gum mastic villages, so lucrative to the Porte, were destroyed. In Constantinople, Turks bought Sciots merely for the purpose of putting them to death at pleasure. The merchants of Scio, resident at Constantinople, and the hostages which were carried thither, were executed in secret or in public, without any kind of legal process. Thus the Morea and the Archipelago were taught what fate they were to expect. Whilst Scio was desolated, and Ma- cedonia ruined, the central government at Corinth, under Mavrocordato, presi- dent of the executive council, was en- gaged, in connection with the provincial governments, in organising the adminis- tration of the country. This was ac- complished by the law of 1822, the first year of independence, introducing order into the army, raising a loan, promising the soldiers land, and, as there existed no taxes except customs, in laying a tax on the productions of the soil ; but they met with resistance in almost all their attempts, particularly from the old capi- GREECE. 433 tani, who had been entirely independent during the government of the Turks. — Each desired to command and to fight on his own account, and for his own profit. Thus the avaricious and ambitious Colo- cotroni, the fierce Ulysses, and the haughty Mavromichalis, and even Ypsi- lanti, yielded with reluctance to the new order of things. Mavrocordato in vain called the peo- ple to arms ; the other commanders re- fused to assist him ; general Varnakioti went over to the enemy, and the internal dissensions among the Albanians enfee- bled the strength of the Greeks. The castle of Suli was surrendered to the Turks. Part of the Suliots (1,800 men, with their wives and children) took re- fuge under the protection of the British in Cephalonia ; the rest fled to the moun- tains. Mavrocordato, with 300 men, and Marco Botzaris, finally threw themselves into Missolonghi. " Here," said the for- mer, " let us fall with Greece." Omer Vrione now considered himself master of iEtolia, and advanced with Ruschid, at the head of 11,000 men, to Missolonghi. Jussuf Pacha sent troops from Patras and Lepanto against Corinth, and Khur- shid, who, in Larissa, had received re-en- forcements from Rumelia and Bulgaria, determined to advance from Thessaly, through Livadia against the isthmus ; and then, after forming a union with Jus- suf and Omer Vrione, to crush the in- surgents in the Morea. His main body, 25,000 strong, composed principally of cavalry, had already passed Thermopy- lae, which Ulysses had defended so val- iantly in May and June, without opposi- tion. On his march through Livadia, he laid every thing waste, proclaimed an amnesty, and occupied Corinth, which a priest of the name of Achilles, who af- terwards killed himself, had basely sur- rendered ; but when Khurshid attempted to penetrate the passes in person, he was three times repelled by Ulysses near Larissa, where he died, just before the arrival of the capidgi baschi, who brought his death w^arrant. That body of caval- ry, however, which had so rashly push- ed forward without infantry, and was unable to obtain food or provender, per- ished in the defiles of the Morea. When 55 it advanced against Argos (from which the central government had fled,) formed a junction with 5,000 men of Jessuf's army, and sent re-enforcements to Napoli di Romania, the danger united all the capitani. Nicholas Niketas, who was on the point of taking Napoli di Romania by capitulation, Mavromichalis and Ypsi- lanti, retreated to the heights of Argos, laying waste the open country ; Ypsilan- ti, in the ruins of the castle of Argos, held the enemy in check; the Greek fleet prevented the relief of Napoli di Romania, by the great Turkish fleet, and took an Austrian store-ship, bound to Na- poli di Romania ; Ulysses occupied the defiles of Geranion ; Colocotroni hasten- ed from Patras, which he was besieging, to the scene of danger, called the people to the standard of the cross, assumed the chief command, and, in the latter part of June, occupied the defiles between Pa- tras, Argos, and Corinth, by which he cut off" the connection of the Turks in Thessaly with Khunshid. The skirmish- ing now began on all sides, and continu- ed day and night, from August 1st to August 8th. On the latter day the Turk- ish commander-in-chief, whose troops had nothing but horse flesh to eat, offer- ed to evacuate the Morea ; but Coloco- troni refused the offer. The pacha then determined to break through to the isth- mus of Corinth ; but Niketas fell upon the separate corps of the Turks, on the night of August 9th, in the defile of Tretes ; so that hardly 2,000, without artillery or baggage, reached the isthmus, where Ypsilanti entirely destroyed them. Another corps, which fled towards Pa- tras, was destroyed by Colocotroni ; the remaining corps was routed by the Mai- nots, near Napoli. Thus more than 20,000 Turks disappeared in four weeks from the Greek soil. The Turldsh fleet, which had lain at anchor for four weeks in the gulf of Le- panto, and had attacked Missolonghi, without success, set sail, September 1st, with the plague on board. After an un- successful attempt to break through the line of 57 Greek brigs, which blockaded Napoli, it finally came to anchor at the entrance of the Dardanelles, off Tene- dos. On the 10th of November, seven- 434 GREECE. teen daring sailors, of the band of the forty Ipsariots, dressed like Turks, con- ducted two fire-ships under full sail, as if they were flying from the Greeks, whilst two Ipsariot vessels pursued them, firing on them with blank cartridges, into the midst of the Turkish licet, and fasten- ed one of them, to the admiral's ship, the other to the ship of the capitana-bey. — Both were soon in flames ; the former narrowly escaped ; the latter blew up with 1800 men ; the capudan pacha, Cara Mehmet, however, got on shore, before the explosion took place. Three frigates were wrecked on the coast of Asia Minor ; one vessel of thirty-six guns was captured ; storms and terror destroyed a part of the Ottoman fleet, and of thirty-five vessels only eighteen returned into the Dardanelles. The seventeen Ipsariots arrived safely at Ip- sara, where the ephori rewarded their leaders, Constantine Kanaris and George Minauly,with naval crowns. The Greeks were once more masters of the sea, and renewed the blockade of the Turkish ports, which Great Britain now formally acknowledged. The events of the year 1823, were not less bloody and confused than those of the preceding years. Whilst, in Thes- saly and Epirus, there was a suspension of arms, and the Greek flag (eight blue and white horizontal stripes) commanded the sea, the populace in Constantinople manifested their rage by setting fire to different parts of the city, because they were prevented from committing massa- cres. March 1st, 1823, an attempt was made to pillage and burn the Greek suburbs ; but the wind drove the flames against the Turkish quarters. Four times the sea of fire rolled against the Greek quarters, and four times a fresh north wind rolled it back ag'iinst the Turkish houses. Pera was saved ; but 6,000 Turkisli houses, part of the cannon foun- dry, and part of the naval arsenal, were reduced to ashes. The Mussulmans finally cried out, " God is with the Gia- ours." The grand-vizier Abdullah was dismissed in consequence of this confla- gration, and Ali Bey, a pacha hostile to the janissaries, succeeded him. These troops, therefore, Kieditated vengeance ; and on the 13th of July, a new fire broke out, which consumed 1,500 private houses, and three frigates. Order was, however, restored by severe measures ; more favorable news arrived from Asia ; and the sultan resolved on a general war of extermination against the Greeks, on account of which he called all Mussul- mans, from fifteen to sixty years, to arms. On the other hand, Greece endeavored to organize an army and a financial sys- tem. The dissolved battalion of Philhel- lenists became the nucleus of the first Greek regiment. Mavrocordato Avas placed at the head of the land forces. — Orlandi, the minister of the marine, who was a Hydriot, organized the navy. The rich Hydriot Miaulis was admiral. The Greeks, under Mavromichalis and Ma- vrocordato, instead of waiting for the enemy behind the isthmus, took a posi- tion near Megara, and Colocotroni re- ceived the command over the forces of Ulysses and Niketas, with whose bands the Peloponnesian army united near Plataea. From this place they advanced against the enemy, towards the end of June. — After some fighting in detail, Ulysses defeated one of the main bodies of the Turks, under Mehemet Pacha, at Ther- mopylaj. He then joined the army under Colocotroni, who attacked the Turkish camp near the monastery of St. Luke, that is situated between the cities of Thebes and Livadia, which was captured by Ulysses and Niketas after a very obsti- nate engagement, and the Turks retreated with great loss. Ulysses overtook them and routed them in the plains of Chero- nea. But the seraskier collected new forces, and advanced again, whilst, at the same time, Jussuf and Omer Vrione, supported by the fleet of the capudan pacha, off Patras, were destined to ad- vance on Missolonghi, and the pacha of Scutari was to enter the Morea through Western Greece, by Vrachori, Vonitza, and Salona. But the attack of the seras- kier on Volos and the peninsula of Tri- cori failed ; Jussuf's march was delayed by the desertion of 8,000 Albanians, and the vanguard of the pacha of Scutari was surprised at midnight, on the 20th of August, 1823, in the camp of Carpinissi, GREECE. 435 by Marco Botzaris. Whilst the moun- taineers, from Thessaly and Epirus, at- tacked the camp on four sides, on a signal given by Botzaris, the brave com- mander himself penetrated, with 500 Suliots, to the tent of the pacha ; but, at the moment of making the pacha of Del- vino prisoner, he received a mortal w^ound, and his brother Constantine completed the victory. The Turks lost all their artillery and baggage, and the dying Marco exclaimed, at the moment of vic- tory, " Could a Suliot leader die a nobler death ?" The Porte, though much ex- hausted, still had greater resources for the next campaign of 1824 than the Greeks. But the support which certain societies in England, and individuals, like lord Byron, had given the Greeks, by means of loans, by sending arms, and by assistance in person, made the Porte indignant ; and it required that the British government should forbid their subjects to take any part in the aftairs of the Greeks. In the meanwhile the British officers who had fought under the Greek stand- ard, had been recalled to England. The good understanding with Russia appeared still more complete, when a great number of neutral transport ships, Russian, Aus- trian, and others, were hired by the capudan pacha, who sailed out of the Dardanelles to destroy Ipsara and Samos. At the same time Dervish, pacha of Widin, as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman troops, received an order to enter the Morea, whilst the pacha of Negropont, on the coast of Attica," and Omer Vrione, were to open the campaign on the west coast of Greece. The Porte had suc- ceeded, too, in inducing Mohammed Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, to send from his troops, which had been trained in the European discipline by French officers, 20,000 men, under the command of Ibra- him Pacha, his son, besides a fleet with transport ships, consisting of hired Rus- sian, Austrian, Spanish, and Italian ves- sels, to assist the grand signior in redu- cing the Greeks to submission. A fire in Cairo delayed, for some months, the departure of this expedition. In the mean time, after the glorious issue of the campaigns of 1823, dissensions had bro- ken out anew in Greece. The party of Mavrocordato, which had taken the place of the heads of the Hetaireia was com- posed of Hydriot merchants, and the most enlightened men of the nation. It endeavored to establish an orderly and legal administration, and to regulate the finances. Mavrocordato was president of the legislative body ; but retiring from the military party, which had the pre- ponderance in the Morea, he went to- wards Western Greece. The heads of that military party, the capitani, appeared to wish to take the places of the former Turkish pachas and oppressors of the country, and one of the most eminent of this party was Colocotroni, who was the most powerful in the executive council. From Tripolizza, in the midst of the pe- ninsula, his faction extended itself on all sides. Panos, his son, commanded at Nauplia, the seat of government ; and the whole garrison of the Acrocorinthus con- sisted of the adherents of that bold, proud, and rich general. After Colocotroni came Mavromichalis, formerly bey of the Mainots, and now the nominal president of the executive council. Negris, the former minister of foreign afl^airs, had joined Ulysses, who maintained himself in Athens and Eastern Greece, almost independently of the central government. These capitani raised, without regard to rules and orders, all that they wanted for themselves and their soldiers ; so that only in the marine at Hydra, and in Western Greece, where Mavrocordato commanded, a well-ordered government was maintained. In Missolonghi, lord Byron was taking an active part. In conjunction with colonel Stanhope, he organized the artil- lery, and established schools and printing offices. The accession of the garrison of the chief fort of Napoli to the cause of the government, occasioned the con- clusion of a treaty with Colocotroni, who submitted with all his followers, imder the security of a general amnest3^ Panos now gave up Napoli and the citadel of Palamedes, to which the senate and the government immediately transferred themselves, and a general amnesty ter- minated the civil war. During this time the Greeks in West- ern Greece were laboring to improve the 436 GREECE. fortifications of Anatolico, and of Misso- longhi, the bulwark of the Peloponnesus. A conspiracy was soon after discovered to deliver up the town to the pacha Jus- suf, and the Suliots began to commit great excesses, being excessively discon- tented with lordByron's new regulations, and also with the influence of foreigners in general. In consequence of this a great number of them were sent out of the place. These, under the guidance of a certain Karaiskaki, took possession of the fort Wassiladi. The inhabitants took no part in this rebellion ; and a body of troops, under the command of Botzaris, Sturnaris, and Trokas, defeated the in- surgents, and recovered Wassiladi; upon which the traitors fled to Omer Vrione. This insurrection frustrated the siege of Lepanto, and, unfortunately for the Greek cause, lord Byron's health suflfered from these events, and he died after a sickness of ten days, on the 19th of April, 1824. The small but strongly fortified rocky island of Ipsara had made itself formida- ble to the Porte by the number of its vessels and fire-ships, in which the most daring of the islanders carried terror and destruction into the Dardanelles. Khosru possessed exact information of the fortifi- cations of the island. Ishmael Pliassa, nephew of the well-known Ali Pacha of Yanina, commanded under him 14,000 choice troops, mostly Albanians. But before Khosru invaded the island he offered pardon and protection to the Ipsariots three times ; they however Tejected all his proposals, and 5,000 chosen Greeks and Albanians took pos- session of the most important points ; even the females prepared themselves for the combat. Khosru left the shores of Mitylene early in July, with two ships of the line, six frigates, ten corvettes, several brigs and galliots, a great number of newly-built gun-boats, and more than eighty European transport ships. The men-of-war began to fire upon the town and the forts. Whilst the principal attack appeared to be made here, a landing was eff"ected on the opposite coast, upon a sandy point of land, where an Albanese battalion, under the traitor Goda, deserted the battery, after a short resistance. In the meantime the city was attacked on all sides ; the Greeks fought from street to street, from house to house ; and the work of destruction was kept up through the whole night. On the following morn- ing they held only two small forts and the convent of St. Nicholas. After a hard struggle these brave men resolved to die together. While the Turks were storming the walls, they set fire to the mine, which had been prepared ; the earth shook, and Ipsara became the grave of its own heroes and the conquerors. — This blow re-kindled the Avarlike spirit of the Greeks. The people and the au- thorities rose up for united resistance. Hydra and Spezzia manned their ships, and Ipsara was retaken by the brave Miaulis ; and the enemy was repulsed by inferior forces at Samos, Cos, and Chios. Equal success attended the Greeks upon the main land. The Turkish fleet united in the gulf of Bodroun, and several battles were now fought with the Greek fleet. The battle at Naxos lasted the whole day, and it was, perhaps, the first during the war that deserved the name of a naval en- gagement. The intrepid Kanaris blew up, with his fire-ships, an Egyptian fri- gate of forty-four guns, and a brig. At length, the Ottoman fleet broke off the engagement, and retired to Mitylene, with the loss of several transport ships. Khosru then turned back to Constantino- ple, with fifteen sail, and Ibrahim Pacha, with the rest of the fleet, to the gulf of Bodroun. He supplied the islands anew with troops and provisions, particularly Candia, which his father already regard- ed as a part of his viceroyalty. Miaulis soon after attacked him off Candia, and Ibrahim lost a frigate, ten small vessels, and fifteen transport ships. Weakened by the plague, which had appeared on board the ships, he drew back to the harbor of Rhodes, where the well-known admiral Ishmael Gibraltar died. The campaign of 1825 was opened in the Morea by the landing of Ibrahim Pa- cha. Reschid Pacha besieged Misso- longhi at the same time, and the capudan pacha aided both by his fleet. While these dangers threatened Greece, her ruin was accelerated by the capitani. Ibrahim Pacha, before mentioned, was GREECE. 437 permitted to land on the 22nd of Februa- ry, 1825, with 4,500 men, between Co- ron and Modon, and was strengthened in the beginning of March, so that his force amounted to 12,000 men. His army, ow- ing to their European tactics, French leaders, the use of bayonets and a disci- plined cavalry, was far more to be dread- ed than the undisciplined host of Turks. Ibrahim at once commenced the siege of Navarino, the key of the interior of the Peloponnesus. In vain Miaulis attacked with his fleet that of the enemy on the night of the 12th of May, when he burn- ed an Egyptian frigate, two corvettes, three brigs, and many transport ships. In vain Mavrocordato did every thing by personal exposure to animate the courage of the garrison of Navarino, which was reduced to extremity. Conduriotti found no obedience as he approached for the relief of the place. The inactivity of the capitani, who would give no aid to the Hydriots and the government, was the cause of the capitulation of Navarino ; after which Ibrahim pressed on, without resistance, to Tripolizza. In this danger, the government saw themselves compel- led to pardon Colocotroni, and, after re- ceiving a solemn promise of fidelity from him, to give him the command of the Pe- loponnesus. This happened on the last day of May, 1825. In the mean time, Reschid Pacha forced his way into Acarnania and iEtolia, after he had beaten the Greeks at Saloni- ca ; and the third siege of Missolonghi and Anatolico began. The capudan pa- cha did not arrive sufficiently soon to support the attack on the side of the sea. He lost several ships in May, near Capo d'Oro, in an engagement with the Greek admiral Sactouri, and reached Modon at the end of this month. Ibrahim had already taken Calamata, and occupied Tripolizza, which the Greeks, in their retreat, set on fire. He pressed on, des- troying every thing, and reached Argos. Napoli di Romania itself was threatened by him. But, after the battle of the mills, at the distance of two leagues from the capital, he was obliged to draw back to Tripolizza, in the midst of repeated at- tacks from Colocotroni's army. This continued to be the centre of his enter- prises. Not one Greek village obeyed his command to submit and receive his protection, so that he laid waste every thing, put to death the men, and sent the women and children as slaves to Egypt. In the defence of Missolonghi, the spirit of the Greeks appeared more clearly than ever. The Turks, with 35,000 land forces, and 4,000 sea forces, were wholly defeated, after a contest which lasted seve- ral days. During the struggle, Miaulis ar- rived, burned several Turkish ships, and forced the fleet to retire. The siege was raised, Oct. 12th, 1825, four months and a half after the opening of the trenches. Ibrahim Pacha spread more and more widely the terror of his arms, and the gov- ernment found itself in the greatest danger. It had lost almost entirely the confidence of the auxiliary societies, because the money from the British loan had not been properly laid out. The affairs of Greece appeared to be hastening to ruin. The Greek fleet, con- sisting of seventy-three men-of-war and twenty-three fire-ships, arrived too late before Navarino. The government had hardly 6,000 men under arms. The capitani squandered the money with which they were to provide troops. The members of the senate and of the execu- tive council had no confidence in each other ; and the secretary of state, Mavro- cordato, who labored with little aid but that of his own foresight and prudence, to maintain order, was, for this reason, held in ill-will by all parties, and had little in- fluence. The islanders presented the last bulwark for the defence of the Mo- rea, but were obliged also to provide for their own security. Notwithstanding this, their fleet succeeded in entering Missolonghi, now besieged for the fourth time, and in providing it with ammunition and provisions, after the garrison had again repulsed an attack made by sea and land. The capudan pacha appeared anew be- fore Missolonghi. The attempts of the Grecian fleet to supply it again with pro- visions and ammunition failed ; and the capudan pacha summoned the authorities of the town to surrender, if they did not wish the place to be taken by storm ; but they refused the ofier. Soon after there 438 GREECE. Siege of Missolonghi. was an engagement between the fleets in the gulf of Patras, when the Greek fire- ships, under Kanaris, destroyed a frigate and many small vessels. The capudan pacha soon gave up his command, after a disagreement with Ibrahim Pacha, who had desired his recall by the divan, and went by land from Yanina to Constanti- nople. Ibrahim then conducted the siege alone. He had 25,000 men, among them about 9,000 regular troops, and forty-eight can- non, bought in France, with which Pierre Boyer, formerly a Bonapartist, and a ge- neral well known by his cruelties com- mitted in Egypt, St. Domingo and Spain, bombarded Missolonghi. After the bom- bardment had continued several days, Ibrahim repeatedly offered the command- er of the fortress large sums if he would surrender the place. He was willing even to permit the garrison to take the cannon and all the moveable property with them. All his proposals were re- jected, and the garrison prepared them- selves for death or victory. Ibrahim had assaulted the works of Missolonghi from the 28th of February to March 2nd. On this day he attacked the place by sea and land, but was wholly repulsed with the loss of 4,000 men ; so that Missolon- ghi was, for the fifth time, freed by Greek valor, when it had but a few days' pro- vision. Ibrahim now directed his attacks against the outworks of Missolonghi on the sea side. He forced his way with gim-boats and floating-batteries into the lagoons, and on the 9th of March, 1826, he stormed the little island of Wassiladi, and a bomb, which fell into the powder room of the fort, and kindled the ammu- nition, decided the fate of the place. Ibrahim then took by capitulation the fortified island of Anatolico, near Misso- longhi, after he had stormed a fortified monastery, called Kundro, which protect- ed the island, where a garrison of 400 men were cut to pieces. After these misfortunes, Missolonghi, the bulwark of the Peloponnesus, fell gloriously on the 22nd of April, 1826. The foundation of an Egyptian-African military state now seemed to be laid in Europe. This danger roused the attention of the governments and people of Europe. The fate of Missolonghi, of whose garrison 1 ,800 men, under Noto Botzaris and Kit zos Isavellas, cut their way to Salona and Athens, while the rest buried themselves voluntarily under the ruins of the place. GREECE, 439 excited every where the liveliest interest. In France this interest veas loudly and actively expressed. Thus, at last, when the voice of lamen- tation was loudest in the land, deliverance was slowly approaching the Greeks. The duke of Wellington had, by Mr. Can- ning's order, subscribed at Petersburgh, on the 4th of April, 1826, the protocol which provided for the inteference of the three great powers in favor of the Greeks. In the mean time the Egyptian army overran almost every part of the Morea and changed it to a desert, without ob- taining submission from a single village. Families from all parts of Greece pressed forward together under the walls of Na- poli di Romania, and suffered all the hor- rors of poverty and hunger, rather than enter into a treaty with their Mussulman oppressors. Despair drove many of these unhappy people to piracy, but most of the corsairs, in the Greek seas, were composed of criminals and persons ban- ished from the Ionian islands, Dalmatia, and Italy, who did not even spare the Greek flag. New bands of warriors came forth from the mountains, and Colocotroni several times attacked Tripolizza, which was defended by 3,000 Egyptians, under Soliman Bey, who was a French renegade. Want of money and provisions, and the dissensions between the commanders ; the mistrust of the palikaris, who had been deceived by their officers ; and the ingratitude of the Greeks towards the Philhellenes, or foreign officers in their service, were the principal causes why nothing important was accomplished. Owing to these circumstances, Athens, after the army which should have reliev- ed it had fled in a dastardly manner, ca- pitulated to Reschid Pacha, on the 7th of June, 1827. In vain did lord Coch- rane, who had long been detained in Eng- land by the defective construction of the steam-vessels, for which the Greeks had paid so dear, at last arrive in Greece, and take the chief command of the sea forces, while general Church stood at the head of the land forces. The Turks re- mained in possession of the whole of eastern and western Hellas. The dis- tress was increased by a violent struggle for power in Napoli di Romania itself. Meanwhile the ambassadors of the three powers had, on the 16th of August, presented to the Porte the treaty conclu- ded at London, for the pacification of Greece, and waited for an answer till the 31st. " Greece," they said, " shall gov- ern itself, but pay tribute to the Porte." Europe had now more reason than ever to demand from the Porte the indepen- dence of Greece, by which piracy in the Grecian and Turkish seas might be pre- vented ; an African slave-holding and pi- ratical state should not be allowed to rule the beautiful Archipelago of Europe ; and order might take the place of bloody anarchy, which the Porte had neither sa- gacity nor strength to suppress. The Greek government immediately proclaimed an armistice in conformity to the treaty of London. But the reis ef- fendi rejected the intervention of the three powers. The Greeks then commenced hostilities anew, and the Turkish-Egyp- tian fleet entered the bay of Navarino. A British squadron appeared in the bay on the 13th, under admiral Codrington. To this a French squadron, under admi- ral Rigny, and a Russian, under count Heyden, united themselves on the 22nd. They demanded from Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of hostilities. He promised this, and went out with part of his fleet, but was forced to return into the bay. As he now continued his devastations in the Morea, and gave no answer to the complaints of the admirals, the three squadrons entered the bay, where the Turkish-Eg}'ptian fleet was drawn up in the order of battle. The first shots were fired from the Turkish side, and killed two Englishmen. This was the sign for a deadly contest, which took place on the 20th of October, 1827, in which admiral Codrington nearly destroyed the Turkish- Egyptian armada of 110 ships. One part was burned, another driven on shore, and the rest disabled. The news of the victory was received with exultation in Eiuope. A suspension of hostilities now- ensued, during which the depredations of pirates became more serious. The ad- mirals of the three united squadrons, therefore, sent a warm remonstrance to the legislative council of the Greeks, and, after a number of capital punish- 440 GREECE. ments,the safety of the seas was restored, particularly after the British had destroy- ed the head-quarters of the corsairs in Candia. The Greeks now resumed the offensive against the Turks ; but their at- tempt upon Scio, (where they vainly be- sieged the citadel,) was productive of nothing but injury to the inhabitants. Enraged at the battle of Navarino, the Porte seized all the ships of the Franks in Constantinople, detained them from Nov. 2 to Nov. 19, and, on the 8th stop- ped all communication with the ministers of the allied powers, till indemnification should be made for the destruction of the fleet. At the same time the govern- ment prepared for war. From all parts of the kingdom, the Ayans were now called to Constantino- ple, a measure quite unusual, and dis- cussed with the Porte the preparations for war. All the Moslems from the age of nineteen to fifty, were called to arms. In the mean time, the president of the Greeks, count Capo d'Istria, appointed the able Tricoupi his secratary of state, and established a high national council, called Panhellenion, atNapolidi Romania ; on the 4th of February, 1828, took mea- sures for instituting a national bank ; and also put the military department on a new footing. The improvements, however, could go on but slowly. Without the as.sistance of France and Russia, each of which lent the young state 6,000,000 francs, nothing could have been efTected. The attempts at pacification were fruit- less, because the Porte rejected every proposal, and England appeared to disap- prove the battle of Navarino. In this state of uncertainty, Ibrahim was allowed to send a number of Greek captives as slaves to Egypt. In March, 1828, the war between Russia and Tur- key broke out, and gave the Porte full occupation. In the mean time, the French cabinet, in concurrence with the English, to carry into execution the trea- ty of London, sent a body of troops to the Morea, whilst admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, at Alexandria, the terms of which were that Ibrahim Pacha should evacu- ate the Morea with his troops, and set at liberty his Greek prisoners. Those Greeks who had been carried into slave- ry in Egypt, should be freed or ransom- ed ; 1,200 men, however, were to be al- lowed to remain to garrison the fortresses in the Morea. To force Ibrahim to com- ply with these terms, the French general Maison arrived, on the 29th of the fol- lowing August, with 154 transport ships, in the Morea, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi. After an amicable negotiation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed with about 21,000 men, whom he carried with the wreck of the fleet to Alexandria ; but he left garrisons in the Messenian for- tresses, amounting to 25,000 men, con- sisting of Turks and Egyptians. Mai- son occupied the town of Navarino with- out opposition. He then attacked the Turkish fortresses in Messenia. The garrison made no resistance, but, on the other hand, the commanders would not capitulate. The French, therefore, al- most without opposition, took possession of the citadels of Navarino, of Modon, and of Coron. The garrisons were al- lowed free egress, and Patras, with 3,000 men, capitulated also without re- sistance ; and the flags of the three pow- ers, parties to the treaty of London, waved with the national flag of Greece on the walls of the prhicipal cities. The French government ransomed sev- eral hundred Greek slaves in Egypt, and the king of France undertook the education of the orphan children. Thus, after strug- gling for seven years, Greece was placed under the protection of the three chief European powers. Mahmoud, however, still declined to recall the edict of exter- mination, which he had pronounced when he commanded Dram Ali, a few years before, to bring him the ashes of the Peloponnesus. Ibrahim had wantonly burned down the olive groves as far as his Arabians spread, and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest misery and confusion. After unnumbered difficidties, the great- est obstacles to a well ordered govern- ment were in part overcome by the exer- tions of Capo d'Istria. On the 19th of November, 1828, the French colonel Fabvier returned from France to the Mo- rea, to organize the Greek army, and the French envoy, Jaubert, delivered the pro- INDIA. 441 tocol of the conference of the three great powers to the Porte in January, 1829. A peace between Russia and the Porte was signed at Adrianople, September 14th, 1829, and ratified by the Porte, on the 20th of that month. The conferen- ces between the ministers of the three powers, at London, had now for their ob- ject to select a prince to wear the crown of Greece. They accordingly fixed upon prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, as the most eligible person to become the " sov- ereign prince of Greece ;" and their offer was immediately accepted, though the prince afterwards declined this honor in a declaration dated May 21st, 1830. Subsequently to the arrival in Greece of the protocol of March 22nd, 1829, and the publication of the assent of the Turks to the frontier included in the trea- ty of Adrianople, all the families which had survived the war returned, and com- menced rebuilding their houses and towns, and cultivating their lands. After the resignation of Leopold, several prin- ces were proposed, but Otho, prince of Bavaria, was finally elected, and he is now the reigning sovereign of Gteece. INDI A, The traces of the ancient chronology and history of India are very faint and imperfect, and are nearly quite lost in remote antiquity. It is supposed by those Europeans who have made the most elaborate and careful researches on these points, and who have investigated and compared, on the spot, the features, manners, languages and religions of the various tribes who inhabit this vast ter- ritory, that a few only of the aboriginal inhabitants are to be found scattered in the hilly countries ; and it is certain, that the Brahmins have traditions that their ancestors came from the north, and, having conquered Hindostan, established there their customs, religion, and languages. The only events in the history of Hin- dostan, prior to the birth of Christ, of which we possess any direct and clear information, either from the Greek and Roman authors, or from the ancient books of the Hindoos, are, the great war of the Mahabharat, the invasion of India by Sesostris, and by the Persians in the reign of Darius Hystaspes ; and the transactions of the reign of Chandra Gupta, the contemporary of Alexander the Great. Though it has been found so extremely difficult to fix the era of Sesostris, and to free his history from events evi- dently either fabulous or highly exagger- ated, that many authors have been dis- 56 posed totally to deny its authenticity; yet it appears to us that no reasonable doubts can be entertained that he invaded India. The circumstances of this inva- sion, the causes which gave rise to it, and the objects which he had in view, cannot be ascertained ; but we are ex- pressly informed by Diodorus Siculus, that he crossed the Ganges, and advanced as far as the Eastern Ocean. His con- quests, however, were not permanent, and indeed were so contrary to the genius and habits of the Egyptians, that, on the death of Sesostris, they were entirely relinquished. The Persians under Darius Hystaspes obtained a firmer, though a less extensive empire in India, than the Egyptians. That monarch having subdued the coun- tries which lie in a south-east direction from the Caspian to the Oxus, turned his thoughts towards India, on which they bordered. In order to prepare himself for this new enterprise, he appointed Scylax to explore the Indus and the country lying on its banks, from the upper part of its navigable course to its mouth. The account which Darius received from Scylax of the populousness, fertility, and high cultivation of this territory, incited the Persian monarch to aim at its con- quest. This he appears soon and easily to have accomplished ; but his conquests did not extend beyond the district watered 442 INDIA by the Indus ; and of the circumstances attending them, we are entirely ignorant It would seem, however, that he com- pelled some of the Indian princes to ac- knowledge his dominion, by the payment of an annual tribute ; for Ave learn from a Hindoo writer, that the ostensible cause of the celebrated invasion of India by Alexander the Great was, to levy this tribute, which some of its princes had re- fused to pay, and to compel them to ac- knowledge their dependence on the throne of Persia. It would appear, that the extensive confederacy formed in Hindostan, by the mutual understanding and the union of the four great kingdoms then existing in that country, against foreign invasion, did not last long. Before the conquest of the Per- sians, dissensions had risen among the different states, which, together with the wealth of the people, and their unwarlike character, invited the inroads not only of these conquerors, but also of the fierce and destructive barbarians of Thibet. By them the northern provinces were attack- ed and laid waste. It appears also, that foreign war, instead of producing domes- tic concord, extended and heightened their mutual animosities ; so that, at the period of the invasion of India by Alex- ander the Great, the nations of the penin- sula were totally separated from the kingdom of the Prachii, though the west- ern provinces of Hindostan Avere more closely connected Avith it than at any former period. It is highly probable, that this union of the western provinces enabled them to make such a vigorous defence against the enterprise and high military skill of Alexander, and the much superior disci- pline of his troops ; that their defence excited his surprise and admiration, we are expressly informed by Arian, Plutarch, and other historians ; but their efforts, though roused to religious enthusiasm by the eloquence of the Brahmins, Avere in- effectual. Alexander, after haA'ing sub- dued several small states on the banks of the Indus, passed the different rivers of the Punjab, attacked Porus, the sovereign of that district, who had collected a nu- merous army to oppose his march, and obtained a decisive victory, in spite of the gallant defence of that prince, who, together with some of his most distin- guished generals, was taken prisoner. This battle was fought on the banks of the Hydaspes, which river it Avas neces- sary for Alexander to cross, in order that he might reach the Ganges, the great ob- ject of his ambition. To this point he now resolved to push ; but his troops had already done so much, and suffered so greatly, especially from excessive rains and incessant inundations, that their pa- tience as Avell as their strength were ex- hausted, and they unanimously refused to advance farther. Alexander tried every effort, but in vain, to change their pur- pose ; they were inflexible, and the con- queror was obliged to give way to his troops, to abandon all his favorite schemes of farther conquest, and to issue orders for marching back to Persia. This me- morable mutiny took place on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Bey ah, one of the most celebrated rivers of the Pun- jab. Alexander left behind him some of his most experienced officers, Avith a small part of his army, for the purpose of keeping possession of the conquered ter- ritory on the banks of the Indus ; but his troops gave Avay to every kind of corrup- tion and debauchery, to Avhich they were stimulated by the policy of the Hindoos ; mutual animosities and recriminations took place ; and the death of Alexander, AA^iich happened about this time, hastened the doAvnfall of his power in Hindostan. The first attempt of the Mahomedans to conquer India Avas made during the reign of the Calif Omar, A. D. 636, but it failed of success. In the reign of the Calif Walid, the conquest of Sinde wa.s accomplished. Before this time, the Calif Ali had sent a general, Avho effect- ed some trifling conquests on the confuies of this country. But, after long and bloody conflicts, he was forced to desist. As soon as the Calif Walid had achieved this important conquest, the incursions of the Mahomedans into the fertile coun- tries of Hindostan became more frequent and successful. They do not seem, how- ever, to have attempted permanent con- quest till nearly two centuries after they had obtained possession of Sinde. The first Mahomedan prince who made a se- INDIA. 443 rious impression on India having been the SuUan Mahmond Sebectaghin, who reig-ned at Ghazna. Thirteen monarchs of the dynasty of Sebectaghin reigned at Ghazna. Khosru Shah was the last ; he was deposed and imprisoned in A. D. 1158, the western and largest part of his empire being seized on by the family of the Gaurides : the provinces contiguous to both shores of the Indus remained to the old dynasty till the year 1 1 84, when the Gaurides also gained them. The new dynasty established permanently the Mahomedan belief on the throne of Delhi, which they fixed upon as their capital in India. The father of Hassanben Hassan owed his advancement to the throne of Gaur to the seventh sultan of the Sebectaghin dynas- ty ; and Hassan, taking advantage of the distracted and enfeebled state of the em- pire of Ghazna, during the reign of the twelfth sovereign of that dynasty, invaded it, and, after various success, accomplish- ed his object, and, as has been already mentioned, deposed and imprisoned Khos- ru Shah. Previous to the final conquest of Ghazna, Hassan, on what pretence or with what object does not appear, invaded the dominions of the Selucidae, when he was taken prisoner ; but he ingratiated himself so completely with the reigning monarch, by his talents for poetry, that the conqueror sent him back laden with gifts to his own capital. He died either in the same year in which he took Khosru Shah prisoner, or in the year immediately succeeding. The emperor Altmush was contempo- rary with the celebrated Gengis Khan. It was in the year 1221 that this con- queror reduced to subjection, and annihi- lated the dynasty of Charasm, which had for some time possessed the throne of Ghazna. Mohammed Shah at this period occupied the throne, and he claimed also the dominion of some part of India ; but, in consequence of having provoked the rage of Gengis Khan, he had not the leisure nor the means to secure his In- dian territories. The lieutenant of Mo- hammed, in his province of Transoxania, had seized and put to death some Tartar merchants, who were travelling in a cara- van from the camp of G engis Khan. The Mogul monarch immediately sent to de- mand an apology, which was imprudently refused. The consequence was, that he immediately invaded Khorassan, which Mohammed had conquered in a single battle in the year 1199, and, in spite of the valor displayed by the eldest son of the emperor, the troops of Mohammed were obliged to give way. At first the flight of the emperor was towards India ; but, being intercepted, he was compelled to flee towards the Caspian sea, in an island of which he died, A. D. 1220. His son fought long and valiantly, but with- out success, against Gengis Khan. One of his most desperate exploits was the swimming across the Indus in sight of the conqueror and his army. Five years afterwards he returned to Persia, and was for a short time successful ; but he was at length obliged to yield to the better fortune of his opponent. In the year 1231, Gengis Khan had overrun all Asia to the northward of the latitude of 30° ; but the difficulties he experienced in re- pressing the turbulent spirit of his Tartar subjects very probably deterred him from attempting the conquest of Hindostan ; though, in the year 1222, he had become the nominal sovereign of the empire of Delhi, and actually subdued all the coun- try on the M'est side of the Indus, and portioned it out among his favorite gen- erals. The next prominent event in the his- tory of India was the invasion of Timur Bee, generally called Tamerlane. In the year 1397, intelligence of his approach was received at Delhi. This famous conqueror, after having overrun Persia, Turkestan, and part of Russia, turned his ambitious views towards Hindostan. During this year, he had sent his grand- I son, Peer Mahomed, to reduce the Pun- I jab and Multan ; and in the month of j October he crossed the Indus himself. 1 When he first proposed to his princes the I invasion of Hindostan, he was answered by a murmur of discontent and despair. ! " The rivers, and the mountains, and the deserts, and the soldiers clad in armor, and the elephants, destroyers of men." These things his princes thought it was impossible to overcome ; but when they perceived he was determined on the in- 444 INDIA. vasion, they gave way to his superior judgment, or were terrified into submis- sion by his dreadful character. He had been informed by his spies of the weak- ness and anarchy of Hindostan ; the soubahs of the provinces had erected the standard of rebellion ; and the monarch was despised and disobeyed, even in his capital. The Mogul army moved in three divisions ; between the Shylum and the Indus they crossed one of the ridges of mountains, styled, by the Ara- bian geographers, the stony girdles of the earth. The mountaineers, after a brave resistance, were reduced or extirpated ; but great numbers of men and horses perished in the snow ; the emperor him- self was obliged to be let down one of precipices on a portable scaffold, the ropes to which were 150 cubits in length, and before he could reach the bottom, this dangerous operation was five times repeated. He crossed the Indus at the passage of Attock : from this place to Delhi, the direct and most frequented road measured only 600 miles ; but Tam- erlane deviated to the south-east, for the purpose of joining his grandson, who had by this time succeeded in the conquest of the Punjab and Multan. Being in want of provisions, he gave up the large and populous town of Tulmuhini to the plunder of his soldiers ; and when its in- habitants murmured at this conduct, he directed them to be massacred. After crossing the Hyphasis, he entered the desert, reduced the fortress of Batner, and advanced with little or no resistance to the city of Delhi. In the mean time, the contending par- ties in the capital united for their com- mon defence. The siege, more espe- cially of the castle, might have been a work of time, but Tamerlane, by the ap- pearance of Aveakness and indecision, tempted his adversaries to descend into the plain, with 10,000 cuirassiers, 40,000 foot guards, and 120 elephants, whose tusks are said to have been armed with sharp and poisoned daggers. Tamerlane, though impetuous, was not destitute of prudence. In order to protect his troops against these numerous and formidable opponents, he made use of extraordinary precautions of fire, and a ditch of iron spikes, and a rampart of bucklers ; but the troops of the emperor of Delhi were totally unable to cope with the Moguls ; for, as soon as the elephants were routed, they fled in every direction. The em- peror and his prime minister, seeing no possibility after this defeat of defending their capital, escaped under cover of the night, and fled towards Guzerat, whither they were pursued by a strong detach- ment, which Tamerlane sent after them. This detachment came up with them ; an engagement took place, during which the emperor effected his further retreat, with the loss of two infant sons, and a considerable number of his retinue. Tamerlane, in the mean time, made his triumphant entry into the capital of Hindostan, where he received the sub- mission of all the principal nobles. To them he promised pardon and protection, on condition that they would pay him im- mense sums of money. Orders were ac- cordingly given to the magistrates to levy the contribution by a scale proportioned to the wealth and rank of the inhabitants. The Tartar officers who were employed to receive it, not satisfied with the regu- lated sums, violently broke into the houses ; this occasioned resistance, in the course of which some of Tamerlane's troops were put to death. Tamerlane immediately issued orders for a general massacre. Delhi was sacked ; its pala- ces and temples burned, and its streets filled with blood. Tamerlane remained in Delhi only fifteen days, and appears then to have designed to return to the seat of his empire, when, having heard of a fortress on the Dooab which had re- sisted the arms of a former Mogid inva- der, he changed his purpose, marched into that district, and reduced the fortress. While here, infonnation Avas given him respecting the famous cavern of Coupele, and the religious ceremonies which were practised at it by the Hindoos, in conse- quence of its resembling a cow's mouth, and the Ganges flowing through it. This information excited the persecuting spirit of this barbarian, and he determined to purify liis soldiers in the blood of the idolatrous Hindoos. In this he succeed- ed. His return was along the skirts of the northern hills, by Mount Sewalic ; INDIA. 445 in his route, he continued his massacres, though not without opposition, until he arrived on the frontiers of Cashmere. His return was occasioned by distur- bances in some of the provinces of his empire, stirred up by the famous Bajazet. On the banks of the Ganges he received inteUigence regarding them, and in little more than five months he had crossed and recrossed the Indus. He may be said, how- ever, rather to have overrun than to have reduced and conquered ; for he did not disturb the order of succession in Hin- dostan, reserving to himself the posses- sion of the Punjab only. During his life, which terminated in the year 1405, he was prayed for in the mosques of Hin- dostan, and the coin was struck in his name ; but this might be more the effect of policy than the act of Tamerlane. For, soon after he left Hindostan, his author- ity virtually ceased in Delhi ; that capi- tal became the prey of the most dreadful and cruel dissensions. All Hindostan fell into separate gov- ernments, and the authority of the em- peror did not extend beyond the province of Delhi and the contiguous districts. The whole of Bengal and Bahar was under the dominion of a Mahomedan usurper, who had taken the title of king. A potentate, styled King of the East, whose residence was at Jionpour, in the province of Allahabad, was the most for- midable of these petty sovereigns. The provinces of the Deccan, north of the Krishna, had long thrown off their alle- giance, and were now formed into five Mahomedan states, equally independent of each other, and of the imperial gov- ernment. Yet though the monarchs of Delhi had thus lost their influence and power, they still retained their diadem ; and Secunder, the son of Belloli, (who reigned thirty-eight years,) an enterpris- ing prince, would probably have regained some part of its dignity, had not a pre- mature death put an end to his projects. He died at Agra in 1509, to which city he had transferred the seat of government. He was succeeded by his son Ibrahim, a man of a very different character. He rendered himself ridiculous by his vanity, and detested by liis cruelty. The hor- rors of civil war and assassination were spread over the country. At length the nobles, who were apprehensive that they were not of themselves equal to the task of getting rid of their tyrant, solicited the assistance of Sultan Baber, the Mogul prince of the house of Tamerlane. This sovereign reigned over a kingdom com- posed of most of the provinces situated between the Indus and Samarcand. Hav- ing been stripped of the northern parts of his dominions by the Usbecs, he deter- mined to try his fortune in Hindostan, and accordingly most readily accepted the invitation of the nobility of Agra. His residence was at Cabul, whence he un- dertook his first expedition across the Indus, in the year 1517. But it was not till six years afterwards that he took pos- session of Lahore, and the next year he marched to Delhi. Before he reached that city, Ibrahim met him with a large army, and a fierce battle ensued on the plain of Panniput. In this battle, 16,000 Patans, with Ibrahim himself, were killed. Thus an end was put to the dynasty of Loudi. Baber, in consequence of this victory, proceeded first to Delhi, and after- wards to Agra ; both these cities opened their gates to him, and he was proclaimed Emperor of Hindostan, in the year 1525. It is said that he crossed the Indus the last time with only 10,000 chosen horse, the enemy's generals, by their revolts, furnishing him the rest of his army. The provinces which he gained were those of Multan, Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Ajmeer, and Oude : for, as we have already re- marked, the empire of Delhi was no longer the same that flourished under Balin. The province of Bengal was com- pletely separated. The rich countries of the Deccan were the seat of another empire. Guzerat did not even nominally acknowledge the sovereigns of Delhi, and the mountain tribes of Patau wero independent, or at least troublesome and restless subjects. The reign of Baber, even in those dis- tricts which he gained, was by no means free from anxiety and disaster. He was frequently harrassed by insurrections, and at one period his fortune seemed so des- perate, that his nobles advised him to re- turn to Cabul. To this, however, he would by no means agree ; and by his 446 INDIA. moderation and firmness, united to a con- siderable degree of talents and activity of mind, he overcame all obstacles, and placed his kingdom in a state of compar- ative tranquillity. He died in the year 1530. His character maybe thoroughly understood, both from the account given of him by Ferishta, and by the memoirs of his life, written by himself ; and the historian does not appear to have drawn it in too flattering colors in the following terms : " He so often pardoned ingrati- tude and treason, that he seemed to make it a principle and rule of his life to return good for evil ; he thus disarmed vice, and made the wicked the worshippers of his virtue. He was of the sect of the Haun- afies, in whose tenets and doctrines he was perfectly versed ; but he yielded more to the evidence of reason, than to the marvellous legends of superstitious antiquity. He was not, however, forget- ful of that rational worship which is due to the Great Creator, nor a despiser of those laws and ceremonies which are founded on soimd policy. He excelled in poetry and music, and he wrote his own commentaries in the Mogul language with such elegance and propriety, that they are universally admired." The his- torian adds, that he was fond of pleasure, though moderate in its enjoyment ; and that he was equally celebrated for his clemency, courage, and justice. As an instance of the latter, he relates, that a caravan from China having been buried in the snow in crossing the mountains, he caused the merchandise to be collect- ed, and sent notice to China of what had happened, in order that the owners might claim their property ; and he restored it to them, refusing to be reimbursed even the expenses he had incurred. The next monarch who makes a promi- nent figure in the history of Hisdostan, was the emperor Aurengzebe, who died in the year 1 707, in the 90th year of his age, after a reign of 52 years. Under him, the Mogul empire reached the ut- most limits to which it ever attained ; it comprehended the country from the 10th to the 35th degree of latitude, and nearly as many degrees of longitude. Notwithstanding the ambitious projects in which Aurengzebe was engaged du- ring a large portion even of his long reign, he was by no means inattentive to the improvement of his empire, or the com- forts of his people. His wealth was immense. His reve- nue exceeded 32,000,000^, sterling, in a country where the products of the earth are about four times as cheap as in Eng- land. Even after many years of weak government, and both public and private disturbances, Nadir Shah, when he in- vaded India, carried back with him from the royal treasury of Delhi above 80,000,000/, sterling, in gold and jewels ; most if not all of which must have been collected by Aurengzebe. Yet, notwith- standing the immense wealth which he left behind him, the magnificence of his court was unrivalled, even in the annals of the East. His own dress was simple, except on days of festivals, when he wore cloth of gold and jewels. In the manners and habits of his private life, he was free from parade and ostentation ; but he encouraged magnificence in his nobles, and required it in the governors of his provinces. That most curious traveller, Bernier, who followed the camp of Aurengzebe, from Delhi to Cashmere, describes, with great accuracy, the immense moving city. The guard of cavalry consisted of 35,000 men, that of infantry of 10,000. It was computed that the camp contained 1 50,000 horses, mules, and elephants ; 50,000 camels ; 50,000 oxen ; and be- tween 300,000 and 400,000 persons. Al- most all Delhi followed the court, whose magnificence supported its industry. Such is the picture of the manners and magnificence of the Mogul empire at the period of Aurengzebe's reign, when it had attained its utmost extent and splendor, and before the peculiarities of its manners were broken in upon by the intermixture of those of foreign nations. In 1739, Nadir Shah, the usurper of the Persian throne, invaded Hindostan. A kind of infatuation seems to have pre- vailed in the Mogul councils. The army was not half assembled ; and Mahomed had marched only a day's journey from Delhi into the plains of Carnawl, when Nadir, who had by this time reduced La- hore, defeated him, with the loss of Dou- INDIA. 447 ran, the commander-in-chief of the army, and his best and bravest minister. It appears that before this fatal battle, Nadir was so little confident of success, that he offered to evacuate the empire for 50 lacks of rupees. But the intrigues of the Nizam and his party, induced the em- peror not only to refuse this sum, but after the battle to throw himself on the clemency of Nadir. The first conse- quence of the battle was the reduction of Delhi. At first the strictest discipline prevailed among the Persians ; no one was molested ; and the emperor, after having been kept a state prisoner with his family for a few days, was permitted to return quietly to his palace. But though this strictness of discipline was maintained, pnd this moderation shown with regard to the emperor, the conqueror was intent on plunder, and the scene was soon changed. A quarrel having arisen in the bazar of Delhi, one of those en- gaged suddenly called out that Nadir Shah was dead, and that now was the time to free Delhi from the Persians. A massacre instantly commenced ; and during the whole night, the city was a scene of confusion and murder. The inhabitants, however, had soon ample and dreadful reason to repent of their pre- cipitancy ; for at day-light Nadir gave orders for a general massacre, without distinction of age or sex. The carnage lasted from sun-rise till mid-day, when the emperor and his nobles appeared be- fore Nadir Shah, and for the sake of Mahomed, he was induced to pronounce the words " I forgive." Instantly the carnage stopped, but its effects continued ; for many Hindoos as well as Moguls, in order to save their women from pollution, had set fire to their houses, and burned their families and effects. These fires spread, and the city soon presented a most dreadful scene of ruin. The dead bodies occasioned a pestilential disorder among the comparatively few inhabitants that survived ; and, as always is the case during the prevalence of any dreadful calamity of this nature, every species of crime and immorality was indulged in. In order to extort confessions of treasures, private murders were committed ; the ties of friendship and blood were forgot- ten. The evil, however, was not yet at its height : famine was added to pesti- lence, murder, and plunder ; and hun- dreds of persons, desperate, and hopeless of escaping from such accumulated dis- tress, and unable to bear the sight of those whom they had loved and respected either falling under it, or, what was Avorse in their estimation, giving themselves up to the commission of every crime, put an end to their own lives. At length, after having had possession of Delhi for about six weeks. Nadir left it ; but he left it almost a desert ; for it is said, that 100,000 of its inhabitants had been massacred by his troops or de- stroyed by fire, pestilence, or famine. A treaty had been concluded, by which he confirmed Mahomed on the throne of all the provinces east of the Indus, reserving those to the west for himself. He also married his son to a grand-daughter of Aurengzebe. He carried with him three millions and a half sterling in money from the royal treasury ; one million and a half in plate ; fifteen millions in jewels ; the celebrated peacock throne valued at a million ; other thrones of inferior value ; and the canopy for the royal elephant, estimated at eleven millions ; besides 500 elephants, a number of horses, and the imperial camp equipage. A fine of five millions Avas exacted from the nobles and other inhabitants ; so that, if to these sums be added the plunder of the sol- diers, the estimate that sixty-two millions were carried away, will not be deemed beyond the truth. No empire, after such devastation com- mitted in its capital, could soon have re- covered its strength ; but with respect to the Mogul empire, its restoration was ab- solutely impossible. It was loosened from its foimdation ; and there Avere those on every side of it, Avho were prepared to hasten its downfall. The departure of Nadir left the Nizam in possession of the AA'hole remaining power of the em- pire ; but he preferred an independent kingdom in the Deccan to the govern- ment of a feeble and declining state. About this time Bengal became indepen- dent of Delhi, under Aliverdy CaAvn, and not long afterwards, a vast army of Mah- rattas, both from Poonah and Berar, for 448 INDIA. they were now divided into two states, invaded it under pretence that their ob- ject was to recover it for the emperor. The Mogul empire now became a prey to all the neighboring states that were sufficiently contiguous and powerful to attack it. We will now proceed to give some account of the rise and progress of the European establishments in India. After a tedious course of voyages, con- tinued for nearly half a century, Vasco de Gama, an active and enterprising Portuguese admiral, doubled the cape of Good Hope, and coasting along the east- ern shore of the continent of Africa, sail- ed from thence across the Indian Ocean, and landed at Calicut on the coast of Malabar, on the 22nd of May, 1498. At the period of the arrival of the Portu- guese in India, the west coast of Hin- dostan was divided between two great sovereigns, the kings of Cambay, and the Zamorin, each of whom had under him numerous petty princes. Cabral was next sent out by the Portuguese court to Calicut ; but the Moors were as little favorable to him as they had been to De Gama, so that he judged it prudent to proceed to Cochin and Cananore. As the kings of these places were under the yoke of the Zamorin, which they were desirous of thoAving off, they received him very favorably, and entered into alli- ance with him. The Portuguese thus in a short time acquired so great an influ- ence, as to give law to the whole coast, fixing their own prices on the produc- tions of the country, and building forts in the principal towns. In 1508, Albuquerque arrived in India, and took the chief command of the Por- tuguese ; hitherto they had not acquired a good port ; and as this was an object of the first consequence, he attacked Goa, and took it with little difficulty ; he was however, unable to retain it ; for the na- tives besieged it so closely, that he was in a short time in want of provisions, and compelled to abandon it and retire to his ships. He did not, notwithstanding, give up his object ; but returning in a few months, he took it by surprise, and forti- fied it in such a manner, as to render it quite impregnable by the forces of the natives. It now became the metropolis of the settlements of the Portuguese in India, from which they spread their con- quests and their commerce over the Eastern seas. As the Venetians had been deprived of the most abundant and certain source of their riches by the discovery of the cape of Good Hope, and the subsequent commerce by sea between Portugal and India, they stirred up the Sultan of Egypt to unite with them in the attempt to drive the Portuguese out of India. This he was easily induced to do, as he also had felt the consequences of the Portuguese voyages to India, in the reduced receipt of the transit duties, which he had been accustomed to levy on all Indian mer- chandise passing through his dominions. Accordingly, an Egyptian fleet, equipped principally with materials supplied by the Venetians, made its way into the Indian sea, and being joined by the fleet of the king of Cambay, attacked the Portuguese, at first with some success, the latter, how- ever, receiving re-enforcements from Por- tugal, soon regained their superiority. The first commercial transactions of the Dutch, after they had cast off the Spanish yoke, were with the Portuguese. From Lisbon they procured the produc- tions of India, to sell them again to the nations of the north of Europe. This trade, however, was put an end to by Philip II, when he became master of Portugal ; and the Dutch then endeavor- ed to discover a passage by the north seas to China and India. This enter- prise was unsuccessful ; but, while en- gaged in it, Houtman, a native of Hol- land, confined in the prisons of Lisbon for debt, proposed to the merchants of Rotterdam, to reveal to them the knowl- edge he possessed of Indian navigation and commerce, provided they liberated him from prison. His proposal was ac- cepted ; and an association was formed, which sent out four ships to India under Houtman, in the year 1594. On their first arrival in the Indian seas, the Dutch and Portuguese had only occasional skir- mishes ; but a sanguinary war soon fol- lowed, which in the end totally destroyed the Portuguese power. For several years after the Portuguese, NDIA. 449 Dutch, and English had penetrated to India, the French contented themselves with procuring its productions from the Portuguese and Dutch. In the year 1601, indeed, a company had been form- ed in Brittany, which sent two ships to India ; but they returned with cargoes barely sufficient to defray the expenses of the equipment and voyage ; conse- quently the company was dissolved. In 1633, another company was formed ; but their enterprises were confined to the island of Madagascar. The attempt to colonize this island not succeeding, the French sent some ships direct to India, and established factories with the con- sent of the native princes. Their chief rendezvous at first Avas at Surat ; but the Dutch and English uniting against them, soon obliged them to abandon it. They next attempted to seize on Trincomalee ; but in this also they were unsuccessful. They afterwards formed their celebrated settlement of Pondicherry, where a small district was ceded them by the native prince. At the beginning of the 18th century, their establishments consisted of Pondicherry, with small and insig-ni- ficant factories at Masulipatam and Raja- pore. Soon after this period, the history of the French and English nations in India are so blended, that they must be considered together. The Danes received the first idea of forming establishments in India from a Dutchman, who, discontented with his own government, offered his services to Christian IV, to form a settlement at Ceylon. This man, however, dying on his passage, and the Danes having been unfavorably received at Ceylon, they pro- ceeded from thence to the coast of Co- romandel, where the king of Tanjore allowed them to form a settlement at Tranquebar. Queen Elizabeth was the first English sovereign Avho thought of obtaining for her subjects a share in the trade to India. In the year 1583, she granted letters to two adventurers for the princes of India, and in 1596, other letters. All these ad- venturers proceeded to the court of the Great Mogul, by land, where they were well received. The attempts to discover a passage by the North Sea to China 57 having failed, the English resolved to go round the cape of Good Hope. Accord- ingly the queen, on the last day of the year 1600, granted letters patent to a society of merchants in London to trade to the East Indies. The object of the company was principally pepper and other spices ; and, therefore, their voy- ages were to Achen, Java, and the spice islands. In the year 1612, four ships were sent out by king James, for the purpose of conciliating the Mogul empe- ror, some of whose vessels had been annoyed by the English in the Red Sea. The commander of this fleet succeeded in his mission ; and at the same time, he obtained from the court of Delhi, the liberty of establishing a factory at Surat ; and this city was some time afterwards regarded as the principal English station in the west of India. The Portuguese, alarmed at the success of the English, attacked their fleet near Surat, but they were repulsed. This voyage, therefore, may in some respect be regarded as the origin of the power of the British in the East ; the two foundations of Avhich were, the grant of the Mogul sovereign, and their own naval ability and resources. About 1640, the Dutch began system- atically to harass the European commerce on the coast of Malabar. In consequence of this, the English fixed on Madraspatam, which they obtained from the chief of the district. They immediately built a fort, with the name of Fort St. George ; and in 1653, this station was raised by the company to the rank of a presidency. Nearly about the same time, the com- mercial transactions of the British com- menced on the Ganges. In 1634, they obtained from the court of Delhi, the privilege of a free resort to the port of Pipley, in the province of Bengal. This privilege was much extended in 1645, chiefly through the professional skill and success of a surgeon of one of the com- pany's ships, who had thus, at the Mogul court, conciliated the favor of the mon- arch. Factories were accordingly estab- lished in Bengal, the principal of them at Hooghly ; but this, as well as the others, was subject to the presidency of Madras, or Fort St. George. The fac- tories of the British at this time were, 450 NDIA. Madras with its dependencies, Masulipa- tam, Madapollani, Peltipolu, and Hoogh- ly ; and the factories subordinate to Hooghly were, Cossinibazar, Balasorc, Patna, and Malda. But the Mogul government, as well as the other Indian princes, though they granted to the British the privileges of commerce, yet denied them the exercise of civil jurisdiction, or the use of military strength. The factory of Surat was strongly built ; but it was not allowed to be either fortified or garrisoned. The factory was exposed to still farther incon- venience and danger ; for it was exactly placed on the debateable ground between the Mogul and the Mahrattas, and, was more than once plundered by Sevajee the Mahratta chief. It is probable, that the British would have been obliged to have given up Surat, had not they gained an unexpected relief. In the year 1668, king Charles II, ceded to the company the island of Bombay, which he had received as a part of the marriage portion of Cath- arine, the Infanta of Portugal. This was a strong place, and it was within 200 miles by sea from Surat, to which it was made subordinate. The British now commanded greater respect, both from the Mogul and the Mahratta officers ; but in the years 1665 and 1672, their settlements, particularly on the Malabar coast, suffered much from the hostilities of the Dutch. The settlement of Madras was also exposed to great difficulties and danger. About the year 1656, the territory on which it stood, and which belonged to the king of Besnagur, was conquered by Meer Jumla, the general of the king of Golconda, who afterwards distinguished himself as the ablest officer in the ser- vice of Aurengzebe. This event, how- ever, in the end, proved fortunate to Ma- dras ; for in the years 1674 and 1676, the king of Golconda permitted the Ma- dras government to build ships in any part of his dominions, and forbade any of his officers to molest the British commerce. The settlements of Bengal also flour- ished ; but in the mean time, the war between the emperor and the Mahrattas weighed heavily on the factories of Surat and Bombay. Sir John Child was at this period, what would now be styled governor general of the British settlements in India, while his brother, sir Jonah, was leading member of the court of com- mittees ; their policy was, first, the en- largement of the authority of the company over such British subjects as were within the limits of their charter ; and secondly, retaliation by force of arms on the Indian princes who had oppressed their settle- ments, and the attainment of political strength and dominion in the East. Hence it is evident that they laid the foundation of that system of aggrandize- ment, on which the British have ever since acted in India. At the breaking out of the war between England and France, in 1745, the Eng- lish possessed the following settlements : Bombay ; Dabul, about 40 leagues farther to the south, in the province of Concan ; Carwar, in the province of North Cana- ra ; Tellicherry, on the sea-coast of the Malabar province ; Anjengo, their most southerly settlement on the western coast of the peninsula, on the sea-coast of Tra- vancore ; Fort St. David ; Madras ; Vi- sigapatam and Balasore, on the Coroman- del coast ; and Calcutta. The principal French settlements were Pondicherry and Chandernagore ; the latter about 20 miles above Calcutta, the former on the sea-coast of the Carnatic. In the year 1746, Madras was besieg- ed by a French armament, and compelled to capitulate ; but it was restored to the English by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. About the same time, the nabob of the Carnatic, within whose jurisdiction both Madras and Pondicherry were situated, and who successively took part with the combatants on both sides, sustained a to- tal defeat from a very inferior number of French. The event is memorable, chief- ly, as being the first which decidedly proved the superiority of the European troops over those of Hindostan. The territory of the Carnatic was one of the subordinate principalities imme- diately governed by nabobs, but subject to the soubhadar of the Deccan, who was still regarded as a feudal prince \mder the Mogul emperor. Nizam ul Mulk, already frequently mentioned, who was soubhadar INDIA. 451 of the Deccan, died in the year 1 748, and the province was disputed between his son Nazir, and his grandson Murzafa. At the same time the nabob of the Car- natic, Anwaraadeen, who had been regu- larly established in that office by the Ni- zam, was opposed by Chunda Saheb ; the latter and Murzafa made common cause, and to their alliance acceded M. Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, a man of great talents, intrigue, and ambition. The combined troops of the French and the two princes overthrew those of Anwaraa- deen, on the frontiers of his own country, in a pitched battle, in which he himself was killed, and his eldest son taken pris- oner, while his second, Mahomed Ali, escaped, and implored the assistance of the English. For some time the Eng- lish hesitated, till at length they were induced by several reasons — the strong- est, probably, a desire to curb and oppose the French — to espouse the alliance of Nazir and Mahomed Ali, who had made common cause. Such was the origin of the war for the succession of the Carnatic, or the Car- natic war, as it is called, between the English and the French. In its progress, this war preserved essentially the char- acter under which it had commenced, that is, in reality, a contest between the English and French for superiority of power and extension of dominion, in Hin- dostan. In the year 1741, Alivedi, as seen, usurped the nabobship of Bengal. He died in 1756, leaving for his successor Surajah Dowlah. This prince was strong- ly prepossessed against the English. Un- derstanding that the governor of Calcutta was building a wall and digging a moat round that city, he took offence, and at last marched at the head of his army to attack it, with its dependent settlements. The town was gallantly, though not very skilfully, defended for three days, but then was obliged to surrender. Surajah Dowlah had promised the prisoners their lives, but on the same night in which he entered the place he ordered the massa- cre, (for it deserves no other appellation,) which has rendered proverbial the black hole of Calcutta. The Europeans, to the number of 146 persons, were, in the most sultry season even of the Bengal year, confined for twelve hours within a cube of 1 8 feet, having no outlets except two small windows, strongly barred. All perished except twenty-three ; and some of these afterwards experienced from the nabob fresh cruelties. As soon as intelligence of these events reached the English on the coast, they detached to Bengal 900 Europeans, and 1,500 se- poys, under the command of colonel Clive. In a few days after their arrival before Calcutta, the city was retaken, and the nabob being attacked in his camp, acquiesced in a pacification, high- ly honorable and advantageous to the English. On him little reliance could be placed, especially as by the break- ing out of the war between the English and French, he might naturally ex- pect the assistance of the latter, who had, at their settlement of Candenagore, contiguous to Calcutta, a force of 300 Europeans, and 300 sepoys. Under these circumstances, colonel Clive re- solved to attack the French settlement, which he accordingly did, with success. Still, however, the nabob was justly sus- pected ; and as it was soon afterwards proved that he was in correspondence with the French, the English listened to the overtures of the discontented gran- dees at his court, and at length resolved to support Meer Jaffier in his pretensions to the nabobship. This arrangement led immediately to the famous battle of Plas- sey, by the issue of which Meer Jafiier gained the nabobship, and his English aUies a large treasure, a portion of a ter- ritory adjoining to Calcutta, and a consid- erable influence with the new nabob. The British forces engaged in this battle were commanded by colonel Clive, and consisted of 900 Europeans, 100 topas- ses, and 2,000 sepoys, with eight six pounders, and two howitzers. The na- bob's army was estimated at 50,000 foot, and 50 pieces of cannon, besides about 40 Frenchmen. According to one account, the fortune of the day was decided by Meer Jaffier, who commanded part of ] the nabob's army, remaining neuter dur- ing the engagement ; but by other ac- counts, it would appear, that even if bis forces had taken an active part, the issue 452 INDIA. would have been equally favorable to the British. In the pursuit of Cosseim, the nabob of Bengal, who had turned his arms against them, the British had reached the interminous frontier of the territories of Bengal and Oude ; the fugitive prince had taken refuge in the court of Sujah Dowlah, otherwise called the Nabob Vi- zier, which, at the same time, harbored a more illustrious exile, the young Mogid. The British camp now became the scene of complicated negotiations ; an alliance was proposed to Sujah Dowlah, which he rejected. While these negotiations were going on, discontents prevailed in the British army. Encouraged by this, Sujah Dowlah, who had already collect- ed an army on the frontiers of Oude, de- termined on hostility ; and he was joined by the Rajah of Benares. In March, 1764, Major Carnac took the command of the British forces, and having restored discipline and subordination, repulsed the vizier in an obstinate engagement near Patna. The war was now carried into the province of Oude, and Major Carnac was succeeded by Major Monro. On the 24th of October was fought the celebrated battle of Buxar, on the river Carumnasa, about 100 miles above the city of Patna. The British army con- sisted of 856 Europeans, and 6,215 se- poys ; the combined troops of Sujah Dowlah and Cosseim consisted of 40,000 men. After an arduous contest of three hours, the army of the vizier retired in disorder, leaving on the field 133 pieces of cannon, and blowing up some of their powder magazines ; 2,000 troops were slain on the field of battle. The loss of Major Monro's army was trifling, being only 87 Europeans and 712 sepoys. The flight of the allies was so rapid, that they did not stop at Buxar, but hastened to a small river beyond it. Over this was a bridge of boats, which, however, they had not all crossed, when Sujah Dowlah directed the bridge to be de- stroyed. By this act of generalship he sacrificed, indeed, the rear division of his army, which, to the number of nearly 2,000 men were drowned ; but he saved his main body from certain destruction, and at the same time preserved from cap- ture the immense treasures of Cosseim as well as his own. A native historian describes the camp of the two chiefs in the following terms : " A bridge of boats being thrown over the Ganges, the allied armies began their march in numbers not to be reckoned ; but, from the ignorance of the generals and want of discipline, murdering and plundering each other. It was not an army, but rather a mov- ing nation." On the following day the Mogul, who had taken no part in the bat- tle, sought and obtained the protection of the British, offering them terms highly favorable to their views, and plans of aggrandizement and extent of territory. After the general peace of 1763, the French again endeavored to gain a foot- ing in them ; and this induced lord Clive, who arrived in India for the second time, in 1765, to obtain from the Mogiil the proprietary grant of this territory. In the year 1766, four of the circars were given up by the soubhadar ; the fifth, held by a brother of the Nizam, was granted in reversion to the British. In return for these cessions, the British promised the soubhadar the assistance of their troops, whenever he might need it, to settle the affairs of his government. — About the end of the year 1766, having united himself with a Mahratta chief against Hyder Ali, sovereign of the My- sore, he applied for these troops, which were granted him, even before his object or that of the Mahrattas was known. As soon as the British troops had joined, the united army entered the territory of My- sore. It was on this occasion that Hyder Ali first displayed those talents which afterwards rendered him so very for- midable. He bought off" the Mahrattas by large bribes. Next he entered into negotiations with the Nizam with such effect, that in August, 1767, the armies of the Nizam and Hyder actually united at Bangalore, from which place they made irregular incursions into the Carnatic. Hyder Ali, indignant at the refusal of the British to assist him against the Mahrattas, made peace with them, and pre- pared for the invasion of the Carnatic. On the 24th of July, 1780, Hyder All's cavalry were only nine miles distant from INDIA. 453 Madras ; and it was ascertained, that his whole force consisted of 100,000 men, among whom was a large body of Euro- pean troops, under French officers, and commanded by colonel Lally. In this emergency, sir Hector Munro ordered the British army to assemble at Conj eve- ram, and directed colonel Baillie, who commanded a detachment at Gumero- panda, to join him at that place ; but this detachment was cut to pieces by Tippoo Saib, Hyder's son. 'I'his obliged the Carnatic army to retreat, till sir Eyre Coote arrived from Bengal with a bri- gade of 7,000 men, and assumed the command. Sir Eyre immediately re- stored the spirits of the army, and in a very short space of time defeated Hyder in five several battles. In some instances, however, the British were not so success- ful ; for Tippoo entirely defeated a de- tachment of about 2,000 infantry, and 300 cavalry, under colonel Braithwaite. In the end of the year 1782 Hyder died ; and one of the first objects of Tippoo, who succeeded him, was to recover Cana- ra, which had been conquered by a de- tachment under general Matthews. It had been supposed by the presidency of Bengal, that an attack of Tippoo's pro- vinces on the west of India would, by giving an easy and immediate entry into the most valuable part of his dominions, draw him off from the Carnatic, which he still occupied, notwithstanding the defeats which his father had sustained. Accordingly, General Matthews was sent into Canara, a province which Hyder Ali had conquered in 1763, and he succeed- ed in reducing the whole of it. The scheme succeeded in drawing Tippoo from the Carnatic into Canara ; but at the dreadful expense of the loss of general Matthews and his army, which was obliged to capitulate, on condition of be- ing allowed to go to Bombay. This con- dition, however, was not fulfilled; and general Matthews, and twenty of his offi- cers, were poisoned, and most of his troops were massacred. At last, Tippoo fiading that the Mahrattas, his inveterate enemies, were at peace with the English, and at liberty to attack him, and being deserted by the French, in consequence of the peace of 1783, condescended to treat in March, 1784. By this treaty, matters were restored nearly to the con- dition in which they had been before the commencement of hostilities. Tippoo was without doubt the most powerful of all the princes of Hindos- tan. His dominions were equal in extent to Great Britain ; his revenue was computed at four millions sterling ; and his military establishment consisted of 72,830 regulars ; 49,000 in garrison ; 7,000 irregulars, and 26,300 auxilia- ries ; in all, 155,130 men. Of the regular troops, 27,400 were cavalry ; 36,000 sepoy infantry, Hindoos and Ma- homedans ; 7,300 topasses or hatmen, that is, the descendants of the Portuguese and other Europeans, infantry ; 200 Eu- ropean cavalry ; and 540 European foot. The artillery corps, consisting of Euro- pean topasses, (fee, amounted to 1,390. There were 1 1 guns attached to the battalions ; the horse garrisons on the frontiers amounted to 21,000, and the foot garrisons to 28,000. The auxiliaries were supplied from the rajahs of Ry- droog, Darwar, &c, and consisted of 13,300 horse, and 13,000 peons, or irreg- ular troops. It was not to be supposed that a per- son, possessed of the ambitious and rest- less disposition which characterized Tip- poo, would long remain at peace with such an immense force at his disposal, or that he would find any difficulty in rais- ing pretences for commencing hostilities. Accordingly, towards the end of the year 1789, he approached the country of Travancore for the avowed purpose of recovering two places which the rajah of that district had purchased from the Dutch, but which Tippoo alleged were dependent upon him, as forming part of the possessions of his tributary, the Ra- jah of Cochin. On the 29th of Decem- ber, he stormed the lines of the Rajah of Travancore, who was not disposed to ac- cede to his demands ; but without suc- cess. As this Rajah had put himself under the protection of the British gov- ernment, and was acknowledged to be so, by the treaty concluded with Tippoo in 1784, war between the latter and the British seemed unavoidable. Lord Corn- wallis at this time was Governor Gen- 454 INDIA. eral of India. His first object was to enter into a treaty offensive and defen- sive with the Nizam. This was accord- ingly conchided on the 4th of July, 1790. A treaty was also formed with the Paish- wah of the Mahrattas. The provisions of these treaties were, that measures should be instantly taken to punish Tip- poo, and to deprive him of the means of disturbing the general tranquillity, and that the Nizam and the Paishwah should both vigorously prosecute the war. The British Madras army was assem- bled on the plain of Trichinoply, and on the 24th of May, 1790, general Mead- ows, who was to take the command joined it. On the 12th of June, he en- tered the territories of the Sultan. His first object was to relieve the Rajah of Travancore ; and, before the end of the year, he was completely successful. In the mean time, the Bombay troops under general Abercrombie conquered the valu- able districts below the Ghauts on the west and the north, as far as the river Baliapatam. The next campaign was carried on by lord Cornwallis himself in the centre of Tippoo's kingdom. The important fortress of Bangalore was con- quered. A successful battle was fought near Seringapatam ; but the unfavorable season of the year, which now began, and the delay of the Mahrattas, prevented his lordship from attacking that city, which had been his principal design when lie commenced the campaign. In the mean time, the Bombay army was marching to join his lordship ; but being unable to effect the junction, from the badness of the roads, and the swelling of the rivers, they were compelled to re- trace their steps over those mountains, which form an almost impassable barrier between Mysore and the Malabar coast. In this march and retreat, the troops suf- fered dreadfully ; but the sufferings were mild compared to those which the Ma- dras army underwent while obliged to re- main inactive in the heart of Tippoo's do- minions on account of the rains. They were infected with an epidemic disorder, the ravages of which were greatly in- creased by a scarcity of provisions ; and, to add to these calamities, the small-pox raged in the camp. Fortunately, they were soon joined by the allied force of the Mahrattas, amounting to 32,000 cav- alry ; and soon afterwards, the troops of the Nizam joined them ; but from neither of these allies could lord Cornwallis expect much efficient a«sistance, espe- cially in the moment of danger, as their equipment and discipline were exces- sively defective. In the month of June, 1791, his lordship set out towards Ban- galore. His first object was to secure an easy and regular communication be- tween the Mysore and Carnatic, as from the latter the supplies of the army were chiefly to be drawn ; but this communi- cation would be impracticable, so long as the various hill forts which commanded the passes were in the possession of Tippoo. They were uncommonly strong, both by nature and art. Of these, Sa- vendroog, Chittledroog, and Kistnaghury, were the most remarkable for natural strength. The first is surrounded by a forest of natural wood, or jungle, several miles in depth, thickened with clumps of planted bamboos, to render it as impene- trable as possible. It is impossible to invest or blockade it closely, the rock forming a base of 8 or 10 miles in cir- cumference, which, with the jungle and lesser hills that surround il, includes a circle of 20 miles. From this base, it is reckoned to rise above half a mile in per- pendicular height. This huge mountain is further rendered strong by being divided above by a chasm that separates the up- per part into two hills, each, with their defences, forming two citadels, and capa- ble of being maintained independent of the lower works. This stupendous for- tress, so diflicult of approach, is no less remarkable for its noxious atmosphere oc- casioned by the surrounding hills and woods, than for its wonderful size and strength. The right wing of the main army, un- der the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stewart, was ordered to the siege of this tremendous fortress. In three days a practicable breach was effected, and the troops advanced to the storm, lord Corn- wallis in person superintending the at- tack. On the appearance of the Euro- peans advancing, the garrison was seized with a panic and fled, and the breach was INDIA. 455 Storming of Seringapatam carried without, meeting or even overtak insf the enemy. The main body en deavored to gain the western hill, and if they had done so, the siege must have recommenced ; but they were closely pursued by a small party of the British, who entered the different barriers along whh them, and gained possession of the top of the mountain. Thus, in less than an hour, in open da}'^, this fortress, hith- erto deemed impregnable, was stormed without the loss of a man, only one pri- vate soldier having been wounded in the assault. Other fortresses were also taken, so that the convoys reached the army without the least delay or opposition. On the 22nd of January, 1792, the Bombay army, having passed the Ghauts, joined lord Cornwallis. They consist- ed of 8,400 men, and as soon as the ar- mies of the Mahrattas and of the Nizam had also joined. Lord Cornwallis made preparations for besieging Seringapatam. On the 5th of February, the city was seen by the whole army from the heights which they had mounted, lying six miles to the north-east of it. The Sultan's ar- my was encamped under the walls of his capital. Seringapatam is placed at the upper end of an island surrounded by the Cavery, which is here a large and rapid river, having a very extensive channel, impeded by rocks and fragments of gran- ite. The fort occupies about a mile at the west end of the island, and is an im- mense and unfinished building. In forti- fying the town, Tippoo retained the long strait walls and square bastions of the Hindoos, and his glacis was, in many places so high and steep, as to shelter the assailants. The camp of the allies was pitched on the north side of the island. The Brit- ish formed the front line, the reserve was placed a mile in the rear, and the Ni- zam and Mahrattas were stationed still farther in the rear. Tippoo's fortified camp was under the walls of Seringapa- tam, within a bound hedge strengthened by redoubts. In this line there Avas 100 pieces of artillery ; and in the fort and island which formed his second line, there were upwards of 300 pieces. The whole of his army amoimted to 40,000 infantry, besides a large body of cavalry. On'the night of the 6th of February, 1792, lord Cornwallis resolved to attack Tippoo's camp. For this service he se 456 IRELAND. lected 2,800 Europeans, and 5,900 native infantry, but without artillery. The at- tack was completely successful. It was made in three columns. The centre col- umn under lord Cornwallis attacked the Sultan's redoubt, and having carried it, forced their way into the town ; and, by the other columns, the enemy's positions on the north side of the river, and almost the whole of the island, were carried. Eighty guns were taken, and the loss of the Sultan in the battle is said to have been 4,000 ; but the desertion was so great after the overthrow, that his army was reduced in number at least 20,000. The loss of the British was 535. The British army having thus obtained possession of the island and town of Seringapatam, were immediately em- ployed in making preparations for the siege of the fortress. But Tippoo, after several unsuccessful efforts to retrieve his fortune, on the 24th of February, agreed to terms of peace, by which he was to pay 3 crores and 30 lacks of rupees, about 3^ millions sterling — to relinquish half his do- minions — and to give up three of his eldest sons for the due performance of the treaty. On this occasion, the force brought against Tippoo was one of the most for- midable ever seen in Hindostan. On the 16th of March, 1792, the British ar- my above the Ghauts amounted in all to 11,000 Europeans, 31,600 natives, and 190 pieces of cannon. The Mahrattas, the Nizam's, the Rajah of Travancore, and the other auxiliary forces, amounted to about 40,000 men, of whom 30,000 were cavalry. Towards the conclusion of the siege, allowing four camp follow- ers to every soldier, the total number of persons attached to the camp of the con- federates exceeded 400,000. Since this period there has been a num- ber of conflicts with the native princes. In 1799, under the administration of lord Wellesley, Tippoo was slain at the taking of Seringapatam. The British pow- er has been greatly increased, and it is supposed that there is at this time one hundred millions of people in India, un- der their dominion. IRELAND, The ancient history of Ireland is in- volved in considerable obscurity, but its early chroniclers state that it was first peopled by a colony of Greeks, and that after the lapse of several centuries they were entirely destroyed by a plag-ue, the effects of which were so fearfully fatal, that not one remained to tell the tale. After the extinction of this colony, Ire- land remained a perfect wilderness for more than thirty years, when another colony arrived from the east, under the direction of Nemedius, who set sail from the Euxine Sea with thirty transports, each being manned with soldiers, which arrived in safety on the coast of Ireland after a very tedious and protracted voyage. The most remarkable circumstance which occurred during his reign, was an unsuc- cessful war in which he was engaged with some African pirates, who in the end conquered him, and the victors be- came so tyrannical that the colonists found themselves under the necessity of quitting the island altogether. About two hundred and sixteen years after the death of Nemedius, the descen- dants of Simon Braec returned from Greece into Ireland. They were con- ducted by five princes, who divided the island into five kingdoms, of nearly equal size. These kingdoms were called Mun- ster, Leinster, Connaught, Meath, and Ulster, and the subjects of these kings are called by the early Irish historians Firbolgs. The Firbolgs were shortly after expelled or entirely subdued, after the loss of 1 00,000 men in one battle, by the Tuath de Dannans, a nation who came from Attica, Ba30tia, and Achaia, into Denmark, from Denmark to Scot- land, and from Scotland into Ireland. This nation were believed to be powerful necromancers, who were so completely RELAND. 457 skilled in their art, that they could even restore the dead to life, and bring again into the field those warriors who had been slain the day before. They had also some Aveapons, &;c, which possessed a wonderful virtue. These were a sword, a spear, a cauldron, and a mai-ble chair ; on which last were crowned first the kings of Ireland, and afterwards those of Scotland. But neither the powerful vir- tues of these Danish curiosities, nor the more powerful spells of the magic art, were able to preserve the Tuath de Dan- nans from being subdued by the Gade- lians when they invaded Ireland. The Gadelians were descended from a powerful chief who bore the name of Gathelns. His mother was Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, by Niul, the son of a Scythian monarch contemporary with Nirarod. The Gadelians, called also Scots, conquered Ireland about 1300 B. C. under Heber and Heremon, two sons of Milesius, king of Spain, from whom were descended all the kings of Ireland down to the English conquest, and who are therefore styled by the Irish histo- rians princes of the Milesian race. From this period the Irish historians trace a gradual refinement of their coun- trymen from a state of the grossest bar- barity, until a monarch, named OUam Fodla, established a regular form of gov- ernment, erected a seminary of learning, and instituted the Fes, or triennial con- vention of provincial kings, priests and poets, at Feamor or Tarah in Meath, for the establishment of laws and regulation of government. It appears that from a very early period, the island had been divided into the five provincial kingdoms above-mentioned, and four of these had been subject to the fifth, who was nomi- nal monarch of the whole island. About this time, these four, however, proved such obstinate disturbers of the peace, that the reigning monarch, to break their power, divided the country into twenty- five dynasties, binding them by oath to accept no other monarch but one of his own family. About 100 B. C. the pentarchal gov- ernment was restored, and it is said to have been succeeded by a considerable revolution in politics. The Irish bards 58 had for many ages dispensed the laws, and the whole nation submitted to their decisions ; but as their laws were ex- ceedingly obscure, and could be inter- preted only by themselves, they of course oppressed the people, who at last rose in a body, and would have destroyed them, had they not fled to Coavocar-Mac-Nessa, the reigning monarch, who granted them his protection ; but at the same time, to quiet the just complaints of his people, he employed the most talented among them 10 compile an intelligible, equitable, and distinct body of laws, which were digni- fied with the name of celestial decisions. These decisions seem to have produced but very little reformation among the people in general. Ireland remained in the same state of confusion and ignorance till the introduc- tion of Christianity by St. Patrick, which took place about the middle of the fifth century. This saint also introduced let- ters into Ireland, and this laid the foun- dations of their future civilization. The introduction of Christianity appears to have had but little effect on the habits or welfare of this fertile but mismanaged island. The same wars between the chiefs continued ; and the same murders took place among its inhabitants, till they were invaded by the Danes or Normans, about the end of the eighth century. At this time the monarchical power was weak, on account of the factions and as- suming disposition of the inferior dy- nasties ; but also the evils of the political constitution of Ireland had considerably subsided by the respect paid to religion and learning. The first invasions of the Danes were made in small parties for the sake of plunder, and were repelled by the chieftain whose dominions were in- vaded. Other parties appeared hi dif- ferent parts of the island, and alarmed the inhabitants by the havoc they com- mitted. These were, in like manner, put to flight, but they never failed to return in a short time. But some years elapsed before the inhabitants thought of putting an end to their intestine quarrels, and uniting against the common enemy. The northern pirates, either by force or trea- ty, gradually obtained some small settle- ments on the island; and, at length, 458 RE LAND. Turgcs, or Turf^esius, a warlike Norwe- gian, landed with a powerful army in the year 815. He divided his fleet and army, in order to strike terror in different quar- ters. His uncivilized followers spread desolation wherever they went ; and, as the Danes already settled in Ireland flocked to his standard, and the native chiefs were still engrossed by their pri- vate feuds, he found little difficulty in possessing himself of the whole island. The new king ruled with so despotic a sway, that the inhabitants formed a con- spiracy against him ; and he was seized by Melachlinc, prince of Meath, in a time of apparent peace. A universal insur- rection ensued ; the Danes were massa- cred or dispersed; their leader condemned to death for his cruelties, and drowned in a lake. The remnant of these foreigners, however, were not exterminated, but al- lowed to continue on the island as sub- jects or tributaries to some particular chieftain. A new colony soon arrived, under pretence of peaceable intentions, and a design of enriching the country by commerce. The Irish, through an in- fatuated policy, suffered them to become masters of Dublin, Limerick, Waterford, and other maritime places, which they enlarged and fortified with such works as had till then been unknown in Ireland. The Danes failed not to make use of every opportunity of enlarging their terri- tories, and new wars quickly ensued. — The Irish were sometimes victorious, and sometimes not ; but were never able to drive out their enemies, so that they continued to be a very distinguished and powerful sept, or tribe, in Ireland. The wars with the Danes were no sooner at an end, than the natives turned their arms against each other. The country was harassed by the competitions of their chiefs ; laws and religion lost their in- fluence, and licentiousness and immoral- ity prevailed. In this state of affairs, Magnus, king of Norway, invaded the island ; but the enterprise failed in con- sequence of his own rashness ; for, hav- ing encountered no opposition while landing, he advanced into the country, and was surrounded and cut to pieces with all his followers. His death, how- ever, proved of little benefit to Ireland ; the same disorders which had gradually reduced the kingdom to a state of extreme weakness, still continued to operate, and to facilitate the success of the English invasion, which occurred in the reign of Henry II. The king, after having provided for the security of all his newly-acquired territories, and placed garrisons in the cities of Limerick, Cork, Waterford, and Wexford, proceeded to take possession of Dublin, which had been surrendered by Strongbow, the earl of Chepstow. The neighboring lords took the oppor- tunity of submitting to him as he ad- vanced. O'Carrol of Argial, a chieftain of great consequence, repaired to his camp, and engaged to become his tribu- tary ; and even O'Ruarc, whom Roderick had made lord of a considerable part of Meath, voluntarily submitted to the new sovereign. Roderick, of the O'Connor family, and monarch of the northern division of Ire- land, surprised at the defection of many of his allies, still determined to maintain his own dignity, and at least preserve his province of Connaught, feeling he could no longer call himself monarch of the whole island. With this design he in- trenched himself on the banks of the Shannon ; and now, when disencumbered from a crowd of faithless and discontented followers, he appears to have acted with a spirit and dignity becoming his station. Hugh de Lacey and William Fitz-Andelm were commissioned by the king to attack him, but Roderick was too strong to be attacked with any probability of success by a detachment of the English army ; and he at least affected to believe that his situation was not yet so totally desperate as to reduce him to the necessity of re- signing his dignity and authority, while his own territory remained inviolate, and the brave and powerful chiefs of Ulster still kept retired in their own districts, without any thoughts of submission. — Henry, in the mean time, attempted to attach the Irish lords to his interest by magnificent entertainments. Some his- torians pretend that he established the English laws in all those parts which had submitted to his jurisdiction; but this must appear extremely improbable, IRELAND. 459 when we consider how tenacious a nide and barbarous people are of their ancient laws and customs. To complete the whole system, a chief governor, or rep- resentative of the king, was appointed. His business was to exercise the royal authority, or such parts of it as might be committed to him in the king's absence ; and, as the present state of Ireland, and the apprehensions of war orinsurrections, made it necessary to guard against sud- den accidents, it was provided, that in case of the death of any chief governor, the chancellor, treasurer, chief justice, and chief baron, keeper of the rolls, and king's Serjeant at law, should be empow- ered, with consent of the nobles of the land, to elect a successor, who was to exercise the full power and authority of this office, until the royal pleasure should be further known. But while Henry was thus regulating the government of his new dominions, he received the unwelcome news that two cardinals, Albert and Theodric, delegated by the pope, had arrived in Normandy the year before, to make inquisition into the death of Becket ; that having waited the king's arrival until their patience was exhausted, they now summoned him to appear without delay, as he would avert the dreadful sentence of excommunica- tion, and preserve his dominions from a general interdict. Such denunciations were of too great consequence to admit of his longer stay in Ireland ; he there- fore ordered his forces and the officers of his household to embark without delay, reserving three ships for the conveyance of himself and his immediate attendants. Henry was no sooner gone, than his ba- rons began to contrive how they might best strengthen their own interests, and the Irish how they might best shake off the yoke to which they had so readily submitted. De Lacey divided out the lands of Meath to his friends and adhe- rents, and commenced erecting forts to keep the ancient inhabitants in awe. — Roderick, the principal Irish chieftain, committed great devastations in Meath. By the vigorous conduct of the English commander, however, he was not only prevented from doing farther mischief, but at last convinced of the folly of resis- tance, and therefore determined to make a final submission. Yet, conscious of his dignity, he disdained to submit to a subject ; and, therefore, instead of treat- ing with earl Richard, he sent deputies directly to the king. The terms of this submission, by which Henry became sole monarch of Ireland, were as follows:. Roderick consented to . do homage and pay tribute, as liege-man to the king of England ; on which condi- tion he was allowed to hold the kingdom of Connaught, as well as his other lands and sovereignties, in as ample a manner as he had enjoyed them before the arrival of Henry in Ireland. His vassals were to hold their estates under him in peace, as long as they paid their tribute and continued faithful to the king of England ; in which Roderick was to enforce their due obedience, and for this purpose to call to his assistance the English govern- ment, if necessary. Many of the Irish lords, in their sub- mission to Henry, hi effect disavowed and renounced the sovereignty of Roderick ; but now his supremacy was acknowl- edged, that the present submission might appear virtually the submission of all the subordinate princes, and thus the king of England be finally invested with the sovereignty of the whole island. The marks of sovereignty, however, were no more than homage and tribute ; in every other particular the regal rights of Rode- rick were left inviolate. The Enghsh laws were only to be enforced in the English pale ; and, even there, the Irish tenant might live in peace, as the subject of the Irish monarch ; bound only to pay his quota of tribute, and not to take arms against the king of England. But though the whole island of Ireland thus became subject to the king of Eng- land, it was far from being settled in tranquillity, or indeed, from having the situation of its inhabitants improved in any degree. Another cause of the distresses of Ire- land was, the great power of the English barons, among whom Henry had divided the greater part of his Irish dominions. The extent of their authority only inflam- ed them with a desire for more, and, in- stead of contributing their endeavors to 460 RELAND. increase the power of their sovereign, or to civilize the barbarous people over whom they were placed, their only aim was to aggrandize themselves and coun- teract the schemes of each other. Nothing, indeed, can be conceived more terrible than the state of Ireland during the reign of Henry III. The powerful English lords not only subverted the peace and security of the people, by re- fusing to admit the salutary laws of their own country, but behaved with injustice and violence to the natives who did not enjoy the benefits of the English consti- tution. The clergy appear to have been equally tyrannical and abandoned with the rest. Matters continued in the same state during the reign of Edward I, with this additional grievance, that the kingdom suffered an invasion of the Scots. The English monarch, indeed, possessed all that prudence and valor which were necessary to have reduced the island to a slate of tranquillity ; but his project of conquering Scotland left him but little leisure to attend to the distracted state of Ireland. Certain it is, however, that the distress of that country gave him great uneasiness ; and he commanded the Irish prelates to interpose their spiritual au- thority for composing the public disorders. About the same time, the Irish presented a petition to the king, offering to pay him 8,000 merks, upon condition that they were admitted to the privileges of English subjects. To this petition he returned a favorable answer ; but his good intentions were defeated by the licentious nobility, who knew that these laws would circum- scribe their rapacious views, and control their violence and oppression. Like pe- titions were often repeated during this reign, but as often defeated, though sev- eral important measures were taken for the peace of the kingdom, such as the frequent calling of parliaments, appointing sheriffs, &c. These means were not altogether with- out effect. They served to check the disorders of the realm, though by no means to terminate or subdue them. The incursions of the natives were repressed, the English lords began to live on better terms with each other, and in 1 3 11 , under Edward II, the most powerful of them were reconciled by the marriage of Mau- rice and Thomas Fitz-John, afterwards the heads of the illustrious houses of Des- mond and Kildare, to two daughters of the earl of Ulster. But just at this period, when the nation appeared to have some prospect of tranquillity, other calamities were about to take place. The Scots had just recovered their liberty under Robert Bruce, and Edward, the king's brother, as a recompense for his services, demanded a share of the royal authority. This was refused by Robert, and Edward was for the present satisfied by being de- clared heir apparent to the crown. But the king pointed out to his brother the island of Ireland, the conquest of which would be easy, and which would make him an independent sovereign. This proposal was eagerly embraced by Ed- ward, and on the 23rd of May, 1315, he landed on the north-eastern coast of Ire- land with 6,000 men, to assert his claim to the sovereignty of this kingdom. The Irish lords of Ulster, who had invited and encouraged him to this enterprise, were now prepared to receive their new mon- arch, and flocked with eagerness to his standard, and their progress was marked by desolation and carnage. The Eng- lish settlers were slaughtered or driven from their possessions, their castles lev- elled with the ground, and their towns set on fire. The English lords were neither prepared to resist the invasion, nor sufficiently united among themselves. The consequence was, that the enemy for some time met with no interruption. An intolerable scarcity of provisions, how- ever, prevented Bruce from pursuing his advantages ; and though his brother land- ed in Ireland, with a powerful army, the famine prevented him from being of any essential service. The forces which he left behind him, however, proved of con- siderable advantage ; and by means of this re-enforcement, he was enabled to take the fortress of Carrickfergus. The devastations committed by Bruce and his associates, induced several Eng- lish lords to enter into an association to defend their possessions, and repel these invaders. For this purpose they raised a considerable body of forces ; which IRELAND. 461 coming to an engagement with Fedlim, prince of Connaught, one of Bruce's prin- cipal allies, entirely defeated and killed him with 8,000 of his men. This defeat, however, had very little eflect on the op- erations of Bruce himself. He ravaged the country to the walls of Dublin, tra- versed the district of Ossory, and pene- trated into Munster, destroying every thing with fire and sword. The English continued to augment their army, till it amounted to 30,000 men ; and then Bruce, no longer able to oppose such a force, found it necessary to retire into the pro- vince of Ulster. His retreat was effect- ed with great difficulty; and during the time of his inactivity, the distress of his army increased to such a degree, that they are said to have fed upon the bodies of their dead companions. At last an end was put to the sufferings and life of this adventurer, in the battle of Dundalk, in 1318, where he was defeated and killed by the English under Sir Robert Erpingham. A brave Enghsh knight had rushed forward to encounter Bruce himself, and both antagonists met and killed each other. The king of Scotland had been advancing with powerful suc- cors to his brother ; but Edward, confi- dent of victory, refused to wait his arri- -val ; and Robert, on hearing of his broth- er's death, instantly retired. The defeat of the Scottish invaders did not put an end to the disturbances of this unhappy country. The contentions of the English with each other, of the Irish with the English, and among them- selves, still kept the island in a state of confusion. An attempt was made, in- deed, in the reign of Edward H, to estab- lish a university in Dublin ; but for want of proper encouragement the institution for some time languished, and then ex- pired amidst the anarchy and confusion of the country. The perpetual hostility in which the different parties lived, proved an effectual bar to the introduction of those arts which contribute to the comfort and refinement of mankind. Even foreign merchants could not venture into such a dangerous country without particular letters of pro- tection from the throne. The perpetual succession of new adventurers from Eng- land, led by interest or necessity, served only to inflame dissension, instead of in- troducing any essential improvement. In this situation the kingdom continued till the time of Henry VII, who laid the foundation of the future civilization of the Irish, as he also did of the English na- tion. This he effected by enacting some salutary laws, and appointing faithful and active governors to see them put in exe- cution. Of these governors. Sir Edward Poyning, contributed more than any other to the tranquillity of the state. From this time we may date the revi- val of the English power in Ireland. The authority of the crown, which had at last been defied, insulted, and rejected, even in the English territory, was restored and confirmed, and the rebellious opposed and suppressed. The seignory of the British crown over the whole body of the Irish, which, in former reigns, seemed to have been totally forgotten, was now for- mally claimed and asserted, and some of the most ferocious chieftains, by their marriage connections, became the avowed friends of the English power. An igno- minious tribute, called the Black Rent, was indeed still paid to some chieftains ; but their hostilities were opposed and chastised, and even in their own districts they were made to feel the superiority of the English government. Under the mild sway of James I, Ire- land began to assume a new aspect ; that monarch did all in his power to promote the arts of peace, and civilize his unlettered Irish subjects. By repeated conspiracies and rebellions, a large tract of land, amounting to about 500,000 acres, and comprehended within the six northern counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Derry, Fer- managh, Cavan, and Armagh, had been escheated to the king, who resolved to dispose of them in such a way as would best conduce to the interests of the coun- try. He caused surveys to be taken of the several counties where the new set- tlements were to be established ; describ- ed minutely the state of each ; pointed out the situations proper for the sites of towns and castles ; delineated the char- acters of the Irish chieftains, the manner in which they should be treated, the tem- per and circumstances of the old inhabi 462 IRELAND. tants, die rights of the new purchasers, and the claims of both ; together with the iinpeduneuts to former plantations, and removing them. He ordered also, that the persons to whom lands were assigned should be either new settlers from Great Britain, especially from Scotland, or ser- vitors, as they were termed ; that is, men who had for some time served in Ireland, either in civil or military offices ; or Irish captains or chieftains. Among the last were included those who had been en- gaged in the rebellion of Tyrone, to whom particular indulgence was shown, as James wished, by this line of conduct, to reconcile them to his government. The under-tenants and servants were allowed to exercise their own religion ; and, while all the other planters were compelled to take the oath of allegiance, they were tacitly excepted. The servi- tors were allowed to take their tenants either from Ireland or Britain, provided no catholics were admitted. The only disturbance that now ensued, was from the catholic party, who had an unconquerable aversion to seeing the pro- testant religion established in preference to their own. After numberless ineflec- tual machinations and complaints, their fury broke out in a terrible massacre of the new English settlers in the year 1641. The affairs of Britain were at that time in such confusion, that the re- bellion was not quelled in less than ten years, during which time the country w^as nearly depopulated. It recovered again under Cromwell, Charles II, and the short reign of James II. On the ac- cession of William III, matters were once more thrown into confusion by an attempt made in favor of the exiled mon- arch, who came over to Ireland in March, 1689, at the head of about 1,200 of his native subjects, in the pay of the French king. The memorable siege of Derry was his first military operation ; and the lengtliened opposition he there encoun- tered formed the precursor of numerous disasters, destructive of his last hope of sovereignty. After a considerable de- lay, occasioned by the political intrigues and embarrassments which attended the early stages of William's elevation to the throne, James was opposed by an army under duke Schomberg ; but the same implements in the machinery of govern- ment which had retarded the duke's entry into Ireland, prevented his achieving any military exploit of importance, and the great event of the war was reserved for the king in person. William landed at Carrickfergus on the 14th of June, 1690, attended by many persons of distinction, and was joined by duke Schomberg. Passing quickly through the north, he sought the army of his rival in the vicinity of Drogheda. The battle was fought on the 1st of July, 1690. At about six in the morn- ing, the right wing of William's army directed its march towards the bridge of Slane. Count Schomberg (son of the duke) commanded the cavalry of that division, and lieutenant-general Douglas the foot. The enemy drew out several bodies of horse and foot to oppose them, and the chief part of this division eventu- ally passed the river at Fords, between the site of their camp and Slane bridge. Their passage was slightly opposed by a regiment of dragoons, but these insuf- ficient opponents quickly retired, and the English crossed without difficulty, and advanced towards the main body of the enemy. The infantry in the centre of William's army, commanded by duke Schomberg, crossed the Boj^-ne directly in front of the enemy's camp. The Dutch guards first entered the river, at the ford of Old Bridge, where a strong body was posted to oppose their landing. The French protestants and Enniskilleners, the levies from Brandenburgh, and the English, entered at Fords to the left, or eastward. The bulk of so many accoutred men, by checking the current, caused the water to rise at the place of their passage much beyond its natural level, and it was in some places breast-high, the infantry, in those parts, supporting their arms above their heads. When they gained the op- posite bank, they formed as quickly as was attainable, and soon drove back the Irish who were stationed on the bank, with the advantage of breast-works and hedges. Several battalions, and parties of Irish horse were received firmly, and compelled to retreat. But the passage IRELAND. 463 Battle of the Boync. was not effected by the whole of this division of the English army with equal success. A squadron of Danes was at- tacked by a party of Irish cavalry with so much fury that they retreated through the river, pursued by their temporary conquerors. The Irish, on their return fell upon the French Huguenots, who were broken with considerable loss. King James, throughout this eventful day, was stationed on the hill of Donore. Here, surrounded by his guards, he stood as a spectator rather than a general, whilst the crown of three kingdoms was the sub- ject of contest between two great armies. When king William had securely reached the hostile bank of the river, he rode to the head of his squadrons, and presented to them the animating specta- cle of a royal general prepared, with sword in hand, to share in all their dan- gers. The main body of the Irish re- treated towards Donore ; but there they faced about, for the protection of the quiescent James, then standing in peril on the hill, and charged with so much fury that the English were obliged to give ground. When the king was informed by those around him that he was in danger of be- ing surrounded, he quitted his post, and retired to Duleek. His army followed and effected a retreat, which was allow- ed by all parties to have been admirably conducted, through the pass of Duleek. The Irish lost 1500 men, while the Eng- lish under William lost but 500. Shortly after the loss sustained by James on that eventful day, he fled to France ; but the hopes of his friends did not utterly expire on his flight, and much blood was yet spilt before the country Avas restored to a semblance of tranquil- lity. In the subsequent prosecution of the war many acts of violence were com- mitted by both parties, which long left emphatical marks in the desolated build- ings of the gentry, and the distress visible in every feature of the country. The chief military actions were achieved by general Ginlile in the siege of Athlone, commanded by colonel Richard Grace, and in the battle of Aghrim, which de- rives its name from a village in Gahvay, contiguous to the field of bloodshed. In this battle the English were again victo- rious, although not animated as before by the presence of the king. The war was terminated by the celebrated siege and reduction of Limerick, Avhich place, 464 IRELAND. after repelling the efforts of William in person, was surrendered to his forces, by capitulation, in October, 1691. The for- feiture of lands consequent on this war was very considerable, and introduced an entire new race of settlers. Great numbers of the Irish entered the French army, and it has been com- puted that 450,000 fell in the French service, from 1691 to 1745. The de- pendence of the Irish parliament on this country next became a subject of con- troA^ersy, and, in 1719, was passed an act declaring that the British parliament had full power to make laws binding the people of Ireland. The Irish trade and industry were also subject to every kind of restriction and discouragement ; and it was not until the American war broke out, that a change became perceptible in the conduct and language of the British government towards Ireland. The Irish parliament demanded free trade, but the nation went much further ; and, in 1782, the parliament of Ireland was placed on the same footing with that of England. The American revolution, produced a great effect on the affairs of Ireland ; the French revolution, which commenced about the time of the king's illness, was destined to affect the affairs of Ireland in a still greater degree, but unfortunately not in so favorable a manner. It was natural that those in Ireland, who had been so long and so ardently endeavoring to gain for their own country what they deemed its rights and essential to its prosperity, should rejoice at the French revolution when it began, and that they should feel by it inspired to renew their attempts to obtain their favorite objects of parliamentary reform and catholic eman- cipation. The mode in which they might hope to attain these objects seemed point- ed out to them by the volunteers, by union and associations they had prevailed, and thus also they might be equally success- ful. Accordingly, in June, 1791, there appeared at Belfast the plan of an asso- ciation, under the name of United Irish- men ; and in November this association was actually instituted at Dublin ; their declared object was, " the forwarding a brotherhood of affection, a communion of rights, and a union of power among Irish- men of every religious persuasion, and thereby obtaining a complete reform in the legislature, founded on the principles of civil, political, and religious liberty." Such were their avowed objects ; but there is reason to believe, that, even at the first formation of this association, the leading members looked further. The United Irishmen and the Catho- lics, both looking forward to a change in the laws, were naturally well disposed to each other ; but from other quarters the claims of the Catholics were most vio- lently opposed. The government seem- ed to think, that the safest conduct for them to pursue was to avoid both ex- tremes ; they were not disposed to grant all the Catholics wished, nor to withhold every thing. In conformity with this de- termination, in 1793, the legislature ad- mitted the Catholics to the practice of the law — to intermarry with Protestants, and to an unrestrained education. The legislature, during this session of parlia- ment, also, passed a law to prevent the election, or other appointment, of conven- tions, or other unlawful assemblies, imder pretence of presenting public petitions, or other addresses, to his majesty or parUa- ment. This act was directly aimed at a proposed meeting of a national conven- tion of the United Irish at Athlone, which was prevented. Archibald Hamilton Rowan was sec- retary to the United Irishmen at the time their manifesto was published ; he was on that account arrested, and in 1794, brought to trial. It was suspected at the time of his trial, that the views of the United Irishmen went farther than they avowed, and that the utter subversion of the constitution, and the separation of Ireland from England, was in their con- templation, and the object of their meet- ings and schemes. This was afterwards proved on the trial of an English clergy- man of the name of Jackson, for a trea- sonable correspondence with the agents of the French government ; for Rowan, who had been condemned to a fine, and imprisonment for two years, contrived to escape out of prison, and fled out of the country, conscious that, on the trial of Jackson, evidence of his real designs would be brought to light. Jackson was IRELAND. 463 condemned, but he took poison, and ex- pired before he was removed from court. Two others, who were leading men among the violent democratic party, Napper Tandy, and Theobald Wolfe Tone, the principal framer of the United Irishmen, also fled from their country In May, 1797, the number of men en- rolled as members of the Irish Union in Ulster alone*, was nearly 100,000. In the other parts of the kingdom, except Dublin and the counties of Wexford, Kil- dare, east Meath, west Meath, and king's county, their numbers were comparative- ly few ; but they were using their utmost endeavors to extend the Union all over Ireland. The Irish Union, disappointed in their hopes of assistance from France, resolved to trust solely to their own power. By this time, the number of men sworn into the conspiracy amounted nearly to half a million, and plans were formed for the simultaneous rising of this body. Their object, however, was discovered by a man of the name of Reynolds, who was a de- legate for the province of Leinster ; and from his information, the members who formed the committee of this province were arrested. The insurgents did not seem intimida- ted by these proceedings against them ; and as they were ignorant that govern- ment were acquainted with their plans, they still persevered in the determination to rise in a body on a fixed day. Before that day arrived, however, government caused lord Edward Fitzgerald, who had contrived the plan of attack, and who was distinguished for his boldness, ta- lents, and influence, to be arrested. He made a desperate resistance, and died soon afterwards of a wound which he re- ceived before he was taken. The two brothers Sheares, and other conspirators were arrested the same month ; and, on the 21st of May, the plan of insurrection was announced by lord Castlereagh, sec- retary to the lord lieutenant, to the lord mayor of Dublin. The night of the 23rd was the time fixed for it. An attack on the troops stationed near Dublin, and on the artillery, was to have been first execu- ted. The castle was, about the same time to have been surprised ; after which, the 59 parties engaged in these enterprises were to have united. The stoppage of all the mail coaches on the great roads, was to have been the signal for the rising of the people in the various parts of the country. The scheme was certainly well arranged, and had it not been discovered might have been attended with the most disastrous consequences. On the 26th of May, the insiurection broke out in the county of Wexford, where it was not apprehended that the insurgents were in great force. They were headed by a priest of the name of Murphy, a ferocious and ignorant fanatic. On the 27th, two bodies of them made their appearance at Oulart and Kilthomas. At the latter place they were defeated by 200 or 300 yeomen ; but at the former place where Murphy himself commanded, they were victorious. Murphy imme- diately proceeded to Enniscorlhy, of which, by the assistance of the catholic inhabitants, he gained possession. The inhabitants of the city of Wexford were now in great alarm, as they could plainly distinguish the flames of the burning houses at Enniscorthy. As they were little prepared for defence, they resolved to negotiate with the insurgents, or rather to endeavor to persuade them to return peaceably to their homes. For this pur- pose, two gentlemen, who had been ar- rested on private information, were sent to them ; but they kept one of these to be their leader, and sent the other back to Wexford. Against this place they now determined to proceed. Its small garrison took a position outside, but af- terwards returned into the town, which was almost immediately evacuated, and taken possession of by the rebels. Their force was about 15,000 men ; and by the capture of Wexford, the southern parts of the county, as well the eastern and western, were at their mercy. They now divided into two bodies; one of which directed its march to Gorey, in the northern part of the county, in hopes of thus forcing a passage to the capital ; and the other to New Ross, by reducing which they would be enabled more ea- sily to enter the counties of Kilkenny and Waterford. The inhabitants of Go- rey were apprised of their danger, but 466 IRELAND. they trusted it would be averted by the arrival of troops under general Loftus and colonel Walpole, which immediately inarched by different routes to attack the insurgents, who were posted on a hill seven miles from Gorey, under the com- mand of a priest of the name of Roche. This man seems to have been possessed of great military talents, for he imme- diately resolved to quit his position with his whole force, upwards of 10,000 men, and attacked Walpole while separated from Loftus' troops. He came up with him at Clough, and attacking him quite vmexpected, the British were defeated, with the loss of their artillery. Loftus, in the mean time, following the insur- gents to Gorey, ignorant of the defeat of Walpole's corps, found them posted so strongly that he durst not attack them, but retreated into the county of Carlow. The body of the rebels who had march- ed towards Ross were not so fortunate ; they had chosen for their leader a per- son of the name of Harvey, whom they had liberated from Wexford jail. He formed a plan of attacking three sepa- rate parts of the town of Ross at the same time ; the attack was accordingly made in a furious but irregular manner. At first the rebels gained some advantages, but "they were soon thrown into confu- sion ; and general Johnson who com- manded a strong party of the regular ar- my in the town, took advantage of this circumstance, and after a desperate re- sistance from some divisions of the re- bels, while others were totally without discipline or management, he succeeded in completely defeating them, and in saving the place. Enraged at this de- feat, the rebels massacred, in cold blood, more than 1 00 of their protestant prison- ers at Wexford. The insurgents who had defeated Wal- pole's corps remained inactive for some time afterwards. At length, on the 9lh of June, they advanced to the north to join another body of insurgents, and, when united, to attack Arklow. The garrison in this place, not conceiving themselves strong enough to defend it against the rebels, left it, but afterwards returned, in consequence of their not at- tempting to seize it. The rebels, how- ever, changed their plans, and advanced against it ; but on the very day of the at- tack, there arrived the Durham fencible regiment. The royal force now consist- ed of 1,600 men, and being arranged in lines, with artillery in front, they were enabled to cover three sides of the place, a river protecting the other side. The force of the insurgents amounted to more than 20,000, but only about 4,000 or 5,000 of these had guns. They advanced with great impetuosity to the cannons' mouths, but they were in every assault driven back with immense slaughter. The bat- tle lasted four hours ; and though, dur- ing the whole of that time, the Durham fencibles bore the brunt of it, yet they stood firm and undaunted. The pikemen of the insurgents had not, however, yet come into action, and general Needham, apprehensive that the fencibles, wearied out with repeated attacks, would not be able to withstand these formidable assail- ants, sent directions to colonel Skerret, who commanded the fencibles, to retreat. This, however, he refused to do ; and though it was now dark, and the insur- gents might have profited by this circum- stance, they discontinued the attack, and retreated. The insurgents, of whom we have been hitherto speaking, consisted almost exclusively of catholics. They hoped to be assisted in their plans by the pro- testants of the north of Ireland ; but in this they were disappointed. There were, indeed, insurrections in Antrim and Down ; but the protestants who en- gaged in them, after a few skirmishes with the royal troops, gave up the enter- prise, chiefly in consequence of being assured that the rest of the protestants in the north, though in general well dis- posed, would not co-operate with them, having learned that the insurrection in Wexford was totally of a religious char- acter, and that the catholics engaged in it had repeatedly behaved with great cruelty to the protestants. The insurgents in Wexford were thus left to themselves, and measures were taken by government to crush them ef feclually and speedily. On the 20th ol June, their whole force was assembled on Vinegar-hill, near Enniscorthy. Gen- IRELAND. 467 eral Lake immediately formed liis plan, which was, to surround this post ; and for this purpose, all the divisions of the royal army were put in motion. In the mean time, the insurgents were guilty of the most atrocious acts of cru- elty, not merely against those who had opposed their plans, but even against those who were known to be favorable to them, ill case they were protestants. These were dragged to Vinegar-hill, where, without trial, they were either shot or transfixed with pikes, or, in some cases, put to death in a still more barba- rous manner. At Killan, the protestants of both sexes were collected, with an in- tention of burning them alive in their parish church, when fortunately their de- sign was prevented by the arrival of a body of yeomen. General Lake had collected nearly 13,000 troops, with a train of artillery proportionate to that number, for the at- tack on Vinegar-hill. This attack took place on the 21st of June. The town of Enniscorthy was the first object of attack, and the insurgents were driven from their post. They fled through a space of ground which was to have been occupied by the troops of general Needham. These had not come up, whether from missing the road, or some other accidental cause, or, as was suppos- ed, because general Lake wished to leave the insurgents some outlet, is not ascer- tained. Wexford was taken by the royal troops the same day as Enniscorthy ; previously, however, a battle had taken place at Horetown, between the troops I of general Moore and the insurgents un- ! der Roche. The combat was long doubt- j ful, but at length terminated in the de- feat of the rebels. General Moore im- mediately encamped near Wexford, in ! order to secure the protestants in that town from massacre. Before his arrival, however, the rebels in it had committed j great outrages. These were principally directed and encouraged by a man of the name of Dixon. While the rebel force continued in Wexford, this man had not ^ been able to carry his designs into exe- cution ; but soon after they marched out , against general Moore, Dixon, at the I head of a mob, which he had previously ^ inflamed with whiskey , murderej the pro- testants in a manner to which, for wan- ton cruelty, not even the atrocities of the French revolution can produce a pa- rallel. In the mean time, the battle at Vinegar-hill, though strenuously conten- ded by the insurgents, ended in their complete defeat. Before general Moore arrived at this town, many of the inhabitants were desi- rous of giving up the place. Lord Kings- borough, colonel of the North Cork militia, was at this time a prisoner in it ; and he agreed to receive the surrender, pledging his honor for the safety of all, except those who had been concerned in the murders. On this pledge, which was made known to the British general, the insurgents who had fled into the town after their defeat at Vinegar-hill, evacua- ted it, separating into two bodies, in the full confidence of the ratification of the terms ; but general Lake ordered all the chiefs of the rebels to be seized and put to death. The movements and proceedings of the insurgents, after the battle of Vine- gar-hill, were desultory, without union or plan. One body of them marched to Arklow, and, finding no royal troops there* massacred many of the inhabitants. An- other body, under Murphy, who had ori- ginally raised the insurrection in Wex- ford, directed their march towards the county of Carlow, with the design of stirring up the inhabitants there and in Kilkenny ; but in this they were disap- pointed, partly by the measures of the royal forces, and partly by the indisposi- tion of the inhabitants. They now de- termined to return to W^exford, and on the 26th of June arrived at Kilcommy. Here they again changed their route, and moved towards the Wicklow moimtains ; but they soon found that they had no other chance of safety but by dispersing into small bodies, being no longer capa- ble of withstanding the forces that were sent against them. After various move- ments and skirmishes, therefore, they finally dispersed. In 1800, the legisla- tive union of Ireland and Great Britain was effected. From this period, the lead- ing political events of Ireland have been blended with those of Great Britain. 468 ITALY. ITALY. "Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country was thickly inhabited, and, for the most part, by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest re- sistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Samnites, and Latins, en- deavored to find safety by forming con- federacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Graecia. The story of the subjection of these nations to the Roman ambition, be- longs to the history of Rome. We may now briefly trace the origin of the history of Italy, commencing with the fall of the Roman empire. Romulus Augustus was the last feeble emperor of Rome ; he was dethroned by his German guards. Odoacer, their leader, assumed the title of king of Italy, and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. But this valiant barbarian could hot communicate a spirit of independence and energy to the degenerate Italians ; nothing but an amalgamation with a peo- ple in a state of nature could efliect their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers of Italy. Theo- doric, king of the Ostrogoths, instigated by Zeno, emperor of the East, overthrew the kingdom of Odoacer, and reduced all Italy. His Goths spread from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriatic alone, some fugitives, who had fled from the devastations of Attila, and obtained a subsistence as sailors, and by the manu- facture of salt, maintained their freedom. Theodoric, who combined the vigor of the north with the cultivation of the south, is justly termed the great, and, under the name of Deitrich of Bern, has become one of the principal heroes of old German sto- ry. But the energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corruption. Totila, for ten years, contested in vain the almost completed conquest with the military skill of Belisarius. He fell in battle in 552, and Teias in 553, after which Italy was annexed to the Eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. But the first exarch, Narses, sunk under the intrigues of the Byzantine court, and his successor neglected the defence of the passes of the Alps, so that the country was invaded by the Lombards. The kingdom of the Lombards inclu- ded Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Alboin also created the duchy of Bene- vento, in Lower Italy, with which he in- vested Zotto. The whole of Lombardian Italy was divided into thirty great fiefs, under dukes, counts, &c, which soon be- came hereditary. Together with the new kingdom, the confederation of the fugi- tives in the lagoons still subsisted in un- disturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Anafesto, in 697, established a central government, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five maritime cities, (Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia, and Ancona,) and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek nation, remained uncon- quered, together with Sicily, and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the empe- ror. This slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century, when Leo, the Isaurian, exasper- ated the orthodox Italians by his attack on images. The cities expelled his offi- cers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed, the power, but a certain pa- ternal authority of its bishops, even in secular aflfairs, in consequence of the respect which their holiness procured them. The popes, in th«ir efforts to se- cure the freedom of Rome against the Lombards, forsaken by the court of By- zantium, generally had recourse to the Frankish kings. In consideration of the aid expected against king Astolphus, pope Stephen III, in 753, not only anointed Pepin, who had been made king ITALY. 469 of the Franks, in 752, with the approba- tion of pope Zacharias, but with the as- sent of the municipality of Rome, ap- pointed him patrician, as the imperial governor had hitherto been denominated. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him prisoner in his capital, Pavia, united his empire with the Prankish monarchy, 774, and even- tually gave Italy a king in his son Pepin. But hi.s attempts against the duchy of Benevento, the independence of which was maintained by duke Arichis, and against the republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, Amalfi, and Gaeta in particular, had become rich by navigation and commerce, wereimsuccessful. The exarchate, with the five cities, had alrea- dy been presented to the pope by Pepin, in 756, and Charlemagne confirmed the gift, but the secular supremacy of the popes was first completed by Innocent III, about the year 1200. Leo III, bestowed on the king of the Franks, on Christmas day, A. D. 800, the imperial crown of the west, which needed a Charlemagne to raise it from obscurity. But dislike to the Franks, whose conquest was viewed as a new in- vasion of the barbarians, united the free cities, Rome excepted, more closely to the eastern empire. Even during the life-time of Charlemagne, Prankish Italy was given to his grandson Bernard ; who, however, having attempted to become in- dependent of his uncle, Louis the De- bonaire, was deprived of the crown, and had his eyes torn out. Italy now remained a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, till the parti- tion of Verdun, in 843 ; when it was al- lotted, with the imperial dignity, and what was afterwards termed Lorraine, to Lothaire I, eldest son of Louis. Lo- thaire left the government to his son Louis II, the most estimable of the Ital- ian princes of the Carlovingian dynasty. After his death, Italy became the apple of discord to the whole family. Charles the Bald, of France, first took possession of it, and after his death, Carloman, king of Bavaria, who was succeeded in 880, by his brother Charles le Gros, king of Suabia, who united the whole Frankish monarchy for the last time. His dethrone- ment was the epoch of anarchy and civil war in Italy. The growing wealth of the papal court, owing to the munificence of the French kings, which had promoted their influence in the government, so benefi- cial under Leo IV, and popes of a simi- lar character, became, through the cor- ruption of the Roman court, in the tenth century, the first cause of its decline. The clergy and people elected the popes according to the will of the consuls and a few patricians. Alberic of Camerino, and his son Octavian, were absolute mas- ters of Rome, and the last was pope, un- der the name of John XII, when only twenty years of age. Otho the Great, whom he had crowned emperor in Rome, in 962, deposed him, and chose Leo VIII in his stead ; but the people, jeal- ous of his right of election, chose Bene- dict V. From this time, the popes, in- stead of ruling the people of Rome, be- came dependent on them. In Lower Italy, the republics of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi still defended their indepen- dence against the Lombard duchy of Benevento, with the more ease, since the duchy had been divided between Sicon- olphus of Salerno, and Radelghisius of Benevento, and subsequently among a great number, and since, with the dukes, they had a common enemy in the Sara- cens, who had been previously invited over from Sicily by both parties, as auxilia- ries against each other, but who had set- tled and maintained themselves in Apu- lia. The emperors Louis II and Basi- lius Macedo, had, with combined forces, broken the power of the Mussulmans ; the former was, nevertheless, unable to maintain himself in Lower Italy, but the Greeks, on the contrary, gained a firmer footing, and formed, of the regions taken from the Saracens, a separate province, called the Thema of Lombardy, which continued under their dominion, though without prejudice to the liberty of the republics, upwards of 100 years, being governed by a governor-general, at Bari. Otho the Great did not succeed in driving them altogether from Italy. The mar- riage of his son, Otho II, with the Greek princess Theophania, put an end to his 470 ITALY. exertions for this purpose, as did the un- fortunate battle of Basentello, to the simi- lar attempts renewed by Otho II. In opposition to the designs of the count of Tusculum, who wished to sup- plant the absent emperor at Rome, a no- ble Roman, the consul Crescentius, at- tempted to govern Rome under the sem- blance of her ancient liberty ; and Otho, being occupied with his projects of con- quest in Lower Italy, did not interfere with this administration, which became formidable to the vicious popes, Boniface VII, and John XV. But when Otho III, who had reigned in Germany since 983, raised his kinsman Gregory V to the popedom, Crescentius caused the latter to be expelled, and John XVI, a Greek, to be elected by the people. He also endeavored to place Rome again under the nominal supremacy of the Byzantine em- pire. Otho, however, reinstated Gregory, besieged Crescentius in the castle of St. Angelo, took him prisoner, and caused him to be beheaded with twelve other noble Romans. But the Romans again threw off their allegiance to the empe- ror, and yielded only to force. On the death of Otho III, which took place in 1002, the Italians considered their con- nection with the German empire as dis- solved. Harduin, marquis of Ivrea, was elected king, and crowned at Pavia. This was a sufficient motive for Milan, the enemy of Pavia, to declare for Henry II, of Germany. A civil war ensued, in which every city, relying on its walls, took a greater or less part. Henry was chosen king of Italy, by the nobles as- sembled in Pavia ; but disturbances arose, in which a part of the city was destroyed by fire ; and, not till after Har- duin's death, was Henry recognized as king by all Lombardy ; he was succeed- ed by Conrad II. One of the first acts of Conrad was, to make the fiefs heredi- tary by a fundamental law of the empire, and he endeavored to give stability and tranquillity to the state, but without suc- cess. The cities (which were daily be- coming more powerful) and the bishops were engaged in continual quarrels with the nobility, and the nobility with their vassals, which could not be repressed. Republican Rome, under the influence of the family of Crescentius, could be reduced to obedience neither by kings nor by the popes ; for when Henry III, son and successor of Conrad, entered Italy in 1046, he found three popes in Rome, all of whom he deposed, appoint- ed in their stead Clement II, and ever after filled the papal chair, by his own authority, with German ecclesiastics. This reform gave the pope new conse- quence, which afterward became fatal to his successors. During the long minor- ity of his son Henry, the policy of the popes, directed by Hildebrand, afterwards Gregory VII, succeeded in creating an opposition, which became formidable to the secular power. The Normans also contributed to this result. As early as 1016, warriors from Normandy had es- tablished themselves in Calabria and Apulia. Allies, sometimes of the Lom- bards, sometimes of the republics, some- times of the Greeks against each other and against the Saracens, they constant- ly became more powerful by petty wars ; and the great preparations of Leo IX for their expulsion terminated in his defeat and capture early in 1053. On the other hand, Nicolas II united with the Norman princes, and, in 1059, invested Robert Guiscard with all the territories conquer- ed by him in I^ower Italy. From that time, the pope, in his conflicts with the imperial power, relied on the support of his faithful vassal, the duke of Apulia and Calabria, to which Sicily was soon added. While the small states of the south were thus united into one large one, the kingdom in the north was dis- solving into smaller states. The Lom- bard cities were laying the foundation of their future importance ; and Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were already powerful. In the small republics of the north of Italy, the government was, in most cases, divided between the consuls, the lesser council, the great council, and the popu- lar assembly. Petty feuds developed their youthful energies. Frederic I, of Hohenstaufen, (called Barbarossa,) crossed the Alps six times, in order to defend his possessions in Italy against the republicanism of the Lom- bard cities. Embracing the cause of Pavia as the weaker, he devastated the ITALY, 471 territory of Milan, destroyed Tortona, and was crowned in Pavia and Rome. In 1158, he reduced Milan, demolished the fortifications of Piacenza, and held a diet at Roncaglia, where he extended the imperial prerogatives conformably with the Justinian code, gave the cities chief magistrates, and proclaimed a gen- eral peace. His rigor having excited a new rebellion, he reduced Cremona to ashes, compelled Milan to submission, and, having driven out all the inhabitants, demolished the fortifications. When, however, the emperor entered Italy, in 1163, without an army, the cities con- cluded a union for maintaining their free- dom, which, in 1167, was converted into the Lombard confederacy. The confed- erates restored Milan, and to hold in check the Ghibeline city of Pavia, built a new city, called in honor of the pope, Alessandria. Neither Frederic's gover- nor, Christian, archbishop of Mentz, nor he himself, could effect any thing against the confederacy; the former failed be- fore Ancona, with all the power of Ghi- beline Tuscany ; and the latter, with the Germans before Alexandria. He was also defeated by Legnano, at Milan, in 1176. He then concluded a concordat with Alexander III, and a truce with the cities of Venice, and also a peace, which secured their independence, at Constance. The republics retained foreign noblemen, elected by themselves in 1183, as judges and generals. As formerly, all were to take the oath of fealty and allegiance to the emperor. But, instead of strength- ening their league into a permanent con- federacy, the only safety for Italy, they were soon split into new factions, when the designs of the Hohenstaufen family on the throne of Sicily drew Frederic and Henry VI from Lombardy. The defeat of the united forces of almost all Lombardy on the Oglio, by the inhabi- tants of Brescia, though inferior in num- bers, is celebrated under the name of La mala morte in 1197. During the minority of Frederic II, and the disputes for the succession to the German throne, Innocent III, who was Frederic's guardian, succeeded in re-es- tablishing the secular authority of the holy see in Rome and the surrounding coun- try, and in enforcing its claims to the donations of Charlemagne and Matilda. He also brought over almost all Tuscany, except Pisa, to the party of the Guelfs. A blind hereditary hatred, rather than a zeal for the cause, inspired the parties ; for when a Guelf, Otho IV, ascended the imperial throne, the Guelfs became his party, and the Ghibelines the pope's ; but the reversion of the imperial crown to the house of Hohenstaufen, in the per- son of Frederic II, soon restored the an- cient relations. From this period to the commencement of the nineteenth centu- ry, the history of Italy is but little else than a history of petty wars and blood- shed, occasioned by the conflicting in- terests of popes, prelates, and princes, generally disgraceful to all concerned, the relation of which would be of little interest to the general reader. At the peace of Utrecht, Austria ob- tained Sardinia and Naples ; Savoy ob- tained Sicily, which it exchanged with Austria for Sardinia, from which it as- sumed the royal title. Mont Genie vre was made the boundary between France and Italy. The house of Farnese be- coming extinct in 1731, the Spanish In- fant Charles obtained Parma and Piacen- za. In the war for the Polish throne, of 1733, Charles Emmanuel, of Savoy, in alliance with France and Spain, conquer- ed the Milanese territory, and received, at the peace of Vienna, Novara and Tor- tona. Charles, Infant of Spain, became king of the two Sicilies, and ceded Parma and Piacenza to Austria. The Medici of Florence, entitled from 1575, grand dukes of Tuscany, became extinct in 1737. Fran- cis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, now re- ceived Tuscany by the preliminaries of Vienna, and, becoming emperor in 1745, made it the appanage of the younger line of the Austro-Lorraine house. In the war of the Austrian succession, the Spaniards conquered Milan, but were expelled thence by Charles Emmanuel, to whom Maria Theresa ceded, in reward, some Milanese districts, viz, all of Vigevanas- co and Bobbio, and part of Anghiera and Pavese. Massa and Carrara fell to Mo- dena, in 1743, by right of inheritance. The Spanish Infant, don Philip, conquer- ed Parma and Piacenza in his own name, 472 ITALY, lost them, and obtained them again as a hereditary duchy, by the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle, in 1748. Thus, in the eight- eenth centurj', the houses of Lorraine, Bourbon, and Savoy, possessed all Italy, with the exception of the ecclesiastical territories, Modena and the republics, which, like a superannuated man, beheld with apathy operations in which they had no share. In September, 1792, the French troops first penetrated into Savoy, and planted the tree of liberty. Though expelled for some time, in 1793, by the Piedmon- tese and Austrians, they held it at the end of the year. The national conven- tion had already declared war against Naples; and, in April, 1794, the French advanced into the Piedmontese and Ge- noese territories, but were expelled from Italy in July, 1795, by the Austrians, Sardinians, and Neapolitans. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte received the chief command of the French army in Italy. He forced the king of Sardinia to con- clude a treaty of peace, by which the latter Avas obliged to cede Nice and Sa- voy to France ; conquered Austrian Lom- bardy, with the exception of Mantua ; put the duke of Parma and the pope un- der contribution ; and struck such con- sternation into the king of Naples that he sued for peace. After Mantua had also fallen, in 1797, Bonaparte formed of Milan, Mantua, the portion of Parma, north of the Po, and Modena, the Cisalpine republic. France likewise made war on the pope, and an- nexed Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna, to the Cisalpine republic, by the peace of Tolentino. The French then advan- ced towards Rome, overthrew the eccle- siastical government, and erected a Ro- man republic. In Genoa, Bonaparte oc- casioned a revolution, by which a demo- cratic republic was formed after the model of the French, under the name of the Ligurian republic. The French had, meanwhile, penetrated into Austria, through the Venetian territory. The Venetians now made common cause with the brave Tyrolese, who gained advan- tages over the French in the Alps. Bo- naparte, therefore, occupied Venice with- out striking a blow, and gave the repub- lic a democratic constitution ; but by the peace of Campo-Formio, which took place on the 17th of October, 1797, the Venetian territory, as far as the Adige, was relinquished to Austria, and the rest incorporated with the Cisalpine republic. The king of Sardinia concluded a treaty of alliance and subsidy with France, October 25 ; but, in 1798, the directory, assailed in Rome from Naples, deemed it expedient to compel him to resign his territories on the main land. Notwith- standing its treaty of amity with France, Naples concluded an alliance, in 1798, with England and Russia. The French, therefore, occupied Naples, and erected there the Parthenopean republic. The grand duke of Tuscany had likewise formed an alliance with Naples and Eng- land, afnd his country was, in return, compelled by the French to receive, like Piedmont, a military administration. After the congress of Rastadt was broken off, Austria and the German em- pire, under Russian support, renewed the war against the French, who again left Naples and Rome to the English, Rus- sians, and Turks. The king and the pope returned to their capitals in Lom- bardy ; the French were defeated by the Austrians, under Kray and Melas, and by the Russians under Suwarroff, and lost all their fortresses, except Genoa, where Massena sustained a vigorous siege, while his countrymen had to evacuate all Italy. But, in the meanwhile, Bonaparte was made first consul after his return from Egypt. He marched with a new army to Italy, defeated the Austrians at the memorable battle of Marengo, and compelled them to a capitulation, by which all the Italian fortresses were again evacuated. By the peace of Lune- ville, February 9, 1801, the possession of Venice was confirmed to Austria, which was to indemnify the duke of Mo- dena, by the cession of Brisgau. The duke of Parma received Tuscany, and afterwards, from Bonaparte, the title of king of Etruria. Parma was united with France. The Cisalpine and Ligurian republics were guaranteed by Austria and France, and with the Ligurian territories were united the imperial fiefs included within their limits. The king of Na- ITALY 473 pies, who had occupied the States of the Church, was obliged to conchide peace at Florence, by Russian mediation, he escaped with the cession of Piombino, the Stato degli Presidj, and his half of the island of Elba, together with the pro- mise of closing his harbors against the English. The other half of Elba Tus- cany had already relinquished to France. But the whole island was obstinately de- fended by the English and Corsicans, with the armed inhabitants, and not eva- cuated till autumn. France ceded the Stato degli Presidj to Etruria, Septem- ber 19, but strong detachments of French troops remained both in Naples and Tus- cany, and their support cost immense sums. To the republics of Genoa and Lucca the first consul gave new consti- tutions in 1801. But in January, 1802, the Cisalpine republic was transformed into the Italian republic, in imitation of the new French constitution, and Bonaparte became president. Genoa also received a new constitution, and Girolamo Du- razzo for doge. Piedmont, however, was united Avith France. After Bona- parte had become emperor, in 1804, he attached, on the 17th of March, 1805, the royal crown of Italy to the new im- perial crown ; he promised, however, never to unite the new monarchy with France, and even to give it a king of its own. The new constitution was similar to that of the French empire. Napoleon founded the order of the iron crown, and, having placed the crown on his own head at Milan, he appointed his step-son, Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, who labored with great zeal for the im- provement of all branches of the govern- ment, of industry and the arts. Circumstances, however, rendered this new government oppressive, as the pub- lic expenses, during peace, amounted to 100,000,000 francs, which were all to be contributed by less than 4,000,000 peo- ple. No European power recognised, expressly, the Italian kingdom of Napo- leon. The emperor continued to strength- en his power against the active enemies of the new order of things, and gave to his sister Eliza the principality of Piom- bino, and to her husband, Pasquale Bac- ciocchi, the republic of Lucca, as a prin- 60 cipality, both as French fiefs. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were incorpora- ted with the French empire, July 21st, and the pope was obliged to sanction the imperial coronation by his presence. One of the great improvements which took place during the sovereignty of Na- poleon in Italy, was the cutting of the celebrated pass of the Simplon. It was performed at the joint expense of France and Italy, and was a work of great diffi- culty, occupying several years in its execution. Austria having acceded to the alliance of Russia and England against France. Naples, also, again suffered the English and Russians to land. But the success of the Austrian arms was frustrated by the defeats at Ulm and Austerlitz, after which the peace of Presburg completed the French supremacy in Italy. Austrian Venice, with Istria and Dalmatia, was united to the kingdom of Italy ; and, with all the French institutions, was re- cognized by the people. The kingdom had now an extent of 35,450 square miles, with 5,657,000 inhabitants. Naples was evacuated by its auxiliaries, and occupied by the French, notwithstanding the at- tempts of the queen to excite a universal insurrection, and Napoleon gave the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph. In 1808, the widow of the king of Etru- ria, who conducted the regency in behalf of her son, was deprived of her kingdom, which was united with France. Napo- leon, moreover, appointed his brother-in- law, the prince Borghese, govenor gene- ral of the departments beyond the Alps who took up his residence at Turin. As Napoleon had, meanwhile, given his broth- er Joseph the crown of Spain, he filled the throne of Naples with his broth- er-in-law Joachim Murat, who entered Naples on the 6th of September, 1808. In 1809, the emperor gave Tuscany to his sister Eliza, of Piombino, with the title of grand-duchess. In the same year, Austria made new exertions to break the excessive power of France ; but Napoleon again drove her troops from the field, and appeared once more victo- rious in Vienna, where he proclaimed the end of the secular authority of the popes, and the union of the states of the Church 474 ITALY. Execution of Murat. with France. Rome became the second city of the empire, and a pension of 2,000,000 of francs was assijapied to the pope. After the peace of Vienna, by which Napoleon acquired the Illyrian provinces, Istria and Dahiiatia were separated from the kingdom of Italy and attached to them. On the other hand, Bavaria ceded to Italy the circle of the Adige, a part of Eisach, and the jurisdic- tion of Clausen. The power of the French emperor was now, to all appear- ance, as firmly established in Italy as in the rest of Europe. While the Italian people were support- ing French armies, sacrificing their own troops in the ambitious wars of Napoleon in remote regions, and were obliged to pay heavy taxes in the midst of the total ruin of their commerce, all the periodicals were full of praises of the institutions for the encouragement of science, arts and industry in Italy. After the fatal retreat from Russia, Murat, whom Napoleon had personally oflended, deserted the cause of France, and joined Austria in 1814, whose troops penetrated into Italy, imder Bellegarde. The viceroy, Eugene, con- tinued true to Napoleon and his own character, and offered to the enemies of his dynasty the boldest resistance, which was frustrated by the fall of Napoleon in France. After the truce of April 21, 1814, the French troops evacuated all Italy, and most of the provinces were restored to their legitimate sovereigns. The wife of Napoleon, however, the empress Ma- ria Louisa, obtained the duchies of Par- ma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, with rever- sion to her son ; and Napoleon himself became sovereign of Elba, of which he took possession. But, before the con- gress of Vienna had organized the politi- cal relations of Europe, he effected his return to France, March 1, 1815. At the same time, the king of Naples, Murat, abandoned his former ambiguous attitude, and took up arms, as he pretended, for the independence of Italy. But his ap- peal to the Italians was answered by a declaration of war by Austria. Driven from Bologna by the Austrian forces, and totally defeated by Bianchi Tolentino, he lost the kingdom of Naples, into which the Austrian general Nugent had pene- trated from Rome, and Bianchi from Aquili, seven weeks after the opening of the campaign. He embarked from Na- ples, with a view of escaping to France. Ferdinand IV, returned from Palermo, ITALY. 475 and Murat's family found an asylum in Austria. Murat himself made a descent in Calabria from Corsica in order to re- cover his lost kingdom. He was taken prisoner at Pizzo, brought before a court martial, and shot, Oct. 13, 1815. If the downfall of Napoleon is regretted in any quarter of the world it is in Italy. This country, which, to the misfortime of Germany — that of being split into petty divisions, and convulsed by civil dissen- sions, for centuries — adds the further misfortune of obeying foreign princes, had become destitute of every element of national life. Its commerce was fettered by the numerous political divisions ; its administration poisoned and vitiated to a degree of, which none can have an idea, except an eye-witness ; the cultivators of the ground impoverished by the heavy rents which they had to pay to the rich land-owners ; science enslaved by the sway of the clergy ; the noblemen, dis- trusted by the foreign governments, where they existed, and not admitted to any offices of great importance, had lost en- ergy and activity; in fact, hardly any thing could be said to flourish, with the exception of music, and, to a certain de- gree, the other fine arts. Under Napo- leon every thing was changed. Italian armies were created, which gave birth to a sense of military honor among the peo- ple ; the organization of the judicial tribunals was improved, and justice much better administered ; industry was awa- kened and encouraged ; schools received new attention, and the sciences were con- centrated in large and effective learned societies ; in short, a new life was awa- kened, and no Italian, who wishes well to his country, can read without deep in- terest the passage in Las Cases' Memo- rial, in which Napoleon's views on that country are given. His prophecy, that Italy will one day be united, we hope will be fulfilled. Union has been the ar- dent wish of reflecting Italians for centu- ries, and the want of it is the great cause of the sulfering of this beautiful but un- fortunate country. The congress of Vienna, by the act of June 9, 1815, had arranged the affairs of Italy in the following manner : — 1. The king of Sardinia was reinstated in his territories, according to the boun- daries of 1792, with some alterations on the side of Geneva; for the portion of Savoy, left in the possession of France by the peace of Paris, of May 30, 1814, was restored by the treaty of Paris of Nov. 20, 1815. To his states was uni- ted Genoa, as a duchy, according to the boundaries of that republic in 1792, and contrary to the promises made to Ge- noa. 2. The emperor of Austria united with his hereditary states the new Lombardo- Venitian kingdom, consisting of the Ve- nitian provinces formerly belonging to Austria, the Valteline, Bonnio, and Chia- venna, separated from the Grisons, be- sides Mantua and Milan. Istria, however, was united with the Germanic-Austrian kingdom of Illyria ; Dahnatia, with Ra- gusa and Cattaro, constituting a distinct Austrian kingdom. 3. The valley of the Po was adopted as the boundary between the states of the Church and Parma. The Austrian house of Este again received Modena, Reggio, Mirandola, Massa, and Carrara. 4. The empress Maria Louisa received the state of Parma, as a sovereign duchess, but, by the treaty of Paris, June 10, 1817, only for life, it being agreed that the duchess of Lucca and her descendants should inherit it. Lucca, in that case, falls to the Tuscan dynasty, which, in re- turn, was to have resigned its districts in Bohemia to the duke of Reichstadt, now dead. 5. The archduke Ferdinand of Aus- tria, became again grand-duke of Tus- cany, to which were joined the Stato degli Presidj,the formerNeapolitanpartof the island of Elba, the principality of Pi- ombino, and some small included districts, formerly fiefs of the German empire. The prince Buoncompagni Ludovisi re- tained all his rights of property in Elba and Piombino. 6. The infanta, Maria Louisa, received Lucca, of which she took possession as a sovereign duchy, in 1817, with an an- nuity of 500,000 francs, till the reversion of Parma. 7. The territories of the Church were all restored, with the exception of a strip of land on the left bank of the Po ; and 476 ITALY. Austria retained the right of maintaining garrisons in Ferrara and Commachio. 8. Ferdinand IV was again recognised as king of the Two Sicilies. England retained Malta, and was declared the protectress of the United Ionian Islands. The knights of Malta, who had recovered their possessions in the Slates of the Church, and in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, for a time made Catanea, and, after 1826, Ferrara, their residence. The republic of San Marino, and the prince of Monaco, whose mountain fortress the Sardinians, and them, the French occu- pied, alone remained unharmed amid the fifteen political revolutions which Italy- had undergone in the course of twenty- five years. The Austrian predominance was thus more firmly established than ever in Italy. Meanwhile, the desire of union and independence was not extinguished among the people of Italy. Traces of a struggle for a united and liberal government were almost every where visible ; and several of the governments, Naples, Rome, and Turin, in particular, in vain endeavored to protect themselves against secret po- litical societies and freemasonry by in- quisitorial tribunals, Jesuits, and secret police. The fate of this delightful coun- try has employed, during the last seven years, the cabinets of the first powers of Europe, according to the system of mo- dern policy founded by the holy alliance, and more precisely defined by the con- gress of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1818. While the spirit of carbonarism, excited by the Spanish revolution of January 1, 1820, and having for its object the union of Italy under one government, and its in- dependence of foreign powers, particu- larly of Austria, threatened to subvert the political institutions of the peninsula in in general, and of the single states in par- ticular, and in some places, especially in Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont, actually shook them, by rousing the troops to re- volt, and by exciting popular commotions, the cabinets labored with equal zeal to maintain the principle of stability by the suppression of every revolution, and by opposing to the popular spirit, the power of the police. Thus was a question, fraught with the most momentous conse- quences for all Europe, practically de- cided in Italy, viz, whether one state is entitled to interfere in the internal afl'airs of another, and overthrow, by force of arms, any new constitution which mili- tates against the absolute monarchical principle. This principle, which was proclaimed unconditionally by the leading states of the continent, and by Great Britain under the supposition of particu- lar circumstances threatening imminent danger to the neighboring state, resulted in Austria (as the nearest interested power, which had prevented the introduc- tion of the representative system into Italy, in 1815,) restoring by force of arms, the ancient prerogatives of the royal authority in Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont, after obtaining the assent of the other four leading powers, which had been closely allied since 1818, and also of the Italian sovereigns, who participa- ted at the congress of Laybach, in the discussions respecting the affairs of Italy. Thus this power not only secured its own Italian provinces from the operation of liberal principles, but established its po- sition as the guardian of the principle of stability and absolute monarchy in Italy. All this was efiected by a war of four days with the revolutionary army of the carbonari of Naples, from the 7th to the 10th of March, 1821, and by a war of three days with the federal party of Pied- mont, from the 7th to the 9th of April, 1821 ; so that Russia had no occasion to permit its army of 100,000 men, already put in motion, to advance against the Italian nations. The eflbrts of the most intelligent Italians, from the time of Macchiavelli and Caesar Borgia, son of pope Alexan- der VI, to restore the political unity of their native country, gave rise to the nu- merous secret political societies in Italy, who labored to produce a general outbreak of insurrection in Italy, in order to surround the Austrian army on its advance against Naples. Even the advocates of the il- liberal system, or the theocratic faction, as it was termed, which likewise pursued its object in secret societies, took advan- tage of the national desire of greater uni- ty in Italy. It was therefore natural that the idea of connecting the Italian states ITALY. 477 in a political system similar to the Ger- manic confederation should have been agitated by the statesmen of the congress ; but it seems to have been entirely given up, and Italy was left in the hands of Austria. On the other hand, measures were adopted, by all the Italian states, to extirpate the liberal spirit which, propa- gating itself under a perpetual variety of new forms, had not ceased in the year 1825, in the June of which year a con- spiracy was detected at Rome, to pursue its ancient object of uniting all the Italian states into one confederacy as a republic or constitutional monarchy, and freeing them from foreign influence. This dis- play of revolutionary spirit is nothing new in the history of Italy. The middle ages, that golden period of absolute power, ex- hibit there an almost uninterrupted series of such political conspiracies, republican schemes and destructive convulsions, be- cause Italy has never yet been permitted to be politically a nation, and to adopt a form required by its wants and its rights. One leading measure was, to occupy for some years the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Piedmont, (in which the old troops were disbanded), at the expense of these states, with Austrian armies, which had restored the former state of things. This was done conformably with the treaties between Austria and king Ferdinand, and the king of Sardinia, on the 24th of July, 1821. But, in compU- ance with the decrees of Verona, the Austrian troops, 12,000 in number, were gradually removed from Piedmont, and the fortress of Alexandria was surrendered, | September 30, 1823, to Sardinian troops. In the same year, after a new Neapolitan army had been organized in Naples, the Austrian garrison, of 42,000 men, was diminished about 17,000, and, in Sicily, only the citadel of Palermo continued to be occupied by Austrian troops. The last detachment left the kingdom in 1827. The influence of Austria on the internal administration was, however, still felt. The police of each state adopted the strictest measures for maintaining internal tranquillity. Secret societies were strict- ly prohibited ; tribunals were erected, and, in Naples, supported by moveable columns, to punish the authors of revolu- tions ; executions, proscription and ban- ishment ensued. In September, 1821, the pope excom- municated the sect of Carbonari and all similar associations, as branches of the long-prohibited freemasons ; but in the Roman state, Tuscany, Parma and Luc- ca, no punishments were inflicted for participation in former political societies. In general, the papal government, under the direction of the cardinal Gonsalvi, was distinguished from the others for conciliatory measures, and for moderation in establishing internal tranquillity. The influence of the apostolic see on the states convulsed by revolutions was thus, in some degree, increased. The press, uni- versities and schools were, in particular, closely watched. In the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and in Piedmont, strict measures were taken for the purification and discipline of the literary institutions ; the Jesuits were restored, and rendered influential in the education of youth, by having committed to them at Rome and other places, the schools, colleges and oratories, which they had before conduct- ed. On the other hand, numerous ban- ditti disturbed the public security, espe- cially in Naples and the states of the church. One of them got in their power, an Austrian colonel, for whose liberation they had the audacity to demand 40,000 Roman dollars ; but they released him on seeing themselves surrounded by Aus- trian troops. Some notion of the demoralized state of this country may be conveyed by the fact, that in January, 1824, according to the Diario di Roma, a large band of youths was discovered in Italy, who had run away from their parents, organized them- selves into companies, and subsisted by frauds and robbery. The political character of the Two Sicilies entirely changed on the acces- sion of Francis I. This event took place in 1825, and the almost immediate result was, a general restoration of order and peace. The estates of the church are difl'erently situated, as the whole country is so sadly misgoverned, that nothing but the influence of Austrian bayonets serves to keep the people in order. Italy depends almost solely on its agri- 478 MEXICO. culture for subsistence ; the sources from which it formerly drew its support, the arts, manufactures, and commerce, being ahnost dried up. Commerce with foreign countries, which, in Naples especially, is altogether stagnant, is, for the most part, in the hands of foreigners, and, in a great measure, dependent on the British ; thence the universal want of specie, the financial embarrassments of the govern- ments, and the loans negotiated with Rothschild. Italy no longer lives, as formerly, on her cities, but on her soil. And even this source of prosperity main- tains but a feeble existence, while taxes and tariffs impede the exportation of the staple production to foreign countries, or bands of banditti and the want of good roads obstruct internal intercourse, as in Sicily and Calabria. The natural advan- tages of Italy entitle her to the highest rank in agriculture, commerce, and the arts ; but all branches of industry groan under political oppression. The govern- ment and people look on each other with jealousy and hate, and the ecclesiastical establishment poisons the springs of na- tional activity. MEXICO The mighty kingdom of the Incas which originally bore this name extended considerably beyond the present bounda- ries of the republic. The origin of the na- tions on the eastern continent is obscure, that of the inhabitants of the western continent, however, is much more so ; and, indeed, till within a very few years the history of the American nations, till the arrival of the Spaniards, has been either treated as fabulous, or very slightly touched upon by historians. By the in- dustry of the abbe Francesco Clavigero, we have been furnished with an account of the ancient kingdoms just enumerated; more full and effective than could have been expected, considering the difficulty there must have been of procuring ma- terials. According to Clavigero, it is undenia- ble that Mexico was first peopled from the more northerly parts of the continent, which for many ages had been filled with inhabitants. It has been supposed, from the traditions of the natives, and the dis- covery of very large human skeletons in many parts of South America, that this country was first inhabited by giants ; but though similar conjectures and discover- ies have been made in other countries, we are by no means warranted from thence to conclude that the whole human race vi^ere formerly of an immense size ; it being most probable that the gigantic race were but a few individuals who lived at different times and in difTerent nations. The Toltecans are the most ancient Mexican nation of which we have any account. They were expelled from their own country (supposed by Clavigero to have been Tollan, to the northward of Mexico) in the year 472 ; and for some time led a migratory and wandering life. In whatever place they determined to reside for a considerable time, they erect- ed houses and cultivated the ground. — Thus their migrations were extremely slow, and it was not until 1 04 years after they first set out that they reached a place about fifty miles to the eastward of the city of Mexico, where they settled for about twenty years, giving to their new place of residence the name of Tol- lantzinco. From thence they proceeded about forty miles farther to the west, where they built a city called from the name of the country, Tollan, or Tula. The Toltecans, during their journeys, were conducted by a number of chiefs, who, by the time they arrived at Tollant- zinco, were reduced to seven, and, after their final settlement, the government was changed into a monarchy, but by what means, or on what account, we are not told. Their first king began his reign in 667, and their monarchy lasted 384 years, during which time they reckon just eight princes. MEXICO. 479 It was a custom among them that the name of the king should be continued for fifty-two years, and no longer, from the time he ascended the throne. If he died within that period, the government was carried on in his name by a regency ; if he survived, he was obliged to resign his authority. During the four centuries that the Toltecan monarchy continued, they increased considerably, and built several cities ; but when at the height of its pros- perity, almost the whole nation was de- stroyed by famine occasioned by drought ; and a pestilence, probably the conse- quence of the former. The surviving Toltecans dispersed themselves among the surrounding nations, where they were well received, on account of their supe- rior knowledge and civilization. They were succeeded by the Chichemecas, a less civilized people, who came from an unknown country called Amaquemecan, where they had long resided ; but of which no traces or remembrance can be found among any of the American nations, so that Clavigero supposed it nmst have been very far to the northward. The Chichemecas became afterwards united with the Toltecans and others, and from them descended the Montezumean kings. In 1352, that portion of the continent in the immediate neighborhood of the Mexican government, was changed from an aristocracy of powerful chiefs to a despotic monarchy ; but the limits of this article will not permit us to trace the his- tory of the various kings who ascended the throne between this period and the time of the great Mexican monarch Mon- tezuma, who began his reign in 1436. Previous to his coronation, in order to comply with the sanguinary rites of his religion, Montezuma made war upon the Chalcese, that he might procure the prisoners who were to be sacrificed at his coronation ; and scarce was this cer- emony over than a new war commenced, which terminated in the destruction of that city. This quarrel happened be- tween the Chalcese and the Tezcucans. Two of the royal princes of Tezcuco hav- ing gone a hunting on the mountains which overlook the plain of Chalco, while employed in the chase, and separated from their retinue, with only three Mexican lords, fell in with a troop of Chalcese soldiers, who carried them as prisoners to Chalco, where they were all instantly put to death. The king of Tezcuco, overwhelmed with grief at this event, called for the assistance of the allied kings. The city was attacked at once by land and water, and its inhabitants, knowing that they had no mercy to ex- pect, fought like men in despair, not- withstanding which they were totally defeated, and the most severe vengeance executed upon them. During the reign of Montezuma, a vio- lent inundation happened in Mexico. — The lake, swelled by the excessive rains which fell in the year 1446, poured its waters into the city with so much vio- lence, that many houses were destroyed, and the streets inundated to such a de- gree, that boats were every where made use of To prevent accidents of this kind for the future, Montezuma construct- ed a great dyke nine miles in length, consisting of two parallel lines of pali- sades, the interval betwixt which Avas filled up with stones and sand. The greatest difficulty in the construction lay in being obliged occasionally to work in the lake itself, which in some places was of considerable depth ; but this was surmounted by the skill and perseverance of the workmen. The dyke, when con- structed, proved of great service in keep- ing out the waters, though it did not en- tirely remedy the evil. The inundation was followed by a famine. This was occasioned by the failure of the crop of maize in 1448 ; the ears while young and tender being de- stroyed by frost. In 1450 the crop was totally lost for want of water ; and in 1451, besides the unfavorable seasons, there was a scarcity of seed. Hence, in 1452, the necessities of the people became so great, that they were obliged to sell themselves for slaves in order to procure subsistence. The king opened the public granaries for the relief of the lower classes ; but nothing was able to stop the progress of the famine. Many who went for relief to other countries perished with hunger on their journey ; and great numbers who sold themselves for slaves never 480 MEXICO. returned to their native country. Most of the populace supported themselves, like their ancestors, on the produce of the lake, until all their distresses were relieved by a most plentiful harvest in the year 1454. Montezuma was succeeded by Axaya- catl, who, like his predecessor, instantly commenced a Avar, for no other reason than that he •might have prisoners to sacrifice at his coronation. The people whom he now attacked inhabited the province of Tecuantepec on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and situated at 400 miles distance from the city of Mexico. A desperate battle ensued on this occa- sion, in which, however, the Mexicans at last prevailed ; and, besides dooming to destruction those whom they carried off, acquired a considerable spoil, as well as a tract of territory extending to Coa- tulco, a maritime place much frequented in the next century by the Spaniards. Axayacatl pursued Montezuma's plan of conquest, in which, however, he was less successful, many of the provinces reduced by that monarch having revolted after his death, so that it was necessary to re-conquer them. On his returning successful from one of these expeditions, he built a new temple, to which he gave the name of Coatulon ; but the Tlatelolcos, whose ancient rivalship seems to have revived on the death of Montezuma, built another in opposition, which they called Coaxolotl. Thus the former hatred be- tween the two nations was renewed, and a discord took place, which ended in the ruin of the Tlatelolcos. The Mexicans sustained an irreparable loss, in 1469 and 1470, by the death of their allies the kings of Tacuba and Acolhuacan ; for though the league which had been concluded bebiveen the three nations continued without any Ado- lation till the arrival of the Spaniards, we cannot suppose that any of the successors of the Tacuban and Acolhuacan princes would have the same cordial affection for those of Mexico Avhich was enter- tained by those who lay under such great obligations to Montezuma. The king of Tacuba Avas succeeded by his son Chi- 1 malpopoca, and the Acolhuacan monarch i by his son Nezahualpilli. A short time j after the accession of the latter, the war broke out between the Tlatelolcos and Mexicans, which ended in the destruction of the former. Axayacatl continued to extend his ter- ritories to the east and Avest, till his pro- gress was stopped by death in 1477. — He Avas succeeded by his elder brother Tizoc ; of whose reign we know little, but that he conquered fourteen cities, some of which had been in rebellion. Ahuitzot],the brother of Tizoc, succeeded him in the kingdom of Mexico. His life was a continued series of wars, in all of which he proved ultimately successful, extending the Mexican dominions as far as Guatimala, 900 miles to the south-east of Mexico, and in only one expedition were the Mexicans defeated Avith dis- grace. At the time of Ahuitzotl's death, the Mexican empire was brought to its high- est grandeur. His successor, Montezuma Xocojotzin, or Montezuma Junior, Avas a person of great bravery, besides Avhich he was likewise a priest, and held in great estimation on account of his wisdom and the dignity of his deportment. His election was unanimous ; and the nobles congratulated themselves on the happi- ness the country was to enjoy under him, little thinking hoAv short the duration of their happiness or of their empire was to be. The reign of Montezuma, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, was far from being so glorious in war as those of his predecessors had been. He reduced indeed one rebellious province, and con- quered another which had never before been subjugated; but in his war Avith Tlascala he was by no means successful. This was but a small republic, at no great distance from the capital, but the inhabi- tants were remarkable for their bravery and independent spirit. The neighboring states, however, Avho had been reduced by the Mexicans, envious of their liberty and prosperity, exasperated the Mexicans against them, by representing that the Tlascalans were desirous of making themselves masters of the maritime pro- vinces on the Mexican Gulf, and that by their commerce with these provinces they were increasing their wealth and power, MEXICO. 481 and gaining the hearts of the people with whom they were to traffic. In conse- quence of this representation, strong gar- risons were placed on the frontiers of Tlascala, to obstruct the commerce of the inhabitants, and thus to deprive them of the means of obtaining some of the necessaries of life. The Tlascalans complained ; but received no other an- swer than that the king of Mexico was lord of all the world, and that the Tlasca- lans must submit and pay tribute to him. The Tlascalans returned a spirited an- swer to this speech, and began to fortify their frontier; and so well did they de- fend themselves, that though they were frequently attacked by the neighboring states in alliance with Mexico, or subject to it, not one of them was able to wrest a foot of ground from them. A continual series of wars and engagements took place between the states of Mexico and this republic, which continued till the arrival of the Spaniards. The West India Islands had been dis- covered by Columbus, in 1492; he had made frequent voyages, and had even discovered the continent. Settlements had been made ; the Spaniards had shown their prowess and their cruelty; and their is no doubt, but that many of the islanders quitted their habitations to escape the fury of the invaders. It would naturally occur to these fugitives, that the arms of these new comers could not be resisted by those of the western na- tions, while their relentless cruelty might easily suggest that they would destroy all before them. From the year 1492, therefore, to 1508, there was time enough for this report to have reached Mexico ; and we can only attribute it to the barbar- ous state of ignorance in which the Amer- icans were, that the Spaniards were not perfectly known and described before their arrival. The Spaniards having at length estab- lished themselves in the island of Cuba and Hispaniola, numbers of adventurers now prepared expeditions to the conti- nent also, with a view to extend the do- minions of their sovereign, and to satiate, if possible, their own appetites for wealth. Mexico itself was first discovered, though imperfectly, by a Spaniard named 61 Nunez de Balboa ; but in 1518, the con- quest of it was undertaken by a celebrated adventurer named Ferdinando Cortes. The Spaniards had no sooner gained a competent knowledge of the nature of the extent and government of the kingdom of Mexico, than they formed the resolu- tion of conquering it, partly by force of arms, and partly by stratagem. They obtained powerful supplies from Spain, and after having overcome the almost insurmountable difficulties attendant on so bold an undertaking, they finally took possession of the Mexican empire ; but not till they had broken down the ancient land marks, destroyed the cities, and almost exterminated the ancient posses- sors of the soil. From that period up to the time of the late revolutionary struggle, the powerful kingdom of the Incas re- mained in the hands of the victorious Spaniards. They have, however, been compelled to render up their ill-gotten territories, and are now expelled from the land over which they had so long ruled with an iron sway. But few of the aborigines still remain, as the natives were nearly exterminated by the Spaniards. The gold mines, which had first tempted the cupidity of their invaders, swallowed up nearly all those who inhabited the metalliferous districts, and though they are still found in the neighborhood of large cities, they are only employed in the humblest me- nial capacity. Under the government of Spain, Mex- ico was one of the four great vice-royal- ties of Spanish America. The viceroy was endowed with all the prerogatives of the king. The only checks upon him were the residencia, or investigation into his conduct on his return home, and the audiencia, composed of Europeans, and of which he was himself president. The recopilacion de las leyes de las Indias was the name given to the heterogeneous mass of decrees by which the colonies were governed. Special fueros, or priv- ileges, were conferred on different pro- fessional and corporate bodies, which rendered the confusion complete. All the higher officers, in church and state, were Europeans. A system of dilapida- tion, beginning with the chiefs, extended 482 MEXICO. through all the offices of government, and ' a monstrous corruption perverted the whole administration. The colony was not allowed to manufacture any article which could be supplied by the mother country, the whole trade was confined to ! a single port in Spain, and all foreigners | were rigidly excluded. Books were pro- 1 hibited, schools' discouraged or suppress- 1 ed, and every measure taken to prevent information from being spread among the inhabitants. When the events of 1 808 in the Span- ish peninsula led to a change in the state of afl'airs, the Mexicans were, in general, loyally disposed to their sovereign ; but the assumption of authority by a new body, the Cortes, and their unwise and inconsistent proceedings, tended to alien- ate their feelings of attachment. Don Jose Iturrigaray, the viceroy, in order to conciliate the Americans, proposed to constitute a junta, formed of representa- tives from each province, and composed equally of natives and Europeans, which should organize a provisional government. The latter, however, fearful of losing some of their former superiority, arrested the viceroy, and sent him out of the coun- try. The new viceroy, Venegas, dis- played an offensive partiality for the Spaniards, and exasperated the Creoles by the severity of his measures. An ex- tensive conspiracy was organized, and the insurrection broke out in September, 1810. A priest, Hidalgo, a man of strong inind and great firmness, put himself at the head of the insurgents ; but, after some fighting, and the commission of great atrocities on both sides, Hidalgo was captured and put to death in 1811. Mo- relos, a priest in the southern part of the country, who had been named captain- general of the south-west by Hidalgo, liad meanwhile raised a considerable force, and meeting with a series of suc- cesses, he advanced to within a short distance of the capital. In this expedi- tion, Victoria first distinguished himself. Morelos was obliged to retire, but cap- tured Oaxaca and Acapulco. A national congress was assembled at Chilpanzingo, in 1813, which declared Mexico inde- pendent. The forces of the insurgents were afterwards almost entirely annihi- lated by Iturbide, and Morelos was him- self shot in 1815. Victoria retired to the mountains, where he remained con- cealed eighteen months. Another gene- ral named Guerrero alone maintained a small force in the south. In 1817, general Mina landed with a small body of foreigners, and gained some temporary success ; but he was made prisoner in July of that year, and shot. Thus, in 1819, all the insurgent chiefs had been pardoned, or executed, ex- cept Guerrero. In 1 820, the Cortes having ordered the sale of the church property, Apodaca, the viceroy, refused to acknow- ledge the Cortes ; he employed Iturbide to reduce Guerrero, but that general join- ed the insurgent chief, proposed the con- stitution of Iguala, and proclaimed the independence of his country. This oc- curred February 24, 1821. At this time, the constitutional viceroy, O'Donoju, arrived in the country, and concluded with Iturbide the peace of Cordova, by which it was stipulated that the Spanish army should evacuate Mexi- co. The viceroy and Iturbide were as- sociated in the government, and the ar- my was called the army of the three guarantees, the objects to be maintained being the independence of Mexico as a separate monarchy under a Bourbon prince, the maintenance of the Catholic religion, and the union of all classes. A congress was soon assembled to settle the principles of the constitution. But the Cortes having declared the past proceed- ings null, Iturbide caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. May 18, 1822, under the title of Augustin I. A powerful party opposed the new state of things. After a bloody struggle, the emperor oflfered to abdicate in 1823, and was allowed to depart for Europe. A new form of government, on federal republican principles, was now establish- ed. Iturbide returned to the country in 1824, but was immediately arrested and shot. On the banishment of the emperor, a poder cxecutivo, or executive, was form- ed, consisting of Vittoria, Bravo, and Ne- grete, and, in 1824, the constitution was adopted and proclaimed. Vittoria was chosen president, and Bravo vice-presi- dent of the new republic. MEXICO, 483 The first constitutional congress was convened, January 1, 1825, and held an extraordinary session in August of the same year. The castle of Ulloa was soon surrendered by the Spaniards, and the whole Mexican soil was now deliv- ered from European hands. The pros- pect of tranquillity which was held out by the complete liberation of the country and organization of the government was soon interrupted by the violence of parties. The animosity of the Escoceses and Yorkinos ended in acts of outrage and bloodshed, and the land was again dis- tracted with civil war. The Escoceses (Scotch) was a masonic society of Scotch origin, composed of large proprietors and persons of distinction, who were mostly men of moderate principles, but decided- ly favorable to the cause of independence. Many of them had, at one time, been in favor of a Spanish prince as constitutional king of Mexico, and they were therefore often styled Borbonistas by their adver- saries. The Yorkinos constituted a ma- sonic society, which derived its origin from a masonic lodge in New- York, through the agency of Mr. Poinsett, American minister at Mexico. These two political parties (for such they had become) were arrayed against each other on occasion of the choice of the se- cond president in 1828, and also differed as to the policy to be pursued in the treatment of the Spaniards who resided in the country, the Yorkinos being in fa- vor of their entire expulsion from the country. The result of the election, af- ter an arduous contest, was the triumph of the Escoceses party, whose candidate, general Pedrazza, was chosen, by a ma- jority of two votes, over general Guerrero, the Yorkino candidate. General Santa Anna, at the head of a body of troops, declared that this vote was not an expres- sion of the will of the majority, and pro- claimed Guerrero president. This move- ment was unsuccessful, but another was soon organized, and an armed body de- 1 manded the expulsion of the Spaniards. After some fighting, the government was 1 obliged to yield, and general Pedrazza, to ' avoid bloodshed, advised his friends to [ submit, and expressed his determination to leave the country. Guerrero was I accordingly inaugurated president in I April, 1829, and a law was passed order- ing all Spanish residents to quit the country. I In the summer of 1829, an expedition ! was fitted out in the Havana, under the command of general Barradas, to under- take the conquest of the Mexican repub- lic. A force of 4,000 men was landed at Tampico, July 27, but on the 10th of September surrendered to general Santa Anna. But the dangers of a foreign in- vasion were no sooner past than domestic dissensions were again renewed. Guer- rero, who had been invested with dicta- torial powers, on the approach of the in- vaders, was unwilling to resign them, and this was made a pretext for the oppo- sition of the discontented. Bustamente, the vice-president, placed himself at the head of a body of troops in December, 1829, and issued a proclamation denounc- ing the abuses of the executive. He im- mediately advanced upon the capital, and was joined by the forces there. Guerrero, finding himself deserted, abdicated the presidency, and Bustamente was elected by the army his successor. In the latter part of 1830, new disturbances com- menced, and a civil war ensued. Guer- rero, who was made prisoner in February, 1831, was condemned to death for bear- ing arms against the established govern- ment, and shot. Since this period gene- ral Santa Anna has been raised to the presidency of Mexico ; he was, however, defeated and taken prisoner in an attempt to quell an insurrection in Texas, a Mexican province bordering on the Uni- ted States. He was released, and is at present at the head of the Mexican army, opposing the invasion of the French who are at war with Mexico. 484 NETHERLANDS. NETHERLANDS. The early history of the Netherlands has nothing in it very interesting or pe- culiar. Like that of most European states, it commences with an account of their subjugation. The Romans had pen- etrated into those countries, and conquer- ed them all before the beginning of the Christian era. The people had not yielded tamely. The Belgoe, inhabiting the left bank of the Rhine, are described by Caesar as the only Gallic tribe brave enough to withstand the irruptions of the Teutones and Cimbri ; the Frisians, oc- cupying the right bank of the same river, made a stubborn opposition in the middle of their swamps ; and the Batavians, who dwelt upon the islands of Zealand, were honored as the boldest of all the neigh- boring clans. Their opposition was vain, however ; and their gallant attempt to cast off the yoke in Vespasian's time was equally vain. They submitted to the Romans, and participated in the improve- ments which that people usually commu- nicated to the nations it conquered. The canal of Drusus, from the Rhine to the Flevo or Zuyder Zee, still exists, though its character is altered ; and the first dykes, which protected Holland from the ocean, are ascribed to the enterprising industry of those governors. The stout spirit of resistance shown by the Bata- vians had procured them respect in the eyes of their conquerors. The tribute of the province was paid in soldiers : Bata- vians formed the body-guard of the em- peror, as Swiss have done in later times ; and the valor which had been displayed on the banks of the Rhine, was equally conspicuous in other quarters of the em- pire. Agricola was accompanied and powerfully aided by them in his progress through Britain ; and the Dacian hosts recoiled when Batavians, in full armor, swam across the Danube to attack them. During four centuries we find Bata- vians enumerated among the Roman ar- mies ; but after the time of Honorius, their name vanishes from history. The irruption of the northern nations swept Qver their country in its course, and de- stroyed all the monuments of Roman pow- er and ingenuity. The monarchy of the Franks which arose on the ruins of Gaul, had, in the sixth and seventh centuries, embraced all the provinces of the Neth- erlands, and planted the Christian faith in them. After an obstinate struggle, Charles Martel overcame Friesland the last of all ; and Charlemagne united the whole of those countries with the wide empire, which he had formed for himself out of Germany, France, and Lombardy. When Charlemagne's possessions were again divided among his successors, the Netherlands became at one time provin- ces of Germany, at another of France ; and we find them at last designated by the names of Friesland and Lower Lorraine. With the Franks arrived also the con- stitution of the north ; and here, as else- where, it gradually degenerated. The stronger vassals separated in process of time from the crown ; and the royal offi- cers laid hold of the districts over which they were sent to preside, and rendered them hereditary in their families. But those revolted vassals could not hope to resist their king, except by the help of their inferior retainers ; and the support thus required was repaid by fresh infeu- dations. The priesthood, in the mean time, also, growing wealthy and power- ful, had extorted for itself an independent existence in its abbeys and episcopal sees. And thus, in the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, the Netherlands were split down into a num- ber of petty sovereignties, the heads of which held partly of the empire, partly of France. By purchase, marriage, in- heritance, or conquest, several of these lordships were frequently united under one master ; and in the fifteenth century we find the house of Burgundy in pos- session of almost the whole. Philip the Good, by prosecuting various claims, just and the contrary, had at last succeeded in uniting eleven of the provinces imder his authority ; and Charles the Bold, his son, increased them by the conquest of other two. And thus a new state had silently NETHERLANDS. 485 arisen in Europe, to which nothing but the name was wanting to make it the most flourishing kingdom in that quarter of the world. Such extensive posses- sions made the duke of Burgundy a sus- picious neighbor to the king of France ; and inspired the restless spirit of Charles the Bold with the plan of a conquest, destined to include the whole tract of country extending between Alsace and the mouths of the Rhine. The duke's inexhaustible resources justified, in some measure, this proud chimera : a power- ful army threatened to realize it ; and Switzerland already trembled for its free- dom. But fortune forsook Charles at the battles of Granson, of Morat, of Nancy: he fell by an unknown hand ; and his very corpse was all but lost among the carnage of his followers. The future husband of his sole daugh- ter and heiress, Maria, would now be- come the richest prince of the time. Maximilian, duke, afterwards emperor of Austria, and Louis XI, of France, were rivals for this honor, and excluded the claims of humbler competitors. The States of the Netherlands dreaded the power and tyranny of Louis : Maximilian was weaker and more distant ; they de- cided for him. Their political foresight corresponded ill with the event. Philip the Fair, Maximilian's and Maria's son, acquired with his Spanish bride, the ex- tensive monarchy which Ferdinand and Isabella had lately founded; Charles V, the next heir, augmented this inheritance by his grandfather's imperial crown ; and the Netherlands, thus become the pro- vince of an overwhelming empire, had soon cause to experience and repent the change in their situation. During the succeeding age, this connection with Spain gave rise to the most terrible, as well as the most glorious event of their history. Prior to the Burgundian dynasty, and under it, the Netherlands, profiting by their natural advantages for commerce, had acquired considerable wealth ; their wealth secured to them a free though complicated constitution ; and they grad- ually rose to be the first trading nation in the world. The new light of the Reformation, which in his reign was dazzling or illu- minating every corner of Europe, had early found its way into the Netherlands, and excited instant notice there. Foreign merchants, assuming the liberty of speech and action natural to persons in their sit- uation, had already professed the doc- trines of Luther. The Swiss and Ger- man soldiers of Charles were often Pro- testants : the nobles of the country were accustomed to study in the academies of Geneva: refugees from France and Eng- land were allured by the freedom of the Low Countries to escape from the pres- sure of domestic persecution ; their me- chanical skill or commercial capital was welcomed as a benefit ; and their opin- ions Avere listened to with toleration or approval. The art of printing circulated those speculations among the higher classes. Bands of adventurers, animated by the love of truth or the love of change, moved over the country from place to place, to circulate them among the lower. To the serious, those speakers, as they were named, could preach with all the fervid zeal of missionaries and apostates : for the careless and light of heart, they had songs, and farces, and buffooneries in every possible style of contrivance. Such multifarious causes did not work in vain. The Romish church in the Neth- erlands, attacked at once by argument and ridicule, by enthusiasm and self-in- terest, was nodding to its fall before the danger had been met or even noticed. Its guardians at length awoke, and the usual expedients were put in motion. Charles V had agreed to tolerate the Evangelical creed in Germany, because its professors were formidable in their united strength ; but he seemed anxious to make amends for this compelled for- bearance, by a double severity in ti"eat- ing the heretics of the Netherlands. Fifty thousand persons perished on the scaffold here, " suffering for conscience' sake," during his reign. No privacy, however sacred, was secure ; no age, or sex, or rank, was spared ; and this once cheer- ful land was overshadowed with grief, and terror, and silence. Charles, however, was less a bigot than a despot : he relaxed his cruelties when he found they would interfere with 486 NETHERLANDS. the prosperity of a country whose reven- ues he needed so much ; and he prefer- red allowing the contiiuiance of errone- ous doctrines at Antwerp, to the hazard of destroying the commerce of the city in extirpating them by an Inquisition similar to that of Spain. The people, too, were inclined to suffer much at his hands. He was their countryman ; spoke their language, adopted their manners, and visited them often. The fame of his victories, his talents, and his power, laid hold of their admiration ; and the promo- tions which he lavished on their chief men, secured him a permanent interest among the inferior. And if all those per- suasives could not lead to obedience, the extent of his other dominions was suffi- cient io force it. The prompt and hard punishment to which he had condemned the mutinous inhabitants of Ghent, was a lesson of humility and submission to all. But in the case of Philip II, his son, every thing was different. With a heart as stony as his father's, Philip united an mtellect vastly inferior by nature ; and the gloomy tutelage of monks had nar- rowed and obscured it still farther. He was born in Spain ; and the harsh sad- ness of his temper was best fitted to rel- ish the solemn and monotonous style of society prevalent there. In his youth he had been sent to visit the Netherlands, that his presence might conciliate the affections of the people ; but his haughty deportment, his unaccommodating char- acter, produced quite an opposite effect. Philip loved not the Netherlands ; and the feeling was mutual. At the abdica- tion of his father ( 1 556,) the States evinc- ed their distrust of Philip's intentions by the vain attempt which they made to guard against them. The splendor of a spec- tacle so extraordinary could not lull their vigilance ; and an additional oath was imposed on Philip, "forbidding every shadow of innovation in the established laws of the country. The suspicions which arose so early were soon abundantly confirmed. By the treaty of Chateau-Cambresis, Philip was delivered from all foreign enemies ; yet he obstinately continued, under the shallowest pretences, to retain a body of Spanish troops, occupying the garrisons and consuming the resources of the country. The edicts of his father were brought forward anew, and the more strict and impressive execution of them was intrusted to Cardinal Granvella, a man whose inflexible disposition and consummate political skill were well fitted for the purposes of Philip ; but whose proud contemptuous behavior disgusted the nobles, while his rigid severity exas- perated the people. The nobles partici- pating in the discontents of the populace, to which peculiar discontents were added to their own case, seconded, though they affected not to countenance the popular proceedings ; and formed themselves into a combination, which has become known to history by the epithet Gueux (beggars) applied to the members of it in contempt, by a minion of the court, when they appeared in Brussels to lay their petition and remonstrance before the re- gent. The name Gueux was adopted with an indignant smile, by the confed- eracy itself ; and the symbols of beggary, the wallet and staff in miniature, became the rallying emblems of the dissatisfied, and were to be seen on the persons of men and women over all the country. Alarmed by these unequivocal symp- toms of general revolt, Philip despatched the duke of Alva from Spain, at the head of 10,000 men, to enforce obedience, and avenge the opposition already shown to his mandates. The duchess of Parma, the regent of the Netherlands, was glad to retire from the storm, which, in con- trasting Alva's character with the circum- stances of the state, she saw clearly to be approaching ; and Alva was appointed governor in her stead. His entrance upon office was the signal for universal despair. Bigoted in his creed, immove- able in his determinations, savage in his temper, he hated the Flemings for the favor shown them in the former reign ; and the country soon groaned under the weight of his resentment. With his council of twelve, nominated by himself, and entirely at his discretion, he pro- ceeded strongly in the work of destruc- tion ; and the scaffolds soon reeked with the blood of thousands, guilty or inno- cent, as they happened to incur his dis. pleasure. The people were driven to NETHERLANDS. 487 madness ; they wanted but a leader to rise in open rebellion, and brave the very utmost of their tyrant's fury. A leader was soon presented to them ; and one fitted for the crisis beyond any other per- son of his time. William, prince of Orange, was the representative of the noble family of Nas- sau, which had once given an emperor to Germany, and for many ages had oc- cupied an honorable rank among the chiefs of that country. He had exten- sive possessions in the Netherlands ; and had been employed there by Charles in various important duties, in the dis- charge of which, his talents, his integrity, his manners, had procured him universal confidence and respect. Disappointed in his expectation of the regency under Philip, who hated and feared him, he had continued to act with the same calm stead- fastness, equally resisting the arbitrary measures of government, and repressing the rash attempts of the harassed people. On Alva's approach he retired to Germa- ny ; and the fate of count Egmont, who shared the national favor with him, and had perished on the scaffold at Antwerp for no other crime but sharing it, soon showed how prudent this step had been. The tribunal which had condemned his friend, now summoned William to appear likewise ; and as he naturally refused to comply, they proceeded to confiscate his property, and brand him as a traitor. William was not of a humor to brook such treatment tamely ; and patriotism combined with ambition to strengthen his purpose of finding redress. Having formed an alliance with several princes of Germany, and collected a body of troops, which multitudes of Flemish ex- iles were rapidly augmenting, he formal- ly renounced his allegiance to the gov- ernor, and entered Friesland at the head of an army in 1569. His beginning was unsuccessful. Al- va hastened to meet him ; the raw soldier could not stand against the veteran ; Wil- liam retired into Germany once more ; and the Spaniard returned in triumph to Brussels. But his triumph was not long | undisturbed. He had erected a statue j of himself in the citadel of Antwerp ; I he had represented it as treading under foot two smaller statues emblematic of the States of the Netherlands ; and was proceeding quickly to demonstrate the correctness of this allegorical device, by levying the most oppressive taxes, of his own authority, and massacreing, with every circumstance of ignominy and sav- ageness, all such as refused to comply with his requisitions, — when his bloody career was interrupted by intelligence that the town of Brille was taken, and the whole island ready to revolt. He hastened thither to quell the tumult, and crush the Gueux patriots, or pirates as he called them, who had caused it. But the infamy of his conduct preceded him ; William of Orange, under whose instruc- tions the conquerors of Brille had acted, was advancing from the east with a fresh army ; and the entire provinces of Zea- land and Holland simultaneously threw off" the Spanish yoke. Alva made vast efforts ; but they were fruitless. He took Naerden and Haarlem, and butch- ered their inhabitants ; but he failed be- fore Alcmaar ; a fleet which he put to sea with great exertion, was defeated and destroyed by the Zealanders ; and on Philip's order he returned to Spain, to boast that in five years he had deliv- ered 18,000 heretics into the hands of the executioner. Requesens succeeded Alva. He was a milder and a better man ; but the time for mildness was gone by. Some years before, a governor like Requesens might have retained the Netherlands under Philip ; but the horrors of Alva's regen- cy, the massacre of St. Bartholomew in France, had put to flight " respective lenity," and " fire-eyed fury" was their conduct now. It is dangerous to drive even the feeblest of creatures to despair ; and Philip found he had calculated too far on the phlegmatic patience of his northern subjects. The dull perseve- rance of their ordinary character was now changed into a grim and adaman- tine fixedness of purpose to suffer all, to dare all, but never to submit. " Talk not of surrender," replied they to Valdez, the general of Requesens, at the siege of Leyden, when famine was already carrying them in hundreds to the grave : " Our provisions are not exhausted, and 488 NETHERLANDS. if they were, if all else should fail, we would eat our left arms and fight with our right, that we might die fighting against our tjTants." Their firmness, on tliis occasion was rewarded. The sluices were opened, the country was laid under water ; a strong south-west wind rendered fruitless every attempt to drain it ; and the Spaniard made a fright- ful retreat, leaving the flower of his army buried in the marshes, or hewn to pieces by the Flushing boatmen, who hung upon his skirts, with fury and revenge in their hearts — their harsh countenances ren- dered harsher by scars sustained from the same enemy in former broils, and their caps surmounted each by a cres- cent, having the inscription, Turks he- fore Papists. This ineffectual siege of Leyden is the most remarkable transaction of Re- quesens in the Low Countries. It was followed in 1575, by some abortive at- tempts at negotiation, the emperor Ro- dolph, and queen Elizabeth of England, acting as mediators. Neither party was in a mood for negotiating ; and Philip instructed Requesens to prosecute the war with fresh vigor. The latter en- deavored to comply ; he was beaten back at Woerden ; but he reduced Ziriozee, had entered Zealand, and was meditating an attack on Holland, when death over- took him suddenly, and the Netherlands were left without a governor. To obviate the evils of dissension, William assembled the Northern or Pro- testant States, among whom his influence was the most extensive, and who hitherto had stood the brunt of the war alone. — He was fortunate enough at last, to com- bine them into a permanent whole. On the 23rd of January, 1579, was signed the famous Union of Utrecht, at the city whose name it bears, by deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland,Groningen, Overyssel, and Gelderland. It was the fundamental article of the Dutch Republic, destined after to become so conspicuous an agent in the political transactions of Europe. The main stipulations, for the present, were, that the seven provinces should join themselves in interest as one, each individual still retaining its own private customs ; that in disputes between two, the rest should interfere only as media- tors, and that all should assist each with life and fortune against every foreign enemy. Separately, the provinces were weak ; and though united as firmly as the bundle of arrows, the badge and embliem of their alliance, it might still seem doubtful if this new republic would survive its infancy. It was indeed a perilous enterprise in which they were engaged. A small community of fishers and herdsmen, hith- erto unknown among nations, had come down into the lists against a monarch, before whom the most powerful kingdoms of the world had lately trembled for their liberties. With no resources but their own activity, no tactics but their own despair, the Dutch had ventured to defy the commander of the veterans of Charles V, and the possessor of the American mines. The contest at first view might appear hopeless, and preferable to sub- mission, only, as dying nobly on the field of battle is preferable to dying unjustly on the scaffold. A closer inspection, however, showed the prospect in less gloomy colors. The Hollanders were poor ; but the enemy's wealth lay widely scattered, and bold adventure might snatch a part of it. The Flemish exiles, driven from the peaceful occupations of the land, had betaken themselves in great numbers to another element ; and the rich fleets of Spain were often captured by them. By degrees, too, the trade which was thus obstructed, sought out other channels ; and Holland, the asylum of the persecuted from every nation, (who were naturally the most inquisitive and enterprising of each nation,) soon abound- ed in persons fitted for all kinds of com- merce, and ready to grasp at every branch of it within their reach. As their mari- time speculations prospered, greater num- bers, and more capital, became engaged in them ; they at length acquired a navy, ^ which could venture to the Indies, and ' strike at the root of their oppressor's' prosperity. With William of Orange at its head, j therefore, the new confederacy did not ' despair. Philip, who knew the Prince's importance, attempted to detach him by NETHERLANDS. 489 promises and gifts ; when this was found to be impossible, he set a price upon his head. Superstitious fervor, so justified and rewarded, was likely in time to find some wicked maniac whom it could con- vert into an assassin. A first attempt failed ; a second was successful. Bal- thazar Gerard murdered the Prince of Orange at Delft, (1584,) being impelled, as he stated at first, by the Divinity ; but allured also, as he afterwards confessed, by the less elevated hope of Philip's earthly recompence to do the deed. William's death was a heavy stroke to his fellow-citizens ; but in proportion as it excited grief for the fate and for the loss of their leader, it rendered more implacable their hatred of his destroyer. Elizabeth of England, though she reject- ed the sovereignty of the Netherlands repeatedly offered to her, had been indu- ced to lend them secret assistance in troops and money ; and she now openly espoused their quarrel. As security for payment, the States delivered up to her the towns of Bille and Flushing, with the castle of Rammekens ; and she sent them an army, with the earl of Leicester to be their governor. Leicester dissatisfied the people, and was recalled; but the soldiers continued ; and being joined under Lord Willoughby, with the forces of the republic, were placed at the dis- posal of Maurice, the late Prince's son, a young man whom the gratitude of his country had raised to the station of gov- ernor, and who soon showed talents that would have deserved it independently of gratitude. His talents, however, were all required in this emergency ; and but for other circumstances, they would hardly have sufficed to meet it. Parma had already secured Ghent, Bruges, and lastly Ant- werp, the hardest of his conquests, as well as the most serviceable. In the south, every thing must soon have been entirely at his disposal ; and Holland might then have justly trembled before his accumulated force. But Philip's wars with England, his Invincible Arma- da, thinned the ranks of Parma, and dis- sipated the treasures which should have maintained him. At length, in 1598, Philip closed his 62 restless reign. The burden which had galled him near forty years, had long ago vanquished even his obstinacy ; and Al- bert of Austria, husband of the Infanta Isabella, had, some time previously been promised the sovereignty of the Nether- lands, with merely a reversion in favor of Spain, should that princess die child« less. Philip HI punctually obeyed the intentions of his father ; but the states of Holland listened in silence to Albert's claim. At the head of a great army, he prepared to enforce it. Prince Maurice met him at Nieuport (1600 ;) and, with the aid of sir Francis Vere, and the English auxiUaries led by him, gained a complete and splendid victory. Albert wasted his remaining forces in the trenches of Ostend ; the town was gal- lantly maintained by Vere and his follow- ers ; and did not yield even to the talents of Spinola, till after it had stood a siege of three years, and cost him above 70,000 men. Under the same able general, Spain, to whom the reversion of the Netherlands was now become secure, Isabella having no children, made a last eflx>rt far beyond its diminished strength. But new efforts yielded no adequate re- sult ; Philip was weary of the contest ; and, by the advice of Spinola, he agreed to treat of peace. After innumerable obstructions and delays on the part of the Dutch, who had now begun to reap profit from the war, and principally on the part of Maurice's faction, who hoped to make it ser\^iceable to his ambition, a truce of twelve years was at last concluded, by the mediation of France and England, at the Hague, in 1609, Spain acknowledging the United Provinces as a free republic, and granting them every privilege which a free country has a right to demand. The revolt in Bohemia, which was al- ready breaking out, the appearance of Gustavus Adolphus, and his victorious progress in Germany, soon gave full em- ployment elsewhere to all the branches of the Hapsburg family. Combined with the vigorous administration of Richelieu, those events extinguished in Spain all desire of renewing its pretensions to Holland ; no farther hostilities occurred, 1 and a definitive treaty was signed in i 1647, and ratified at the great peace of 490 NETHERLANDS. Westphalia next year, securing the rights of the United Provinces in the most am- ple manner, and finally stipulating the continuance of peace and free intercourse between two nations, whose strife had been so lengthened, so obstinate, and so bloody. After the termination of this contest, which had established the freedom of seven provinces, and riveted the chains of ten, the history of the Netherlands presents nothing equally remarkable. — What remains of it may be despatched more briefly. Belgium continued quietly subject to Spain, and lost all its com- merce and enterprise ; Holland went on rapidly increasing in both. Cornelius Houtmann had led the way to India in 1599; the Portuguese settlements, then subject to Spain, were in no condition to resist ; and the Dutch by degrees acquired almost the whole of that lucrative trade. They planted colonies in the spice islands of the East; they gained settlements in America ; their naval power continued to augment ; they gradually became the factors and carriers of Europe. It is true, their government, at peace from without, was not equally at peace from within ; theological disputes between Arminius and Gomar, to which political feelings soon became conjoined, had agi- tated the people violently in 1619, and tarnished the name of Prince Maurice by his share in the persecution of Gro- tius, and the death of the Pensionary Barnvelt. A more strict republican party also afterwards arose under the auspices of the De Witts, who had force and dex- terity enough at the death of William II, (1650,) to procure the abolition of the Stadtholdership. But those political fer- mentations slightly aflected the industry and success of the great body of the na- tion. The public prosperity was stead- fastly advancing ; it had mounted so high in 1652, that the States did not hesitate to throw down the gauntlet to England, though her power was at that time wielded by the firm and steady hand of Cromwell. Naval superiority was the subject of this contest; commercial and political jealousy embittered it. The Dutch had given refuge and countenance to many of the exiled royalists ; their admirals refused to pay to the British the custom- ar)^ acknowledgment of superiority ; Van Tromp, on the contrary, placed a broom at his mast-head, to signify that he would sweep the seas, and reign triumphant in them. But the cannon of Blake soon levelled this rude emblem, and the claim which it typified ; De Ruyter and Van Tromp were beaten by him off Portland in 1653, after a furious contest of two days ; and next year. Van Tromp was shot through the body, off the coast of Holland, while gallantly animating his men on the third morning of a battle, which his energy alone had protracted so long. Monk was the victor on this occasion. The Dutch were glad to make peace, and leave the dominion of the ocean in the hands where it was, and has ever since continued. A severer trial awaited the Dutch republic shortly afterwards. In 1668, Louis XIV, profiting by the feebleness of Spain, had entered the Low Countries with an army, which bore down all op- position. He soon conquered Belgium ; he made himself master of Franche Compte, and was fast extending his do- minions on every side, when the Triple Alliance, concluded at the Hague in 1 669, arrested his ambitious career. Irritated by the share which Holland had taken in this transaction, Louis made great preparations for revenge. The profligate ministry of Charles II, of England, was hired to support his views ; and in 1672, he crossed the Rhine at the head of an immense army. Basely deserted by their natural ally, agitated by internal factions, the Dutch had nothing but a few undisciplined troops, and a general scarcely arrived at manhood, wherewith to oppose the progress of 130,000 vete- rans, led on by Conde, Turenne, and Vauban. The issue could scarce be doubtful. Louis overran the country in a few weeks ; and Amsterdam was soon the last asylum of Dutch liberty. The De Witts proposed surrendering, but the States, with their young general, William, Prince of Orange, at their head, deter- mined on a braver expedient. Preferring independence to every other advantage, they opened the sluices of their sea- NETHERLANDS. 491 dykes ; and Amsterdam once more be- came an island of the ocean, from which it had been gained. The king returned into France ; his generals retired out of Holland ; and before the triumphal arch at the gate of St. Dennis, in honor of his conquest, was completed, Louis possessed no foot of ground within the conquered territories. Far from yielding, the Dutch in their turn became aggressors ; and their young prince, now appointed Stad- tholder, ever henceforth continued the unwearied and successful adversary of all the covetous schemes of Louis. By his efforts the present war was ended in 1 679 ; and when he mounted the throne of England, his augmented power still thwarted the increasing projects of France. In 1697, the treaty of Ryswick concluded a new war of eight years, in the conduct of which he had been inde- fatigable, in the result of which he was superior ; and before his death, he had prepared the materials of that coalition which, under Marlborough and Prince Eugene, brought Louis to the brink of ruin. The peace of Utrecht saved Louis from absolute destruction, and consigned Bel- gium to the throne of Austria, that of Spain being now filled by a Bourbon. The Dutch had exerted themselves vig- orously in all those quarrels ; but from this period their internal prosperity began to langiush, their political importance gradually to lessen. The English had acquired their arts and manufactures, and almost entirely supplanted their East In- dia commerce. The American colonies, added to this, gave the English navy an irresistible preponderance. Holland still continued diligent and contented ; but the rise of neighboring nations had eclips- ed its power. About the middle of the last century, it was farther threatened with the calamities of foreign invasion. When Maria Theresa's right to the im- perial throne was disputed in 1740, the Dutch had taken up her side ; the French that of theElector of Bavaria. During the contest, Louis XV had penetrated into the Netherlands ; and the Mareschal de Saxe had conquered Belgium for him. In 1748, the same general made an at- tack on Holland. Bergen-op-Zoom had fallen, Maestricht was falling ; and the Dutch barrier must have been forced, had not the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which restored Belgium to Austria, while it se- cured the deliverance of Holland, put a stop to hostilities. The Dutch took no part in the seven years' war. A long period of outward tranquillity was only disturbed by contests between the people and the Stadtholder, whose office had been declared heredi- tary in the Orange family in the year 1747. The French Revolution, and the victories of Dumourier, took Belgium from Austria in 1792 ; it was recovered next summer, but the recovery was only for a year, and confirmed the victors in their conquest. Those apostles of change were eagerly welcomed by the Diitch people soon after. But the latter had quickly reason to repent of this predilec- tion. The French oppressed Holland with every species of tyranny ; even Louis Bonaparte, for whom it had been erected into a kingdom, gave it up in de- spair. Various attempts to relieve it failed, till at last, in 1814, the successes of the allied sovereigns put the Low Countries into their hands. The British cabinet accomplished its often projected scheme ; Belgium was united with the seven provinces into the Kingdom of the Netherlands ; and the Prince of Or- ange, who had taken refuge in England, now ascended the throne. On the 18th of June, 1815, the great battle of Water- loo, which decided the fate of the em- peror Napoleon, was fought near Brus- sels. The following account of this memorable action is from Sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon. It was three o'clock on the afternoon of the 1 7th, when the British came on the field, and took up their bivouac for the night in the order of battle in which they were to fight the next day. It was much later before Napoleon reached the heights of Belle Alliance in person, and his army did not come up in full force till the morning of the 1 8th. Great part of the French had passed the night in the little village of Genappe, and Napoleon's own quarters had been at the fai"m-house called Caillou, about a mile in the rear of La Belle Alliance. In the morning, when Napoleon had 492 NETHERLANDS. formed his line of battle, liis brother Je- rome, to whom he ascribed the posses- sion of very considerable military talents, commanded on the left — Counts Reille and D'Erlon the centre — and Count Lo- bau on the right. Marscchals Soult and Ney acted as lieutenant-generals to the em- peror. The French force on the field consisted probably of about 75,000 men. The English army did not exceed that number, at the highest computation. Each army was commanded by the Chief, under whom they had offered to defy the world. So far tlie forces were equal. But the French had the very great advantage of being trained and experienced soldiers of the same nation, whereas the English, in the Duke of Wellington's army, did not exceed 35,000 ; and although the German Legion were veteran troops, the other soldiers under his command were those of the German contingents, lately levied, unaccustomed to act together, and in some instances -suspected to be luke- warm to the cause in which they were engaged; so that it would have been im- prudent to trust more to tlioir assistance and co-operation, than could not possibly be avoided. In Bonaparte's mode of calculating, allowing one Frenchman to stand as equal to one Englishman, and one Englishman or Frenchman against two of any other nation, the inequality of force on the Duke of Wellington's side was very considerable. The British army thus composed, was divided into two lines. The right of the first line consisted of the second and fourth English divisions, the third and sixth Hanoverians, and the first corps of Bel- gians, under lord Hill. The centre was composed of the corps of the prince of Orange, withthe Brunswickers and troops of Nassau, having the Guards, under gen- eral Cooke, on the right, and the division of general Alten on the left. The left wing consisted of the divisions of Picton, Lambert, and Kempt. The second line was, in most instances, formed of the troops deemed least worthy of confidence, or which had suffered too severely in the action of the 16th, to be again exposed until extremity. It was placed behind the declivity of the heights to the rear, in order to be sheltered from the cannon- ade, but sustained much loss from shells during the action. The cavalry were stationed in the rear, distributed all along the line, but chiefiy posted on the left of the centre, to the east of the Charleroi causeway. The farm-house of La Haye Sainte, in the front of the centre, was garrisoned, but there was not time to pre- pare it effectually for defence. The villa, gardens, and farm-yard of Hougomont, formed a strong advanced post towards the centre of the right. The whole Brit- ish position formed a sort of curve, the centre of which was nearest to the ene- my, and the extremities, particularly on their right, drawn considerably back- ward. The plans of these two great generals were extremely simple. The object of the duke of VVellington was to maintain his line of defence, imtil the Prussians coming up, should give him a decided superiority of force. They were expect- ed about eleven or twelve o'clock ; but the extreme badness of the roads, owing to the violence of the storm, detained them several hours later. Napoleon's scheme was equally plain and decided. He trusted, by his usual rapidity of attack, to break and destroy the British army before the Prussians should arrive on the field; after which, he calculated to have an opportunity of destroying the Prussians, by attacking them on their march through the broken ground interposed betwixt them and the British. In these expectations he was the more confident, that he believed Grouchy's force, detached on the 17th in pursuit of Blucher, was sufficient to retard, if not altogether to check, the march of the Prussians. His grounds for entertaining this latter opinion, were, as we shall af- terwards show, too hastily adopted. Commencing the action according to his usual system, Napoleon kept his Guard in reserve, in order to take oppor- tunity of charging with them, when re- peated attacks of column after column, and squadron after squadron, should in- duce his wearied enemy to show some symptoms of irresolution. But Napoleon's movements were not very rapid. His army had suffered by the storm even more than the English, who were in bi- NETHERLANDS. 493 vouac at three in the afternoon of the 1 7th June ; while the French were still under march, and could not get into line on the heights of La Belle Alliance until ten or eleven o'clock of the 18th. The English army had thus some leisure to take food, and to prepare their arms be- fore the action ; and Napoleon lost sev- eral hours ere he could commence the attack. Time was, indeed, inestimably precious for both parties, and hours, nay, minutes, were of importance. But of this Napoleon was less aware than was the duke of Wellington. The tempest, which had raged with tropical violence all night, abated in the morning ; but the weather continued gusty and stormy during the Avhole day. Betwixt eleven and twelve, before noon, on the memorable 18th June, this dread- ful and decisive action commenced, with a carmonade on the part of the French, instantly followed by an attack, com- manded by Jerome, on the advanced post of Hougomont. The troops of Nassau, which occupied the wood around the chateau, were driven out by the French, but the utmost efforts of the assailants were unable to force the house, garden, and farm-offices, which a party of the Guards sustained with the most dauntless resolution. The French redoubled their efforts, and precipitated themselves in numbers on the exterior hedge, which screens the garden wall, not perhaps aware of the internal defence afforded by the latter. They fell in great num- bers on this point by the fire of the de- fenders, to which they were exposed in every direction. The number of their troops, however, enabled them, by pos- session of the wood, to mask Hougomont for a time, and to push on with their cavalry and artillery against the British right, which formed in squares to receive them. The fire was incessant, but with- out apparent advantage on either side. The attack was at length repelled so far, that the British again opened their com- munication with Hougomont, and that important garrison was re-enforced by colonel Hepburn and a body of the Guards. Meantime, the fire of artillery having become general along the line, the force of the French attack was transferred to the British centre. It was made with the most desperate fury, and received with the most stubborn resolution. The assault was here made upon the farm- house of Saint Jean by four columns of infantry, and a large mass of cuirassiers, who took the advance. The cuirassiers came with the utmost intrepidity along the Genappe causeway, where they were encountered and charged by the English heavy cavalry ; and a combat was main- tained at the sword's point, till the French were driven back on their own position, where they were protected by their artil- lery. The four columns of French in- fantry, engaged in the same attack, forced their way foi'ward beyond the fann of La Haye Sainte, and, dispersing a Bel- gian regiment, were in the act of estab- lishing themselves in the centre of the British position, when they were attack- ed by the brigade of general Pack, brought up from the second line by gen- eral Picton, while, at the same time, a brigade of British heavy cavalry wheeled round their own infantry, and attacked the French charging columns in flank, at the moment when they were checked by the fire of the musketry. The results were decisive. The French columns were broken with great slaughter, and two eagles, with more than 2,000 men, were made prisoners. The latter were sent instantly off for Brussels. The British cavalry, however, follow- ed their success too far. They got in- volved amongst the French infantry, and some hostile cavalry which were detach- ed to support them, and were obliged to retire with considerable loss. In this part of the action, the gallant general Picton, so distinguished for enterprise and bravery, met his death, as did gen- eral Ponsonby, who commanded the cav- alry. About this period the French made themselves masters of the farm of La Haye Sainte, cutting to pieces about two hundred Hanoverian sharp-shooters, by whom it was most gallantly defended. The French retained this post for some time, till they were at last driven out of it by shells. Shortly after this event, the scene of 494 NETHERLANDS. conflict again shifted to the right, where a general attack of French cavalry was made on the squares, chiefly towards the centre of the British right, or between that and the causeway. They came up with the most dauntless resolution, in despite of the continued fire of thirty pieces of artiller\', placed in front of the line, and compelled the artillerymen, by whom they were served, to retreat within the squares. The enemy had no means, however, to secure the gims, or even to spike them, and at every favorable mo- ment the British artillerymen sallied from their place of refuge, again manned their pieces, and fired on the assailants, — a manosuvre which seems peculiar to the British service. The cuirassiers, how- ever, continued their dreadful onset, and rode up to the squares in the full confi- dence, apparently, of sweeping them be- fore the impetuosity of their charge. Their onset and reception was like a fu- rious ocean pouring itself against a chain of insulated rocks. The British squares stood unmoved, and never gave fire until the cavalry were within ten yards, when men rolled one way, horses galloped another, and the cuirassiers were in every instance driven back. The French authors have pretended, that squares were broken, and colors taken ; but this assertion, upon the united testimony of every British officer present, is a positive untruth. This was not, however, the fault of the cuirassiers, who displayed an almost frantic valor. They rallied again and again, and returned to the onset, till the British could recog- nize even the faces of individuals among their enemies. Some rode close up to the bayonets, fired their pistols, and cut with their swords with reckless and use- less valor. Some stood at gaze, and were destroyed by the musketry and ar- tillery. Some squadrons, passing through the intervals of the first line, charged the squares of Belgians posted there, with as little success. At length the cuirassiers suffered so severely on every hand, that they were compelled to abandon the at- tempt, which they had made with such intrepid and desperate courage. In this unheard-of struggle, the greater part of the French heavy cavalry were absolute- ly destroyed. Bonaparte hints at it in his bulletin as an attempt made without orders, and continued only by the desper- ate courage of the soldiers and their offi- cers. It is certain, that in the destruc- tion of this noble body of cuirassiers, he lost the corps which might have been most effectual in covering his retreat. After the broken remains of this fine cav- alry were drawn oflf, the French confined themselves for a time to a heavy cannon- ade, from which the British sheltered themselves in part by lying down on the ground, while the enemy prepared for an attack on another quarter, and to be con- ducted in a different manner. It was now about six o'clock, and dur- ing this long succession of the most fu- rious attacks, the French had gained no success, save occupying for a time the wood around Hougomont, from which they had been expelled, and the farm- house of La Haye Sainte, which had been also recovered. The British, on the other hand, had suffered very severe- ly, but had not lost one inch of ground, save the two posts now regained. Ten thousand men were, however, killed and wounded ; some of the foreign regiments had given way, though others had shown the most desperate valor. And the ranks were thinned, both by the actual fugitives, and by the absence of individuals, who left the bloody field for the purpose of carrying oflT the wounded, and some of whom might naturally be in no hurry to return to so fatal a scene. But the French, besides losing about 15,000 men, together with a column of prisoners more than 2,000 in number, began now to be disturbed by the opera- tions of the Prussians on their right flank ; and the secret of the duke of Wellington was disclosing itself by its consequences. Blucher, faithfid to his engagement, had, early in the morning, put in motion Bu- low'a division, which had not been en- gaged at Ligny, to communicate with the English army, and operate a diversion on the right flank and rear of the French. But although there were only about twelve or fourteen miles between Wavre and the field of Waterloo, yet the march was, by unavoidable circumstances, much delayed. The rugged face of the coun- NETHERLANDS. 495 try, together with the state of the roads, so often referred to, offered the most se- rious obstacles to the progress of the Prussians, especially as they moved with an unusually large train of artillery. A fire, also, which broke out in Wavre on the morning of the ] 8th, prevented Bu- low's corps from marching through that town, and obliged them to pursue a cir- cuitous and inconvenient route. After traversing, with great difficulty, the cross- roads by Chapelle Lambert, Bulow.with the 4th Prussian corps, who had been expected by the duke of Wellington about eleven o'clock, announced his arri- val by a distant fire, about half-past four. The first Prussian corps, following the same route with Bulow, was yet later in coming up. The second division made a lateral movement in the same direction as the fourth and first, but by the hamlet of Ohain, nearer to the English flank. The emperor instantly opposed to Bulow, who appeared long before the others, the sixth French corps, which he had kept in reserve for that service ; and as only the advanced guard was come up, they suc- ceeded in keeping the Prussians in check for the moment. The first and second Prussian corps appeared on the field still later than the fourth. The third corps had put themselves in motion to follow in the same direction, when they Avere furiously attacked by the French under mareschal Grouchy, Avho, as already stated, was detatched to engage the at- tention of Bulcher, whose whole force he believed he had before him. Instead of being surprised, as an ordi- nary general might have been, with this attack upon his rear, Blucher contented himself with sending back orders to Thielman who commanded the third corps, to defend himself as well as he could upon the line of the Dyle. In the meantime, without weakening the army under his own command, by detaching any part of it to support Thielman, the veteran rather hastened than suspended his march towards the field of battle, where he was aware that the war was likely to be decided in a manner so com- plete, as would leave victory or defeat on every other point, a matter of subordi- nate consideration. At half-past six, or thereabouts, the second grand division of the Prussian army began to enter into communication with the British left, by the village of Ohain, while Bulow pressed forward from Chapelle Lambert on the French right and rear, by a hollow or valley called Frischemont. It became now evident that the Prussians were to enter seriously into the battle, and with great force. Napoleon had still the means of opposing them, and of achieving a re- treat, at the certainty, however, of being attacked upon the ensuing day by the combined armies of Britain and Prussia. His celebrated Guard had not yet taken any part in the conflict, and would now have been capable of affording him pro- tection after a battle, which hitherto he had fought at disadvantage, but without being defeated. But the circumstances by which he was surrounded must have pressed on his mind at once. He had no succors to look for ; a re-union with Grouchy was the only resource which could strengthen his forces ; the Rus- sians were advancing upon the Rhine with forced marches ; the republicans at Paris were agitating schemes against his authority. It seemed as if all must be decided on that day, and on that field. Surrounded by these ill-omened circum- stances, a desperate effort for victory, ere the Prussians could act effectually, might perhaps yet drive the English from their position ; and he determined to ven- ture on this daring experiment. About seven o'clock. Napoleon's Guard were fonned in two columns, under his own eye, near the bottom of the declivity of La Belle Alliance. They were put under command of the daimtless Ney. Bonaparte told the soldiers, and indeed imposed the same fiction on their com- mander, that the Prussians whom they saw on the right were retreating before Grouchy. Perhaps he might himself be- lieve that this was ti-ue. The Guard answered for the last time, with shouts of Vive PEmpereur, and moved resolutely forward, having for their support four bat- talions of the Old Guard in reserve, who stood prepared to protect the advance of their comrades. A gradual change had taken place in the English line of battle, 496 NETHERLANDS. ^ifMk-^y ..^.J )^..^v^^ ^rw^/:-- . ''c^,^ -'^^^^t^^^W^^^^^^^^f^ ^-l^^^S^ BaUle of Waterloo. in consequence of the repe.ated repulse of the French. Advancing by slow de- grees, the right, which, at the beginning of the conflict, presented a segment of a convex circle, now resembled one that was concave, the extreme right, which had been thrown back, being now rather brought forward, so that their fire, both of artillery and infantry, fell upon the flank of the French, who had also to sus- tain that which was poured on their front from the heights. The British were ar- ranged in a line of four men deep, to meet the advancing columns of the French Guard, and poured upon them a storm of musketry which never ceased an instant. The soldiers fired independently, as it is called ; each man loading and discharg- ing his piece as fast as he could. At length the British moved forward, as if to close rovmd the heads of the columns, and at the same time continued to pour their shot upon the enemy's flanks. The French gallantly attempted to deploy, for the purpose nf returning the discharge. But in tlioir eflbrt to do so, under so dread- ful a fire, they stopt, staggered, became disordered, were blended into one mass, and at length gave way, retiring, or rather flying, in the utmost confusion. This was the last effort of the enemy, and Na- poleon gave orders for the retreat ; to protect which, he had now no troops left, save the last four battalions of the Old Guard, which had been stationed in the rear of the attacking columns. These threw themselves into squares, and stood firm. But at this moment the duke of Wellington commanded the Avhole Brit- ish line to advance, so that whatever the bravery and skill of these gallant vet- erans, they also were thrown into disor- der, and swept away in the general rout, in spite of the efforts of Ney, who, hav- ing had his horse killed, fought sword in hand, and on foot, in the front of the bat- tle, till the veiy last. That mareschal, whose military virtues at least cannot be challenged, bore personal evidence against two circumstances, industriously circu- lated by the friends of Napoleon. One of these fictions occurs in his own bul- letin, which charges the loss of the battle to a panic fear, brought about by the treachery of some unknown persons, who raised the cry of, " Sauve qui pent." Another figment, greedily credited at Paris, bore, that the four battalions of NETHERLANDS. 497 Old Guard, the last who maintained the semblance of order, answered a summons to surrender, by the magnanimous reply, " The Guard can die, but cannot yield." And one edition of the story adds, that thereupon the battalions made a half wheel inwards, and discharged their muskets into each other's bosoms, to save them- selves from dying by the hands of the English. Neither the original reply, nor the pretended self-sacrifice of the Guard, have the slightest foundation. Cambrone, in whose mouth the speech was placed, gave up his own sword, and remained prisoner ; and the military conduct of the French Guard is better eulogized by the undisputed truth, that they fought to ex- tremity, with the most unyieldnig con- stancy, than by imputing to them an act of regimental suicide upon the lost field of battle. Every attribute of brave men they have a just right to claim. It is no compliment to ascribe to them that of madmen. Whether the words were used by Cambrone or no, the Guard well de- served to have them inscribed on their monument. Whilst this decisive movement took place, Bulow, who had concentrated his troops, and was at length qualified to act in force, carried the village of Planche- noit in the French rear, and was now firing so close on their right wing, that the cannonade annoyed the British who were in pursuit, and was suspended in consequence. Moving in oblique lines, the British and Prussian armies came into contact with each other on the heights so lately occupied by the French, and celebrated the victory with loud shouts of mutual congratulation. The French army was now in total and inextricable confusion and rout ; and when the victorious generals met at the farm-house of La Belle Alliance, it was agreed that the Prussians, who were fresh in comparison, should follow up the chase, a duty for which the British, exhausted by the fatigues of a battle of eight hours, were totally inadequate. During the whole action. Napoleon maintained the utmost serenity. He re- mained on the heights of La Belle Alli- ance, keeping pretty near the centre, from which he had a full view of the field, 63 which does not exceed a mile and a half in length. He expressed no solicitude on the fate of the battle for a long time, noticed the behavior of particular regi- ments, and praised the English several times, always, however, talking of them as an assured prey. When forming his Guard for the last fatal effort, he descend- ed near them, half down the causeway from La Belle Alliance, to bestow upon them what proved his parting exhortation. He watched intently their progress with a spyglass, and refused to listen to one or two aides-de-camp, who at that moment came from the right to inform him of the appearance of the Prussians. At length, on seeing the attacking columns stagger and become confused, his countenance, said our informer, became pale as that of a corpse, and muttering to himself, " They are mingled together," he said to his at- tendants, " All is lost for the present," and rode off the field ; not stopping or taking refreshment till he reached Char- leroi, where he paused for a moment in a meadow, and occupied a tent which had been pitched for his accommoda- tion. Meantime the pursuit of his discomfit- ed army was followed up by Blucher, with the most determined perseverance. He accelerated the march of the Prus- sian advanced guard, and despatched every man and horse of his cavalry upon the pursuit of the fugitive French. At Genappe they attempted something like defence, by barricading the bridge and streets ; but the Prussians forced them in a moment, and although the French were sufficiently numerous for resistance, their disorder was so irremediable, and their moral courage was so absolutely quelled for the m'oment, that in many cases they were slaughtered like sheep. They were driven frombivouac to bivouac, without exhibiting even the shadow of their usual courage. One hundred and fifty guns were left in the hands of the English, and a like number taken by the Prussians in course of the pursuit. The latter obtained possession also of all Na- poleon's baggage, and of his carriage, where, amongst many articles of curiosi- ty, was found a proclamation intended to be made pubhc at Brussels the next day. 498 PERSIA, The loss on the British side during this dreadful battle was, as the duke of Wellington, no user of exaggerated ex- pressions, truly termed it, immense. One hundred officers slain, five hundred wounded, many of them to death, fifteen thousand men killed and wounded, (in- dependent of the Prussian loss at Wavre,) threw half Britain into mourning. Many officers of distinction fell. It required all the glory, and all the solid advantages, of this iuimortal day, to reconcile the mind to the high price at which it was purchased. The commander-in-chief, compelled to be on every point of danger, Avas repeatedly in the greatest jeopardy. Only the duke himself, and one gentle- man of his numerous staff, escaped un- wounded in horse and person. It would be difficult to form a guess at the extent of the French loss. Besides those who fell in the battle and flight, great numbers deserted. We do not be- lieve, that of 75,000 men, the half were ever again collected under arms. The revolution in July, 1830, was soon followed by one in Belgium. It may be said to date its commencement from a meeting, principally composed of citizens, which was called at Brussels, August 24, 1830. It appears that the people of the Belgian provinces were never cordially united with Holland and the other Dutch provinces. ^ King William (the prince of Orange) attempted, but without much success, to unite two millions of Dutch Calvinists, engaged principally in com- merce, with four millions of Belgian Catholics, employed in agriculture and manufactures, whose interests, language and manners were widely opposed to the Dutch. They also had some just cause of complaint against some arbitrary mea- sures of William's government. The Belgians, therefore, rose and followed the example of the French by throwing off a government forced upon them against their wishes. They made a formal decla- ration of independence, October 4,1830. After a short struggle with the Dutch troops, France lent her aid in the con- test ; and the European powers having become mediators for the express pur- pose of dismembering the countries, it was finally settled that Leopold of Saxe Coburg should become head of the fu- ture kingdom. Leopold made his public entry into Brussels, July 21, 1831, and took the oath to observe the constitution and maintain the national independence. Since this period but little has occurred to disturb the tranquillity of the two coun- tries, with the exception of the attack on the fortress at Antwerp, which the Dutch were very unwilling to give up. It was attacked by the French troops, and bravely defended by general Chasse. The French by using artillery of a most formidable character, forced the garrison to capitu- late, December 23, 1832. PERSIA. Sir William Jones divides the ancient history of the Persians into three dis- tinct periods : The " dark and fabulous," comprehending the ages preceding the Kaianian dynasty ; the " heroic and poet- ical," commencing with the Kaianian dynasty and terminating with the acces- sion of Ardisheer Babigan ; and the " his- torical," which includes the reigns of the Sassanian Kings. The Persians rose into notice and power by the conquest of Cyrus, who is celebrated both in profane and sacred his- tory. Cyrus was the son of a Persian nobleman, and married the daughter of the king of the Medes, and by this means Persia and Media became one kingdom. He conquered the Lydians, made himself master of Sardis, their capital, and took prisoner the king Crcesus, so celebrated for his vast riches. He conquered Baby- lon and subjected the greater part of Asia Minor, and made himself master of Syria and Arabia. The religion of the ancient Persians was of great antiquity. Zoroaster was the founder of the sect of PERSIA. 499 Magi, in the eastern world, and particu- larly in Persia. This sect adored the sun, and paid great veneration to fire — hence they were called fire-worshippers. The conquest of the Grecian states seems to have been a favorite object with the Persians from the time of Cyrus. They entered Greece under Xerxes and others, but the Grecian states by uniting drove the invaders from their country. Alexander the Great, on his return from Egypt, went into Assyria, where he was met at Arbcla by Darius the Persian king at the head of 700,000 men. A battle took place, in which the Persians were defeat- ed with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius escaped, and fled from province to prov- ince, until he was at last murdered by one of his own officers. This ended the Per- sian Empire, which submitted to the con- queror 330 years before the christian era. The Persian historians before the time of Cyrus and Alexander the Great, and even for a period afterwards, are so in- termixed with fabulous accounts, that it is difficult to ascertain the truth from their records. We learn, however, from the more authentic records of the Greeks, that Persia on the death of Alexander fell to Seleucus, who reigned also over Syria, and whose descendants kept pos- session of it for sixty-two years, when one of the tributary chiefs, named Ar- saces, revolted, and having slain Aga- thocles, the viceroy of Antiochus Theos, rescued Persia from the dominion of the Seleucides, and established what is termed the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacides. Of this dynasty there were two branches ; the first comprehending twenty kings, who ruled over Persia for 270 years ; and the reigns of the eleven monarchs of the second branch included a space of 221 years. This brings us down to the foundation of the Sassanian dynasty, at which commences " the historical pe- riod;" and here we may observe, that, though the Persian accounts are embel- lished with hyperbolical descriptions, and blended with some fables, they are more correct in the general narrative than western writers, who confine their history chiefly to those transactions in which they themselves were more imme- diately concerned. Arduan, the last of the Parthian mon- archs, at this time ruled over Persia, when Ardisheer Babigan, the son of an inferior officer in the public service, and a descendant of Sassan, the grandson of the celebrated Isfundear, had so dis- tinguished himself by his courage and his genius, that he was appointed gov- ernor of Darabjird. This rapid rise in his fortunes filled his mind with more ambitious views, and soon led him to grasp at the Persian sceptre. Having represented to the Persian nobility the disgrace of submitting to a foreign yoke, and the honor and advantage to be gained by a revolution, he brought many of them over to his interest, and he and his adherents got possession of Fars, Ker- man, and Irak, before the king had taken any steps to oppose his progress. Ardu- an was now compelled to take the field, and, having collected a numerous army, resolved to stake his crown on a single action. The hostile armies engaged on the plain of Hoormuz, where Arduan lost both his crown and his life. This battle raised Ardisheer to the sovreignty of Persia. The other provinces soon submitted to his sway ; and he assumed the proud title of Shahan Shah, or " king of kings." In extending his empire towards the west, he had to contend with the Roman ar- mies ; and though the accounts given of this war by western and eastern authors are somewhat opposite, yet, upon the whole, it would seem that the result was favorable to the Persian arms. Having established by wise regulations the tran- quillity of his dominions, he restored to its ancient purity the religion of Zoroas^ ter, which had fallen into neglect and corruption during the Parthian rule. He is said to have rebuilt the city of Madain on the banks of the Tigris, and made it the capital of the empire. After a most prosperous reign of fourteen years, he resigned his sceptre to his son Shahpoor, Ardisheer is represented as a prince of extraordinary wisdom and valor. — Though born in a low station, he, by his talents and intrepidity, delivered his coun- try from thraldom, and restored the glory of the Persian name. While he was al- most adored by his subjects, his friend- ship was courted by the greatest mon- 500 PERSIA. archs of the age ; and his character was held up as a model to his successors. Shahpoor was a prince of considera- ble reputation, but is chiefly distinguished by his wars with the Romans. His first achievement was the recovery of Juzcer- ah, or the countries between the Tigris and the Euphrates, and the capture of the famous fort of Nisibis, which had long resisted all his efforts to subdue it. He then carried his arms into the Roman territories ; he took the emperor Valerian prisoner, and compelled his captive army to receive an emperor of his own ap> pointment. His success, however, was not of long duration. He was defeated by Odenatus, prince of Palmyrene, and driven with immense loss within his own boundaries. The latter years of the reign of this monarch were employed in de- corating his dominions with many cities and public buildings. He built the city of Shuster, and erected an immense dyke, over which he brought the river Karoon, in order to supply the adjacent country with water. Nishapore in Kho- rassan, and Shahpoor in Fars, owe their existence to him ; and the sculptured rocks, near the latter place, commemo- rate his capture of a Roman emperor. It was during the reign of Sliahpoor, that Mani, the founder of the sect of the Manichaeans, first began to propagate his opinions. He attempted to reconcile the doctrines of the Metempsychosis, as taught by the Hindoos, and the two prin- ciples of good and evil of Zoroaster, with the tenets of the christian religion ; but he and almost all his disciples were afterwards put to death by order of king Baharam, and the skin of the impostor was stripped off, and hung up at the gate of the city of Shahpoor. A remarkable circumstance is recorded of Hoormuz, the successor of Shahpoor, before he ascended the throne. He was the governor of Khorassan,and had been most successful in establishing the tranquil- lity of that imsettled province. But some of his enemies had excited suspicions of his fidelity in the breast of Shahpoor ; of which Hoormuz was no sooner made acquainted than he made one of his hands to be cut off, and sent it to his father as a mark of his devoted allegiance. Shah- ! poor was so struck with horror at the deed, which his rash suspicions had caused, that he immediately sent for him to court, and treated him with the most unbounded affection and confidence. This good prince founded the city of Ram- Hoormuz, and reigned only one year. In the reigns of the three Baharams, nothing remarkable occurred worth not- ing. Their successor Narsi was a prince of a mild disposition ; but he had the misfortune to engage in war with the Romans, who at that time had many great generals. His arms were at first suc- cessful. He defeated the emperor Gale- rius, and subdued almost all Armenia ; but his subsequent discomfitures forced him to conclude an ignominious peace, by which he ceded the province of Ju- zeerah, and five districts east of the Tigris We pass over the reign of Hoormuz II, as affording no event of importance, to record the achievements of Shahpoor II. On the demise of Hoormuz, Persia was about to become a prey to all the troubles which accompany a disputed succession, when a lady of the harem declared she was pregnant. The nobles of the kingdom, in order to preserve their country from the horrors of a civil war, resolved to swear allegiance to the unborn child of Hoormuz. This child proved to be a male, and the unanimous voice of the nobles bestowed upon him the name of Shahpoor. His education was conduct- ed with the most affectionate solicitude ; and every care was taken that he should imbibe those principles and views which became his high destiny. During his minority the kingdom was exposed to the insults and ravages of the neighboring tribes, particularly the Arabs, who car- ried desolation into the fertile valleys of Persia. But the young monarch took signal vengeance upon these marauders ; and their chastisement is perpetuated in his title of Zoolaktaf, or " Lord of the shoulders." He overran Yemen, put many of the inhabitants to the sword, and dislocated the shoulders of all his prisoners who were able to bear arms. He made no great attempt to extend his dominions on the west during the life of Constantine the Great. An improba- PERSIA. 501 ble story is recorded of his having gone to Constantinople in the disguise of an ambassador from his own court, in order to acquire an acquaintance with the Ro- man empire, but being discovered, he was imprisoned and treated with great indignity. The disorders which followed the death of Constantine aflbrded Shahpoor an op- portunity of recovering from the Romans those provinces which they had wrested from his grandfather. He therefore took the field ; but though successful in many engagements, the fort of Nisibis defied all his efforts ; and in the battle of Sin- gara he was severely repulsed, and was forced to retire with the loss of his son. Leaving the defence of the frontiers to some of his generals, he turned his arms against the Tartar tribes, many of whom he subdued by force, while others yield- ed without resistance to his authority. The emperor Constans now made over- tures for peace ; but Shahpoor claiming Armenia and Juzeerah as belonging to the Persian empire, the treaty was brok- en oft', and preparations made for renew- ing the war. Nothing decisive, however, happened during the life of Constans. But when Julian had assumed the pur- ple, he resolved to break the Persian power so eflectually, as to prevent them for ever from again disturbing the fron- tier provinces of the Roman empire. He therefore took the field with an im- mense army ; but the Persian monarch, aware of his inferiority were he to risk a pitched battle, retired into the interior of his kingdom, and left his capital to be pillaged by the Romans. Julian follow- ed, and penetrated into the heart of Per- sia, and, after a harassing march, and much suffering from the intense heat of the climate and the scarcity of provi- sions, was surprised by Shahpoor, who had collected all his forces ; and in a des- perate engagement which ensued, the Romans were completely routed, with the loss of their emperor, who was so badly wounded that he died the succeed- ing night. The consequence of this vic- tory was, an advantageous peace, by which Persia recovered the five provin- ces yielded by Narsi, and the strong fort of Nisibis, which had for a long time been the bulwark of the Roman power in the east. Shahpoor afterwards reduced Armenia into a province of the empire, and hav- ing raised his country to a state of the greatest prosperity, he died at the age of seventy-one. This prince, renowned for wisdom and valor, was alike remarkable for his knowledge of the human mind. He used to say, " that words may prove more vivifying than the showers of spring, and sharper than the sword of destruc- tion. The point of a lance may be with- drawn from the body, but a cruel expres- sion can never be extracted from the heart that it has once wounded." The names of Ardisheer H, Shahpoor HI, Baharam IV, and Yezdijird Ulathin, are all that is worth recording. Upon the death of Yezdijird, the succession of his son Baharam V, was opposed by the luxurious nobles at the court of Madain. This prince, while yet a child, had been entrusted by his father to the care of Noman, prince of Hirah, to be educated after the manner of the Arabs ; and they could not submit to be ruled by a mon- arch whose manners and habits of life were so different from their own. They, therefore, raised to the throne another prince of the royal family ; but Baharam, having collected an army of Arabs, ob- tained his right almost without a strug- gle. The first acts of his reign were, to reward Noman, who had educated and assisted him in regaining his crown, and to pardon those who had endeavored to de- prive him of it. These acts, and his gen- eral munificence and generosity, spread joy over Persia, and gained him the af- fections and esteem of his subjects. It was during his reign that musicians and minstrels were first introduced from In- dia ; and Baharam, who rejoiced in the happiness of his people, gave them such encouragement, that 1 2,000 were induced to settle in his dominions. This joyous disposition of the monarch impressed his neighbors with the belief that the mar- tial spirit of the Persians had yielded to the love of merriment and ease. Acting upon this impression, the Khan of the Hiatilla, or White Huns, a tribe of Tar- tars who had taken possession of the country beyond the Oxus, suddenly cross- 502 PERSIA. ed that river with a mighty army, and destruction and desolation marked his pro- gress. Baharam saw the torrent rolling towards his capital, without possessing any means to repel it. He therefore seemed to yield to its force ; and left his kingdom a prey to the conqueror. Re- tiring with a chosen body of Persian warriors, he passed the straits of Der- bent, and, coasting the Caspian, came into Tartary. Here he refreshed his troops ; and while the Tartars were feast- ing in supposed security, believing that he had taken refuge in the Roman em- pire, he silently entered Persia, surpris- ed their camp, and having slain their chief with his own hand, drove them with terrible slaughter across the Oxus. This victory struck awe into the Tartar tribes, and secured their forbearance during the life of the conqueror. The Christians, who, in the former reign, had been encouraged and protected, at this time suffered much from the per- secutions of the Magi. These persecu- tions, however, were chiefly owing to the imprudence of the Persian Prelate, who in a lit of zeal burnt to the ground one of the Magian temples, which so roused the indignation of the priests, that they demolished all the Christian church- es, and put the Christian bishop to death. A war with the emperor Theodosius im- mediately followed, which was attended with various success ; but it was immor- talized by the conduct of a Christian bishop,which did more to secure the good- will of Baharam to the Christians, than all the threatenings of Theodosius. In the beginning of the war, 7,000 Persian prisoners, who had been brought to the city of Amida, had fallen into extreme distress. Acacius, bishop of that place, having assembled his clergy, observed that the Almighty preferred mercy to sa- crifice, and proposed that the plate of their church should be sold for the relief of these captives. The proposal was highly applauded. The Persians were liberally and aflectionately treated during the war, and at last dismissed with pre- sents to their native country. Baharam received the surname of Gour, from his being enthusiastically devoted to the chase, particularly of the gour, or " wild ass," a diversion which he had learned among the Arabs. It was while pursuing this favorite amusement that he lost his life, by his horse coming sudden~ ly upon a deep spring, and plunging into it with his royal master, when both dis- appeared. The body of the king was never found, though every search was made for it by his inconsolable mother. Baharam Gour reigned eighteen years, and was one of the best monarchs, and most beloved by his subjects, that ever ruled in Persia. His successor Yezdi- jird II, was a prince of great knowledge and experience, and received the title of Sipahdost, or " The soldiers' friend," from his great attention to their wants and comforts. In the only expedition which he undertook against the emperor of Constantinople, who had refused to pay the usual tribute, he not only brought that prince to compliance, but secured the good opinion of the provinces through which he passed. He compelled his troops to pay for every thing they had, to treat the iidiabitants with the greatest civility, and to conduct themselves rather like strangers who came to see the coim- try, than like enemies disposed to de- stroy it. Yezdijird, before his death, had soli- cited the nobles to support his favorite son, Hoormuz III, on the throne, in op- position to his elder brother Firoze, who, in order to facilitate that measure, had been appointed to the command of a re- mote province. Firoze, as soon as he heard of the accession of his brother, took refuge with Khoosh-Nuaz, or " the bountiful monarch," one of the kings of the Hiatilla. This prince welcomed him to his court, loaded him with kindness, and supplied him with an army to recov- er his birth-right. Hoormuz was dethron- ed and put to death. A seven years' drought immediately followed the eleva- tion of Firoze, which was regarded as a punishment from heaven for their crimes ; but no sooner was his country relieved from this calamity, than the ungrateful prince employed all the resources of the empire to destroy the generous benefactor who had placed him on the throne. He crossed the Oxus with his troops ; and Koosh-Nuaz, unable to oppose him, re- PERSIA. 503 tired at bis approach. But the king of the Huns was saved by the patriotic de- votion of one of his chief officers. This person, after communicating his plan to his sovereign, caused his body to be mangled, with the loss of some of his limbs, and to be laid on the road where the Persian army should pass. Being conveyed to Firoze, that prince demand- ed the cause of such cruel treatment. The artful Hun answered, that it was the tyrant Koosh-Nuaz, who had punished him for the advice which he had given, as a faithful servant, to submit to any conditions rather than engage in war with the hero Firoze. " But I will be re- venged," he added, " I will lead you by a short route, where you shall, in a few days, intercept the tyrant, and rid the world of a monster." The situation and words of the wounded chief established the belief of his sincerity in the mind of the Persian king; and he suffered his army to be led by the direction of the Tartar, till thinned with hunger and fatigue, they were compelled to submit to the mercy of the enemy. The gener- ous Koosh-Nuaz, instead of punishing the ungrateful Firoze, offered to conduct him and the remains of his army safely back to Persia, provided he took an oath that he would not again invade his do- minions. With this Firoze was obliged to comply. But his soul could not brook the recollection of his degradation; and his first determination, on his return, was to wipe away his disgrace by the ruin of his benefactor. Having appointed a no- bleman, named Sukhvar, regent in his absence, he, in breach of his solemn oath, and in defiance of the advice of his sagest counsellors, led his army once more against the bestower of his crown, and now the preserver of his life. On the approach of the two armies, the Tartar prince presented, on the point of his lance, the treaty to which Firoze had sworn ; and besought him to desist, before he had destroyed his fame for ever. But Firoze nished to the attack. The Huns gave way, and the Persians were received into deep pits, which had been dug for the purpose, and covered over with brush- wood and earth ; when the incorrigible injrratitude of the Persian monarch was punished with the loss of his army and his life. Pallas, the son of Firoze, ascended the throne, but his reign was of short duration ; and the long reign of his suc- cessor Kobad is remarkable, chiefly for the encouragement which he gave to an impostor of the name of Mazdak, who propagated the popular doctrine of a com- munity of females and of property. The progress of this doctrine spread anarchy, rapine, and lust, throughout the kingdom. But the nobles, who cherished different sentiments from their monarch, combined for their own preservation, and having confined Kobad, they placed his brother Jamasp upon the throne. They would also have imprisoned Mazdak, but his followers were numerous, and he contriv- ed to elude all their efforts. Kobad hav- ing escaped from prison by the dexterity and address of his sister, who, it is said, was connected with him by other ties than those of kindred, and is in fact called, by western writers, his queen, fled to the Tartar court, and by the assistance of its monarch soon regained his throne. On his return, he greatly reformed his conduct, and though still secretly inclined to the sect of Mazdak, he durst never carry his notions into practice. This prince carried on a long and successful war with the Romans ; and not only ex- tended his empire by his arms, but im- proved it by the encouragement which he gave to the arts, and died respected abroad and beloved at home. By the will of Kobad, the crown was bequeathed to Chosroes, his favorite son, who was surnamed Nousheerwan, or " The Magnanimous." This prince was distinguished by great abilities and mild- ness of disposition, and is considered by oriental historians as the most glorious monarch that ever ruled in Persia. His first efforts were directed to the proscrip- tion of the pestilential and abominable tenets of Mazdak, whom he ordered to be executed, with many of his followers. He then set himself to reform many great abuses which had crept into the government. He fixed the revenue and taxes ; and the system which was then established, continued to be followed for many centuries. For the better adrainis- 504 PERSIA. tration of justice, and the more easy management of public affairs, he divided the kingdom into four governments. — Over each of these he appointed a gov- ernor of the blood royal, and established such regulations as seemed best adapted to prevent the abuse of power in these officers. He was indefatigable in his endeavors to promote the prosperity of his kingdom. He founded schools and colleges, and gave great encouragement to learned men of every country, who resorted to his court. The famous fa- bles of Pilpay were introduced by him from India, and translated into Persian ; and he also caused to be published, a multitude of copies of a work entitled " Ardisheer's Instructions for all Degrees of Men," and obliged every family to re- ceive one. In all these measures he was assisted by the extraordinary wisdom and virtues of his favorite vizier Abouzurg- a-Mihir, who had been raised by the dis- cernment of his master from the lowest station to the first rank in the kingdom. Nousheerwan very early entered into a Avar with the Romans, during which An- tioch was taken, and its inhabitants trans- planted to the banks of the Tigris. We cannot enter, however, into the long wars which he waged with Justinian, and his two successors, Justin and Tiberius ; but the capture of Antioch, with the re- duction of Syria, the conquest of Iberia and Colchos, and his unopposed progress to the shores of the Mediterranean, tes- tify the ability and success with which they were prosecuted. He was equally successful in other quarters. He checked the encroachments of the Huns, who had seized a large territory south of the Ox- us. He drove them beyond that river, and extended his dominions as far as Ferghana. The countries to the east reaching to the Indus, some provinces of India, and the finest districts of Ara- bia, also acknowledged his sway. Having settled the boundaries of his vast dominions, Nousheerwan returned to his capital, Madain, which he adorned with many beautiful buildings, among which was the palace, denominated " the dome of Chosroes," which was consider- ed one of the wonders of the East ; and his court was crowded with ambassadors from the greatest potentates of the world, who came, loaded with the richest pre- sents, to compliment him on his victo- ries, and to court his friendship. But the prosperous reign of this monarch was clouded by the rebellion of his son Nous- chizad. This prince had been educated in the christian faith by his mother, who was a christian captive of great beauty, and of whom the king was passionately fond, and was so impressed with the truth of its doctrines, that he could not be moved, either by the threats of the Magi or the entreaties of his father. Nousheerwan, who was a strict observer of the worship of fire, dreading the evil consequences of religious disputes among his subjects, and fearing that many might be induced to embrace the religion of the heir-apparent to the throne, placed his son in a kind of confinement. During the absence of the king in Syria, a re- port of his death had reached Persia, upon which Nouschizad, having effected his escape, drew together a considerable force, of which many were christians ; and continued to increase his army, even after he had been informed that his father was alive and well. As soon as Nous- heerwan heard of this revolt, he despatch- ed one of his generals against his rebel- Uous son ; and the insurrection was quelled by the death of the prince, who fell in the first encounter. Perhaps no monarch was ever more zealous in promoting the general hap- piness of his people than Nousheerwan. His impartial administration of justice, and his vigilance in detecting and pun- ishing every act of oppression in his in- ferior officers, gave confidence and secu- rity to all. Many anecdotes are record- ed of his strict adherence to justice, which seems to have been a principal feature in his character. He was sur- named by the Arabians, Al-Malek, or, " The Just ;" and Mahomed used to boast of his good fortune in being born under the reign of so just a king. A Roman ambassador, one day, admiring the noble prospect from the windows of the impe- rial palace, remarked an uneven piece of ground, and inquired the reason why it was not made uniform. A Persian noble replied, " It is the property of an old PERSIA. 505 woman, who has objections to sell it, ! though often requested to do so by our king ; and he is more willing to have his prospect spoiled, than to commit vio- lence." " That irregular spot," said the Roman, " consecrated as it is by justice, appears more beautiful than all the sur- rounding scene." " This prince," says Khondemir, " possessed in a sovereign degree, as well the good qualities which render amiable a private man, as the ex- alted virtues which add lustre to a dia- dem." He resisted the influence of that luxury by which he was courted, neither giving himself up to indulgence, nor per- mitting it in others ; and he remained, to the last hour of a life protracted to more than eighty years, unconquered by pros- perity. With Nousheerwan expired the glory of Persia. His son, Hoormuz HI, who had been entrusted to the care of Abou- zurg-a-Mihir, soon forgot the example of his father, and the instructions of his vir- tuous minister , and plunging into every excess of indulgence and cruelty, ren- dered himself hateful to his subjects, and contemptible to his enemies. The prov- inces of India and Arabia, which ac- knowledged the power of Nousheerwan, disdained to yield obedience to his un- worthy successor ; and the Khan of Tar- tary crossed the Oxus, and demanded a free passage through Persia, under the pretence of invading the Roman empire. This chief, however, was opposed by Baharam, the Persian general, with on- ly 12,000 chosen troops, and slain in the first engagement. In a subsequent battle, the son of the Khan was taken prisoner, and sent to Madain with 250 camels loaded with treasure. Hoormuz was at first delighted with his general's success ; but a worthless favorite mali- ciously insinuated, that Baharam had re- served the best of the spoil for his own use, or, according to the Persian expres- sion, " he had only sent the ear of the cow." The suspicious temper of the king immediately took the alarm, and, instead of a habit of honor, the usual present of Persian kings, he sent to Ba- haram as a mark of disgrace, the apparel of a woman, a distaft' and spindle. The hardy warrior, arrayed in his new apparel, 64 presented himself to his army. " Behold," said he, "the reward of all my services." The soldiers were filled with indignation, and immediately hailed Baharam as their king. The deposition and murder of Hoormuz soon followed ; and his son Khoosroo Purveez, who had collected a considerable army to support his father's throne, was completely defeated in the battle of Nahrwan, and fled for refuge to the emperor Maurice, where he met with a most hospitable and friendly re- ception. Baharam assumed the reins of govern- ment ; but his rule was short. Within eight months of his elevation, he was de- feated by Khoosroo, supported l)y an ar- my of Romans, and, flying into Tartary, was welcomed and protected by a people whose armies he had often vanquished. He was soon afterwards cut oflf by poi- son, at the instance, it is alleged, of the Persian king. Khoosroo, during the life-time of the emperor Maurice, maintained inviolable his friendship with the Romans, many of whom he treated with great favor and distinction ; but upon the murder of that prince by the centurion Phocas, he des- patched an immense army into the Ro- man territories, under the pretence of avenging the death of his benefactor. His generals overran and pillaged Syria and Palestine ; sacked the city of Jeru- salem ; and the true cross, attended by a crowd of captive priests and bishops, was borne in triumph to Madain. But while his arms were every where victo- rious, this monarch, who had given him- I self up to every species of luxury and self-indulgence, seemed to value his con- quests only as they added to his pleas- ures. The vast territories which his gen- erals had subdued were exhausted, to add to the magnificence of his palaces, and swell the gorgeous pomp of his royal person. He built a noble palace for every season ; and his principal throne, called Takh-dis, was supported with 40,000 sil- ver columns, and in the concave over them, which was formed to represent the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and adorned with a thousand globes of gold, were seen all the planets and great constella- tions performing their natural revolutions. 506 PERSIA. Twelve thousand females, the most beau- tiful in Persia, tilled his harem, 6,000 horses stood in the royal stables, 12,000 elephants followed his armies, and his treasures were deposited in 100 vaults. No monarch ever surpassed him in royal luxury and splendor, and for thirty years his arms were marked with complete success. His victorious troops carried the Persian banners to the frontiers of Ethiopia, and added Arabia, Egypt, and Colchos, to his dominions. Put Khoosroo was aroused from his dream of happiness and of conquest, by the victories of the Emperor Heraclius. This prince, who was as remarkable for his weakness and indecision in the cab- inet, as for his extraordinary valor and skill in the field, had long endeavored by negotiation, to avert the total overthrow of the Roman name, and had even sent deputies to express his desire to pur- chase peace upon any terms. He was, however, awakened from his lethargy by the insulting answer of the Persian king. " I will hearken to no terms, till your mas- ter shall renounce his crucified God, and adore the God of the Persians." Herac- lius, upon this, took the field in person, and in six glorious campaigns, stript Khoosroo of all his conquests, overran the finest provinces of his empire, des- troyed his magnificent palaces, plundered his hoarded treasures, and dispersed, in every direction, the countless slaves of his pleasures. The troops of Persia were overthrown in every encounter ; and Khoosroo was at last deposed by his own subjects, and murdered by the com- mand of his own son. Schirouch enjoy- ed the reward of his parricide only eight months ; and, during the four succeeding years, the kingdom was so distracted by intestine divisions, that seven sovereigns, two of whom were daughters of Khoosroo Purveez, were raised to the throne by the ambitious nobles, and successively mur- dered. Yezdijird III, the grandson of Khoosroo, was next called to wield the sceptre of Persia ; and he has obtained celebrity only as being the last sovereign of the house of Sassan ; and in whose reign the Arabs accomplished the subver- sion of the Persian empire. The first attempt of Mahomed to ex- tend his religion over Persia was in the reign of Khoosroo Purveez, who was so enraged at being called upon by an ob- scure Arabian to renounce the religion of his fathers, that he tore to pieces the letter of the prophet ; and to that sacrile- gious act, Mahomedan historians impute all that prince's subsequent misfortunes. The next attempt was made by the Ca- liph Omar, who commanded a body of Arabs to pass the Euphrates. They were at first severely repulsed in several engagements ; but by their valor and per- severance they at last obtained an impor- tant victory, which laid the foundation of the Mahomedan power in that country. The armies of the faithful soon ex- tended the authority of their master from the Euphrates to the Oxus, destroying with savage fury every vistage of idol- atry, and the inhabitants were every where compelled to submit to the reli- gion of the conquerors, or seek an asy- lum in other lands. Lieutenants were then appointed to the different districts of the country, and Persia, for more than two centuries, was held as a province under the Arabian Caliphs. In process of time, however, the fever of religious frenzy abated, and the power of the caliphs de- clined. The discontented and mutinous armies of the impotent successors of Omar and Aly were scarcely able to pro- tect the capital, much less hold in sub- jection the distant provinces of the em- pire, whose governors exercised almost regal power, carried on war Avith each other, and gave no mark of allegiance to the vicegerent of the prophet, except the merely using his name in the public prayers. While the kingdom was thus divided and distracted by the contentions of its petty rulers, the sceptre of Persia was won by the wisdom and valor of Yacoob- ben-Leis, the son of a pewterer and a robber. This daring chief was an inhab- itant of Seistan, and was characterized by great simplicity of manners. He pos- sessed the devoted attachment of his fol- lowers, and in no instance did he abuse his success, by any wanton act of cru- elty or oppression. Having first estab- lished his authority in his native prov- ince, he, from thence, carried his arms PERSIA. 507 over the finest districts of Persia, and his ambition even led him to threaten des- truction to the power and the government of the caliphs. He was, however, de- feated in the vicinity of Bagdad ; but, undismayed by his reverse, he recruited his army, and returned again to the at- tack of the capital. The caliph dreaded the result, and despatched a messenger to the camp of Yacoob. This leader, though lying dangerously ill, having commanded that his sword, some coarse bread, and dried onions should be laid be- fore him, desired the envoy to be introdu- ced. " Tell your master," said he, " that, if I live, that sword shall decide betwixt us : if I conquer, I will do as I please ; if he is victorious, that bread and those onions, which thou seest, is my fare ; and neither he nor fortune can triumph over a man accustomed to such diet." But the resolute chief survived only a few days, and almost the whole of Per- sia fell by succession to his brother Amer. Mahmood, the next monarch of note, was renowned, not only for his victories, but he was a mimificent patron of genius ; and it is to his love of literature, and the encouragement which he gave to learned men, that we owe the noble work of Ferdosi, the Shah Namah, or " Book of Kings," which contains almost all that remains of the ancient history of his coun- try. A splendid reward had been prom- ised to the poet, upon the completion of his task, but Mahmood had been persua- ded by envious rivals to lessen the amount. Ferdosi spurned the diminished present, and after adding to his poem a severe satire upon the king's want of generosity, left the court, and retired to his native city of Toos in Khorassan. Sometime afterward the monarch saw his error, but it was too late. The rich present destined for the poet, entered the gates of Toos, as the body of Ferdosi was carrying to its sepulchre ; and we | are told that his virtuous daughter rejected I the wealth which had been denied to the ' unrivalled merit of her father. I The conquests of Mahmood in the \ east, were uniformly marked by religious j persecution, and his bigot zeal led him : not only to destroy the idols, and pillage j the temples of the Hindoo idolaters, but j also to cover their cities with desolation. In a popular eastern tale, the vizier of this prince is represented as pretending to be acquainted with the language of birds, and as explaining the liberality of an old owl, who, after wishing " Mah- mood a long life," offered a hundred ru- ined villages as a dowry to her daughter. But while he was carrying the horrors of war and of persecution into every country which he visited, his own dominions en- joyed perfect tranquillity, which was greatly owing to his severe, but equitable rule. The following instance of his de- termined justice is recorded by all his historians. " A poor man had com- plained that a young noble of the court came constantly to his house at night, turned him out of doors, and slept with his wife. The monarch bade him give notice the next time this occurred. He did as he was directed, and Mahmood went with him to his house. When he reached it, he put out a lamp that was burning, and having found the paramour, struck off his head with one blow of his cimiter. He then called for a light, and, after viewing the corpse, fell upon his knees, and returned thanks to heaven, after which he bade the astonished hus- band bring him water, of which he drank an immoderate quantity. ' You are sur- prised at my actions,' said Mahmood, " but know, that since you informed me of the outrage you suffered, I have nei- ther slept, eat, nor drank. 1 conceived that no person, except one of my sons, would dare openly to commit so great a crime ; resolved to do justice, I extin- guished the light, that my feelings as a father might not prevent nie from doing my duty as a sovereign ; my prayers were a thanksgiving to the Almighty, when I saw that I had not been compelled to slay one of my own offspring, and I drank, as you observed, like a man that was ex- piring from thirst.' " The successors of Mahmood were un- able to maintain the glory which he had acquired, and were soon swept from the list of monarchs by the leader of a Tar- tar tribe, who at first had been permitted to lead their flocks over the rich pastures of Khorassan, but who soon became mas- ters of that province, and at last drove 508 PERSIA. the monarchs of Ghizni beyond the lim- its of Persia. The territory of this Tar- tar tribe of Seljookee stretched from the Oxus to the laxartes. But as soon as their chief, Toghrul Beg, had got posses- sion of Khorassan, he assumed the title and state of a sovereign, and extending his conquests to the west, overran Irak, and, by the reduction of Bagdad, became master of the person of the caliph Ul- Kaim. Having completely subdued the whole of Persia, he sought to strengthen his authority by a close alliance with the family of the successors of the prophet. Ul-Kaim had married his sister, and he himself demanded the daughter of the commander of the faithful. The depend- ent condition of the Caliph forbade him to refuse compliance, but the aged bride- groom enjoyed his union only for a few months. His nephew Alp-Arselan ascended the throne, and upheld by his valor and gen- erosity the glory of the empire which his imcle had founded. His first enterprise was directed against the tottering power of Constantinople. He invaded Geor- gia, and advanced into the province of Phrygia ; but he found an enemy worthy of the name, in the emperor Romanus. The Persian armies were forced to fall back upon their frontiers. A general en- gagement followed, where the troops of Romanus were at first successful ; but the treachery and cowardice of one of his principal ofiicers, who withdrew with a large division of his forces, gave the victory to the Persians. The courage of Romanus, strengthened by despair, was unable to retrieve his fortunes ; and being at last wounded and overwhelmed by numbers, he was taken prisoner, and carried into the presence of his con- queror. " What would you have done, had fortune reversed our lot ?" demanded the Persian. " I would have given you many a stripe," was the reply. Alp-Arselan smiled at his inoffensive rage ; and asked what treatment he now expected from him. " If thou art cruel," said Romanus, "put me to death. If vain-glorious, load me with chains, and drag me in triumph to thy capital. If generous, grant me my liberty." Alp-Arselan was generous. He nobly released the emperor and all his officers, and treated them with every mark of friendship and regard. *The Persian king now led his armies to the conquest of the country of his fathers. He crossed the Oxus without opposition by a bridge, which he had commanded to be thrown over that river ; but here his career of conquest was clos- ed. The protracted resistance of a small fortress had retarded the progress of the Persian army, which so irritated the monarch, that he commanded its gallant commander into his presence ; and, after loading him with reproaches, ordered him for execution. The brave soldier drew his dagger and rushed towards the sultan. The guards interposed ; but Alp- Arselan, who considered himself une- qualled as an archer, seized his bow, and ordered them to stand back. He, how- ever, missed his aim, and before he could draw another arrow, he fell under the dagger of his prisoner. After a series of intestine wars, the reigning princes were all swept away by the inundation of the Tartars under Genghis Khan. This destroyer of the human race divided his immense con- quests among his four sons, when Persia, Khorassan, and Cabul, were assigned to Tuli Khan, who survived his father but a few years, and was succeeded by his son, the celebrated Hulakoo Khan. This monarch having captured Bagdad, and extirpated the race of the caliphs, fixed his residence at Maragha. In this delightful spot he spent the remainder of his life, enjoying the society of learned men, and promoting every work of sci- ence to the utmost of his power. Phi- losophers and astronomers were assem- bled from every part of his dominions, who, under the direction of his favorite and learned minister Nasser-u-deen, formed those astronomical tables, known under the name of the tables of Eel- Khannee. The remains of a building situated on the summit of a low mountain near Maragha still marks the spot sacred to science, where these learned men carried on their observations. Hulakoo died before his observatory was comple- ted, and bequeathed his sceptre to his son Abaka, a prince equally renowned for courage and wisdom and moderation. PERSIA. 509 The reigns of this prince and of his successors, Ahmed; Arghoun, and Key Khatou, are marked by no events of im- portance, except the attempt of the latter to introduce a paper currency throughout his dominions, which however cost him both his crown and his Hfe. This weak prince having exhausted his treasury by his unexampled prodigality, listened to the schemes of one of the officers of the revenue, who proposed to substitute a paper exchange in lieu of specie in all commercial transactions ; and by this means it was expected that all the gold and silver in the country would flow into the royal coffers, and give life and vigor to the government. For this purpose banking houses were erected in every city and town in Persia, where notes of various value were regularly issued ; and each note contained a positive mandate for all his majesty's subjects to receive them, on pain of punishment. This measure, however, was so unpopular, that it lasted but a few days, when it was repealed ; but it lost the monarch the confidence of all ranks ; and he was soon after deposed and slain by a confederacy of his disaffected nobles, at the head of which was Baidu Khan, the grandson of Hulakoo. Baidu, however, enjoyed the crown but a few months, when he fell by the hand of his nephew Ghazan Khan. This prince, however, refused to as- cend the throne till he was regidarly elected, like his Mogul ancestors, by the assembled chiefs or ameers of the empire. He then set himself to reform the many abuses which had crept into the govern- ment during a succession of weak princes. After his death the kingdom was torn by intestine divisions, and could offer but a feeble resistance to the victorious Tamerlane. This insatiable conqueror marked his progress by desolation and ruin. Many provinces were turned into deserts by the destructive ravages of his countless hordes ; and even submission did not exempt their unfortunate inhabi- tants from pillage and massacre. Ispahan opened its gates on his approach, but a heavy contribution was levied on its citi- zens. An imfortunate occurrence, how- ever, involved this city in ruin. The inhabitants were one night roused by the sound of a drum, which a young black- smith had been beating for his amuse- ment. They rushed together to ascertain the cause of their alarm, and, becoming irritated by the expressions of misery and distress which burst from all ranks, they vented their rage by the massacre of nearly three thousand Tartar soldiers who had been quartered in the city. On the morning the gates were shut, and the citizens called to arms ; but the resis- tance of despair could not save them from the fury of Tamerlane, who doomed Ispahan, as an example to the other cities of the earth. He would listen to no terms. The Avails were carried by storm ; and, besides giving up the city to pillage, he commanded that every soldier should bring him a certain number of heads. In this horrid massacre seventy thousand heads were raised in pyramids as monuments of savage revenge. Persia now became a province of the empire of Tartary, and continued to be ruled by the descendants of Tamerlane, till the invasion of a tribe of Turkomans under Uzun Hussun, who became sole master of the empire in 1468. Shah Ismail, the next monarch of note, was descended from a race of holy men, who were Sheahs, or adherents of the family of Aly, and who had long been settled at Ardebil, where they lived as retired devotees. Their reputed sanctity had attracted many disciples, and had acquired them the reverence and respect of the temporal rulers of their country. Though Sultan Khodah-bundah, about two centuries before, had embraced the faith of the sect of Aly, yet it was to Is- mail that it owed its establishment as the religion of the empire ; and it was prin- cipally to the nature of its tenets, that he was indebted for the rise of his fortunes. From the sanctity of his own character, and also of that of his ancestors, he was regarded by his followers as one raised up and favored by heaven for the propa- gation of the new faith. They gloried in the name of Sheah, or " sectary," and vowed eternal hostility against all Son- nites. So enthusiastic were they in this feeling, that many of his soldiers dis- dained to wear armor when fighting under Ismail, but bared their breasts, and court- 510 PERSIA. ed death in the midst of their enemies, ex- claiming, " Sheah ! Sheah!" to mark the holy cause for which they fought. The memory of Ismail is still cherished with affection in Persia ; and the dynasty, of which he was the founder, ruled over this country for more than two centuries. His son Tamasp was only ten years of age when he ascended the throne. Though not distinguished by great abili- ties, this prince possessed a kind and gen- erous disposition, was not wanting either in spirit or in prudence. During a long reign of fifty-three years, which was al- most periodically disturbed by the inva- sion of the Turks, on the one hand, and by the inroads of the Usbegs on the other, he maintained the integrity of the empire, and added Georgia to the conquests of his father. His generous reception of the emperor Hoomayoon, when driven from the throne of India, is remembered by his countrymen with national pride ; and the munificent and royal hospitality which that prince experienced, and the effectual assistance which he received to replace him on his throne, called forth the praise even of distant nations. It was during the reign of this prince, that Queen Eliza- beth accredited an English merchant, named Jenkinson, to visit the court of Persia, for the purpose of extending the commerce of her kingdom ; but Tamasp, who was most bigoted in his religious sentiments, told him that he had no need of the aid of infidels, and bade him depart. For nearly ten years, subsequent to the death of Shah Tamasp, the empire was torn by the contentions of his chil- dren, when his grandson Abbas was raised to the throne by the chiefs of Khorassan. Having restored tranquillity throughout the empire. Shah Abbas set himself to promote its general welfare and improve- ment. He fixed his residence at Ispa- han, which he made the capital of his dominions, and greatly beautified ; and its population was more than doubled du- ring his reign. There have been few sovereigns more deserving of the title of Great than Shah Abbas, if we consider the substantial benefits which he rendered to his country. Though distinguished as a military lead- er, and possessed of great means, he deemed the improvement of his dominions a nobler object than the pursuit of con- quest. He attended to the cultivation and commerce of Persia beyond all for- mer monarchs, and his liberal policy at- tracted to his dominions Europeans from almost every country in Christendom, who enjoyed during his reign the most abundant toleration. The impression which his noble munificence in the erec- tion of so many useful public buildings made upon the minds of his subjects, has descended to their children ; and the ready answer, which is received to every inquiry respecting the founder of any an- cient building in this country, is, " Shah Abbas the Great," which is given not from their knowledge of the fact, but from the habit of considering him as the author of all improvements. During the greater part of his reign, Persia enjoyed an internal tranquillity which had been unknown for centuries ; and the impartial Chardiii has summed up his character in this respect in few words. " When this great prince ceased to live, Persia ceased to prosper." But notwithstanding this high eulogy, we cannot forget the many cruelties of which he was guilty, particularly towards the members of his own family, which nei- ther the stern dictates of policy nor the jealousy of power can ever justify. This monarch died at the age of seventy, and bequeathed the sceptre of Persia to his grandson Sam Meerza, the son of Suffee Meerza. Previous to the time of Abbas the Great, the Persian princes had been brought up as soldiers, and had often the command of the armies ; but the jealousy of that sovereign, led him to change en- tirely this system of education ; and sub- sequent to the death of his sons, the princes of the Suffavean dynasty were from their infancy immured in the harem, and associated only with women and eunuchs. His successors consequently bore indelible marks of this pernicious system. Their characters were formed by their condition. Inexperienced and effeminate, they trusted the direction of public affairs to their ministers, and revel- ed in every sensual gratification. Ef- feminacy begat cowardice, and cowardice PERSIA. 511 cruelty ; and all who were at any time denounced as dangerous to their power, were immediately destroyed. Sam Meerza was seventeen years of age when he was taken from the harem and set upon the throne of the Great Abbas. He was a tyrant without one redeeming quality. Every male of the blood-royal, however distantly related, and every officer of rank or reputation, were either put to death or deprived of sight ; and the list of his victims was swelled by a great number of females of the highest rank, among whom were his aunt, his mother, and his queen. He died at Kashan, after a reign of fourteen years, every one of which presented the same horrid and disgusting scene of barbarous cruelty. Abbas II was not ten years old at the death of his father, and fell of course into the hands of his ministers, who happened to be men of devout and austere habits. But the restraint in which he was kept only led him to indulge the more when he escaped from their authority ; and though naturally humane and generous, yet in his drunken frolics he committed the most wanton cruelties. His excesses, however, were in a great degree confined to the circle of his court. His subjects at large knew him only as one of the most generous and just monarchs that ever ruled in Persia. During his reign the country enjoyed complete tranquillity ; embassies from almost every nation in Europe, as well as from India and Tar- tary, visited his court, and experienced his kindness. Commerce flourished ; and his hospitality and attention to strangers, attracted vast numbers to his dominions. His excessive indulgence brought on an inflammation in the throat, of which he died in the thirty-fourth year of his age. The reign of Hussein, one of his suc- cessors, is memorable chiefly for the in- vasion and subjugation of the empire by the Afl*ghans in 1722. This race had long inhabited the mountainous region between Persia and India. Divided into tribes, where the chief and his followers enjoyed the same savage freedom, they opposed every attempt to reduce them to one society, whose common danger and wants would have cemented their union, and rendered them formidable to their neighbors. In consequence of this dis- union, they were never able to resist any serious attack, and their country was long divided between the monarchs of Persia and India. They were, in general, how- ever, able to maintain a considerable de- gree of independence by balancing be- tween these two powerful states. Mahmood, one of the AfTghan princes, being proclaimed sovereign of Candahar, contemplated with high hopes the subju- gation of Persia. This unfortunate coun- try was at this period depressed by the vacillating measures of its pusillanimous ruler. The energies of the empire were extinguished by effeminacy and palsied by superstition. An unusual denseness in the atmosphere, accompanied with an extraordinary redness in the appearance of the sun on the horizon, which contin- ued for nearly two months, was converted into a symbol of divine wrath, and prince and people anticipated the destruction of the capital. Every measure which fanati- cism could suggest was adopted to avert the threatenings of heaven ; but their fears were confirmed by the intelligence that the army of the Affghan prince was within a few days march of Ispahan. This army, it is said, did not exceed twenty thousand warriors, while the Per- sian forces within the walls of the city were more than double its numbers. But treachery and cowardice laid Persia at the feet of Mahmood, and after a long siege, imexampled in horrors,* Ispahan * The dreadful extremities to which the inhab- itants of Ispahan were reduced, during this siege, are described by several eye-witnesses. " The flesh of horses, camels, and mules, were so dear, that none but the king, some of the nobles, and the wealthiest citizens, could afford to purchase it. Though the Persians abhor dogs as unclean, they ate greedily of them, as well as that of other forbidden animals, as long as they were to be ob- tained. After these supplies were gone, they fed upon the leaves and bark of trees, and on leather, which they softened by boiling, and when this sad resource was exhausted, they began to devour human flesh. Men with their eyes sunk, their countenances livid, and their bodies feeble and emaciated with hunger, were seen in crowds en- deavoring to protract a wretched existence, by cutting pieces from the bodies of those who had just expired. In many instances, the citizens lew each other, and parents murdered their chil- dren to furnish the horrid meal. Some more virtu- 512 PERSIA. opened her gates, and Hussein resigned his crown to the Aff'ghan conqueror. The measures which Mahmood adopt- ed at the commencement of his reign, were such as to conciUate the good opin- ion of his new subjects, and to promise prosperity to Persia. His first care was to reheve the inhabitants from famine. He received into favor all those nobles who had maintained their fidelity to Shah Hussein, while he banished or put to death those who had proved false to their duty. European factories were encour- aged and confirmed in all their privileges, and Christians of all nations were allowed the public performance of their religious duties. But all this was but as a gleam of sunshine before a tempest. It was an eflbrt of virtue, which his cruel and ca- pricious nature was unable to support. He stood amidst the wreck of a mighty empire, and he became alarmed at the magnitude of the ruins with which he was surrounded. His army had been greatly reduced, and he dreaded an in- surrection in the capital. In order to relieve his fears, he had recourse to measures the most cowardly and savage recorded in history. The miseries of the siege were but as a prelude to the bloody tragedy which was to follow ; the different acts of which were, the murder of three hundred nobles with all their male children ; the destruction of three thousand guards whom he had taken into pay ; the massacre of every Persian who had ever been in the service of the former government ; the plunder of European and other foreigners ; and the murder of thirty-nine princes of the blood. Such horrible cruelties could only have pro- ceeded from a mind, overwhelmed by the most servile fears, or under the influence of insanity ; and we find that this prince soon after was seized with madness in its most dreadful form, and in the paroxysms of which, according to some accounts, he not only tore ofl'his own flesh, but ate it. He died under the most excruciatins ous, poisoned themselves and families, that they might escape the guilt of preserving life by such means. These evils were increased by the cruelty of the Affghans, who put to death, without dis- tmclion of age or sex, all who tried to escape from this scene of calamity." tortures of mind and body, in the prime of life, and after having sat upon the throne of Persia only three years. The son of Hussein who had escaped from Ispahan at the time of the siege, was, by the assistance of Nadir Kooli, a warlike chieftain, enabled to defeat Ash- raff", the successor of Mahmood. He entered Ispahan amidst the acclamations of his people ; but he is said to have burst into tears when he beheld the de- faced and solitary halls of his glorious ancestors. Ashraff* had led off his forces towards Shiraz, carrying with him the old men, women, and children of his tribe, upon mules and camels, and all the spoil that he could collect. Accounts, however, daily arrived of the dreadful excesses which they committed on their march, and Nadir Kooli was urged by his sovereign to pursue the fugitives. But this chief had other views than re- storing a weak prince to the throne of his fathers. He saw the sceptre within his own grasp, and lost no opportunity of securing his future elevation. He therefore required the power of levying money, as essential to enable him to extirpate the Aflghans. This demand opened the eyes of Tamasp to, his own critical situation ; but the soldiers would march under no other leader, and he was obliged to comply. Though it was the depth of winter, Nadir led his forces towards Shiraz ; and in a few months Persia was relieved from her barbarous oppressors. Few of the Affghans esca- ped death, and hardly any returned to their native country. They either per- ished from want and fatigue in the desert, or were taken and sold for slaves. Such was the termination of this extraordinary usurpation, in which a small band of foreigners, seldom exceeding thirty thou- sand, held in subjection the mass of a great nation ; and during the seven years in which they exercised dominion in Persia, " nearly a million of her inhabi- tants had perished, her finest provinces had been rendered desert, and her proud- est edifices levelled with the dust." On his return. Nadir Kooli was hailed as the deliverer of his country ; and, as a reward for his great services, received the grant of Khorassan, Mazenderan, PERSIA. 513 Seistan, and Kerraan, with the power of exercising the privileges of an indepen- dent sovereign. The pageantry of Ta- masp was now drawing to a close. Un- der the pretence of his having concluded an ignominious peace with the Turks, while Nadir was quelling a rebellion of the Aflghans in Khorassan, he vi^as de- throned by his victorious general, who raised the infant son of Tamasp to the throne, and accepted the office of regent of the empire. Nadir now entered into a war with the Ottoman Porte, which, after a long and doubtful struggle, ter- minated with the recovery of all the posessions which the Turks had seized during the AfTghan invasion. The suc- cessful issue of this war stimulated the ambition of the regent; and the opportune death of the infant king presented to him a vacant throne. On the plains of Chowal Mogan, and at the great festival of the Nouroze, Nadir had assembled the nobles and chiefs of the empire ; and from them, after much affected humility, he condescended to accept the crown, upon the condition that the nation should abandon the doc- trines of the Sheahs, and embrace the Sonnee faith. This desire of Nadir to change the religion of his country was evidently prompted by the hope that it would destroy that veneration and attach- ment which the Persians cherished for the Suffavean dynasty, by Avhose founder the Sheah faith was first established. The nation at large, however, continued attached to their favorite tenets, which they openly embraced at the death of Nadir Shah. The accession of Nadir Shah was immediately followed by the reduction of the province of Candahar, which was possessed by the Affghans ; and the rapid conquest of Hindostan, from whence he returned laden with the richest treasure, calculated to amount to nearly seventy millions sterling. His subjects began now to feel the benefit of their sovereign's triumphs. Taxes were remitted for three years ; and Nadir was regarded as the destined restorer of Persia to its former glory. Within five years, this indefatiga- ble conqueror had not only expelled the Affghans, but had also subdued the mon- 65 archs of Candahar, India, Bokharah, and Khaurizm, and had extended the limits of the empire to the Oxus on the north, and the Indus on the east. Hitherto Nadir had exercised his pow- er with comparative moderation ; but a circumstance occurred at this time,whicli seemed to produce a dreadful change in his disposition and character. While marching through one of the forests of Daghestan, in an expedition against the Lesghees, a ball from a concealed assas- sin wounded him in the hand and killed his horse. His suspicions fell upon his oldest son Reza Kooli, a prince of great valor and acquirements, and who was much beloved by his countrymen; and his suspicions were so heightened by the gross misrepresentations of infamous courtiers, that in a moment of rage, he ordered the prince to be deprived of sight. " Your crimes," said Nadir, "have forced me to this dreadful measure." "It is not my eyes you have put out," replied Reza Kooli, " but those of Persia." No sooner was the punishment inflicted than the tyrant was penetrated with remorse, and vented his fury upon all around him. Fifty noblemen, who were present, were put to death, on the pretext that they should have offered their lives to save the eyes of a prince who was the glory of their country. From this time Nadir became gloomy and irritable; and his conduct during the last five years of his life, exceeded in cruelty the deeds of the most bloody tyrants. His murders were not confined to individuals ; the inhabi- tants of whole cities were massacred; and, according to his partial historian, " men left their abodes, and took up their habitations in caverns and deserts, in the hope of escaping his savage ferocity." The only troops that enjoyed his favor, and upon vvliom he placed any reliance, were the Affghans and Tartars, who were of the Sonnee persuasion ; and so suspi- cious was he of the fidelity of his coun- trymen, who, in general, adhered to the Sheah tenets, that in a state of frenzy he proposed to put to death every Persian in his army ; bxit the bloody purpose was prevented by his death ; and he was assassinated by some of his chief officers, who had been marked as his next victims. 514 PERSIA. The next ruler of Persia was Kurreem Khan, who is celebrated for his virtues ; his descendants forfeited by their crimes that power which he had attained, and were supplanted by Aga Mahomed Khan Kujur. His principal opponent was Looft Aly Khan, who long stniggled against the most fearful odds in support of his birth-right. Hajee Ibrahim, the prime minister, and governor of Shiraz, a nobleman of the highest talents and acquirements, and who had been the means of placing Looft Aly Khan upon the throne, had become alarmed for his own safety from the irrascible disposition of his master ; and, as a measure of self-preservation, seized upon Shiraz, and invited Aga Ma- homed to take possession of it. A strong detachment was immediately despatched to the support of Hajee Ibrahim, but it was attacked and defeated by the Per- j sian prince. Another army, of superior | force, and out-numbering the troops of Looft Aly more than ten to one, met with the same fate ; when Aga Mahomed was under the necessity of advancing in per- son with an overwhelming force, which he conceived Avould at once terminate the war. But the brave Looft Aly was still undismayed, and, animated by the most heroic courage, he determined upon one great effort for his crown. He sur- prised the advanced guard of the enemy, which he defeated, and pursuing the fugi- tives to their camp, attacked, with a band of a few hundred men, an army of more than thirty thotisand. Favored by the darkness of the night, and the terror which his name inspired, he had dispers- ed almost the whole of the enemy, and was about to enter the tent of the Kujur chief, when he was stopped by the assur- ance of one of his followers that Aga Mahomed was among the fugitives. De- ceived by this report, he dispersed his troops to plunder in other directions, re- serving for himself the jewels and trea- sures of the royal pavilion. But when the morning dawned, he was astonished to hear the public crier calling to prayers, which announced to all that Aga Ma- homed Khan was still at his post. Looft Aly, awakened from his dream of vic- tory, found himself in the midst of his enemies, and fled with precipitation, to avoid being made prisoner. Aga Ma- homed marched his army to Shiraz ; and from this time he may be considered the actual sovereign of Persia. The mind of Looft Aly Khan was still unsubdued. Though struggling against the most adverse circumstances, he still cherished the hope of better fortunes. He had still a few faithful followers, who had never forsaken him ; and with these this most undaunted of warriors deter- mined again to take the field. After a variety of fortune, he took the city of Kerman by assault, and once more as- sumed the style of a sovereign ; but this was the last of his glorious achievements. Aga Mahomed hastened, with all the forces he could collect, to crush a foe who seemed to rise with rencAved energy from every fall. He invested the city with an immense army ; and posted a strong body of men opposite every gate- way, to prevent the escape of his rival. The defence was maintained with the most heroic ardor for four months ; but treachery effected what superiority of numbers coxdd not accomplish. The citadel was given up to the Persian troops ; and Looft Aly and his brave fol- lowers, after a severe contest of three hours, were overpowered by numbers, and obliged to retire. At night the young prince crossed the ditch by a bridge of planks, and, accompanied by three attendants, threw himself upon the enemy's lines with a courage strength- ened by despair, and effected his escape. When Aga Mahomed found in the morn- ing that Looft Aly was beyond his reach, he gave vent to the cruel passions of his nature, and wreaked his vengeance upon the innocent inhabitants of Kerman. All the males of mature age were command- ed to be put to death, or deprived of sight; and twenty thousand women and children were granted as slaves to his soldiers. Looft Aly Khan was soon afterwards betrayed into the hands of his merciless enemy, who, after treating him with the most brutal indignity, tore out his eyes, and sent him prisoner to Teheran. But this gallant prince, even in the wretched state to which he was reduced, was still PERSIA. 515 an object of dread ; and the fears of the tyrant could only be allayed by his death. Such was the fate of the last prince of the Zund dynasty, which had held the government of Persia for nearly half a century. But their implacable enemy was determined upon their extirpation ; and every one, who, from his birth, could have formed the most remote pretensions to the throne, was either put to death or deprived of sight ; and not only the mem- bers of this tribe, but all who had been the active supporters of the family of Kurreem Khan, were removed to the most distant quarters of the kingdom. Aga Mahomed, having now relieved himself from all internal foes, resolved upon the conquest of Georgia. During the troubles which succeeded the death of Kurreem Khan, Heraclius, the prince of that province, had preserved it in a state of tranquillity, and had transferred his allegiance from the sovereigns of Persia to those of Russia. His motive for this measure was declared to be a desire to release his Christian subjects from the violence and oppression of Ma- homedan superiors, and to place them under the protection of a great nation of their own religion. But it was not to be expected that any monarch of Persia would tamely suffer the alienation of one of the finest provinces of the empire. Aga Mahomed, therefore, was determined to insure success by the magnitude of his force. Sixty thousand men assembled at Teheran, and proceeded without resis- tance till within about fifteen miles of Teflis, the capital of the province, where they were met by the forces of Herac- lius, amounting to one-fourth of their number. The battle which ensued was bravely contested ; but the Georgians, overpowered by numbers, were compel- led to fly. Teflis submitted to the con- querors, and was given up to massacre and to pillage. In describing the scene of carnage which followed, a Mahomedan historian observes, "That on this glori- ous occasion, the valiant warriors of Per- sia gave to the unbelievers of Georgia a specimen of what they Avere to expect at the day of judgment." Youth and beauty alone were spared, and fifteen thousand of these were led into bondage. The subjection of Georgia was follow- ed by that of Khorassan ; and Aga Ma- homed was contemplating the conquest of Bokharah, when he was recalled by the intelligence that the Russians had recovered Georgia, and were threatening Aderbijan. He hastened to Teheran ; j but, as the season was too far advanced to commence operations that year, he summoned the chiefs of the kingdom to meet him in the spring with all their ad- herents, for the purpose, as he said, "of punishing the insolent unbelievers of Eu- rope, who had dared to invade the terri- tories of the faithful." Persia, however, was relieved from the impending invasion by the death of the Empress Catharine, when the Russian army was recalled by her successor. But, notwithstanding the retreat of the Rnssians, Aga Mahomed determined to overrun Georgia, and had advanced as far as Sheshah, when he was arrested by the hand of an assassin. Being one day disturbed by a dispute between two of his servants, he was so enraged at the noise which they made, that he commanded them both to be in- stantly put to death. Saaduck Khan Shekakee, a nobleman of high rank, having interceded for their pardon, was refused ; but as it was the night of Fri- day, and sacred to prayer, their execution was delayed till next morning. These men knew that their sentence was irre- vocable, and, as they were still permitted by their infatuated master to perform their usual avocations about his person, they, as a measure of self-preservation, I took advantage of their situation, and de- riving courage from despair, poniarded the monarch as he laid asleep in his tent. Thus perished one of the most cruel, but at the same time one of the ablest monarchs that ever ruled in Persia. The character of this extraordinary man, however, must be viewed in refer- ence to the distracted state in which he found his country, and his desire to se- cure its future tranquillity. The great object of his life was, to acquire power, 1 and to render it permanent in his own I family ; and he scrupled at no measures j for the accomplishment of his purpose. j In his early life he had become a pro- 1 found adept in the art of dissimulation. 516 PERSIA. While his success was still uncertain, he controlled every passion that could obstruct his rise ; but, when the mask was no longer necessary, he gave full scope to the feelings of his savage spirit. Every chief whom he deemed in any way likely to aspire to the throne, or disturb the peace of the kingdom, was either put to death or deprived of sight ; and, among his victims were two of his own brothers. To such a height did he carry his barbarous revenge, that he or- dered the bones of the virtuous Kurreem Khan and of Nadir Shah to be dug up and removed to Teheran, where they were deposited at the entrance of the palace, that he might enjoy the unmanly and disgusting gratification of trampling upon the graves of two of the principal foes of his family. This monarch at- tempted to justify his barbarous proceed- ings by the plea of necessity ; and, when speaking of his successor, the present king of Persia, he used often to exclaim, " I have shed all this blood, that the boy, Baba Khan,* may reign in peace." The passion of avarice in this monarch was almost as strong as his love of power ; and he had recourse to the most unjusti- fiable means in the gratification of it. When he wished to plunder any of his nobles, or principal officers, he was in the habit of selling them for a stipulated smn, and the purchaser, in order to ena- ble him to raise the money, was vested with power over every thing belonging to the person bought, except his life. He is even said to have at one time com- bined with a religious mendicant to obtain money from his courtiers. He ordered a considerable sum to be given him in the presence of his principal officers, with the secret understanding that it was to be returned with the half of what he received from the others ; but the wilj^ beggar found means to escape with all his gains, and the courtiers inwardly re- ♦ Baba signifies " child," and was the name by which the present king of Persia was familiarly- known till the death of his uncle. His proper name was Futteh Aly. joiced in the disappointment of their monarch's cupidity. His conduct, how- ever, to the aged Shah Rokh, the grand- son of Nadir Shah, could only proceed from a heart where the love of wealth had eradicated every feeling of humanity. This weak prince was supposed to have concealed many precious stones of great value, particularly a ruby of extraordinary size and lustre, which had once decora- ted the crown of Aurengzebe ; but as he solemnly denied the possession of them, Aga Mahomed hiad recourse to torture. After a variety of pains, a circle of paste was put upon the head of his victim, and boiling lead poured into it. The ruby was discovered, which filled the tyrant with joy, but Shah Rokh survived only a few days. The person of this monarch was extremely slender, and, unless upon occasions of ceremory, always dressed in the plainest manner. His beardless and shrivelled face resembled that of an aged and wrinkled woman, and the ex- pression of his countenance, at no time pleasant, was horrible when clouded, as it very often was, with indignation. With the meanest vices, Aga Mahomed pos- sessed the most splendid talents. During his reign, agriculture revived, and com- merce flourished under his protection. He restored complete tranquillity to a distracted kingdom, and fixed his family upon a splendid throne. Futteh Aly Shah, the nephew and ap- pointed successor of Aga Mahomed, after a short struggle, was proclaimed king, and has hitherto been enabled to main- tain the internal peace of his dominions. With respect to his frontier provinces, however, he has not been so successful. Georgia has become a province of Rus- sia, and many of the chiefs of Khorassan yield him only a nomhial obedience. Owing to the comparative mildness and justice of his rule, the inhabitants of Per- sia have enjoyed a state of happiness and prosperity to which they had long been strangers ; and he may be regarded as holding a high rank among the sover- eigns of his country. POLAND. 517 POLAND. Poland formed a district of ancient Sarmatia ; and was successively ravaged by those various hordes of barbarians who plundered the south of Europe, and overturned the Roman empire. Its early history, like that of most other nations, is involved in obscurity and fable. That it originally consisted of several indepen- dent prhicipalities is sufficiently evident; but the period when it became incorpo- rated under one sovereign is not clearly ascertained. It was, for many ages, according to the opinion of the best writers, governed by an elective chief, bearing the title of duke, or general ; but no regular dynasty was established until the accession of Piaste in 840. Of this election, which, however, did not take place till the state was on the very verge of ruin, in consequence of the hostility and obstinacy of two rival factions, the Polish nation had much reason to be proud. The wise administration of this prince restored peace and tranquillity among all orders of the state ; and, after a reign of twenty years, spent in advan- cing the true interests of his subjects, he died in 860, at a very venerable old age. So dear was his memory to the Poles, that, until last century, they gave his name to his successors in the throne (Piastes) who were natives of the kingdom. The family of Piaste filled the throne of Poland for upwards of five hundred years. The most illustrious princes of this house were Miecislaus, who, towards the end of the 10th century, introduced Christianity into his dominions ; Boles- laus, his son, a warlike and intrepid prince, who was the first that obtained the title of king, an honor conferred on him by the Pope ; Casimir I, a virtuous and pa- cific sovereign, who was called to the throne* after he had assumed the monastic habit in the abbey of Cluny ; Casimir II, surnamed the Great, who was a liberal patron of letters, and founded the academy at Cracow, — who encouraged industry, commerce, and the arts, and furnished the nation with a code of written laws. He died in 1370, and was doomed to be the last of his illustrious i'amily. He was succeeded by his nephew Louis, king of Hungary, at whose death the Poles elected his youngest daughter, Hedwigua, in his room. To obtain the hand of this princess, Jagellon, grand duke of Lithuania, embraced the Chris- tian faith, and was baptized by the name of Uladislaus. With Jagellon commenced a new line of princes, who swayed the sceptre of Poland for two hundred years. He united his hereditary dominions to those of Poland, conquered Samogitia, and defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order in the great battle of Tannenberg, in 1410. Casimir took Western Prussia under his protection, and forced the Teu- tonic knights to pay him homage for the remainder. Under Sigismond 1, Prussia was changed into a secular dukedom. Sigismond Augustus effected the same thing in regard to Courland : the empire of the Teutonic order was at the same time placed under the government of a duke, and made entirely dependent on the crown of Poland. In the reign of this monarch, Poland had reached its highest pitch of dominion and gloiy. He saw Lithuania, Livonia, Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiow, submit to his sover- eignty. But with him terminated, in 1572, the male line of the house of Ja- gellon, — " a family," says alearned writer, " as wise and virtuous as celebrated and brave, — a family under whom Poland saw herself enjoy internal tranquillity and the respect of neighboring nations ; under whom she was ruled by wise, es- tablished laws, and was rendered emi- nent by the multitude of her scholars in every department of human knowledge." After an interregnum of about a year, two powerful candidates appeared for the throne, Henry de Valois, brother to Charles IX, king of France, and Maxi- milian of Austria, of whom the former being elected, he soon, by his youth and accomplishments, gained the aflections of his people. But he had not enjoyed the sceptre of the Jagellons above four 518 POLAND, months, till he inherited, in consequence of the death of his brother, that of Valois; and he abandoned the cheering hopes which the esteem and confidence of his adopted subjects held out to him, for the troubles with which his natural subjects were convulsed, an(Jk,of which he soon became the victim. On the abdication of Henry, the con- tentions of rival factions again revived ; and it was not without considerable diffi- culty that Stephen Batthori, prince of Transylvania, was elected his successor; an honor which he gained, not more on account of his own many qualifications, than of his having married Anne, daugh- ter of king Sigismond Augustus. Bat- thori, a prince equally eminent for bravery and virtue, restored peace to Dantzick, the inhabitants of which had rebelled against him ; retook Livonia ; chastised the Czar of Russia for having invaded his dominions, carrying cruelty and de- vastation along with him ; and raised a new militia, composed of Cossacks, a tribe brave and barbarous, whom he uni- ted to his kingdom by granting them a territory on the Dneiper, and by confer- ring on them several important privileges ; favors which they abundantly repaid by defending Poland from the incursions of the Tartars, and by making the Turks and Russians respect her. He died in 1586, leaving behind him a character for wisdom, intrepidity, and patriotism, which (ew Polish sovereigns have been enabled to outshine. The death of Batthori was a signal for the renewal of civil commotions. Four candidates appeared for the crown, each supported by a separate party, brave and resolute ; and much blood was spilt ere the successful candidate, Sigismond of Sweden, nephew to the widow of Bat- thori, could be put in possession of the throne. Having soon afterwards obtained the crown of his native dominions, Sigis- mond neglected not to avail himself of the assistance of Poland against the Swedes, with whom he was extremely unpopular, and who were endeavoring to throw off his yoke. But the Poles, jealous of their liberty, were not much devoted to the cause, and felt no great disappoint- ment in their king's being deprived of his hereditary states. This loss, however, which the subsequent monarchs of Poland wished to repair, gave birth to almost continual wars with Sweden, equally fatal to both nations ; for though, on the one hand, they brought Poland to the very verge of submission to the Swedish yoke, they conducted, on the other, the Swedes to Pultowa, that tomb of their glory and their power. Sigismond, having lost the throne of Sweden, aspired to that of Russia, but without success. But he was more un- fortunate still in a war in which he was engaged with the great Gustavus Adol- phus, king of Sweden ; for he was com- pelled to forfeit to that monarch Livonia, and the towns of Elbing, Memel, Braun- berg, and Pillau. He died in 1629, worn down with cares and misfortunes, and was succeeded by his son Uladislaus, who established public tranquillity, and reigned not without glory ; but the inter- regnum that followed his death was char- acterized by a disastrous and bloody war with the Cossacks, occasioned by several perfidious attempts on the part of the Polish nobles to make encroachments on their privileges and independence. That barbarous people, who felt that their very existence as a separate tribe was endangered, becoming desperate, van- quished their enemies in two great bat- tles ; and John Casimir, successor of Uladislaus, Avas obliged to conclude with them a dishonorable peace. Poland was again ravaged by the Swedish army, and Charles Gustavus would undoubtedly have made the conquest of it, had not the bad policy of Denmark drawn into that country, almost to the total ruin of it, the whole military force of the com- mon enemy. Nor did this circumstance, favorable as it unquestionably was, prove the entire safety of Poland. By the treaty of Oliva, (1660,) Casimir was forced to cede Livonia to Sweden, Smolensko and Kiow to Russia, and to Brandenburgh the sovereignty of Prussia. With this diminution of her territory, Poland ex- perienced a diminution also of her power ; and from this period she ceased to be regarded as one of the first nations of Europe. Casimir indeed gained several decisive victories in a war with the Rus- POLAND. 519 sians ; but these came too late, either to gratify the king,or to prove advantageous to his people. He had already verged into a state of melancholy and despair, and Poland was delivered over to all the horrors of a civil war. In such circumstances, Casimir, who, at every period of life, had shown a deep- rooted attachment to the exercises of de- votion, and the pursuits of literature, re- solved to renounce his crown, and to spend the remainder of his days in soli- tude and peace. Though undaunted in opposing the public enemies of his coun- try, he shuddered to encounter the agita- tions and enormities of internal rebellion. His abdication took place in 1668, and the Diet absolved him from all the en- gagements he had made to his people, and particularly from the oath of the pacta conventa ; obligations entered into by every sovereign at his election. Casi- mir survived this event four years, when he died in the abbey of St. Germains in P'rance, whence his body was removed to be interred at Cracow. After an interregnum of a year, Casi- mir was succeeded by Michel Coributh, duke of Wisniowiecki. Though the reign of this prince was short, he aliena- ted the minds of the nation and the army on account of his lethargy in defending the republic against the invasion of the Turks, and of the shameful treaties which he ratified with them. The glory of the Polish arms, however, was well main- tained by John Sobieski, a warrior of extraordinary merit, and than whose there occurs not a more illustrious name in the annals of his country. Sobieski, raised to the sovereign au- thority on the death of Wisniowiecki, did not long want an opportunity of increas- ing his own glory, as well as that of his nation. The Turks had, at this time, car- ried their conquering arms into Austria, and were laying siege to Vienna. The fate of Christendom was thought to be involved in that of the Austrian capital ; and had not the exorbitant power of that empire been a source of uneasiness and fear to the neighboring states, almost all the nations of Europe would have been in arms to cliastise these infidels. So- bieski, however, either did not experience these feelings, or was enabled to over- come them. He levied 40,000 men for the assistance of the emperor ; put him- self at their head ; and his valor and genius decided the terrible battle (1683,) which forced Soliman to raise the siege of Vienna, and eventually, with the loss of almost his whole army, to withdraw into his own territories. The inhabitants of Vienna received their deliverer with the most lively de- monstrations of gratitude ; and exclama- tions of joy accompanied him to the very threshold of the chapel, whither he went to return thanks to the God of battles for the success of his arms. When Te Deum was chanted, he himself joined very cordially in the service. A sermon was delivered on the occasion from a text, which the clergyman, in extremely bad taste, seems to have selected as pe- culiarly appropriate : " There was a man sent frotn God, whose name was John." But the joy which Sobieski must have felt in having performed so important a service to the Austrians, and in receiving their congratulations, was moderated by his unpopularity with his own subjects. In this foreign expedition the Poles found that their treasury had been drain- ed, and that many of their countrymen had perished ; while as a compensation for these evils, no substantial advantage to the republic had resulted, or could be expected to result from it. His wish to make the crown hereditary in his own family, exasperated and disaffected the nobles ; and the consequence was, that, after his death, which took place in 1696, after a reign of twenty-three years, his children were ungratefully excluded from the throne. Another great cause of his unpopularity, was the cession of certain lands to Russia ; for which, however, in return, he was promised assistance in the meditated conquest of Moldavia and Wallachia, — schemes which a new as- pect of affairs made it not necessary to prosecute. Whatever suspicions the Poles may have attached to his memory, Sobieski was undoubtedly a great man. Endowed with strength of body, and vigor of mind ; skilled in the laws, the constitution, and political relations of his country ; as elo- 520 POLAND. quent and wise in council, as enterprising ' and enthusiastic in the field, he possessed all the virtues and qualities necessary for I a great warrior or an accomplished mon- arch. The nobleness and elevation of , his mind were clearly shadowed forth in j the lineaments of his countenance, and j the dignity of his personal appearance. He possessed a peculiar art of profiting ! by the least advantage, and was charac- ' terized by a sure and quick sagacity of fore- 1 seeing and preventing danger. Reading and study formed the amusements of his private hours ; he was master of several languages, and he delighted in conversing with men of letters. His court was bril- liant, and filled with strangers of rank and distinction. All the powers of Eu- rope sent ambassadors to him ; he re- ceived an ambassador even from the king of Persia, to congratulate him on his vic- tories, and to ask his friendship and alliance. Enthusiasm, which was a predominant feature in his character, imparted an oracular tone of authority and majesty to all his words and expressions, which, on this account, are still commemorated and applauded. When taking his departure from Warsaw in his campaign against the Turks, he said emphatically to the am- bassadors at his court, " Tell your mas- ter that you have seen me mount ray horse, and that Vienna is safe !" In this expedition, though the greater part of his army were well mounted, one battalion was so extremely ill clothed, that prince Lumboriski advised him for the honor of Poland, not to exhibit it before the allies. Disregarding this suggestion, he exclaim- ed, when the battalion was passing be- fore the allied troops, " Examine these men attentively ; they are invincible ; and have sworn, that in time of war they will wear no other dress but that of the ene- my ; in the last war they were clothed after the Turkish fashion." After the defeat at Vienna, a gilt stirrup which had belonged to Mustapha having been found, " Take that stirrup to the queen," cried he, " and tell her, that he, to whom it belonged, is conquered." And at the same time he wrote to the queen, " that the grand vizier had made him his heir, and that he had found in his tent the value of several millions of ducats. So," added he, " say not of us what the Tar- tar women say when they see their hus- bands return empty-handed, You are not men, since you come home without booty .'" Such was John Sobieski, the last il- lustrious monarch that filled the throne of Poland. His character, with all its defects, we delight to contemplate, as it aflbrds us a bright spot on which to pause amid the general gloom. " The spirit of discord and anarchy," says Mr. Coxe, " was laid for a time by his transcendent genius. Under his auspices Poland seem- ed to revive from the calamities which had long oppressed her, and again to re- cover her ancient splendor ; such is the powerful ascendancy of a great and su- perior mind." The contentions which followed his death we have no time at present to describe. It maybe sufficient to remark that, though the prince of Conti had been elected by a majority of votes, Augustus, elector of Saxony, backed by a powerful army, was ultimately declared successor to Sobieski. Augustus began his reign auspiciously by concluding a peace with the Turks, by which Kami- nieck and Podolia were added to his do- minions. But this was the only favora- ble transaction in which, during a long reign, he was engaged. Charles XII, the celebrated king of Sweden, having invaded his territories, compelled him to surrender the crown to Stanislaus Lec- zinski, a Pole of noble rank, whose ele- vation, however, was of but short contin- uance. The battle of Pultowa dissipated the Swedish power, and Augustus was restored through the friendship of Rus- sia, thoiigh not without making the most inglorious concessions to that nation. Surrounded by Russian and Saxon troops, bound to obey every order he received from the court of Petersburg, his reign was without authority and without honor. He was succeeded, at his death, in 1733, by his son of the same name, though not without the most formidable opposition on the part of the French king, who es- poused the cause of Stanislaus, whose daughter he had married. Augustus II had even less merit than his father. His reign was an unvaried scene of anarchy and rebellion. So extremely unpopular POLAND. 521 was he, and so completely divested of any thing like power, that, when driven from Saxony, his patrimonial dominions, the Poles would scarcely afford him an asylum among them. And after an in- efficient and unhappy reign, he died at Dresden in 1764, and was, not unfortu- nately, doomed to be the last of his fami- ly who attempted to wield the sceptre of Poland. This ill-fated country had been for some time regarded by Russia, and not without reason, as a tributary prov- ince ; and accordingly Catharine II, when the throne became vacant, com- pelled the diet to elect for king Stanis- laus Poniatowski, under the name of Stanislaus Augustus, — a Pole of noble rank, who, having resided in Petersburg, had by his address and abilities rendered himself agreeable to the empress. He was an amiable and patriotic, though not a very energetic character. Whatever had been his talents, however, Poland before his time was rapidly hastening to decay ; and during his reign he saw it com- pletely erased from the chart of the world. This plan, for the dismemberment of Poland, it is thought, was at first contem- plated by Prussia ; but Russia and Aus- tria readily enough embraced it, though all these kingdoms at different periods owed much of their glorj', and even their very existence, to the country which they thus resolved to destroy. A great pro- portion of Poland was thus seized upon by these kingdoms, and a treaty to this effect was signed by their plenipoten- tiaries at Petersburg, in Febnaary, 1772. The partitioning powers having forced the Poles to call a meeting of the diet, threatened, if the treaty of dismember- ment was not unanimously sanctioned, that the whole kingdom should imme- diately be laid under military execution, and be treated as a conquered state. The glory of Poland was past ; and though some of the nobles, rather than be the instruments of bringing their country to ruin, chose to spend their days in ex ile and poverty, the measure was at length agreed to ; and .Stanislaus him- self, threatened with deposition and im- prisonment, was prevailed upon to sanc- tion it. Europe, though astonished at what was taking place in Poland, re- 66 mained inactive. The courts of London, Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, in- deed, sent remonstrances against this usurpation ; but remonstrances without a military force will, as in the case before us, be always unavailing. " Oh bloodiest picture in the book of time, Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime !" A large portion of the eastern provin- ces were seized by Russia ; Austria ap- propriated a fertile tract on the south- west ; while Prussia acquired a commer- cial district in the north-west, including the lower part of the "Vistula. Poland was thus robbed of 70,000 square miles, or about a fourth of her whole territory. Stanislaus, thus deprived of a great part of his dominions, did not, however, give way to unavailing sorrow and de- spondency; he exerted himself strenu- ously to promote the happiness and pros- perity of that portion wliich was left him. Poland had been too long the scene of anarchy and opposition, to be so easily reconciled to obedience and tranquillity. A few of the nobles, irritated at the sacri- fice of some of their privileges, repaired to the court of Petersburg ; and their representations corresponding with the ambitious views of the empress, she im- mediately despatched an army into Po- land under the pretext of guaranteeing the constitution as established in 1772. The Poles were not backward in making preparations to oppose her. All animosi- ties were forgotten in the desperate strug- gle ; the nobles hesitated not to surren- der their plate and valuable jewels to enrich the treasury' ; every rank and class of men in the' state were resolved to conquer or die in the defence of their liberties and independence. In vain, however, prince Poniatowsky, general of the army, (nephew of the king,) support- ed, by the intrepid Kosciusko, performed prodigies of valor. Catharine was almost every where triumphant. And a letter written by her to Stanislaus, threatening to double or triple her forces unless he yielded, induced that benignant monarch, in order to prevent the farther effusion of human blood, to surrender at discre- tion. He was removed to Grodno, to await the determination of the empress. Nor did she allow her intention to re- 522 POLAND. main long concealed. In the beginning of 1793, a manifesto was published by the courts of Russia and Prussia, declar- ing that, to remove from their respective frontiers the dangerous influence of the anarchical principles recently proclaimed in Poland, they had resolved to unite to their dominions several of the provinces of that kingdom. The constitution of 1791 was ordered to be annulled, and every paper relative to it to be delivered up. 'I'hese orders the council hesitated to obey ; and Iglestrom, the Russian ambassador, to deprive them of all power of resistance, immediately is- sued a mandate to reduce their military force to 16,000 men. The army was as indexible and patriotic as the council ; the gallant Madalinsky put himself at the head of the troops, who refused to lay down their arms. The spirit of re- sistance was inveterate, and was widely diffused ; and the Russians, to see their orders put into execution, marched into Poland with a numerous army. The ruthless conduct of these invaders drove the Poles to desperation : the peasantry were compelled to lodge, to feed, to trans- port their enemies from place to place without remuneration. Such degrada- tion roused the spirit of the nation ; and the brave Kosciusko, Avhose name will ever adorn the history of his unfortunate country, suddenly appeared, (1794,) sur- rounded by a very considerable number of the armed peasantry, and by his skill and intrepidity supported, for a while, the falling honor of his country. This great man having driven the Russians out of Cracow, this city became the centre of the patriotic army; and having issued a proclamation, expressed in the most en- ergetic terms, calling on every rank and class of men to shake off their disgrace- ful fetters, and to conquer or perish in defence of their country, the appeal was not made in vain : he was immediately elected generalissimo of the national troops, and received the support of the nobility, who, having proclaimed the con- stitution of 1791, departed for their re- spective estates to arm and assemble their vassals. And the success of Kos- ciusko corresponded for a while with the justness of his cause, and the bravery with which he supported it. A body of troops amounting to six thousand men, having marched towards Cracow to give him battle, was completely defeated ; they lost one thousand men, with eleven cannon, and their general Wononzow was taken prisoner. This was the sig- nal for general hostility. The Russians, who had seized upon Warsaw, and were attempting to become masters of the arsenal, were resolutely attacked by the inhabitants, and, after three days of the most bloody engagements, were driven from the city. Similar achievements were performed in other towns. Poland was all in arms ; and her troops amount- ed to 60,000 men, exclusive of the peas- antry, who were armed with pikes. Rus- sia and Prussia in the mean time marched 110,000 troops against Poland ; and Ko- sciusko made a skilful retreat upon War- saw, which he defended for ten weeks against the Prussians, who, after losing 20,000 men in an inglorious and unavail- ing siege, found it prudent to withdraw into their own territories. Kosciusko, thus freed of the Prussians, marched to oppose the new Russian troops, who, during the siege of Warsaw, had conquered Lithuania and Volhynia. The eyes of all Europe were placed upon him, but fortune had declared against him ; and though he and his brave com- panions in arms performed feats of valor, the Russians (19th October) gained a signal victory, Kosciusko himself being dreadfully wounded, and taken prisoner.* * The subsequent fate of this brave man it may not be improper to state. Having recovered a little from his wound, he was advancing forward a few steps, when a Cossack aimed at him a dreadful blow, which would inevitably have proved mortal, had not a Russian general (to whose wife Kosciusko, when she was his prisoner, had shown the most disinterested generosity) stopped his arm ; and when the officer was requested, (if he really wished to render him a service,) to allow the soldier to put an end to his existence, he spared his life, but made him a prisoner. Kosci- usko having been removed to Petersburg, was con- fined in the fortress there, till, on the accession of Paul, the late emperor, (1796,) who showed great liberality to the persecuted Poles, he was set at liberty, and permitted to remam either in the Russian dominions, or to emigrate to America. He preferred the latter. He afterwards returned to France. When the allies entered Paris, in 1815, he was then residing in that capital : and POLAND. 523 The fate of Poland was now irrevocably sealed, the whole kingdom being in the power of the Russians, with the single exception of Warsaw, whither they im- mediately marched their victorious army. The Polish troops in that city, "few but undismayed," resolved to make a desper- ate resistance; but how could 10,000 men withstand the impetuosity of five times that number ? The suburb Praga was taken by assault, and, after eight hours of the most obstinate defence,War- saw was obliged to surrender at discre- tion. But the implacable Russians, com- manded by the infamous Suwarrow, were not yet satisfied. About ten hours after the battle was finished, they set fire to the city, and plundered and massacred the inhabitants in the most brutal man- ner ; no age or sex escaped their vio- lence ; they perpetrated deeds at the bare idea of which humanity shudders, and of which even the history of Poland affords few examples. Poland being thus overthrown, the two usurping powers were about to form a partition of it betwixt them, when Austria unexpectedly stept forward, and declared that she could not permit the entire de- struction of Poland, unless she were al- lowed to share in the division. The consequences of a refusal they were not willing to encounter ; and Austria had thus her ambitious views realized, with- out having incurred the smallest danger or expense. Stanislaus, who had all this while remained in his capital, was at length removed to Grodno a second time, where he was compelled to resign his some Polish soldiers having recognised him, could not sufficiently express their gratitude and vene- ration for a man, who, then weighed down with years and misfortunes, had done and suffered so much to redeem the fading glory of their country. He died in France; but through the intervention of the emperor Alexander, king of Poland, his remains were restored from a foreign grave, and reposited at Cracow in a vault, which formed the cemetery of the kings of Poland, and which con- tains the ashes of the illustrious Sobieski. On the summit of Mount St. Bronislawa, near Cracow, a tumulus of the Carpathian marble has lately been raised to the memory of Kosciusko. The emperor Alexander, who seems to wish to make amends to Poland for the barbarous rapacity of his prede- cessors, has also removed to the same cemetery the dust of Stanislaus Poniatowsky. crown, and M^as thence carried to Peters- burg, where he resided as a state pris- oner in solitude and exile till his death, which took place in February, 1798. The Polish nobles who escaped the dungeons of the partitioning powers, hastened either to Venice or Paris. At this latter place a confederacy was form- ed, which maintained a correspondence with a similar society at Vienna. These societies sent their emissaries to the friendly courts of Europe for the purpose of entering into negotiations in favor of the Poles. But the death of Catharine, the empress of Russia, put an end to the plans of the confederates. Her succes- sor, the emperor Paul, treated the Poles with so much clemency that they became somewhat reconciled to his government. He set at liberty the gallant Kosciusko, and offered him a high military post in his service. He liberated twelve thou- sand Poles who had been sent into exile in Siberia by Catharine. During the French revolution a great number of the Poles entered into the service of the French. They expected much from Napoleon, who, by his promises to restore their country to its freedom, induced many of them to shed their blood in his service. The Poles, however, deceived by his promises, did not despair. The modera- tion of Alexander made their servitude more endurable ; but no sooner had Nicholas ascended the throne of Russia, and sanctioned the barbarities of his bru- tal brother Constantine, than the old spirit revived. The successful example of France, followed by Belgium, roused them to action and inspired them with the liveliest hopes. The following ac- count of the last revolution is from a re- cent work entitled " History of the Revo- lutions in Europe." It was on the 29th of November, 1830, that the insurrection at Warsaw burst forth. Secret societies had existed in that city since 1818, for the express pur- pose of securing the liberty and nation- ality of Poland. " As early as 1821, Russia had com- menced a system of proscription against these secret societies ; and in 1825, a conspiracy was kindled into flame at Pe- tersburg, which it was thought could be 524 POLAND. traced to Warsaw. The societies had members throughout Poland and Lithu- ania, Podolia and Volhynia, and even the old provinces of the Ukraine, which it might be supposed had long since lost all recollections of Polish glory. These associations were formed during the reign of the emperor Alexander, to whom some of the patriots had vainly looked for a bet- ter state of things. After the death of Alexander, his successor, Nicholas, was crowned king of Poland at Warsaw, May, 1829. "The diet assembled in 1830, and in spite of all the endeaA-^ors of the emperor, many patriots were elected. Nicholas opened this assembly in person, but failed to overawe the liberals from impeaching ministers for violating the charter. This liberal diet was closed June 28th. * Such freedom of discussion could not be en- dured by a despotic monarch, whose un- varying aim has been to tread out every spark of liberty in the northern parts of Europe. The archduke Constantine was made viceroy of Poland, and by his mon- strous atrocities became universally de- tested by the Poles. " The ardent hopes and wishes of the Polish patriots at length burst forth into flame. At 7 in the evening, the hour agreed upon, fifteen intrepid youths sal- lied forth determined to seize on Con- stantine, whose residence was about two miles from Warsaw. They rushed into the palace of the Belvider, where the usual guard consists of sixty men, first wounding the director of police, who fled. They next killed general Gendre, a Rus- sian infamous for his crimes. The strug- gle alarmed Constantine, who instantly rose from his bed and escaped undressed by a secret door, that was closed after him by his valet just as they were on the point of reaching him, and had sup- posed themselves secure of their victim. Constantine instantly fled to his guards. Thus disappointed, this band retired to * The constitution of Poland, issued by Alex- ander, emperor of Russia, in 1815, contained many important provisions. The diet, composed of two houses, was to be assembled once every two years ; yet in violation of this provision, none was convoked from 1820 to 1825, and only one under the emperor Nicholas. their companions in arms, who awaited, at the bridge of Sobieski, the result of this movement. In returning to the city they had to pass the barracks where the guards, though already mounted, were unable to attack them on account of a precautionary measure of Constantine in surrounding the barracks with a deep and wide ditch, passed onlyby narrow bridges. The guards fired upon the insurgents ; but the latter were so advantageously sit- uated, and returned the fire so well that they killed three hundred of the guards, and retreated with the loss of only one of their number. " By this time the streets of Warsaw were filled, some houses had been set on fire, and the cry resounded " To arms, to arms, Poland is up, God for our country !" The inhabitants rushed to arms. The state prisoners were liberated ; the stu- dents of the university and the school of engineers joined the insurrection ; the ar- senal was forced, and in an hour and a half from the first cry of hberty, 40,000 men were in arms. Soon the fourth Po- lish regiment joined the populace, and presently the rest of the Polish soldiers. When Constantine heard of this, he fell back with two Polish regiments of guards, and was permitted to retire by the mag- nanimous Poles unmolested to the fron- tier. Chlopicki was appointed general-in- chief, and four days afterwards declared dictator by the provisional government. Although a soldier of undisputed bravery, he has been blamed for suffering the grand duke to escape when he might have captured him, and for losing time in trying to negotiate with the emperor Ni- cholas. " The diet that assembled in twenty- days after the breaking out of the revolt, confirmed Chlopicki dictator ; but on his refusing assent to the manifesto of Janu- ary 9th, 1831, in which the wrongs of Poland were so feelingly portrayed, he was deposed. Instantly a supreme na- tional council was formed, and prince Adam Czartoryski appointed president, when a spirited proclamation was issued, informing the polish soldiers that Chlo- picki had resigned the glorious task of i conducting them to combat. I " Russia had now brought into the field POLAND. 525 against Poland 200,000 men, while Po- land had about 50,000 equipped for the fioht — a fearful disparity in numbers. Through the influence of the aristocracy, the command of the army was given to prince Radzvil. " The Russian invading army rendez- voused, on the 20th of January, at various points of the western frontier of the em- pire. It was composed, according to the report of field-marshal Diebitsch, of 105 battalions of infantry, 135 squadrons of cavalry, with 396 pieces of artillery, and 1 1 regiments of Cossacks. The army crossed the Polish frontiers on the 5th of February. The advance of the Polish army was at Biala, the right near the high road to Warsaw, the left at Lomeza on the Narew. On the ad- vance of the Russians, the Polish corps fell back, the right on Warsaw, and the left on Modlin and Pultusk. On the 1 8th of February, the Russian head-quarters were established at Minsk, ten miles from Warsaw, and their advance pushed to Melisna, within five miles of that city. The Russian left rested on the Vistula above Warsaw, and tlie right on the Bug near its junction with the Narew, its centre protected with woods and artillery. "On the 18th, the Polish army of 50,000 men had its right on Grokow, with Praga in the rear, and the left thrown back opposite the right wing of the enemy. " The reconnoissances of the 19th and 20th, were resisted by the Poles and led to a severe battle. According to the Rus- sian account, the heat of the battle was during the early part of the day confined to the left, count Pahlen's advanced guard, which was attacked as soon as it had cleared the defile near Grokow, and com- pelled to retreat two miles. The advanced guard, under general Rosen, was attack- ed at the same time, advancing from Ok- anief. On the arrival of Diebitsch, he sent a re-enforcement under general Toll, with several battalions and 20 cannon, to the relief of count Pahlen. A furious charge was now made by the Russians, with Diebitsch in person, which changed the fortune of the day, and at 4 o'clock, the Russian wings united, when the Poles were driven from the field of bat- tle. For three days after this action the Russians made no onward movement, but asked an armistice for the burial of the dead, which was granted. " Early on the 25th, the Russians hav- ing received" a re-enforcement of 25,000 men, felt prepared for action. They drew forth their whole army in front of the forest, and commenced an attack on the Polish left wing, near Jublonna. Gen- eral Uminski received this attack with great bravery and repulsed the enemy, taking six cannon, which he spiked, and drove the Russians to the forest. He then attacked the Russian centre with dreadful slaughter, and drove them from their position. Diebitsch had calculated, with the great strength of his left wing, to crush the Polish right, situated near Grokow, under the command of Chlopic- ki and Skrzynecki. The Russians made six tremendous charges, and were as of- ten repidsed with great loss ; a seventh charge made against a new regiment, put it in disorder, and caused it partially to retreat. Two regiments of cuirassiers were then sent against the faltering regi- ments ; the latter being aided with the Polish lancers, rallied, rushed on the re- giments of cuirassiers, and cut them to pieces, of which only forty escaped, twen- ty prisoners only being taken, mostly officers, and among them the commander of one of these regiments. This affair decided the day, when the Russians were obliged to withdraw from the field of bat- tle into their strong-holds in the forest of Milosna. This battle was fought with great fury. General Chlopicki, who was in the centre, had two horses killed un- der him, and was wounded. Forty thou- sand Poles here withstood the shock of one hundred and fifty thousand of their enemy ; and at the close of the battle, nearly 15,000 Russians lay weltering ou the plain, and several thousand prisoners were taken. " After the battle, prince Radzvil gave up the command of the army ; when Skrzynecki, who had displayed extraor- dinary bravery and skill, was chosen commander-in-chief. But this step led to the rankling enmity of Krukowiecki, the second in command to Chlopicki, who thenceforward meditated revenge, 526 POLAND. plotted, and afterwards proved a traitor to his country. " The first step of Skrzynecki was to attempt to negotiate with Diebitsch. When he found his advances repelled, he prepared for the unequal struggle. " The ice in the Vistula had now bro- ken up, and the swamps were filled from the melting snow, and the roads were al- most impassable for artillery and cavalry. Skrzynecki now determined to act on the offensive. On learning that Diebitsch had divided his forces, he led the Polish army of 25,000 men to Praga, and on the 31st, favored by the darkness of the night, approached the Russian camp, and fell upon the advanced guard of general Geismar, at Wawar, consisting of 8,000 men, intrenched in a very strong position, which force he nearly destroyed, captu- ring 4,000 prisoners, and taking a num- ber of cannon. General Uminski had previously been despatched towards Os- trolenka, to keep in check the corps of general Sacken and the guards who were advancing there. While the Polish ad- vanced guard were engaged in combat at Wawar, general Rybinski, with his di- vision, attacked the enemy's right, and carried it by the point of the bayonet ; destroyed one entire regiment, and forced another to lay down their arms. The combat lasted two hours. Colonel Ro- marino's brigade here also distinguished itself. Skrzynecki next fell upon the corps of general Rosen, posted at Dembe W^ielski with 20,000 men, who were un- able to withstand the impetuous attack of the Poles. The Russians fled by way of Minsk, and made several efforts to sus- tain their positions as they received re- enforcemenls, but were unable to sustain them. It was at 5 o'clock, P. M. when they arrived at Dembe Wielski, a posi- tion strongly fortified, and the resistance was obstinate. But the force of the ar- tillery from the centre, and the vigor of the assault, completely routed the Rus- sians, who fled with precipitation. " By this masterly movement of the Polish commander-in-chief, 20,000 Rus- sians were thrown hors-de-combat, and many superior officers were captured du- ring this day, so glorious to the Polish arms, besides taking two standards, fif- teen wagons filled with ammunition, some thousand muskets, and fifteen pieces of cannon. This victory occasioned but small loss to the Poles, owing to the ra- pidity and surprise with which their movements were executed. The regi- ment of scythemen (leucheurs) having demanded arms, the muskets left on the field of battle were assigned them. The combat lasted till 10 at night. The ar- my had then been actively engaged, fight- ing and marching, twenty hours. " On the 9lh, the Polish army gained a considerable victory, taking several can- non, and from 3,000 to 4,000 prisoners ; among them were 300 officers of differ- ent ranks. The head-quarters on the 10th were at Seidlec ; and on the same day, at that place, marshal Diebitsch suc- ceeded in uniting all his forces. From this time the Polish cause appears to have declined. " General Dwernecki with a valiant corps entered Volhynia, surrounded by Russian corps under generals De Witt, Keuts, and Rudiger. Dwernecki passed the Bug on the 1 0th, and on the 1 1 th routed some Russian forces, took a num- ber of prisoners, some transports, and baggage. The left wing of the Russian army, stationed at Kock, upon Veprez and Rudje-w, fell back, and marshal Die- bitsch, baffled in his attempts, retired with the army across the river Bug, alarmed for his safety. Insurrections spread in his rear, in the provinces of Lithuania and Volhynia. A violent in- surrection broke out at Wilna on the 28lh of March. " General Chrzanovvski, with 8,000 men, cut his way through the Russians, and penetrated as far as the fortress of Zamosc. The greatest enthusiasm now spread through the Polish province of Samogitia. This expedition of Chrzan- owski, by forcing his way through the enemy's detachments, was one of great daring. In three days he defeated the Russians three times, and took 800 pris- oners. These movements in Volhynia occasioned great uneasiness to the Rus- sians, and obliged them to change their plan — that of attempting Warsaw in front by Praga. On the last days of April, Diebitsch retired with the Russian army POLAND. 527 beyond the river Bug. The barbarities of the Russians during this warfare against the patriots in Lithuania, were of the most revoking kind. " April 26th, general Dwernecki sur- rendered his force, consisting of 4,000 men and 17 pieces of cannon, to the Aus- trians. He had been pursued by a su- perior force, and was under the necessity of passing into the Austrian dominions. Diebitsch, with the principal Russian army, retreated in the direction of the Bug and Narew, to gain the Prussian frontier, to relieve the suffering state of the army. At Thorn there was a great supply of provisions, ammunition, &c, waiting his approach. " The Polish government issued a manifesto against Prussia for her shame- ful violation of the principle of non-inter- ference. This conduct of Prussia des- troyed all the advantages gained by Po- lish valor. The Prussians furnished supplies of every kind, and constructed bridges over the Vistula for the passage of the Russian army. In many instances when the Russian troops were forced by the Polish soldiers into the Prussian do- minions, they were suffered to return with their arms, while the Poles in all similar cases were retained prisoners. " The conduct too of Austria was most outrageous. While the brave Dwernecki, the ' cannon provider,' was withstanding a greatly superior force on the Austrian frontier, the Russians passed over neu- tral ground to outflank him. He was followed in his retreat by the Russians who were allowed to retire, while the brave, patriotic, and devoted champions of Poland were obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war to the Aus- trian forces stationed on the frontier. " While a Polish corps was at Minsk, Skryznecki united all his corps on the left, crossed the Bug, and forced his way to Ostrolenka, a flank movement of 80 miles, and defeated the Russian guards at Tychosin. He then sent forward 300 Polish officers to Lithuania, there to or- ganize the patriot forces. " The sanguinary battle of Ostrolenka was fought on the 26th of May, in which 20,000 Poles were opposed to 60,000 Russians. This battle was fought with an inveteracy unexampled — quarter was out of the question. The Poles having succeeded in passing to the right bank of the Narew, they attempted to destroy the bridge. This they were unable to efl'ect, as the Russians were protected by a numerous artillery placed on the op- posite bank. Several regiments of Poles, under a most galling fire, attempted to ar- rest the progress of the Russians. The combat was for a long time one of slaugh- ter ; they fought man to man, and thou- sands were killed by being thrown into the dyke which passes along the marshy shore of the Narew. The battle did not end till 12 o'clock at night, when the ex- hausted Russians retrograded as far as the bridge, and the Polish army com- menced a retrograde movement unmoles- ted, and fell back on Praga. The loss of the Poles in this battle has been stated at 4,000 men. The Russians suffered very severely and had three generals killed. The Russian guards are said to have displayed great bravery in the action. It was the object of Diebitsch to cut off the retreat of the Poles. The second Polish corps under General Lu- bienski displayed great gallantry on the 25th : it forced its way, at the point of the bayonet, in a retreat from Chirch- nowiec, through 40,000 Russians. " It was subsequently ascertained that a correspondence had been kept up by trai- tors and Russian agents in Warsaw, by whose means Diebitsch was informed of the plans of the Polish commander-in- chief, and led to the disastrous battle of Ostrolenka. On the same day that the battle of Ostrolenka was fought, General Chlapowski gained a victory over the Russians at Mariampol, commanded by General Sacken. " The Russian commander-in-chief, Diebitsch, died suddenly at Klechewo, June 19th, at that time the head-quarters of the Russian army. He had been su- perseded a short time previous to his death by Paskewitch, who had greatly distinguished himself in the war against the Persians. Shortly afterwards, the Arch Duke Constantine died very suddenly. " June 29th, a conspiracy was this day timely discovered in Warsaw, which was to set the Russian prisoners, thirteen 528 POLAND. thousand in number, at liberty. Several disaffected officers attempted to bring about a counter-revolution to favor the Russians. It was to be accompUshed as follows : the prisoners having been allowed to go at large, they were to be supplied with arms ; and on a signal be- ing given the powder mill was to be blown up, when a general attack was to be made on the citizens and national guard. General Janowski, one of the traitors, to save himself, made the discovery of this horrid conspiracy just in time to save Warsaw. " On the 1 4th of July, General Chrzan- ski was attacked by General Rudiger's corps, on this side of Minsk, five miles from Warsaw ; when the Russians were defeated and forced to retreat, having 3,000 men killed, 900 prisoners taken, and 1,000 muskets. On the 12th, the main army of Paskewitch was encamped between Sisno and Kikal, and on the same day a great part of it passed the Vistula between Warsaw and the Prus- sian frontier, having received from Thorn a great number of barges and materials for bridges. The Prussians, to facilitate the passing of the Russians, had con- structed a bridge over the Vistula at Drewenca. "On the 13th of Aug. General Skryz- necki resigned the command of the army to General Dembinski, compelled, by the force of circumstances, to do so, in order that faction might have no further pre- text to injure his country. His letter of resignation on this occasion, is full of generous devotion to the cause of his country. The patriotic club, irritated with the measures of government and dissatisfied at not seeing General Jan- owski condemned, determined to take violent measures. To these acts they were instigated by the base Krukowiecki. On the 15th of August, at 8 A. M. the club formally demanded that Skryznecki should be ordered to Warsaw. They then proceeded to the castle, that was protected by 200 of the national guard, who made scarcely any resistance. On the same day, the patriotic club demand- ed the death of Janowski ; and on the 16th, the state prisoners concerned in the conspiracy for a counter-revolution, were murdered in their rooms by the clubists. Thirty-five persons were thus put to death without ceremony ; among them were Generals Janowski, Bulkow- ski, Hurtig, Salacki, and Benlhouski, the Russian chamberlain, Fustiane, &c. " During the night. General Krukowi- ecki was appointed governor of the city. He sent for a re-enforcement, and his first measures were to put a stop to these horrors. August 17th, the government was dissolved, and Krukowiecki was placed at the head of the new govern- ment, with very extended powers. He caused the arrest of the president and ten of the club, and appointed General Prondzynski to the chief command in the army. " From the time that Krukowiecki came into power, he took measures to deliver Warsaw to the Russians, and made every attempt to induce the diet to demand an amnesty, and sent the main part of the Polish army to the right side of the Vis- tula, when the thunder of the Russian artillery was breaking over the devoted city. The proposals of Krukowiecki were repelled by the diet with indigna- tion, who declared to the suspicious de- puties, ' rather will we die here in our places than stain the honor of our coun- try.' The traitor was deposed at mid- night and a new governor of the city named, which gave new vigor to the fainting defenders of Warsaw. " On the 6th of September, at daybreak, the Russian army of 100,000 men and 300 pieces of cannon, advanced to storm Warsaw, which was defended with great heroism. On the 8th, after two days hard fighting, it surrendered to Field Marshal Paskewitch. The Russians had 20,000 slain in storming Warsaw. The Poles lost about half that number in its defence. " The government and the most distin- guished citizens retired with the main body of the army, under the new com- mander-in-chief, Rybinski, upon Modlin and Plozk. The army, however, kept in three divisions instead of unhing, which could thus offer but a feeble resis- tance to the Russian forces. As a last resource, the Poles crossed the frontiers into the Austrian and Prussian dominions. PORTUGAL. 529 Upwards of 1 ,500 of the most distinguish- ed leaders of the Polish revolution were arrested and imprisoned at Warsaw ; and to complete the measures of oppression and vengeance, the Russian troops fired upon the prisoners confined in one of the wings of the prison, under the pretence of a revolt among the prisoners, though it was known that three-fourths of these were imprisoned for political offences. " Of twenty-two Polish generals that became, in a mannei", prisoners under the amnesty, the greater part were sent to distant parts of the Russian empire, and but four returned to Poland. The soldiers were marched by thousands to Siberian exile, linked together by the wrists to bars of iron. The nobles were treated in the same ignominious manner, with their heads shaved, and consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia ; and the children were torn from their mothers, and carried off to glut the ven- geance of the Autocrat of all the Rus- sia's. " Numbers of the patriots that escaped after the fall of Warsaw, when the army passed the frontiers, have gone into vol- untary exile, and are now mourning over the calamities of their country, the loss of their homes, their wives, and their children." PORTUGAL The early history of Portugal, like that of most other states, is involved in obscurity and fable ; and though the Por- tuguese writers lay claim to a regular de- scent from Tubal, and to other honors which existed only in their own imagi- nations, yet it is allowed by all impartial inquirers, that we have no authentic me- morials of that kingdom, prior to the time of Hamilcar, the famous Carthaginian general. Nor even from this period, which is comparatively recent, have we any regular accounts of its history. All indeed we know with certainty is, that it was conquered by Hamilcar ; that it was the scene of various military op- erations between the Romans and Car- thaginians, for the two subsequent centu- ries ; and that in the time of Augustus it was finally conquered by the Romans, and constituted a Roman province. It remained in this state during the first four centuries of the Christian era ; but in the sixth, on the downfall of the Ro- man power, it fell into the hands of the barbarians, who overran the south of Eu- rope, particularly the Goths and Vandals. The Moors from the North of Africa, early in the eighth century, having landed in Spain, extended their conquests to Portugal, which continued in their pos- session till the eleventh century. The 67 Spaniards, having long struggled to ex- pel these infidels from their territories, and having succeeded in driving them from the greater part of the country, and in establishing the kingdom of Castile and Leon, penetrated into Portugal, and conquered a part of it from its barbarous invaders in the reign of Alphonso VI, of Castile. This monarch having acquired great glory by his expulsion of the Moors, Henry, grandson of the first duke of Normandy, anxious to share in this glory, passed over into Spain, and en- tered the service of the Castilian mon- arch. After signalizing his valor in va- rious engagements the king raised him to the highest military honors, and the better to attach so brave an officer to his service, bestowed on him his natural daughter Theresa in marriage, and, as her portion, such portions of Portugal as were not in the hands of the Moors. This he governed under the title of Earl or Count, till his death, which happened in 1112, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. The name of Count Henry forms the first great authentic era in the annals of Portugal. And he seems to have been worthy of the success and honors he experienced. On his death- bed, he is said, to have recommended to his son and successor to protect and prop- >30 PORTUGAL, agate the Christian faith ; to treat his subjects as his children ; to grant them equitable laws, and to cause them to be impartially administered. Alphonso, who succeeded him, being un- der age, the kingdom during his minority was governed by the queen-mother, assist- ed by two able ministers. During this mi- nority, those jealousies and hostile opera- tions which have ever since obtained be- tween the Spanish and Portuguese monar- chies first appeared. Alphonso, however, ■when he came of age, made peace with the king of Castile and Leon ; and although the latter afterwards entered the Portu- guese territories, and was preparing to commit great devastations, a reconcilia- tion was again effected on the interces- sion of the pope's legate, all places and prisoners on either side having been delivered up. The queen-mother, how- ever, was of a disposition incapable of remaining long in peace. After she had made a treaty with her foreign enemies, a quarrel took place between her and her own son, which having terminated in a civil war, not only were her troops completely defeated, but herself was made prisoner ; in which situation she continued duringthe remainder of her life. Alphonso had not long gained uncon- trolled possession of his dominions, when they were attempted to be overrun by the Moors. He was not, however, slow in opposing them. And a general en- gagement, 1139, having taken place on the plains of Ourique, on the banks of the Tagus, the infidel army was overthrown with tremendous slaughter : an event which not only redounded to the honor of Alphonso, l)ut which laid the founda- tion of the Portuguese monarchy. Al- phonso was proclaimed king by his sol- diers on the field of battle ; a title which he enjoyed till his death, and which was for generations retained by his descen- dants. At a subsequent period he caused himself, with great ceremony, to be se- lected and crowned king before an as- sembly of the states, on which occasion he solemnly renounced all dependence on the crown of Spain, declaring, that if any of his successors should consent to do homage or pay tribute to that power, he was unworthy of possessing the king- I dom of Portugal. But though Alphonso had attained to this dignity, he did not allow himself to enjoy it in inglorious tranquillity. While he made several un- successful irruptions into the territories of the king of Castile, who had now as- sumed the title of emperor of Spain, he at the same time contimied with unabated ardor to extirpate the Moors, who were i still in possession of a great portion of his dominions. Lisbon being in their hands, he reduced it by means of a fleet of French, English and Flemish adven- turers, who, in their way to the Holy Land, anchored at the mouth of the Ta- gus, whose assistance he requested and obtained in a cause not entirely foreign to that in which they were embarked. He made many successful expeditions against the Moors, and became master of four of the six provinces of which Portu- gal now consists. He died in 11 85, ce- lebrated for courage, patriotism, and for his love and patronage of learned men. His son Sancho, who succeeded him, was worthy of his distinguished prede- cessor. Though, before his accession, he had been remarkable for a restless and warlike disposition, he had no sooner obtained possession of the throne than he became a lover of peace, and began, with great assiduity, to repair or rebuild the cities that had suffered by the late wars, and to make what compensation he could for the injuries and losses his subjects had sustained. Although thus pacifically inclined, the state of the na- tion did not permit him to remain long in peace. The Moors still infested the southern parts of his dominions, over whom he obtained several signal victo- ries, and added considerably to the ex- tent of his territories. He died at an advanced age with the reputation of the best sovereign that had ever filled the throne of Portugal. For some time after his death, no event of importance occurs in the Portuguese annals. In the thirteenth century, the Moors were expelled by Alphonso HI, from Algarve and the south of the king- dom ; and, in the subsequent century, the Portuguese made occasional descents on the coast of Africa with various success. But the wars asainst the Moors were PORTUGAL 531 unhappily succeeded by hostilities with the kings of Castile, which have engen- dered such implacable hatred between the two nations. The reign of Deniz, {an enlightened and patriotic prince, who is justly denominated the father of his country,) notwithstanding some occa- sional treaties of peace, may be regarded as almost one continued series of warfare with the Castilians. But at length, in the reign of John I, hostilities between these two nations were carried on, if possible, with greater vigor and animos- ity. The king of Castile, having laid pretensions to the crown of Portugal, in- vaded that kingdom at the head of the whole forces of his dominions. Having entered the province of Alentejo, and besieged the town of Elvas without effect, he found it necessary to retire into his own territories, determined, however, to invade Portugal a second time, and lay waste the whole country. But the second expedition was not more successful than the first. He was completely defeated ; and John was firmly established on the throne of Portugal. The Castilians con- sented to a truce of three years, which was afterwards improved into a lasting peace. But the fame of John is not confined to his victories over the Castilians, or to successful expeditions made by himself in person into the Moorish territories. These, though they show him to have been a man of talents and courage, are not the events by which he is best known to posterity. With his name the history of navigation and the progress of discov- ery are inseparably connected: a depart- ment of enterprise and skill in which Portugal has gained almost unrivalled distinction. At the period at which we are arrived, the art of navigation was still very imperfect. "Though Africa," says Dr. Robertson, " lay so near to Portugal, and the fertility of the countries already known on that continent invited men to explore it more fully, the Portuguese had not ventured to sail beyond Cape Non. That promontory, as its name imports, was hitherto considered as a boundary which could not be passed. But the nations of Europe had now acquired as much knowledge as emboldened them to disregard the prejudices and to correct the errors of their ancestors. The long reign of ignorance, the constant enemy of every curious inquiry, and of every new undertaking, Avas approaching to its period. The light of science began to dawn. The works of the ancient Greeks and Romans began to be read with ad- miration and profit. The sciences culti- vated by the Arabians were introduced into Europe by the Moors settled in Spain and Portugal, and by the Jews, who were very numerous in both these kingdoms. Geometry, astronomy, and geography, the sciences on which the art of naviga- tion is founded, became objects of studious attention. The memory of the discoveries made by the ancients was revived, and the progress of their navigation and com- merce began to be traced. Some of the causes (particularly the inquisition) which have obstructed the cultivation of science in Portugal during this century and the last, did not exist, or did not operate in the same manner in the fifteenth century ; and the Portuguese, at that period, seem to have kept pace with the nations on this side the Alps in literary pursuits." Such were the circumstances of the age when king John, urged partly by ambitious motives, and partly instigated to the measure in order to find employment for the restless spirit of his subjects, fitted out two armaments, the one destined to attack the Moors settled on the coast of Africa, the other, consisting only of a few vessels, appointed to sail along the western shore of Africa bounded by the Atlantic ocean, and to discover the un- known countries situated there. The expedition against the Moors ended suc- cessfully ; while, what was still more important, the vessels sent on the discov- ery doubled that formidable cape which had terminated the progress of former navigators, and proceeded 160 miles be- yond it, to Cape Bojador. " As its rocky "clifl^s," says the historian just quoted, " which stretched a considerable way into the Atlantic, appeared more dreadful than the promontory they had passed, the Portuguese commanders durst not attempt to sail round it, but returned to Lisbon, more satisfied with having ad- vanced so far, than ashamed of having ventured no farther." 532 PORTUGAL, Inconsiderable as this voyage was, it increased the passion for discovery which began to arise. Nor was Portugal de- ficient in men of talents and enterprise, capable of giving it a proper impulse and direction. Not only was John himself anxious to patronise and forward any plan which had for its object the progress of discovery, but prince Henry, his fourth son, was, from his great talents and ardent enthusiasm, peculiarly formed for espous- ing a cause which might prove not only beneficial, but splendid and honorable. He had cultivated, according to Dr. Rob- ertson, the arts and sciences, which were then unknown and despised by persons of his rank. He had applied, with pecu- liar fondness, to the study of geography, and had acquired such knowledge of the habitable globe, as discovered the great probability of finding new and opulent countries by sailing along the coast of Africa. Under such distinguished pa- tronage, an impulse was given to the spirit of discovery unknown before, and which was attended with the most brilliant results. Not only were the islands Porto Sancto, Madeira, Cape de Verd and the Azores, discovered and taken possession of, but, ere long, the western coast of Africa was traced, and Bartholomew Diaz had descried that lofty promontory which bounds this great continent on the south ; which the discoverer himself denomina- ted the Stormy Cape, but to which the king, his master, as he now entertained no doubts of having found the long desir- ed route to India, gave a name more in- viting, and of better omen, the Cape of Good Hope. These great events had taken place during the successive reigns of John, Edward, Alphonso V, and John II ; and, in the reign of Emanuel, the next monarch, Vasco de Gama, a man of noble birth, possessed of virtue, prudence, and courage, was despatched by his sovereign, with three vessels, to follow the route which Diaz had pursued, and, if possible, to double that promontory, which was justly regarded as opening a way to the East. After struggling for ' four months with contrary winds, Gama, \ during an interval of calm weather, ac- complished the object for which he had set out. After doubling that formidable [ cape, he directed his course towards the north-east, along the African continent. He landed at Melinda, on the Zanquebar coast, and afterwards crossed the Indian ocean, he arrived at Calecut, on the coast of Malabar. And having obtained not oidy some commodities peculiar to that place, but many rich productions of the eastern parts of India, he returned to Portugal by the same route, and landed at Lisbon in September, 1499, two years, two months, and five days, from the time he had left that port, and after having performed a voyage, the longest as well as the most difficult that had yet been accomplished. In about a year after this date, Cabral discovered that exten- sive country in South America, now known by the name of Brazil, and which till lately formed so important a portion of the territories of the kings of Portugal. This great progress in navigation, and in the discovery of unknown regions, of which we have given but a brief sketch, was accomplished ere the termination of the fifteenth century ; and the two last important voyages, those of De Gama and Cabral, were performed five and seven years respectively from the time when the New World was discovered by the illustrious Columbus. In the history of navigation Portugal holds an eminent place, both from the number, the early date, and the magnificence of her discoveries ; and, as previously mention- ed, the only circumstance which pre- vents her being entirely unrivalled in this great department, is her refusing, though urgently solicited, to patronise and pro- mote that bold voyage of discovery me- ditated by Columbus, which was, at a subsequent period, undertaken under the auspices of Spain, and which, contrary to the expectation of the Portuguese, forms the greatest achievement in the history of the art to which it belongs. Nor was Columbus the only distinguished person in this department that Portugal overlooked. Magellan, a Portuguese, and the first that circumnavigated the globe, was also denied patronage and encouragement in his native country ; and having in consequence applied to Charles V, of Spain, that monarch did himself honor by taking him under his PORTUGAL. 533 protection, and assisting in promoting his bold and interesting design. The successful voyages of the Portu- guese were soon celebrated throughout Europe, and excited the deepest interest. With some, they roused a spirit of emu- lation ; but the Venetians, with the quick- sighted descernment of merchants, early foresaw, and feared that it would prove the ruin of that lucrative branch of com- merce with the East, which had contri- buted so largely to enrich and aggrandize them. Nor were their fears ill founded. The Portuguese did not fail immediately to avail themselves of the route they had discovered to India. The wisdom and prudence of king Emanuel were not more conspicuous in the vigorous and judicious measures adopted at home for monopoli- zing the commerce of that opulent region, than in his nomination of officers to take the supreme command in Asia; men who, for military and political sagacity, for integrity and love of country, have certainly not been surpassed by persons in similar situations. And their measures were not only planned in wisdom, but "carried into effect with the greatest activ- ity. In twenty-four years after the voyage of Gama, the Portuguese had rendered themselves masters of Malacca, which was the centre of the trade of the East. They had also formed settlements at Goa and Diu, by which they engrossed the trade of the Malabar coast. In every part of India they were received with respect ; in some they had absolute com- mand; and they thus rapidly diverted from its ancient channels the commerce of India, and were also enabled to import into Europe the various productions pe- culiar to that country in greater abun- dance than had hitherto been effected. The Venetians now felt that decrease of their Indian trade which they had dread- ed. This state of things they were re- solved to counteract. And, sensible that their own naval force was inadequate to the task, they incited the Sultan of the Mamelukes to fit out a fleet to attack those unexpected invaders of a monopoly of which he and they had long enjoyed imdisturbed possession. But the Portu- guese were not unprepared to defend themselves. The formidable squadron seut out agninst them they encountered with matchless courage, entirely defeated it, and became more thoroughly masters of the Indian Ocean than before. Year after year, they extended their connection with the East, till they established there a commercial empire of great opulence and extent. And Emanuel, who laid the foimdation of it, had the satisfaction of living- to see it almost completed. Every part of Europe was supplied by the Por- tuguese with the productions of the East; and this quarter of the globe had now little or no intercourse with India, except by the Cape of Good Hope. Emanuel, who died in 1522, crowned with years and glory, was succeeded by his son John III, a prince who extended his acquisitions in India, colonized the Brazils, and effected some salutary im- provements at home. But the praise, to which, in other respects, he is entitled, is much qualified, if not entirely armuUed, by his introduction of the inquisition : an event to which, in no mean degree, the rapid subsequent decline of the Portu- guese monarchy is to be attributed. From this date, the Portuguese annals are distingiiished by nothing that is great or splendid. Sebastian, who succeeded John (1557) was, partly from natural dis- positions, and in part from a defect in his education, remarkable for rashness, ob- stinacy, and want of discrimination. Wishing to distingTiish himself in a war against the infidels, he undertook two crusades into Barbary. For this pur- pose, he levied large armies, he induced the principal nobility to rally round his standard, neglected all domestic and in- ternal improvements, and thus sacrificed the true interests and hopes of his king- dom to personal vanity, and the meanest ambition. And continuing inflexible in his purpose, in opposition to the impor- tunities of his allies and more judicious subjects, he left Lisbon (1578) with a formidable fleet, and having landed in Barbary, was met by Muley Moloch, the Moorish king, and defeated with incred- ible slaughter, himself slain, and his army either cut oft" or taken prisoners. By this signal defeat, the kingdom was at once exhausted of men, money, and reputa- tion, and placed in circumstances to be- 534 PORTUGAL. come an easy prey to the ambition or rapacity of any state that might wish to make the attempt. Cardinal Henry, who succeeded Sebastian, only reigned two years ; and the male line of the royal family having become extinct, and the kingdom being completely devoid of re- sources for self-defence, Philip II, the celebrated king of Spain, soon succeeded in adding it to his paternal dominions, though various attempts were made by the people to retain their independence, and though Elizabeth, queen of England, fitted out a fleet to drive Philip from the territories he had so unjustly seized. The Spanish monarch, however, having, in opposition to every obstacle, firmly seated himself on the throne of Portugal, the Portuguese, roused at length by many injuries, and a native love of lib- erty, made a successful insurrection in 1640, expelled the Spaniards from their territories, and conferred the crown on the duke of Braganza, a descendant, by the female line, of the royal family. This revolution, which forms so important an era in Portuguese history, being the al- most unanimous voice of the nation, was attended with little or no efl^usion of blood. Nor were all the attempts of the king of Spain able to regain possession. A fierce war between the tvi^o kingdoms raged for many years. Portugal gained several distinguished victories ; and at length, in 1668, hostilities were termi- nated in favor of Portuguese indepen- dence, through the interposition of Charles II, king of England, who had married a princess of Portugal. Alphonso was successor to the duke of Braganza, who reigned under the title of John IV. Alphonso being of a weak constitution, of great imbecility of mind, ill-educated, and addicted to mean com- pany and low pleasures, his mother en- deavored, by every artifice and intrigue, to get liim deprived of the crown, which she meant to place on the head of his younger brother Don Peter. This she was unable to accomplish ; but after her death, Alphonso, from various circum- stances, was compelled to sign a resig- nation of the kingdom, and his brother Avas declared regent, and invested Avith all the powers of royalty. Alphonso's wife having transferred her affections to Don Peter, a circumstance which had led her to induce her husband to submit to the resignation — their marriage hav- ing been declared null by the chapter of Lisbon, and the regent having gained a papal dispensation, and the consent of the states, married the lady who had been his brother's wife. On the death of Alphonso, the regent succeeded by the title of Peter II. Peter, having died in 1706, was succeeded by his son John V. In 1750, on the death of John, Don Jo- seph ascended the throne, a prince whose reign, though not distinguished for any thing enterprising or heroic, is probably one of the most memorable, but most re- volting periods in Portuguese history. It is deeply stained with domestic blood, and rendered odious by the most shock- ing cruelty. In 1758, the king was at- tacked by assassins, and narrowly escaped with his life. The families of Aveira and Tavora, in consequence of an accu- sation, afterwards proved to be unfounded, exhibited against them, of having con- spired against his majesty's life, were cruelly destroyed by torture. On various pretences execution succeeded execution, with awful rapidity. An earthquake overwhelmed the city of Lisbon, and shook the whole kingdom to its centre. A famine threatened to accomplish what this visitation had left undone. And in addition to these and similar calamities, the Portuguese dominions were invaded by Spain with a powerful army ; their capital threatened ; their prince almost determined to save himself by flight; evils from which they could not have been saved, had not England interposed to bring about a peace, Avhich was con- cluded in 1763. During this reign the management of public affairs was in the hands of the celebrated marquis de Pom- bal, a minister of unbounded authority, which he not unfrequently directed to the most cruel and arbitrary proceedings, and whose removal from office, in the subsequent reign, excited joy throughout all ranks of the community. Joseph, who died in 1777, having left no sons, was succeeded by his daughter Mary, whom he had married, by dispen- sation from the pope, to Don Peter, her PORTUGAL. 535 uncle, with a view of preventing the crown from falling into a foreign family. The queen having fallen into a state of religious melancholy, the prince of Brazil published an edict (1792) declaring that as his mother, from her unhappy situa- tion, was incapable of managing the af- fairs of government, he would place his signature to public papers, till the return of her health, but that no other change should take place in consequence of her indisposition. From this unhappy state she was doomed never to recover. She attained, however, to very advanced years, and at her death was succeeded by her son. In the beginning of the war with France, Portugal took a feeble part conjunctly with England and Spain ; but after Spain had made peace with France, a war took place between the former country and Portugal, which, however, was productive of no very important events, and which was terminated by treaty in 1801. On the rupture of the peace of Amiens, and the renewal of the French war, Portugal remained for some rime neutral ; but having, at length, de- termined in favor of France, she advanc- ed, from time to time, large sums of money to that power, and at last went so far as to order her ports to be shut against the ships of war and merchant vessels of England. She now found herself placed in peculiar and extremely danger- ous circumstances — virtually at war with Great Britain, a power Avith which she had for centuries been intimately con- nected, whose friendship had often avert- ed from her impending ruin, and from whose hostility she had every thing to dread — and leagued with France, her ancient enemy, in whom she could place no confidence, and whose armies, having invaded Spain, were rapidly advancing to Lisbon, to possess or to destroy it. In such circumstances the government hesi- tated long what steps to adopt. Distrust- ful of Bonaparte, expecting no assistance from any foreign power, and aware that the internal resources of the nation were inadequate to its defence, the royal fam- ily of Braganza abandoned a kingdom which they could not defend, and emi- grated to Brazil. In November, 1807, they sailed from the Tagus, in a fleet of eight sail of the line, carrying with them about 18,000 Portuguese subjects, in- cluding many persons of distinction. And from this period, Rio de Janeiro, the cap- ital of Brazil, may be regarded as the seat of the Portuguese government. On the removal of the royal family the coun- cils of state attended them ; and the king was represented in Lisbon by a regency, and the councils by committees ; and no other important alteration took place in consequence of the departure of the court to the Brazilian colony. Nor were the views of the king of Portugal, in regard to the views of Bona- parte, unfounded. The French imme- diately took possession of Lisbon, and the administration of the new government was conferred on Jmiot, now dignified with the title of duke of Abrantes. They were not, however, allowed long to retain possession of the Portuguese territories. England, having resolved to assist Spain and Portugal in their resistance to French usurpation, despatched an army to the latter country, and having defeated the enemy at Vimeira, compelled them to evacuate Portugal, by the convention of Cintra. Portugal, however, was not yet freed from foreign aggression. The in- vading armies of France having met with considerable success in Spain, having taken Madrid, and forced Sir John Moore to make a precipitate retreat from the peninsula, Portugal was again attempted to be overrun and subdued. Three armies were collected on its frontiers, one under marshal Soult, in Gallicia, another under general Lapisse, at Sala- manca, and a third on the banks of the Tagus, under marshal Victor. Had these armies been concentrated, and placed under the management of one command- er, the object the French had in view, notwithstanding the bravery of the Portu- guese and the English forces, must soon have been realized, and Portugal have fallen a prey to her ambitious and un- principled invaders. These armies, how- ever, being thus disunited, — fearing to be severally committed, and not knowing the views and operations of each other,— lost the precious moment for action, in suspense, inactivity, or petty movements. Souh, indeed, having entered Portugal 536 PORTUGAL. on the north, took Chaves and Oporto, with great slaughter, and gained several important advantages. Victor and La- pisse, having, at length, united their forces, had forced the passage of the Tagus, and were making rapid advances towards Lisbon. But this success was but of short duration. Chaves and Oporto were soon recaptured. A decisive vic- tory was gained over Soult on the banks of the Douro, attended with the loss of the greater part of his army : and aban- doning all his artillery and wheel-car- riages, he was himself obliged to flee be- yond the frontiers of the kingdom,whither he was soon followed by Victor and La- pisse, without having accomplished any thing, either to undermine in any degree the resources of Portugal, or afford them the hope of greater success by a subse- quent invasion. Another attempt, however, the French yet resolved to make. Massena entered (1810) Portugal, with an army of 72,000 men, which could be opposed only by about 50,000, one half of Avhich number was composed of young Portuguese levies, devoid of skill or experience. Almeida was besieged and taken ; Coimbra fell Avithout opposition ; and the enemy was thus advancing, with great rapidity, to the capital. But the British and Portu- guese armies were not in the mean time inactive. The route by which Massena meant to force his way to the capital, having become apparent, the rival com- mander placed his forces in such posi- tions as were most likely to frustrate his intentions ; all roads that might favor his progress were destroyed ; cannon were planted on the most inaccessible parts, to harass his march ; and the inhabitants of a district of nearly 2,000 square miles, on the banks of the Tagus, in the neigh- borhood of Lisbon, where this defensive position was taken up, were directed to retire, with what of their substance they could convey, and to destroy what could not be removed, so that no support might be afforded the army of the enemy. And these precautionary steps were attended with complete success. So soon as the French general came within sight of the formidable works by which he was to be opposed, he made an instant halt, struck with dismay and astonislunent ; and hav- ing remained without any movement foi a month, (during which time he was much harassed by the irregidar Portu- guese troops,) he retrograded towards Santarem. He was followed by the British to Cartaxo, where the two armies remained in sight of each other, for nearly five months, without coming to any de- cisive engagement. The English, in the mean time, received abundant sup- plies of provisions from Lisbon ; while the French, after having exhausted the country in their rear, were experiencing scarcity and famine to such a degree, that their ranks were rapidly thinning with hunger. From this circumstance, and with a loss of 30,000 men, they were obliged to retreat ingloriously to Spain, in a state of the most squalid and ghastly wretchedness. Nor was the condition of those Portuguese less miserable, who, driven from their homes, had retired into the woods or mountains, where they were doomed to spend the winter months, with- out shelter, in the open air, subsisting merely on roots and herbs. Many of them died in consequence of their suffer- ings ; while those who survived returned to their desolate homes, with bodies emaciated from hunger, and with intel- lects impaired by the fears and miseries of their unhappy and perilous situation. The French, having received some re-en- forcements at Salamanca, returned again to Portugal, to prevent Almeida from fall- ing into the hands of the British ; but having completely failed in the attempt, they found it necessary soon to retreat — and with this expedition the scene of war closed in Portugal ; for though some por- tions of the frontier districts were after- wards included in the theatre of hostili- ties, yet the subsequent events belong rather to the history of Spain than of Portugal. Though Portugal, after the battle of Waterloo, and the dissolution of the gov- ernment of Bonaparte, enjoyed external peace, the state of the country was by no means tranquil. Symptoms of dissatis- faction, indeed, soon became manifest. The absence of the court, the little influ- ence enjoyed by the regency, the urgent calls for money from the provinces, a PORTUGAL. 537 large standing army, and its command, in a great degree, continued in foreign hands, formed the most powerful circum- stances that led to the convulsions that were soon to ensue. Portugal felt that the order of nature was inverted, and that the parent state had become a dependant on her own colony. Conspiracy was first manifested in the army. Ten thousand men, having been ordered to embark for Brazil, revolted, and showed so much determination, that the regency was com- pelled to yield to their wishes. This was the first step in a revolution, which, in 1820, gave to Portugal a new aspect, and whi<;h, much to the honor of the inhabitants, was efiected without blood- shed. The Assembly of the Cortes com- menced framing a constitution, and a code of laws ; and while they thus were employed in promoting the best interests of the nation, they seemed to enjoy the afiections and confidence of the people. This, however, was not the case ; for, when they had almost succeeded in establishing the consti- tution and administration of the king- dom on the most liberal and enlighten- ed principles, all their operations were superseded, and their authority destroyed by a counter revolution. The revolution of 1820, indeed, was too fundamental, too far removed from the previous order of things, to be permanent. A very lib- eral system of government cannot be ex- pected to exist in a country where the priesthood enjoy such overwhelming rev- enues and power as in Portugal, and Avhere this order, the military, and the officers of state, comprise a fifth of the male population. The counter revolu- tion, therefore, which took place in 1823, and which, like that of 1 820, was achiev- ed by the n)ilitary, was effected with a facility which evinces that the liberal institutions, which the Cortes had estab- lished, had little or no hold on the affec- tions of the great mass of the people. This change, howeA^er, was owing, not more to the prejudices and sympathies of the nation reverting to the dynasty imder which they had been educated, than to the personal character of the monarch, a moderate and humane prince, who had returned from Brazil in 1820, to endeavor, by his presence, to coun- teract the innovations which were then introduced. The revolution of 1 823 was also accomplished without bloodshed ; in every part of the kingdom, it was brought about by the intervention of the military, but without the least appearance of violence or hesitation ; and yet so rapidly was the measure efiected, that, though the first steps in it were taken on the 29th of May, John made his public entry into Lisbon on the 5th of June, as the absolute and uncontrollable head of the new constitution. King John died at Lisbon in 1826, and Pedro his son, the emperor of Brazil, was the successor to the throne of Por- tugal. As soon as Pedro heard of his father's death, he declared his determin- ation to remain in Brazil, and to abdicate the throne of Portugal in favor of his daughter. Donna Maria de Gloria, (who was born in 1819,) on condition that his brother Don Miguel, the king's youngest son, should marry her, and that a free constitution should be adopted as con- tained in a charter which he sent over from Brazil. The legal part of the mar- riage ceremony was actually performed at Vienna, and to Don Miguel wore com- mitted full powers to act as regent of Portugal on behalf of his niece and bride. Miguel who resided at Vienna, returned to Lisbon in the spring of 1828, having first visited Paris and London, at both which places he professed his determina- tion to adhere to the constitution. His professions, however, were insincere ; for in a short time he altered his title of regent to that of king. Pedro, exasper- ated at the perfidy of his brother, abdi- cated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son Don Pedro d' Alcantara, then eight years old, and embarked on board of an English frigate. The affairs of his daugh- ter were at this time in a desperate state ; the aboi-tive attempts of the patriots of Oporto had altogether failed, and the reign of Don Miguel was established with the apparent consent of the people so firmly, that little hope remained of shaking it. A gleam had appeared in the unexpected capture of the island of Terceira, which proved the harbinger of 538 ROME. success. An expedition from thence landed at Oporto, where the arrival of Don Pedro, at this critical time, infused fresh liopes. The contest at that town and its vicinity was tedious ; hut at length, after considerahle perseverence and en- ergy, Pedro succeeded in reaching Lis- bon on the 28th of July, 1833, establish- ed himself there as regent to his daughter, and on the 2'2nd of September she also arrived, and was formally acknowledged as constitutional queen of Portugal. Pe- dro having established his daughter's throne, died suddenly at Lisbon in Sep- tember 1834, in the thirty-sixth year of his ase. ROME Although we cannot conjecture with certainty as to the era when Italy was first peopled, we have every reason to believe that it was inhabited by a refined and cultivated nation many ages before the Roman name was known. These were the Etruscans, of whom there exist at this day monuments in the fine arts, which prove them to have been a splendid, lux- urious, and highly polished people. Their alphabet resembling the Phoenician, dis- poses us to believe them of eastern ori- gin. The Roman historians mention them as a powerful and opulent nation long before the origin of Rome. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of independent tribes or na- tions, comparatively in a rude and uncul- tivated state ; Umbriams, Ligurians, Sa- bines, Veientes, Latins, ^Equi, Volsci, &c . Ijatium, a territory of fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth, contained forty- seven independent cities or states. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved in great uncertainty. Diony- sius supposes two cities of that name to have existed, and to have perished before the foundation of the city built by Romu- lus. The vulgar account of the latter is, that it was founded 752 B. C. by a troop of shepherds or banditti, who peopled their new city by carrying off the wives and daughters of their neighbors the Sabines. The great outlines of tlie first consti- tution of the Roman government, though generally attributed to the political abili- ties of Romulus, seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of barbarous na- tions. Other institutions bear the traces of political skill and positive enactment. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curiee. The lands he distributed into three portions ; one for the support of the government, another for the main- tenance of religion, and the third he di- vided into equal portions of two acres to each Roman citizen. He instituted a senate of 100 members, (afterwards in- creased to 200,) who deliberated on and prepared all public measures for the as- sembly of the people, in whom was vest- ed the right of determination. The Pa- trician families were the descendants of those centum patres. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege of assembling the people, and a right of appeal in all ques- tions of importance. He had the com- 1 mand of the army, and the office of Pon- I tifex Maximus. He had, as a guard, twelve lictors, and a troop of horsemen I named Celeres or Equit.es, afterwards ! the distinct order of the Roman knights. I These regulations are of positive institu- : tion ; others arose naturally from the state I of society. I The patri potestas is of the latter na- ', ture, being common to all barbarous I tribes. The limitation of all arts to the I slaves arose from the constant employ- j ment of the citizens in warfare or in agriculture. The connection of patron and client was an admirable institution, which at once united the citizens, and maintained a useful subordination. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early Romans ; and a wise policy united for a whiiC the two nations ROME. 539 into one state. After the death of Romu- lus, who reigned thirty-seven years, Nu- ma, a Sabine, was elected king. His disposition was pious and pacific, and he endeavored to give his people the same character. He pretended to divine in- spiration, in order to give the greater au- thority to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. He multiplied the na- tional gods, built temples, and instituted different classes of priests, Flamines, Salii, Sic, and a variety of religious cere- monies. The Flamines officiated each in the service of a peculiar deity ; the Salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the Vestals cherished the sacred fire ; the Augurs and Aruspices divined future events from the flight of birds, and the entrails of victims. The temple of Ja- nus was open in war, and shut during | peace. Numa reformed the calendar, ' regulating the year at twelve lunar months, and distinguished the days for j civil occupation from those dedicated to ' religious rest. Agriculture was lawful on the latter, as a duty of religion. Nu- : ma reigned forty-three years. j TuUus Hostilius, the third king of Rome, of warlike disposition, subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neigh- boring states. The Sabines, now dis- ; united from the Romans, were among the most powerful of their enemies. TuUus reigned thirty-three years. ; Ancus Martins, the grandson of Numa, was elected king on the death of Tullus. He inherited the piety and virtues of his grandfather, and joined to these the ta- lents of a warrior. He increased the population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the conquered states ; enlarged and fortified the city, and built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years. ' Tarquinius Priscus, a cuizen of Corinth, popular from his wealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant throne. He enlarged the senate by 100 new members from the Plebeian families. This body consisted now of 300, at which number it remained for some centuries. Tarquin was victorious in his wars, and he adorn- ed and improved the city with works of utility and magnificence. Such were the Circus or Hippodrome ; the walls of , hewn stone ; the Capitol ; the Cloacae, those immense common sewers, which lead to the belief that the new Rome had been buih on the ruins of an ancient city of greater magnitude. Tarquinius was , assassinated in the tliirty-eighth year of his reign. Servius Tullius, who had married the daughter of Tarquinius, secured by his own address, and the intrigues of his mother-in-law, his election to the vacant throne. He courted popularity by acts of munificence ; discharging the debts of the poor, dividing among the citizens his patrimonial lands, improving the city with useftd edifices, and extending its boundaries. The new arrangement which he introduced in the division of the Ro- man citizens, is a proof of much politi- cal ability, and merits attention, as on it depended many of the revolutions of the Republic. From the time that the Romans had admitted the Albans and Sabines to the rights of citizens, the Urban and Rustic tribes were composed of those three na- tions. Each tribe being divided into ten curicB, and every curia having an equal vote in the Comitia, as each individual had in his tribe, all questions were deci- ded by the majority of suffrages. There was no pre-eminence between the curuB, and the order in which they gave their votes, was determined by lot. This was a reasonable constitution, so long as the fortunes of the citizens were nearly on a par; but, when riches came to be unequal- ly divided, it was obvious that much in- convenience must have arisen from this equal partition of power, as the rich could easily, by bribery, command the suffrages of the poor. Besides, all the taxes had hitherto been levied by the head, without any regard to the inequali- ty of fortunes. These obvious defects furnished to Servius a just pretext for an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove the poorer citizens from all share of the government ; while the burden attending its support should fall solely on the rich. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, to declare upon oath their names, dwellings, number of their children, and amount of their fortune. 540 ROME. After this numeration or census, Servius divided the whole citizens, without dis- tinction, into four tribes, named, from the quarters where they dwelt, the Palatine, Suburran, Collatine, and Esquiline. Be- sides this local division, Servius distribu- ted the whole people into six classes, and each class into several centuries or portions of citizens, so called, not as ac- tually consisting of a hundred, but as be- ing obliged to furnish and maintain 100 men in time of war In the first class, which consisted of the richest citizens, or those who were worth at least 100 mino',* there were no less than ninety-eight cen- turies. In the second class, (those worth 75 minoi,) there were twenty-two centu- ries. In the third, (those worth 50 mi- n* ^ --WsHilHI ■i Assassination of Julius Cmsar. Cleopatra. The latter, though married ' to her brother, and joint heir by their ! father's will, was ambitious of undivided authority ; and Csesar, captivated by her ! charms, decided the contest in favor of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt subdued by the Roman arms. In this war the famous library of Alexandria was burnt to ashes, B. C. 48. A revolt of the Asiatic provinces, under Pharnaces the son of Mithridates, was signally chas- tised, and the report conveyed by Csesar to the Roman senate in three words, Veni, vidi, vici* The conqueror returned to Rome, which needed his presence ; for Italy was di^dded, and the partisans of j Pompey were yet extremely formidable. His two sons, with Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa. Caesar pursued them thither, and, proceeding with cau- tion till secure of bis advantage, defeated them in a decisive engagement at Thap- sus. Scipio perished in his passage to Spain. Cato, shutting himself up in Utica, meditated a brave resistance ; but finally, seeing no hope of success, he determined not to survive the liberties of * I came, I saw, I conquered. his country, and fell deliberately by his own hand. Mauritania was now added to the number of the Roman provinces, and Caesar returned to Rome absolute mas- ter of the empire. From that moment his attention was directed solely to the prosperity and hap- piness of the Roman people. He re- membered no longer that there had been opposite parties ; beneficent alike to the friends of Pompey as to his own. He labored to reform every species of abuse or grievance. He introduced order into every department of the state, defining the separate rights of all its magistrates, and extending his care to the regulation of its most distant provinces. The re- formation of the calendar, the draining the marshes of Italy, the navigation of the Tiber, the embellishment of Rome, the complete survey and delineation of the empire, alternately employed his lib- eral and capacious mind. Returning from the final overthrow of Pompey's parly in Spain, he was hailed the father of his country, was created consul for ten years, and perpetual dictator. His person was declared sacred, his title henceforth Imperator, B. C. 45. The Roman republic had thus finally. 552 ROME. by its own acts, resigned its liberties. They were not extinguished, as Montes- quieu has well remarked, by the ambition of a Pompey or of a Caesar. If the sentiments of Caesar and Pompey had been the same with those of Cato, oth- ers would have had the same ambitious thoughts ; and since the commonwealth was fated to fall, there never would have been wanting a hand to drag it to des- truction. Yet Cassar had by force sub- dued his country ; he therefore was an usurper ; and had it been possible to re- store the liberties of the republic, and with these its happiness, by the suppres- sion of that usurpation, the attempt had merited the praise at least of good de- sign. Perhaps so thought his murderers ; and thus, however weak their policy, however base and treacherous their act, with many they will ever find apologists. They madly dreamed an impossible issue, as the event demonstrated. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at the head of whom were Brutus and Cassius ; the former a man beloved of Caesar, who had saved his life, and heaped upon him numberless benefits. It was rumored that the dicta- tor wished to add to his numerous titles that of king, and that the Ides of March was fixed on for investing him with the diadem. On that day, when taking his seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the conspirators ; he defend- ed himself for sometime against their daggers, till, seeing Brutus amongst the number, he faintly exclaimed, " And you, too, my son !" and, covering his face with his robe, resigned himself to his fate. He fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, B. C. 43. The Roman people were struck with horror at the deed : they loved Caesar, master as he was of their lives and lib- erties. Mark Antony and Lepidus, am- bitious of succeeding to the power of the dictator, resolved to pave the way by avenging his death. The people to whom Caesar, by his testament, had be- queathed a great part of his fortune, were penetrated with gratitude to his memory. against his murderers, who must have met with instant destruction, had they not escaped with precipitation from the city. Antony profited by these disposi- tions ; and the avenger of C«sar, of course the favorite of the people, was in the immediate prospect of attaining a similar height of dominion. In this, however, he found a formidable compet- itor in Octavius, the grand-nephew and the adopted heir of Caesar, who at this critical moment, arrived in Rome. Avail- ing himself of these titles, Octavius gained the senate to his interest, and di- vided with Antony the favor of the peo- ple. The rivals soon perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their inter- ests; and they admitted Lepidus into their association, whose power, as gov- ernor of Gaul, and immense riches, gave him a title to a share of authority. Thus was formed the second Triumvirate, the effects of whose union were beyond measure dreadful to the republic. The Triumviri divided among themselves the provinces, and cemented their imion by a deliberate sacrifice made by each of his best friends to the vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to death his uncle Lucius, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Octavius his guardian Tora- nius, and his friend Cicero. In this hor- rible proscription, 300 senators and 3000 knights were put to death. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspirators, who had a for- midable army in the field in Thrace, commanded by Brutus and Cassius. An engagement ensued at Philippi, which decided the fate of the empire. Antony- was victorious, for Octavius had no mili- tary talents ; he was destitute even of personal bravery ; and his conduct after the victory was stained with that cruelty which is ever the attendant of coward- ice. Brutus and Cassius escaped the vengeance of their enemies by a volun- tary death. Antony now sought a re- compense for his troops by the plunder of the east. While in Cilicia, he summon- ed Cleopatra to answer for her conduct in dethroning an infant brother, and in A public harangue from Antony over the i openly favoring the party of Brutus and bleeding body, exposed in the forum, in- 1 Cassius. The queen came to Tarsus, flamed them with the utmost indignation [ and made a complete conquest of the ROME. 553 Triumvir. Immersed in luxury, and in- toxicated with love, he forgot glory, am- bition, fame, and every thing for Cleopa- tra ; and Octavius saw this phrenzy with delight, as the preparative of his rival's ruin. He had nothing to dread from Lepidus, whose insignificant character first drew on him the contempt of his partisans ; and whose folly, in attempt- ing an invasion of the province of his colleague, was punished by his deposition and banishment. Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces of the empire in gifts to his paramour and her children. The Roman people were justly indignant at these enormities ; and the divorce of his wife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, was at length the signal of declared hostility between them. An immense armament, chiefly naval, came to a decisive conflict near Actium, on the coast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who attended her lover, de- serted him with her galleys in the heat of the engagement ; and such was the infatuation of Antony, that he abandoned his fleet and followed her. After a contest of some hours, they yielded to the squadron of Octavius, B. C. 31. The victor pursued the fugitives to Egypt ; and the base Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including the surren- der of her kingdom, and the abandonment of Antony. After an unsuccessful at- tempt at resistance, he anticipated his fate by falling on his sword. And Cleo- patra soon after, either from remorse, or more probably from mortified ambition, as she found it was Octavius' design to load her in chains to Rome to grace his triumph, had courage to follow the ex- ample of her lover, and put herself to death by the poison of an asp. Octavius returned to Rome, sole master of the Roman empire, B. C. 27. Rome under the emperors. — The battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealth, and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roman em- pire. He possessed completely the sa- gacity of descerning what character was best fitted for gaining the affections of the people he governed, and the versatility of temper and genius to assume it. His virtues, though the result of policy, not ] 70 of nature, were certainly favorable to the happiness, and even to the liberties of his subjects. The fate of Cssar warned him of the insecurity of an usurped do- minion, and therefore, while he studiously imitated the engaging manners and clem- ency of his great predecessor, he affected a much higher degree of moderation and respect for the rights of the people. The temple of Janus was shut, which had been open for 188 years, since the beginning of the second Punic war ; an event productive of universal joy. " The Romans (says Condillac) now believed themselves a free people, since they had no longer to fight for their liberty." The sovereign kept up this delusion, by main- taining the ancient forms of the republi- can constitution, in the election of magis- trates, &c., though they were nothing more than forms. He even pretended to consider his own function as merely a temporary administration for the public benefit. Invested with the consulate and censorship, he went through the reg- ular forms of periodical election to those offices ; and at the end of the seventh year of his government actually announ- ced to the senate his resignation of all authority. The consequence was a gene- ral supplication of the senate and people, that he would not abandon the republic, which he had saved from destruction. " Since it must be so," said he, " I accept the empire for ten years, unless the public tranquillity should before that time permit me to enjoy that retirement I passionately long for." He repeated the same mockery five times in the course of his govern- ment, accepting the administration some- times for ten, and sometimes only for five years. It was much to the credit of Augustus, that in the government of the empire he reposed unlimited confidence in Maecenas, a most able minister, who had sincerely at heart the interest and happiness of the people. It was by his excellent counsels that all public affairs were conducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for the remedy of public grievances, and even the correction of the morals of the people. It was to his patronage that literature and the arts owed their en- couragement and advancement. It was 554 ROME. by his influence and wise instructions that Augustus assumed those virtues to which his heart was a stranger, and which, in their tendency to the happiness of his subjects, were equally effectual as if the genuine fruits of his nature. On the death of MarccUus, the nephew and son-in-law of Augustus, (23 B. C.) a prince of great hopes, the emperor be- stowed his chief favor on Marcus Agrippa, giving him his daughter Julia, the widow of Marcellus, in marriage. Agrippa had considerable military talents, and was successful in accomplishing the reduction of Spain, and subduing the revolted pro- vinces of Asia. Augustus associated him with himself in the office of censor, and would probably have given him a share of the empire ; but the death of Agrippa occasioned a new arrangement. The daughter of Augustus now took for her third husband Tiberius, who became the son-in-law of the emperor by a double tie, for Augustus had previously married his mother Livia. This artful woman, removing all of the imperial family who stood betwixt her and the object of am- bition, thus made room for the succession of her son Tiberius, who on his part, bent all his attention to gain the favor and confidence of Augustus. On the return of Tiberius from a successful campaign against the Germans, the people were made to solicit the emperor to confer on him the government of the provinces and the command of the armies. Augustus now gradually withdrew himself from the cares of the empire. He died soon after at Nola in Campania, in the 76th year of his age, and 44th of his imperial reign, and A. D. 14. A considerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign of Augustus is owing to the splendid coloring bestowed on his char- acter by the poets and other authors who adorned his court, and repaid his favors by their adulation. One great event distinguished the reign of Augustus, the birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which, accord- ing to the best authorities, happened in the 754th year A. U. C. and four years before the vulgar date of the Christian era. Augustu!^ had named Tiberius his heir, together with his mother Livia, and sub- stituted to them Drusus, the son of Tibe- rius, and Germanicus. Tiberius was vicious, debauched, and cruel ; yet the very dread of his character operated in securing an easy succession to the em- pire. An embassy from the senate en- treated him to accept the government, which he modestly affected to decline, but suffered himself to be won by their sup- plications. Notwithstanding this symp- tom of moderation, it soon appeared that the power enjoyed by his predecessor was too limited for the ambition of Tibe- rius. It was not enough that the sub- stance of the republic was gone, the very appearance of it was now to be demolish- ed. The people were no longer assem- bled, and the magistrates of the state were supplied by the imperial will. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the object of his jealousy, from the glory he had acquired by his military exploits in Germany, and the high favor in which he stood with the Roman peo- ple. He was recalled in the midst of his successes, and despatched to the oriental provinces, M-^here he soon after died, as was generally believed, of poison admin- istered by the Emperor's command. iElius Sejanus, prosfect of the praeto- rian guards, the favorite counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his tyranny and crimes, conceived the daring project of a revolution, which should place himself on the throne, by the extermination of the whole imperial family. Drusus, the son of the emperor, was cut off by poison. Agrippina the widow of Germanicus, with the elder of her sons, was banished, and the younger confined to prison. Tiberius himself was persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence of the discovery of plots for his assassination, to retire from Rome to the Isle of Caprese, and devolve the govern- ment upon his faithful minister. But while Sejanus, thus far successful, medi- tated the last step to the accomplishment of his wishes, by the murder of his sov- ereign, his treason was detected ; and the emperor despatched his mandate to the senate, which was followed by his immediate sentence and execution. The public indignation was not satisfied with ROME. 555 his death ; the populace tore his body to pieces, and flung it into the Tiber. Tiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of government, and the im- perial power was displayed only in pub- lic executions, confiscations, and scenes of cruelty and rapine. At length the ty- rant falling sick, was strangled in his bed by Macro, the prajfect of the praetorian guards, in the 78th year of his age, and 23d of his reign. pin the 18th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the Divine Author of our religion, suff'ered death upon the cross, a sacrifice and propitia- tion for the sins of mankind, A. D. 33 Tiberius had nominated for his heir Caligula, the son of Germanicus, his grandson by adoption, and joined with him Tiberius, the son of Drusus, his grandson by blood. The former enjoyed, on his father's account, the favor of the people ; and the senate, to gratify them, set aside the right of his colleague, and conferred on him the empire undivided. The commencement of his reign was signalized by a few acts of clemency and even good policy. He restored the priv- ileges of the comitia, and abolished ar- bitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and cruel by nature, he substituted military execution for legal punishment. The provinces were loaded with the most oppressive taxes, and daily confiscations filled the imperial coflers. The follies and absurdities of Caligula were equal to his vices, and it is hard to say whether he was most the object of hatred or of contempt to his subjects. He perished by assassination in the 4th year of his reign, and 29th of his age, A. D. 42. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by the praetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his ne- phew. He was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; a man of weak in- tellects, and of no education ; yet his short reign was marked by an enterprise of importance. He undertook the re- duction of Britain ; and after visting the island in person, left his generals Plau- tius and Vespasian, to prosecute a war which was carried on for several years with various success. The Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king Caractacus,(Caradoc,) made a brave resistance, but were finally defeated, and Caractacus led captive to Rome, where the magnanimity of his demeanor pro- cured him respect and admiration. The civil administration of Claudius was weak and contemptible. He was the slave even of his domestics, and the dupe of his infamous wives, Messalina and Agrippina. The former abandoned to the most shameful profligacy, was at length put to death, on suspicion of trea- sonable designs. The latter, who was the daughter of Germanicus, bent her .utmost endeavors to secure the succes- j 'si on to the empire to her son Domitius iEnobardus, and employed every engine of vice and inhumanity to remove the obstacles to the accomplishment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on Claudius to adopt her son, and confer on him the title of Caesar, to the exclusion of his own son Britannicus, she now made room for the immediate ^elevation of Domitius, by poisoning her husband. Claudius was put to death in the 15th year of his reign, and 63d of his age. The son of iVgrippina assumed tho name of Nero Claudius. He had enjoyed the benefit of a good education under the philosopher Seneca, but reaped from his instructions no other fruit than a pedan- tic aflectation of taste and learning, with no real pretension to either. While con- trolled by his tutor Seneca, and by Bur- rhus, captain of the praetorian guards, a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained for a short time a deceney of public con- duct ; but the restraint was intolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real character was a compound of every thing that is base and inhuman. In the mur- der of his mother Agrippina, he revenged the crime she had committed in raising him to the throne ; he rewarded the fidel- ity of Burrhus by poisoning him ; and as a last kindness to his tutor Seneca, he allowed him to choose the mode of his death. It was his darling amusement to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an actor, musician, or gladiator. At length, become the object of universal hatred and contempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed by Vindex, an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the throne. 556 ROME, He had not courage to attempt resistance ; and a slave, at his own request, despatch- ed him with a dagger. Nero perished in the 30th year of his age, after a reign of fourteen years, A. D. 69. Galba, the successor of Nero, was of an ancient and iihistrious family. He was in the 73d year of his age when the senate, ratifying the choice of the prae- torian bands, proclaimed him emperor. But an impolitic rigor of discipline soon disgusted the army ; the avarice of his disposition, grudging the populace their favorite games and spectacles, deprived him of their aflections ; and some iniqui- tous prosecutions and confiscations exci-^ ted general discontent and mutiny. Gal- ba adopted and designed for his succes- sor the able and virtuous Piso ; a mea- sure which excited the jealousy of Otho, his former faA^orite, and led him to form the daring plan of raising himself to the throne by the destruction of both. He found the praetorians apt to his purpose ; they proclaimed him Emperor, and pre- sented him, as a grateful oiiering, the heads of Galba and Piso, who were slain in quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigned seven months. Otho had a formidable rival in Vitel- lius, who had been proclaimed emperor by his army in Germany. It is hard to say which of the competitors was, in point of abilities, the more despicable, or in character the more infamous. A decisive battle was fought at Bedriacum, near Mantua, where the army of Otho was defeated, and their commander in a fit of despair, ended his life by his own hand, after a reign of three months, A. D. 70. The reign of Vitellius was of eight months duration. He is said to have proposed Nero for his model, and it was just that he should resemble him in his fate. Vespasian, who had obtained from Nero the charge of the war against the Jews, which he had conducted with abil- ity and success, was proclaimed emperor by his troops in the East ; and a great part of Italy submitting to his generals, Vitellius meanly capitulated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. The people, indignant at his dastardly spirit, compelled him to an effort of resis- tance, but the attempt was fruitless. — Prisons, one of the generals of Vespa- sian, took possession of Rome, and Vi- tellius was massacred, and his body flung into the Tiber. Vespasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the empire, and reigned with high popularity for ten years. He possessed great clemency of disposition; his manners were affable and engaging, and his mode of life was characterized by simplicity and frugality. He respect- ed the ancient forms of the constituti^, restored the senate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority in the administration of all public affairs. The only blemish in his character was a tinc- ture of avarice, and even that is gi-eatly extenuated by the laudable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues. — Under his reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was terminated the war against the Jews. They had been brought un- der the yoke of Rome by Pompey, who took Jerusalem. Under Augustus they were governed for some time by HeroJ as viceroy ; but the tyranny of his son Archelaus was the cause of his banish- ment, and the reduction of Judaea into the ordinary condition of a Roman pro- vince. Rebelling on every slight occa- sion, Nero had sent Vespasian to re- duce them to order, and he had just pre- pared for the siege of Jerusalem, when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the empire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried every means to prevail on the Jews to surreiuler : but in vain ; their ruin was decreed by Hea- ven. After an obstinate blockade of six months, Jerusalem was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the city buried in ruins. The Roman empire was now in profound peace. Vespasian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and soon after died, universally lamented, at the age of 69, A. D. 79. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, and splendid. His short reign was a period of great happi- ness and prosperity to the empire, and his government a constant example of virtue, justice, and beneficence. In his time happened thai dreadful eruption of Vesuvius which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ; and the ROME. 557 piiWic losses from these calamities he re- paired by the sacrifice of his fortune and revenues. He died in the third year of his reign, and fortieth of his age. Doniitian, the brother of Titus, and suspected of murdering him by poison, succeeded to the empire, A. D. 81. He was a vicious and inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave him occasion to signalize the barbarity of his disposi- tion ; and its consequences were long fell in the sanguinary punishments in- flicted under the pretence of justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a singadar contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were load- ed with insupportable taxes to furnish spectacles and games for their amuse- ment. The successes of Agricola in Britain threw a lustre on the Roman arms, no part of which reflected on the Empe- ror, for he used this eminent commander with the basest ingratitude. After fifteen tedious years, this monster fell at last a victim of assassination, the empress her- self conducting the plot for his murder, A. D.96. Cocceius Nerva, a Cretan by birth, was chosen emperor by the senate, from respect to the virtues of his character ; but too old for the burden of government, and of a temper too placid for the re- straint of rooted corruptions and enormi- ties, his reign was weak, ineflicient, and contemptible. His only act of real merit as a sovereign, was the adoption of the vir- tuous Trajan as his successor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every virtue that can adorn a sove- reign. Of great military abilities, and an indefatigable spirit of enterprise, he rais- ed the Roman arms to their ancient splen- dor, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the empire. He subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and brought under subjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was he less emi- nent in promoting the happiness of his subjects, and the internal prosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and munificent. He was the friend and sup- port of the virtuous indigent, and the lib- eral patron of every useful art and talent. His bounties were supplied by a well judged economy in his private fortune, and a wise administration of the public finances. In his own life he was a man of simple manners, modest, afiable, fond of the familiar intercourse of his friends, and sensible to all the social and benev- olent afliections. He died at the age of sixty-three, after a glorious reign of nine- teen years, A. D. 118. ^Elius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and Avorthy to fill his place, was chosen emperor by the army in the east, and his title was acknowledged by all orders of the state. He adopted a policy differ- ent from that of his predecessor ; and, judging the limits of the empire too exten- sive, abandoned all the conquests of Trajan, bounding the eastern provinces by the Eu- phrates. He visited in person the whole provinces of the empire, reforming, in his progress, all abuses, relieving his subjects of every oppressive burden, rebuilding the ruined cities, and establishing everywhere a regular and mild administration under magistrates of approved probity and hu- manity. He gave a discharge to the in- digent debtors of the state, and appointed liberal institutions for the education of the children of the poor. To the talents of an able politician he joined an excellent taste in the liberal arts ; and his reign, which was of twenty-two years duration, was an era both of public happiness and splendor. In the last year of his life, he bequeathed to the empire a double legacy, in adopting and declaring for his immedi- ate successor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and substituting Annius Verus to succeed upon his death. These were the Anto- nines, who, for forty years ruled the Ro- man empire with consummate wisdom, ability and virtue. Adrian died, A. D. 138, at the age of sixty-two. The happiest reigns furnish the fewest events for the pen of history. Antoninus was the father of his people. He pre- ferred peace to the ambition of conquest ; yet, in every necessary war the Roman arms had their wonted renown. The British province was enlarged by the conquests of Urbicus, and some formida- ble rebellions were subdued in Germany, Dacia, and the East. The domestic ad- ministration of the sovereign was digni- fied, splendid, and humane. With all 558 ROME. the virtues of Numa, his love of religion, peace, and justice, he had the superior advantage of diffusing these blessings over a great portion of the world. He died at the age of seventy-four, after a reign of twenty -two years, A. D. 161. Annius Verus assumed, at his acces- sion, the name of Marcus Aurelius Anto- ninus, and he bestowed on his brother Lucius Verus, a joint administration of the empire. The former was as eminent for the worth and virtues of his character, as the latter was remarkable for profliga- cy, meanness, and vice. Marcus Aure- lius was attached both by nature and ed- ucation to the Stoical philosophy, which he has admirably taught and illustrated in his Meditations ; and his own life was the best commentary on his precepts. The Parthians were repulsed in an at- tack upon the empire, and a rebellion of the Germans was subdued. In these wars the mean and worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name in every region where he commanded ; but fortunately relieved the empire of its fears by an early death. The residue of the reign of Marcus Aurelius was a con- tinued blessing to his subjects. He re- formed the internal policy of the state, regulated the government of the provinces, and visited himself, for the purposes of beneficence, the most distant quarters of his dominions. " He appeared," says an ancient author, " like some benevolent deity, diffusing around him universal peace and happiness." He died in Pannonia in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign, A. D. 180. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the empire on his death. He resembled in character his mother Faustina, a woman infamous for all man- ner of vice, but who yet had passed with her husband Marcus for a paragon of vir- tue. Commodus had an aversion to eve- ry rational and liberal pursuit, and a fond attachment to the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gladiators. The measures of this reign were as unimportant, as the character of the sovereign was contemptible. His concubine and some of his chief officers prevented their own destruction by assas- sinating the tyrant, in the 32nd year of his age, and 13th of his reign, A. D. 193. The praetorian guards gave the empire to Publius Helvius Pertinax, a man of mean birth, but who had risen to esteem by his virtues and military talents. He applied himself with zeal to the correc- tion of abuses ; but the austerity of his government deprived him of the affections of a corrupted people. He had disappoint- ed the army of a promised reward ; and, after a reign of eighty-six days, was murdered in the imperial palace by the same hands wliich had placed him on the throne. The empire was now put up to auction by the praetorians and was purchased by Didius Juliamis ; while Pescenius Niger in Asia, Clodius Albinus in Britain, and Septimius Severus in Illyria, were each chosen emperor by the troops they com- manded. Severus marched to Rome ; and the praetorians, on his approach, abandoned Didius, who had failed to pay the stipulated price for his elevation, and the senate formally deposed and put him to death. Severus, master of Rome, pre- pared to reduce the provinces which had acknowledged the sovereignty of Niger and Albinus ; and these tAvo rivals being successively subdued, the one lost his life in battle, and the other fell by his own hands. The administration of Sev- erus was wise and equitable, but tinc- tured with despotic rigor. It was his purpose to erect the fabric of absolute monarchy, and all his institutions opera- ted with able policy to that end. He pos- sessed eminent military talents ; and it was a glorious boast of his, that having received the empire oppressed with for- eign and domestic wars, he left it in pro- found, universal, and honorable peace. He carried with him into Britain his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, Avhose un- promising dispositions clouded his latter days. In this war the Caledonians vm- der Fingal are said to have defeated, on the banks of the Carron, Caracul, the son of the king of the world. Severus died at York, in the 66th year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, A. D. 211. The mutual hatred of Caracalla and Geta was increased by their association in the empire ; and the former, with bru- ROME. 559 tal inhumanity, caused his brother to be openly murdered in the arms of his mother. His reign, which was of six years duration, and one continued series of atrocities, Avas at length terminated by assassination, A. D. 217. Those disorders in the empire which began with Commodus continued for about a century, till the accession of Diocletian. That interval was filled by the reigns of Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, Maximian, Gordian, Decius, Gallus, Valerianus, Gallienus, Claudius, Aurelianus, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus; a period of which the annals furnish neither amusement nor useful informa- tion. The single exception is the reign of Alexander Severus, a mild, beneficent and enlightened prince, whose character shines the more from the contrast of those who preceded and followed him. Diocletian began his reign A. D. 284, and introduced a new system of adminis- tration, dividing the empire into four gov- ernments, under as many princes. Max- imian shared with him the title of Augus- tus, and Galerius and Constantius were declared Caesars. Each had his separate department or province, all nominally supreme, but in reality under the direc- tion of the superior talents and authority of Diocletian ; an unwise policy, which depended for its efficacy on individual ability alone. Diocletian and Maximian, trusting to the continuance of that order in the empire which their vigor had established, retired from sovereignty, and left the government in the hands of the Caesars ; but Constantius died soon after in Britain, and his son Constantino was proclaimed emperor at York, though Gal- erius did not acknowledge his title. Max- imian, however, having once more re- sumed the purple, bestowed on Constan- tino his daughter in marriage, and thus invested him with a double title to the empire. On the death of Maximian and Galerius, Constantine had no other com- petitor than Maxentius the son of the former, and the contest between them was decided by the sword. Maxentius fell in battle, and Constantine remained sole master of the empire. The administration of Constantine was, in the beginning of liis reign, mild, equi- table, and politic. Though zealously at- tached to the Christian faith, he made no violent innovations on the religion of the state. He introduced order and economy into the civil government, and repressed every species of oppression and corruption. But his natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of his reign was as much deformed by in- tolerant zeal and sanguinary rigor, as the former had been remarkable for equity and benignity. From this unfavorable change of character, he lost the affections of his subjects ; and, from a feeling pro- bably of reciprocal disgust, he removed the seat of the Roman empire to Byzan- tium, now termed Constantinople. The court followed the sovereign ; the opu- lent proprietors were attended by their slaves and retainers ; Rome was in a kw years greatly depopulated, and the new capital swelled at once to enormous magnitude. It was characterized by eastern splendor, luxury, and voluptuous- ness ; and the cities of Greece were de- spoiled for its embellishment. In an expedition against the Persians, Constan- tine died at Nicomedia, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third of his age, A. D. 337. In the time of Constan- tine the Goths had made several irrup- tions on the empire, and, though repulsed and beaten, began gradually to encroach on the provinces. Constantine, with a destructive policy, had divided the empire among five princes, three of them his sons, and two nephews ; but Constantius, the youngest of the sons, finally got rid of all his competitors, and ruled the empire alone with a weak and impotent sceptre. A variety of domestic broils, and mutinies of the troops against their generals, had left the western fron- tier to the mercy of the barbarian nations. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sar- matians, laid waste all the fine countries watered by the Rhine, and the Persians made dreadful incursions on the provinces of the east. Constantius indolently wasted his time in theological controversies, but was prevailed on to adopt one prudent measure, the appointment of his cousin Julian to the dignity of Cajsar. Julian possessed many heroic quali- ties, and his mind was formed by nature 560 ROME. for tlie sovereignty of a great people ; but educated at Athens, in the schools of the Platonic philosophy, he had unfortunately conceived a rooted antipathy to the doc- trines of Christianity. With every talent of ageneral, and possessingthe confidence and affection of his troops, he once more restored the glory of the Roman arms, and successfully repressed the invasions of the barbarians. His victories excited the jealousy of Constantius, vv^ho meanly resolved to remove from his command the better part of his troops. The con- sequence was a declaration of the army, that it was their choice that Julian should be their emperor. Constantius escaped the ignominy that awaited him by dying at this critical juncture, and Julian was immediately acknowledged sovereign of the Roman empire. The reformation of civil abuses formed the first object of his attention ; which he next turned to the reformation, as he thought, of religion, by the suppression of Christianity. He began by reforming the Pagan theology, and sought to raise the character of its priests, by incidcat- ing purity of life and sanctity of morals ; thus bearing involuntary testimony to the superior excellence, in those respects, of that religion Avliich he labored to abolish. Without persecuting, he attacked the Christians by the more dangerous policy of treating them with contempt, and re- moving them, as visionaries, from all em- ployments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade all dissensions ; and they were debarred the studies of literature and phi- losophy, which they could not learn but from Pagan authors. He was himself as a Pagan, the slave of the most bigoted superstition, believing in omens and au- guries, and fancying himself favored with an actual intercourse with the gods and goddesses. To avenge the injuries which the empire had sustained from the Per- sians, Julian marched into the heart of Asia, and was for some time in the train of conquest, when, in a fatal engagement, though crowned with victory, he was slain, at the age of thirty-one, after a reign of three years, A. D. 363. The Roman army was dispirited by the death of its commander. They diosd for their emperor Jovian, a captain of the domestic guards, and purchased a free retreat from the dominions of Persia by the ignominious surrender of five pro- vinces, which had been ceded by a for- mer sovereign to Galerius. The short reign of Jovian, a period of seven months, was mild and equitable. He favored Christianity, and restored its votaries to all their privileges as subjects. He died suddenly at the age of thirty-three. Valentinian was chosen emperor by the army on the death of Jovian ; a man of obscure birth, and severe manners, but of considerable military talents. He as- sociated with himself in the empire his brother Valens, to whom he gave the do- minion of the eastern provinces, reserv- ing to hhnself the western. The Per- sians, under Sapor, were making inroads on the former, and the latter was subject to continual invasion from the northern barbarians. They were successfully re- pelled by Valentinian in many battles ; and his domestic administration was wise, equitable, and politic. The Christian reli- gion was favored by the emperor, though not promoted by the persecution of its ad- versaries ; a contrast to the conduct of his brother Valens, who, intemperately sup- porting the Arian heresy, set the whole provinces in a flame, and drew a swarm of invaders upon the empire in the guise of friends and allies, who in the end en- tirely subverted it. These were the Goths, who, migrating from Scandinavia, had, in the second century, settled on the banks of the Palus Mcsotis, and thence gradually extended their territory. In the reign of Valens they took possession of Dacia, and were known by the dis- tinct appellation of Ostrogoths and Visi- goths, or eastern and western Goths ; a remarkable people, and whose manners, customs, government, and laws, are after- wards to be particularly noted. Valentinian died on an expedition against the Alemanni, and was succeed- ed in the empire of the west by Gratian, his eldest son, a boy of sixteen years of age, A. D. 367. Valens, in the east, was the scourge of his people. The Huns, a new race of barbarians, of Tartar or Si- berian origin, now poured down on the ROME. 561 provinces both of the west and east. The Goths, comparatively a civilized people, fled before them. The Visigoths, who were first attacked, requested protection from the empire, and Valens imprudently gave them a settlement in Thrace. The Ostrogoths made the same request, and, on refusal, forced their way into the same province. Valens gave them battle at Adrianople ; his army was defeated, and he himself slain in the engagement. The Goths, unresisted, ravaged Achaia and Pannonia. Gratian, a prince of good dispositions, but of little energy of character, assumed Theodosius as his colleague, Avho, on the early death of Gratian, and minority of his son Valentinian II, governed with great ability, both the eastern and western empire. The character of Theodosius, deservedly surnamed the Great, was wor- thy of the best ages of the Roman state. He successfully repelled the encroach- ments of the barbarians, and secured, by wholesome laws, the prosperity of his people. He died, after a reign of eigh- teen years, assigning to his sons, Arca- dius and Honorius, the separate sove- reignties of east and west, A. D. 395. The reign of Theodosius was signal- ized by the downfall of the Pagan super- stition, and the full establishment of the Christian religion in the Roman empire. This great revolution of opinions is highly worthy of attention, and naturally induces a retrospect to the condition of the Christ- ian church from its institution down to this period. It has been frequently remarked, be- cause it is an obvious truth, that the con- currence of circumstances at the time of our Saviour's birth was such as, while a divine revelation seemed to be then more peculiarly needed, the state of the world was remarkably favorable for the exten- sive dissemination of the doctrines it conveyed. The union of so many nations under one power, and the extension of civilization, were favorable to the pro- gress of a religion which prescribed uni- versal charity and benevolence. The gross superstitions of paganism, and its tendency to corrupt instead of purifying the morals, contributed to explode its in- fluence with every thinking mind. Even 72 the prevalent philosophy of the times, Epicurism, more easily understood than the refinements of the Platonists, and more grateful than the severities of the Stoics, tended to degrade human nature to the level of the brute creation. The Christian religion, thus necessary for the reformation of the world, found its chief partisans in those who were the friends of virtue, and its enemies among the vo- taries of vice. The persecution which the Christians underwent from the Romans has been deemed an exception to that spirit of tol- eration they showed to the religions of other nations ; but they Avere tolerating only to those whose theologies were not hostile to their own. The religion of the Romans was interwoven with their politi- cal constitution. The zeal of the Chris- tians, aiming at the suppression of all idolatry, was not unnaturally regarded as dangerous to the state ; and hence they were the object of hatred and persecu- tion. In the first century, the Christian church suffered deeply under Nero and Domitian ; yet those persecutions had no tendency to check the progress of its doctrines. During a space of two cen- turies, in ten successive instances, under the Roman emperors, the Christians were cruelly persecuted ; and the suffering and loss of life exceed calcvdation. Some authors say that in Egypt alone, 144,000 Christians died by the violence of their persecutors, besides 700,000 who died through the fatigues of banishment, or the public works to which they were condemned. f It is a matter of question what was the form of the primitive church, and the nature of its government ; and on this head much diflference of opinion obtains, not only between the Catholics and Pro- testants, but between the difl^erent classes of the latter, as the Lutherans and Cal- vinists. It is moreover an opinion, that our Saviour and his apostles, confining their precepts to the pure doctrines of religion, have left all Christian societies to regulate their frame and government in the manner best suited to the civil constitutions of the countries in which they are established.M In the second cefltury, the books of 662 ROME. Cruelties practised on the primittve Christians. the New Testament were collected into a volume by the elder fathers of the church, and received as a canon of faith, 'i'he Old Testament had been translated from the Hebrew into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 years be- fore Christ. The early church sufl'ered much from an absurd endeavor of the more learned of its votaries, to reconcile its doctrines to the tenets of the Pagan philosophers ; hence the sects of the Gnostics and Ammonians, and the Pla- tonising Christians. The Greek churches began in the second century to form pro- vincial associations, and establish general rules of government and discipline. As- semblies were held, termed Synodoi and Concilia, over which a metropolitan pre- sided. A short time after arose the su- perior order of Patriarch, presiding over a large district of the Christian world ; and a subordination taking place even among these, the bishop of Rome was acknowledged the chief of the Patriarchs. Persecution still attended the early church, even under those excellent princes, Tra- jan, Adrian, and the Antonines ; and, in the reign of Severiis, the whole provinces of the empire wer^tained with the blood of the martyrs. The third century was more favorable to the progress of Christianity and the tranquillity of its disciples. In those times it suffered less from the civil arm than from the pens of the Pagan philoso- phers, Porphyry, Philostratus, &c; but these attacks called forth the zeal and talents of many able defenders, as Origen, Dionysius, and Cyprian. A part of the Gauls, Germany, and Britain, received in this century the light of the gospel. In the fourth century the Christian church was alternately persecuted and cherished by the Roman emperors. Among its oppressors we rank Diocle- tian, Galerius, and Julian. Among its favorers, Constantine and his sons, Va- lentian, Valens, Gratian, and the excel- lent Theodosius, in whose reign the Pa- gan superstition came to its final period. From the age of Numa to the reign of Gratian, the Romans preserved the regu- lar succession of the several sacerdotal colleges, the Pontiffs, Augurs, Vestals, Flamines, Salii, &c, whose authority, though weakened in the latter ages, was still protected by the laws. Even the Christian emperors held, like their Pagan predecessors, the office of Pontifcx Max- imus. Gratian was the first who refused ROME. 563 that ancient dignity as a profanation. In the time of I'heodosius, the cause of Christianity and of Paganism was solemn- ly debated in the Roman senate between Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, the cham- pion of the former, and Symmachus, the defender of the latter. The cause of Christianity was triumphant ; and the senate issued its decree for the abolition of Paganism, whose downfall in the cap- ital was soon followed by its extinction in the provinces. Theodosius, with able policy, permitted no persecution of the , ancient religion, which perished with the * more rapidity that its fall was gentle and unresisted. But the Christian church exhibited a superstition in some respects little less irrational than Polytheism, in the wor- ship of saints and relics ; and many novel tenets, unfounded in the precepts of our Saviour and his apostles, were manifestly borrowed from the Pagan schools. The doctrines of the Platonic philosophy seem to have led to the notions of an interme- diate state of purification, celibacy of the priests, ascetic niortiiications, penances, and monastic seclusion. In the reigns of Arcadius and Hono- rius, the sons and successors of Theodo- sius, the barbarian nations established themselves in the frontier provinces both of the east and west. Theodosius had committed the government to Rufinus and Stilicho during the nonage of his sons ; and their fatal dissensions gave every advantage to the enemies of the empire. The Huns, actually invited by Rufinus, overspread Armenia, Cappado- cia, and Syi-ia. The Goths, under Alaric, ravaged to the borders of Italy, and laid waste Achaia to the Peloponnesus. Stili- cho, an able general, made a noble stand against these invaders ; but his plans were frustrated by the machinations of his rivals, and the weakness of Arcadius, who purchased an ignominious peace, by ceding to Alaric the whole of Greece. Alaric, now styled king of the Visi- goths, prepared to add Italy to his new dominions. He passed the Alps, and was carrying all before him, when, amused by the politic Stilicho with the prospect of a new cession of territory, he was taken at unawares, and defeated by that gene- ral, then commanding the armies of Ho- norius. The emperor triumphantly cele- brated, on that occasion, the eternal de- feat of the Gothic nation ; an eternity bounded by the lapse of a few months. In this interval, a torrent of the Goths breaking down upon Germany, forced the nations whom they dispossessed, the Suevi, Alani, and Vandals, to precipitate themselves upon Italy. They joined their arms to those of Alaric, who, thus re-enforced, determined to overwhelm Rome. The policy of Stilicho made him change his purpose, on the promise of 4,000 pounds weight of gold ; a promise repeatedly broken by Honorius, and its violation finally revenged by Alaric, by the sack andplunderof thecity, A. D.410. With generous magnanimity, he was sparing of the lives of the vanquished, and, with singular liberality of spirit, anxious to preserve every ancient edifice from destruction. Alaric, preparing now for the conquest of Sicily and Africa, died at this era of his highest glory ; and Honorius, instead of profiting I)y this event to recover his lost provinces, made a treaty Avith his suc- cessor Ataulfus, gave him in marriage his sister Placida, and secured his friend- ship by ceding to him a portion of Spain, while a great part of what remained had before been occupied by the Vandals. He allowed soon after to the Burgundians a just title to their conquests in Gaul. Thus the western empire was by degrees mouldering from under the dominion of its ancient masters. In the east, the mean and dissolute Arcadius died in the year 408, leaving that empire to his infant son Theodosius II, whose sister Pulcheria swayed the sceptre with much prudence and ability, and the weakness of her brother allowed her government to be of forty years con- tinuance. Honorius died in the year 423. The laws of Arcadius and Hono- rius are, with a few exceptions, remark- able for their wisdom and equity ; a singular phenomenon, considering the personal character of those princes, and evincing at least that they employed some able ministers. The Vandals, under Genseric, subdued the Roman province in Africa. The Huns 564 RUSSIA. in the east, extended their conquests from the borders of China to the Bakic sea. Under Attila they laid waste Moe- sia and Thrace ; and Theodosius II, after a mean attempt to murder the Barbarian general, ingloriously submitted to pay him an annual tribute. It was in this crisis of universal decay, that the Britons implored the Romans to defend them against the Picts and Scots, but received for answer, that they had nothing to be- stow on them but compassion. Attila, with an army oi" 500,000 men, threatened the total destruction of the empire. He was ably opposed by iEti- tius, general of Valentinian III, now em- peror of the west, who was himself shut up in Rome by the arms of the Barba- rian, and at length compelled to purchase a peace. On the death of Attila, his dominions were dismembered by his sons, whose dissensions gave temporary relief to the falling empire. After Valentinian III, we have in the west a succession of princes, or rather names ; for the events of their reigns merit no detail. In the reign of Romu- lus, surnamed Augustulus, the son of Orestes, the empire of the west came to a final period. Odoacer, prince of the Heruli, subdued Italy, and spared the life of Augustulus, on the condition of his re- signing the throne, A. D. 476. From the building of Rome to this era, the extinc- tion of the Western Empire, is a period of 1224 years. RUSSIA. The origin of the Russian empire is involved in great obscurity. A herd of the Slavi, Slavonians, or as they are of- tener called, Sclavonians, who had ad- vanced from the banks of the Danube, and Avere wandering upon those of the Dneper, are supposed to have fixed them- selves about the 5th century, in the re- gion now occupied by the government of Kief, and to have built their capital, which is still known by the same name. It is also conjectured that another tribe of the Slavi fixed themselves on the Vol- chof, and founded the well-known city of Novgorod. Of neither tribe do we pos- sess any regular accounts till about the middle of the 9th century. According to the Russian historians the Slavi were completely subjected about the year 860, by the Varages, or Varagians, a piratical nation who dwelt upon tlie coasts of the Baltic, under their leader, Rurik, who es- tablished the seat of his government, near the Volchof, at a place called Old Ladoga, and who, with two other chiefs, governed the conquered provinces. From this period may be dated the commence- ment of the Russian monarchy. Nothing of much interest occurs in Russian history till the time when Vla- dimir, prince of northern Russia, acquir- ed the undivided possession of all his father's territories, which he widely ex- tended, and became one of the most dis- tinguished monarchs of the age. He carried on a successful war with Poland. By his victories, he extended and enrich- ed his empire, and established the Chris- tian religion, which had hitherto made little progress in his dominions. He himself was baptized by the name of Basilius, and was married to the sister (or the niece) of the Grecian emperors Basilius and Constantine. If we can credit history, after his conversion he became quite another man, and led an exemplary life of virtue and religion. The establishment of Christianity, and with it of arts and sciences, commerce, and schools, forms the most memorable event in the life of Vladimir, (and one of the most important in the history of Rus- sia,) who, considering the time in which he lived, has with some justice been called Vladimir the Great. In his old age, he marched against a rebellious son, on whom he had bestowed the government of Novgorod ; but he died of grief upon the road, after a long and glorious reign of thirty -five years. RUSSIA. 565 Before his death, Vladimir had divided his extensive dominions among his twelve sons, whom he had had by four wives, reserving to himself and his immediate heir the grand principality of Kief. The consequences of this ill-judged distribu- tion were dreadful. Disunion, conten- tion, and almost perpetual warfare exist- ed among his descendants. The Poles and the Hungarians took advantage of the intestine broils that attended the dismemberment of the Rus- sian monarchy, and made several suc- cessful inroads. The Tartars likewise made different irruptions into Russia, and at length, under the Khan Batii com- pletely overran it, and made themselves masters of Kief and Novgorod. Although the khan did not himself assume the nominal dignity, he may be said to have been sovereign, as he placed on the throne any of the native princes whom he pleased. Among a succession of these, Alexander Yaroslavitch, prince of Novgorod, was by far the most distin- guished. He was installed Great Duke of Russia by the Tartar khan in 1252, and continued to reign till 1264. A vic- tory which he had gained over the Livon- ians and the Swedes in 1240, on the banks of the river Neva, procured him the honorable surname of Nevskii. He is one of the tutelary saints of the Rus- so-Greek church, and his memory is held at this day in the greatest veneration. After him followed a number of other princes, as Yaroslaf III, Vassilii I, Dmitrii H, Andrei III, Daniel, Georgii, Dmitrii, Alexander II, &c, &;c, whose times, like the past, had been disturbed by internal commotions, and trifling war- fares. In 1328, Ivan Danilovitch, surnamed Kalita, received the principalities of Vladimir and Moscow from the Tartar khan, and Moscow was then declared to be the capital of all Russia. This city had been founded in 1147, but was greatly improved, especially the Kremle by Ivan, who also established the dignity of metropolitan, and founded the cathe- drals of the Assumption, of St. Michael, and of the Transfiguration in this city. He was succeeded in 1353 by Ivan II, whose reign, which had been tranquil, tenninated with his death, by the plague, in 1358. An intrigue of ten years fol- lowed, and was accompanied with its common evils. About the year 1362, Dmitrii obtained the great principality from Hildir, khan of the Tartars. After a reign of about two years he was depo- sed, and it was given to the true heir Dmitrii Donskoi. Dmitrii Donskoi was the son of Ivan II. His reign lasted twenty-six years, with fame and glory. He is not reckon- ed to have had great talents, but many virtues, and to have been beloved of his subjects. He became so powerful as to have received the homage of almost all the Russian princes. Proud of the in- crease of his own power, and despising the weakness of his rivals, he refused to pay tribute to the Tartars. War was the consequence between him and Mamai, the khan. A dreadful battle was fought on the Don, in which Dmitrii, after va- rious success, was ultimately successful, and hence received the surname Donskoi. He had the misfortune, however, to see Moscow taken and burned by the Tar- tars under Tachtamish, in the year 1382, when most of the inhabitants perished by fire, water, or the sword, and the rest were made prisoners. He died in 1389, and was succeeded by his son Vassilii (II.) During his reign, the Tartars made another incursion into Russia, under the famous Timur, or Tamerlane, who, after having subdued all the neighboring Tar- tar hordes, extended his conquests to the Russian territories, took Moscow by as- sault, and carried off immense plunder. During this sovereign's reign Russia three times experienced the horrors of the plague, and oftener than once was exposed to famine. Vassilii died in 1 425, and was succeeded by his son Vassilii HI, sur- named the Blind, who twice lost his throne, was re-established upon it, and died after a reign of thirty-seven years. The latter end of the fifteenth century forms a splendid epoch in the history of Russia. From 1462 to 1505 reigned the famous prince Ivan Vassilievitch, who, in a second marriage, espoused Sophia, daughter of Thomas Paleologus. At her instigation he shook off the Tartar yoke, attacked their territories, and made himself 566 RUSSIA master of KazCin, where he was solemnly crowned. This last event took place about the year 1470, andled to a complete emancipation from the dominions of the Tartars. He extended his territories immensely, and subjected Novgorod after a seven years, siege, and there ob- tained immense treasures. In his reign, the knowledge of gun-powder, and the art of casting cannon were introduced into Russia by Aristotle of Bologna, who, along with other foreigners, was employ- ed to recoin the Russian money. Aris- totle, Solarius, and others, at a vast ex- pense, enclosed the Kremles of Moscow and Novgorod with thick walls, for the sake of greater security. After a reign of forty-three-years, Ivdn was murdered or died, in the 60th year of his age. In the year 1505, his son Vassilii IV, surnamed the Courageous, ascended his father's throne. The Tartars not only revolted, but with a mighty force entered Russia, and carried their arms even to the gates of Moscow, and forced the sovereign to make presents and give a promise of renewed allegiance. Soon afterwards, however, VassiUi recovered Kazdn, as well as Pskof, a town which possessed considerable commerce and wealth. Under his reign all the princi- palities of Russia were united, and they have ever since remained under the do- minion of one sovereign. After a reign of twenty-eight years Vassilii died, and was succeeded by his son Iv^n (IV.) Vassilie- vitch, who was afterwards surnamed the Terrible, and by foreigners the Tyrant. As he was only three years old, the queen-mother was appointed regent during his minority, an office for which she did not possess the requisite talents. She died in 1538, and afterwards when Ivan had attained his seventeenth year, he as- sumed the reins of government, secured the domestic tranquillity of his dominions, made himself master of the kingdoms of Kaz^n and Astrach^n, and liberated for ever his country from the thraldom of the Tartars. In the year 1750, the inhabitants of Novgorod were suspected of having formed a conspiracy for surrendering the city and the surrounding territory into the hands of the king of Poland, and they dearly feh the eflects of Ivdn's vengeance ; 25,000 of those who were implicated in the plot, having suffered by the hands of the executioner. With justice, there- fore, this monarch was named the Terri- ble or the Tyrant. He was at great pains, however, to adopt measures for the improvement and civilization of his peo- ple, and his new code of laws called the Soodebnik, is well known even at this day. He sent an embassy to the empe- ror of Germany, on purpose to request him to permit a number of German ar- tists, mechanics, and literary characters to establish themselves in Russia ; but in consequence of measures taken by the jealous inhabitants of Lubeck, few of them reached Moscow. Ivan engaged in a war with Sweden, for the posses- sion of Finland, in which he reaped lit- tle advantage. He invited some English- men to Moscow, who, when on a voy- age of discovery, had landed on the shores of the White Sea, near the situa- tion of Archangel, and treated them in the kindest manner. In consequence of this, and of his great esteem for the Eng- lish, a new commerce was established between Russia and England. In the reign of Ivdn, Siberia was also conquer- ed by the brave Yermak with his band of plunderers, and afterwards presented to the Tsar, a title which, according to some accounts, he was the first to assume. But he also endured reverses. In his time, Russia was invaded by the Tartars, and even Moscow was plundered, and com- pletely burned, and above 120,000 citi- zens, besides women and children and foreigners, were also burned or buried in the ruins. The Livonians, Poles, and Swedes, having united in a league against the Russians, gained great advantages over them ; but peace afterwards ensued. Soon after these events the tsar was de- feated in an engagement with the Tar- tars, and died in the year 1584, when his eldest son Pheodor, a weak prince, be- came possessor of the throne. He had married the sister of Boris Godunof, a man of great ambition, immense riches, and considerable talents, and who aimed at the imperial dignity, which he ulti- mately attained. The young prince Drai- trii, only brother of Pheodor, suddenly disappeared, and it is generally supposed RUSSIA. 567 that he was assassinated by order of Bo- ris. Pheodor soon afterwards died, in 1598 ; and it was strongly suspected that he had been poisoned by his brother- in-law. With him ended the family of Rurik, a dynasty which had possessed the sovereign power in Russia ever since the establishment of the principality by that Varagian chief. As there was now no hereditary successor to the vacant throne, by the artifice and intrigues of his partisans, Boris Godunof, succeeded in his place of being elected tsar ; an hon- or of which he proved himself not un- worthy, if we could overlook the means by which he ascended the throne. In every way he endeavored to advance the interests of his nation, and to improve the state of his people, as by the extension of commerce, and the encouragement of arts and sciences and manufactures. He made himself respected abroad, and re- ceived ambassadors from almost all the powers of Europe, and concluded an ad- vantageous alliance with Sweden. His reign, however, was rendered unhappy by one of the most dreadful famines on record, and by the successful operations of Otrepief, a monk, who represented himself as the murdered Dmitrii, the son of the late tsar, and the heir of the crown. Boris, unable to resist the torrent of public opinion in favor of his rival, is said to have taken poison, which caused his death in the year 1605. Though his son Pheodor was placed upon the throne by the principal nobility, yet the party of the false Dmitrii, as he is generally called, was so strong that the new tsar was dethroned, within six weeks after his ac- cession, and with his mother and sister was sent to prison. Otrepief had now attained the summit of his ambitious hopes, and made his en- try into Moscow with the utmost magni- ficence, attended by his Russian adhe- rents and his Polish friends. He is said to have caused the death of the dethron- ed Pheodor, as well as that of his sister by strangulation. The new tsar, though he possessed abilities, lost the hearts of the Russians by his extreme imprudence, and at length turned them against him. The populace, incensed by the clergy, declaimed against Dmitrii as a heretic, and Shuiskii, a nobleman, who had been condemned to death by the tsar, but had afterwards been pardoned, put himself at the head of the enraged mob, and attack- ed the tsar's palace. Dmitrii, as well as his closest adherents, were killed. By interest, cunning, and intrigue, Vassilii Shuiskii secured his election, as the Rus- sian historians afl'ect to call it, to the vacant throne. His reign was short, uninteresting, and greatly disturbed by factions, and by the pretensions of other two factitious Dmitriis, who successively declared themselves to be either the late tsar, or the prince whom he had caused to be assassinated. While the country was in confusion, and quite distracted, Russia was invaded by the Poles, who deposed Shuiskii, made him prisoner, and sent him to Poland, where he died in the year 1612. His fate excited little regret, be- cause of the false part he had acted to- wards Otrepief, who had saved his life, although himself an usurper. The state of Russia at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Avas at first most melancholy, but afterwards most glorious. One usurper followed another. Shuiskii was deposed and a prisoner ; Moscow without a sovereign, was pillaged, and occupied by the Poles ; the great Nov- gorod was seized by the Swedes ; and the whole kingdom was in a state of an- archy and confusion. Notliing seemed to be anticipated but the final partition, or the entire annihilation of the empire, when suddenly and unexpectedly her liberators appeared. Kosma Minin, a butcher of Nijnii Novgorod, roused by the highest patriotism, resolved to deliver his country from her enemies, or to sacri- fice his all in the attempt. He inspired his countrymen with the same sentiments, who immediately contributed their prop- erty to bear the general charge, or act for the general good. The old gave their benediction to the young ; wives received the oaths of their husbands and children to conquer or die for their coimtry ; fe- males, old and young, divested themselves of their ornaments, their pearls, and pre- cious stones ; and the citizens transported their most valuable effects to a general depot. Prince Pojarskii, who had dis- tinguished himself during the reign of 568 RUSSIA. the Tsar Shuiskii, was chosen as com- mander of numerous troops, which were rapidly assembled. He conducted them to Moscow, vanquished the Poles in va- rious engagements, and liberated Russia from the thraldom of her enemies. Though there had been divisions among the nobles as to the choice of a sovereign, especially whether they should have a Polish or a Swedish prince, the most powerful party were desirous of elevating to the throne a native Russian, a distant relation of the ancient family of the Tsars, whose father Philaretes, was me- tropolitan of Rostof. This young noble at first declined the high destiny, but at length ascended the throne, with almost general consent, and was the first of the present family and dynasty, Romanof, whose descendants have raised the em- pire to a state of grandeur and importance unequalled in any former period. Assisted by the sage councils of his venerable father, Michail Phoedorovitch, he avoided those disasters which had overwhelmed his immediate predecessors, and acquired the affection and love of his subjects. He formed useful treaties of alliance with the principal commercial states of Europe. His reign of thirty- two years was prosperous for his country and glorious to himself. Under his sway Russia acquired a hitherto unknown im- portance in the scale of nations. At his death in 1645 or 1646,he was succeeded by one of the most distinguished princes of the present dynasty, the Tsar, Alexei Michailovitch, who was only fifteen years of age. Morosof, a nobleman of conse- quence, had been appointed his governor and regent of the empire ; but by neglect- ing his duties, he became very unpopular, and, but for the special entreaty of the Tsar, he would have fallen a sacrifice to the rage of the multitude. Alexei in- creased and strengthened the empire, by introducing a more regular discipline into the army, and by revising, amending, and new-modelling the code of laws, the Soodehnik, compiled by Ivdn Vassilievitch IV, which was now known under the name of Ullojenive (or code of laws.) He invited foreign officers into his ser- vice, and procured ship-builders from Amsterdam, who were employed in con- structing vessels for the Caspian sea, and greatly encouraged commerce. He waged war with the Poles, and with the Swedes, which terminated in peace. He also led his army against the Turks, and left the prosecution of the war to his successor. His merits have been much overlooked, and especially by the adula- tors of Peter the Great ; for it cannot be doubted, by the impartial records of Rus- sian history, that some of the improve- ments, attributed to Peter, originated with his grandfather, Alexei. When he was removed by death from the throne, he left behind him three sons and six daughters. Two of the sons, Pheodor and Ivan, were by a first marriage ; the third, Peter, was by a second. About the middle of the year 1689, Peter, who had now attained his 17th year, succeeded in securing to himself the undivided sovereignty. His brother Iv^n, though still nominally Tsar, had voluntarily resigned all participation in the administration of affairs, and with- drawn to a life of obscurity. The first objects to which Peter directed his atten- tion, were the establishment of a regular and well-disciplined army, and the con- struction of a navy. Lefort, a Genevese, and Gordon, a Scotchman, were of emi- nent service to him for the organization of the army ; and he spared neither trouble nor expense so as to acquire a navy. As has been related in his life, he travelled into foreign countries, and worked like a common carpenter in the dock-yards, that he might become master of ship-building. He prosecuted the war against the Turks with vigor and success, and made him- self master of Azof. He formed a plan, with Augiistus king of Poland, and Fred- erick king of Denmark, to deprive the young and inexperienced Charles XII, of his dominions, in which they entirely failed. Indeed, at Narva, with a very small body of troops, Charles obtained a most signal victory over an immense Russian army. After this Peter evacua- I ted all the provinces that he had invaded. ^ Instructed, however, by disasters and skirmishes, in which he was at times victorious, Peter's troops at length de- feated the Swedes, which animated them with new courage. Notwithstanding this, RUSSIA 569 they siijffered a disgraceful defeat near the Dneper, when the northern Tsar was glad to make overtures for an accommo- dation. The advance of Charles XII, to within a hundred leagues of Moscow, — his deception by the traitor, Mazeppa, ataman of the Koz^ks, who promised more assistance than he could give — the difficulties and hardships his army en- countered near the river Disne, in a forest above forty leagues in extent, and filled with rocks, mountains, and marshes — and his signal deleat, after gaining differ- ent victories at the battle of Poltava, are well-known events. Charles escaped with great difficulty, and at length reached Otchakof, on the frontiers of Turkey. While Peter was reaping the advantages of his victory, Charles found an invalu- able friend in Achmet II, who then filled the throne of the east. In 1711, this sovereign assembled an immense army, and made preparations to invade Russia. The Tsar having had intimation of his desigii, and expecting to receive great assistance from Kantemir, hospodar of Moldavia, and a vassal of the Porte, re- solved to anticipate the Turks, and by rapid marches advanced as far as Yassy, the capital of that province, situated on the Preuth. Here he was surrounded, and but for the prudent and sage counsels of his consort Catharine I, he would most probably have been taken prisoner, or reduced to the most humiliating terms. But by the treaty which was concluded, Peter was extricated from a dangerous enemy, and returned to his capital. Three years after the death of Charles, in 1718, a peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden. The Swedes ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, or part of Karelia, the territory of Wiburgh, the isle of Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic, from Courland to Wiburgh. For these concessions they received back Finland, which had been conquered by Peter, together with 2,000,000 dollars, and obtained some privileges. After leading one of the most active, extraordinary, and useful lives as a sover- eign, and repeatedly having known the extremes of good and bad fortune, Peter died in the year 1725. He well merited the cognomen, the Great, as well as the 73 title of emperor, which he^rst assumed, and which has been ever since continued to his successors. In his public charac- ter, Peter must be allowed to have been a great politician, statesman, and general, although he made some important blun- ders in all these capacities. He did not civilize his people, as is generally stated ; but he laid, or extended widely, the basis of their civilization. Upon this basis a structure has been gradually rearing, which, it is to be hoped, will continue to prosper through a succession of reigns, until the demi-civilized inhabitants of the north shall be entitled to rank with the other states of Europe. He formed a navy in his empire ; re-organised an ar- my ; promulgated useful laws ; protected, and, to a certain extent, purified the re- ligion of his country ; introduced and fostered arts and sciences, and literature ; and he ardently and successfully promo- ted the general improvement of Russia. He founded Petersburgh, and made it his residence, and the capital. He extended the commerce of his empire, and gave every encouragement to trade and manu- factures. He made canals, repaired roads, instituted regular posts, and gave regulations for a uniformity of weights and measures. Peter was succeeded by his consort Catharine I, who had previously shown herself worthy of the imperial throne. During the reign of her spouse, she was distingaiished as a woman of a dignified and noble character. After she ascended the throne, she prosecuted, with vigor and prudence, the plans commenced by Peter the Great. Her short reign of two years was characterized by forbearance and mercy. Peter the Great's grandson, Peter II, when only twelve years of age, succeeded Catharine. His reign of three years' duration was more distinguished by court intrigue than interesting events. He died of the small-pox, when on the eve of his marriage in 1730. During the latter part of his reign he held his court at Moscow, a measure which gave great satisfaction to the nobles. The male issue of Peter being now extinct, the duke of Holstein, son to Pe- ter's oldest daughter, by the declaration of the late empress, was entitled to tho 570 RUSSIA. crown ; but. *Jie Russians, for political reasons, filled the throne with Ann, duchess of Courland, second daughter to Ivan, Peter's eldest brother. Her reign was extremely prosperous, and though she accepted the crown under limitations that were thought derogatory to her dig- nity, yet she broke through them all, and asserted the prerogatives of her ances- tors. She was governed by her favorite Biron, whom she raised to the duchy of Courland. She had considerable influ- ence in the affairs of Poland ; she nar- rowly escaped a war with France ; she ceded the territories on the shores of the Caspian, which had been seized by Pe- ter the Great, in consideration of some privileges granted to the Russian mer- chants ; she maintained a war against the Turks, and, after one army had been se- verely beat in the Krimea, she sent new forces, who overcame the Tartars, and desolated that peninsula ; she took Otch- akof, and subdued Moldavia ; and after the loss of above 100,000 men, and vast sums of money, she concluded a treaty with the Porte, by virtue of which Mol- davia and Otchakof were given back, and Russia gained nothing, except permission to build a fortress upon the Don. At the death of Ann in the year 1740, Ivan Antonovitch, the son of her niece, the princess Mecklenburgh, by her will, succeeded to the throne. Biron, duke of Courland, was at first regent ; but he being unpopular, it was no difficult mat- ter for that princess, assisted by her hus- band, to accomplish his banishment to Siberia, and for herself to assume the administratorship. But Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great by Catharine, had a powerful par- ty, by whose assistance she assumed the throne, while the prince and princess of Mecklenburgh were sent into banishment. The young prince Ivan was kept in con- finement, and afterwards murdered in the castle of Schusselberg. Soon after her accession, Elizabeth nominated as her successor to the throne, Charles Peter Ulric, son of the duke of Holstein Got- torp, by Anne, daughter of Peter the Great. This prince was accordingly in- vited into Russia, became a member of the Greek church was baptized by the name of Peter Pheodorovitch, and pro- claimed grand duke of Russia, and heir of the empire, in the fortieth year of his age. Soon afterwards he was married to Sophia Augusta Frederica, daughter of Cliristian Augustus, prince of Anhalt- Zerbst-Donburg, who became the famous princess Catharine II. By the death of Charles XII, emperor of Germany, Ma- ria Theresa, queen of Hungary, was left at the mercy of the enterprising king of Prussia, but was assisted by Elizabeth, who entered into a confederacy, and sent a body of troops into Germany. Elizabeth died on the 5th of January, 1762, the victim of disease, brought on by intemperance. The empress Ann had given an unworthy example of keep- ing favorites, which has been followed by all the subsequent princesses who have swayed the sceptre of Russia, and in a more open manner than is sanctioned by the custom of civilized nations. Eliza- beth had her portion of them, and her conduct deserves reprobation. She is said to have possessed an extraordinary share of humanity ; and during her reign, punishment by death was unknown, in consequence of a vow she had made, and wliich led to numerous abuses and enormities in the civil, military, and naval departments. Though she was a woman of no talents, her reign was prosperous ; and the same means, as in the time of her immediate predecessors, were con- tinued with the view of improving and civilizing her people. In the year 1758, the Academy of Arts, now one of the most magnificent establishments in the universe, was founded at Petersburgh. Fond of music, she encouraged its culti- vation, and she laid the foundation of a Russian theatre. She was also a great patroness of architecture. She followed the same policy as her predecessors, in encouraging foreigners to come and set- tle in her empire. But the army was much neglected ; and a kind of inquisi- tion, under the specious name of a secret state chancery, was instituted, which led to the most flagrant abuses. The grand duke Peter III ascended the throne of Russia on the demise of Elizabeth in 1762. His whole life shows that he was a feeble prince. He attempt- f RUSSIA. 571 ed many premature and foolish innova- tions, and by that means disgusted his people. By his inconstancy he lost the affections of his wife, a lovely and accom- plished princess in the prime of life. Assisted by the wily princess Dashkof, and by some officers, especially the Or- lofs, she formed a party, and, to avoid imptisonment and perhaps death, she succeeded in the dethronement of her husband. On this occasion, but for the greatest pusillanimity, Peter would have regained his crown, and escaped a cruel and barbarous death by poison adminis- tered to him while a prisoner at Ropsha, not far from St. Petersburgh. He only en- joyed the imperial dignity three months, and thus ingioriously fell in the 34th year of his age. After Catharine had ascended the throne, her conduct was cautious and judicious, gentle and magnanimous, even to her de- clared enemies. From motives of policy she maintained the treaty of peace with Frederic, which had been concluded with Elizabeth. She appears to have had considerable uneasiness at the chance of Ivan's being set at liberty. Greater vigi- lance was employed in gTiarding him in the castle of Schusselberg ; and he was afterwards assassinated, in consequence of the failure of badly concerted mea- sures for his deliverance. Whether his death is to be imputed to the empress and her counsellors is still matter of dispute. When firmly seated upon the throne, Catharine proved herself worthy of the high destination, and her reign was one of the most brilliant in the annals of time. Her private character seems to have been excellent, except the outrage she did to her sex and to morality by openly adopt- ing in succession, a number of declared favorites. Among the most memorable events of Catharine's reign are to be enumerated, the establishment of a new code of laws for her dominions, however badly they were administered ; the maintenance of i a seven years' war with the Turks ; the [ unexpected and extraordinary destruction of the Turkish fleet at Tchesme, by the Russian fleet under the command of count j Alexei Orlof, but chiefly directed by the counsels of the British admiral Greig ; the division of the empire into vice-roy- alities ; the visit of the emperor Joseph to Russia ; the establishment of public schools throughout her realms ; the erec- tion of the justly celebrated monument of Peter the Great ; the capture of the Kri- mea ; the receiving under her protection the dominions of Heraclius H, tsar of Kartalinia and Kachetia ; the institution of the imperial Russian academy ; the repair of roads throughout the empire ; the establishment of a loan bank for the accommodation of the nobles and the burghers ; her visit to the south of Russia and to the Krimea ; the capture of part of the Kubdn, and of all the ter- ritory between the Boog, the Dnester, and the Black Sea, from the Turks and their adherents, after a series of victo- ries ; the obtaining of various advantages over the Swedes, both by sea and land, and then the conclusion of a peace ; her participation in the dismemberment of Poland after a successful but cruel war ; the conclusion of a treaty of defensive al- liance between Russia and Great Britain in 1795; the successful invasion of the Persian territories and her subsequent defeat ; and, finally, her sudden disease, which was followed by death. Catharine II died on the 9th of Nov. 1796, and the grand duke Paul, or rath- er Pavel Petrovitch, was seated on the throne in the fortieth year of his age, to- tally ignorant of the duties he had to per- form, in consequence of having been obliged by his mother's will, to pass much time in obscurity and retirement. His politics and general conduct were very blameable. In consequence of his ex- traordinary actions, by many he was reckoned a fool and a madman, while others have spoken of him as a misgui- ded man of uncommon penetration, ge- nius, and rectitude, whose grand plans were not allowed to develope themselves ; and which were calculated to have ren- dered him one of the brightest orna- ments of his country. The chief politi- cal events of his life were his diifering with England in 1797; his contrivance to become grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, in 1798; the sending of a Russian army under field- marshal Suvdrof to join the Austrian ar- 572 RUSSIA. my in Italy ; and his declaration of war against England. Panl's conduct became daily more and more singular and tyrannical. The demi- barbarous but brave Suvdrof is supposed to have fallen a victim to his caprice, and the atamfin of the Kozaks, the celebrated Platoff, had nearly shared a similar fate. Others in power and favor had sufTered sndden and great reverses, and no indi- vidual could lie down to quiet rest, as he knew not what might be his fate before the dawn of day. The regulations of the emperor with respect to dress and salutations, and the exercise of his po- lice in seeing his errors executed, would fill volumes with ridiculous anecdotes, and have been a great source of amuse- ment for travellers. Dr. Clarke's works are peculiarly rich on these subjects, which are highly absurd and amusing. Some of the nobles who had suffered private injuries, and who persuaded them- selves that they would render a most im- portant service to their country, conspired and effected Paul's death in the most de- termined and barbarous manner, while in his new palace of St. Michael, and on the 11th March, O. S. 1801. Early on the following morning, Alex- ander was proclaimed emperor of all the Russias, and ascended the throne in his 24th year, beloved by all classes of his siTbjecls. Mildness and forbearance were the characteristic of the first acts of his government. He arrested the power of the senate, and recalled those who were innocent from banishment. He cultiva- ted the friendship and entered into ami- cable arrangements with the states of Europe, and he adopted every measure j which might pi'ocure advantages to his i empire. vSome of the most remarkable j deeds of his commencing reign, were his taking oft' the embargo which had j been laid by Paul on British vessels ; his entering into a treaty of commerce with Sweden ; his guaranteeing the sov- ereignity of Malta to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem ; his ])roclamation of the union of Georgia to the empire ; his sending two vessels round the world on a voyage of discovery under the com- mand of captain Krusenstern ; and the emancipation of the Jews from the shack- les under which they had long groaned, and allowing them various privileges. After some disputes with France, war was declared, and an alliance formed be- tween Russia and Austria, as also between Russia and Great Britain. The king of Prussia and the king of Sweden soon afterwards entered into an alliance with Alexander. It was expected that by the united forces of these sovereigns. Napo- leon would have been hurled from his throne or compelled to listen to equitable terms of pacification. The allied forces were, however, defeated, and a treaty of peace between Russia and France was concluded at Tilsit in 1807, where Na- poleon and Alexander had a meeting. After this a rupture between Great Bri- tain and Russia took place. An embargo was, in consequence, laid upon all Brit- ish vessels. Sweden having refused to comply with the requests of France and Russia, to abandon her alliance with Great Britain, Russia marched an army into Sweden, which, though checked in its progress of hostility, proved but too successful. In 1808 the two emperors Napoleon and Alexander, held a second meeting near Erfurt. In 1 809 the junc- ture between Russia and Austria was broken, because this power had carried on war against France. Peace was con- cluded whh Sweden, by which Russia acquired Finland as far as the river Tor- neo with the Aland islands. In 1810, a new form was given to the imperial coun- cil, and by a manifesto, a part of Gallacia was taken under protection. In 1811 considerable changes took place with the ministers and the colleges, and the beautiful cathedral of the mother of God of Kazan, which was founded by Paul, and built after the plan of a Russian bondsman, was consecrated. The army of the grand vizier, consisting of 35,000 men, became prisoners to the Russians, who were protecting Imeritia and Bes- sarabia, and peace was concluded in 1812. Shortly afterwards peace was likewise concludedbetween Britain and Russia, and then commenced the preparations for the grand struggle of the European powers. With an army of nearly half a million of men, collected from almost every na- tion in Europe, Napoleon advanced to the RUSSIA. 573 conquest of Russia. The first action of importance was at Smolensk, which the Russians themselves set on fire, as they were forced to abandon it. The bloody- battle of Borodino was next fought, {see France,) which compelled the Russians to abandon Moscow. On the 14th of September, 1812, while the rear-guard of the Russians were in the act of evacuating Moscow, Napoleon reached the hill called the Mount of Sal- vation, because it is there where the na- tives kneel and cross themselves at first sight of the Holy City. Moscow seemed lordly and striking as ever, with the steeples of its thirty church- es, and its copper domes glittering in the sun ; its palaces of Eastern architecture, mingled with trees, and surrounded with gardens ; and its Kremlin, a huge trian- gular mass of towers, something between a palace and a castle, which rose like a citadel out of the general mass of groves and buildings. But not a chimney sent up smoke, not a man appeared on the battlements, or at the gates. Napoleon gazed every moment, expecting to see a train of bearded boyards arriving to fling themselves at his feet, and place their wealth at his disposal. His first excla- mation was, " Behold at last that cele- brated city !" — His next, " It was full time." His army, less regardful of the past or the future, fixed their eyes on the goal of their wishes, and a shout of" Mos- cow ! Moscow !" passed from rank to rank. Meantime no one interrupted his medi- tations, until a message came from Mu- rat. He had pushed in among the Cos- sacks, who covered the rear of the Rus- sians, ar.d readily admitted to a parley the chivalrous champion, whom they at once recognized, havhig so often seen him blazing in the van of the French cav- airy. The message which he sent to Bo- naparte intimated, that Miloradovitch threatened to burn the town, if his rear was not allowed time to march through it. This was a tone of defiance. Napoleon, however, granted the armistice, for which no inhabitants were left to be grateful. After waiting two hours, he received from some French inhabitants, who had hidden themselves during the evacuation, the strange intelligence that Moscow was deserted by its population. The tidings that a population of two hundred and fifty thousand persons had left their native city was incredible, and Napoleon still commanded the boyards, the public func- tionaries, to be brought before him ; nor could he be convinced of what had actu- ally happened, till they led to his pres- ence some of that refuse of humanity, the only live creatures they could find in the city, but they were wretches of the low- est rank. When he was at last convinced that the desertion of the capital was uni- versal, he smiled bitterly, and said, " The Russians will soon learn better the value of their capital." The signal was now given for the troops to advance ; and the columns, still in a state of wonder at the solitude and silence which received them every where, penetrated through that assemblage of huts, mingled with palaces, where it seemed that Penury, which had scarce means to obtain the ordinary necessaries of life, had for her next door neighbor all the wealth and profuse expenditure of the East. At once the silence was bro- ken by a volley of musketry, which some miserable fanatics poured from the bat- tlements of the Kremlin on the first French troops that approached the pal- ace of the Czars. These wretches were most of them intoxicated ', j'^et the deter- mined obstinacy with which they threw away their lives, was another feature of that rugged patriotism of which the French had seen, and were yet to see, so many instances. When he entered the gates of Moscow, Bonaparte, as if unwilling to encounter the sight of the empty streets, stopt im- mediately on entering the first suburb. His troops were quartered in the deso- late city. During the first few hours after their arrival, an obscure rumor, which could not be traced, but one of those which are sometimes found to get abroad before the approach of some awful cer- tainty, announced that the city would be endangered by fire in the course of the night. The report seemed to arise from those evident circumstances which ren- dered the event probable, but no one took any notice of it, until at midnight, when the soldiers were startled fiom their quar- 574 RUSSIA. Napoleon mewing the conflagration of Moscow. ters by the report that the town was in flames. The memorable conflagration began amongst the coachmakers' ware- houses and workshops in the Bazaar, or general market, which was the richest district of the city. It was imputed to accident, and the progress of the flames was subdued by the exertions of the French soldiers. Napoleon, who had been roused by the tumult, hurried to the spot, and when the alarm seemed at an end, he retired, not to his former quar- ters in the suburbs, but to the Kremlin, the hereditary palace of the only sove- reign whom he had ever treated as an equal, and over whom his successful arms had now attained such an apparent- ly immense superiority. Yet he did not suffer himself to be dazzled by the ad- vantage he had obtained, but availed himself of the light of the blazing Ba- zaar, to write to the emperor proposals of peace with his own hand. They were despatched by a Russian officer of rank, who had been disabled by indisposition from following the army. But no an- swer was ever returned. Next day the flames had disappeared, and the French officers luxuriously em- ployed themselves in selecting out of the deserted palaces of Moscow, that which best pleased the fancy of each for his residence. At night the flames again arose in the north and west quarters of the city. As far the greater part of the houses were built of wood, the conflagra- tion spread with the most dreadful ra- pidity. This was at first imputed to the blazing brands and sparkles which were carried by the wind ; but at length it was observed, that, as often as the wind changed, and it changed three times in that terrible night, new flames broke al- ways forth in that direction, where the existing gale was calculated to direct them on the Kremlin. These horrors were increased by the chance of explo- sion. There was, though as yet unknown to the French, a magazine of powder in the Kremlin ; besides that a park of ar- tillery, with its ammunition, was drawn up under the emperor's window. Morn- ing came, and with it a dreadful scene. During the whole night, the metropolis had glared with an untimely and unnatu- ral light. It was now covered with a thick and suffocating atmosphere, of al- most palpable smoke. The flames de- fied the efforts of the French soldiery, and it is said that the fountains of the RUSSIA. 575 city had been rendered inaccessible, the water-pipes cut, and the fire-engines de- stroyed or carried off. Then came the reports of fire-balls having been found burning in deserted houses ; of men and women, that, like demons, had been seen openly spreading the flames, and who were said to be fur- nished with combustibles for rendering their dreadful work more secure. Seve- ral wretches against whom such acts had been charged, were seized upon, and probably, without much inquiry, were shot on the spot. While it was almost impossible to keep the roof of the Krem- lin clear of the burning brands which showered down the wind, Napoleon watched from the windows the course of the fire which devoured his fair con- quest, and the exclamation burst from him, " These are indeed Scythians !" The equinoctial gales rose higher and higher upon the third night, and extended the flames, with which there was no longer any human power of contending. At the dead hour of midnight, the Krem- lin itself was found to be on fire. A sol- dier of the Russian police, charged with being the incendiary, was turned over to the summary vengeance of the Imperial Guard. Bonaparte was then, at length, persuaded, by the entreaties of all around him, to relinquish his quarters in the Kremlin, to which, as the visible mark of his conquest, he had seemed to cling with the tenacity of a lion holding a fragment of his prey. He encountered both difli- culty and danger in retiring from the pal- ace, and before he could gain the city- gate, he had to traverse with his suite streets arched with fire, and in which the very air they breathed was suffocating. At length, he gained the open country, and took up his abode in a palace of the Czar's called Petrowsky, about a French league from the city. As he looked back on the fire, which, under the influence of the autumnal wind, swelled and surged around the Kj-emlin,like an infernal ocean around a sable Pandemonium, he could not suppress the ominous expression, " This bodes us great misfortune." The fire continued to triumph unop- posed, and consumed in a few days what it had cost centuries to raise. " Palaces and temples," says a Russian author, "monuments of art, and miracles of lux- ury, the remains of ages which had pass- ed away, and those which had been the creation of yesterday ; the tombs of an- cestors, and the nursery-cradles of the present generation, were indiscriminate- ly destroyed. Nothing was left of Mos- cow save the remembrance of the city, and the deep resolution to avenge its fall.* The fire raged till the 1 9th with una- bated violence, and then began to slacken for want of fuel. It is said, four-fifths of this great city were laid in ruins. This unexpected sacrifice on the part of the Russians, caused the ruin of Napo- leon. Being without quarters, and short of provisions, he off'ered terms of peace. The Russians replied, that they could listen to no terms, while an enemy re- mained in their country. No alternative was now left but to retreat towards the frontiers. One of the most distressing scenes on human record, now followed. A Russian winter, unusually severe, now set in with all its horrors. The wretch- ed soldiers pursued by the Russians, overcome by hunger, cold, and fatigue, sunk down by thousands, and were left by their companions to perish amid the Russian snows. About 30,000 horses perished in one day by the severity of the weather. The passage of the river Be- resina, in the Russian province of Minok, by the French, presented one of the most horrible in modern warfare. On the heights of Studzianka, Victor, who commanded the French rear-guard, amounting perhaps to 8,000 or 10,000 men, was prepared to cover the retreat over the bridges. The right of this corps d'armee rested on the river ; a ravine full of bushes covered their front, but the left wing had no point of support. It re- mained, according to the military phrase, in the air, and was covered by two regi- ments of cavalry. Behind this defensive line were many thousands of stragglers, mingled with the usual followers of a camp, and with all those individuals who, accompanying, for various reasons, the * Karamzin, a Russian historian of eminence, whose works were e.x-pressly excepted from the censorship, by the late emperor Alexander. 576 RUSSIA French from Moscow, had survived the horrors of the march. Women, children, domestics, the aged and the infants, were seen among the wretched mass, and wan- dered by the side of this fatal river, like the fabled spectres which throng the banks of the infernal Styx, and seek in vain for passage. The want of order, which it was impossible to preserve, the breaking of the bridges, and the time spent in the repair — the fears of the unhappy wretch- es to trust themselves to the dangerous and crowded passages, had all operated to detain them on the right bank. The baggage, which, in spite of the quantity already lost, of the difficulty of transpor- tation, and of Napoleon's precise orders, amounted still to a very great number of carts, wains, and the like, and which was now augmented by all that belonged to the troops of Oudinot and Victor, was seen, some filing towards the bridges, and the greatar part standing in confusion upon the shore. The artillery itself, such as remained, was in no better state. Such was the condition of matters at the bridge, when Wittgenstein, after his victory over Partouneaux, marching up the right bank of the Beresina, engaged in a fierce combat with the rear-guard under Victor ; and the balls of the Russians began to fall among the mingled and dis- ordered mass which we have endeavored to describe. It was then that the whole body of stragglers and fugitives rushed like distracted beings towards the bridges, every feeling of prudence or humanity swallowed up by the animal instinct of self-preservation. The horrible scene of disorder was augmented by the despe- rate violence of those, who, determined to make their own way at all risks, threw down and trampled upon whatever came in their road. The weak and helpless either shrunk back from the fray, and sat down to wait their fate at a distance, or mixing in it, were thrust over the bridges, crushed under carriages, cut down per- haps with sabres, or trampled to death under the feet of their countrymen. All this while the action continued with fury, and, as if the Heavens meant to match their wrath with that of man, a hurricane arose, and added terrors to a scene which was already of a character so dreadful. About mid-day the French, still brave- ly resisting, began to lose ground. The Russians, coming gradually up in strength, succeeded in forcing the ravine, and com- pelling them to assume^a. position nearer the bridges. About the same time, the larger bridge, that constructed for artille- ry and heavy carriages, broke down, and multitudes were forced into the water. The scream of mortal agony, which arose from the despairing multitude, became at this crisis for a moment so universal, that it rose shrilly audible over the noise of the elements and the thunders of war, above the wild whistling of the tempest, and the sustained and redoubled hurras of the Cossacks. The witness from whom we have this information, declares that the sound was in his ears for many weeks. This dreadful scene continued till dark, many being forced into the icy river, some throwing themselves in, be- twixt absolute despair, and the faint hope of gaining the opposite bank by swimming, some getting across only to die of cold and exhaustion. As the obscurity came on, Victor, with the remainder of his troops, which was much reduced, quitted the station he had defended so bravely, and led them in their turn across. All night, the miscellaneous multitude con- tinued to throng across the bridge, under the fire of the Russian artillery, to whom even in the darkness, the noise which accompanied their march made them a distinct mark. At day-break, the French engineer. General Eble, finally set fire to the bridge. All that remained on the other side, including many prisoners, and a great quantity of guns and baggage, became the prisoners and the prey of the Russians. The amount of the French loss was never exactly known ; but the Russian report, concerning the bodies of the invaders which were collected and burnt as soon as the thaw permitted, states that upwards of 36,000 were found in the Beresina. Napoleon after the passage of the Be- resina, left the army and- travelled in dis- guise to Paris. The soldiers of the Imperial Guard, who had hitherto made it their pride to preserve some degree of discipline, would, after the departure of Napoleon, RUSSIA. 577 give obedience to no one else. Murat, to whom the chief command had been dele- gated, seemed scarcely to use it, nor when he did was he obeyed. If Ney, and some of the Mareschals, still retained authority, they were only attended to from habit, or because the instinct of disci- pline revived when the actual battle drew near. They could not, howcA^er, have offered any effectual defence, nor could they have escaped actual slaughter and dispersion, had it not been for Loison's troops, who coutinued to form the rear- guard, and who, never having been on the eastern side of the fatal Beresina, had, amid great suffering, still preserved sufficient discipline to keep their ranks, behave like soldiers, and make them- selves be respected, not only by the Cos- sacks, but by Tchaplitz, Wittgenstein, and the Russians detached from the main army, who followed them close, and an- noyed them constantly. The division of Loison remained like a shield, to pro- tect the disorderly retreat of the main body. Still, some degree of order is so es- sential to human society, that, even in that disorganized mass, the stragglers, which now comprehended almost the whole army, divided into little bands, who assisted each other, and had some- times the aid of a miserable horse, which when it fell down under the burden of what they had piled on it, was torn to pieces and eaten, while lile was yet pal- pitating in its veins. These bands had chiefs selected from among themselves. But this species of union, though advan- tageous on the whole, led to particular evils. Those associated into such a fra- ternity, would communicate to none save those of their own party, a mouthful of rye-dough, which, seasoned with gun- powder for want of salt, and eaten with | a bouille of horse-flesh, formed the best part of their food. Neither would they | permit a stranger to warm himself at their fires, and when spoil was found, two of these companies often, especially if of different countries, fought for the j possession of it ; and a handful of meal was a sufficient temptation for putting to death the wretch who could not defend his booty. The prisoners, it is said, 73 (and we heartily wish the fact could be refuted,) were parked every night, with- out receiving any victuals whatsoever, and perished, like impounded cattle, from want of food, cold, and the delirious fu- ry which such treatment inspired. Among these unfortunates some became canni- bals, and the same horrible reproach has been cast on the French themselves. To enhance misfortunes so dreadful, the cold, which had been for some time endurable, increased on the 6th of De- cember, to the most bitter degree of frost, being twenty-seven or twenty-eight de- grees below zero. Many dropped down and expired in silence, the blood of others was determined to the head by the want of circulation ; it gushed at length from eyes and mouth, and the wretches sunk down on the gory snoAv, and were reliev- ed by death. At the night bivouacs, the soldiers approached their frozen limbs to the fire so closely, that, falling asleep in that postvire, their feet were scorched to the bone, while their hair was frozen to the ground. In this condition they were often found by the Cossacks, and happy were those upon whom the pursu- ers bestowed a thrust with the lance to finish their misery. Other horrors there were, which are better left in silence. Enough has been said to show, that such a calamity, in such an extent, never be- fore darkened the pages of history. In this horrible retreat, twenty thousand re- cruits had joined the army since cross- ing the Beresina, where, including the corps of Oudinot and Victor, they amount- ed to 80,000 men. But of this sum of 80,000 men, one half perished betwixt the Beresina and the walls of Wilna. For an account of the subsequent events respecting the overthrow and banishment of Napoleon, see France. A congress of allied sovereigns was held at Vienna in Oct. 1814, the professed object of which was to take measures to secure the re- pose of Europe, and settle the bounda- ries of the different kingdoms, &c. In consequence of this congress, that part of Gallacia acquired by Russia from Austria in 1 809, was returned to that power, and the greatest part of the principality of Warsaw was then ceded to Russia. Po- land, or that part of it over which the 578 SCOTLAND. emperor of Russia extends his sway, has since been called the Kingdom of Po- land. At Paris a general treaty of peace was concluded by the associated sovereigns, between Russia, Austria, England, and Prussia, on the one side, and France on the other ; in virtue of which the ancient boundaries of France, as in 1790, were again adopted, and 150,000 of the troops of the allies were left in that kingdom for five years in possession of seventeen for- tresses, until the return of order and tran- quillity. In 1815, the Holy Alliance, as it is called, was formed between the empe- rors of Russia, Austria, and the king of Prussia, and some other powers after- wards joined it. On the return of Alexander to his capital, the new exchange, a large and handsome edifice, was opened at Pe- tersburgh with great ceremony, by his majesty. In 1816, the emperor visited part of his dominions and issued an ukase, henceforth forbidding punishment by tearing out the nostrils. In the winter 1817-18, the imperial court was held at Moscow, and ever since, as before, at Pe- tersburgh. The emperor Alexander died Decem- ber 1st, 1825, and was succeeded by Ni- cholas I. In 1828 the Russians declared war against the Turks. The Russian com- mander, Diebitsch, gained a number of vic- tories over the Turks, particularly one near Shumla, in which 4,000 Turks were killed. Diebitsch leaving Shumla, passed the Balkan mountains, and took posses- sion of Adrianople. Constantinople now lying open to the Russians, the Turkish sultan Mahmoud II, was obliged to make peace with the Russians on humiliating terms. Since this period, they have been engaged in warfare with the Poles and Persians. SCOTLAND, There is reason to believe that the first inhabitants of Scotland were of Celtic origin. About the first or second century before Christ, a Gothic race, known by the name of Picts, settled in Scotland, and probably established them- selves by the conquest of the original Celts, as the Danes and Ostmen in general did, in after times, in Britain and Ireland. Hence, the low country of Scotland derives its Saxon, or rather Da- nish language, the very language which it possesses to this day. These were the Caledonians, who so long and suc- cessfully resisted the invasions of the Romans. The history of Scotland, before the reign of Malcolm Ill.surnamed Canmore, is obscure, from the deficiency of histori- cal records. This prince, by the defeat of Macbeth, the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the throne in 1057 ; and espousing the cause of Edgar Athe- ling, heir of the Saxon kings of England, whose sister he married, he thus pro- voked a war with William the Conqueror, which was equally prejudicial to both kingdoms. In an expedition of Malcolm into England, it is alleged that, after con- cluding a truce, he was compelled by William to do homage for his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was done for the territories in Cumberland and Northumberland won by the Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown, though this homage was afterwards ab- surdly made the pretext of a claim of feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven years, Malcolm supported a spirited contest with England, both under William I, and his son Rufus ; and to the virtues of his queen Margaret, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civilization remarkable in those ages of barbarism. Alexander I, his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit and good poli- cy, the independence of his kingdom ; and his son David I, celebrated even by the democratic Buchanan, as an honor to his country and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and annexed to his crown, the SCOTLAND. 579 whole earldom of Northumberland. In those reigns we hear of no claim of the feudal subjection of Scotland to the crown of England; though the accidental for- tune of war afterwards furnished a ground for it. William I, (the Lyon,) taken pri- soner at Alnwick by Henry II, was com- pelled, as the price of his release, to do homage for his whole kingdom ; an obli- gation which his successor Richard vol- untarily discharged, as deeming it to have been unjustly extorted. ^ On the death of Alexander III, without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Baliol, descendants of David I, by the female line, were competitors for the crown, and the pretensions of each were supported by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward I, of England, chosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character, the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling all the barons to swear allegiance to him, and taking actual possession of the country by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Baliol, on the express condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol, however, soon after renouncing his alle- giance, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland with an immense force, and compelled the weak prince to abdicate the throne, and resign the kingdom into his hands. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom history records, restored the fallen honors of his country. Joined by a few patriots, his first successes in attacking the English garrisons brought numbers to his patriotic standard. Their successes were signal and conspicuous ; victory followed upon victory ; and while Edward was engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a des- perate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacute the kingdom. Wallace, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title of Governor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward's prisoner ; a distinction which was followed by the envy and disaffection of many of the no- bles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The Scots were defeated at Falkirk, in 1298. The English archers, who began about this time to surpass those of other nations, first chased the Scottish bowmen off the field, afterwards threw the pikemen into disorder, and thus rendered the assault of the English lancers and cavalry more easy and successful. The whole Scot- tish army was broken, and driven off the field with prodigious slaughter. In this general rout Wallace kept his troops en- tire; and retiring behind the Carron, he marched leisurely along the banks of that river. Young Robert Bruce, the grandson and heir of him who had been competitor for the throne, who, in the service of England, had already given many proofs of his aspiring genius, appeared on the opposite banks; and distinguishing the Scottish chief, he called to him, and de- sired a short conference. He represented to Wallace the fruitless and ruinous en- terprise in which he was engaged, and the unequal contest between a weak state, deprived of its head and agitated by in- testine discord, and a mighty nation con- ducted by the ablest and most martial monarch of the age. If the love of his country was his motive for perseverance, his obstinacy tended only to prolong her misery ; if he carried his views to private grandeur and ambition, he ought to reflect, that so many haughty nobles, proud of the pre-eminence of their families, would never submit to personal merit. To these exhortations Wallace replied, that, if he had hitherto acted alone as the champion of his country, it was because no leader had yet appeared to place himself in that honorable station ; that the blame lay entirely with the nobility, and chiefly with Bruce himself, who, uniting personal merit with dignity of family, had deserted the post which both nature and fortune invited him to assume ; that the Scots, possessed of such a leader, might hope successfully to oppose all the powers and abilities of Edward; and that as for him- self, he was desirous that his own Ufe, as well as the existence of the nation, might terminate when they could not otherwise be preserved, than by receiving the chains of a haughty victor. The gallantry of these sentiments was felt by the generous mind of Bruce; and he secretly deter- mined to seize the first opportunity of embracing the cause of his oppressed country. 580 SCOTLAND. Interview between Wallace and Bruce. The battle of Falkirk had not complet- ed the subjection of the Scots. They chose for their regent John Cummin, who surprised the English army, and routed them after an obstinate conflict, in 1299; and it became necessary for Edward to begin anew the conquest of the kingdom. The king prepared himself for the en- terprise with his usual vigor and abilities. He marched victorious from one extremity of Scotland to the other, and compelled even Cummin himself to submit to his authority. • To render his acquisition durable, he abrogated all the laws and customs of Scotland, endeavored to sub- stitute those of England in their places, entirely rased or destroyed all the monu- ments of antiquity, and hastened wholly to abolish the Scottish name. Wallace himself was at length betTay- ed into Edward's hands, in 1305, by his friend Sir John Monteith ; and the king, whose natural bravery and magnanimity should have induced him to respect similar qualities in an enemy, resolved to overawe the Scots by an example of se- verity. He ordered the hero to be car- ried in chains to London ; to be tried as a rebel and a traitor, though he had never sworn fealty to England ; and to be exe- cuted on Tower-hill. Such was the un- worthy fate of Wallace, who, through the course of several years, with signal conduct, intrepidity, and perseverance, defended, against a public and oppres- sive enemy, the liberties of his native country. The barbarous policy of Edward failed of the object to which it was directed. The Scots were enraged at the injustice and cruelty exercised on their gallant chief ; and it was not long ere a more fortunate leader presented himself to con- duct them to victory and to vengeance. Robert Bruce, whose conference with Wallace on the banks of the Carron has been already noticed, determined to i"e- vive the pretensions of his family, and to aspire to the vacant throne. Edward, being apprised of his intentions, ordered all his motions to be strictly watched. An intimate friend of Bruce, not daring, amidst so many jealous eyes, to hold any com'ersalion with him, sent him by his servant a pair of gilt spurs and a purse of gold, which he pretended to have bor- rowed from him; and left it to his sa- gacity to discover the meaning. Bruce immediately contrived to escape, and in a few days arrived at Dumfries, the chief SCOTLAND. 581 seat of his family interest, where he found a great number of the Scottish no- bility assembled, and among the rest John Cummin, with whom he had formerly lived in strict intimacy. The noblemen were astonished at the appearance of Bruce among them ; and still more when he told them that he was come to live or die with them in defence of the liberties of his country. These generous sentiments, assisted by the graces of his youth and manly deport- ment, impressed the minds of his audi- ence ; and they resolved to use their ut- most efforts in delivering their country from bondage. Cummin alone, who had secretly taken his measures with the king, opposed this general determination ; and Bruce, already apprised of his treachery, followed Cummin on the dissolution of the assembly, and attacking him in the cloisters of the Grey Friars, ran him through the body. The murder of Cummin sealed the conspiracy of the Scottish nobles. The genius of the nation roused itself; and Bruce was solemnly crowned at Scone by the bishop of St. Andrews. The English were again expelled the king- dom ; and Edward found, that the Scots, twice conqiiered in his reign, must yet be afresh subdued. To effect this, he assembled a great army, and was prepar- ing to enter the frontiers, when he unex- pectedly sickened and died near Carlisle, in 1307, in the sixty -ninth year of his age and the thirty-fifth of his reign. With his last breath he enjoined his son and successor to prosecute the enterprise, and never to desist till he had finally sub- dued the kingdom of Scotland. Edward 11 was in the twenty-third year of his age when he ascended the throne. He was of an agreeable figure, and of a mild and gentle disposition ; but the first act of his reign blasted the hopes which the English had entertained of him. Equally incapable of, and averse to business, he entered Scotland only to retreat : he disbanded his army, without attacking Bruce. Immediately after Edward's retreat from Scotland, Robert Bruce left his fast- nesses ; and, in a short time, nearly the whole kingdom acknowledged his au- thority. The castle of Stirling, the only fortress in Scotland which remained in the hands of the English, was closely pressed ; and to relieve this place, Ed- Avard summoned his forces from all quar- ters, and marched with an army of an hundred thousand men. At Bannock- burn, about two miles from Stirling, Bruce with thirty thousand hardy warriors, in- xu-ed to all the varieties of fortune, and inflamed with the love of independence, awaited the charge of the enemy. A hill covered his right flank, and a morass his left ; and along the banks of a rivulet in his front he dug deep pits ; planted them with stakes, and covered the whole with turf. The English, confident in their superior numbers, rushed to the at- tack without precaution. Their cavalry, entangled in the pits, were thrown into disorder; and the Scottish horse, allow- ing them no time to rally, attacked them, and drove them off the field with con- siderable loss. While the English forces were alarmed at this unfortunate event, an army appeared on the heights towards the left, marching to surround them. This was composed of wagoners and sumpter-boys, whom Robert had supplied with military standards. The stratagem took effect; a panic seized. the English, who threw down their arms, and fled, and were pursued to the gates of Ber- wick. Besides considerable booty, the Scots took many persons of quality pris- oners, and above four hundred gentlemen, whose ransom was a new accession of strength to the victors. This great and decisive battle which took place in 1314, secured the independence of Scotland, and fixed the throne of Bruce. In no country of Europe had the feu- dal aristocracy attained to a greater height than in Scotland. The power of the greater barons, while it rendered them independent, and often the rivals of their sovereign, was a perpetual source of tur- bulence and disorder in the kingdom. It was, therefore, a constant policy of the Scottish kings to humble the nobles, and break their factious combinations. Rob- ert I, attempted to retrench the vast ter- ritorial possessions of his barons, by re- quiring every landholder to produce the titles of his estate ; but was resolutely 582 SCOTLAND. answered that the sword was their char- ter of possession. On the death of Robert, in 1329, and during the minority of his son David, Edward Baliol, the son of John, formerly king of Scotland, with the aid of Edward III, of England, and supported by many of the factious barons, invaded the king- dom, and was crowned at Scone, while the young David was conveyed for secu- rity to France. The mean dependence of Baliol on the English monarch de- prived him of the affections of the peo- ple. Robert the Steward of Scotland, Randolph and Douglas, supported the Brucian interest, and assisted by the French, restored David to his throne ; a prince destined to sustain many reverses of fortune ; for in a subsequent invasion of the English territory by the Scots, David was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, and conveyed to London. He remained for eleven years in captivity, and witnessed the similar fate of a broth- er monarch, John, King of France, taken prisoner by the Black Prince in the battle of Poictiers. David was ransomed by his subjects, and restored to his kingdom in 1357 ; and he ended a turbulent reign in 1370-1. The crown passed at his de- mise to his nephew Robert, the High Steward of Scotland, in virtue of a des- tination made by Robert I, with consent of the States. The reign of Robert II, which was of twenty years duration, was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and English, productive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The weak and indolent disposition of his suc- cessor, Robert III, who found himself unequal to the contest with his factious nobles, prompted him to resign the gov- ernment to his brother the Duke of Al- bany. This ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by the murder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The elder Rothsay, a prince of high spirit, was imprisoned, on pretence of treasona- ble designs, and starved to death. The younger James escaped a similar fate which was intended for him ; but on his passage to France, whither he was sent for safety by his father, he was taken by an English ship of war and brought pris- j oner to London. The weak Robert sunk imder these misfortunes, and died 1405, after a reign of fifteen years. I James I, a prince of great natural en- ! dowments, profited by a captivity of eigh- { teen years at the court of England, in I adorning his mind with every accomplish- ment. At his return to his kingdom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the Regent Albany, and suf- fered under all the disorders of anarchy, he bent his whole attention to the im- provement and civilization of his people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced with a resolute authority. The factions of the nobles, their dangerous combinations, and their domineering ty- ranny over their dependents, the great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly restrained, and most severely pun- ished. But these wholesome innova- tions, while they procured to James the affections of the nation at large, excited the odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a conspiracy, headed by the Earl of Athole, the King's uncle, which termina- ted in the murder of this excellent prince, in the 44th year of his age, A. D. 1437. His son James II, inherited a consid- erable portion of the talents of his fath- er ; and in the like purpose of restraining the inordinate power of his nobles, pur- sued the same maxims of government, which an impetuous temper prompted him, in some instances, to carry to the most blameable excess. The earl of Douglas, trusting to a powerful vassal- age, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state and splendor rival to those of his sovereign. He was seized, and, without accusation or trial, behead- ed. His successor imprudently running the same career, and boldly justifying in a conference, his rebellious practices, was put to death by the king's own hand. Thus were the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigor of authority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and his laws contributed mate- rially to their civilization and prosperity. He was killed in the 30th year of his age, by the bursting of a cannon, in be- sieging the castle of Roxburg, A. D. 1460. His son James HI, without the talents of his predecessors, affected to tread in SCOTLAND. 583 the same steps. To humble his nobles, he bestowed his confidence on mean fa- vorites ; an insult which the former aven- ged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided by Edward IV, of Eng- land, attempted a revolution in the king- dom, which was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a second rebellion, the confederate nobles forced the prince of Rothsay, eldest son of James, to ap- pear in arms against his father. In an engagement near Bannockburn the re- bels were successful, and the king was slain, in the 35th year of his age, 1488. James IV, a great a;nd most accom- plished prince, whose talents were equal- led by his virtues, while his measures of government were dictated by a true spi- rit of patriotism, won by a well placed confidence the affections of his nobil- ity. In his marriage with Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII of England, both sovereigns wisely sought a bond of amity between the kingdoms ; but this purpose was frustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. The high spirit of the ri- val monarchs was easily inflamed by trifling causes of offence ; and France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her ancient ally. James invaded England with a powerful army, which he wished to lead to immediate action ; but the prudent delays of Surrey, the Eng- lish general, wasted and weakened his force ; and in the fatal battle of Flodden, the Scots were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The gallant James perished in the fight, and with him almost the whole of the Scottish nobles, A. D. 1513. Under the long minority of his son James V, an infant at the time of his father's death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle Albany. The aris- tocracy began to resume its ancient spi- rit of independence, which was ill brook- ed by a prince of a proud and uncontrol- lable mind, who felt the keenest jealousy of a high prerogative. With a systema- tic policy, he employed the church to abase the nobility, conferring all the offi- ces of state on able ecclesiastics. The cardinal Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs of his master, and under him ruled the kingdom. Henry VIII, embroiled with the papa- cy, sought an alliance with the king of Scots, but the ecclesiastical counsellors of the latter defeated this beneficial pur- pose. A war was thus provoked, and James was reluctantly compelled to court those nobles whom it had hitherto been his darling object to humiliate. They now determined on a disgraceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the English were repelled, and an opportuni- ty offered to the Scots of cutting oflf their retreat. The king gave his orders to that end, but his barons obstinately re- fused to advance beyond the frontier. One measure more was wanting to drive their sovereign to despair. In a subse- quent engagement with the English, 10,000 of the Scots deliberately surren- dered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy. The high spirit of James sunk under his contending passions ; and he died of a broken heart, in the 33d year of his age, a few days after the birth of a daughter, yet more unfortunate than her father, Mary Queen of Scots, A. D. 1 542. {See England.) The seeds of the Reformation were sown in Scotland by several noblemen who had resided on the continent during the religious disputes of the German em- pire. A spirit of general inquiry and in- dependence was awakened, which ren- dered men attentive to their privileges as subjects, and jealous of the encroach- ments of their rulers. Patrick Hamilton was the first who avowed the reformed doctrines, but he was accused of heresy and thrown into prison. He was soon after brought to trial, condemned to the flames, and led to the stake on the same day on which he had been condemned. From 1530 to ] 540, ten persons suffered death for con- fessing Hamilton's sentiments ; and num- bers fled to England and the continent. During the same period, the earls of Glencairn and Errol, the lords Ruthven and Kilmaurs, Sir David Lindsay, Sir James Sandilands, and a multitude of oth- er persons of respectability, made open pro- fession of the Reformed faith. They nar- rowly escaped persecution and death ; but James was averse to a persecuting spirit. The nobility soon began to cast a wistful eye on the church revenues and 584 SCOTLAND. possessions ; and hoped to enrich them- selves by the plunder of the ecclesias- tics. And as the reformers inculcated subordination to the civil power, and de- claimed against the ambhious prelates, they were further inclined to the new opinions from political considerations. Lord Maxwell proposed in parliament, that the people should be permitted to read the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue. The archbishop of Glasgow, in name of the clergy, was the only opposer of this measure ; but the bill received the approbation of parliament ; and the regent made it generally known by proclamation. From that time, copies of the Bible were imported from England in great numbers ; and books were multiplied in every quar- ter, which displayed the pride, the tyran- ny, and the superstition of the Romish clergy. In John Knox, the reformers acquired an active and powerful auxiliary ; and of his followers, the most eminent was George Wishart, who had formerly been driven into exile by Beaton for teaching the New Testament at Montrose. The revolution in England which followed the death of Henry the Eighth, contributed to demolish the popish church of Scot- land ; and the effects of religious liberty in one country inspired the inhabitants of the other with an equal desire of re- covering it. The ambition of the house of Guise, and the bigotry of Mary, hasten- ed the subversion of the papal power in Scotland. Many of the persecuted prot- estants fled to Scotland, where they found a milder government ; and they filled the whole kingdom with just horror against the cruelties of the catholics. Other circumstances which contributed to overturn the catholic church, were the writings of the poets and satirists of the age. In these, the ignorance, the negli- gence, and the immorality of the clergy, were stigmatized ; and they were read with avidity, notwithstanding prohibitory statutes and prosecutions. The catholics lulled to sleep by indolence and security, were awakened only by the crash of their decayed and falling system. In a convention held at Edinburgh, an ineffec- tual motion was made for correcting the abuses of the church; and four years after, fifty-seven canons were enacted for re- forming the corruption of the clergy, and for introducing learning into the ecclesi- astical estate. The last provincial council was held at Edinburgh in 1558, and continued a year. To this assembly were presented by the chiefs of the congregation, the prelimin- ary articles of Reformation ; and the council separated to meet no more. Mary being instigated by the princes of Lorrain, her relatives, took measures for suppressing the protestant opinions in Scotland. The reformation was rapidly advancing in that kingdom, and the queen regent connived at doctrines which she had not the power to suppress. Argyll, Morton, Glencairn, Lord Lome, Erskine of Dun, with other protestant gentlemen, subscribed a bond for their mutual pro- tection, and called themselves the Con- gregation of the Lord. Before the league was known, the clergy attempted to recover their lost au- thority, the primate seized Walter Mills, and having tried him at St. Andrews, condemned him to the flames. This was the last act of barbarity that the catholics had the power of executing under the sanction of the laws. The congregation now openly solicited subscriptions to the league, presented a petition to the regent, craving a reforma- tion of the church, and to the convocation then sitting, a petition, which they called the preliminary articles of the reforma- tion, desiring " that public prayers be conceived, and the sacrament adminis- tered in the vulgar tongue ; that bishops be admitted with the assent of the barons of the diocese, and parish priests with the assent of the parishioners ; that they who are unfit for the pastoral charge, be removed from their benefices, and such others placed in their room as are able and willing to instruct the people by con- stant preaching ; that in future, immoral and ignorant persons be excluded from the administration of the sacraments, and the other ecclesiastical functions." The convocation evaded or rejected their demands, and the queen regent publicly expressed her approbation of the decrees by which their principles were condemned, and summoned the most SCOTLAND. 585 eminent protestant preachers to appear before her council at Stirling. The members of the congregation as- sembled in great numbers to attend their pastors to the place of trial. Dreading so formidable a party, the regent deputed Erskine to assure them that she would put a stop to the present proceedings, if they would advance no further. But she forfeited her word, and sentence of out- lawry was passed against them for not appearing. At that crisis John Knox arrived, and lost no time in confirming the resolution of the wavering, and stim- ulating their indignation against popery. He declaimed with great vehemence against the idolatry of the mass and im- age worship. The congregation then quietly dismissed ; but a petty affray hav- ing occurred, in the course of a few min- utes, the images, the altar, and the orna- ments of the church, were demolished, and trampled under foot. The assailants then proceeded to the monasteries of the Grey and the Black Friars, which they pillaged and laid in ruins.* With that, the queen regent assembled an army, and advanced towards Perth to chastise the insurgents. The latter prepared to de- fend themselves, being joined by the earl of Glencairn ; and a treaty was conclud- ed, in which it was stipulated that an indemnity should be granted, and that the parliament should be convoked to compose religious differences. These stipulations were violated by the regent, and she left a garrison order to allow the exercise of any religion except the Ro- man catholic. The reformers now renewed the league, and collected their followers for defensive operations. The queen took shelter in Dunbar, which she fortified, and the dispute between the regent and the congregation now assumed a more complex character. Being joined by Argyll and the prior of St. Andrews, the reformers aimed at the redress of civil as well as religious grievances ; and requir- ed as a preliminary towards settling the * It is said John Knox himself justified this unlimited destruction by the noted saying, "Pull down the nests and the rooks will fly off !" an ex- pression, the politic meaning of which could only apply to the cloisters of the monks and friars. 74 peace of the kingdom, the immediate dismissal of the French forces from Scotland. The queen amused them with promises, which were finally terminated by the arrival of 1,000 men from France, and she immediately broke off all nego- tiations with her opponents. On this the associated lords assembled all the peers, barons, and representatives of barons that adhered to them, and imanimously gave their suffrages for deprivingMaryof Guise of the office and authority of regent. The queen had retired into Leith, which was immediately invested by the forces of the congregation, but the French refused to surrender, and their besiegers were not possessed of the artillery and magazines necessary for the purpose of a siege. Accustomed also to decide every quarrel by immediate action, the assail- ants became impatient of severe and con- stant duty. The garrison, apprised of their discontent, made a sally, which so dispirited the remainder, that they aban- doned the siege, and retreated to Stirling. Having received from France a re-en- forcement, the queen regent detached a party to lay waste the adjacent country. In this pressing extremity, the lords of the congregation turned their eyes to- wards JEngland, and Maitland and Mel- ville were despatched to solicit succors from the queen of England. Elizabeth's ministers did not hesitate to grant a re- quest so consonant to the wishes and interests of their mistress, and they in- stantly despatched a squadron to cruise in the Frith of Forth. After the flight of the congregation to Stirling, the queen dowager took possession of Edinburgh ; but her scheme was rendered abortive by the alUance of her enemies with the English queen. Early in the spring, Elizabeth sent 6,000 foot and 2,000 horse into Scotland, under Lord Grey of Wilton. To meet their allies, the forces of the reformers assembled from all parts of the kingdom, and the combined army, amounting to 13,000 men, besieged Leith. The French garrison was speedily redu- ced to great difficulties, and the queen dowager retired to the castle of Edin- burgh, where she died soon after. The French court now abandoned their schemes of distant conquest. It became 586 SCOTLAND. necessaiy to withdraw the few veteran troops in Scotland, instead of sending new re-enforcements to that country. A negotiation was therefore opened, through the mediation of Ehzabeth. Two sepa- rate treaties were concluded at Edin- burgh, and it was stipulated that the French troops should immediately evac- uate Scotland ; that Francis and Mary should thenceforth abstain from bearing the arms of England ; that an amnesty should be published for all past offences ; that none but native Scotsmen should be eligible to fill any office of state, or hold either civil or military authority ; that the parliament should nominate twenty-four persons, of whom the queen might select seven, and the estates five, for conducting the government during their sovereign's absence ; and that Mary should make neither peace nor war without the con- sent of parliament. Being masters of the kingdom, the leaders of the congregation speedily completed the work of reformation. A parliament was convened, to settle the internal tranquillity of the country, and the protestant members greatly outnum- bered their adversaries. After ratifying the late treaties, the parliament approved of a confession of faith which ha.d been composed by John Knox and other pro- testant leaders. Several acts were passed against the catholics ; and the presbyte- rian form of church government was es- tablished nearly as it exists at present. After the death of queen Elizabeth of England, in 1 603, king James VI of Scot- land, succeeded by hereditary right to the throne of England, thus uniting the two crowns. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by Charles I. In 1 633, this monarch visited his Scot- tish dominions where his reception was affectionate and joyful, but by an unfortu- nate attempt to force a liturgy into their national church, he called their secret discontents into open action. The litur- gy destined for Scotland was a little dif- ferent from the English, but in receding from that service, it approached more to the forms of popery, — a religion which was never named in Scotland without horror. During the whole week before the new service was to be performed in the churches of Edinburgh, the people were agitated by discourses and pamph- lets. On Sunday the 23d of July, the dean of Edinburgh prepared to officiate in St Giles's, and the bishop of Argj'le in the Grey Friars' church; and to increase the solemnity, each was attended by the judges, prelates, and a part of the council The congregation in St Giles's continued quiet till the service began, when an old woman, impelled by sudden indignation, started up, and exclaiming aloud against the supposed mass, threw the stool on which she had been sitting at the dean's head. The service Avas interrupted by a wild uproar, and but for the interposition of the magistrates, the bishop might have been sacrificed at his own alts,r. When most of the people had retired, and the turbulent had been excluded, the doors were locked, and the service was re- sumed ; but was soon overpowered by the people from without, who burst open the doors, broke the windows, and rent the air with exclamations of, "A Pope, an Antichrist, stone him, stone hira !" With a few exceptions, the prelates were equal- ly unsuccessful throughout all Scotland in imposing the liturgy. The Scottish privy council plainly perceiving the resolution of the whole nation, represented to Charles the diffi- culty of enforcing the new rites. Their remonstrance had no effect, but to pro- duce a threat from the sovereign of re- moving the seat of government from Ed- inburgh. In the mean time, a conflux of supplicants against the liturgy, from all Scotland, arrived at Edinburgh ; and an accusation against the prelates was subscribed by all ranks, from the peer to the peasant. The citizens of Edinburgh, exasperated at the threat of the seat of government being removed, surrounded the town council house, and demanded the replacing the ministers who had been ejected for refusing the liturgy. In this tumult, the principal citizens, and even the wives and sisters of the magistrates, took a share. The council, uninstructed by Charles, conceded a most important point to the supplicants, in permitting the celebrated Tables, a representative body of nobles, gentry, clergy, and burgesses, to sit per- SCOTLAND, 587 manently in Edinburgh, while the multi- tude dispersed to their homes. An eva- sive answer from court was insufficient to satisfy the public mind. A formal revo- cation of the liturgy was required, and the accusation of the prelates proceeded to be urged by the Tables. A royal proclamation was issued, denouncing the supplicants as traitors ; but the effect was only to summon once more the whole body of those men around their chiefs, and the proclamation was every where met by a protest, held equally legal and sufficient to counteract its effects. But the great era in this religious union of the Scotch, was the renewal of the national covenant, first framed at the Re- formation, when the lords of the congre- gation, by their bond, or covenant, under- took the protection of the infant church. This renewed a memorable bond, by which the subscribers solemnly renounc- ed Episcopacy as well as Popery, and engaged to defend each other, and to sup- port the sovereig-n in the preservation of religious liberty ; and was prepared by Alexander Henderson, the leader of the clergy, and Archibald Johnston, after- wards of Warriston, an advocate. It was revived by the lords Balmerino, Lon- don, and Rothes. It was sworn to by nobles, gentry, clergy, and burgesses, and by thousands of all denominations, after solemn exhortation and prayer in the Grey Friars' church of Edinburgh. Throughout Scotland, it roused and agitated the people by a zeal unfelt since the Reformation. The king began to think of temporiz- ing with the Scotch when it was too late. He sent the marquis of Hamilton with authority to treat with the Covenanters. He required the covenant to be renounced and recalled. The Covenanters answer- ed, that they would sooner renounce their baptism. Hamilton returned to London ; made another fruitless journey with new proposals, and was again sent back by the Covenanters. After some negotiation, Charles made concessions, which, at an earlier period, might have proved satis- factory. He recalled the canon's liturgy and the high commission, suspended the articles of Perth, and seemed only anx- ious on any terms to continue the bishops. But the Scotch could not now think themselves secure, without the absolute abolition of Episcopacy. A weak at- tempt was made amidst these disputes to substitute a counter-covenant, in which the renunciation of Popery, and submis- sion to the royal authority, were combin- ed ; but the new bond was signed by few, and with little zeal. An assembly, which Charles had agreed to grant to the Scot- tish religionists, was held at Glasgow ; an assembly, which, from a large acces- sion of the nobility and gentry, far ex- ceeded in influence what the ecclesiastics alone could have possessed. As a pre- parative to the abolition of Episcopacy, there had been laid before the presbytery of Edinburgh, and solemnly read in all the churches of the kingdom, an accusa- tion against the bishops, of heresy, simo- ny, bribery, perjury, cheating, and numer- ous other crimes, to the suspicion of which the lax lives of the episcopal cler- gy had but too much exposed them. The bishops sent a protest, declining the au- thority of the assembly. The commis- sioners, too, protested against the court as illegally constituted, and in his majes- ty's name dissolved it. But this measure was foreseen, and little regarded. The court still continued to sit. All the acts of assembly since the accession of James were, on strong grounds of reason, de- clared null and void ; and with these the acts of parliament regarding ecclesias- tical affairs. Thus Episcopacy, the high commission, the articles of Perth, the canons, and the liturgy, were abolished, and declared unlawful ; and the whole fabric which James and Charles had been rearing with so much industry, fell to the ground. Of 14 bishops whom the assembly degraded, eight were excom- municated, four were deposed, and two were merely suspended from ecclesias- tical functions. These were bold pro- ceedings. Yet it may still be doubted, if, with so much justice on their side, they entitled the sovereign to think of coming to the last extremities. But Charles' preparations for war were by this time far advanced ; it appears indeed that he anxiously solicited the rupture with the assembly, to justify having re- course to arms. By economy he had 588 SCOTLAND. amassed about 200, OOOZ., loans were pro- cured from the nobility ; his queen in- cited the Papists, and Laud instigated the clergy, to contribute to this Episcopal war. The nobility ware summoned to attend their sovereigiv at York. The Scotch had not been idle in meeting the hour of danger. The covenant had been received by Scotchmen abroad as well as at home. Lesly, a commander dis- tinguished in the Swedish service, was recalled, to lead the Covenanters at home, and he -was followed by many experienc- ed ofRcers, who had served Gustavus. Arms, ammunition, and artillery were provided, and the people were trained to the use of them. After France and Hol- land had entered into a league against Spain for the partition of the Netherlands, England had been invited to a neutrality. But Charles, in replying to the French ambassador, threatened to send 15,000 troops to oppose the parthion ; an im- politic threat, in return for which Riche- lieu now secretly supplied the Cove- nanters with money. When the king's forces had assembled at York, when Himtly began to arm for his cause in the north, and the marquis of Douglas in the south, the Covenan- ters seized, by surprise, some of the most important fortified places. Edin- burgh, Dumbarton, and Dalkeith, fell at once into their hands. The marquis of Hamilton arrived with the king's fleet from England; but he found Leith, which had been fortified by volunteers of all ranks, secure from assault, and could only land his few regiments on the uninhabit- ed islands of the Forth. The king ad- vanced from York to Berwick with 23,000 horse and foot, and the Scotch, to the number of 24,000, encamped in sight of his army on Dunse Law. The latter had hitherto, though with swords in their hands, constantly addressed Charles as their sovereign, petitioning redress of grievances from him, and never desisting from pacific overtures. Formidable as they seemed from their numbers, zeal, national spirit, and the excellence of their officers, the king listened to their propo- sals. His own army had few officers of experience, and the men were inspired by no such zeal as that which animated the Scotch. In the pacification of Berwick, it was agreed, that the armies on both sides should be disbanded, and that eccle- siastical matters should be referred to the decision of another assembly, and civil affairs to another parliament soon to be summoned. The fortifications of Leith were surrendered, and 30 castles were restored to the king's government. The assembly of the Scottish church accordingly met, and again abolished Episcopacy, stigmatizing the liturgy, canons, and high commissioners, as be- fore. The Scottish parliament also as- sembled, a truly patriotic parliament, who proposed to re-establish all their legisla- tive rights which had been usurped since the accession of James, and to rectify many public abuses. Charles, who had never been sincere in his treaty with the Scotch, made these proposals a pretext for suddenly ordering the earl of Tra- quaire to prorogue their parliament, and both sides again prepared for hostil- ities. The bigotry of Laud, and the violence of Wentworth, overpowered in the English council the moderation of Hamilton and Morton ; for to those four, under the name of the junto, the Scottish affairs had been long entrusted. A letter, which had been signed by seven of the Scottish nobility before the pacification of Berwick, and addressed to the French king, (but from proper motives never sent,) to solicit assistance, was thought a suffi- cient justification of war on the royal side ; and Loudon, the Scottish commis- sioner from the Covenanters, was ordered for execution, (though the order was re- voked,) for being the author of the letter. After eleven years intermission, it was necessary to convoke another parliament in England. By the mouth of the lord keeper Finch, the king discovered his wants, and representing his debts, for which he had given security on his crown lands, amounting to 300,000/., pleaded for immediate supplies to support his armaments, and promised, though indefinitely, to promote the best wishes and interests of his English subjects. The house of commons, instead of listen- ing to his wants, began with arranging the grievances of the public, under three different heads : those of the broken privi- SCOTLAND. 589 Scotch Covenanters defeating the English leges of parliament, of illegal taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. After an intercession on the part of the peers in the king's behalf, which, so far from obtaining the supplies, was declar- ed by the commons to be an illegal inter- position, Charles dissolved the parlia- ment ; and to make this procedure still more dangerous and unpopular, imprison- ed Bellasis and sir John Holham, for the share they had taken in the debates. Though the parliament was dissolved, the convocation of the clergy was still allowed, which, besides granting to the king a supply from the spirituality, im- posed an oath on the clergy and the gra- duates of the University, to support the established government of the church, by archbishops, bishops, deans, chapters, &c. The public notions of liberty were too far matured not to perceive, that such an assembly as the convocation, without con- sent of parliament, was unconstitutional ; and an oath, which contained an &c, was justly exposed to ridicule. In the mean time, subscriptions were raised at court, or extorted from merchants ; nor were former illegal exactions, however productive of discontent, omitted. In- stead of Arundel, Essex, and Holland, whose capacity, or whose zeal, in the last expedition was suspected, the earl of Northumberland was appointed gener- al, the earl of Strafford lieutenant-general, and lord Conway general of the horse. The army which was now raised, consist- ed of 1 9,000 foot and 2,000 horse. The Scottish covenanters and parlia- ment were much more successfully ac- tive. The parliament having secured their own constitution, by the creation of a third estate ; having passed a statute for trennial renovations ; and having guarded the legislative power against the encroachments of royalty by other wise regulations, appointed a committee of estates to superintend at the camp and in the capital, the operations of the war. Conscious of the good wishes of the pop- ular party in England, and we may well suppose in correspondence with the Eng- lish parliamentary leaders, they crossed the Tweed with 23,000 foot, 3,000 horse, and a train of artillery. Maintaining as before the most submissive language, they entered England, they said, with no hostile intentions, but to obtain access to the king's person, and lay their petition at his feet. At Newburn upon Tyne they were opposed by general Conway, with 590 SPAIN. batteries erected on the opposite bank, and 6,000 horse and foot. Lesly, their general, first requested permission to pass ; then on a shot being fired by an Enghsh sentinel, they opened their ar- tillery, and charging their opponents, put them to flight. Their army thus ob- tained immediate possession of Newcas- tle, Tynemouth, Shields, and Durham. Charles retired with a mutinous and pa- nic-struck army from Northallerton to York, where an address reached him from the city of London, petitioning for a parliament. He contented himself, however, for the present, with summon- ing a great council of the peers at York. A treaty was suggested, as the only means to prevent the advance of the Scotch. The subsequent events in the history of Scotland are intimately blended with the history of Great Britain. The union of the two kingdoms, in 1706, relieving Scotland from the burden of a separate government, procuring for them a suitable representation in the united parliament, and a gradual uniformity of municipal laws, has been highly advantageous to the kingdom. From that event, the agri- cidture, manufactures, and commerce of the country have been constantly increas- ing. The inhabitants who are consider- ed the most moral people in Europe, are inclined to the habits of domestic life, steady and industrious, well calculated for manufacturers, and have greatly ex- celled in their respective arts. Scotland has produced many learned men of the first eminence in the various departments of science. Her universities have long been eminently distinguished. Her il- lustrious historians, Robertson and Hume, may be justly ranked among the first of modern times. In the British armies, the soldiers of Scotland, have ever been distinguished for their valor. SPAIN. In ancient history the first inhabitants of Spain were generally known by the name of Iberians ; and it is also known that the Celts or Gauls formed numerous settlements west of the Ebro, and became so blended by intermarriages with the inhabitants, that they obtained the desig- nation Celtiherians. The Greeks and Phoenicians also planted colonies along the maritime districts. The Phoenicians having built the city of Gades, now Cadiz, attempted to extend their authority over the neighboring territory. The Span- iards, alarmed at the growing prosperity of the new city, collected their forces, and would soon have driven out the in- truders, had not the Phosnicians invited the Carthaginians to their assistance, who, furnishing them with powerful suc- cors, not only repulsed the Spaniards, but obtained the greater part of the pro- vince. This expedition formed the commence- ment of the Carthaginian power in Spain. Elated with their success, and delighted with the richness of the country, and the valuable mines of gold and silver which it contained, they contemplated the con- quest of the whole peninsula. For a time, however, their arms made very little progress against its warlike inhabitants, who defended themselves with great bra- very and resolution, till the whole power of Carthage was directed to their subju- gation. During nine years of incessant hostility, the Carthaginians penetrated into the very heart of the country, when their general, Hamilcar, was killed in a general engagement with the Vettones. His successor, Asdrubal, carried his vic- torious arms as far as the Ebro ; and, in order to secure his conquests, built the city of New Carthage, which afterwards became one of the most considerable cities in the world. These successes excited the jealousy of the Romans, who could not behold without alarm the rapid advance of their rivals to the entire dominion of such a country as Spain. They, therefore, will- SPAIN. 591 ingly listened to the request of the Sa- guntines, who had implored their protec- tion, and interposing in their behalf, pre- vailed upon the Carthaginian general to enter into a treaty, in which it was stip- ulated that the Carthaginians should not pass the Ebro, and that the Saguntines and other Grecian colonies should enjoy their ancient rights and privileges. No violation of this treaty occurred during the life of Asdrubal ; but extending his conquests in other directions, he, either by force or persuasion, established the dominion of Carthage over the finest pro- vinces of Spain. A few years after, how- ever, he fell by the hands of an assassin : and no sooner had Hannibal succeeded to the command of the Carthaginian army, than he made preparations for the siege of Sagimtum. Though this city was situated within the Carthaginian ter- ritory, it was expressly excepted by treaty from all hostilities ; but Hannibal promised himself many advantages from its reduction. It was a key by which the Roman army could easily enter into Spain ; and its possession would serve as a barrier against their future encroach- ments. This colony also was immense- ly rich, and he expected to find in it treasure sufficient to defray the expenses of a premeditated war against that rival power. The Sagiantines, however, brave- ly defended themselves for eight months ; and every inch of ground was disputed with undaunted resolution. Being at last reduced to great extremity by the scar- city of provisions, and having no prospect of assistance from the Romans, the prin- cipal senators collected in the market place their richest effects, and the con- tents of the public treasury, and having set fire to the pile, threw themselves into the midst of it, and perished in the flames. Many of the inhabitants soon after fol- lowed their example ; and the rest, mak- ing a sally on the besiegers, were all put to the sword. This siege, one of the most memorable in ancient history, produced a lengthened and bloody war betwixt the Romans and Carthaginians, of which Spain, for several years, continued to be the theatre. The Romans, taking advantage of Hannibal's absence in Italy, sent an army into that country. After a long contest between these rival nations, and attended with various success, the Carthaginians were driven out of Spain, and the Roman standard planted on the walls of Cadiz, which, as it was the first, was also the last strong-hold which the Carthaginians held in that country. But though the Roman power was thus in a manner ex- tended over Spain, they found it no easy matter to maintain their authority. Numantia had maintained its independ- ence during the struggle between Rome and Carthage ; and its inhabitants had resisted every attempt at its subjugation with such daring courage, that the bra- vest troops of Rome trembled at the very idea of a Numantine war. The first army that sat down before its walls was completely routed and dispersed. In the following campaign 4,000 Numantines pursued an army of 30,000 Romans, seized and plundered the camp which they had abandoned, killed 20,000 in the pursuit, and shut up the remainder in a rough and mountainous country. In this situation the Roman commander, seeing no way of escape, was compelled to sue for peace. This was generously granted by the Numantines, who, for the lives of 10,000 Romans, merely stipulated that they should be allowed to maintain their independence, and be reckoned among the friends of the Roman people. But, in return for this noble and disinterested conduct, the senate of Rome refused to ratify the treaty ; and, lost to all sense of honor and of justice, they basely re- solved, in opposition to the remonstrances of all the officers who had served in Spain, to extirpate that brave and gener- ous people. Scipio, one of their most experienced generals, and the conqueror of Carthage, was chosen for this danger- ous expedition. Unwilling to expose his men, by hazarding an engagement with the Numantines, he enclosed the city with 60,000 troops, who were protected by a wall and ditch, being resolved to reduce the inhabitants not by force, but by famine. The besieged, after several brave attempts to break through the ene- my's lines and obtain succors, seeing their ruin inevitable, entreated the Roman commander that he would either allow 592 SPAIN. them to die like brave men in a general I action, or preserve their liberty by an \ honorable capitulation. Scipio, how- ever, vk'ould listen to no proposals, and insisted upon an unconditional surrender. This drove the Numantines to despair, who were now reduced to such straits that they were destroying and devouring each other ; but, preferring death to sla- very, they set fire to their city, and either killed one another, or perished in the flames. The Ml of this city was con- sidered of such consequence that Scipio was honored with a triumph, and had the surname of Numantinus added to that of Africanus. It consummated the sub- jection of Spain ; for though that noble love of liberty, for which this nation was so justly famed, frequently led them to attempt their emancipation, yet they were never afterwards able to make any head against the Romans ; but were at last compelled to receive the religion, the laws, and the customs of their conquer- ors. The last who submitted were the Cantabrians, who were almost extermi- nated by Agrippa ; and from that time Spain continued incorporated with the Roman empire until the irruption of the northern nations. The Suevi, Alani, and Vandals, in their progress southward, broke into Spain about the begiiming of the fifth century, and in a few years had reduced and partitioned among them that beautiful country. The native militia, for a time, successfully repelled the inroads of bar- barians ; but when these were supplanted by the mercenary guards, the gates of the PjTenees were betrayed to the ene- my, whose progress was marked by rapine and carnage. They exercised their cruelty indiscriminately upon the Romans and Spaniards, and ravaged with equal fury the cities and the open country. Famine, and its inseparable attendant, pestilence, swept away a large proportion of the inhabitants ; and the barbarians were not satiated till they be- gan to feel the destructive effects of those calamities which they themselves had occasioned. The majority of the nation submitted to the yoke of their conquerors, while a few maintained their independence in the mountains of Gali- cia. These barbarians, however, were not allowed long to enjoy their conquests. The Goths had become the allies of Rome by the marriage of their king with the daughter of the Emperor Theodosius, and were induced to draw their swords for the recovery of Spain. During three years the contest was obstinately sup- ported with desperate valor and various success, when the superior achievements of the Gothic king at length prevailed, and Spain was once more restored to the authority of the empire. The history of the Gothic dominion in this country, from the accession of Euric to that of Roderic, afibrds few materials of any interest. Their princes were frequently engaged in civil or religious wars, and long adhered to the wandering and warlike manners of their fathers. The followers of Mahomet had overrun the whole of Mauritania, and reduced it to the obedience of their master, except the castle of Ceuta, which resisted for a time all their eftbrts. This fort, with a small district around it, was the only ter- ritory south of the straits belonging to Spain, and was intrusted to Count Julian, who defended it with such skill and in- trepidity, that Musa, the Moslem com- mander, was compelled to retire with disgrace from before its w^alls. This nobleman, it is supposed, was married to a sister of King Witiza, and, being con- sequently involved in the downfall of the deposed family, his resentment was ex- cited against the usurper of their rights. Besides his command in Africa, he pos- sessed extensive estates and numerous followers in Andalusia, and thus held in his hands the keys of the Spanish mon- archy. These, in an evil hour, he be- trayed to the enemy ; and this Christian commander, who had so nobly repulsed that very enemy from the gates of Ceuta, forgetting the highest claims of religion and of country, sacrificed all in revenge of a private wrong. When the first inti- mation of his purpose was conveyed to Musa, the wily Moslem hesitated to trust an army of the faithful to the traitors of a foreign land ; but, having ascertained what might be expected from the in- trigues and influence of the count, and having been well informed of the dissen- SPAIN. 693 sions among the Spaniards, he despatched an army under Tarik to the easy conquest of a populous and wealthy kingdom. On the descent of the Saracens, Roderic hastily collected a small army to oppose their progress, and to check the devasta- tions which they committed upon the unarmed inhabitants. He, at the same time, endeavored to heal the divisions which were so fatal to his country, and was so far successful that the sons of Witiza, with a seeming devotion to the common cause, joined his standard with their dependants. The bishops also, and the flower of the nobility, assembled with their followers at the royal summons ; and his army amounted to nearly one hundred thousand men ; but they were without discipline, and their fidelity was suspected. The troops of Tarik were composed of twelve thousand veteran Saracens, and a crowd of Moors who were eager to share in the expected plunder. The two armies met on the plain of Xeres, and after three days of hard skirmishing, they joined in a gene- ral engagement. The issue was long doubtful. Sixteen thousand Moslems had fallen under the swords of the Goths ; and they would soon have been over- whelmed by the numbers of the Chris- tians, had they not been saved by the defection of the sons and brother of Wi- tiza, who held the most important post in the army of Roderic. The ranks of the Christians, being thus broken and thrown into disorder, opened a way for the action of the Moorish cavalry, which made prodigious havoc ; and during the three succeeding days of flight and pur- suit, the remains of the Gothic army were scattered or destroyed. This deci- sive and fatal battle sealed the ruin of the Gothic monarchy in Spain ; and in the course of a few years the Adctorious Moslems had subjected the finest prov- inces of the peninsula to the obedience of the calif. The vanquished were al- lowed to retain their laws, religion, and language, upon the payment of an annual tribute ; but many, who preferred a life of poverty, with the unrestrained exercise of their religion, to the precarious pos- session of their properties, retired under Pelagius, a prince of the blood, into the j 75 mountains of Asturias, where, forgetting every other care, they sought only to provide for their safety and freedom. Here the vital spark of national inde- pendence was cherished and kept alive ; and it was thence that the successors of these warriors emerged in after times, and by degrees recovered their country from the Moorish yoke. The first Moorish invaders under Tarik, consisting of various tribes, asserted, by assuming the name of Spaniards, their original claim of conquest ; and though they were afterwards joined by numer- ous bands of Arabs of difl'erent countries, who were allowed to share in the fruits of this important enterprise, they appro- priated to themselves the most fertile districts of the country. " The royal le- gion of Damascus was planted at Cor- dova ; that of Emesa at Seville ; that of Kinnisrin or Calchis at Jaen ; and that of Palestine at Algezire and Medina Sidonia. The natives of Yemen and Persia were scattered around Toledo and the inland country ; those of Egypt were established at Murcia and Lisbon ; and the fertile seats of Granada were be- stowed on the ten thousand horsemen of Syria and Irak, the children of the pur- est and most noble of the Arabian tribes." A spirit of emulation and jealousy existed among these different tribes, which gave rise to frequent disputes, and which be- ing nourished by a factious and heredi- tary pride, scattered those seeds of divis- ion, which afterwards ripened into a full harvest of intestine broils, and which led to their final expulsion from the peninsula. The Moorish conquests in Spain con- tinued to be governed by a lieutenant of the Calif of Damascus, until the depo- sition and destruction of the Ommiades in Arabia, when Abdalrahman, a royal youth, who alone had escaped the mas- sacre of his house, fled into Spain, where he was hailed with joy by the party at- tached to his family. After a short and successful struggle with the lieutenant and forces of the rival family of the Ab- bassides, he established the throne of Cordova, and became the first Calif of the west. The dynasty of the Ommia- des continued to reign in this country with great splendor for nearly two cen- 594 SPAIN. turies and a half, when the Spanish Ca- lifate expired. Their dominions were split into several petty states by the re- bellion of the Moorish governors, who usurped the sovereignty of the provinces over which they presided, and assumed the royal style in Cordova, Seville, Va- lentia, and Granada. This dismember- ment occasioned constant wars, which were sometimes prosecuted with all the rancor of hereditary feuds ; and during which the monarchs, as well as" the boundaries of the different kingdoms, were continually changing. Their lim- its were also greatly circumscribed by the conquests of the Christians, who were gradually extending their territories, and threatened the complete recovery of their native possessions. The Goths, who had retired with Pe- lagius to the mountains of Asturias, had chosen that prince as their monarch ; and his territories were at first confined to the small province of Liebana, with the hamlet of Cangas for its capital. This district was so fortified by nature, that, with a few defenders, it was capable of resisting almost any number of invaders. Here Pelagius laid the foundation of the kingdom of Leon, and of the Spanish monarchy ; and defied the whole power of the Moors, who twice attempted with numerous armies to dislodge his little band of patriots, but were as often over- thrown with dreadful slaughter. By these victories he became master of all the Asturias, and soon after extended his dominion over the best part of Biscay. His little territory afforded an asylum to the oppressed Christians, who, retiring privately from the Moorish provinces, repaired in great numbers to his stand- ard, and, by thus recruiting his forces, enabled him and his immediate succes- sors to descend with more confidence into the lower and more fertile parts of the country, and to push their conquests, on the one hand, as far as Castile, and, on the other, to the confines of Portugal. The kingdom of Leon increased rapidly in extent and resources during the reig-ns of Alphonso III, who subdued Galicia, and spread his dominion as far as Coim- bra, and of Ramirus II, who penetrated to Madrid, which he took by storm, and even threatened Toledo, at that time one of the strongest cities in the hands of the Moors. Encouraged by the successes of the Christians in Leon, other provinces began to establish themselves as inde- pendent states, and by similar means rose to power and distinction. The in- dependence of Navarre commenced about the middle of the ninth century, that of Castile thirty years later ; and Aragon was erected into a kingdom in the be- ginning of the eleventh century. The wars and events which led to the forma- tion of these kingdoms were signalized by many heroic achievements ; and no history records a succession of kings so remarkable as those who shone in those different states. Several of the name of Alphonso were distinguished and able princes, one of whom invented the Al- phonsine tables, and superintended the digesting of a code of laws, which like- wise bears his name. By the establish- ment of these states the Moors were driven from the finest provinces of the Peninsula, and confined within the king- dom of Granada. In a series of years, however, by the usual events of inter- marriages, or succession, or conquest, all these were united under Ferdinand and Isabella, the former the hereditary mon- arch of Aragon, and the latter the heiress of Castile and Leon. The first care of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, after having wisely settled the in- terior affairs of their dominions, was the recovery of Granada. An opportunity was soon found for breaking the peace with the Moors ; and after a protracted and bloody war, this wealthy kingdom, which had occupied a large proportion of the south of the Peninsula, having under its jurisdiction thirty-two cities, and ninety-seven walled towns, was re- duced withm the small compass of the city of Granada. Being now invested by the Spaniards, and all communication with the surrounding country cut ofi, the inhabitants were reduced to the utmost extremity. The Moors, however, made a gallant defence ; and received an hon- orable capitulation, in which it was stip- ulated that the inhabitants should retain the undisturbed possession of their prop- erty, the use of their laws, and the free SPAIN. 595 exercise of their religion. Thus the last strong-hold of the Arabs in Spain submitted to the christian arms, after an almost uninterrupted war of eight centu- ries, and during which, according to the Spanish historians, three thousand seven hundred battles were fought. Shortly after the battle of Xeres in 712, the Moors had overrun the whole peninsula, except a small district in the mountains of the Asturias ; but the tide of victory was not long in setting in from an oppo- site direction ; and they were gradually driven by the arms of the christians from all their possessions in Spain : from the Asturais in 716 ; from Salvarba in 750 ; from Catalonia in 820 ; from Leon in 923 ; from Castile in 1073 ; from Aragon 1118; from Cordova and Jaen in 1236 ; from Seville in 1248 ; from Valentia in 1264 ; from Murcia in 1265 ; and from Granada in 1492. That part of Spain which was sub- ject to the Moors, enjoyed a degree of prosperity and civilization, unexampled during any other period of its history. This people were particularly skilled in agriculture, and carried every branch of public and private economy to a high de- gree of perfection. They paid the most minute attention to the analysis, classifi- cation, and manure of the different soils, to rustic buildings, plantations, and agri- cultural implements, and to the care of animals. They divided their lands into small fields, which were kept constantly under tillage, and by their reservoirs and canals, they conveyed water to the highest and driest spots. They were the first who introduced into this country the cultiva- tion of rice, sugar, cotton, and silk ; and the general appearance of their estates formed a striking contrast to the domains of the crown, and the immense wastes of the Gothic lords. They were also expert in all the mechanical arts ; and in almost every city were established looms, forges, mills, glass-houses, &c. The invention of paper is due to this people ; and many kinds of manufactures, particu- larly silk and cotton stuffs, morocco leath- er, &c, were brought by them to so great perfection, that, in the twelfth century, the tissues of Granada and Andalusia were highly prized at Constantinople and throughout the eastern empire. Their skill in architecture was equally conspic- uous ; and the Alhambra of Granada, still in existence, is an evidence of the fine taste, studied elegance, and ability of their artists. To this improved state of industry the Moors added the love of science and learning. These they intro- duced into Europe at a time when it was immersed in darkness ; and they possess- ed many luxuries unknown to the neigh- boring nations. " The successors of Ab- dalrahman had formed a library of 600,000 volumes, 44 of which were employed in the mere catalogue. Their capital of Cordova, with the adjacent towns of Ma- laga, Almeria, and Murcia, had given birth to more than 300 writers ; and above 70 public libraries were opened in the cities of the Andalusian kingdom." The Arab historians describe the reign of the Ommiades as the most splendid and prosperous era of Moorish Spain. " The third of the Abdalrahmans derived from this kingdom the annual tribute of 12,045,000 dinars or piece of gold, about 6,000,000 sterling. His royal seat at Cor- dova contained 640 mosques, 900 baths, 200,000 houses ; he gave laws to 80 ci- ties of the first, to 300 of the second and third order ; and the fertile banks of the Guadalquivir were adorned with 12,000 villages and hamlets. The inmates of his seraglio, comprehending his wives, concubines, and black eunuchs, amounted to 6,300 persons ; and he was attended to the field by a guard of 12,000 horse, whose belts and cimeters were studded with gold." To this extraordinary con- currence of industry, wealth, talents, and learning, this people united that roman- tic gallantry which so eminently pre- vailed in the ages of chivalry ; and their noble conduct in many instances, inspired with confidence in their honor, even the enemies of their kingdom and of their faith. The important conquest of Granada was, in the same year, followed by the more important discovery of America by Columbus. After the death of Ferdinand and Isabella, Cardinal Ximenes was ap- pointed regent of Castile during the mi- nority of Don Carlos, the son of Philip, king of the Netherlands, and grandson of Isabella. 596 SPAIN. Francis visited by the Emperor Charles in the Castle of Madrid. The affairs of Spain, until the arrival of Charles, were conducted by the aged cardinal with such wisdom, integrity, and firmness, that the kingdom felt not the loss of the powerful mind (yf Ferdinand. Many of the nobles who, supposing that the reins of government would be relax- ed under the delegated power of a re- gent, had taken up arms to prosecute their private quarrels and pretensions, were compelled to repress their hostili- ties, and to submit to the terms of the cardinal. The decision and vigor of his administration, and the high authority which he assumed, excited the fears of the nobility for the safety of their peculiar privileges ; and when they sent a deputa- tion to question his power, and demand by what right he held the regency of the kingdom, he showed them the will of P'er- dinand, ratified by Charles. This, how- ever, not seeming to produce the acquies- cence which he wished, he led them to a balcony, and pointing to a body of troops and a train of artillery stationed before the palace, said, " These are the powers by which I mean to govern Spain until the arrival of his majesty." The exertions of this able minister, dur- *ing his short regency, did much for the security of the kingdom, and the exten- sion of the royal prerogative. After the death of Ximenes, Charles found great difficulty in establishing his authority in Spain. His Flemish favor- ites, by their exactions and avarice, had become odious throughout the kingdom ; and several cities of the first rank in Castile entered into a confederacy for the maintenance of their rights and priv- ileges. This confederacy assumed the name of the Holy Junta, and bound themselves by a solemn oath to live and die in the service of the king, and in defence of the privileges of their order. After a furious contest of nearly eight months, the army of the Junta was com- pletely routed, and three of their chiefs were taken prisoners and executed. — Francis I, of France, disatisfied that Charles, his rival, should obtain the im- perial crown, sought revenge in a war which commenced in 1521. It was con- tinued till 1525, when Francis w^as ut- terly defeated before Pavia in Italy, and taken prisoner and conducted to Madrid. For many weeks Charles did not deign to visit his captive. Such neglect stung Francis to the soul, and threw him into a fever which threatened his life, Charles SPAIN. 597 fearful of losing the advantage of having the person of the captive monarch in his possession, visited him, and was profuse of the kindest promises. Upon his re- covery, however, he would not grant him his liberty, until he had signed his re- nunciation to Naples, Milan, Flanders, Artois, and leave his two sons as hostages. After this period, Charles turned his arms against the piratical states of Barbary. After his return he found himself em- broiled in new wars, and the remainder of his reign was spent in his contest with France and the protestants of Germany Worn out at length by his arduous du- ties and the ravages of the gout, and conscious of his inability much longer to direct with vigor the multiplicity of af- fairs which called for his attention throughout his extensive dominions, he resolved to resign his hereditary states to his son Philip, who had now attained his 28th year, and having been early ac- customed to business, had discovered both inclination and capacity sufficient to sustain the weighty burden which was about to devolve upon him. For this purpose he recalled Philip from England, and having assembled the states of the low countries and of Brussels, Charles seated on a chair of state, and surround- ed by a splendid retinue of the princes of the empire and grandees of Spain, with great solemnity surrendered to his son all his territories, jurisdiction, and authority in the low countries. A few weeks afterwards, he resigned with great solemnity, and in an assembly no less splendid, the crown of Spain, "reserving, , of all his vast possessions, nothing for himself but an annual pension of one hundred thousand crowns to defray the charges of his family, and to afford him a small sum for acts of beneficence and charity." In the following year he re- turned to Spain, and retired to the mon- astery of St. Justus, near Placentia. — Here in a mean retreat, he forgot the ambitious thoughts and projects which had so long engrossed his mind, and which for half a century, had filled with terror all the kingdoms of Europe, and devoting the evening of life to innocent amuse- ments and religious exercises, died on the 21st of September, 1558, Philip II, though his father, with all his power and influence, was unable to obtain for him the imperial crown, suc- ceeded to a sceptre more powerful per- haps than that of any monarch of the age. Besides his dominions in Europe, including Spain, Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the Netherlands, he possessed in the new world territories of such vast extent, abounding in inexhaustible veins of wealth, and opening such boimdless prospects of every kind, as must have roused into action a mind much less am- bitious and enterprising than that of Philip. He inherited with his crown a war with France and the pope, but this was but of short duration ; and the trea-' ty of Chateau Cambresis left him with- out an enemy. In memory of the battle of St. Quintin, fought in this war, "on the day consecrated to St. Laurence, he built the splendid and magnificent palace of the Escurial, in honor of that saint and martyr, and so formed the plan of the work as to resemble a gridiron, which, according to the legendary tale, had been the instrument of St. Laurence's martyr- dom." This prince, however, was not of a disposition to remain long inactive ; and though he was not desirous of mili- tary glory, yet in other respects, he was not inferior to his father either in ambition or abilities ; and during a long reign, he gave more disturbance to his enemies by his political intrigues, than the emperor had ever done by his arms. The severity of Charles' government in the Netherlands, with respect to re- ligious matters, had estranged from him the aflections of his subjects in that country; and the violent and bigoted principles of Philip's administration, un- der the Duke of Alva, exasperated them into open rebellion. This afforded em- ployment to the arms of Spain for near- ly half a century, and at last lost to that crown one half of its most valuable pos- sessions in the lower countries. (See Netherlands.) The same spirit of intolerance which raised such a flame in the Netherlands, stirred up the Moors in Spain to a similar resistance. This industrious people, since their subjection, had lived as quiet subjects. But it had been insinuated to 598 SPAIN. the court of Rome, that though nominally Christians, they still adhered to the Ma- hometan faith, which induced the pope to press upon Philip the necessity of bring- ing them by force within the pale of the Catholic church. The king ever ready to listen to the instigations of monkish zeal, sent express orders into the king- dom of Granada, to oblige the Moors to change at once their habits, manners, and language ; and the clergy were en- joined to require the registration of all Moorish children between five and fifteen years of age, that they might be taught the Castilian tongue, and be instructed in the Catholic faith. Notwithstanding the humble representations of loyalty and at- tachment from this unfortunate race, and the louder remonstrances of the govenor and principal officers of the province, against so impolitic and impracticable a measure, Philip remained inflexible. The Moors were driven to despair, and having taken up arms, renounced their allegiance to the king of Spain, and pro- claimed one of their chiefs king of Gran- ada and Cordova. The struggle was prosecuted on the part of the Moors with all the fury of religious frenzy, commit- ting every where the most outrageous ex- cesses, and inflicting inexcusable cruel- ties upon the innocent inhabitants, par- ticularly ecclesiastics ; while the Span- ish commanders acted with great mode- ration, treating their prisoners with lenity, and receiving many to mercy. This war lasted between tvi'o and three years, cost the lives of 20,000 Castilian soldiers, of about 100,000 Moors, and depopulated and destroyed some of the finest countries in Spain. With a weak and despicable policy, PhiUp III, expelled from his kingdom all the Moors, who were the most industri- ous of its inhabitants, in 1 6 1 ; and this de- population joined to that already produced by her American colonies, rendered Spain a lifeless and enervated mass. The na- tional weakness and its disorders in- creased under Philip IV and Charles II. The succession to the kingdom on the death of this latter monarch, was the ob- ject of much political intrigue. Philip, grandson of the king of France, and Charles, brother of the emperor of Ger- many, were competitors. France and Spain supported the claims of Philip, and Germany, England, and Holland, those of Charles ; Philip V, however, obtained possession of the throne. The most re- markable event during his struggle for the supremacy, was the siege of Barcelo- na in Catalonia. Ardently attached to their native cus- toms and laws, and holding in detesta- tion those of Castile, the inhabitants of Barcelona resisted every offer of accom- modation, short of the actual acknow- ledgement of their ancient privileges. Though abandoned by all, they prepared for a vigorous defence, determined to re- linquish their liberty only with their lives. Villaroel, who had received the rank of general in the Austrian service, was en- trusted with the military command. He had only 16,000 troops besides armed citizens, to oppose the whole army of Philip, supported by 20,000 French, under the renowned duke of Berwick. But every expedient that skill or valor could suggest, was employed to ensure success in the approaching conflict. All who were imfit for service, the timid, the sickly, and the aged, were removed to the island of Majorca, which also held out against the authority of Philip, the fortifications were repaired and strength- ened, the streets barricaded, and every house converted into a citadel, by pierc- ing the walls for the use of musketry ; and, in order to excite the popular enthusiasm, and to strengthen their patriotism with the sanctions of religion, they deposited on the high altar of the cathedral the written promise of the queen of England to maintain their constitution, making a solemn appeal to heaven against the de- sertion of those, of whose selfish ambi- tion and crooked policy they were aboui to become the victims. The Spanish trenches were opened on the 12th of July ; on the 30th a lodgment was made in the covert way ; and by the 12th of August, breaches were effect- ed in two of the bastions. After a struggle of three days, the assailants ob- tained a footing upon the rampart ; and, while arrangements were making for a general assault, the duke of Berwick, anxious to prevent a farther effusion of SPAIN. 599 blood in this unnatural contest, and to save the city from the horrors of a storm, repeated the offers of a general amnesty. His compassionate efforts were treated with contumely, and served only to add fuel to their enthusiasm. The signal for the assault was given on the morning of the 11th of September, " Fifty battalions of grenadiers," says Coxa, "commenced the dreadful work, and were supported by forty others. The French attacked the eastern bastion, the Spaniards that of St. Clara and the new gate. The resis- tance was obstinate even to ferocity. Cannon loaded with grape made the most dreadful carnage in the breaches. With- out being able to advance a single step, the assailants perished by hundreds. Fresh troops incessantly arriving, at length overpowered the weaker number of the besieged. The French and Span- ish columns mounted the breaches at the same instant, and the French pushed for- ward into the town. But here the con- flict really commenced. Every street was intersected with barricades ; every inch of ground viras purchased with the sacrifice of lives. Unprovided with means to force the barricades, or fill up the ditches, the assailants were swept away by an incessant fire from every house. At length all obstructions were overcome by torrents of blood. In the heat of the combat, the victors spared not ; the Cat- alans, lavish of life, demanded no quarter. When they were driven into the great square, the assailants deemed the conflict at an end, and dispersed for pillage. But the insurgents, profiting by the moment, returned to the charge ; the assailants were driven back to the breach, and would have been again precipitated into the ditch, had they not been rallied by the bravery and exertions of their officers. Again the combat raged with aggravated fury, for the Spanish column, which had penetrated by the other breach, was driven back as the. French retreated. Numbers and bravery at length vanquished all re- sistance. The Spaniards turned their own cannon against them, and additional artillery was brought up to the breach. Yet, though thrown into disorder, they did not cease to combat. The assailants, galled with a continual and terrible fire, by a desperate efTort forced the bastion of St. Peter, where the besieged made their principal stand, and turned its artillery against them. In this crisis, the chiefs led them to a new charge, but were re- pulsed, and Villaroel desperately wound- ed. Though discouraged by the misfor- tune of the commander, the besieged still maintained the struggle for twelve hours, in every quarter of the town ; and there was scarcely an inhabitant of any age, sex, or condition, who did not share in the defence. The history of this century does not furnish an example of a siege so long and bloody. The women at length retired into the convents ; the pop- ulace, vanquished and straitened on every side, and unable to defend themselves, did not demand quarter ; and the French massacred all without distinction. At this moment, some individuals raised a white standard ; and Berwick seized the opportunity to suspend the carnage, or- dering his troops to maintain their posts, till he had heard the proposals of surren- der. But a sudden cry of " kill and burn," bursting from the ranks, revived the fury of the troops ; the streets were again del- uged with blood, and the authority of Berwick himself scarcely sufficed to ar- rest the disorder. Night arrived, and with it new horrors ; for in the short in- terval of suspense, the inhabitants re- sumed their arms, and again poured a destructive fire from the houses. Depu- ties at length advanced to the breach to parley with marshal Berwick, but re- quired a general pardon, and the restora- tion of their privileges. The marshal contemptuously rejected the demand, and threatened to give no quarter, if they did not surrender before morning. His an- swer inflamed the spirit of the insurgents ; and the combat raged with redoubled fury, a storm of fire pouring upon the assailants from the houses, which, by order of the marshal, had been respited from destruc- tion. This night was one of the most horrible that imagination can form. The marshal ordered the dead and wounded to be removed, kept the troops under arms, and prepared to reduce the town to ashes. Day broke, and notwithstanding the obstinacy of the insurgents, he grant- ed a delay of six hours. This concession 600 SPAIN. producing no effect, the houses were set on fire. Apprised of their danger by the burst of the flames, the insurgents once more hoisted a flag of truce. The fire was extinguished, the deputies of the magistracy yielded the town without con- dition, and the offers of Berwick pro- cured the immediate surrender of Mont- juich and Cardona. The lives and property of the inhabi- tants were spared ; but twenty of the chiefs, among whom were Villaroel, Ar- mengol, the marquis of Peral, and Nebot, were consigned to perpetual imprison- ment in the castle of Alicante ; and the bishop of Albaracin, with two hundred ecclesiastics, banished to Italy. Of the rest, the inferior officers were dismissed on taking the oath of allegiance. The standards of the town were publicly burnt, the privileges of the province an- nulled, and a new government establish- ed, according to the constitution of Cas- tile. Thus ended a conflict which recalls to the recollection the fate of the ancient Numantia and Saguntum, and in recent times finds a parallel in the immortal de- fence of Saragossa. The royalists pur- chased their victory with the loss of no less than 6,000 men in the siege, and 4,000 in the assault ; and the besieged were equally sufferers. At the accession of Philip V, of the house of Bourbon, to the throne, Spain had become much reduced in its wealth and population, and still more in the genius and activity of the people. The reign of Philip was long, but the despo- tism of his government with the super- stition and oppression of the Catholic church at that period, no other being tolerated, joined to natural indolence, gradually destroyed the strength and reputation of the people. Philip died in 1746, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand VI, who would gladly have restored the privileges and prosperity of people ; but the general corruption of the court, the clergy, and the nobility, formed an obstacle to reformation, that no ordi- nary abilities in a sovereign could ex- pect to surmount. Ferdinand dying without issue, was succeeded by his brother Charles III, then king of Naples, in 1759. Possess- ing the natural sloth of his countrymen, with the effeminacy of an Italian, his motherbeing a princess of Parma, he was wholly under the influence of favorites. During his reign in 1762, the strong for- tress of Havanna was taken by the Brit- ish forces, who were assisted by a body of New England troops. The most re- markable warlike event in his reign was the celebrated siege of Gibraltar. Tliis celebrated fortress had been in possession of Great Britain since the year 1704, and its possession by that power, was ever a mortifying circumstance to the Spanish nation. In the war which broke out between England and Spain, in 1779, the last at- tempt was made for the recovery of Gib- raltar. The Spanish ambassador having announced the intention of his court, in London, on the 16th of June, 1779, on the 21st of the same month all commu- nication between Gibraltar and the sur- roimding country was closed, by the com- mand of the government at Madrid. It was the middle of the following month, however, before the Spaniards began to blockade the fort. Fortunately, in the early part of this year. General Elliot, who had been recently appointed gover- nor, had arrived in the fort, and brought to the crisis that was approaching the aid of his great military science and talents. Another fortunate circumstance was, that a supply of provisions had arrived in the preceding April. Had it not been for this, the garrison might have suffered from the sudden stoppage of their accus- tomed intercourse both with Spain and with Africa. The first firing which took place was on the 12th of September, when a cannonade was opened from the fort which destroyed the works that the besiegers had spent many of the preced- ing weeks in erecting. The blockade, notwithstanding, became every day closer, and the occasional boats, which had, for some time, stolen in from the African coast and other places, at length found it impossible to continue their attempts. By the end of October provisions had be- come extremely dear ; about the same time, too, the small-pox broke out among the Jewish inhabitants of the town, and SPAIN. 601 every precaution was used to prevent the spread of the disease. In November, the governor, in order to try on hovi^ little food life and strength could be sustained, restricted himself for eight days to four ounces of rice per diem. Thistles, dan- delions, wild leeks, &c, began to be eaten by the people of the town, and meat sold from half-a-crown to four shillings the pound. The first firing from the besiegers took place on ihe 12th of January, 1780. By the end of March the first supply of pro- visions arrived, brought in by the gallant Admiral Rodney, who had not only cut his way to the assistance of his distressed countrymen, through all the opposition of the enemy, but had captured six of their men-of-war, including a sixty-four gun ship, with the admiral on board, to- gether with seventeen merchantmen. His late Majesty, then known as Prince William-Henry, Avas serving on board one of Sir George Rodney's ships as a midshipman, and often visited the garri- son while the fleet remained in the bay. Captain Drinkwater relates that, on see- ing a prince of the blood thus serving as a warrant-officer, the captive Spanish admiral exclaimed, that Great Britain well deserved the empire of the seas, when even her king's sons were found thus holding the humblest situations on board her ships. For many months after this, things con- tinued nearly in the same state. The garrison and towns people were again and again reduced to the greatest priva- tions by scarcity of provisions, before supplies arrived. In the spring of 1781, the besiegers at last opened the batteries, and continued firing upon the town till they had completely destroyed it. On the 27th of April, however, a most gal- lant exploit was performed by a party from the garrison, who, making a sortie from their fortifications, succeeded in setting fire to, and reducing to ashes, all the erections of the enemy, although dis- tant not less than three-quarters of a mile. This, however, brought only a temporary relief. The firing soon after recom- menced, and, for more than a year, con- tinued incessantly. In the course of the year 1782, it was, on the suggestion of 76 general Boyd, returned from the rock with red-hot balls, a device which was found to produce the most powerful effect. The enemy, however, now prepared for a grand effort. On the 12th of Septem- ber the combined fleets of France and Spain arrived in the bay ; next morning they were drawn up around the south and west sides of the promontory, a most formidable armament, consisting of forty- seven sail of the line, seven of which were three-deckers, together with ten battering-ships, the strongest that had ever been built, and many frigates and smaller vessels. On land there lay an army of 40,000, with batteries on which were mounted 200 pieces of heavy ord- nance. On the other side, the garrison now consisted of about 7,000 eflfective men. The ships were permitted to take their stations without molestation ; but, about a quarter before ten o'clock, as soon as the first of them dropped anchor, the citadel began to pour upon them its hith- erto reserved artillery. Now commenced a scene of terrible sublimity. Four hun- dred pieces of the heaviest ordnance thundered without intermission, and filled the air with smoke and flame. For sev- eral hours the attack and defence were so well supported as scarcely to admit any appearance of superiority in the can- nonade on either side. The wonderful construction of the ships seemed to bid defiance to the powers of the heaviest ordnance. In the afternoon, however, the face of things began to change con- siderably. The smoke, which had been observed to issue from the upper part of the flag ship, appeared to prevail, not- withstanding the constant application of water ; and the admiral's second was perceived to be in the same condition. Confusion was now apparent on board several of the vessels ; and, by the even- ing, their cannonade was considerably abated. About seven or eight o'clock it almost entirely ceased, excepting from one or two ships to the northward, which, from their distance, had suff'ered very little mjury. In the end, the attack concluded in the complete annihilation of the assailing squadron. All the larger ships were beaten to pieces or burnt. As night ap- 602 SPAIN, Defeat of the Spaniards before Gibraltar. preached groans and signals of distress from those on board the shattered navy supplied the place of the now slackened fire. Many of the wretched men were struggling for life in the waters ; and the victors themselves at last put out to their assistance, and picked numbers of them up. The loss of the enemy was supposed to amount to about 2,000, including pris- oners. Of the English there were only 16 killed, and 68 wounded. The rock was a much better defence than even those strong-built men-of-war. The as- sailants had had three hundred pieces of ordnance in play ; the garrison only em- ployed eighty cannon, seven mortars, and nine howitzers. Captain Drinkwater states that upwards of 8,300 rounds, more than half of which were hot shot, and 716 barrels of powder, were expended by the English artillery. Even this complete discomfiture, how- ever, did not subdue the obstinacy of the besiegers. They continued to encom- pass the place, and even to keep up a feeble fire upon it some months longer. At length the long blockade was termi- nated by the announcement of the sign- ing of the preliminaries of a general peace on the 2d of February, 1783. Charles III, upon his death-bed, charg- ed his successor to retain Florida Blanc a in his service, as an upright and faithful counsellor, to whose able and unv^earied exertions the kingdom was indebted for many valuable improvements. Charles IV, however, held only the nominal sovereignty of Spain, the whole power and influence of the government resided virtually in the queen. This princess was a daughter of the duke of Parma, and soon after her marriage with the prince of Asturias, discovered a strong propensity to gallantry, which the severe and jealous temper of her father-in-law was scarcely able to check. But the death of the old king left her without an obstacle in the pursuit of her licentious pleasures, as her weak and good-natured husband seemed neither to feel nor to see her disgraceful conduct. Her favor- ite at this time was Don Manuel Godoy, a young ofiicer in the horse-guards, and descended of an ancient but decayed family in Estremadura. This person { had obtained his present elevation by supplanting his brother in the afi'ections of the queen ; and he continued, in spite of his own imprudence and infidelities, which were well known to his royal mis- SPAIN. 603 tress, to maintain his ascendency over her to the last. He had also ingratiated himself into the confidence of the mon- arch, and was rapidly advanced to the first ranks of the army, and the highest honors of the state. Having been raised to a grandeeship of the first class, he re- ceived a princely estate belonging to the crown, with the title of Duke de la Al- cudia, and the faithful Florida Blanca ■was removed to make way for his ap- pointment to the head of the government. At this period the revolution in France had involved Spain also within the vor- tex of its influence ; but her ill-conducted and disastrous efforts were of little avail to the general confederacy. The revo- lutionary forces overran the greater part of Navarre, and would soon have dicta- ted their own terms at Madrid, had not the favorite minister concluded and rati- fied the peace of Basle, by which the French conquests were restored in ex- change for the Spanish part of St. Do- mingo. The nation had been so alarmed at the successes of the republican army, that this peace was hailed with universal joy, and no reward was considered too extravagant for the person by whose management it had been accomplished. A new dignity was created for him alone, under the title of " Prince of the Peace," which placed him next in rank to the princes of the blood royal ; and this was soon after followed by his marriage into the royal family, by receiving the hand of the eldest daughter of the king's late brother Don Louis. The open and unguarded gallantries of the favorite, however, excited the jealousy of his royal mistress, and she frequently formed the desigTi of accom- plishing his disgrace, and driving him from the court ; but her unextinguished, and ever reviving passion, yielded to the first offers of reconciliation ; and all her attempts at revenge ended only in the ruin of those who were employed as the instruments of it. It was this which de- prived Spain of the talents of the accom- plished and patriotic Jovellanos, and consigned him to the fortress of Bellver in Majorca. The return of confidence was always followed by an accession of honor and influence. The antiquated dignity of high admiral, accompanied with great emoluments, and the title of highness, was revived and conferred upon Godoy, and a brigade of cavalry, composed of picked men from the whole army, was given him for a body guard. His power at length became so unlimited, that every department of the government was filled by his dependents ; and it is said, that " the queen finding it impracti- cable to check his gallantries, had so perfectly conquered her jealousy as not only to live with him on the most amica- ble terms, but to emulate his love of variety in the most open and impudent manner." It could not be expected that a country under such control could long maintain its respectability and independence. The incessant demands of the queen for the support of her pleasures, formed the most pressing and considerable item in the Spanish budget ; and it is asserted that " Caballero, the minister for the home department, fearing the progress of all learning, which might disturb the peace of the court, sent a circular order to the universities, forbidding the study of moral philosophy. ' His majesty,' it was said in the order, ' was not ii' want of philo- sophers, but of good and obedient sub- jects.' " Spain consequently became the humble tool, first of the republic and then of the emperor of France. Soon after the peace of Basle, she entered into an alliance with the republic, to which she furnished a fleet and large contributions in money ; but in her contest with Bri- tain, her fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line was defeated off" Cape St. Vincent by a very inferior force, under Sir John Jarvis, when four line of battle ships re- mained with the victors. Upon the renewal of hostilities after the peace of Amiens, Spain, as a vassal state, again attached herself to the for- tunes of her more formidable neighbor, — but the battle of Trafalgar stripped her of her marine, and she continued to be the passive instrument of Bonaparte, till her population were roused to resistance by a system of perfidy and aggression, on the part of the French ruler, unexam- pled in the history of the world. Not satisfied with having at his dispo- 604 SPAIN sal the resources of the Spanish monar- chy, Bonaparte meditated the total sub- jugation of the kingdom, and the confer- ring of its sovereignty as a conquered province upon one of his own family. Having gained over Godoy to his inter- ests, and sown dissensions among the royal family, he decoyed them, imder the mask of friendship, to Bayonne, and there by threats compelled them to sign a re- nunciation of their rights to the crown of Spain and the Indies, and placed his brother Joseph upon the throne of that kingdom. This barefaced perfidy and outrage, awakened the long latent energies of the Spanish people, they rose in arms against their oppressors, and made a noble strug- gle in resisting the progress of the French armies. One of the most memorable achievements in this conflict, or any other in modern times was the defence of Saragossa, or Zaragossa, the capital of Arragon. This ancient city Avas but slightly defended by an ancient wall about ten feet high. Its garrison consisted chiefly of the citizens of the place ; the governor was a young nobleman, called Don Joseph Palafox. The French, under General Lefebvre Desnouettes, endeav- oured to carry the place by a coup-de- main, in which they failed with great loss. As they began to invest the place more closely, all the Zaragozans rushed to man their defences — condition, age, even sex, made no diflercnce ; monks fought abreast Avith the laity, and several women showed more than masculine courage. After a horrid contest for several weeks, the French were obliged to retreat. On the 30th of December, 1808, the French under Marshal Moncey again be- sieged Zaragossa. The marshal ad- dressed a letter to Palafox, and summoned him to surrender the city and spare the efliision of blood ; he likewise informed him, that Madrid had fallen, and that Napoleon at the head of a great army, was then in the act of chasing the English to their ships. Palafox replied, that the garrison would rather be buried in the ruins of their city than surrender. The aid of superstition was not wanting to strengthen the confidence of the Zara- gozans. They relied on the miraculous protection of our Lady of the Pillar, who had made their favored city the seat of her peculiar woiship. The successful termination of the former siege had given strength to their belief in the beneficent regards of the patron saint. Approaching victory, in their belief, had been pre- figured by unwonted conformations in the clouds ; and celestial voices were heard in the elements off"ering divine protection, &c. On the 2d of Jan. 1809, Moncey was superseded by Marshal Ju- not in the command of the beseiging army. Napoleon dissatisfied Avith the slow progress of the siege, afterwards sent Marshal Lannes to assume the com- mand, who pushed the siege with vigor, and having forced the outwork, gained a footing in the city at various points. The misfortunes of the Zaragozans were hourly accumulating. The Fever demon stalked through the city like a de- stroying angel, conquering and to con- quer. The number of dead per day amounted ^o three hundred and fifty, without including those who fell the more immediate victims of war. The hospi- tals were too small to contain the host of patients, and the necessary medicines were exhausted. The burying grounds were choked with corpses ; and large pits were dug in the streets, into which the dead were tossed indiscriminately. Heaps of bloated and putrescent bodies were piled before the churches, which were often struck by the shells ; and the maimed and ghastly carcasses lay dis- persed along the streets, a frightful spec- tacle of horror. Even under such evils the courage of the Zaragozans did not quail. The city was now open to the inva- ders, and the war as formerly was carried on in the streets and houses. Not one inch of ground was yielded by the be- sieged Avithout a struggle ; and when finally driven from a building, they fre- quently, by a desperate offensive effort, recovered it ; and an equal resistance had again to be encountered by the as- sailants. Traverses were cut around the portions of the city occupied by the enemy ; and at the sound of the tocsin, the garrison Avere always ready to rush SPAIN. 605 to any quarter where hostilities had com- menced. Notwithstanding the utmost efforts of the garrison, the French gained ground. The first of February was marked by the capture of the Convents of St. Augustin and St. Monica. Having been repelled in assaulting the breaches, the assailants sprung a mine, and by that means effect- ed an entrance, and took in reverse the works erected for their defence. A deadly struggle took place in the church. Every chapel, every column, every altar, became a point of defence, — the pave- ment was strewed with blood, and the aisles and nave of the church were cov- ered with the dead. During this terrific conflict, the roof, shattered by bombs, fell in. Those who escaped, renewed the contest on the bodies of the dead and dying. The French were at length suc- cessful, and advancing on the Rua Que- mada, gained possession of several houses. From these, however, they were eventually compelled to retreat. At the same time, an attack was made on the houses near Sta. Engracia. Two mines, one on the left, the other on the right, of the Convent, were sprung by the besiegers ; after which, two columns of Polish infantry succeeded in gaining possession of the ruins caused by the explosion. The loss of the besiegers was very considerable, and General La- coste, commandant of engineers, was killed. He was an officer of great pro- fessional eminence, and untarnished character. During four days the besiegers were employed in constructing three galleries to cross the Rua Quemada. Two of these failed. By means of the third they succeeded in establishing them- selves in the ruins of a house which formed an angle of the Cozo, and of the Rua del Medio. A building, called the Escuelas Pias, commanded several trav- erses, made for the defence of the Cozo. Aware of the importance of this post, the assailants made several unsuccessful efforts to gain possession of it. They then attempted the adjoining houses ; but in this also they failed. The system of blowing up the houses now adopted, was favorable to the besieged ; for the enemy who established themselves on the ruins, were thus exposed to the fire of the sur- rounding buildings. In the meanwhile, the continual succession of formidable and unforeseen obstacles, which present- ed themselves to the French soldiers, had considerably damped their ardor ; while the spirits of the besieged, who had to contend against famine, fever, and the French army, were yet unbroken. On the seventh of February, the Con- vent of Jesus, on the left of the road to Lerida, was attacked. Trenches were opened against it ; and twenty battering pieces having effected a breach, it was carried with little loss, the building not being considered by the besieged as of meterial importance. The enemy then succeeded in establishing a lodgment to the right and left. The loss of the suburb which was carried by assault on the 18th, laid open to the enemy the only part of the town which had hitherto been exempted from direct attack. The besiegers, imagining that the courage of the garrison had been abated by this irreparable misfortune, continued their operations with vigor. By means of mining, two enormous breaches were made in the University — both of which were attacked and carried ; and the traverses of the Cozo were at length abandoned by the Spaniards. In the meantime, Palafox had been smitten with the dreadful disease, whose raA^ages had been more widely spread than even those of famine and the sword. This admirable and heroic leader, who, for above a month, had been unable to quit the vault where he lay stretched on a bed of suffering, at length saw the ne- cessity of resigning the command. On the nineteenth, he transferred his authority to a Junta, of which Don Pedro Ric was appointed president. A council was immediately assembled to deliberate on the condition of the city, and the measures most proper to be adopted. At this meeting it was stated, by the Gen- eral of cavalry, that only sixty-two horses remained, the rest having died of hunger. Of the infantry it appeared there were little more than two thousand eight hun- dred men fit for service. Ammunition was nearly exhausted ; and should a 606 SPAIN. shell penetrate the Inquisition, their only manufactory of powder would be destroy- ed. The fortifications were stated, by the chief engineer, to have been almost utterly demolished. There were neither men nor materials necessary for repair- ing them ; and bags of earth coidd no longer be formed from want of cloth. With regard to the measures to be adopted, the Junta were divided in opin- ion. Twenty-six voted for capitulation ; eight against it. The latter were averse to surrender, while even a possibility of succor remained. With proud gallantry of spirit the opinion of the minority was adopted by the Junta. A flag of truce was sent to the enemy, proposing a sus- pension of hostilities, with the view of ascertaining the situation of the Spanish armies ; it being understood that should no immediate succor be at hand, the Junta would then treat for a surrender. This proposal was peremptorily declined by Marshal Lannes ; and the bombard- ment recommenced. On the twentieth the garrison made a last and unsuccessful effort to recover two guns which the enemy had captured on the preceding day. Affairs were now desperate. The fifty guns which had been employed in the attack of the suburb, now opened fire on the city ; and the streets in the neighborhood of the quay were laid in ruins. Thus situated, the Junta ordered mea- sures to be taken to ascertain the senti- ments of the people with regard to the situation of their city. Two-thirds of it were in ruins. Fire, famine, and slaugh- ter had done their work ; and from three to four hundred persons were daily dying of the pestilence. Under such circum- stances the Junta declared they had ful- filled their oath of fidelity, — and that Zaragoza was destroyed. A flag of truce was despatched to the French head- quarters, followed by a deputation of the Junta, to arrange the terms of capitula- tion. Marshal Lannes was at first dis- posed to insist on unconditional surren- der. The proposal was indignantly re- jected by the deputies ; and Ric declared, that rather than submit to it the Zarago- zans would die beneath the ruins of their city. "I, and my companions," said this noble patriot, " will return there, and defend what remains to us as best we may. We have yet arms and ammuni- tion, and if these fail, we have daggers. War is never without its chances ; and should the Zaragozans be driven to des- pair, it yet remains to be proved who are to be victorious." In this temper of the garrison, Lannes did not think it prudent to refuse grant- ing terms. It was accordingly conceded that the troops should march out with the honors of war, that the heroic Pala- fox should be suffered to retire to any place where he might think proper to fix his residence, and that all persons, not included in the garrison, should be suf- fered to quit the city, in order to avoid the contagion. On the twenty-first, the posts of the city were delivered up to the French, and thus terminated one of the most strenuous and extraordinary struggles of which history bears record. The resis- tance continued for fifty-two days with open trenches ; twenty-nine of these were consumed by the enemy in effect- ing an entrance, — twenty-three in the war subsequently carried on in the streets and houses. By their own ac- count the French threw above seventeen thousand bombs into the city, and expend- ed above one hundred and sixty thousand pounds weight of powder. More than thirty thousand men and five hundred ofiicers perished in the defence, exclu- sive of a vast number of women and children, who sank the mute and suffer- ing victims of fire, famine, pestilence, and slaughter. The amount of loss sus- tained by the besieged was studiously concealed, — that it was very great, can- not be doubted ; and the contemplated operations on Lerida and Valencia, for which the army was destined, were in consequence given up. When the garrison quitted the city, only two thousand four hundred men were capable of bearing arms ; the rest were in the hospitals. On the march to France, two hundred and seventy of these men, weakened by famine and dis- ease, were found incapable of proceed- ing with the rapidity which their inhuman conductors considered necessary ; they SPAIN. 607 were butchered and left on the road, to serve as a spectacle and a warning to the succeeding divisions. Among the prisoners, was Augustina Zaragoza, who had distinguished herself in the former siege. At the commence- ment, she had resumed her station by the Portillo gate. When Palafox visited the battery, she pointed to the gim she had formerly served with so much effect, and exclaimed, " See, General, I am again with my old friend." Once, when her wounded husband lay bleeding at her feet, she discharged the cannon at the enemy, in order to avenge his fall. She frequently led the assaulting parties, and with sword in hand, and her cloak wrap- ped around her, mingled in the daily con- flicts which took place in the streets. Though exposed, during the whole siege, to the most imminent danger, Augustina escaped without a wound. The record of female heroism must be yet further extended. During the struggle, the women of Zaragoza shrank from no ordeal, however terrible. In the combat, where the fight was the thickest, — on the ramparts, where the fire was most deadly, — in the hospitals, — in the dark and airless dens of pestilence, breathing a tainted and noisome atmos- phere, — there were they found, these "meek-eyed women, without fear," sooth- ing the dying, ministering to the suffer- ing, and exhibiting a proud and memo- rable spectacle of fortitude and virtue. The terms of the capitulation were shamefully violated by Marshal Lannes. Palafox was sent a prisoner into France ; and the city became the scene of pillage and atrocity. The province, on the fall of Zaragoza, became comparatively tran- quil. Fourteen thousand men, under Suchet, were left to maintain tranquillity; and the remainder of the besieging army, under Mortier, moved into Castile. In the meanwhile, Europe rang with admiration of the noble defence of Zara- goza. Every where the pulses of the slave beat quicker and more strongly ; and the heart of the freeman bounded proudly in his bosom. Poets and histo- rians consecrated, in undying records, the virtue of her citizens ; and Zaragoza, like Thermopylae, will remain linked with associations of the purest patriotism and devotion. All opposition to the overwhelming power of France must soon have been crushed, had not the Spanish people re- ceived efficient aid from Great Britain. The French were driven from Spain early in 1814, by the British forces under Lord Welhngton, {see Great Britain,) and Ferdinand VII, was seated on the throne. A constitution framed by the Cortes was promulgated in 1812, but owing to its democratical principles, was violently opposed in many parts of the kingdom. The unhappy division of the nation into constitutionalists and royalists, or, as they were afterwards called, liberals and serviles, was the source of much conten- tion and trouble. The affairs of Spain were discussed at the congress of Verona ; and the powers there assembled, with the exception of Great Britain, assumed the authority of interfering with the in- ternal arrangements of an independent kingdom. They demanded a change in the institutions formed by the Cortes, and a subjection to the arbitary power of Ferdinand. A French army under the duke d'Angouleme entered Spain, and after a slight resistance entered Madrid on the 21st of May, 1823. The duke having installed a regency, advanced up- on Cadiz, whither the Cortes had retired, carrying with them Ferdinand as a kind of prisoner. Cadiz being besieged by a force of 30,000 French troops, with a formidable train of artillery, was forced to surrender. This event was soon fol- lowed by the surrender of all the impor- tant fortresses in the kingdom. The most effectual resistance against the French power, was made by the gallant Mina, who maintained a desultory and protracted war against a very superior force in the mountains of Catalonia. By the aid of the presence of a French army, Ferdinand became the absolute master of Spain. The members of the Cortes, and the principal chiefs ofthe former gov- ernment fled from their oppressed country. The gallant but unfortunate Riego, how- ever, was taken, and after a mock trial was executed. Since the death of Fer- dinand, the affairs of Spain have con- tinued in a very unsettled state. 608 SWEDEN. SWEDEN The ancient history of Sweden is closely connected with that of Denmark, {see Denmark.) The original inliabitants were a colony of Finns from the banks of the Volga, and the vicinity of Mount Caucasus. And about three hundred years before the Christian era, they were driven from their northern settlements by the Teutones, a people who came thither from Germany, and who either expelled the original inhabitants, or became incor- porated with them. Except in the north- ern extremity of Lapland, however, every trace of the Finns has long been oblite- rated. The present Swedes, therefore, as well as the Danes and Norwegians, are of Teutonic or Gothic origin ; and the term Scandinavia, or Land of Caves, was conferred on the extensive regions which now form these three nations, from the practice of the inhabitants dwelling in rocky caverns. This country was not converted to Christianity till the end of the eleventh century, when this happy event took place by means of missionaries from England. It renounced the errors of popery, and adopted the reformed doc- trines, five centuries afterwards. Swe- den, though meanwhile it had various forms of government at different periods, remained free till the year 1392, when Margaret, queen of Denmark, styled the Semiramis of the north, conquered it by policy and by force of arms, and made one Idngdom of these three vast states. This conquest was not destined to be permanent. Sweden was the victim of wars and insurrections ; and was alter- nately free and enslaved for upwards of a century ; at the end of which time appeared Gustavus Vasa, a young man, descended from the ancient kings of the country ; and, abandoning the forests of Delecarlia, where he had concealed him- self, he aspired to become the deliverer of Sweden. His attempt was successful ; the Danes were expelled, and Gustavus was himself elected king of the country of which he had been the liberator. He introduced the reformation into Sweden ; and was in many respects a man superior to his age. He had the influence to get the crown declared hereditary in his family, who, with various degrees of eminence and merit, have continued till within these few years to enjoy it. He died in 1560, after a glorious reign of thirty-seven years. Anxious to strength- en the throne by an alliance with the family of some of the neighboring pow- ers, he endeavored to accomplish that object by the marriage of his son Eric, who succeeded him, to Elizabeth queen of England. The offer, as is well known, was rejected. The successors of this enlightened restorer of Swedish liberty were, with few exceptions, not worthy of him. They were all indeed endued with a chivalry and heroism not common even in ages when such attributes were regarded as the perfection of character ; but they were devoid of sober judgment, of nice discrimination, and of sound policy. Their romantic spirit and enterprises, as in the case of Charles XII, not unfre- quently approached to the verge of in- fatuation or insanity ; and tended directly to retard the progress of knowledge and civilization in the territories over .which they ruled. Of the descendants of Vasa, Gustavus Adolphus, on whom has been confer- red the title of Great, was the most distinguished, and was the bulwark of the Protestant faith. He defended the Lutherans against the Emperor with equal bravery and good fortune. He made war, with success and with con- summate skill, against Russia, Denmark, Poland, and Germany, and these great achievements he performed before he had completed his thirty-seventh year; at which age he fell in the arms of vic- tory at Lutzen ; carrying " to the tomb," says Voltaire, " the name of Great, the regrets of the north, and the esteem of his enemies." With the great Gustavus and his gen- erals, the fame and prosperity of Sweden seemed to expire. Christiana, in 1654, SWEDEN 609 six years after the peace of Westphalia, resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Gustaviis. The life and adventures of this celebrated princess, exhibit the most surprising extremes of magnanimity and weakness — of elevation of mind, and per- version of taste. The adventures, through which she passed, would furnish ample materials for the writer of romance. Charles Gustavus, who was the tenth of that name, was a prince of considera- ble abilities, and gained some advantages in a war with Poland ; but his reign last- ed only six years. He died in 1660, and was succeeded in his government by his son Charles XI, who was an odious and impolitic tyrant. So far from imitating the example of several of his illustrious predecessors, he used his utmost power to oppress and enslave his people. Dur- ing his long reign, though apparently suc- cessful in several wars, his kingdom and the Swedish name were falling from that important and splendid rank, they once held in Europe. In 1697, by the death of Charles XI, the throne of Sweden was left vacant to the famous Charles XII, his son and suc- cessor, than whom, probably, no mortal man ever breathed more constantly the spirit of war. But, instead of possess- ing the great qualities of Vasa and Adol- phus, he seemed capable of nothing but war and conquest. Headlong as a tiger, he rushed forward, as if only solicitous to fight, with very little regard to pros- pects of advantage, or the favorable mo- ment. While such a tiger, however, was about to be let loose in the North of Europe, a lion, if we may keep up the metaphor, was prepared still further north, to keep him at bay, and set bounds to his lawless rage. Peter, justly styled the Great, had just returned to his own dominions, en- riched with discoveries and improve- ments, calculated to aid him in the grand scheme of civilizing the North of Europe and Asia, when Charles XII, though but eighteen years of age, ascended the throne of Sweden. The views of Charles relative to the conquest of Russia, may well be compared with those of Alexan- der in relation to the Persian empire. But had Charles acted with that prudent 77 caution, which governed Alexander's counsels and movements he might have avoided those disasters, which ruined himself and his kingdom, even though he had failed in the main object of his ambition. The wars of Charles, however, were tremendous ; and his name soon became terrible through the world. But he was too rash and impetuous to execute his plans by means, which were necessary to give permanence to his success. He fought in all directions, and was general- ly victorious. He humbled all his adver- saries except one, and struck terror into all his neighbors. He dethroned Augus- tus, king of Poland, new modelled the government of that kingdom, and caused Stanislaus, a creature of his own, to be invested with that sovereignty. But his whole plan of operations may be clearly traced to his great design of subduing Russia, which issued in the battle of Pul- towa, fought on the 11th July, 1709. While Charles, mad with his design of becoming a second Alexander and con- quering all mankind, was with the utmost diligence preparing the way for his oper- ations against Peter, the latter by a stretch of masterly policy, unequalled in its kind, was widening his resources, fortifying his power, improving his immense em- pire, and strengthening the basis of his throne. The victorious standard of Charles, in 1707, which had been dis- played in Saxony, to the terror of all Germany, was removed, and again seen in Poland. Thither, at the head of 43,000 men, Charles now proceeded to oppose the Russian arms, which during his ab- sence had been employed in favor of Augustus, the dethroned monarch. From Lithuania, where he had for some time been, Peter directed his march toward the river Boristhenes, avoiding for the present a general battle with the Swe- dish hero. So near were the two ar- mies, that Charles arrived in the city of Grodno, on the same day that Peter left it. But the pursuit was in vain. The sovereign of Russia, on this oc- casion, displayed that wisdom and pru- dence, which seemed the prelude to his future triumph. Finding himself in his own dominions, and justly fearmg the 610 SWEDEN. consequences of so terrible a conflict, as seemed approaching, he sent an embassy to the king of Sweden, with proposals of peace. Charles returned for answer, that he would treat with him at Moscow. The czar's remark, when this haughty answer was brought him, gives us a trait of the character of the two rivals. " My brother Charles," said he, "always af- fects to play the Alexander ; but I hope he will not find me a Darius." The ce- lerity of his retreat defeated all hopes of overtaking him ; and the Swedish mon- arch consoled himself by pursuing his march toward Moscow. But in this, he found no small difficulty. His army suf- fered incredible hardships, in pursuing the course of the czar, who, aware of his approach, had destroyed all means of subsistence, and indeed almost every vestige of human habitation. Vast for- ests, morasses and extensive solitudes presented before them, scenes of desola- tion, and the alarming prospect of de- struction. Through these dreary wastes the Russians moved with safety, being in their own country, and led by a gTeat commander, who knew well how to avail himself of his own resources, and to leave behind him, nothing to facilitate the progress of his pursuer. Charles, though now determined to march to Moscow, was compelled to al- ter his line of march, and by a more cir- cuitous course, to pass through places, whence some supplies might be derived for his army, now nearly perishing with fatigue and want. The north of Europe abounds with vast forests and trackless wilds, almost impassable even in the summer season, and now clothed with double horrors by the approach of win- ter. The ablest officers of his army, re- monstrated against penetrating those in- hospitable climes, in the winter season. Count Piper, on whom he had ever placed much dependence, earnestly recommend- ed to him to remain in the Ukraine, a province lying along the river Boris- thenes, till the winter, which at that time was intensely severe, was past. He, however, crossed that river, and advan- ced to the banks of the Disna, beyond which, he perceived a Russian army posted to resist his passage. He crossed, however, and continued his march, making a slow progress into the Russian territories. Hovering par- ties of the enemy added continual sur- prise to his painful and perilous march ; and numbers of his men daily perished through the inclemency of the season. Wearing away the winter in those frosty regions, he at length arrived, on the 10th of May, at the town of Pultowa, where was an important magazine of stores and necessaries, of which the Swedish army was in great want. But Pultowa was defended by a garrison of 9,000 Rus- sians ; and the czar himself lay not very far distant, with an army of 70,000 men. The attack of Charles upon this place, which was strongly fortified, was one of the most daring enterprises ever attempt- ed by any commander. For that reason, he could not be dissuaded from so rash a measure. In spite of every effort of the Swedes, the town could not be reduced before the arrival of the czar with his main army ; and Charles, although wound- ed in his heel by a musket ball, deter- mined to give him battle. He ordered his army to advance and attack the Rus- sian camp. The Swedes, long inured to victory, made a formidable onset, and not without impression. The Russian caval- ry was broken, but soon rallied behind the infantry. The king of Sweden, borne in a litter, animated his troops, and displayed all the talents of the soldier and hero. But he contended against su- perior fortune. On the side of Peter, there were equal skill and bravery with greater numbers. The Swedes fought with astonishing fury, for two hours ; but were exposed in the face of a tremen- dous train of artillery, which the czar, whose arrangements for the battle were masterly, had opened upon them. Their charge upon the Russian line, proved in- effectual ; and their defeat, which was inevitable, was only announced by their destruction. 9,000 Swedes fell on the field of battle ; and the army of Charles was utterly ruined. Charles himself, with a small party of horse, escaped with difficulty, and hastily crossing the Boristhcnes, fled with a few attendants to Bender, a town in Moldavia, in the Turkish domimons. SWEDEN, 611 Death of Charles While in Turkey his conduct resem- bled that of a maniac, more than that of a man in his senses. He still hoped to dethrone the czar by engaging the Turk- ish power against him. After many ef- forts the sultan was induced to send 200,000 soldiers against the Russians. But upon the capitulation of Peter's ar- my, peace having been made, Charles was much disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk. He had been hospitably entertained more than three years, but his arrogance becoming insuf- ferable, he was ordered to quit the Turk- ish dominions. This order he refused to obey, and undertook to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he defend- ed himself for a time against an army of twenty thousand Turks, and yielded only when he was taken by the legs and arms, and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. While Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king of Denmark rav- aged Sweden on every side. This state of affairs made him desirous of returning to his own country, especially as he des- paired of inducing the sultan to engage in war with Russia. He returned in disguise, and wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, made an attack on that XII, of Sweden. country. While visiting the works at the siege of Frederickshall, Dec. 1718, he was killed by a cannon shot, while exposing himself to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a groan, he instinctively grasped the handle of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic of his temper. After the death of Charles, Sweden exhausted and impoverished, demanded repose. The extensive conquests which Swe- den had made beyond the Baltic were gradually taken from her during the course of the last century. The late Gustavus IV, on the French revolution, entered into an alliance with Great Bri- tain against France; and when, in 1808, Russia joined her forces to those of the latter kingdom, he broke off an alliance with that power ; and on the invasion of his territories by the Russians, lost Fin- land, which has since (1809,) continued dissevered from Sweden. The result of this war was not merely this loss, but the dislike of his people, and resentment of the nobles. The duke of Sundermania, who was at the head of the discontented party, conceived and executed the plan of dethroning Gustavus, and of investing himself with his honors. This was easily 612 SWITZERLAND. effected ; not the least disturbance took place on account of it ; and the duke assumed the crown under the title of Charles XIII. Charles changed the government from a despotic to a limited monarchy. He made peace with Russia. He joined himself to the allies against France. By a treaty made in 1814, and confirmed in the subsequent year at the congress of Vienna, Norway was added to his do- minions, on condition of his ceding to Prussia Pomerania and the island of Ru- gen ; Finland was finally guaranteed to Russia; and Sweden was confined within the bounds which we have already de- scribed. It may here be mentioned, that when Norway was united to the country which we are describing, her indepen- dence, as to government, laws, and in- stitutions, was solemnly stipulated. — Meanwhile, in 1810, general Bernadotte, a Frenchman, had the influence to get himself declared crown-prince of Swe- den ; a choice which, though at first it excited general surprise, has proved very judicious, from the prudent and liberal character of that celebrated person. In 1818 Charles XIII died, and Bernadotte quietly ascended the throne, under the title of Charles XIV. This monarch has indeed shown himself worthy of the dignity conferred on him. He has pa- tronised and promoted every species of internal improvement. He has construct- ed canals, erected schools, and done all in his power to promote the cause of ed- ucation. A new civil and penal code is in progress. The public hospitals have not been overlooked ; six useless ones have been suppressed ; every modern improvement or discovery is immediately introduced. And, under his enlightened sway, Sweden, though, from inherent physical causes, she can never rise high- er than a power of the second order, is rapidly advancing in real prosperity and influence, and is affording an example of improvement and of enlightened policy, which many nations more highly favored in point of climate and physical advanta- ges, would do well to imitate. SWITZERLAND. The history of Switzerland, previously to the time of Caesar, may be regarded as unknown or uncertain. It may, as has been believed by one class of writers, have been visited and colonized by the Greeks, who founded Marseilles several centuries before the time to which we refer. This opinion has been supposed to gain countenance from statements made by Herodotus and Appolonius Rhodius. At the dawn of authentic history, we find the country inhabited by the Helve- tii and the Rhaetii ; the latter inhabiting, in addition to Swabia and the Tyrol, what afterwards formed the Swiss can- tons of Appenzell, Claris, Uri, and the Orisons ; the Helvetii occupying the re- maining cantons. These people were of Celtic origin ; and remains of the Celtic language, which was long their native speech, still exist. Their defeat by Cae- sar is well known. They were after- wards ranked among the people subject to Rome, and were exposed to all the hardships which such a connection always imposed on conquered nations. On the downfall of the Roman power, the Helvetians, like the other people of Europe, were overrun by hordes of bar- barians ; they were successively con- quered, and nearly extirpated by various tribes, the Alemanni, the Franks, the Huns, the Burgundians. From the be- ginning of the eleventh century, the pro- vinces which now constitute Switzerland, began to be regarded as an appendage of Germany ; and are mentioned in his- tory as receiving at different times certain privileges and immunities from the head of that empire. These, however, did not proceed from the spontaneous policy of the emperors ; they were wrested from them in consequence of the repeated ap- SWITZERLAND. 613 William Tell the Swiss patriot. plications and urgent remonstrances of the Swiss themselves, who seem from the earliest periods to have abhorred de- pendence, and to have been animated with principles of liberty. In truth, the inhabitants of Uri, Schweitz, and Under- walden, (three territories known by the name of the Waldstetten.) possessed from time immemorial the right of being gov- erned by their own magistrates, and of enacting their own laws ; they had al- ways declared themselves averse to the authority of the emperor's representative among them ; and when, like the rest of the country, they did consent to acknow- ledge this officer, it was on the condition that he would govern according to law, and make no encroachments on their rights and privileges. Usurpation, however, followed after usurpation, till at length the whole country was reduced under the power of the house of Austria. Tyranny in truth was carried to the utmost extent, and freedom seemed to be for ever extin- guished in Helvetia. But it was check- ed not destroyed ; its spirit still continued to linger among them ; and at length it burst forth with a greater energy than ever. A confederacy to shake off the yoke of their oppressors, and to achieve the independence of their country, was formed in 1307, by three individuals, na- tives respectively of the three cantons that composed the "Waldstetten. The conspiracy Avas embraced with delight by all to whom it was communicated ; the names of the heroes who organized it have ever since been revered throughout Switzerland ; and the spot where it was first formed is regarded as sacred. The revolution which was contemplated, was accelerated, or rather secured, by the in- sults shown on the part of Gesler, the representative of the emperor. Gesler who was governor of Uri, had ordered his hat to be fixed upon a pole in the market-place of Altorf, and command- ed every passenger on pain of death to pay the same obeisance to it as to him- self. William Tell, of Burglen in the valley of Uri, son-in-law to Walter Furst, indignant at this insulting mark of wan- ton tyranny, disdained to pay an homage so absurd and so humiliating. This manly resolution was punished by the tyrant with the sentence of death. Tell was condemned to be hanged, unless he should be able to strike with his arrow an apple placed upon the head of his son ; being an excellent marksman, Tell ac- 614 SWITZERLAND. cepted the alternative, and fortunately- cleft the apple without injuring the child. The tyrant Gesler, perceiving another arrow in his belt, asked him for what pur- pose that was intended ; when Tell re- plied, " It was designed for thee, if I had killed my son." For this heroic answer he was condemned to perpetual imprison- ment in a dungeon at Kuffnacht, the re- sidence of Gesler ; he was accordingly bound, and placed in a boat, that Gesler himself might convey him across the lake of Altorf to his castle. Scarcely, however, had the boat per- formed half the passage, when a furious squall covered the surface of the lake with threatening waves. Gesler, as humble in the hour of danger as he had been arrogant when fear was at a dis- tance, entreated Tell, who was account- ed the most skilful boatman in the can- ton, to save him ; and unbound his pris- oner with his own hands. Tell seated himself at the helm, steered the boat to- wards a rock, leaped upon it ; and then in an instant with the same manly strength pushed back the boat into the lake, es- caped, and concealed himself At length the storm abated, and Gesler gained the shore. As he was about to enter his fortress, Tell, who had by a circuitous route reached the spot before him, dis- charged an arrow at the tyrant, which pierced his heart ; and thus paved the way for that conspiracy which laid the foundation of his country's liberty. After many remonstrances against the tyranny of these governors, which served only to increase the cruelties of the ty- rants, three patriots, Werner de Staflach of Schweitz, Walter Furst of Uri, and Arnold de Melchthal of Underwalden, at length resolved to put in execution those measures which they had concerted for delivering themselves and their country from the yoke of Austria. Bold and en- terprising, and united by friendship, these men had frequently met in private to de- liberate upon the important subject ; each associated three others in their cause ; and these twelve men accomplished their important enterprise without the loss of a snigle life. Having prepared the inhabi- tants of their several cantons for a revolt, in the dead of night on the first of January, 1308, they surprised the Austrian gover- nors, and conducted them to the fron- tiers, obliged them to swear that they would never more serve against the Hel- vetian nation ; and then suffered them to depart Avithout any injury. The other cantons soon engaged in the confederacy, and thus gave birth to the republic of Switzerland. Albert prepared to attack the new-born liberty of Helvetia ; and was ready to hazard his forces against the enthusiasm inspired by freedom, when he himself fell a sacrifice to his rapacity and injustice ; being assassinated in pre- sence of his court and army on the banks of the river PrUs, in the neighborhood of Switzerland. The widow of Albert, oc- cupied in revenging the death of her hus- band, left the cantons to the undisturbed enjoyment of their liberties, and to the provision of the means of strengthening themselves against future attacks. Un- der these favorable circumstances, the cantons of Uri, Underwalden, and Schweitz, boldly displayed the standard of liberty in 1308. Until the year 1315, the confederated cantons were unmolested by their former sovereigns. At that period the emperor Frederic sent against them a considera- ble body of troops under the command of his brother Leopold, whom he directed to ravage the country with fire and sword. The invaders could only enter it by en- deavoring to force a passage into Schweitz at a defile called the straits of Morgarten, which 1,300 Switzers undertook to de- fend against the numerous army of Leo- pold. These patriots posted themselves on the impending mountains, whence they rolled down huge fragments of rock, which crushed the hostile cavalry ; and impetuously descending upon the infan- try, they discomfited and dispersed them. Leopold was panic-struck, and seeking safety in flight he made his escape, leav- ing multitudes of his soldiers dead upon the spot. On this memorable occasion the cantons lost only fourteen men ; and from the circumstance of the engage- ment having taken place in the canton of Schweitz, the confederation which was the result of it, took the name of Swiss. Nothing could be more simple than the condition which formed the basis of the SWITZERLAND. 615 association of the. first three cantons. " They were to afford each other aid in case of attack ; to acknowledge no other authority, protection, or supremacy, than that of the empire ; to contract no alliance without each other's consent. The three states were to admit no judge, who is not their fellow-citizen. If any contest should arise between the cantons, it was to be decided by arbitration ; and if one can- ton refused to submit to the award, it was to be compelled by the two others. Final- ly, malefactors, incendiaries, robbers, and other criminals, tried and condemned in one canton, were to be considered as tried and condemned in the others, and it was forbidden to afford them an asylum." Such was the treaty of alliance between Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, called the league of the three Waldstaetter or Forest-cantons, which laid the founda- tion of one of the wisest and happiest re- publics that ever existed. After these cantons had established their liberty and independence, the neigh- boring state of Lucerne, then subject to Austria, was continually harassed by their depredations. Under these circum- stances the emperor imprudently loaded the citizens of this canton with taxes as exorbitant as they were unjust. To evade both evils. Lucerne made peace with the confederacy; and having expelled the Austrian party in the year 1332, entered into a perpetual alliance with them, and became a member of the union. The addition of Lucerne to the league enabled the four cantons to resist all the hostile efforts of Austria. In the year 1 336, Leopold, the grandson of that prince who was defeated at the pass of Morgarten, eager to regain the territory he had lost, invaded the canton of Lucerne at the head of a numerous army, and attended by the first nobility of the empire. The troops of the four cantons, greatly inferior in number, met their enemies at the lake of Sempach, near the town of Surzee. The Austrians were drawn up in firm battalions, accou- tered in heavy armor, and furnished with long pikes. The Swiss advanced in the form of a wedge, in order to open their ■way into the ranks of the enemy, and to break the solidity of the battalion ; but their endeavors proved fruitless, and the fate of war hung doubtful ; when Arnold de Wilkenreid, devoting himself to cer- tain death, rushed upon the enemy, and seizing as many lances as he could grasp, endeavored to penetrate their ranks, and was killed in the attempt. His valor, however, opened the way to victo- ry ; it inflamed his countrymen with new courage, and taught them the best method of breaking the battalion. The Austrians yielded to the impetuous torrent, fled, and left Leopold with the flower of his army dead on the field. On the spot where this memorable victory was gained, a chapel stands, which was built in com- memoration of the event ; and in the ar- senal of Lucerne, the armor of the va- liant Leopold is still preserved, together with a large quantity of cords, with which it is said he intended to have bound the citizens. In the year 1351, the confederacy of the four Waldsteetters formed an alliance with the canton of Zurich. The town of Zurich as an imperial city had enjoy- ed many privileges obtained from Fred- eric II, till a civil war between the peo- ple and their magistrates nearly reduced it to ruins. After a struggle of two years the magistrates were banished, and a new form of government was established un- der the sanction of the emperor Lewis of Bavaria, in 1337. After several attempts, however, the exiled magistrates were permitted to return ; but being afterwards proved guilty of a conspiracy against the state, they fell a sacrifice to their treason- able designs. This transaction brought upon the people the resentment of the neighboring nobles ; and the emperor Charles IV refusing to aid them, the can- ton of Zurich formed an alliance with, and became not only a member of the confederacy, but obtained a pre-eminence in rank above the other four ; and has retained that distinction to the present time. Notwithstanding the advantages which the Zurichers derived from this alliance, their experience of the evils and miseries of a ruinous war induced them to submit to an arbitration of their disputes with the house of Austria. The arbitrators included in their award a point which had not been submitted to their 616 SWITZERLAND. judgment ; they decided that thencefor- ward none of the nations of upper Ger- many should be at liberty to league them- selves with the Waldsteetters. This de- cision was equivalent to a declaration that the confederated cantons should not increase their power by the accession of other states. The confederacy, however, not only despised this prohibition, but acted in direct opposition to it. During a war which ensued between the emperor and these states in the year ] 350, the troops of Schweitz, assisted by Zurich, Lucerne, Uri, and Underwalden, entered the canton of Claris, and having expelled the Austrians, received it into the union ; imposing however, some re- strictions upon the inhabitants, which were not abolished till 1450. In 1351 the six allied cantons laid siege to Zug, an imperial city, which, lying between Zurich and Schweitz, af- forded the Austrians many opportunities of harassing the Swiss. It was reso- lutely defended by the citizens who ex- pected succor from Albert duke of Aus- tria ; but this prince not being in a con- dition to assist them, the town at length capitulated upon the most honorable terms. The generosity of the conquer- ors was equal to the courage displayed by the vanquished ; and Zug accordingly was admitted into the confederacy as a free and independent city upon equal terms. During these events the canton of Berne was perpetually engaged in wars with the house of Austria, or with its neighbors. The state of Berne had, in that part of the Alps which they occu- pied, formed themselves into a republic, that singly was more powerful than one- half of the seven united cantons. As early as the year 1323, a defensive alli- ance took place between the Bernese and the Waldstaitters, to whose aid they were chilly indebted for the victory which they obtained over the troops of Austria in 1339. In consequence of this success, Berne gained new tei'ritories, which placed themselves under its protection. These territories adjoined others which were protected by the Helvetic confede- racy. Between the inhabitants of both, certain disputes arose which involved the two republics in their quarrels ; and the misunderstanding was on the point of breaking out into open hostilities. They had, however, the moderation to perceive, that it was by no means the interest of either state that they should become enemies ; but that on the other hand, a union of their interests would bo the certain means of obtaining speedy and permanent peace for territories which, being thus left without any sup- port in their petty dessensions, would naturally find their best policy in amica- ble agreement. These considerations impelled the Bernese to wish for admis- sion into the Helvetic league, and indu- ced the latter to admit them. The ac- cession of so considerable a canton as Berne to the other seven considerably increased the power of the confederacy. These eight allied states are to the present distinguished by the appellation of the eight " ancient cantons." Although Berne was the last of these that acceded to the union, yet six of them yielded to it the precedency, in consequence of which they now rank in the following or- der : Zurich, Berne, Lucerne, Schweitz, Uri, Underwalden, Zug, and Claris. From a review of the several treaties which formed the constitution of this union, it appears that we ought not to consider the confederated states at this epoch as one body, or one commonwealth. The principal intention of the league was to preserve the public liberties and private rights of the citizens and subjects of the union against any attacks that might be made upon them ; without embracing any hostile views against such rights as belonged to the house of Austria or its nobles. The origin of the Helvetic diets may be traced in the public meetings that were appointed upon the frontiers of the respective cantons. The different trea- ties occasioned many distinct meetings to be held by deputies between the cantons. These meetings were attend- ed with innumerable advantages ; they maintained a cordiality, and connected j more strongly the bond of union between the cantons ; and prepared the way for a closer and more intimate alliance. As the first members of the Helvetic union had formed no intention of erecting them- SWITZERLAND. 617 selves into one separate and independent state, it is natural to suppose that they were actuated by the desire of extending and ago^randizing their respective territo- ries. There were besides two circum- stances which strongly operated in draw- ing them from the strict rules of a defen- sive alliance, and were at the same time the means of procuring them additional allies ; namely, the insatiable ambition and avarice of the nobles, which contin- ually occasioned dissension and rebellion in the neighboring states ; and the in- trigues and artifices of the emperors, who, being jealous of the increasing power of the dukes of Austria, often encouraged the inhabitants to break the fetters of their allegiance. Helvetia was thus di- vided into powerful factions, who were perpetually at variance with each other ; the one composed of the nobles, with the dukes of Austria at their head ; the other of the free cities and districts under the protection of the allied cantons. Thus half a century was spent in wars and truces with the house of Austria, who seems to have disdained to honor the Helvetic league with either constant peace or regidarly supported war. The year 1370 is remarkable for the first struggle of the Switzers against the French. It arose from the pretensions of Enquernand de Couci, who, inheriting the rights of his mother, the grand-daugh- ter of the emperor Albert, claiming cer- tain lands, which he asserted to have been usurped from his grand-father by the Switzers. They successfully de- fended their possessions, and, after a bloody battle, drove De Couci's auxilia- ries from their territory. From this unsettled state of peace and war, the Swiss derived the advantage of being trained to the use of arms, and were consequently always on their guard. In the year 1393 they subjected them- selves to a system of military discipline worthy of the ancient Spartans. They entered into an ordinance, which forbade them, under pain of death, in whatever circumstances they might be placed in war, to violate the sanctity of churches or the honor of women. It enjoined them to defend and succor each other as brethren, notwithstanding any contests 78 which might have previously existed be tween them, and in spite of all danger to which that mutual assistance might expose them. They were not to quit their ranks in battle, even though they should feel themselves mortally wounded. No Swiss was ever to pillage for his own private emolument ; but was to carry all the fruits of victory to the common stock. Finally, the cantons engaged not to un- dertake any war that had not been pre- viously proposed and determined upon by unanimous consent in a general diet. The intervals of peace or suspension from hostilities with the house of Austria, afforded also to the cantons an opportu- nity of strengthening themselves, not by the accession of new states to their con- federacy, but by the protection which they granted to some neighboring states, on which they conferred the right of comburghership. That privilege attached the latter to the Helvetic league, which protected them without any dependence on the part of the protected, except re- spect and deference, and without any of the degrading circumstances of subjec- tion. Such, for instance, were the in- j habitants of the valleys of Appenzel, the i oppressed vassals of Saint-Gall. In the year 1400, these people, loaded I by the abbot of St. Gall with intolerable taxes, joined the citizens of the town of ] St. Gall, who rebelled against the Austri- ' ans. They applied to the Helvetic con- i federacy for assistance ; but these can- tons having concluded a treaty of peace with the emperor, refused their alliance ; which obliged Appenzel to remain a se- parate and distinct state for several years. The treaty which the canton of Zurich formed with the house of Austria in 1442, merits particular notice, as its consequen- ces were the occasion of very important regulations in the constitution of the Hel- vetic confederacy. Frederic III, the last count of Tog- genburg, had contrived by different arti- ' fices to occasion a jealousy between the i canton of Zurich and those of Glaris I and Schweitz ; which would have ended I in a civil war had not the confederacy interfered, and compelled them to observe '. the articles of their treaty. Fresh dis- I putes, however, arose after the death of 618 SWITZERLAND, Frederic ; and the citizens of Zurich, ■with the intention of compelUng Claris and Schweitz to submission, cut off all communication with their inhabitants ; by which means these mountaineers were deprived of their supply of corn which they usually received from Zurich, and which constituted the main article of their food. The other cantons, however, es- poused their cause, and compelled the Zurichers to refer the dispute to them according to the terms of their engage- ment. The residt of the arbitration was, that Zurich should relinquish her different claims, and provide Claris and Schweitz with the necessary quantity of grain. The citizens of Zurich, however, regarded this award as partial, and therefore concluded an alliance with the emperor Frederic III, and the other branches of the house of Austria; which engagement the con- federacy considered as an infringement of the articles of the union. The con- federacy, in spite of the palliative clauses introduced by Zurich into the treaty, persisted in opposing it, and threatened to use coercive measures to compel that canton to withdraw from her alliance with Austria. In this crisis the Zurich- ers applied to the emperor for relief, and received into their town a garrison of Austrian soldiers. Hostilities ensued ; and in the first action they were defeated, and the Burgher-master of Zurich was among the slain. Besieged within their walls, they beheld during two fatal years their fields and villages laid waste and plundered. During this period the free cities of Basil and Soleure, who were indifferent spectators of the contest between Zurich and the cantons, embraced tlie opportunity of invading the Austrian territories. The latter applied for aid to Charles VII, king of France, who, as well with a view of desolving the council of Basil as of assisting the Austrians, ordered a large army to march against the confederacy, imder the command of his son Louis. The Dauphin entered Alsace, and after laying waste and harassing the adjoining provinces, appeared before the gates of Basil. The confederates had previously thrown into the town, which was but thinly garrisoned, a detachment of fifteen I hundred men from their army then em- I ployed in besieging Famsburg. This body of Swiss advanced with determined valor to the plain of Bratteline ; where they charged with such fury eight thou- sand of the enemy's cavalry, that the lat- ter were driven back as far as the village of Muttenz. Here the repulsed were joined by another corps ; but notwith- standing this re-enforcement, the Swiss renewed the assault with fresh intrepid- ity, and obliged them to repass the river Birs, where the main body of their army was chiefly drawn up. Encouraged by their wonderful success, exasperated with the most spirited indignation against the invaders of their country, and disre- garding the remonstances of their officers, they rashly attempted to force their pas- sage, which was guarded by a strong party of the enemy. Their effort proving ineffectual, these gallant men threw them- selves into the river, and gained the op- posite shore in the face of a battery of cannon, that was playing upon them. The French army, consisting of thirty thousand men, were advantageously post- ed in an open plain ; the Swiss had no alternative than that of throwing down their arms, or gloriously expiring with them in their hands. They bravely pre- ferred the latter ; accordingly five hun- dred of them took possession of a small island near the bridge ; and after reso- lutely defending themselves to the last, were cut to pieces. The same number of soldiers forced their way through the ranks of the enemy, and were making towards Basil, when they were opposed by a large body of horse, posted there to prevent any succors which the town might send to the relief of their country- men. Being thus surrounded on all sides, they threw themselves into the hospital of St. James, and there resisted for a considerable time the assault of the whole French army. The building was at length set on fire ; the cannon battered down the walls ; and still they fought, resolved to sell their lives at the dearest rate, and to defend themselves to the last extremity. Of the five hundred only sixteen esca- ped ; and they were branded with infamy for not having sacrificed their lives in de- fence of their country. Such w^as the SWITZERLAND. 619 effect of the battle upon the mind of the dauphin Louis, that he declared he had derived no other advantage from the vic- tory than a knowledge of the valor of the Svi^iss. He accordingly gave up his de- signs of conquest ; and after remaining three days employed in burying the dead upon the field of battle, he retired with his shattered army into Alsace. The remembrance of this action is still cher- ished with the warmest enthusiasm by the Swiss. The inhabitants of Basil form parties every year to an inn situated near the hospital and burying-ground, w^here they commemorate in red wine produced from vineyards near the field of battle, the heroic deeds of their countrymen, who sacrificed their lives on this occa- sion. This wine is called the blood of the Swiss. The event of these battles lessened the resentment of the confederate cantons against Zurich ; and the latter, wearied with the calamities of a civil war, re- nounced its connections with the house of Austria, and was again solemnly con- firmed the first canton in rank of the Helvetic confederacy. Upon this occa- sion two articles of great importance in the constitution of Switzerland were finally settled : first, That all disputes between any particular cantons should be decided by the mediation of tlie neu- tral cantons; and if either of the two contending parties should refuse to abide by their judgment, they were to be com- pelled by force of arms. Secondly, not- withstanding the reserved right of any canton to contract alliances with foreign powers, yet the confederates were to judge how far such alliances were con- tradictory or incompatible with the arti- cles of the general union ; and if proved to be so, they were empowered to annul them. As early as the eighth century Chris- tianity was introduced into Switzerland by two Scotsmen, educated at the famous monastery of lona, founded by St. Co- lumbus. The reformed doctrines were also early introduced; and the name of Switzerland is intimately connected with the history of the reformation. From a detestation of the traffic of in- dulgences, Zuinglius, a priest of Zurich, and others with him, proceeded to a per- suasion that the dogma which inculcated a confidence in these indulgences must be erroneous. This doubt naturally gave rise to others respecting the power of the popes who promulgated them ; to these again succeeded discussions on all the points of religious discipline, and princi- pally on the nature and obhgation of vows. The first and most zealous proselytes gained by Zuinglius were the nuns of a convent at Zurich. As a proof of their faith in the doctrines of their new preach- er, they quitted their nunnery, and the younger part of their number entered into the matrimonial state. Zuinglius himself, though a priest, and advanced in years, married also. These innova- tions attracted the attention of the magis- trates. Those of Zurich approved of the conduct of their priest and his disciples. Not only were they pleased to see his opinions disseminated through the coun- try under their own jurisdiction, but they viewed with an evil eye those of the other cantons, who, by prohibitory laws, retarded the progress of what was em- phatically called " The Reformation." They assumed the title of Evangelic, and declared the reformed doctrine to be the onl)^ true Gospel. In 1523 the Zurichers had gained over the Orisons to the reformation. At this time the Roman catholic cantons, into which the reformation had not yet pene- trated, thought it their duty to adopt vigorous measures of precaution against what they considered as dangerous inno- vations. As the Roman catholic cantons formed a majority, they pronounced sen- tence of exclusion from the Helvetic confederacy against those which profess- ed, or should profess, the new religion. Their anathema accordingly fell on Zu- rich, Berne, Schafi'hausen, and Appenzel, which already contained numerous advo- cates and proselytes of reformation, who were denominated non-conformists. But it was not only against the Roman church that Zuinglius and his adherents had to contend. The far more arduous controversy was with one who was cherished as a brother, and even revered as one of the first champions of true re- ligion. The article of faith in which 620 SWITZERLAND. Zuinglius materially diflered from Martin Luther, was the true meaning of the words used in the institution of the Lord's Supper ; the latter adopting them in a strict literal sense, while Zuinglius considered them as merely symbolical. At the desire of Philip, landgrave of Hesse, they, in the month of September, 1630, held a conference at Marburg, in the presence of the most eminent di- vines who had separated from the church of Rome ; where though each persisted in his opinion, they yet parted with cor- dial assurances of mutual regard and friendship. In consequence of these un- happy differences on religious subjects arose the civil wars of Switzerland. Three memorable battles were fought with the intrepidity and fury of religious zeal. On the 9th of June, 1530, the army of Zurich took post near the con- vent of Cappel. Zuinglius, who was no stranger to battles, having been present at those of Novano and Marignan in the capacity of chaplain, desired to attend this expedition. Regardless of the re- monstrances of the senate, who opposed his wishes on account of the value of his life, he mounted his steed, grasped a spear, and followed the camp. An eye- witness wrote thus from the camp : — " It is admirable to behold what order and subordination prevails among the multi- tude ; the word of God is preached daily by Ulrich Zuinglius, the abbot of Cappel, the priest of Kussnacht, and many other learned divines. Not an oath is pro- nounced, not a quarrel is heard of : we pray before and after each meal ; no cards or dice are ever seen ; not a pros- titute is tolerated. We sing, dance, and practise manly sports ; and are eager to encounter the pensioners ." By the me- diation of the neutral cantons and the ci- ties of Constance and Strasburg, hostili- ties were suspended for a time. The tranqidllity thus procured was, however, of short duration. The five cantons learned with the utmost indigna- tion, that at a diet held at Zurich, on the 22d day of May, 1531, the reformed ci- ties had, against the declared opinion of Zuinglius, who never ceased to preach and recommend forbearance, resolved to break off all communication with them, and even to deprive them of the neces- saries of life which they derived from those cities. After several fruitless at- tempts towards an accommodation, these cantons published an hostile declaration against Zurich. They formed a camp at Zug, and sent detachments to ravage the free bailliages. Zurich was dilatory and undecided in its preparations. Zuinglius, who now saw the urgency of the case, found great difficulty in persuading the senate and Rudolph Lavater, the milita- ry commander, to call together the forces of the canton. A small party was sent out to meet the enemy, whose numbers by this time had increased to upwards of eight thousand ; but this party was or- dered not to hazard an engagement. On the 10th of October the senate at length ordered the great banner to be brought forth ; but instead of four thousand men, who heretofore had accompanied it, only seven hundred joined the standard. Zu- inglius attended them as chaplain. This detachment hastened with all possible speed across Mount Albis. Some, either from cowardice or disaffection, exclaimed, that they could not possibly arrive in time, and resolved not to proceed. " As to me," said Zuinglius, " I will, in the name of God, advance and join our brave countrymen. I will either assist in res- cuing them, or perish with them." At three in the afternoon the banner ar- rived at Cappel and joined the forces that had preceded, their whole strength now amounting to about two thousand men. Early on the next morning the catholic army drew out in complete armor, and close array. The leaders of Zurich, deliberated in council whether they should abide their approach or withdraw. Rudolph Gallman, of the free bailliagers, stepped forth, and stamping his foot on the ground — "This," cried he, " shall be my grave. God forbid that I should ever yield one single step to an enemy !" The cannonading began at noon ; the Zurichers avoided its first effects by fall- ing on their faces ; they then rose and maintained an obstinate fight for more than two hours ; when about three hun- dred of the most intrepid among the ene- my forced themselves into the centre of them, as they were endeavoring to form SWITZERLAND. 621 into two columns ; some fled instantly and threw the remainder into confusion. A person from the catholic army came among them, and, personating one of their own number, represented to them the impossi- bility of making an effectual stand, and exhorted them to retreat. They follow- ed his advice, and were pursued till night with much slaughter. The triumphant foe then returned to the field of battle, fell upon their knees, and returned thanks to the holy Virgin and all the saints for their victory ; they then sacked the camp of the Zurichers, and with horrid imprecations put to death the wounded, who had been left behind. A few, less inhuman than the rest, took some of them prisoners, dressed their wounds, and afforded them shelter from the intense cold. Zuinglius was among the wounded. He had been stunned and thrown down by a shower of stones, and trampled upon by the fugitives and their pursuers ; he recovered several times, but was too much exhausted to support himself. In his last efforts he raised himself upon his knees, and exclaimed, " They may in- deed kill the body, but they cannoi des- troy the soul ;" and then with clasped hands and uplifted eyes, he once more fell backward. A catholic soldier, ob- serving his quivering lips, offered to bring him a confessor, to which he made signs of dissent. A captain of Under- walden, who came by at the moment, fired with holy indignation against the obdurate heretic, pierced him through the neck. Thus fell Ulrich Zuinglius ; a man whom all parties allow to have possessed an heroic spirit, a greater de- gree of moderation than most of the other reformers, uncommon sagacity, com- bined with profound and extensive learn- ing and refined taste. He was ever averse to compulsive measures, but at all times willing to hazard his life in sup- port of his tenets. His manners were affable and conciliatory : he was a friend to cheerfulness and innocent mirth : and though indulgent to others, severely rig- id towards himself. The conquerors ex- ulted in his fall : they caused his body to be cut in quarters by the hangman of Lucerne, and to be burnt ; and lest his ashes should become an object of ven- eration to his followers, they mixed pieces of hog's flesh with his mangled limbs. With Zuinglius also fell fifteen other learned divines, whom a sense of duty brought into the field. The number of those slain on the part of Zurich, ac- cording to BuUinger, was five hundred and twelve ; and the loss of the catho- lics did not exceed, according to the most exaggerated account two hundred. Zurich sent out fresh forces, which were joined by re-enforcements from Berne, Basil, Schaffhausen, and other places. These troops, however, met with new disasters, and the city was at length obliged to sue for a separate peace. A treaty was negotiated and signed on the sixteenth of November. Each par- ty was by this treaty confirmed in the free exercise of its religion. Zurich agreed not to afford any protection to the protestants of the joint bailliages, and the indemnification which the five can- tons - claimed for the expenses of the war was referred to the general pacifica- tion that remained to be concluded with Berne. It was further stipulated, that in any further differences arbitration should be resorted to. The Bernese lost no time in following the example of the Zu- richers in accepting terms similar to those which had restored peace to Zurich, with the additional conditions that they should pay three thousand crowns to the five cantons for damages occasioned to the abbey of Muri and other religious edifices ; that they should exempt Underwalden from all further claims ; and that the expenses of the war, amounting to five thousand crowns, should be paid jointly by Berne and Zu- rich. This treaty was concluded by the mediation of the king of France, the duke of Savoy, the margrave of Baden, and some of the neutral cantons ; and was signed on the twenty-second of No- vember. This unfortunate issue of the war greatly retarded the progress of the reformation ; which is the more to be lamented, as it is now generally acknowl- edged that had the protestant cities unani- mously persevered, and kept the field only a few days longer, the catholics would have been compelled, by want of provisions, to accept any terms which 622 TARTARY. the former might have prescribed to them. In the year 1798, the history of the Helvetic confederacy began again to be connected with that of the surroimding countries. Contrary to the express treaty conchided between France and the coun- try under review, in 1792, the French di- rectory made a hostile descent on the canton of Basil in the year 1797. The Directory, without any other motive than the hope of plunder, excited, says M. Schoell, a revolution in Switzerland, and under pretence of being invited by one of the parties, they sent troops into the that country ; overturned the existing order of things ; and under the title of the Helvetic Republic, established a government entirely subject to their au- thority. Such was the downfall of the ancient constitution. The Swiss, enslaved by the Directory, made several bold efforts to regain their former independence, but in vain. Nor were they firmly united, else success might have crowned their exertions. Two parties which had long existed, though they had not openly avowed themselves, now appeared, and Switzerland experienced a series of rev- olutions in which the unionists, or aris- tocratical party, and the federalist or de- mocratic alternately had the ascendency. A civil war now tore this country, so long peaceful and happy. A French ar- my, under the command of Ney, again entered it, and established (1803!,) a con- stitution not of a kind wished for by the majority of the people, but recommended by Bonaparte, now consul of France. This constitution is known in history by the name of the act of Mediation ; and Bonaparte putting himself at the head of it, commanded the able co-operation of the Swiss in his future wars. Switzer- land, as before mentioned, now included nineteen cantons ; the constitution of each of which was more or less democratic ; while the equality of the citizens formed the basis of them all. Under such circum- stances, with the exception of some partial commotions, did this country continue till the success of the allied forces emanci- pated her from the grasp of her conquer- or. Immediately on this event, the can- tons were far from being agreed as to the future constitution of the country. A civil war, indeed, was likely to be the consequence. But the Congress of Vi- enna, which met in 1815, and fixed the boundaries of the different countries of Europe as they now stand, prevented this calamity, by taking the case of Switzer- land into their consideration. They did for her more than her best friends could have expected. They restored her in- dependence. They made, as stated in the beginning of this article, an addition of three new cantons to her territory. They granted to her that constitution of which we have already given an account. Under all these advantages, however, the Swiss cantons cannot be looked upon as greater than a third rate power ; but in other respects, particularly with regard to literature, education and civil privi- leges, she is not inferior to almost any of the first powers in Europe. TARTARY. " The boundaries of Tartary have never yet been ascertained. The cen- tral regions of Asia, from time immemo- rial, have been inhabited by numerous tribes of roving people. They have rarely combined under one head, although that event is supposed to have taken place in the thirteenth century, under the reign of Jenghis, or Ghenghis Khan, and again in the fifteenth under Timur, or Tamer- lane. These people were anciently called Scythians. Their character has been surprisingly uniform in all ages." From this country, in the heart of Asia, mighty empires have arisen, and from it anciently issued forth the conquerors of India, and the present possessors of China. In this country, during revolv- TARTARY. 623 ing centuries, bloody wars "w^ere waged, and battles fought, which decided the fate of empires. There the treasures of south- ern Asia have been frequently collected and as often dissipated. In these, now almost deserted lands, the arts and scien- ces once were successfully cultivated and protected ; and here flourished proud and powerful cities, now buried in ruins and forgotten. The ancient religion of the Tartars acknowledged the existence of one God; they are now divided into two sects, viz. the Mahometans and the worshippers of the Grand Lama who resides at Thibet. The empire of the Tartars, or Moguls, (as they are sometimes called from a number of Tartar tribes of that name,) is one of the most remarkable which has yet appeared in the world. It was im- agined that the Arabs had carried their victorioiis arms to the full extent even of the desires of ambition itself ; and that no human power could ever exceed the efforts of that people, who, in the com- pass of seventy years, subdued more countries than the Romans had conquered in five hundred ; but the Moguls have far transcended the Arabs, and from as small a beginning acquired a much larger em- pire in less time. Jenghis Khan extend- ed his dominions through a space of more than eight hundred leagues from east to west, and above one thousand from north to south, over the most powerful and wealthy kingdoms of Asia : hence he is with justice acknowledged as the great- est prince who ever filled the eastern throne ; and historians have bestowed upon him the highest titles that flattery and servility have ever contributed to offer to the possessor of sovereign power. The ancestors of this great conqueror were renowned for their valor, by which they gradually augmented the originally narrow extent of their dominion. His father Pisuka first brought under his com- mand the greater part of the chiefs of the Mogul nations. After this, having re- ceived an affront from the tribe of Su- Moguls or Tartars, he entered their ter- ritory, which he pillaged ; and being op- posed by Temujin Khan, with several tribes, who came to drive him away, he put them to flight, after a bloody battle, and returned to liis own country covered with honor. To commemorate this vic- tory, he gave the name of the vanquished khan to a son, of which his wife was shortly after delivered, calling him Te- mujin. This child is said to have been born with congealed blood in his hands, from which the astrologers foretold that he would overcome all his enemies in battle, and at length attain to the dignity of Grand Khan of Tartary. Pisuka chose for a tutor to his son, a man of exalted parts, and extensive erudition ; but be- fore the child had attained his ninth year, he showed a dislike to any other pursuit than that of arms. Temujin, at forty years of age, seeing himself master of very extensive domin- ions, he adopted the resolution to legiti- mate his power, by the public homage of all the princes within his dominions. He convoked them at Karakorom his capital, where they all met on the appointed day clothed in white, among whom were the princes of the blood attired like the rest. The emperor, with a diadem encircling his brow, advanced into the midst of this august assembly, seated himself on the throne, and received the compliments of the khans and other nobility, who offered up prayers for his health and prosperity. They then proceeded to confirm to him and his successors the sovereignty of the Mogail empire. After some subsequent victories, he renewed a similar inaugura- tion at the head of his army, with less pompous ceremonial, but much more af- fecting simplicity. He took his place on an ornamented seat, on an eminence of turf, whence he harangued the assembly with an eloquence that was natural to him. His discourse being ended, he sat down on a piece of black felt which had been spread on the earth, and the orator appointed for the occasion addressed him in the following terms : " However great the power you possess, O prince, you hold it from heaven ; God will prosper your undertakings if you govern your subjects with justice. If, on the con- trary, you abuse the authority lodged in your hands, you will become black as the felt on which you sit ; wretched and an outcast." Seven khans then respect- fully assisted him to rise, conducted him 624 TARTARY. to the throne, and proclaimed him chief of all the Mogul empire. Kokja, one of his relatives, was present ; a man who, by strictly practising the rigid duties of religion, had gained the reputation of be- ing inspired. He approached the prince, and said, "I am come, by the command of God, to inform you, that it is his plea- sure you should henceforth take the name of Jenghis Khan ; and you must publish it to your subjects, that in future they may give you that appellation." This title signifies the greatest Khan of Khans. The inauguration was ratified by the most extravagant demonstrations of joy. The Moguls, persuaded of the truth of the revelation, considered the rest of the world as a fit subject for conquest, which belonged by divine right to their Great Khan. When the emperor had thanked the people for the marks of love and re- spect which they had shown him, he de- clared his resolution to add to the ancient laws some new ordinances, which he said were necessary for their welfare. From this time, the Moguls thought only of war, and those who resisted them appeared in their ej'^es to be committing a crime against the sovereignty of Hea- ven. There was no enterprise, however hazardous, which Jenghis Khan did not think himself equal to accomplish. His ambition, however, might perhaps have been satisfied with Tartary in its natural state, without walls or fortresses, had not the sovereign of the Kin, or northern part of China, imprudently demanded of him the same tribute as was paid him by princes whom he had dethroned, and whose authority he had usurped. This claim irritated the haughty conqueror, who said in a sneering tone, "The Chi- nese ought to have the Son of Heaven for their master, but, at present, they know not how to choose a man." Neither the great wall built for the defence of China against the invasions of the Tar- tars, nor any other fortifications, could arrest the victorious progress of his troops. They poured like a torrent over China, routed its armies, desolated the country, and amassed immense treasures. The cities, and even the royal residence, fell into the hands of Jenghis Khan, by unforeseen events, which he had neither a right to expect nor hope for. In the short space of five years, the Mogid be- held himself master of all that extensive territory. He appointed Muhuli, his ex- perienced general, governor and lieuten- ant, with the title of king, which was to descend to his posterity ; while he him- self determined to make the domains of Mohammed, sidtan of Karazm, the boun- dary of his empire. It would exceed the limits of this work to enter into the particulars of all the cities taken and battles fought at this period. The devastation made by the Great Khan was like that of a thunder- bolt bursting over several countries at once, involving them in flames and ruin. The celerity and extent of the military exploits of Jenghis cannot be illustra- ted by a more opposite comparison. Never were those of any conqueror so destructive. His generals rushed on every part of the whole empire of Ka- razm at once, and enveloped it in one conflagration. The most beautiful and flourishing cities were reduced to heaps of ashes. Although the sultan employed every effort to succor his wretched do- minions, his armies were constantly de- feated in general engagements ; and the few partial advantages which they ob- tained, served only to retard, for a short time, the ruin of some particular cities and countries, and to give a lustre to the names of some of his captains. While Jenghis Khan, on one side of his empire, had fixed the Indus as its li- mit, his lieutenants on the other subjuga- ted Persia, inclosed the Caspian sea with- in his dominion, and carried their victo- rious arms as far as Iconium. As soon as the princes and generals had returned from their several expeditions, he assem- bled them in a plain of twenty-one miles in extent ; but this space was scarcely sufficient for the tents and equipages of all those who were convoked. The khan's quarters alone occupied nearly six miles in circumference. Streets, squares, and markets, were appointed, and tents were pitched for his household. The tent destined for the assembly would contain two thousand persons ; its cover- ing was white to distinguish it from the rest. A magnificent throne was erected TARTARY. 625 in it, and the black felt was not forgotten, on which the monarch sat when he first took his assumed name. This symbol of the original poverty of the Mogul's, long continued an object of veneration among them ; though they had already estranged themselves from their original simplicity, and all the luxury of Asia glittered in their attire, horses, harness, arms, and furniture. There appeared a great deal of mag- nificence in their equipages ; on the tops of their tents were placed streamers of the richest silks, of various colors, which alTorded a gay and grand prospect. Al- though the affairs of so vast an empire, were very numerous and complex, yet, by the regularity and order adopted by the keeper of Jenghis Khan's laws, all public business was transacted without the least confusion. The khan, who loved to harangue in public, took occa- sion to make a speech in praise of those laws, to which he imputed all his victo- ries and conquests. As a farther proof of his greatness, he ordered all the am- bassadors who had followed the court, as well as the envoys and deputies from the countries he had subdued, to be call- ed in, and gave them audience at the foot of the throne ; when his children and grand-children were also introduced to kiss his hand with tenderness. He graciously accepted their presents, and in return distributed among them magni- ficent donations. The ceremonial ter- minated with a grand festival which con- tinued many days, accompanied with ban- quets, abounding with whatever was most exquisite in liquors, fruits, and game, throughout his immense dominions. Soon after this assembly was dissolved, Jenghis Khan departed with his court, obliging the queen Turkhan Katun, whom he had taken prisoner, to follow him on a chariot, and loaded with irons, as the proud monument of his victories in the west. During his absence, the emperor left the government of his dominions to his brother Wache, who conducted him- self in his charge with great prudence. On the other hand, Muhuli, his lieu- tenant-general in China, acquired much reputation in the M'ar which he maintain- ed against the emperor of the Kin, and 79 I the king of Hya. Muhuli was consid- j ered by all the Moguls as the first cap- tain of the empire, and Jenghis placed entire confidence in him. The dignity to which he was advanced did not lessen his military ardor ; and in all his great enterprises he underwent as much fa- tigue as the meanest soldier. The khan, before he was proclaimed emperor, re- treating to his camp by night, after a se- vere defeat, and not able to find it from the snow that had fallen, lay down upon some straw to sleep, when Porchi and Muhuli took a covering and held it over him all night in the open air, which ac- tion gained them considerable reputation, and rendered their families highly esteem- ed among the Mogid princes. In the year 1225, the emperor Jenghis Khan arrived at the river Tula, after an absence of seven years. Among those who came out to meet him was Tyauli, queen of Lyau-tong, with the princes her nephews. That lady, who had a supe- rior and well cultivated understanding, fell on her knees before Jenghis, and paid him high compliments on his numerous conquests, and besought him to nominate Pitu to be king of Lyau-tong, in the room of the deceased king ; with this he com- plied, associating with him in the gov- ernment Shenko, the eldest son of the late monarch. In the next year Jenghis reduced the kingdom of Hya, after it had continued two hundred years under its own princes. This triumph was followed by others ; all his enterprises were crowned with victory. Prosperity, indeed, never de- serted him, even to his death. He was desirous of completing the conquest of the Kin empire ; but he fell sick before he could accomplish this purpose, and died at the age of seventy, A. D. 1227. He left his throne to his son Otkay ; and commanded Toley, another of his chil- dren, to assume the regency till his broth- er, who was then absent, should return. The death of the emperor threw all the court into extreme sorrow. His body was interred with gi-eat magnificence, in a place chosen by himself for that pur- pose ; it was under a beautiful tree, where, in his return from the chase, a few days before he fell sick, he had rest- 626 TARTARY. ed himself with much satisfaction, A noble monument was erected over his grave, and the people who came to visit the tomb planted trees around it, in such regular order, that in time it became one of the finest sepulchres in the east. Jenghis Khan on the whole merited respect and esteem, by his extraordinary talents. Besides all the qualities and virtues requisite in a great conqueror, he possessed a genius capable of forming great designs, and prudence equal to their execution ; a natural and persuasive eloquence ; a degree of patience enabling him to endure and overcome fatigue ; an admirable temperance ; a superior under- standing, and a penetrating mind, that instantly conceived the measure proper to be adopted on every occasion. His military talents are conspicuous in his successfully introducing a strict disci- pline, and severe police among the Tar- tars, who were till then unused to any re- straint. Every thing was done accord- ing to established rules ; whether ser- vice, recompense, or punishment. In- toxication was no excuse for such ac- tions as required one ; neither were birth or power admitted as a palliation for error or misconduct. His religion went to the acknowledg- ment of " One God, the creator of hea- ven and earth, who alone gives life and death, riches and poverty, who grants and denies whatsoever he sees proper ; and has over all things an absolute and irresistible power." Such was the creed of the Tartar khan, but he granted most extensive toleration to all his subjects. Some even of his own children, and princes of the blood, were Christians ; some Jews and Mohammedans, without incurring any marks of his disapproba- tion. His laws were simple, suitable to a newly formed people, who have few com- plex social connections. They enjoin the belief of one God ; that the chief of sects, and ministers of worship, of what- ever denomination, shall be exempt from taxes, which privilege was likewise ex- tended to physicians ; that no person shall assume the title of Great Khan un- less previously elected to that dignity at a general diet ; that no treaty of peace shall be entered into, with any king, or nation, till they are first subdued. To banish idleness out of his domin ions, he obliged every one of his sub jects to serve the public in some employ- ment. Adultery was punished with death Polygamy was permitted in the greatest extent ; and in order to multiply alliances between families, marriages were allow- ed to take place among the dead ; by this law the nuptial ceremony might be per- formed between a deceased man and wo- man, and the families of the parties be- came, in consequence of it, legally uni- ted. This custom is still prevalent among the Tartars, who throw the con- tract of marriage into the fire, and ima- gine that the flames will waft it to the parties, who will be espoused in the other world. Spies, false witnesses, and sorcerers, were by these laws condemned to death. The same punishment was awarded against those who attempted to plunder an enemy before the general's leave had been obtained. Unfortunately, however, in this reign, leave was never refused. All Jenghis Khan's generals were san- guinary and inexorable. According to the most moderate calculations, not fewer than two millions of men fell beneath the murdering sword, without reckoning the number that affliction and the horrors of slavery consigned to the grave. It is said that during his reign fifty thousand cities were demolished, some of them en- tirely desolated, the very vestiges of which scarcely remain. Such are the melancholy fruits of victories, such are the memorials that warriors leave behind them ! After the death of Genghis Khan, the next conqueror who makes a consider- able figure in the history of Asia was the celebrated Timur Beck, better known by the name of Tamerlane, who was born A. D. 1335. His father was one of those chieftains who had taken pos- session of a part of Persia, during the troubles which desolated that country. Timur, at his father's death, in 1359, was ambitious of preserving his usurped power, and with that view formed an al- liance with the neighboring chiefs, of whom the principal was the emir Hus- TARTARY. 627 sayn. These two jointly encountered the greatest dangers in the wars which they were compelled to wage. After an important action with Tekil, the gover- nor of Kivah, the two princes thought it safest to separate ; Timur crossed the desert with his wife, Hussayn's sister, and came to Jerfey, where he was sur- rounded by the Turkmans, and his situa- tion might have proved fatal if he had not been known by one of them, who protected him, and provided him with the means of joining his brother-in-law. Timur valiantly exposed his person in every formidable engagement : he had a genius capable of great actions, and was as well acquainted with the art of com- manding as with that of fighting. He experienced the greatest vicissitudes of fortune ; being at different times a con- queror, defeated, prisoner, released, wounded, fleeing almost alone through deserts, received in the great cities, some- times on terms of the strictest friendship with Hussayn, at other times at variance with him ; but in the end he became more powerful than his colleague, whose ill qualities estranged the affection of his troops and generals, while the excellent disposition of Timur captivated every heart. At a great entertainment made by the latter, A. D. 1364,he proposed to deliver out of prison Hamid, general of the Getes, whose father had been his friend, and prince Eskander his compan- ion. Hussayn consented, although the latter was his personal enemy. When those who assisted at the consultation were returned home, Timur sent two emirs to release the prisoners ; but their keepers seeing them at a distance, and imagining they came to put Hamid to death, knocked him down and cut off his head. This mistake proved fatal also to Eskander ; for emir Hussayn sent to demand that prince, and on getting him into his power, put him to death. In the following spring, news was brought that the Getes were marching towards Great Bukharia. The two princes went out to meet them : Hussayn commanded the right wing, and Timur the left. In consequence of a violent storm during the engagement, the Getes, who were well sheltered, obtained a complete victory. In a second attack they were also successful, when Timur rallied his forces, and a terrible slaughter ensued. Hussayn might still, if he had been attentive to Timur's advice, have rendered the victory complete ; but, whether through envy or presumption, he twice abused the messengers sent by Timur, who resolved to show his resent- ment at seeing the opportunity thus lost ; and when Hussayn, after he had recov- ered from his ill-humor, sent several messengers to Timur, requesting to see him at his tent, that prince refused to go to him. The battle was renewed the next morning, when Timur's forces were defeated with great slaughter. Hussayn crossed the Jihun ; but Timur remained in the country, with the resolution of op- posing the Getes. Finding his endeav- ors fruitless, he repaired to Balk, where he took great pains to increase his forces. The Getes laid siege to Samarcand, but were obliged to abandon the enterprise. Timur and Hussayn renewed their friendship, and in conjunction extended the limits of their empire. Although the former had the greater share in the war, he took but a secondary interest with re- spect to the general administration of the states which they had in this manner added to their possessions. But Hussayn was not satisfied with the authority ceded to him by Timur. He obliged him, by his unjustifiable conduct, to defend him- self by declaring war against him. All the princes ranged themselves on the side of Timur. He besieged his rival in the city of Balk, whither he had re- tired, and took him prisoner. When he was brought before Timur, the recollec- tion of their ancient friendship drew tears from the conqueror's eyes; who, when it came to his duty to pronounce sentence upon the captive, only said, " I renounce the right of taking away his life, and cancel the sentence of death awarded against him." The nobles, j fearing Hussayn's resentment, should he be suffered to escape, determined not to consider the emperor's renunciation of his power as a pardon to the captive ' prince ; and when he withdrew, followed I him and killed him. Thus was Timur left alone at the head of a vast empire, TARTARY. which he afterwards augmented by sub- sequent victories, that have placed him among the most illustrious conquerors, under the name of Tamerlane. After the reduction of Balk, A. D. 1371, he was elected by the unanimous voice of all the emirs, princes, and nobles, assembled in that city, to fill the imperial seat of Jagatay. At the ceremony of the coronation, Timur ascended the throne, placed a crown of gold upon his own head, and girded himself with the imperial belt, in the presence of the princes of the blood and the grandees ; who, kneeling before him in token of homage, wished him prosperity. They also made him sumptuous presents, sprinkled handfuls of gold and precious stones upon his head, and gave him the title of Emperor of the age, and Conquer- or of the world. The emperor treated the inhabitants of Balk with great rigor, putting some to death, imprisoning others, making their wives and children slaves, burning their houses, and ravaging the country around. By such methods he extermi- nated the rebels, and distributed their property among his own adherents. From Balk, Timur repaired to Samar- cand, which he made the seat of empire. Here he ordered a diet to be held, at which Zende Hasham refusing to attend, the emperor sent him a threatening sum- mons ; but this yoimg prince, instead of obeying, imprisoned the officer who was the bearer of it. The emperor, incensed at this insult to his authority, marched against him at the head of an army ; on the appearance of which Hasham's cour- age failed, and he sued for pardon, which Timur granted him. Hasham, however, rebelled a second time, and was again forgiven, and admitted to the court. This is not the only instance in which Timur extended a repetition of his clem- ency to princes who appeared against him in the field of battle ; by which he appeared to consider them in the light of independent sovereigns, rather than as rebels. For towards his natural sub- jects who resisted his authority, and took up arms against him, he behaved with a degree of rigor approaching to savage barbarity. About, A. D. 1377, Timur seemed to have attained to the summit of fehcity ; many of his officers bearing the titles of khan and sultan. While he was at Otrar, Isuf Soft sent an army to Bokhara, which ravaged that province. Timur complain- ed of the outrage, but without obtaining any sort of redress. In a short time af- ter, Sofi, shut up in the town of Skuz, sent a challenge to Timur, who accepted it, and, putting on his armor, contrary to the entreaties of his commanders, went to the edge of the ditch, and called on Isuf to come forth ; but the challenger thought it safer to keep within the walls. Notwithstanding this, Timur having some time afterwards received a present of some melons, thought it would be un- civil if he did not send some of them to Isuf who was so near : a part of the fruit was accordingly sent to him in a gold basin, and was delivered at the wall ; but Isuf ordered the melons to be thrown into the ditch, and gave the basin to the town-porter. After this the be- sieged made a furious sally, but were repulsed, and obliged to return within their city. Timur then ordered his generals to begin the siege of the capital, which continued about four months, till the castle was ruined, when the khan Isuf died of grief, and the town, after a brave resistance, was taken, many of the inhabitants slain, and all the learned men, as well as tradesmen, sent to Kash. This place, which had long been the seat of learning, surnamed on that ac- count. The Dome of Science and Virtue, was, from the verdure of its gardens and meadows, called also. The Green City. The emperor made it his ordinary re- sidence in summer, and the second city in the empire. Towards the end of the year 1380, Timur raised a great army of Turks and Tartars, crossed the Jihun, and made an expedition into the country of Korassan. When he arrived at Andekud, his devo- tion prompted him to visit the illustrious santon Baba Senku, one of those darwish who make a profession of folly, and for whom the Mohammedans have an extra- ordinary veneration, from the idea that God loved them before their creation, and on that account did not render them TARTARY. capable of offending. The idiot flung a breast of mutton at the emperor's head, who took this reception as a favorable augury, saying, " I am persuaded that God will grant me the conquest of Koras- san, because it has been always called the breast or middle of the habitable world." The people of this country being pos- sessed of a high degree of martial spirit, were not an easy conquest. The forces of Timur were several times repulsed ; but at length that emperor triumphed, and his glory and power were heightened in proportion to the difficulty of the con- quest. His court became that of the supreme sovereign of nations. He was surrounded with emirs and sheiks de- scended from Mohammed ; men who were held in a high degree of reverence, who devoted themselves to the study of the sciences, and professed the strictest principles of religion. Though Timur had fixed his residence at Samarcand, he enlarged and embellish- ed the city of Kash, and enriched it with the ornaments which he had found in the capital of the Getes. Even the gates of the latter place, which were curiously wrought and covered with remarkable inscriptions, he removed to his new-built town. He likewise transported thither the treasures of the kings of Guris, con- sisting of gold and silver coin, precious stones of all kinds, magnificent thrones, golden crowns, costly furniture, and a variety of other valuable effects, the ac- cumulated wealth of ages. He took there two thousand prisoners ; who by his command, were piled one upon an- other with bricks and mortar to construct towers, as a monument to deter his other subjects from rebellion. This was a species of cruelty not unfrequently prac- tised by Timur, and reflects eternal dis- grace on his name. After this period, victory was almost al- ways withhim the consequence of warfare. Persia, Armenia, Georgia, Turkestan, Ka- razm, the territory of the Kipjaks, and the Turkmans, all were witnesses to the valor of his arms ; and most of them were in their turns,equally monuments of this cru- elty, exhibiting testimonies, which endur- ed for ages, of the ferocity of his character. At Ispahan he issued an order for the massacre of all the inhabitants, except those who had saved some of his soldiers from death ; and to insure the prompt ex- ecution of his mandates, each company were bound, under pain of the severest punishment, to furnish a stated number of heads, which the merciless conqueror employed in building towers, in various parts of the city. From Ispahan, Timur carried his vic- torious arms into Russia, crossed the ri- vers Wolga, Yaik, and Oby, penetrated into the northern parts of Muscovy, and conducted his troops through regions where, for several months together, they beheld not the traces of any other human beings. Astracan, Moscow, Tobolsk, and otherlarge and important cities fell be- fore his arms ; and, what must ever tar- nish his glory, the more valiantly he was opposed by those whom the great law of self-defence excited to withstand his progress, the more cruelly did he treat them when the fortune of war threw them into his power. The bloody scenes of Ispahan were repeated again and again, in cities at the distance of many hundred miles from the capital of Persia. While, however, we reprobate and detest this part of his conduct, yet the modern war- rior will admire his skill ; and will be obliged to admit, that the laurels which he gathered were the just reward of his cares, his laborious life, and his courage. The discipline which he kept up was most severe ; as a chastisement to one of his captains for having lost an incon- .siderable post, he ordered him to be shaved, his face painted, and a woman's cap to be put on him ; and in this dis- guise he was compelled to walk through the town, barefooted. A. D. 1392, Timur advancing to Ku- laghi, a town in Kurdestan, led his troops against the robber Serek Mehemud, the Turkman, who had fortified himself in the mountains, where he had a citadel. This was taken and great numbers of the banditti were put to the sword. While the court resided at Ak Bulak, the great mufti came as ambassador from tlie sultan Ahmed Jalayr, of Bagdad, with offers of submission and presents ; which the em- peror did not receive with his usual po- 630 TARTARY. liteness, because he suspected Ahmed's sincerity, as the prayers were not read, nor money coined at Bagdad in his name. Timur, however, paid respect to the personal character of the mufti, but dis- missed him without any positive answer on the subject of his mission, and resolv- ed to lay siege to Bagdad. In his march to that city he travelled day and night. When he had arrived at Ibrahim Lik, a place within about a hundred miles of it, he inquired of the inhabitants whether they had sent pigeons to give notice of the approach of his army ? On being answeTed in the affirmative, he made them write another advice, importing, that the dust which they had perceived at a dis- tance, was caused by the Turkmans who fled to avoid Timur. This notice was tied under the wing of a pigeon, which was immediately despatched to Bagdad. This fresh intelligence inspired Ahmed with courage, though he was somewhat mistrustful of it. A very few days unde- ceived the sultan, when Timur with his troops arrived at Bagdad. The Tartar army were encamped on nearly two leagues of ground, but such was their panic, that they threw themselves into the Tigris, which theypassed, notwithstand- ing the rapidity of the stream. Timur pur- sued them for a distance of ten leagues, and then returned to Bagdad, at the en- treaty of his emirs, who continued on their route. The emperor having sent ambassadors to invite the sultan of Egypt and Syria to conclude a treaty of amity, advanced to- wards Takrit, a fortress on the Tigris, with an intent to destroy that nest of robbers. The town was built on a high rock near the river, the passes were closed up with stones laid in mortar, and it was so well fortified, that it was deemed impregnable. The emir Hassan, who commanded in j the place, sent several times to offer to capitulate. In the mean time the soldiers j advanced to the foot of the wall, which they began to undermine ; the whole ar- my, consisting of 72,000 men, being em- ployed in the work. At length part of i the wall fell down ; but the besieged re- paired the breach, and fought desperate- ly. Fire being afterwards set to the wooden props, most of the wall fell sud- denly, together with a great tower. Still the robbers, armed with planks and great bu(;klers, continued to defend themselves against the assailants ; who advanced to the very middle of the place, where a bloody battle ensued. Timur ordered the rest of the walls to be undermined ; which operation occasioning the fall of a large bastion, Hassan was so terrified that he retired to the edge of the mountain. Some of the besieged came out, and be- sought the emirs to intercede for their lives ; but Timur answered, " Let him come or not, no quarter shall be given." The assailants animated by these words, gained the top of the rock ; and seizing Hassan and those about him, brought them bound in chains to Timur, who or- dered the soldiers to be separated from the inhabitants and put to death ; he like- wise left a part of the walls standing, as a monument to posterity, of the arduous- ness of his exploit ; and, according to his usual custom, caused towers to be built with the heads of the robbers, as a terror to others. Having conceived an intention of car- rying his arms into China, in order to ex- terminate the infidels of that country, he determined to acquire the glory attached to the leader in a religious war, and to march into India in person ; for although j the religion of the prophet was professed in Delhi, and many other cities of that empire, yet the greater part of the pro- vinces were inhabited by idolaters. With this view, therefore, in the month of March, he took the field with a large ar my, composed of many nations, chiefly Tartars ; and after passing the Jihun, en- camped at Anderab, A. D. 1398. The inhabitants of this place having complained that the idolaters of mount Ketner, and the Siapushes, exacted large sums from the Mohammedans, under the denomination of tribute, and on the fail- ure of payment, slew the men, and made slaves of the women and children, the warlike Timur marched against these people. His emirs began to ascend the mountain of Ketner with great fatigue ; and as the infidels dwelt in narrow pas- sages and among precipices, and the roads were covered with snow, they TARTARY. 631 could not be attacked without much diffi- culty and danger. These obstacles how- ever, could not oppose the progress of the troops of Timur. The Siapushes, a sa- vage and gigantic race, defended them- selves with great obstinacy. The fight lasted three days and nights without in- terruption ; but at length the infidels beg- ged for quarter. It was granted on the con- dition of their becoming Mohammedans, to which they readily acceded ; but these having in the night treacherously put to the sword an entire regiment of their conquerors, the army of Timur ascended the mountain, and, following Mohammed's precept to spare the women, cut to pieces all the men, both old and young ; then raised towers of their heads, and left a marble monument inscribed with the his- tory of this action. In September, Timur crossed the In- dus, and in his march made a great num- ber of captives. When he arrived with- in two leagues of Delhi, he prepared for a pitched battle, and harangued his troops upon the art of fighting, breaking the en- emy's ranks, and rallying after a defeat. Fearing lest the prisoners attached to his army should join the people of Delhi, he ordered that every one of his soldiers that had any Indian slaves should instant- ly put them to death. This ferocious mandate was immediately carried into execution; and in one hour a hundred thousand human beings were slaughtered, to the eternal disgrace equally of the ty- rant who could command, and the troops who could perpetrate so atrocious a mas- sacre. On the 30th of December, Timur set out for Delhi. When the astrologers were consulting about the aspect of the planets, and were at variance as to the most favorable moment to begin the at- tack, some of them earnestly entreating him to delay it, he thus addressed them : " Happiness or misery does not depend on the influence of the planets, but on the will of the Creator of the universe. For my part, when once I have arranged my plan, and taken every necessary precau- tion, I would not defer the execution of it a single minute, to wait for a fortunate cri- sis" However, either to satisfy his own devotion or to animate his troops, he open- ed the Koran, and fell by accident or de- sign on a verse which, according to his interpretation, promised complete victory; he announced the good tidings to his ar- my, and pursued his design. The Jagatays were not alarmed at the Indian army ; but they had conceived strange notions respecting the elephants, having never before seen animals of this sort. They imagined that neither the arrow nor the sword could penetrate their bodies ; that they were so strong as to overthrow trees by only shaking the earth as they passed along ; that they could push down the firmest buildings ; and that in battle they would throw man and horse to a vast height in the air. This opinion prevailing in the camp, dispirited the troops, as well as all the rest of Timur's train. The emperor always showed a certain degree of respect to men of learn- ing, and asked those who were near his person, what posts they would choose. Several doctors, terrified at what they had read and heard of the elephants, im- mediately answered, " If it please your majesty, we will be near the ladies." Timur took means to dissipate these fears ; when the battle was about to com- mence, he ascended an eminence to ob- serve the motions of the hostile armies, and as soon as the engagement began, he fell on the ground, often bowing to im- plore of Heaven victory. Such an engagement had never been witnessed before, nor so dreadful a noise of warlike instruments heard. On the 4th of January, Timur erected his stand- ard on the walls of Delhi, and the prin- cipal inhabitants came to make submis- sion and sue for mercy. Even the ele- phants and rhinoceroses are said to have fallen down before the emperor in an humble posture, and to have uttered a great cry, as if they demanded quarter. On the 1 3th, the army of Timur entered this great and magnificent city and entire- ly destroyed it. Some soldiers carried out one hundred and fifty slaves each ; even boys possessed themselves of seve- ral much superior to themselves in age and strength. The other spoils, in pre- cious stones, jewels, plate, and manufac- tures, were innumerable ; for the Indian women and girls were adorned with pre- 632 TARTARY. cioiis stones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands, feet and toes ; so that the soldiers were loaded with them. On the ]5th day of January, the Indian troops in Old Delhi retired into the mosque to de- fend themselves ; but the emir Shah Ma- lek, and Ali Sultan, entering it with five hundred men, slaughtered them all with- out mercy, as an acceptable sacrifice to God and the prophet. The city was plundered, and the remaining inhabitants were made slaves. The different artifi- cers were distributed among the princes and commanders ; but the masons were all reserved for the emperor, in order to build him a spacious mosque at Samar- cand, which at the close of the expedi- tion he effected, making it large enough to serve for all the faithful in that great city. There is no danger of exaggeration in asserting that millions perished in this horrible war. The only privilege grant- ed to the survivors was that of being re- duced to slavery. It is scarcely possible to conceive the prodigious booty that the troops of Timur acquired in this expedi- tion, which was one uninterrupted scene of plunder and devastation. Immediately after the war in India, Timur undertook another expedition into Georgia. His troops laid waste all be- fore them, and the terrified inhabitants who escaped the sword fled with their effects and provisions to the high moun- tains, where they had fortified caverns and houses built upon craggy rocks, so that no power had ever yet been able to conquer them in these recesses. Timur's soldiers, however, never con- sidered danger when a sense of duty and honor called them ; they ascended the mountains, and were let down in boxes by cords to the caverns of the infidels, which they entered, making a terrible slaughter. Some of these craggy places were so well defended, that in order to disperse the enemy and bum their houses and entrenchments, the army were obliged to make use of combustible matter. In this expedition they took fifteen strong places, giving quarter only to such as embraced the religion of Mo- hammed. Timur left a strong garrison in Teflis, the capital of Georgia; and encamped in the plain of Mohran. The king of this place fled into the deserts, but the greater part of the people came to the camp and sued for pardon. When the country was reduced, the temples and monasteries were razed to the ground, and chapels and mosques erected in their room. The whole territory of Georgia would have submitted to the yoke of the conqueror, had not a quarrel made Timur turn his arms against Bajazet emperor of the Turks. Bajazet and Timur were rivals for glory, and burned with a desire of trying their strength upon each other. Both parties prepared for battle, in which for- tune once more favored Timur. Ba- jazet was taken prisoner, but the emperor treated him in this situation with great respect. In the course of their route, Bajazet was seized with an illness, of which he died, A. D. 1402. Timur be- wailed his death with many tears, hav- ing intended, after the conquest of Ana- tolia, to re-establish him on the throne. Timur enriched his troops with the plunder of Anatolia, and then menaced the Egyptian monarch, who despatched embassadors with terms of submission, which having accepted, he returned to Georgia. The king, whose name was Malek, made promises, M'hich after the departure of Timur he neglected to per- form. At length, however, learning that the Tartar was once more ravaging his dominions with fire and sword, Malek sent to entreat him to suspend hostilities, adding, that fear alone prevented him from appearing personally before him, and that if assured he could do so with safety, he was ready to throw himself at the feet of the emperor, and take the oath of fidelity and obedience to him. " The case of your master," replied the Tartar khan, " who is a Christian, has no simi- larity with that of the Mohammedans ; because their religion pleads for them. Tell him, if he wishes to preserve his life, he must repair instantly to my court. Should God refuse him the grace of em- bracing the faith of the prophet, I will impose a tribute upon him, and leave him the government of his territories, and will not molest the inhabitants. The emperor of Constantinople, who is a Christian, is on these terms with me." TARTARY. 633 Bajazct b) ought htfoic Timui , or Tamcdanc. Malek was still dilatory in complying with these hard conditions, and Timur resumed his religious warfare with his customary barbarity. The king then sent to offer to relinquish all his treasures, to pay an annual subsidy, and to furnish troops. The emirs conjured the emperor on their knees to accept these submis- sions. He consulted the doctors of the law, who declared, that since the Geor- gians consented to become tributary, and promised never to injure the Mussulmen, the law required that quarter should be granted them, and that all pillage and massacre should cease. On hearing this judgment, Timur made a favorable mo- tion of his head, and the peace was rati- fied. Notwithstanding the furious zeal with which the Tartar emperor prosecuted his religious wars, he appears occasionally to have been animated with heroic prin- ciples, which, if they had been properly directed, would have excited him to gen- erous actions. These laudable senti- ments are apparent in a discourse which he addressed to his council. " Until now," said he, " my ambition has been to make conquests, and to extend the limits of my vast empire ; henceforth my nobler ambition shall be to secure the peace and prosperity of my subjects, and render my dominions flourishing. Let individuals make known their requests and grievances to me in person ; let them counsel me for the good of the Mussul- men, the glory of the faith, and for the extirpation of the wicked and the dis- turbers of the public peace. The op- pressed shall not, at the day of judgment, demand vengeance against me ; neither on that solemn occasion shall my brave soldiers have reason to complain of me or of fortmre. Their sorrows aflfect me even more than themselves. My wishes and intentions are, that the world should, under my reign, be converted into a para- dise ; and I know, that when a monarch is just and merciful, his kingdom is crowned with blessings and glory. In short, I am determined to amass a trea- sure of justice, that my soul may be en- titled to happiness after death." This was surely an extraordinary harangue from the mouth of one who had spent a long life in usurping dominions, dethron- ing princes, depopulating countries, ex- tending and multiplying scenes of misery 634 TARTARY. and devastation, and destroying the hu- man race with the most savage bar- barity. It must be for ever regretted, that a man, who with proper ideas of justice and religion would have been formed to amend the faults of mankind, should have been reduced by religious fanaticism into the most horrible crimes. It was cer- tainly under the impression that he was performing a meritorious act, that he de- termined to undertake a new war against China. He announced his intention to his council in the following terms: "My dear companions, as my conquests have not been effected without considerable violence, which has unavoidably occa- sioned the destruction of numbers of the faithful, I am resolved to expiate my past crimes by performing some good action. I will therefore declare war against the infidels, and exterminate the idolaters of China. It is proper that the same troops who have assisted me in committing these faults, should become the instruments of my penitence. Hence, then, let them prepare to march to China, that they may acquire the merit of this holy Avar, by demolishing the temples of idols, and erecting mosques in their places." Timur now prepared to lead his army, consisting of twelve hundred thousand men, through dreary deserts, or already desolated countries. The cold was so excessive on their departure, that the troops passed the largest rivers on ice. They could not procure water without digging to the depth of several feet. Multitudes had their limbs frozen ; and numbers both of men and horses per- ished on the march ; but no obstacle could daunt the spirit of the victorious Timur; his presence animated every heart. He was obliged, however, by fatigue, to stop in a town of small importance, not far distant from the frontiers of China. In this place he was seized with a raging fever, which threatened his life. He seemed to have a melancholy presenti- ment of a speedily approaching dissolu- tion. He thought he heard a voice call- ing him to repent, for he must soon ap- pear before God. Obedient to the solemn admonition, he set about the great work of repentance, and resolved to endea- vor to make satisfaction for his faults, by the performance of good actions. Although his sickness daily increased, he was not unmindful of his army, but was perpetually inquiring after its condition. At last he perceived that death was approaching ; and, animated with the hopes of his religion, he sum- moned his family and his nobles aroimd his bed. He saw them bathed in tears, and addressed them in a low but firm tone : " Do not," said he, " weep, but pray for me. I hope God will pardon my sins, though they are very numerous. I have, however, the consolation of re- flecting that I, at all times, restrained the powerful from oppressing the weak. Labor all of you for the happiness of the people ; for at the day of judgment a rigid account will be demanded of those who have enjoyed authority." He then declared his grandson, Pir Mehemed Je- han Ghir, his sole heir, and successor in the empire; enjoining the persons present to obey him, and if necessary, to sacri- fice their lives to maintain his authority. After this he ordered all the emirs, and great lords of his court, to come into his presence, and made them swear to see his will executed. Having, in the most affectionate man- net, recommended brotherly love and con- cord to the princes his children, he order- ed one of the doctors to read the Koran at his bed's-head, and often to repeat the unity of God. In the evening he made many and unequivocal professions of his faith, and expired while he was emphat- ically repeating a favorite article of his creed, " Verily, there is no other god than God." He was seventy-one years of age, of which he had reigned thirty-six. A. D. 1405. Timur Bek was the first who brought the crown into his family. At the age of twenty-five he had astonished every one with his exploits, his valor, and am- bition. To perfect the great talents which he had received from nature, he spent nine years in travelling, during which his great understanding and ele- vated genius appeared in councils and assemblies, while his intrepidity and prowess, whether in personal combats or TURKEY. 635 in pitched battles, drew upon him the ad- miration of all mankind. He made himself master of the three empires of Jagatay Khan, Tushi Khan, and Hulaku Khan ; so that his power, wealth, and magnificence, were almost beyond conception. Nmnerous monu- ments of his grandeur are still remaining in the cities, towns, castles, and walls, which he built ; in the rivers and canals which he dug ; and in the bridges, gar- dens, palaces, hospitals, mosques, and monasteries, which he erected in differ- ent parts of Asia. In his person Timur was corpulent and tall. He had a broad forehead, an agreeable countenance, and a fair com- plexion. He wore a large beard, was very strong, and of robust limbs ; he had broad shoulders, his fingers were thick, and he had long legs. His constitution was amazingly vigorous ; but he was maimed in one hand, and lame of the right side. His eyes appeared full of fire; his voice was loud and piercing; he feared nothing ; and at his death, though upwards of seventy, his under- standing was sound and perfect, his body vigorous and robust, his mind constant, and unshaken as a rock. He did not like raillery, and could not endure a lie. There was no joking or trifling before him, for he loved the naked truth, even although it was to his own disadvantage. He neither grieved if he miscarried in any attempt, nor appeared overjoyed on any great success. The device which he had chosen for his seal was, " I am sincere and plain." He took great delight in reading history, and was exceedingly well versed in the state of different countries, provinces, and cities. He was penetrating, subtle, close and dissembling; just from inclination, and liberal from habit and disposition ; but on the other hand, ambition had in a great measure extinguished his humanity ; war had familiarized him to blood ; and his religious zeal had inspired him with a cruel, implacable, and pernicious fanat- icism. Timur left behind him fifty-three de- scendants, thirty-six males, and seven- teen females. The Mogul empire be- came dismembered, and from its wreck arose a number of kingdoms and small principalities governed by princes de- scended from this conqueror, reigning under the title of sultans, khans, emirs, and shahs. Samarcand the seat of the empire of Timur, after his death, relapsed into its former barbarism. TURftEY. The obscurity in which the Turkish annals are involved, have prevented his- torians from tracing, with any degree of accuracy, the origin of those warlike tribes, who, under the name of Ottomans, have subjected to their dominion, and covered with ignorance and despotism, some of the fairest and most fertile por- tions of Asia and Europe. The Turkish writers claim their descent from Turc, the eldest of the eight sons of Japhet, who is represented as the great progeni- tor of the Tartar tribes, or Huns, who dwelt in tents, and occupied, with their flocks and herds, the extensive plains on the north of China, India, and Persia, between the Caspian and the sea of Ja- pan ; and parts of which have received the name of Turkistan. Little, however, is known of the history of this country until the middle of the sixth century, when one of these tribes, denominated Turks, who inhabited the Altai mountains, and were chiefly engaged in the manu- facture of iron, renounced their allegiance to the Geougen Tartars, to whom they had been long subject. After repeated victories, under Bertezena, their first leader, the name and dominion of the Geougen were extinguished; and the subject tribes, marching under the stand- ard of the Turks, were led to distant and important conquests. On the banks of the Til they overthrew the khan of the 636 TURKEY. Ogors or Varchonites, with 300,000 of his subjects. They subdued the Neph- thalites, or White Huns, a polished and warlike people who then inhabited Great Bucharia, and in the invasion of China their forbearance was purchased with splendid gifts. In the course of fifty years they had established a powerful empire, extending from the wall of China to the sea of Azoff, and were connected in peace and in war with the Chinese, Persians, and Romans. They contin- ued, like their fathers, to wander from place to place without any fixed habita- tions ; and their favorite exercises were hunting and war. Attached to their na- tive seats, the royal encampment was seldom far removed from mount Altai; and when the Roman ambasssdors were first presented to Disabul, their khan, " the tent of the monarch," according to Mr. Gibbon, " was surrounded with silk hangings, embroidered in various figures, and the royal seat, the cups, and the va- ses, were of gold. Another pavilion was supported by columns of gilt wood, a bed of pure and massy gold was raised on four peacocks of the same metal, and be- fore the entrance of the tent, dishes, ba- sins, and statues of solid silver and ad- mirable art, were ostentatiously piled in wagons, the monuments of valor rather than of industry." The Romans frequently experienced the benefit of the Turkish alliance, by their powerful diversion, on the side of the Oxus, against their common enemy the Persians. But this extensive em- pire, after a duration of 211 years, fell by its own weight. The princes of the blood, who were appointed to the govern- ment of its distant provinces, soon forgot their gratitude and their allegiance, and the vanquished tribes were encouraged and supported by the policy of China in resuming their independence. After the dissolution of this empire, many of the Turkish chiefs obtained other thrones, and more wealthy domin- ions. The family of Samanee usurped the sovereign authority in Persia, which they held for 125 years, and were suc- ceeded by that of Ghizni, where Sultan Mahmoud was one of the greatest mon- archs that ever sat upon the throne of Persia. After the short period of forty years, they, in their turn, were supplanted by the shepherd kings of the tribe of Sel- jookee, who extended their dominion from China over Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt. The unity of this mighty empire was dissolved by the death of Malik Shah, and while Persia continued subject to the elder branch, the younger dynasties of the house of Seljookee established the kingdoms of Kerman, Syria, and Roum, or Anatolia. The kingdom of Roum, in which the others eventually merged, extended from the Euphrates to Constantinople, and from the Black Sea to the confines of Sy- ria, with Nice for its capital ; and Soly- man, its first sultan, had his conquests confirmed to him by a treaty of peace with the emperor Alexius Comnenus. But his successor was driven from his capital by the arms of the crusaders, and the battle of Dorylseum stript him of all his territories upon the sea-coast from Trebisond to the Syrian gates. After the loss of Nice, the royal residence was removed to Iconium, an obscure inland town, above three hundred miles from Constantinople. Here the successors of Solyman continued to reign for nearly a century and a half, engaged in almost in- cessant hostilities with the Greek empe- rors, until Anatolia was overwhelmed in the general wreck by the ravages of Jen- ghis Khan and his successors. The sul- tan of Iconium, after a feeble resistance," fled for refuge to his former enemies the Greeks of Constantinople, and the frag- ments of the Seljookian monarchy were seized by the emirs or governors of the cities and provinces, who continued to exercise an independent dominion until their territories became gradually and imperceptibly incorporated with the Ot- toman empire. One of these emirs was Olhman, from whom the Ottomans derive their name. His grandfather Solyman, who, with other Turkman chiefs, had attached himself to the fortunes of the sultan of Carizm^, after the dispersion of the Carizmean army by the Moguls, directed his course to- wards the west, and perished while at- tempting to cross, on horseback, the wa- ters of the Euphrates. Orthogrul, the TURKEY. 637 eldest of his sons, led his forces into Anatolia, and having obtained a grant of territory from Aladdin, the sultan of Ico- nium, he established a camp of 400 tents at Surgut, on the banks of the Sangar. Placed on the verge of the Byzantine empire, he made constant incursions into its territory ; and being appointed gener- alissimo of the army of Iconium, he per- severed for half a century in preserving and extending his conquests in that quarter. Othman fixed the seat of his govern- ment at Byrsa, the chief town in Bythi- nia, and assumed the title of sultan. — From this time the Turks were known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. In the reign of Orchan, 1 334, the Turks crossed the Hellespont, took Gallipoli, and laid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe. The order of Turkish soldiers, called Janizaries, was formed by Orchan. Bajazet I, a successor of Orchan, purposed to besiege Constan- tinople in form, but was suddenly forced to defend himself from TLnur or Tamer- lane, who had now become a great con- queror in the east, [see Tartary.) The battle of Angoria, between Timur and Bajazet, is famous in history. Nearly one million of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 slain. Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner, and accord- ing to some writers, was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed him- self. Under Amurat II, the Turks re- sumed the project of taking Constantino- ple, but did not suceeed. Mahomet II, his successor, commenced his reign with the murder of his two in- fant brothers ; and the first object of his ambition was the capture of Constantino- ple. That city, with its suburbs, com- prised the dominions of Constantine Paloeologus, its reigning emperor. Its inhabitants were distracted by religious divisions. Some were anxious for their union with the Romish church, while others declared that they would rather see the turban of Mahomet in the church of St. Sophia than the pope's cap ; and when Constantine sent ambassadors to Rome to demand succors, and complete the union of the two churches, the pope, suspecting his sincerity, refused all as- sistance. The eastern empire was thus abandoned to its fate, and Christendom beheld its fall with indifference. The site of the city of Constantinople forms an equilateral triangle, having on the south the sea of Marmora, and on the north-east the gulf of Keras, which forms the port or harbor. On the land side it was defended by a double wall, and a ditch 100 feet deep and 200 wide ; and the harbor was secured by a strong chain drawn across from the Fair-gate to Galata, and protected by eight large ships. Had this city been garrisoned according to its capability, it might have defied every attempt for its subjugation ; but out of 100,000 inhabitants, scarcely 5,000 could be found willing to man the ramparts in defence of all that was dear to them. These, with a re-enforcement of 2,000 Latins, under John Justinian, a noble Genoese and a skilful warrior, formed its sole defence against 250,000 Moslems, instigated by religious fanati- cism and the hopes of plunder. But the heroic valor of Constantine was worthy the best days of Rome, and although al- most hopeless of success, he resolved to die in the cause of religion and honor. Anxious, however, to save the lives of his people, and desirous of peace upon any conditions short of the surrender of his capital, he proposed to pay whatever tribute the Moslem might impose. But Mahomet could too well appreciate the situation of Constantinople as the centre of a mighty empire, and his ambition would be satisfied with nothing less. He offered the Morea as an equivalent to the emperor, and to the people a free tolera- tion or a safe departure. Constantine rejected the degrading compromise, and answered with firm resignation and heroic resolution, " My trust is in God alone ; if it should please him to mollify your heart, I shall rejoice in the happy change ; if he delivers the city into your hands, I submit without a murmur to his holy will. But until the judge of the earth shall pronounce between us, it is my duty to live and die in the defence of my people." The Turkish army extended from the Propontis to the harbor, and all the ge- nius and valor of Mahomet were employ- 638 TURKEY. Death of Constantine at Constantinople ed in the attack ; but they were met by the little garrison with equal skill and bravery, and who made such an obstinate resistance that all his efforts on the land side were unavailing. In order, there- fore, to make a double attack, and as the barrier to the harbor was impenetrable, he formed the wonderful project of trans- porting by land his lighter vessels and military stores from the Bosphorus to the higher part of the harbor. A road was opened behind Galata, through brush- wood and over hills ; and seventy gal- lies, drawn forward by the power of men and pullies, were launched into the shal- low waters of the harbor, where the hea- vy vessels of the Greeks could ofter no molestation. Being thus provided with the means of attack against a more vul- nerable part of the city, and having open- ed several breaches in the wall by his enormous cannon, Mahomet prepared his army for a general assault. He inspired his troops by setting before them the joys of paradise if they fell, and the certainty of plunder if they survived. " The city and its buildings I claim for my own ; but I resign to your valor the captives and the spoil ; and the intrepid soldier who first ascends the wall, will I reward with the govcTnment of the fairest and most wealthy province of my empire." The decisive attack commenced at day- break, on the 29th of May, 1543. Ma- homet, with an iron mace in his hand, encouraged his soldiers to enter the breach, which was bravely defended against fearful odds by the emperor and .lustinian. The latter being wounded, re- tired from the fight, and Constantine fell in the breach, covered with heaps of slain. His death spread consternation among the Greeks, who fled towards the city, pursued by the victorious Turks, and Constantinople was irretrievably lost to the Christians. The sultan, attended by his pachas and guards, passed in tri- umph through the gate of St. Romanus. The inhabitants were devoted to slavery or ransom, and their treasures became the lawful spoil of the conquerors. All the public buildings were preserved, and the principal churches stripped of their images and ornaments, were transformed into mosques by worship and purifica- tions. From the period of the taking of Con- stantinople, in the middle of the fifteenth century, the Turks were a great and con- quering people. In the sixteenth cen- TURKEY. 639 tury, Selim I, after subduing Syria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Epypt, then governed by the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians, who had seized the country in 1250, and put an end to the government of the Arabian princes, the posterity of Saladin. The conquest of Egypt by SeUm made Uttle change in the form of its government. It professes to OM'n the sovereignty of the Turks, biit is in real- ity governed still by the Mameluke Beys. Solyman the (Magnificent,) son of Se- lim, was, like his predecessors, a great conqueror. The island of Rhodes, pos- sessed by the knights of St John, was a darling object of his ambition. These knights had expelled the Saracens from the island in 1310. Solyman attacked Rhodes with 140,000 men and 400 ships. The Rhodian knights, aided by the Eng- lish, Italians, and Spaniards, made a no- ble defence ; but, after a siege of many months, were forced to capitulate, and evacuate the island, in 1522, which has been the property of the Turks ever since. The commercial laws of the ancient Rho- dians were adopted by the Romans, and are at this day the foundation of the maritime jurisprudence of all the nations of Europe. Solyman subdued the greatest part of Hungary, Moldavia, and Wallachia, and took from the Persians, Georgia and Bag- dad. His son Selim II, took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1571. They ap- plied to the pope for aid, who, together with Philip II of Spain, entered into a triple alliance against the Ottoman pow- er. An armament of 250 ships of war, commanded by Philip's natural brother, Don John of Austria, was opposed to 250 Turkish gallies in the gulf of Lepan- to, near Corinth ; and the Turks were defeated, with the loss of 150 ships, and 15,000 men, 1571. This great victory was soon after followed by the taking of Tunis by the same commander. But these successes were of little con- sequence. The Ottoman power continu- ed extremely formidable. Under Amu- ruth II, the Turks made encroachments on Hungary, and subdued a part of Per- sia. Mahomet III, though a barbarian in his private character, supported the dignity of the empire, and extended its dominions. The Ottoman power declined from his time, and yielded to that of the Persians under Schah-Abbas the Great, who wrested from the Turks a large part of their late acquired dominions. Under Mustapha III, Russia and Tur- key engaged in a furious and bloody vvar, which lasted from 1769 to 1774. By means of a fleet which sailed to the Ar- chipelago, the Russians seized a part of the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and declared in favor of Russia. The Sultan, however, quelled the insurrection, 8,nd inflicted cruel pun- ishments on many of the Greeks. This war was generally disastrous to the Turks. The war was renewed by Achmet IV, in 1787, and was concluded by Selim III, after important concessions had been made to Russia. The Russian command- ers KoutousofF, and Suwarrow, distin- guished themselves in this war. It was during the reign of Selim that Bonaparte invaded Egypt, {see Egypt,) and afterwards Syria. He was signally defeated at St. Jean d'Acre, in 1799, after making eleven desperate attempts to car- ry the place by assault. The Turks at this fortress under the command of Djezzar Pa- cha were assisted by a British force under Sir Sidney Smith. The Turkish soldiers contended with Sir Sidney for the honor of defending the breach in the walls made by the artillery of the French. The en- ergetic old pacha coming behind the British officers at the breach, actually pulled them down, observing, that if any thing should happen to them all would be lost. At the last desperate attempt of the French, the plan of Djezzar was not to defend the breach, but to admit a cer- tain number of the enemy, and then close Avith them according to the Turkish mode of warfare. A French column, therefore, mounted the breach unmolested, and de- scended from the rampart into the pacha's garden, where, in a few minutes, the bravest and most advanced of them lay headless corpses ; the sabre in one hand and a dagger in the other, being more than a match for the French bayonet, the rest precipitately retreated. The French after a siege of about two months made a disastrous retreat into Egypt, having lost about 4,300 men. During the period of the Greek revo- 640 TURKEY ^^9 ^m ^Sii^l ^^m^^^^ii ^^^m Sir Sidney Smith at the siege of Acre- liition, which commenced in 1821, {see Greece,) a contest of a most sangui- nary nature was maintained at Con- stantinople, between the sultan and his rebellious janissaries. Halet Efl'endi, an enlightened minister, and the favorite of the sultan, had fallen a sacrifice to the jealous interference of these troops ; and the frequent murders and frightful disor- ders which they committed rendered them so dangerous to the peace and hap- piness of the capital, that Mahmoud threat- ened to abandon Constantinople unless a stop was put to such atrocious proceed- ings. This threat produced a temporary quiet ; but their rebellious movements were again renewed, and several of their officers, suspected of plotting against the life of the sultan, were arrested and put to death. Their outrages and domina- tion, however, became at last so intolera- ble, that Mahmoud prepared to reduce them to subordination by forcing upon them a new system of discipline ; and al- though every attempt to promote this measure had hitherto proved abortive and fatal to its supporters, yet he retained so strong an impression of its importance, that he resolved upon their submission or extirpation. At a general council of the principal ministers and officers of the Porte, it was determined to commence this measure by a draught of 150 men from each orta of the janissaries, who were to be drilled by Egyptian officers, and to be incorporated with the new troops. As these detachments entered upon the new evolutions, under an im- pression that they were merely the revi- val of an old exercise used in the time of Solyman, no dissatisfaction was evinced for some time, and preparations were making for a general review, when a standard bearer happened to call out, " This is very like Russian mancEuvring." The effect was instantaneous. These haughty troops no sooner perceived that they had been led to practice the hated exercise of the Nizam djedit, than their resentment was excited to the utmost. They immediately marched to the palace of the Porte, which having pillaged, they dispersed themselves throughout the city, and committed the most frightful exces- ses. The grand vizier and Janissary Aga escaped their fury only by a timely flight to the country palace of Bashiktash, where the sultan was then residing. TURKEY. 641 Mahmoud was no sooner informed of the revolt, than he hastened to the se- raglio, and, with a prompt and energetic decision, took immediate steps for crush- ing with a strong arm those dangerous and turbulent subjects. At a meeting of the Divan it was resolved to display the Sandschak Sherif; and orders were des- patched to Hussein Pacha and the Top- gee Bashi, or commander of artillery, to advance with their forces to the capital. The zealous Ottomans hastened to rally round the sacred banner, which was borne to sultan Achmet's mosque ; and there, surrounded by the ulema and his court, the sultan pronounced an anathema against all who refused to acknowledge the symbol of the prophet. The janissa- ries, to the number of upwards of 20,000, had, as usual on such occasions, assem- bled in the Atmeidan ; and the offer of pardon, upon condition of their submis- sion, was received with scorn, and an- swered with the murder of the messen- gers, and a demand of the heads of the grand vizier and other distinguished offi- cers. The mufti having declared them beyond the pale of the law, and issued \iisfetva to that effect, Hussein Pacha was ordered immediately to advance and extirpate the rebels. Presuming upon their former power and privileges, and on the influence which they had hitherto ex- ercised in the government, the janissa- ries awaited with confidence a compli- ance with their demands, when they were awakened to the dreadful reality of their situation by a discharge of grape-shot among their dense and crowded masses. After a feeble resistance, they retired to their barracks, and offered submission ; but Mahmoud, convinced that the safety of the throne and empire depended upon their utter extinction, was inexorable. He ordered the barracks to be fired and no quarter given. The buildings were battered to pieces by cannon, and the wretched inmates who attempted to es- cape were thrown back hito the smoking ruins. Above 4,000 miserable victims perished by the shot or in the flames. Du- ring the two following days a tribunal sat in the Atmeidan for the trial of the insur- concerned in the revolt, was strangled on the spot ; and others less culpable were banished to Asia. The numbers that suf- fered on this occasion could never be distinctly ascertained, but 20,000 at least were removed by death or exile. A firman of the Porte abolished for ever the name and institution of the janissa- ries ; and thus was successfully achieved this great military revolution ; and those turbulent troops, who, for upwards of four centuries, had exercised a control in the government alike incompatible with the dignity of the sovereign and the safe- ty of the state, who had deposed and put to death so many sultans, and who had so often filled the empire with troubles and commotions, were swept from the capital, and crushed under the vigorous hand of the inexorable Mahmoud. The threatening attitude of Russia, compelled the Porte to take measures to oppose the movements of that power to obtain possession of his territory. Mah- moud seeing that a rupture could not be avoided without degrading submissions, prepared for the struggle. With his best troops occupied in Greece and Servia ; his navy destroyed, and the janissaries annihilated, his principal dependence rested upon the raw levies of Asia, who could not be expected to cope with reg- ular troops of Russia in the field ; he therefore resolved upon strictly defensive operations, to strengthen his fortresses on the Danube, to concentrate his army at Shumla, and to defend the barriers of the Balkan. The Russian armies under Count Wittgenstein passed the Pruth, in May, 1828, and occupied the principalities without opposition. The Emperor Nich- olas with an army passed the Danube on the 7th of June. After various opera- tions during the summer, the severity of the weather put an end to hostile move- ments on both sides. Russia had little to boastofin the issue of this campaign. After all her mighty preparations, her troops were stopped by the Balkans, the first spot where they met with a Turkish army. Her only conquests of importance, where any resis- gents. Every janissary taken in arms, tance to her arms was offered, were Brai- or who was suspected of having been ' low and Varna, and this last vi^as obtain- 81 642 TURKEY, ed by treachery; and she acknowledged the loss of 20,000 men slain, or so badly ■wounded, as to be incapable of again serving. The capture of Varna, however, and more especially the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Navarin, which the Russians could not have accomplished in open and honorable warfare, gave them a decided advantage in the following campaign. By the former she obtained a point of advance, which gave her the command of the road into the plains of Roumelia ; and by the latter she obtained the command of the Black sea, which enabled her to harass the Turkish coasts, and to convey re-enforcements and sup- plies to her invading armies. General Diebitsch commenced his operations on the Danube, by the invest- ment of Silistria, on the 17th of May, 1829, after defeating a corps of Turks and taking two redoubts. He also secur- ed his communications by a line of posts with Bazardjik and Varna. About the same time, the grand vizier, Redchid Pacha, left Schumla, with the intention of attacking the fortified town of Pravadi. At Eski Arnaullar he fell in with a Rus- sian detachment of 4,000 men, who de- fended themselves bravely for Ave hours against four times their number, till fresh troops came to their assistance, when the Turks were compelled to retire. Be- ing joined by a strong re-enforcement, Redchid returned to the charge, and en- deavored to turn the left flank of the Russians. Here he was opposed by general Roth, when after some hard flghling, he abandoned the enterprise with the loss of 2,000 men, and return- ed to Schumla. In the beginning of June, however, the grand vizier succeeded in making a regular investment of Pravadi with 40,000 troops. General Roth, find- ing himself unable to make head against such a force, solicited re. enforcements from the commander-in-chief. Count Diebitsch, who was then prosecuting the siege of Silistria, left that operation in charge of his second in command, and proceeded in person at the head of the re-enforcements, with a determination to force the Turks to a general battle. With this view, he cut off their communica- tion with Schumla, by occupying the de- files and passes in their rear, by which they drew their ammunition and supplies from that fortress ; and the grand vizier was not aware of his approach till he beheld the Russian columns advancing to the attack. A most sanguinary combat ensued, Avhich continued for four hours, when the fire from the exhausted troops wholly ceased on both sides. Redchid Pacha then prepared to fall back upon Marash ; but Diebitsch was resolved up- on his complete defeat ; and having made some new arrangement of his forces, returned to the charge before the Turks had commenced their retreat. The ac- cidental blowing up of their amunition wagons so intimidated the Ottomans, and disordered their ranks, that, after dis- charging their artillery, they gave way on all sides, abandoning their camp, with 40 pieces of cannon, and all their ammunition and baggage. Sixteen more cannon and many prisoners were taken in the pursuit, and so thorough was the rout, that, with the exception of some cavalry who fell back upon Aidos, the Turkish army was entirely dispersed, and the grand vizier reached Schumla by a circuitous road, attended only by a small escort of cavalry. This complete defeat, which decided the fate of the campaign, must be attributed entirely to the skilful and judicious movements, and the admirable plan of attack of count Diebitsch, who, by surprising the grand vizier, while he thought himself in per- fect security, and by cutting ofl" his com- munication with Schumla, accomplished such a thorough dispersion of the Turk- ish forces, as prevented them ever rally- ing again for the purpose of opposing his advance ; and of 40,000 combatants not above one-third reassembled after the en- gagement. Count Diebitsch, immediately after the battle, sent a pacific communi- cation to Schumla by M. Fonton, a coun- sellor of state, who returned with the answer, that the grand vizier had receiv- ed his despatches and proposals, and had sent them to Constantinople for the de- cision of the sultan. While count Diebitsch was trium- phantly advancing towards the Balkan, Silistria capitulated after practicable breaches were made in the ramparts, and UNITED STATES. 643 the Russians were ready to storm. Two pachas, 8,000 soldiers, 220 pieces of cannon, and 80 standards fell into the hands of the victors ; and the besieging corps hastened to join the army under count Diebitsch, who had now resolved to cross the Balkan. Leaving a sufficient force for the observation of Schumla, he proceeded with his army in three divisions, the right column commanded by general Iludiger, the left by general Roth, and the centre by count Pahlen, with whom was the commander-in-chief. The Turkish forces, which they encoun- tered on their route, were so panic-struck at the appearance of the Russians sur- mounting those heights which they had always considered as the impregnable bulwarks of their empire, that they be- came irresolute, and gave way on the first fire, their officers generally setting them the example. Except some smart skirmishes, therefore, at Kamabat and Selimno, count Diebitsch continued his uninterrupted and victorious march by Aidos, Bourgas, and Kirk-Kilissa to Adrianople. This city, from its situation, its fortifications, and its numerous garri- sons, might have maintained a protracted resistance ; but the Turks were prepared for submission, and despatched a propo- sal to the Russian commander for an im- mediate capitulation. The arms and ar- tillery, with the magazines of provisions and ammunition, were delivered up to the enemy ; and the Turkish pachas, with their troops, were allowed to return to their homes, provided they did not take the road to Constantinople. Count Diebitsch entered Adrianople on the 20tli of August, and fixed his head quarters in the palace of the sultans. which had been previously prepared for the reception of Mahmoud ; and the con- quest of this city, according to the Rus- sian bulletin, " was more like a popular festival than the occupation of a capital city by an armed hostile force. The Turkish as well as christian inhabitants continue their usual occupations. The shops and coftee-houses are open, and the local authorities and tribunals have not been interrupted in their proceedings." The intelligence of the occupation of Adrianople, and the advance of the Rus- sian army on the road to the capital, pro- duced an instantaneous change in the councils of the porte. Mahmoud, who probably trusting to the interference of the other European powers in his behalf, had hitherto contemplated the progress of the enemy with a firm determination to resist to the last, and had even refused to answer the propositions of count Diebitsch after the battle of Pravadi, was now brought to the alternative of negotiation, or exposing his capital to be occupied by a victorious army. The reis effendi, accordingly, having conferred with the British and French ambassadors, and the Prussian general Muffling, re- specting the means of averting this latter c alamity, plenipotentiaries were despatch- ed to the Russian head-quarters, with full powers to treat respecting the indemni- ties to be awarded to Russia for the ex- penses of the war. When count Diebitsch ! inquired what propositions the plenipo- j tentiaries had to make, they answered that the sultan left it entirely to the dis- cretion of the emperor of Russia to make his own terms, upon which the count signed the armistice on the 27th of Au- gust, and hostilities ceased. UNITED STATES [As the history of the United States has been published in quite a variety of forms, easily ac- cessible, it was thought advisable to give only an outline sketch, in order to make room for the his- tory of other countries.] After the first daring and successful voyage of Columbus, the attention of the European governments was directed to- wards exploring the " new world." In the year 1497, John Cabot, a Venetian in the service of Henry VII, of England, first discovered the island of Newfound- land, and from thence ranged the coast of the United States to Florida. The coun try was peopled by uncivilized nations, 644 UNITED STATES. who subsisted chiefly by hunting and fishing. The Europeans who first visited our shores, treated the natives as wild beasts of the forest, which have no prop- erty in the forests through which they roam ; and therefore planted the standard of their respective masters on the spot where they first landed, and in their names took possession of the country, which they claimed by right of discovery. Previous to any settlement in North America, many titles of this kind were acquired by the English, Dutch, French and Spanish navigators. Slight as these claims were, they were afterwards the causes of much dispute and contention between the European governments These contentions arose from the fact of the subjects of different princes laying claim to the same tract of country, be- cause both had discovered the same river or promontory ; or because the extent of the claims of each party was undefined. The first permanent English settle- ments in the United States were at Jamestown, in Virginia, in 1607, and at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, in 1620. While the European settlements were few and scattered in this vast and uncul- tivated country, and the trade of it con- fined to the bartering of a few trinkets, &c, for furs, the interfering of dilTerent claims produced no important controversy among the Europeans. But in proportion as the settlements were extended, and in proportion as the trade with the natives became valuable, the jealousies of the nations who had made discoveries and settlements on the coast were alarmed, and each power took measures to secure and extend its possessions, at the expense of its rivals. From the earliest settlement of the colonies to the treaty of Paris, in 1763, they were often harassed by frequent wars with the Indians, French, Spaniards and Dutch. During the Indian wars, the savages were often instigated by the French and Dutch to fall on the EngUsh settlements, in order to exterminate the colonists, or drive them from the country. These wars were by far the most dis- tressing ; the first settlers lived in con- tinual fear and anxiety, for fear their In- dian foes would fall upon them in some unguarded moment, and oftentimes they had to struggle to prevent their entire extermination. After the colonies had subdued the Indians in their immediate vicinity, they were assailed by the French and Indians. The French possessed Canada, and had made a number of set- tlements in Florida, and claimed the country on both sides of the Mississippi. To secure and extend their claims they established a line of forts back to the English settlements, from Canada to Florida. They used much art and per- suasion to gain over the Indians to their interest, in which they were generally successful. Encroachments were ac- cordingly made on the English posses- sions, and mutual injuries succeeded, which soon broke out into open war. In order to put a stop to the depreda- tions of the French and Indians, it was contemplated to conquer Canada. In 1690, the commissioners of the colonies projected an expedition against Quebec. The land forces ordered for this invasion consisted of 850 men, raised from the colonies of New England and New- York, and commanded by General Winthrop. At the same time a fleet of armed ships and transports, with 1,800 men, under sir William Phipps, was ordered to sail up the St. Lawrence, and co-operate with the land forces in the reduction of Que- bec. But owing to the delay of the fleet, and the want of boats and provisions among the land forces, the expedition was unsuccessful. The next expedition against Canada took place in 1709, in queen Anne's reign. The colonies of New England and New-York, raised about 2,500 men, who were placed under the command of General Nicholson, who proceeded to Wood creek, south of lake George. Here they waited to hear of the arrival of the fleet which was to co- operate with them. The fleet did not arrive, and the army at Wood creek were attacked with a malignant disease, which occasioned a great mortality, which com- pelled them to withdraw, and the expe- dition was abandoned. In 1711, another attempt, under Gen. Nicholson with the land forces, and a fleet under admiral Walker, was made for the conquest of Canada. But this failed by the loss of UNITED STATES. 645 eight or nine transports, with about 1 ,000 men, by shipwreck. The peace of Utrecht, signed March 3d, 1713, put an end to hostiUties, and continued till 1739. In 1744, Great Britain declared war against France, and the next year Louis- burg, a strong fortress on cape Breton, was taken from the French. The French government soon fitted out a large fleet, with a large boby of land forces, for the purpose of recovering Louisburg, and at- tacking the English colonies. But this expedition, by means of storms, sickness among the troops, &c, failed of accom- plishing any thing, and the colonies were relieved from consternation and dismay. This war closed by a treaty of peace, signed at Aix la Chapelle, in 1748. In 1755, hostilities again commenced between Great Britain and France, and in 1756 four expeditions were undertaken against the French. One was conducted by Col. Monckton and Gen. Winslow, against Nova Scotia. This expedition was attended with success. The country was subdued, and the inhabitants, about 2,000 in number, were transported to New England, and dispersed and incor- porated with their conquerors. General Johnson was ordered with abody of troops to take possession of Crown Point, but he did not succeed. Gen. Shirley com- manded an expedition against the fort at Niagara, but lost the season by delay. Gen. Braddock was sent against Fort du Quesne, but in penetrating through the wilderness fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians, where he was killed, and his troops suffered an entire defeat. In 1758, great efforts were made to subdue the French in America. Three armies were employed — one commanded by Gen. Amherst, to take possession of cape Breton — one under Gen. Abercrom- bie, destined against Crown Point — and a third under Gen. Forbes, to drive the French from the Ohio. Gen. Amherst was successful in taking Louisburg, after a warm siege. The inhabitants of cape Breton were sent to France, and the for- tifications of Louisburg reduced to a heap of ruins. General Abercrombie, who was sent against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, attacked the French at the latter place, and was defeated with a terrible slaugh- ter of his troops. Gen. Forbes was suc- cessful in taking possession of Fort du Quesne, which the French thought proper to abandon. The next year the efforts of the British and Americans to reduce the French were more successful. Gen. Prideaux and sir William Johnson began the operations of the campaign, by taking possession of the French fort near Niag- ara. Gen. Amherst took possession of the forts at Crown Point and Ticondero- ga, which the French had abandoned. But the decisive blow which proved the destruction of the French power in America, was the taking of Quebec by Gen. Wolfe. The loss of Quebec was soon followed by the capture of Montreal by Gen. Amherst, and Canada became a province of the British Empire. " Thus after a century of wars, massacres, and destruction, committed by the French and savages, the colonies were secured from ferocious invaders, and Canada, with a valuable trade in furs, came under the British dominion." The conquest of Canada and the ex- pulsion of the French from the Ohio, put an end to all important military operations in the American colonies. In Europe, however, the war continued to rage ; and in the West Indies, the British, aided by the Americans, took Havanna from the Spaniards. But in 1762, " a definitive treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by which the French king ceded Nova Sco- tia, Cape Breton and Canada to the Bri- tish king ; and the middle of the Missis- sippi, from its source to the river Ibber- ville, and the middle of that river to the sea, was made the boundary between the British and French dominions in Ameri- ca. Spain ceded to Great Britain, Flo- rida, and all her possessions to the east of the Mississippi. Such was the state of the European possessions in America, at the commencement of the Revolution." Before the Revolution there were three kinds of government established in the British American colonies. "The first was a chartered government, by which the powers of legislation were vested in a governor, council and assembly, chosen by the people. Of this kind were the governments of Connecticut and Rhode 646 UNITED STATES. Island. The second was a proprietary government, in which the proprietor of the province was governor ; although he generally resided abroad, and adminis- tered the government by a deputy of his own appointment ; the assembly only be- ing chosen by the people. Such were the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland; and originally of New-Jersey and Carolina. The third kind was that of royal government, where the governor and council were appointed by the crown, and the assembly by the people. Of this kind were the governments of New- Hampshire, Massachusetts, New-York, New- Jersey, after the year 1702,Virginia, the Carolinas, after the resignation of the proprietors in 1728, and Georgia. This variety of governments created different degrees of dependence on the crown. To render laws valid, it was constitution- ally required that they should be ratified by the king ; but this formality was often dispensed with, especially in the charter governments. " At the beginning of the last war with France, commissioners from many of the colonies had assembled at Albany, and proposed that a great council should be formed b}^ deputies from the several colo- nies, which, with a general governor to be appointed by the crown, should be empowered to take measures for the common safety, and to raise money for the execution of their designs. This proposal was not relished by the British ministry ; but in place of this plan it was proposed, that the governors of the colo- nies with the assistance of one or two of their council, should assemble and con- cert measures for their general defence ; erect forts, levy troops, and draw on the treasury of England for monies that should be wanted ; but the treasury to be re-im- bursed by a tax on the colonies, to be laid by the English parliament. To this plan which would imply an avowal of the right of parliament to tax the colonies, the provincial assemblies objected with un- shaken firmness. It seems, therefore, that the British parliament, before the war, had it in contemplation to exercise the right they claimed of taxing the colo- nies at pleasure, without permitting them to be represented. Indeed, it is obvious, that they laid hold of the alarming situa- tionof the colonies, about 1754, and 1755, to force them into an acknowledgment of the right, or to the adoption of measures that might afterwards be drawn into pre- cedent. The colonies, however, with an uncommon foresight and firmness, de- feated all their attempts. The war was carried on by requisitions on the colonies for supplies of men and money, or by voluntary contributions. " But no sooner was peace concluded, than the English parliament resumed the plan of taxing the colonies; and to justify their attempts, said, that the money to be raised was to be appropriated to defray the expense of defending them in the late war." The first attempt of the British govern- ment to raise a revenue in America, ap- peared in the memorable Stamp Act ; but such was the opposition of the colonies to this act, that it was shortly after re- pealed. The parliament, however, per- sisted in their right to raise a revenue from the colonies, and accordingly passed an act, laying a certain duty on glass, tea, paper, and painter's colors — articles which were much wanted, and not man- ufactured in America. This Act was so obnoxious to the Americans, that the parliament thought proper in 1770, to take off these duties, except three pence a pound on tea. But this duty, however trifling, kept alive the jealousies of the colonies, and their opposition continued and increased. It was not the incon- venience of paying the duty which raised their opposition, but it was the pmiciple, which once admitted, would have sub- jected the colonies to unlimited parlia- mentary taxation, without the privilege of being represented. After a series of oppressive acts on the part of the British government, and of opposition on the part of the colonies. Gen. Gage was sent over with an armed force to Boston, in 1774, to overawe and reduce the rebellious colo- nies to submission. But these measures did not intimidate the Americans. The people generally concurred in a proposi- tion for holding a congress by deputation from the several colonies, in order to concert measures for the preservation of tJNITED STATES. 647 Death of General Warren at Bunker Hill. their rights. Deputies were accordingly appointed, and the frst Congress met at Philadelphia, in October, 1774. The proceedings of the American Congress had a tendency to confirm the people in a spirited and unanimous determination to resist the oppressive acts of the moth- er country, and to defend their just and constitutional rights. On the other hand, the British Parliament declared that a rebellion actually existed, and besought his Brittanic Majesty to take the most effectual measures to enforce due obedi- ence to the laws and authority of his government ; and assured him that they were determined to support him in main- tainingthejustrightsof the crown. " From this moment an appeal to arms became unavoidable, and both parties prepared for the conflict." The first scene of this sanguinary con- test opened at Lexington, on the morn- ing of the 19th of April, 1775. Here was spilt the first blood in a war of seven years duration, a war which severed these United States from the British Em- pire, and ended in the establishment of the independence of a nation of freemen. 1775. The first year of the Revolu- tion. The principal operations of the war during this year took place in the nor- ihern States. As the province of Mas- sachusetts had been foremost in opposi- tion, the British government sent their forces to Boston, the capital, and held it in possession during the year. In order to annoy the British forces, the Ameri- cans on the night of the 16th of June, threw up a breast work on Bunker's Hill, an elevation in Charlestown, which com- manded the inner harbor of Boston. In order to drive the Americans from this position, a body of between 3 and 4,000 British troops landed, and were suffered to advance to within ten or twelve rods of the American works, when a deadly fire was opened upon them which com- pelled them to retreat. Advancing the sec- ond time they were suffered to approach still nearer, when another discharge strew- ed the field with the dead and wounded, and the remainder fled in dismay to their boats. At this moment Gen. Clinton, who had been watching the progress of the battle from Boston, crossed over with a re-enforcement of 1000 men, and with great difficulty led up the troops to a third charge, with fixed bayonets. The Amer- icans having no bayonets, and their pow- der being exhausted, were forced to aban- 648 UNITED STATES. don their works. The loss of the Brit- ish was nearly 1 ,500 in killed and woun- ded ; the loss of the Americans was about 400, but among the number was Gen. Warren, a brave soldier and firm patriot. Soon after the battle of Bunker - Hill, Gen. Washington, who was appoint- ed commander-in-chief of the American forces, arrived at Cambridge, and took the command of the army in July. The army investing Boston amounted to about 15,000 men. They were mostly desti- tute of good arms, ammunition, clothing, and experienced officers. Washington's first and most difficult task was to organ- ize and discipline the troops. Owing to his uncommon exertions and influence, he succeeded in bringing high-minded freemen to know their respective places, and to have the mechanism as well as the movements of a regular army. In the autumn of this year, a body of troops under the command of Gen. Mont- gomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John's, which commanded the en- trance into Canada. Gen. Montgome- ry pursued his success, and took Mon- treal. At Quebec being joined by Gen- eral Arnold, who had marched a body of men through the wilderness to his sistance, Montgomery made an assault on Quebec, on the last day of the year. In this attack he was killed, his troops defeated, and the American army was finally compelled to evacuate Canada. During this year nearly all the old governments of the colonies were dis- solved ; and the royal governors, and the crown officers adhering to British meas- ures, were obliged to leave the country, or suspend their functions. From that time temporary conventions were held, for the purpose of administering the laws, and making regulations to meet the public exigencies. In some of the colonies, however, the British adherents (who were called lories) were numerous and powerful ; which weakened the op- position to the British arms. 1776. This year was opened by the burning of the large and flourishing town of Norfolk in Virginia, by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of that province. The British King entered into treaties with some of the German States for about 17,000 men who were to be sent to America this year, to assist in subduing the colonies. These troops were gener- ally called Hessians, from the circum- stance of many of them being raised in Hesse Cassel in Germany. Gen. Wash- ington who still continued before Boston, in the opening of the spring planted his batteries so judiciously before that town, that the British General Howe, on the 17th of March abandoned the place, and Gen. Washington marched into the place in triumph. During the summer a squadron of ships commanded by Sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops under Generals Clinton and Cornwallis, attempted to take Charleston the capital of South Car- olina. The fort on Sullivan's Island near Charleston was attacked with great fury by the ships of the squadron, but the British were repulsed with great loss and the expedition was abandoned. On the 4th July, Congress published the Declaration of Independence. Soon after the declaration. Gen. Howe with a powerful force arrived near New- York ; and landed the troops on Staten Island. General Washington at this time was in New-York with about 13,000 men who were encamped either in the city, or the neighboring fortifications. The opera- tions of the British began by attacking the Americans on Long Island. The Americans were defeated with severe loss, and General Washington probably saved the remainder of his troops by or- dering them to retreat in the night after the battle. In September, New- York was aban- doned by the Americans, and taken by the British, and in November, fort Wash- ington on York Island was taken, and more than 2,000 men made prisoners ; about the same time Gen. Clinton took possession of Rhode Island. The American army being greatly di- minished by the loss of men taken pris- oners, and the departure of large bodies of others whose term of enlistment had expired, General Washington was obli- ged with the remnant of his army which had been reduced from 25,000, to scarcely 3,000, to retreat towards Philadelphia, UNITED STATES. 649 pursued by their victorious enemies. This was the most gloomy period of the Revohition. Washington saw the ne- cessity of striking some successful blow, to re-animate the expiring hopes of his countrymen. The battles of Trentonand Princeton revived the hopes of America, and confounded their enemies. Congress also made great exertions to rouse the spir- its of the people, and sent agents to solicit the friendship and aid of foreign powers. 1777. The plan of the British Minis- try during this year was to separate the Northern from the Southern Slates, by sending an army under Gen. Burgoyne from Canada, to penetrate into the Nor- thern States and endeavor to effect a communication with the British at New- York. If this plan had been successful, it would probably have had a fatal effect on the American cause. But the defeat of Burgoyne at Bennington and Saratoga, and the surrender of his army at the lat- ter place, produced important results in favor of the Americans. At the South the British were more successful. Gen. Howe embarked his forces at New-York, sailed up the Chesapeake, landed at the head of Elk river, and began his march to Philadelphia. Gen. Washington en- deavored to stop his progress and a battle was fought near Brandywine Creek, but the Americans were overpowered by su- perior numbers and discipline, and Gen. Howe took possession of Philadelphia. The American Congress now retired to Yorktown in Virginia. 1778. The beginning of this year was distinguished by a Treaty of Alliance with France, whereby the Americans ob- tained a powerful ally. When the Brit- ish Ministry were informed that this treaty was in agitation, they despatched commis- sioners to America to attempt a reconcilia- tion. But the Americans had now gone too far to accept their offers. The British evacuated Phila., in June, and marched for New- York ; on their march they were annoyed by the Americans, and at Mon- mouth an action took place, in which had General Lee obeyed his orders, a signal victory would have been obtained. In July, Count D'Estaing arrived at Newport, R. I. with a French fleet for the assistance of the Americans. In 83 August, Gen. Sullivan with a large body of troops attempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed. In December, Savannah, the then capital of Georgia, was taken by the British under the command of Col. Campbell. About this time an insurrection of the Royalists in North Carolina, was crushed by the spirited exertions of the Militia. Dur- ing this year a more regular discipline was introduced into the American army by Baron Steuben, a German officer. 1799. The campaign of 1799 was dis- tinguished for nothing decisive on the part of the Americans or British. " The British seemed to have aimed at little more than to distress, plunder, and con- sume — it having been, early in the year, adopted as a principle upon which to pro- ceed, to render the colonies of as little avail as possible to their new connec- tions." In accordance with these views, an expedition was sent from New-York to Virginia for the purpose of distressing the Americans. They landed at Ports- mouth, and destroyed the shipping and valuable stores in that vicinity. After enriching themselves with various kinds of booty and burning several places, they returned to New- York. Soon after this expedition, a similar one, under the com- mand of governor Tryon was sent against Connecticut. New-Haven and East-Ha- ven were plundered ; Fairfield, Norwalk, and Green's Farms were wantonly burn- ed. About this time Stoney Point was taken by General Wayne. In October, General Lincoln, (who commanded the Southern American army,) and count d'Estaing made an assault on Savannah, but they were repulsed with considerable loss. During the summer. General Sul- livan was sent against the Six Nations, and laid waste their country ; these In- dians had been induced by the British to take up arms against the Americans. — Forty villages were consumed, and 100,000 bushels of corn were destroyed. 1780. On the opening of the campaign of this year, the British troops left Rhode- Island, and Sir Henry Clinton finding it more easy to make an impression on the Southern States, which were less popu- lous than the Northern, determined to make them the seat of war. Clinton 650 UNITED STATES. with lord Cornwallis undertook an expe- dition against Charleston, South Caroli- na, where General Lincoln commanded. This pkce after a close siege surrendered to the British commander ; and General Lincoln, and the whole garrison were made prisoners on the 12th of May. General Gates was now appointed to the command of the Southern American army. In August, lord Cornwallis (who was left in the command of the British forces at the South,) attacked General Gates and entirely routed his army. He afterwards marched through the Southern States, and supposed them entirely subdued. During the summer, the British troops made fre- quent incursions into New-Jersey, ravag- ing and plundering the country. This year was also disthigiiished for the infa- mous treason of General Arnold, which stamped his name with lasting infamy. 1781. The beginning of this year was distinguished by a mutiny in the Ameri- can army ; this was occasioned by their severe sufferings and privations, and the depreciation of the Coiitinental Money with which they were paid. But the punishment of the ringleaders and the exhortation of the officers, prevailed to bring them back to their duty. After the defeat of General Gates in Carolina, General Greene was appointed to the command of the American troops in that quarter. From this period the aspect of the war was more favorable. On the 17th of January, at the Cowpens, General Morgan the intrepid commander of riflemen, signally defeated Colonel Tarleton, the active commander of the British legion. After a variety of move- ments, the main armies met at Guilford, in Carolina, on the 15th of March. — General Greene and lord Cornwallis ex- erted themselves at the head of their re- spective armies ; and although the Amer- icans were obliged to retire from the field of battle, yet the British army suffered a severe loss, and could not pursue the vic- tory. After the battle of Guilford, Gen- eral Greene moved towards South Caro- lina, to drive the British from their posts in that State, and by a brilliant action at Eutaw Springs, forced lord Cornwallis to withdraw his forces and fortify himself in Yorktown in Virginia. In the spring of this year, Arnold the traitor, with a number of British troops sailed to Virginia and plundered the coun- try, and at the time Cornwallis was at Yorktown, made an incursion into Con- necticut, burnt New-London, took fort Griswold by storm, and put the garrison to the sword. About the last of August, count de Grasse with a large French fleet arrived in the Chesapeake, and blocked up the British troops at Yorktown. General Washington, previous to this, had moved the main body of his army to the south- ward, and when he heard of the arrival of the French fleet, made rapid marches to the head of Elk river, where embark- ing, his army soon arrived at Yorktown. A vigorous siege now commenced, and was carried on with such eflect by the combined forces of America and France, that Cornwallis was forced to surrender. This important event took place on the 19th of October, 1781, and decided the revolutionary war. On the 30th of November, 1782, the provisional articles of peace were signed at Paris ; by which Great Britain ac- knowledged the Independence and sov- ereignty of the United States of Ameri- ca ; and these articles were afterwards ratified by a definitive treaty. " Thus ended a long and arduous con- flict, in which Great Britain expended near a hundred millions of money, with a hundred thousand liv^es, and won no- thing. America endured every cruelty and distrust ; lost many lives and much trea- sure ; but delivered herself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations of the earth." After peace was restored to the coun- try, the next and most difficult object was to organize and establish a general gov- ernment. Articles of confederation and perpetual union had been framed in Con- gress, and submitted to the consideration of the States in 1778, and in 1781 were agreed to by all the State legislatures. The articles, however, were framed during the rage of war, when principles of common safety supplied the place of a coercive power in the government. — To have offered to the people, at that time, a regular system of government, UNITED STATES, 651 armed with the necessary power to re- gulate the conflicting interests of thirteen States, might have raised a jealousy be- tween them or the people at large, that would have weakened the operations of war, and perhaps have rendered a union impracticable. Hence the numerous de- fects of the confederation. On the con- clusion of peace the defects began to be felt. Each State assumed the right of disputing the propriety of the resolutions of Congress, and the interests of an in- dividual State were often placed in op- position to the common interest of the union. In additon to this a jealousy of the powers of Congress began to be ex- cited in the minds of many of the people. Without a union that was able to form and execute a general system of com- mercial regulations, some of the States attempted to impose restraints upon the foreign trade that should indemnify them for the losses they had sustained. These measures, however, produced nothing but mischief. The States did not act in concert, and the restraints laid on the trade of one state operated to throw the business into the hands of its neighbor. Thus divided, the States began to feel their weakness. Most of the Legisla- tures had neglected to comply with the requisitions of Congress for supplying the Federal Treasury ; the resolves of Congress were disregarded ; the propo- sition for a general impost to be laid and collected by Congress was negatived by Rhode Island and New-York. In pursuance of the request of Virgi- nia, most of the States appointed dele- gates, who assembled at Annapolis in 1786, to consult what measures should be taken in order to unite the States in some general and efficient government. But as the powers of these delegates were limited, they adjourned, and re- commended a general Convention to meet at Philadelphia the next year. Accordingly in May, 1787, delegates from all the States except Rhode-Island, assembled at Philadelphia and appointed Gen. Washington their president. "After four months deliberation, in which the clashing interests of the several States appeared in all their force," the conven- tion agreed to a frame of government which was finally agreed to by all the States, and on the 30th of April, 1789 Gen. Washington was inaugurated the first President of the United States. From this auspicious moment the American Republic has steadily advanced in a tide of prosperity and growing power. Washington's Adininistration. — This period continued for eight years. Wash- ington, the leader of the armies of the United States, who conducted them through the perilous and successful strug- gle for independence, now received the unanimous suffrages of his countrymen to administer their national government. " His administration, partaking of his character, was mild and firm at home; noble and prudent abroad." The princi- pal events which took place during this period were, the Indimi ivar on our west- ern frontiers — the Whiskey Insurrection, in Pennsylvania — Jay's treaty with Great Britain, and the establishment of a Na- tional Bank and Mint. " During this period, the arts and man- ufactures attracted the attention of gov- ernment. Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, made a report to Congress on the subject, in which he set forth their importance to the country, and urged the poUcy of aiding them. Since that time the revenue laws have been framed, with a view to the encouragement of manufac- tures, and their promotion has been con- sidered as a part of the policy of the United States." The United States at the close of this period, contained about 5,000,000 of inhabhants. /. Adams'' Administration. — In 1796, Mr. Adams was elected President, and continued in the office four years. The principal events during this time, were — the difficulties with the French Govern- ment — the death of Washington and the transfer of the seat of the national gov- ernment to Washington. The greater part of Mr. Adam's administration was the subject of much popular clamor, ow- ing to several imprudent laws which were passed during his presidency. Such were the " Alien" and " Sedition Laws" the act for raising a standing army, and the act for imposing a direct tax, and inter- nal duties. These causes with some others, caused so much opposition to Mr. 652 UNITED STATES. Adams, that it prevented his re-election to the presidency. Jefferson^ s Administration. — Mr. Jeffer- son's administration commenced in 1801, and continued for eight years. The most prominent events during this period were the purchase of Louisiana — the War with Tripoli — Burros conspiracy, the outrage upon the Chesapeake, and the laying of an Embargo. The bitterness of party spirit during this time raged with some violence, and it interrupted in some degree that general harmony which it is always important to the welfare of our union to cultivate. Trade and commerce progressed with great rapidity. The European nations being at war with each other, and the United States remaining neutral, our ves- sels carried to Europe the produce of our own country, and the produce of other countries. This is commonly called the carrying trade, and was very profitable to our citizens. After the year 1807, the commercial restraints laid by France by her Berlin and Milan decrees, and by Great Britain by her Orders in Council, began to curtail our trade, and the Embar- go laid by our Government at the close of the year interrupted it still more. The Arts and Manufactures still progressed, and the population of the United States at the close of Mr. Jefferson's adminis- tration amounted to about 7,000,000. Madison^s Administration. — On the 4th of March, 1809, Mr. Madison was induc- ted into the office of President, and con- tinued in office eight years. This period was distinguished for the Second war with Great Britain. When Mr. Madison en- tered upon his office, the state of the country was in some respects gloomy and critical. France and England were at war, and they issued against each other the most violent commercial edicts, in vio- lation of the laws of nations and injurious to those nations who wished to remain neutral. After a series of injurious and insulting acts on the part of the govern- ment of Great Britain and its Agents, the government of the United States declared war against that power, June 18th, 1812, which continued about three years. The seat of war on the land, was prin- cipally on the frontiers of Canada, of which province it was the object of the Americans to take possession. The war at that point continued with various suc- ceas on the part of the Americans and British. The Americans, however, were able to effect but little towards accom- plishing the designs of their government. The situation of the contending par- ties at the close of the war was nearly the same as it was at the commencement ; on the ocean however it was different. The splendid success of the American navy in various engagements, raised it to a high elevation, and taught her proud ri- val a lesson which will not be forgotten. During Mr. Madison's Presidency in 1 8 1 6, a National Bank was established with a capital of 35 millions of dollars. Monroe's Administration. — Mr. Monroe commenced his administration in 1817, under many favorable circumstances, — the country was fast recovering from the depression of commerce and a three years' war. The political feuds which had since the revolution occasioned so much animosity, were now gradually subsiding, and there appeared in the administration a disposition to remove old party preju- dices, and to promote union among the people. A spirit of improvement was spreading throughout the country : roads and canals were constructed in various parts of the union. The principal events which took place in Mr. Monroe's ad- ministration, were — the war with the Seminole Indians — the passage of an act by Congress granting a pension to the in- digent officers and soldiers of the revolu- tion — the cession of Florida to the United States by the Spanish government, and the visit of General Lafayette to the Uni- ted States. J. Q. Adams' Administration. Mr. Adams was elected President in 1825, and continued in office four years. The principal events during this period were— the Treaty with Colombia — the Panama mission, and the death of the two vener- ble patriarchs of the revolution, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, on the fif- tieth anniversary of Independence. Du- ring this period the people of the United States were divided into two parties in re- ference to the Presidential election ; one party desirous of retaining Mr. Adams VENICE. 653 during another term of office, the other upholding Gen. Andrew Jackson as a suitable candidate for the office of Presi- dent. Party spirit now raged with vio- lence, each party upholding their favorite candidate and traducing the other. Upon counting the votes, it appeared that a large majority were in favor of Andrew Jackson ; and on the 4th of March, 1829, he was inducted into the office of Presi- dent of the United States, according to the form prescribed by the Constitution. Jackson's Administration. — The ad- ministration of Gen. Jackson commenced at a period when the affairs of the nation were unusually prosperous. During the session of 1831-2 a bill for the recharter of the United States Bank, was brought forward, which, after a warm and protract- ed debate, was passed by a small majority. The bill, however, was vetoed by the President, and as there was not two thirds of Congress in favor of its pas- sage it was lost. In 1832, Congress passed a new tariff bill. This caused so much excitement and opposition in South Carolina, that an ordinance was published by a convention, nullifying, or forbidding the operation of the tariff laws of the general government in that state. This act called forth a proclamation from the President, in which he expressed his determination to enforce the laws of Con- gress. The tariff laws have since been modified. In 1835, some apprehension was felt of war with p'rance, on account of certain proposed measures to be used towards that power, to compel the pay- ment of an acknowledged claim of 25,000,000 of francs. Fortunately, all differences were settled, and arrange- ments made for payment. During the winter of 1835, a war was commenced with the Seminole Indians, which still (1839) continues. In 1832, President Jackson was re-elected to the presidency, and was succeeded in 1837 by Martin Van Buren. VENICE. Venice is built upon a number of small islands, in the Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, standing in forty-five degrees forty minutes north latitude. Its situa- tion is strong, beautiful, and romantic. Nothing can be more wonderful than to see one of the finest cities of the earth rising out of the ocean, and appearing to float on the waves. Its magnificent palaces and lofty towers, washed by the flood, form a noble and delightful spec- tacle. One would almost think them either the splendid work of some magi- cian's wand, or one of fancy's light aerial scenes. Its inhabitants amount to two hundred thousand, and its territories were of considerable extent. The history of the Venetians is one of interest, exhibit- ing a great variety of changes and inci- dents during the many wars in which they were engaged with the neighboring powers. A part only of the incidents in their history can be given. Relative to the first establishment of Venetian government, A. D. 421, Cassi- odorus relates, that one would have taken this multitude of people for a numerous seminary of philosophers, cultivating the duties of religion and of virtue, and en- joying a perfect tranquillity. They con- tended not in luxury, ostentation, and ex- pense ; but in moderation, chastity, and virtue. Riches, honors, and ambition, had no charms for the Venetians ; rich and poor lived upon a familiar equality ; Property was common to all, and entirely devoted to the occasions of the republic. Merit was the only distinction, and that alone was esteemed true nobility which was acquired by virtue. Under such happy auspices did this republic receive her first laws, ordinances, and regulations. At this period, the government seems to have been consular. It was afterwards changed to the tri- bunitian form, in which it continued for nearly three hundred years. Under the tribunes, Venice first made war. It is 654 VENICE. related, that, during this period, the in- habitants of Trieste, landing suddenly at Venice, carried oft' a number of the citi- zens. Pietro Candiano was appointed to revenge this unprovoked aflront. His diligence was so great, that on the same day two ships of war were equipped, and under sail to seek the enemy, with whom he came up in the evening. He gave - immediate orders for the attack, defeated the enemy, retook his countrymen, and carried the Tergestines prisoners into Venice. This is one of the finest in- stances we have of the spirit, resolution, and prowess of this republic. By such exploits, Venice first acquired esteem and consequence among the neighboring states. Upon the abuse of power by the tri- bunes, A. D. 697, the ducal government was established. Paulatio was the first doge. He made the nation happy, pow- erful, and wealthy. As he was the first, so he was one of the best princes Venice ever saw. During the dogeship of Mauritio, Venice was attacked by Pepin, the son of Charle- magne ; but his success was not great, and the impression he made on the fron- tiers, which the duke bravely defended, was inconsiderable. The Venetians now declared themselves a free and inde- pendent people, acknowledging neither the eastern nor the western empire. During the government of Pietro Tri- bune, the seventeenth doge, the Hunns, having defeated Berengarius, entered Italy. Induced by the wealth of the Venetian republic, they resolved to sack and pillage the city, in 903. March- ing through the maritime provinces, they burned Villa Nuova, Jesuola, and Chiog- gio, and prepared to attack the Rialto, which they imagined must yield to their prodigious numbers. Pietro Tribuno omitted nothing which became a gi-eat general ; he placed strong guards round the city, fortified the places most expos- ed, equipped a fleet with incredible de- spatch, and harassed the enemy by per- petual sallies. His activity, presence of mind, and skill, were astonishing. He animated the troops by his example ; was the foremost in every attack ; in a word, was the life and soul of the state. The Hunns, preparing to make a general as- sault, Pietro, after a short and animating speech, ordered the soldiers to be em- barked, and immediately bore down upon the enemy near Albiola. The battle be- gan with fury, and continued with obsti- nacy for several days ; the fleets sepa- rated at night, the combatants returning next day to the charge with fresh vigor ; the Venetians every where opposed cour- age to numbers, and the doge performed prodigies of valor. At last, Tribuno, fearing that the spirit of his men might sink under the multitude of the enemy, collected all his force, resolving to die or make an impression upon their line. He was so bravely seconded by his troops, that the barbarians were broken and de- feated, and a general carnage ensued. The sea was covered with dead bodies, and the Venetians fought, says Blondus, upon heaps of the slain barbarians, as upon dry land ; the siege was raised, the Hunns were driven from Italy, and the reputation of Venice for arms became famous over the world. Ziani, the thirty-ninth doge, was no sooner elected, than the republic was involved in a war with Frederic Barba- rossa, from whose persecution the pope Alexander had retired to Venice. The Venetians despatched ambassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a rage, " Go, and tell your prince and people, that Frederic, the Roman emperor, de- mands his enemy, who is protected by them. If they send him not instantly, bound hand and foot, he will overturn every law, human and divine, to accom- plish his revenge ; he will bring his army before their city, and fix his victo- rious standards in their market-place, which shall float in the blood of its citi- zens." The ambassadors returning with this terrible menace, it was agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and pre- pare for repelling the emperor's medita- ted vengeance. While the Venetians were thus employed, Otho, the emperor's son, entered the gulf with a strong squadron of seventy-five gallies, and Avas making sail to the city. The doge re- solved to oppose him with the few ships which were fit to put to sea; in 1173 the fleets met off" the coast of Istria, and VENICE. 655 a dreadful battle ensued, the event of which was, that the doge took, sunk, and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's ships, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was continued the cere- mony of marrying the sea ; the pope going out to meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, " Take, Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your dominion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, that posterity may know your valor has purchased their prerogative, and subjected this element even as a husband subjecteth his wife." After Bartolomeo Gradonico, Andrea Dandolo next succeeded to the ducal chair ; and war commenced with Genoa. The command of the Venetian fleet was given to Marco Rusino, who joining the Aragonian fleet, of forty sail, went in quest of the Genoese admiral, Grimaldi. The two fleets met on the Sardinian coast. Rusino ordered his ships to grap- ple with the enemy, and then chained them to each other in such a manner, that there was a necessity either to conquer or die. Thus a kind of land battle was fought upon the sea, in which there was no room for disputing the victory, the whole Genoese fleet having been either taken or destroyed, Grimaldi's ship alone escaping. When the news of this defeat arrived at Genoa, in 1347, the whole city was in the utmost consternation. In their despair, the Genoese sent ambassa- dors to the duke of Milan, requesting his protection and acceptance of the sovereignty of their dominions ; an offer which he did not decline. Soon after the promotion of Marino Faliero, the fifty-fifth doge, the Venetians were in their turn defeated. Their com- mander, Pisani, with five thousand of his men, were made prisoners, and above twenty of their gallies were sunk. The republic sustained an irreparable loss, and the city would probably have been undone, had the victorious Doria known as well how to pursue as to gain a vic- tory. The Venetians were equally sur- prised and overjoyed when the news ar- rived that he was returned to Genoa, at a time they every hour expected him be- fore their gates. A truce was imme- diately concluded; m 1353 the doge himself conspired against her freedom. Seized with a violent desire of absolute authority, he began his design by popu- lar acts, and gave entertainments to the lower orders of people. When he per- ceived that the populace listened to him with attention, he began to drop hints of his determination to deliver them from the t5n:anny of the senate, and for that purpose, to assume a greater latitude of power, after which it should be left to their choice to continue him or not, as they found him deserving. His proposal was to murder the chief persons of the assembly, senate, and seigniory, who had raised him to the dignity he possessed. The first of April was appointed for the execution of this infamous plot ; but, on that very day, Beltrand, a conspirator, went to the house of Nicholas Leon, and made an ample discovery. Leon was so confounded with horror, that, for some time, he Avas unable to reply ; at last, ordering Beltrand to be confined, he de- spatched messengers to the chief sena- tors, the seigniory, and oflficers of the city, to come instantly to his house. The doge and the conspirators were quickly seized and put to death, and a pension settled upon the discoverer. In 1477, while Giovanni Moncenigo was doge, the Turks besieged Croia. The assault was furious, and the defence valiant ; Antonio Legiero, the proveditor, who commanded in chief, omitted nothing which was the duty of an experienced and good officer. The Turks shot such quantities of arrows in the different as- saults, that the garrison for months used no other fuel. The moats round the town were filled with heaps of slain, which produced a stench intolerable to the be- siegers, and was one cause of Mahomet's relinquishing the enterprize, after several attempts to cleanse it, in which he was boldly attacked, and forced to retire. Meanwhile, Mahomet had detached thirty thousand men to enter Italy, by the fords of Livornia, which being guarded, they proposed to enter Germany, and accord- ingly proceeded, horse and foot, over Alpine mountains almost impracticable, drawing up or letting down a body of twelve thousand horse, over the rocks, 656 VENICE. by means of engines. Determined to pursue their march, though opposed by the natives, they began climbing the moun- tains, by means of hooks and grapples, the sight of which so terrified the natives, that they abandoned their posts, and fled. Peace was soon after concluded u^ith the Turks ; and war denounced against the pope, and the duke of Ferrara. During this war, the Venetian admiral took Gallipoli, in Avhich enterprize he lost his life in 1484. He was animating the troops in the scaladc, praising the valiant, and upbraiding the backward, when ho dropt ; his secretary threw a cloak on his body, and gave out that Marcello was slightly hurt, and gone to be dressed ; the assault was persevered in, and the town was in consequence taken. About 1508, war was declared by France against the Venetians ; the pro- gress of the confederates was rapid, and the republic was plunged into the deepest distress. At this period, a circumstance, attested by all historians, reflects great honor on the Venetians. They refused the assistance off'ered them by the grand seignior; and, though reduced to the ut- most extremity, resolved to suff'er every distress, rather than give their ancient enemies, the infidels, a footing in Italy. Such a noble spirit was alone wanting ; the siege of Padua was quickly raised, and the Venetians recotered Vicenza. At last, however, Padua, distracted by differences among the leading citizens, was surrendered to the emperor, but, soon after, recovered. The Venetian general, Gritti, having conveyed some choice troops into wagons covered with straw, under pretence that they were a convoy of provisions, seized upon a gate of the city, and pursuing his advantage, got possession of Padua. The Imperi- alists made a vigorous defence ; but Gritti, joined by the greater part of the inhabitants, totally defeated them, making near two thousand prisoners. Thus the republic once more became possessed of the most valuable city she had upon the continent. A treaty was, soon after, entered into between the pope and the Venetians, and the league was broken, in J511. Soon after the promotion, of Pietro Lando,the seventy-eighth doge, the Turks attacked and took Castelnuovo, and peace was concluded with Solyman, in 1541. But the Venetians were involved in dis- putes with Ferdinand and the empire ; the seizure of Maran maybe deemed the foundation of a future bloody war. Bar- barossa was, at this time, ravaging the coast of Italy with a fleet of near two hundred sail. He took Reggio, but gave liberty to the prisoners, at the instance of Polin, the French enA'oy, who accom- panied him. The terror of the Turkish arms had spread itself all over Italy, nor was Rome itself free from apprehensions. But Polin sent assurances, and dispersed proclamations round the country, that his incursions should be confined wholly to the imperial dominions. An event of some importance fell out towards the end of the year 1 545 ; name- ly, a controversy with the Porte, con- cerning some districts in Dalmatia, which both sides claimed. The Sangiacs of Bosnia and Clissa insisted that a part of the territory of Zary, containing forty- nine villages, was really a dependency upon the fortresses of Nadin and Laurena, belonging to Solyman. The senate had recourse to the justice of Solyman ; nor had they reason to repent of this mea- sure ; with a moderation and integrity becoming those who call themselves Christian princes, this great man ordered commissioners on both sides to be appoint- ed, insisting upon their determining the dispute according to equity, without re- gard to power. The commissioners met, and soon adjudged the lands in dispute to the Venetians, with which award Solyman was perfectly well satisfied. Under the government of Marco Fos- carini, the dey of Algiers made some ex- traordinary demands upon the republic of Venice ; among the rest, besides the payment of an exorbitant sum of money, he insisted that his corsairs should have free liberty to cruise in the gulf of Ven- ice, and to take the ships of any nation with whom he was not bound by treaty ; with this extraordinary condition annex- ed, that if any of his 'cruisers should happen to be taken, the republic should repair the loss in ready money. These VENICE. 657 dishonorable proposals were refused, with a proper disdain, by the senate ; and as the dey of Algiers had broken the peace, they equipped a squadron of men of war, which they despatched to Al- giers, in 1767, under the command of admiral Emo, to bring him to reason. The dey continued obstinate ; upon which the admiial, according to his orders, im- mediately declared war against him, and sailed out of the harbor to fulfd his in- structions, which were to block up the port, and destroy all the Algerine corsairs he could meet with. These vigorous resolutions soon brought the dey to tem- per, and indeed to a submission as mean as his demands had been insolent ; he found himself under a necessity of having recourse to the mediation of the British consul, to obtain a renewal of the peace upon the original terms. In the year 1789, Luigi Manino, the last doge, succeeded Riniero in the ducal chair. During his government, nothing important occurred till the invasion of Italy by the French. At that time, the Venetians, in order to check the progress of the republicans, put Peschiera into the hands of the Imperialists ; but Bona- part quickly becoming master of all Italy, they trembled at the progress of his vic- torious arms. Like the other natives of that country, the Venetians harbored a dislike to the French, induced by the difference of their character and manners. But the political antipathy of the Venetians was still greater than their national dislike. The conquest of the French had render- ed them the arbiters of the fate of all Italy. The former importance of the sovereignty of the states of that country had totally disappeared, and they alone gave the law. This was peculiarly mor- tifying to a state that stood upon a foot- ing of equality with any other in Italy, and of superiority to most. The Vene- tians, therefore, waited with anxiety for a change of fortune in favor of the Aus- trians, whose neighborhood they had long experienced to be much less dangerous than that of the French. In the mean time, they rendered many good offices to the former, and clearly manifested a par- tiality to them, which did not escape the 83 notice of Bonaparte, who gave sufficient indications that he would remember it in due time. At last the Austrian army was forced to leave the territories of Venice, and take refuge in the hereditary states. As soon as the French had penetrated into these, the Venetians began to look upon them as entangled in straits, from which they could not easily extricate them- selves. A report was also universally circulated, that the French were on the point of laying down their arms, and that nothing was wanting, to render victory over them complete, but a general co-op- eration on the part of the Venetian gov- ernment. An opportunity now offered to intercept the communication between Bonaparte and his posts in Italy. For this purpose, forty thousand of the Vene- tian peasantry were armed, and embodied with ten regiments of Sclavonians. They were posted on all the roads, and the con- voys to the French army were every where stopped. In the mean time, the hatred of the Venetians burst forth in the most out- rageous manner. Those pessons who had behaved kindly to the French, were treated as enemies of the state, and put under arrest ; and none but their declar- ed adversaries entrusted with any au- thority. In all places of public resort, the French were insulted and reviled in the grossest terms. They were expelled from the city of Venice, and at Padua, Vicenza,and Verona, the inhabitants were ordered to take up arms against them. These transactions were made the subject of a manifesto issued by Bonaparte on the third of May, in which he direct- ed the French resident at Venice to quit that city, and ordered the agents of the Venetian republic in Lombardy, and in its provinces on the main land, to leave them in twenty-four hours. He com- manded his officers and troops to treat those of Venice as enemies, and to pull down, in every town, the lion of St. Mark, the arms of the Venetian republic. In consequence of this manifesto, the French troops overran and subjugated, in a few days, all the Venetian dominions. The Veronese, whose conduct to the French had been remarkably atrocious, were con 658 EMPIRE OF THE ASSASSINS. demned to an exemplary punishment. Some thousands of the peasants, who attempted to oppose the French, were put to the sword. The Sclavoriians, who had come to their assistance, were rout- ed, and fled to a fort filled with their powder and ammunition ; but it was blown up by the cannon of the French, and they were all destroyed. Another engagement took place before the walls of Verona, and the Venetians fought with great fury ; but they were defeated with vast slaughter, and the place com- pelled to surrender. The Venetian senate, despairing of be- ing able to make any effectual resistance, formally submitted to the French com- mander, and consented to deliver up those persons who had been instrumen- tal in the atrocities of which the French complained. On the 16th of May, in 1797, the French took possession of the city of Venice, where a provisional gov- ernment was established on the republi- can plan. The press was declared free, persons and property secure, and religion left on its former footing. The only seizures, made in the name of the French government, were of tne arsenal and its contents, with the shipping that belonged to the state. Thus fell, after a splendid existence of fourteen centuries, the celebrated re- public of Venice. No modern state had risen from such small beginnings to a situation of equal prosperity. It was with sincere regret that every nation in Europe beheld its fall. The celebrity it had long enjoyed, on a multiplicity of accounts, interested every one in its pre- servation. Without inquiring how far the French could claim a right to doom it so immercifully to destruction, they only considered that it had subsisted with honor to the present period, and had maintained its reputation imimpaired amidst a variety of dangers and trials, that had sometimes, reduced it to the last extremity. The political world saw with concern the fatal hour arrive, that was to deprive it of the place it had so long and so honorably held among the nations of Europe. By the treaty of Cam- po Formio, Venice, with most of its de- pendencies, was ceded to the emperor of Germany. EMPIRE OF THE ASSASSINS It was thought advisable to insert the following articles, not exclusively belonging to the history of any country, in the order which follows. This singular sect (from which the fa- miliar term assassin is derived) was form- ed in the eleventh century, the object of which was to expel the Mahometan reli- gion and government by establishing an empire of their own. The founder of this society, that for more than a century and a half filled Asia with terror and dismay, was the celebrated Hassan Ben Sahab, who was one of those characters that appear from time to time in the world, as if sent to oper- ate some great change in the destinies of mankind. Having strengthened himself by a large number of followers, Hassan look- ed about for some strong position as a centre from which he might gradually extend his possessions ; and he fixed his eye upon the hill-fort of Alamoot, in Persia, situated in the district of Roodbar, to the north of Kasveen. Alamoot was gained partly by force and partly by stratagem : he first sent thither one of his most trusty missionaries, who con- verted a great number of the inhabitants, and with their aid expelled the governor. In possession of a strong fortress, Hassan turned his mind to the organiza- tion of that band of followers whose daggers were to spread the dread and the terror of his power throughout Asia. Experience and reflection had shown him that the many could never be gov- erned by the few without the salutary curb of religion and morality; that a EMPIRE OF THE ASSASSINS 659 system of impiety, though it might serve to overturn, was not calculated to main- tain and support a throne ; and his ob- ject was now to establish a fixed and lasting dominion. Though he had been long satisfied of the nothingness of reli- gion, he determined to maintain among his followers the religion of Islam in all its rigor. The most exact and minute observances of even its most trivial or- dinances was to be required from those who, generally unknown to themselves, were banded for its destruction ; and the veil of mystery, whhin which few were permitted to enter, shrouded the secret doctrine from the eyes of the major part of the society. The claims of Ismail (a Mahometan devotee), the purity of re- ligion were ostensibly advanced ; but the rise of Hassan Sahab, and the down- fall of all religion, were the real objects of those who directed the machinery. The Ismailite doctrine had hitherto been disseminated by missionaries and companions alone. Heads without hands were of no avail in the eyes of Hassan ; it was necessary to have a third class, which, ignorant of the secret doctrine, would be the blind and willing instru- ments of the designs of their superiors. This class were named the Fedavee or Devoted, were clothed in white, with red bonnets or girdles, and armed with daggers. These were the men who, reckless of their lives, executed the bloody mandates of the Sheikhel Jebel, the title assumed by Hassan. As a proof of the fanaticism that Hassan con- trived to instil into his followers, we give the following instance. In the year 1126, Kasim-ed-devlet Absoncor, the brave prince of Mosul, was, as he entered the mosque, attacked by eight assassins disguised as dervises ; he killed three, and the rest, with the exception of one young man, were mas- sacred by the people ; but the prince had received his death wound. When the news spread that Kasim-ed-devlet had fallen by the hand of the assassins, the mother of the young man who had escaped painted and adorned herself, re- joicing that her son had been found wor- thy to offer up his life in support of the good cause ; but when he came back the only survivor, she cut off her hair and blackened her face, through grief that he had not shared the death of glory. A display of the means by which the chief of the assassins succeeded in in- fusing this spirit of strong faith and de- votion into his followers, forms an inter- esting chapter in the history of man. Of those who fell in executing the or- ders of their superiors, it was said, that the gates of paradise were unfolded, and that they entered into the enjoyment of the ivory palace, the silken robe, and the black-eyed houries ; and to increase their longing after the joys of paradise, and a disregard of earthly existence, Hassan made use of the following means : — There was at Alamoot, and also at Ma- siat, in Syria, a delicious garden, encom- passed with lofty walls, adorned with trees and flowers of every kind — with murmuring brooks and translucent lakes, with bowers of roses and treUices of vines — airy halls and splendid kiosks, furnished with the carpets of Persia, and the silks of Byzantium. Beautiful maidens and blooming boys were the in- habitants of this delicious spot, which ever resounded with the melody of birds, the murmur of streams, and the ravish- ing tones of voices and instruments ; all respired contentment and pleasure. — When the chief had noticed any youth to be distinguished for strength and reso- lution, he invited him to a banquet, where he placed him beside himself, conversed with him on the happiness reserved for the faithful, and contrived to administer an intoxicating draught prepared from the hyoscyamus. While insensible, he was conveyed into the garden of delight, and there awakened by the application of vinegar. On opening his eyes, all par- adise met his view ; the black-eyed and green-robed houries surrounded him, obe- dient to his wishes ; sweet music filled his ears ; the richest viands were served up in the most costly vessels ; and the choicest wines sparkled in the golden cups. The fortunate youth believed himself really in the paradise of the prophet, and the language of his attend- ants confirmed the delusion. When he I had his fill of enjoyment, and nature was [yielding to exhaustion, the opiate was 660 BUCCANEERS. again administered, and the sleeper trans- ported back to the side of the chief, to whom he communicated what had passed, ■who assured him of the truth and reaUty of all he had experienced, telling him such was the bliss reserved for the obe- dient servants of the Imaum, and enjoin- ing at the same time the strictest secrecy. Ever after, the rapturous vision possessed the imagination of the deluded enthusi- ast, and he panted for the hour when death, received in obeying the commands of his superiors, should dismiss him to the bowers of paradise. The power of Hassan soon began to display itself. By force or by treachery, the castles or hill-forts of Persia fell one after another into his hands. A bloody period ensued ; the doctors of the Ma- hometan law ex-communicated the adhe- rents of Hassan, and the sultan, Meiek Shah, directed his generals to reduce their fortresses; the daggers of the as- sassins were displayed against the swords of the orthodox Mahometans, and the first victim to Hassan's revenge was the great and good Nizara-ul-mulk, who fell by the dagger of a Fedavee. His death was fol- lowed by that of his master, not without strong suspicion of poison. "The gov- ernments were arrayed in open enmity against the order, and heads fell like an abundant harvest, beneath the two-fold sickle of assassination and the sword of justice." After a reign of thirty-five years, Has- san Sahab saw his power extended over a great portion of the Mahometan world, which continued under his successors till they were overthrown by the Tartars. BUCCANEERS, After the failure of the mines of His- paniola, which were never rich, and the conquest of the two extensive empires of Mexico and Peru, where the pi'ecious metals were found in the greatest profu- sion, that valuable island was neglected by the Spaniards. The greater part of its once flourishing cities were deserted by their inhabitants, and the few planters that remained sunk into the most enerva- ting indolence. The necessaries, how- ever, and even the luxuries of life, were there found in abundance. All the Euro- pean animals had multiplied exceedingly, but especially the horned cattle, which were become in a manner wild, and wan- dered about in large droves, without any regular owner. Allured by these con- A'eniences, certain French and English adventurers, since known by the name of Buccaneers or Freebooters, had taken possession of the small island of Tortuga, as early as the year 1632, and found little difficulty, under such favorable circum- stances, of establishing themselves on the northern coast of Hispaniola. They at first subsisted chiefly by the hunting of wild cattle. Part of the beef they aie fresh, part they dried, and the hides they sold to the masters of such vessels as came upon the coast, and who furnished them, in return, with clothes, liquors, fire-arms, powder, and shot.* But the wild cattle at length becoming scarce, the Buccaneers were under the necessity of turning their industry to other objects. The sober-minded men applied them- selves to the cultivation of the ground, which abundantly requited their toil, while those of a bold and restless dispo- sition associated themselves with pirates and outlaws of all nations, and formed the most terrible band of ravagers that ever infested the ocean. To these rava- * The dress of the Baccaneers consisted of a shirt dipped in the blood of the animals they had slain ; a pair of trowsers, dirtier than the shirt ; a leathern girdle, from which hung a short sabre, and some Dutch knives ; a hat without any rim, except a flap before, in order to enable them to pull it off; shoes made of raw hides, but no stockings. {Hist. Gen. des Voyages, torn. xv. liv. vii.) These barbarous men, the outcasts of civil society, were denominated Buccaneers, be- cause they dried with smoke, conformable to the custom of the savages, part of the flesh of the cattle they had killed, in places denominated buccans in the language of the natives. Id. ibid. BUCCANEERS. 661 Attack of the Buccaneers. gers, however, rendered famous by their courage and their crimes, France and England are indebted, in some measure, for the prosperity of their settlements in the West Indies. Nothing could appear less formidable than the first armaments of the piratical Buccaneers, who took the name of Bro- thers of the Coast. Having formed them- selves, like the hunters of wild cattle, into small societies, they made their ex- cursions in an open boat, which generally contained between twenty and thirty men, exposed to all the intemperature of the climate ; to the burning heat of the day, and the chilling damps of the night. The natural inconveniencies, connected with this mode of life, were augmented by those arising from their licentious disposition. A love of freedom, which duly regu- lated, cannot be too much cherished, ren- dered the Buccaneers averse against all those restraints, which civilized men usually impose on each other for their common happiness ; and as the authority which they had conferred on their cap- tain, was chiefly confined to giving orders in battle, they lived in the greatest disor- der. Like savages, having no appre- hension of want, nor taking any care to guard against famine by prudent econo- my, they were frequently exposed to all the extremities of hunger and thirst. But deriving, even from their distresses, a courage superior to every danger, the sight of a sail transported them to a de- gree of frenzy. They seldom deliberated on the mode of attack, but their custom was to board the ships as soon as possi- ble. The smallness of their own vessels, and their dexterity in managing them, preserved them from the fire of the ene- my. They presented only to the broad- side of a ship, their slender prows, filled with expert marksmen, who fired at the enemy's port-holes with such exactness, as to confound the most experienced gunners. And when they could fix their grappling tackle, the largest trading ves- sels were generally obliged to strike. Although the Buccaneers, when under the pressure of necessity, attacked the ships of every nation, those belonging to the subjects of Spain were more espe- cially marked out as the objects of their piracy. They thought that the cruelties, which the Spaniards had exercised on the natives of the New World, were a sufficient apology for any violence that 662 BUCCANEERS, could be committed against them. Ac- commodating their conscience to this belief, which, perhaps, unknown to them- selves, was rather dictated by the rich- ness of the Spanish vessels than by any real sense of religion or equity, they never embarked in an expedition without pub- licly praying to heaven for its success ; nor did they ever return loaded with booty, without solemnly returning thanks to God for their good fortune. This booty was originally carried to the island of Tortuga, the common ren- dezvous of the Buccaneers, and then their only place of safety. But afterward the French went to some of the ports of Hispaniola, where they had established themselves in defiance of the Spaniards, and the English to those of Jamaica, where they could dispose of their prizes to more advantage, and lay out their mon- ey more agreeably, either in business or pleasure. Before the distribution of the spoil, each adventurer held up his hand, and protested he had secreted nothing of what he had taken ; and if any one was convicted of perjury, a case that seldom occurred, he was punished in a manner truly exemplary, and worthy the imitation of better men. He was expelled the community, and left, as soon as an op- portunity ofljored,upon some desert island, as a wretch unworthy to live in society, even with the destroyers of their species ! After providing for the sick, the wound- ed, the maimed, and settling their several shares, the Buccaneers indulged them- selves in all kinds of licentiousness. Their debauches, which they carried to the greatest excess, were limited only by the want that such prodigality occasioned. If they were asked, what satisfaction they could find in dissipating so rapidly, what they had earned with so much jeop- ardy, they made this very ingenious reply: " Exposed as we are to a variety of per- ils, our life is totally different from that of other men. Why should we, who are alive to-day, and run the hazard of being dead to-morrow, think of hoarding ? stu- dious only of enjoying the present hour, we never think of that which is to come." This has ever been the language of men in such circumstances ; the desire of dis- sipating life, not solicitude for the pre- servation of existence, seems to increase in proportion to the danger of losing it. The ships that sailed from Europe to America seldom tempted the avidity of the first Buccaneers, as the merchandise they carried could not readily have been sold in the West Indies in those early times. But they eagerly watched the Spanish vessels on their return to Europe, when certain they were partly laden with treasure. They commonly followed the galleons and flota, employed in transport- ing the produce of the mines of Mexico and Peru, as far as the channel of Baha- ma ; and if, by any accident, a ship was separated from the fleet, they instantly beset her, and she seldom escaped them. They even ventured to attack several ships at once; and the Spaniards, who considered them as demons, and trembled at their approach, commonly surrendered, if they came to close quarters. A remarkable instance of this timidity on the one side, and temerity on the other, occurs in the history of Peter Legrand, a native of Dieppe, in Normandy ; who, with a small vessel, carrying no more than twenty-eight men, and four guns, had the boldness to attack the vice-admi- ral of the galleons. Resolved to conquer or die, and having exacted an oath to the same purpose from his crew, he ordered the carpenter to bore a hole in the side of his own vessel, that all hope of escape might be cut ofi". This was no sooner done than he boarded the Spanish ship, with a sword in one hand and a pistol in the other ; and bearing down all resis- tance, entered the great cabin, attended by a few of the most desperate of his as- sociates. He there found the admiral surrounded by his officers; presented a pistol to his breast, and ordered him to surrender. Meanwhile the rest of the Buccaneers took possession of the gun- room, and seized the arms. Struck with terror and amazement, the Spaniards de- manded quarter. Like examples are nu- merous in the history of the Buccaneers. The Spaniards, almost reduced to de- spair by finding themselves a continual prey to those ravagers, diminished the number of their ships, and the colonies gave up their connexions with each other BUCCANEERS. 663 These humiliating precautions, however, served but to increase the boldness of the Buccaneers. They had hitherto in- vaded the Spanish settlements only to procure provisions ; but no sooner did they find their captures decrease, than they determined to procure by land, that wealth which the sea denied them. They accordingly formed themselves into large bodies, and plundered many of the richest and strongest towns in the New World. Maracaybo, Campeachy, Vera Cruz, Porto Bello, and Carthagena, on this side of the continent, severely felt the effects of their fury ; and Quayaquil, Panama, and many other places on the coasts of the South Sea, were not more fortunate in their resistance, or treated with greater lenity. In a word, the Buc- caneers, the most extraordinary set of men that ever appeared upon the face of the globe, but whose duration was tran- sitory, subjected to their arms, without a regular system of government, without laws, without any permanent subordina- tion, and even without revenue, cities and castles which have baffled the utmost efforts of national force ; and if conquest, not plunder, had been their object, they might have made themselves masters of all Spanish America. Among the Buccaneers who first ac- quired distinction in this new mode of plundering, was Montbars, a gentleman of Languedoc. Having by chance, in his infancy, met with a circumstantial, and perhaps exaggerated account of the cruelties practised by the Spaniards in the conquest of the New World, he con- ceived a strong antipathy against a nation that had committed so many enormities. His heated imagination, which he loved to indulge, continually represented to him innumerable multitudes of innocent peo- ple, murdered by a brood of savage mon- sters nursed in the mountains of Castile. The unhappy victims, whose names were ever present to his memory, seemed to call upon him for vengeance ; he longed to imbrue his hands in Spanish blood, and to retaliate the cruelties of the Spaniards on the same shores where they had been perpetrated. He accordingly embarked on board a French ship bound to the West Indies, about the middle of the ' last century, and joined the Buccaneers, I whose natural ferocity he inflamed. I Humanity in him became the source of ' the most unfeeling barbarity. The Span- iards suffered so much from his fury, that ' he acquired the name o{ the Exterminator. Michael de Basco and Francis Lolo- nois were also greatly renowned for their exploits, both by sea and land. Their most important, though not their most fortunate enterprise, was that of the Gulf of Venezuela, with eight vessels, and six hundred and sixty associates. This gulf runs a considerable way up into the coun- try, and communicates with the lake of Maracaybo, by a narrow strait. That strait is defended by a castle called la Barra, which the Buccaneers took, and nailed up the cannon, in 1667. They then passed the bar, and advanced to the city of Maracaybo, built on the western coast of the lake, at the distance of about ten leagues from its mouth. But,to their inexpressible disappointment, they found it utterly deserted and unfurnished ; the inhabitants, apprised of their danger, hav- ing removed to the other side of the lake with their most valuable eflects. If the Buccaneers had not spent a fortnight in riot and debauchery, they would have found at Gibraltar, a town near the extremity of the lake, every thing which the people of Maracaybo had carried off, in order to elude their rapaci- ty. On the contrary, by their imprudent delay, they met with fortifications newly erected, which they had the glory of re- ducing at the expense of much blood, and the mortification of finding another empty town. Exasperated at this second dis- appointment, the Buccaneers set fire to Gibraltar ; and Maracaybo would have shared the same fate, had it not been ransomed. Beside the bribe they re- ceived for their lenity, they took with them the bells, images, and all ihe orna- mental furniture of the churches ; intend- ing, as they said, to build a chapel in the I island of Torluga, and to consecrate that part of their spoils to sacred uses. Like other plunderers of more exalted charac- : ter, they had no idea of the absurdity of : offering to Heaven the fruits of robbery j and murder, procured in direct violation of its laws. 664 BUCCANEERS. But of all the Buccaneers, French or English, none was so uniformly success- ful, or executed so many great and daring enterprises, as Henry Morgan, a native of the principality of Wales. While de Basco, Lolonois, and their companions, were squandering at Tortuga the spoils they had acquired in the gulf of Vene- zuela, Morgan, in 1668, sailed from Ja- maica to attack Porto Bello ; and his measures were so well concerted, that soon after his landing, he surprised the centinels, and made himself master of the town, before the Spaniards could put themselves in a posture of defence. In hopes of reducing with the same facility the citadel, or chief castle, into which the citizens had conveyed their most valuable property, and all the plate belonging to the churches, Morgan be- thought himself of an expedient that dis- covers his knowledge of national charac- ters as well as of human nature in gene- ral. He compelled the priests, nuns, and other women, whom he had made prison- ers, to plant the scaling ladders against the walls of the fortress, from a persua- sion that the gallantry and superstition of the Spaniards would not suffer them to fire on the objects of their love and vene- ration. But he found himself deceived in this flattering conjecture. The Span- ish governor, who was a resolute soldier, used his utmost efforts to destroy every one that approached the works. Morgan and his English associates, however, carried the place by storm, in spite of all opposition; and found in it, besides a vast quantity of rich merchandise, bullion and specie equivalent to one hundred thousand pounds sterling. With this booty Morgan and his crew returned to Jamaica, where he immedi- ately planned a new enterprise. Under- standing that de Basco and Lolonois had been disappointed in the promised plun- der of Maracaybo, by their imprudent delay, he resolved, from emulation no less than avidity, to surprise that place. With this view, he collected fifteen A'es- sels, carrying nine hundred and sixty men. In 1669, these ravagers entered the gulf of Venezuela unobserved, silen- ced the fort that defends the passage to the lake of Maracaybo, and found the town, as formerly, totally deserted. But they were so fortunate as to discover the chief citizens, and the greater part of their wealth, in the neighboring woods. Not satisfied, however, with this booty, Morgan proceeded to Gibraltar, which he found in the same desolate condition ; and while he was attempting, by the most horrid cruelties, to extort from such of the inhabitants as had been seized, a discovery of their hidden treasures, he was informed of the arrival of three Span- ish men-of-war at the entrance of the lake. At this intelligence, which was con- firmed by a boat despatched to reconnoitre the enemy, the heart of the bravest Buc- caneer sunk within him. But although Morgan considered his condition as des- perate, his presence of mind did not for- sake him. Concealing his apprehensions, he sent a letter to Don Alonzo del Cam- po, the Spanish admiral, boldly demand- ing a ransom for the city of Maracaybo. The admiral's answer was resolute, and excluded all hope of working upon his fears. "I am come," said he, "to dis- pute your passage out of the lake ; and I have the means of doing it. Neverthe- less, if you will submit to surrender, with humility, all the booty and prisoners you have taken, I will suffer you to pass, and permit you to return to your own country, without trouble or molestation. But if you reject this offer, or hesitate to comply, I will order boats from Caracas, in which I will embark my troops ; and, sailing to Maracaybo, will put every man of you to the sword. This is my final determina- tion. Be prudent therefore, and do not abuse my bounty by an ungrateful return. I have with me," added he, " very good troops, who desire nothing more ardently than to revenge on you and your people, all the cruelties and depredations which you have committed upon the Spanish nation in America." The moment Morgan received this let- ter, he called together his followers ; and, after acquainting them with its contents, desired them to deliberate, whether they would give up all their plunder in order to secure their Hberty, or fight for it ? — • They unanimously answered, that they would rather lose the last drop of their blood, than resign a booty which had BUCCANEERS. 665 been purchased with so much peril. Morgan, however, sensible of his dan- gerous situation, endeavored to compro- mise the matter, but in vain. The Span- ish admiral continued to insist on his first conditions. When Morgan was made acquainted with this inflexibility, he coolly replied : " If Don Alonzo will not allow me to pass, I will find means to pass without his permission." He ac- cordingly made a division of the spoil, that each man might have his own pro- perly to defend; and having filled a ves- sel, which he had taken from the enemy, with preparations of gunpowder and other combustible materials, he gallantly pro- ceeded to the mouth of the lake ; burnt two of the Spanish ships, took one ; and by making a feint of disembarking men, in order to attack the fort by land, he diverted the attention of the garrison to that side, while he passed the bar with his whole fleet, on the other, without re- ceiving any damage. The success of Morgan, like that of all ambitious leaders, served only to stim- ulate him to yet greater undertakings. In 1 670, having disposed of his booty at Port Royal in Jamaica, he again put to sea with a larger fleet, and a more numerous body of adventurers ; and after reducing the island of St. Catharine, where he procured a supply of naval and military stores, he steered for the river Chagre, the only channel that could conduct him to Panama, the grand object of his arma- ment. At the mouth of this river, stood a strong castle, built upon a rock, and de- fended by a good garrison, which threat- ened to baflle all the eflTorts of the Buc- caneers ; when an arrow, shot from the bow of an Indian, lodged in the eye of one of those resolute men. "With won- derful firmness and presence of mind, he pulled the arrow from the wound ; and wrapping one of its ends in tow, put it into his musket, which was already load- ed, and discharged it into the fort, where the roofs of the houses were of straw, and the sides of wood, conformable to the custom of building in that country. The burning arrow fell on the roof of one of the houses, which immediately took fire ; a circumstance that threw the Spanirads into the utmost consternation, as they 84 were afraid, every moment, of perishing by the rapid approach of the flames, or the blowing up of the powder-magazine. After the death of the governor, who bravely perished with his sword in his hand, at the head of a few determined men, the place surrendered to the as- sailants. This chief obstacle being removed, Morgan and his associates, leaving the larger vessels under a guard, sailed up the Chagre in boats to Cruces, and thence proceeded by land to Panama. On the Savana, a spacious plain before the city, the Spaniards made several attemps to repulse the ferocious invaders, but with- out effect: the Buccaneers gained a de- cided superiority in every encounter. Foreseeing the overthrow of their milita- ry protectors, the unarmed inhabitants sought refuge in the woods ; so that Morgan took quiet possession of Panama, and deliberately pillaged it for some days. But Morgan met at Panama with what he valued no less than his rich booty. A fair captive inflamed his savage heart with love ; and, finding all his solicita- tions ineffectual, as neither his person nor character was calculated to inspire the object of his passion with favorable sentiments towards him, he resolved to second his assiduities with a seasonable mixture of force. " Stop, ruffian !" cried she, as she wildly sprung from his arras ; "stop! thinkest thou that thou canst ravish from me mine honor, as thou hast wrested from me my fortune and my liberty? No! be assured, that my soul shall sooner be separated from this body :" and she drew a poniard from her bosom, which she would have plunged into his heart, if he had not avoided the blow.* Enraged at such a return to his fond- *The Spanish ladies, however, as we learn from the freebooter Raveneau tie Luffan, were not all possessed of the same inflexible virtue. The Buccaneers had been represented to them as devils, as cannibals, and beings who were des- titute even of the human form. They accord- ingly trembled at the very name of those plun- derers. But, on a nearer approach, they found them to be men, and some of them handsome fellows. And in this, as in all cases, where they have been abused by false representations of our sex, the women flew into the opposite extreme, as soon as they were undeceived ; -and clasped in their amorous arms the murderers of their hus- 666 CELTS. ness, Morgan threw this virtuous beauty into a loathsome dungeon, and endeavor- ed to break her spirit by severities. But his followers becoming clamorous, at being kept so long in a state of inactivity by a caprice which they could not com- prehend, he was obliged to listen to their importunities, and give up his amorous pursuit. As a prelude to their return, the booty was divided ; and Morgan's own share, in the pillage of this expedi- tion, is said to have amounted to one hundred thousand pounds sterling. He carried all his vvealth to Jamaica, and never afterwards engaged in any pirati- cal enterprise. The defection of Morgan, and several other principal leaders, who sought and found an asylum in the bosom of that civil society, whose laws they had so atrociously violated, together with the total separation of the English and French Buccaneers, in consequence of the war between the two nations, which followed the Revolution in 1 688, broke the force of those powerful plunderers. In 1690, the king of Spain being then in alli- ance with England, she repressed the pira- cies of her subjects in the West Indies. The French Buccaneers continued their depredations, and with no small success, till the peace of Ryswick in 1697; when all differences between France and Spain having been adjusted, a stop was every where put to hostilities, and not only the association, but the very name of this extraordinary set of men soon became extinct. They were insensibly lost among the other European inhabitants of the West Indies. CELTS. The Celts were an ancient people in- habiting, according to the earliest histori- cal notices, the western parts of Europe. It appears now to be generally admitted, that they were a peculiar people, distin- guished by many remarkable particulars from the Scythians or Goths, with whom they have been often confounded. The distinction, however, between the nations alhided to, has not been admitted without a full and elaborate discussion of the sub- ject. The points supposed to be estab- lished by Mr. Pinkerton and other learned critics, are the following : 1 . At a period, probably as early as the year 1400 A. C. the Scythians had pushed themselves from the vicinity of the river Araxis westwards and northwards, over a considerable part of Europe. 2. The Scythians were afterwards mentioned in history under the names of Getae, Gothi, and Germini ; but whether distin- guished by these names, or by the more bands and brothers. Charmed with the ardor of a band of adventurers, whose every passion was in excess, they did not part, without tears of agony, from the warm embrace of their pirati- cal paramours, to return into the cool paths of common life. Voy. des FliJMst. chap, iv, v. comprehensive appellation of Scythae, the people thus distinguished were one and the same. 3. With regard to the Celts, the earliest notices would lead us to place them abouttheyearSOOA.C.inthe neigh- borhood of the Pyrenees, whence they were driven by the Germans or the Goths on the east, and the Aquitani, probably an Iberian race, on the south, into that part of Gaul where they were found in the lime of Ca;sar. 4. That the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland, and the Welsh, together with some of the Irish tribes, are the remains now existing of the ancient Celts. 5. That when the Greek and Roman authors used the words Celtae and Galli, they often refer exclu- sively to the Belgic Gauls. 6. That though this is frequently the case, the distinction is sometimes accurately made between the Belgic Gauls and the Celtic; as in the introduction to the first book of Caesar's Commentaries, where the Belgae are represented as inhabiting one part of Gaul, the Aquitani another, and the Celtae a third. We may consider the distinction be- tween the Celts and the Goths as estab CELTS. 667 lished, 1st, By the difference of their person ; 2d, By the difference of their religious belief, and sacred observances; 3d, By the difference of their political institutions; and, lastly, By the differ- ence of their language. In pointing out these differences, almost every thing in- teresting in the history of the Celts may be conveniently brought into view. The Celts were distinguished from the Scythians, Goths, or Germani, by their external appearance. They had not the light hair and blue eyes, which were re- garded in ancient times as an indication of a German origin ; nor had they the lofty stature and large limbs, which are still considered as characteristic of the German tribes. It was to their extraordi- nary appearance and ferocious aspect, as well as to their barbarous valor, that the Gauls (of Scythian or Gothic extraction) were indebted for their victories over the Romans ; and, before the strength and discipline of Rome could match the prowess of these fierce invaders, it was necessary to familiarize the legions with the tremendous looks and savage howl- ing of the Gaulish warriors. On the other hand, the Celts were a people of an inferior stature, swarthy in their com- plexion, with dark eyes, and hair short, coarse and black. In their external ap- pearance they seem to have resembled the Finns and Laplanders of modern times. History records but little of their victories and conquests ; and Mr. Pin- kerton, in frantic declamation, pronounces them to be radical savages, incapable of instruction or progress in society. But if the Celts were distinguished from the Goths by their external appear- ance, they were distinguished from them in a still greater degree, by their religious belief and their sacred observances. Among the Celts there existed a hierar- chy, regularly constituted and estab- lished : a class of men exercising the functions of the priesthood, and extend- ing their authority over every department of civil life ; clearly marked out, and separated from the rest of the community, and enjoying many and exclusive privi- leges. Our readers will perceive, that we allude to the Druids. It is univer- sally acknowledged, that Druidism was peculiar to the Celts, and that nothing resembling that extraordinary system was to be found among the Gothic or Teutonic tribes. This difference is striking and fundamental. And the fact, that the Germans had no Druids, is mentioned by Caesar as a circumstance completely dis- criminative of the Celtic and Gothic nations. It has been affirmed, that the Druids were not unacquainted with the great and primary truth of the unity of the divine nature. But if this was the case, and if the notion alluded to formed a part of their secret creed, or what the Greeks would have called their isoteric doctrine, we have sufficient au- thority for maintaining, that they counte- nanced, at the same time, the belief and the worship of many gods, as Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, Mercury, and Minerva, or beings of heavenly origin and power, whose attributes and office corresponded with those of the principal divinities of Rome. They held likewise the doctrine of Metempsychosis, or the transmigra- tion of souls. Of a general receptacle of spirits, enjoying various degrees of happiness, or doomed to various measures of suffering, they appear to have had no idea. Their notion seems to have been, that the soul of man is destined to occupy various bodies in succession ; and that the alternate transference and residence of the thinking part were to be continued for an indefinite length of time, beyond which the inquiry was not pushed. In addition to all this, it must be stated, that the Druids were philosophers. They had raised their understandings above the first wants and enjoyments of our species. They had attempted to pierce into the re- cesses of nature. Their investigations re- lated to the constitution of the physical world, the motion of the heavenly bodies, the size and figure of the earth, and the power and purposes of the immortal gods. Schools of philosophy were es- tablished among them. What they knew, they taught the youth committed to their care. These were generally the sons of nobles, and persons of distinction. Some of the pupils spent no fewer than twenty years under the tuition of the Druidical college. It was a principal part of their education, to treasure up in the memory 668 CELTS. a very great number of verses, in which the mysteries of science and of religion were unfolded ; for these ancient mas- ters of Celtic wisdom, though acquainted with alphabetical characters, made no use of them in the schools over which they presided. Into the schools alluded to, the vulgar were not permitted to enter. It seems to be an acknowledged princi- ple of the Druidical system, to keep the people in perpetual ignorance ; and we shall immediately see, that it was a part of their system, to keep them in a debasing and pitiable state of political subjection. In their political institutions likewise, a considerable difference appears to have existed between the Gothic and Celtic tribes. Among these tribes, the state of the people, regarded as distinct from that of the privileged orders, seems to have varied in a most extraordinary degree. In the one great class of human beings, the people were free, and valued themselves upon their liberty ; in the other, they were doomed to obey, and satisfied with subjection. Among the Goths and Ger- mans, every man was a soldier, consult- ed on occasions of the highest political importance, and listened to with that at- tention to which a free man is entitled. Among the Celts, every man who could not establish his claim to be ranked with the Druids or the knights, was a slave ; his comfort or misery, his life or his death, depended almost exclusively upon the will of his master. Among the Gothic nations, the com- mencement of what has been called the feudal system, may easily be traced. The chief men were possessed of autho- rity and influence ; but their authority was exercised within considerable limits, and their influence subjected to considerable restraint. In matters of inferior concern, the decision of the chief was final, but all affairs of high interest were discussed and determined by the people at large. It is to the power of the chiefs thus re- strained, and to the mode of civil govern- ment connected with it, that Mr. Pinker- ton has given the name of the feudal system in its purity. And according to the opinion of that learned gentleman, this feudal system in its purity is care- fully to be distinguiahed from the latter feudal system, or that system in its cor- rupted state. Among the Celts, on the other hand, while the chiefs commanded the armies, and were in other respects not destitute of power, the supreme judi- cial and even legislative authority ap- pears to have been engrossed, almost entirely by the other privileged order, that of the Druids. The Druids judged in all controversies, whether public or private, whether of a civil or of a religious nature. They ordained and inflicted punishments. If any one refused to abide by their de- cision, he was instantly excluded from the sacred observances ; he became the subject of a most severe excommunica- tion; he was held as accursed; he was avoided as a person on whom the mark of the divine displeasure had been set ; he lost all claim to justice, and all title to protection. In one respect, however, the two cases, that of the Goths and the Celts, considered in a political point of view, may justly be said to agree. In both the power of the chief was limited; but among the Gothic tribes, the check proceeded from the people, the voice of freemen was raised aloud against oppres- sion ; while among the Celts the power of the chief seems to have been nearly absorbed in that of the Druids, and the voice of the people, if heard at all, was noticed, only as a symptom of rebellious insolence, and marked only to be punished. The last point of difference between the Celts and the Goths, is their language. It is not to be denied, however, that in ascertaining this point of difference, con- siderable obstacles present themselves. It is not easy to procure correct speci- mens of any ancient language, and even when correct specimens have been ob- tained, it is not easy to determine whether the language be pure. With the exception of tribes debarred by phy- sical circumstances, there is, perhaps, no instance upon record, of a people living for a very great length of time in utter seclusion from the rest of the world, retaining their original language, in all its purity, and their manners in all their characteristic features. Intercourse must always take place, in a greater or less degree, among contiguous tribes. Their very hostilities lead to intercourse ; and CRUSADES. 669 wherever intercourse is supposed, charac- teristic features, either of language or of manners, will gradually pass away. Be- sides, if there be any truth in the opin- ion of Sir William Jones, that the Celts and Goths, though differing exceedingly from one another at the periods to which the Greek and Roman historians refer, were nevertheless, originally, or with re- gard to their present stock, the same people, we must expect to find the same elementary words in the speech of both nations. However diversified in its gen- eral appearance, the substratum of their language will be the same ; traces of the native tongue will be discoverable in both ; just as in the various languages of Europe which have been derived from the Latin, sufficient indications of a com- mon origin may still be perceived. In their state of comparative advancement, however, the language of the Celts ap- pears to differ very obviously from that of the Goths. CRUSADES ■ Croisade, or Crusade, may be applied to any war undertaken on pretence of de- fending the cause of religion, but has been chiefly used for the expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of Palestine. | These expeditions lommenced A. D. 1096. The foundation of them was a superstitious veneration for those places where our Saviour performed his mira- cles, and accomplished the work of man's redemption. Jerusalem had been taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a considerable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy sepul- chre. They had, however, still been al- lowed this liberty, on paying a small tri- bute to the Saracen caliphs, who were not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Saracens ; and being much more fierce and barba- rous, the pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their devotions with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrimages much more frequent than formerly : it was imagined, that the 1000 years mentioned in Rev. xx. were fulfilled ; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Palestine to judge the world ; and consequently that journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even absolutely neces- sary. The multitudes of pilgrims who now flocked to Palestine meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and derided the sacred mysteries of Chris- tianity even in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Chris- tendom against the Mahometans ; but his exorbitant encroachments upon the civil power of princes had created him so many enemies, and rendered his schemes so suspicious, that he was not able to make great progress in his undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner in- strument. Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native of Amiens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and being deeply affected with the dan- gers to which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as well as with the oppres- sion under which the eastern Christians now labored, formed the bold, and, in all appearance, impracticable design of lead- ing into Asia, from the farthest extremi- ties of the West, armies sufficient to sub- due those potent and warlike nations that now held the holy land in slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Martin II, who, prudently resolved not to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, summoned at Placentia a coun- cil of 4,000 ecclesiastics and 30,000 secu- lars. As no hall could be found large enough to contain such a multitude, the assembly was held in a plain. Here the 670 CRUSADES. Peter the hermit addressins; the Cnisaders. pope himself as well as Peter, harangued the people, representing the dismal situa- tion of their brethren in the East, and the indignity offered to the Christian name in allowing the holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly and violently declared for the war, and solemnly devoted themselves to perform this service, which they believed to be meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the design with ardor, Martin thought it necessary, in order to obtain perfect suc- cess, to engage the greater and more war- like nations in the same enterprise. Hav- ing, therefore, exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities and sovereigns of Christen- dom, he summoned another council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this great and pious design being now uni- versally diffused, procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and prin- ces ; and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by imme- diate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, " It is the will of God !" These words were deemed so much the effect of a divine impulse, that they were em- ployed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all future exploits of these ad- venturers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardor, and a cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time Europe was sunk in the most profound ignorance and superstition. The ecclesiastics had gained the greatest as- cendant over the human mind ; and the people who committed the most horrid crimes and disorders, knew of no other expiation than the observances imposed on them by their spiritual pastors. But amidst the abject superstition which now prevailed, the military spirit had also uni versally diffused itself; and, though not supported by art or discipline, was be- come the general passion of the nations governed by the feudal law. All the great lords possessed the right of peace and war. They were engaged in continual hostilities with one another : the open country was become a scene of outrage and disorder ; the chies, still mean and poor, were neither guarded by walls nor protected by privileges. Every man was obliged to depend for safety on his own force, or his private alUances ; and valor CRUSADES. 671 was the only excellence which was held in esteem, or gave one man the pre-emi- nence above another. When all the par- ticular superstitions, therefore, were here united in one great object, the ardor for private hostilities took the same direction ; " and all Europe," as the princess Anne Comnena expresses it, " torn from its foundations, seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia." All ranks of men now deeming the crusades the only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way with their swords to the holy city. Nobles, arti- sans, peasants, even priests, enrolled their names ; and to decline this service was branded with the reproach of impie- ty or cowardice. The nobles were moved by the romantic spirit of the age, to hope for opulent establishments in the East, the chief seat of arts and commerce at that time. In pursuit of these chimerical projects, they sold at low prices their an- cient castles and inheritances, which had now lost all value in their eyes. The infirm and aged contributed to the expe- dition by presents and money, and many of them attended it in person ; being de- termined, if possible, to breathe their last in sight of that city where their Saviour died for them. Even women, concealing their sex under the disguise of armor, at- tended the camp ; and often forgot their duty still more, by prostituting themselves to the army. The greatest criminals were forward in a service which they consid- ered as an expiation for all crimes ; and the most enormous disorders were during the course of these expeditions commit- ted by men inured to wickedness, en- couraged by example, and impelled by necessity. The adventurers were at last so numerous, that their sagacious leaders became apprehensive lest the greatness of the armament would be the cause of its own disappointment. For this reason they permitted an undisciplined multi- tude, computed at 300,000 men, to go be- fore them under the command of Peter the hermit, and Gautier or Walter, sur- named the moneyless, from his being a soldier of fortune. These took the road towards Constantinople through Hungary and Bulgaria ; and trusting that heaven, by supejuatural assistance would supply all their necessities, they made no provi- sion for subsistence in their march. They soon found themselves obliged to obtain byplunder what they vainly expected from miracles ; and the enraged inhabitants of the countries through which they passed attacked the disorderly multitude, and slaughtered them without resistance. The more disciplined armies followed after ; and, passing the straits of Constan- tinople, were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amounted in the whole to 700,000 men. The princes engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother to Philip I, king of France ; Robert, duke of Normandy ; Ro- bert, earl of Flanders ; Raimond, earl of Toulouse and St. Giles ; the celebrated Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace ; Stephen, earl of Chartres and Blois ; Hu- go, count of St. Paul ; with many other lords. The general rendezvous was at Constantinople. In this expedition, God- frey besieged and took the city of Nice. Jerusalem was taken by the confederated army, and Godfrey chosen king. The Christians gained the famous battle of Ascalon against the Sultan of Egypt, which put an end to the first crusade, but not to the spirit of crusading. The rage continued for near two centuries. The second crusade, in 1144, was headed by the emperor Conrad III, and Lewis VII, king of France. The emperor's army was either destroyed by the enemy, or perished through the treachery of Manu- el, the Greek emperor ; and the second army, through the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, was forced to break up the siege of Damascus. The third ciusade, in 1188, immediately followed the taking of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedition were, the emperor Frederic Barbarossa ; Frederic, duke of Suabia, his second son ; Leopold duke of Austria ; Berthold, duke of Moravia ; Herman, marquis of Baden ; the counts of Nassau, Thuringia, Missen, and Hol- land ; and above sixty other princes of the empire ; with the bishops of Besan- con, Cambray, Munster, Osnaburgh, Mis- sen, Passau, Visburgh, and several others. In this expedition the emperor Frederic 672 CRUSADES, defeated the Sultan of Iconium : his son Frederic, joined by Guy Lusignon, king of Jerusalem, in vain endeavored to take Acre Ptolemais. During these transac- tions, Philip Augustus, king of France, and Richard I, king of England, joined the crusade : by which means the Chris- tian army consisted of 300,000 fighting men ; but great disputes happening be- tween the kings of France and England, the former quitted the holy land, and Ri- chard concluded a peace with Saladin. The fourth crusade was undertaken in 1195, by the emperor Henry VI, after Saladin's death. In this expedition the Christians gained several battles against the infidels, took a great many towns, and were in the way of -success, when the death of the emperor obliged them to quit the holy land, and return into Ger- many. The fifth crusade was publish- ed by Pope Innocent III, in 1198. Those engaged in it made fruitless efforts for the recovery of the holy land : for though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptole- mais a little after Simon of Montfort, Re- nard of Dampierre, and others, yet the plague destroying many of them, and the rest either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels of the Christian princes, there was nothing done ; so that the Sul- tan of Aleppo easily defeated their troops in 1204. The sixth crusade began in 1228 ; in which the Christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced to sur- render it again. In 1229, the emperor Frederic made peace with the Sultan for ten years. About 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III, Idng of England, arrived at Palestine, at the head of the English crusade ; but finding it most advantageous to conclude a peace, he re-embarked, and steered towards Italy. In 1244, the Karasmians being driven out of Turkey by the Tartars, broke into Palestine, and gave the Chris- tians a general defeat near Gaza. The seventh crusade was headed, in 1249, by St. Lewis, who took the town of Damietta; but a sickness happening in the Christian army, the king endeavored a retreat ; in which being pursued by the infidels, most of his army were miserably butchered, and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. A truce was agreed upon for ten years, and the king and lords set at liberty. The eighth crusade, in 1279, was headed by the same prince, who made himself master of the port and castle of Carthage in Africa ; but dying a short time after, he left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and joining Philip the bold, son and suc- cessor of Lewis, the king of Tunis, after several engagements with the Christians in which he was always worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon condi- tions advantageous to the Christians ; af- ter which both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince Edward, of Eng- land, who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he landed a small body of 300 English and French, and hindered Ben- docher from laying siege to Ptolemais ; but being obliged to return to take pos- session of the crown of England, this crusade ended without contributing any thing to the recovery of the holy land. In 1291, the town of Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by the Sultan of Egypt, and the Christians quite driven out of Syria. There has been no cru- sade since that period, though several popes have attempted to stir up the Chris- tians to such an undertaking ; particular- ly Nicholas IV, in 1292, and Clement V, in 1311. Though these crusades were effects of the most absurd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good of Europe. Multitudes, indeed, were de- stroyed. M. Voltaire computes the peo- ple who perished in the difl^erent expe- ditions at upwards of two millions. Many there were, however, who returned ; and these having conversed so long with peo- ple who lived in a much more magnifi- cent way than themselves, began to en- tertain some taste for a refined and pol- ished way of life. Thus the barbarism in which Europe had been so long im- mersed began to wear off" soon after. The princes also who remained at home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the people. By the absence of such numbers of restless and martial ad- venturers, peace was established in their FRANKS. 673 dominions. They also took the opportu- nity of annexing to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by purchase, or the extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mischiefs which must always attend feu- dal governments were considerably les- sened. With regard to the bad success of the crusaders, it was scarcely possi- ble that any other thing could happen to them. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their schemes : they were jealous, and not without reason, of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they considered their true interest, they would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into alli- ances with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however, and were of- ten of very great disservice to the west- ern adventurers, which at last occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst ene- mies the crusaders had were their own internal feuds and dissensions. They neither could agree while marching to- gether in armies with a view to conquest, nor could they unite their conquests under one government after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors ; and thus became an easy prey to the common ene- my. The horrid cruelties they committed, too, must have inspired the Turks with the most invincible hatred against them, and made them resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by barbarians in- flamed with the most bigoted enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the nimierous garrisons were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were massacred with- out mercy and without distinction. No age nor sex was spared, not even suck- ing children. According to Voltaire, some Christians, who had been suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most private caves, where women had concealed themselves with their children, and not one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm, by which these conquerors were animated, is, their beha- vior after this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies to- wards the holy sepulchre ; and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Saviour of Mankind ! Nay, so far did their pious enthusiasm overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be ex- ceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows; In 1204, the frenzy of crusa- ding seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what they see their pa- rents engaged in. Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks and- schoolmasters ; and thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on the superstitious inter pretation of these words : " Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise." Their base conduc- tors sold a part ol them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. — Bucks' Theol. Dictionary. FRANKS Various opinions have been entertain- ed by historians concerning this people ; but, as a repetition of these would be equally unimportant to our work, and un- interesting to the reader, we shall only observe that Bucherius, whose conjec- tures seem the most probable, describes them as a motley multitude of several ancient nations, dwelling beyond the 85 Rhine, who, having entered into a con- federacy against the Romans, for th-e common safety, assumed the name of Franks ; which signified, in their language, as it still does in ours,/ri?g. It is also certain, that many ancient nations are comprised, in ancient history, under this general denomination. Considered in this point of view, the 674 FRANKS. Franks inhabited, at a very early period, a tract of country which comprehends the present provinces of Westphalia, Hesse, and some adjacent states; and, in process of time, they extended them- selves along the Rhine as far as the efflux of that river and the ocean. With regard to their manners and character, Vopiscus has described them as a people addicted to treachery, and unmindful of the most solemn engage- ments ; and Salvianus, blending their virtues and vices, observes that they were extremely hospitable to strangers, but much addicted to lying. They seem to have been always troublesome neigh- bors ; for it was a common observation of Egonhardus, chancellor to Charles the Great, that he would choose a Frank for a friend, but not for a neighbor. The first transaction of this people noticed in history is their irruption into Gaul, in the time of Aurelian, who killed seven hundred of their troops, sold three hundred, whom he had taken captives, into slavery, and compelled the rest to retire, with the loss of all their booty. In the fourth year of Valerian's reign they received another signal defeat from Gallienus, but soon after returned with such a powerful body of auxiliaries, that the Romans deemed it expedient to lay aside hostilities, and court their alliance. Accordingly, a body of Franks were per- suaded to serve, in the Roman army, against the Goths ; and one of their chieftains was entrusted with the defence of the frontier of the empire. About eight years after this event, the Franks committed many depredations in Gaul, and even penetrated into Spain, which they held in subjection for the space of twelve years. Some of them are said to have crossed over into Africa, with a design to enrich themselves with the spoils of that wealthy country ; but the issue of that undertaking is passed over in silence. On the demise of the emperor Aure- lian, the Franks, in conjunction with the Vandals and Burgundians, broke into Gaul, and, having reduced seventy of the principal cities in the space of two years, congratulated themselves on their im- portant acquisition ; but, on the approach of Probus, they were compelled to with- draw all their forces, and were soon after reduced to the necessity of suing for peace on disadvantageous terms. Notwithstanding this repulse, the Franks renewed their predatory incur- sions into various parts of the Roman territories, and committed such daring outrages, that Dioclesian was compelled to send a powerful armament against them ; and Maximian deemed it advisa- ble to chastise their insolence by carry- ing the war into their own country. This expedient was crowned with suc- cess ; for the Franks were so violently alarmed at this unexpected invasion, that the greatest part of them threw down their arms, and two of their princes, Atec and Genobald, submissively entreated the emperor to confirm them in their respec- tive kingdoms. A few years after this transaction the Franks made an irruption into Batavia, and that part of Flanders which is watered by the river Escaut ; but, Constantius Chlorus, having led a numerous army to the relief of those countries, they were obliged to surrender at discretion, and many of their families were transplanted into Gaul, where they were compelled to till the lands which they themselves had wasted ; to serve, when required, under the Roman ban- ners ; and to pay the customary tributes, as subjects of the empire. During the reign of Constantino, the Franks made several incursions into Gaul ; but all their exertions were ren- dered abortive by the vigilance of the emperor, and many of their chieftains were punished with exemplary rigor. About the year 355, the Franks, hav- ing formed an .alliance with the Saxons and Alemans, pillaged upwards of forty cities on the banks of ihe Rhine ; deso- lated the adjacent provinces ; and carried off an incredible number of captives : but, on the approach of Julian, who had been recently invested with the govern- ment of Gaul, they were overthrown with great slaughter. The next considerable irruption of this warlike race occurred about three years after the death of Gratian, when they are said to have overrun all Belgic Gaul, pillaged the inhabitants without mercy, GAULS. 675 and burnt a great number of villages. Hereupon Quintinus attacked their troops with extraordinary fury, and compelled them to retire with the utmost precipita- tion ; but having imprudently followed them into the interior of their own coun- try, his troops were exposed to inexpres- sible hardships, and most of them cut to pieces. Pharasmond, the son of Marcomir, is supposed to have reigned over the Franks from the year 417 to 428. He appears to have been one of the most powerful princes among them ; but we are not ex- pressly told whether he had any author- ity over the rest. The same year in which he died, Aetius is said to have defeated the Franks in Gaul with great slaughter, and to have chased them entire- ly out of that province. Clodio, the son and successor of Pha- rasmond, has been characterized by Gregory of Tours as an illustrious and patriotic prince. However, ancient his- torians have recorded but little respect- ing his reign, except that he extended his conquests as far as the Somme ; de- stroyed the city of Treves ; and made himself master of Cologne, while the principal inhabitants were feasting and revelling without the least apprehension of danger. Upon the death of Clodio, which happened in the twentieth year of his reign, Merovaeus assumed the sovereignty, and made some successful incursions into the present provinces of Mentz and Rheims. This prince is said, by Rorico, to have been regarded by his subjects with a truly fdial affection ; and, in a genealogical table of French kings pre- fixed to a manuscript life of Charles the Great, in the library at Brussels, he is represented as the head of the first race. Merovaeus was succeeded by his son Childeric, who, in the very commence- ment of his reign, abandoned himself to all manner of licentiousness, and loaded his subjects with such exorbitant taxes, that they soon drove him from the throne, but afterwards recalled him. It appears, however, that he inherited the martial disposition of his ancestors, and was ex- tremely desirous of aggrandizing his country ; for he extended his conquests as far as the Loire ; reduced the cities of Paris and Angers, and made himself master of Orleans, after having defeated Odoacer, who came with a body of Sax- ons to its relief. He died at Tornacum, now Tournay, where his remains were discovered, in 1653, with many gold coins of the Roman emperors, the royal signet, and several other curious articles. Childeric was succeeded by his son Clovis, or Clodovseus, about the year 482. For the particulars of his reign, {see France.) GAULS The Gauls, according to ancient his- torians, appear to have been either the immediate descendants of the Celtes, or the same people under a more modern name, which was probably given them by their neighbors ; whilst they retained the original one of Gomerai, or descend- ants of Gomer. The name, therefore, of Gaul or Gallia is not only foreign, but of a more recent date, as are likewise the other appellatives by which the Ro- man authors distinguish one part of their country from another ; as Cisalpina or Citerior, Transalpina or Ulterior, and Subalpina : for the inhabitants were for- merly better known by the name of Cel- tes, and the country, upon the whole, by that of Celto-Gallia. Julius Caesar, after- wards, distinguished the whole country under the names of Belgia, Aquitania, and Gallia Propria ; and this last was subdivided into Comata, Brachata, and Togata. The religion of the Gauls strictly re- sembled that of the ancient Celtes (which has been already described) till the time of their subjugation to the Romans : but in the time of Augustus a considerable change took place ; and, after a few sub- sequent reigns, they became so enam- 676 GAULS. cured with the pageantry of polytheism, that they erected a prodigious number of statues, altars and temples ; and even paid divine honors to lakes, rivers, marshes, and fountains. The Gauls, although bearing the same name, and using the same language and customs, appear to have been subject to diflerent governments ; some of which were monarchical, others aristocratical, and others partaking partly of aristocracy and partly of democracy. Their language is universally allovi^ed to have been the old Celtic or Gomeri- an, which is still preserved, at least in a great measure, in many parts of Europe, particularly in Biscay, Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, the Hebrides, Highlands of Scot- land, and North Wales. They do not appear to have had, originally, any cha- racters of their own, but, in process of time, adopted the Greek letters, for the purpose of facilitating their commerce, which seems to have been very consi- derable, both from the veneration which they expressed toward Mercury, as the god of traffic, and from a great number of ancient inscriptions dedicated, by the Gaulish merchants, to their deities With respect to their arts, next to the military, which, though their especial fa- vorite, was but indifferently cultivated, eloquence was that wherein they prided themselves most, and which seemed most natural to them. Their youth were commonly instructed out of those poems which were composed by the bards and druids ; heroic verses were either sung or recited on all public occasions ; and they represented Mercury, the god of eloquence, with the symbols of Her- cules, to show what power that art had over them above all others. Their military dicipline cannot now be accurately described ; but, from the circumstances of their falling in such vast multitudes upon the enemy, without either taking the advantage of ground, or dividing their armies as occasion re- quired, it appears to have been very imper- fect. Their chief talent consisted in pour- ing in their troops with incredible speed and fury ; in surmounting all obstacles that fell in their way ; and in maintain- ing the combat with an intrepidity almost peculiar to themselves : but when all these eftbrts failed, they either despatch- ed themselves, or else prevailed upon their friends to kill them. Their only weapons were bows and arrows, or swords and lances, with which they per- formed such astonishing feats as ren- dered them, for a considerable time, the objects of terror to all their enemies. They were utter strangers to the war- like machines used by other nations in sieges ; and held the cuirass, helmet, and other defensive armor, in the utmost contempt. However, much of their suc- cess has been justly attributed to their surprising dexterity in the management of their cavalry and armed chariots. The Gauls, like all other northern na- tions, were nmch addicted to the plea- sures of the chase ; and a solemn feast was annually celebrated by their profess- ed huntsmen, in honor of the goddess Diana, to whom they presented, among other offerings, a purse containing a cer- tain sum for every animal they had taken in the course of the year. They were also celebrated for their expertness in swimming and fowling ; and horse and chariot races, tilts and tournaments, con- stituted their other favorite amusements. Their customary dress consisted of a light vest and breeches ; they wore their hair long, had collars about their necks, and bracelets on their arms. The Druids were always clothed in white when they officiated in their religious capacity, and the freemen appeared, on all public oc- casions, with their arms. Of their marriages nothing satisfactory has been recorded. It appears, however, that polygamy was unlawful, and that the men possessed the power of life and death over their wives. The women were equally conspicuous with the war- riors themselves, on account of their contempt of danger and death ; and al- ways exerted themselves in a most extra- ordinary manner to prevent their men from giving ground to the enemy. The vices that have been generally attributed to the Gauls are those of ebri- ety, indolence, and ferocity ; each of which they certainly inherited from their predecessors : but their social virtues were, by the confession of their enemies, GAULS. 677 more remarkable ; among which we must particularize their justice, fidelity, and hospitable behavior to strangers. The earliest and most considerable irruption recorded of this people is that which they made into Italy, 622 B. C, under their celebrated general, Bello- vesus, who, crossing the Rhone and the Alps, defeated the Hetrurians in the vi- cinage of the Tasino, and took possession of that part of the country since distin- guished by the names of Piedmont and Lombardy. The Ccenomani, who dwelt between the rivers Seine and Loire, made the second grand expedition under their lead- er, Elitonis, and formed new settlements among the Brescians, Cremonese, Man- tuans, Venetians, and Carniola. The third was undertaken by the Ana- nes and Laeves ; the former of whom set- tled in Piacentia, on one side of the Po ; and the latter in Novara, on the opposite bank. In a fourth, the Boii and Lingones, having crossed the Pennine Alps, took up their residence on the south side of the Po, between Bologna and Ravenna. The fifth was made, about two hundred years after that of Bellovesus, by the Senones, who were invited into Italy by an Hetrurian noble, and fixed themselves in Umbria. The incursion of this people, under Brennus, into Italy, has been noted in its place. The next expedition proved peculiarly unfortunate ; for the Gauls who had pre- viously settled in Italy invited their coun- trymen to assist them against the Ro- mans ; but these arrived in such prodi- gious numbers, that they became more dreadful than the Romans ; so that they made no scruple to turn their arms against them, and put their whole army to flight. The Romans were greatly alarmed at the news of these proceedings, and, to frus- trate the success of so numerous an enemy, they perpetrated the horrid super- stition of burying a Greek and a Gaulish man and woman alive, in the ox-market : but they did not rely so implicitly on this barbarous sacrifice as to neglect their war- like preparations, when they received in- telligence that the Gesata;, another brave Gaulish nation, were invited to the as- sistance of their Italian countrymen. The approach of this fierce and warlike peo- ple spread the utmost terror and con- fusion through the Roman territories. However, a formidable army was raised for the defence of the country, and the ferocious invaders were overthrown with a prodigious loss ; forty-thousand being killed on the field of battle, and ten thousand taken prisoners. About the year of the world 3725, the Gauls, finding themselves overstocked at home, sent out three large colonies to seek new habitations. Brennus, the chief adviser of this expedition, headed one of the Gaulish armies ; Cerethrius march- ed with the second into Thrace ; and Belgius led the third into lUyricum and Macedonia. Brennus made an incursion into Pannonia, or Hungary ; but finding the country inferior to his expectations, and hearing that Belgius, after acquiring an immense plunder, was utterly defeated, he hastened to Illyricum, under pretence of revenging his colleague. The army with which he entered that province con- sisted of one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and fifteen thousand horse ; but, in consequence of a revolt among some of the officers, twenty thousand men march- ed into Thrace, and, with the assist- ance of Cerethrius, seized on Byzantium and the western coasts of Propontis. In consequence of this defection, Bren- nus sent for fresh supplies from Gaul, and enlisted some Illyrians, with whom he marched toward Delphi, designing to plunder that opulent city and temple ; but he suffered a dreadful repulse from a thunder storm and an earthquake, which destroyed a considerable number of his men ; and the Greek forces, pouring in from all parts, completed his overthrow. In this exigency Brennus assembled his chiefs, and, after advising them to slay all their wounded comrades, and to make as good a retreat as they could, he put an end to his own existence. Such of the soldiers as had escaped the enemy endeavored to retire, pursuant to their leader's direction ; but none of them ever returned to their own country. Meanwhile the colonies under Leo- norius marched to the Hellespont, and made themselves masters of Lysimachia 678 GAULS. and the Thracian Chersonesus, whence they crossed over into Asia, and establish- ed Nicomedes in his paternal kingdom. For this important service Nicomedes assigned them that part of Lesser Asia, ■which was afterward called Gallo-Graecia and Galatia. In process of time, these settlers, being confined in their territories, sent several colonies and auxiliary armies abroad, which greatly annoyed all their neighbors ; but they were at length sup- pressed by the pro-consul of Asia, and compelled to live peacebly within their own boundaries. The Romans were so seriously alarm- ed at the strength and number of the Gaulish nation, that they deemed it in- dispensably requisite to humble their pride, by leading armies into their coun- try. After several trifling attempts, Q. Marcius, to whose lot this province had fallen by the death of his colleague in Numidia, opened a passage between the Alps and the Pyrenees ; planted a co- lony in the country of the Volcae Tecto- sagi ; and founded the city of Narbo Marcius, which soon became the capital of the province. For these important services he was honored with a triumph at Rome. His successor, Scaurus, sub- dued the Garni and Gentisci, two Gaulish nations of extraordinary bravery, and made some excellent roads to facilitate the progress of his Italian troops, for which he also was remunerated with triumphal honors. The Cimbri and Teutones, alarmed at these repeated incursions, took up arms against the Romans, and gave them se- veral overthrows, in one of which the general, Popilius, was compelled to sub- mit to the ignominious ceremony of pass- ing under the yoke. The Cimbri, in particular, had retaken some parts of Gaul, and especially the famous city of Thoulouse, where they consecrated an immense treasure to the amount of one hundred thousand pounds weight of gold, and the same of silver. Hereupon, Cse- pio marched his army to retake it, and the inhabitants threw open their gates ; nevertheless, he gave the city up to be plundered, and carried off all the sacred treasures. However, the Gauls were so exasperated at this outrage, that they attacked the invaders with irresistible fury, slaughtered near a hundred and forty thousand men, and pursued the remainder so closely, that only ten of the whole army escaped with their two Generals. The triumphant barbarians, having thrown all the silver and gold into the Rhine, drowned all the horses, and murdered all the prisoners which they had taken ; held a general council whether to march im- mediately into Italy, or to reduce those provinces which the Romans still pos- sessed in Gaul ; they agreed, however, to consult Emilius Scaurus, whom they had taken captive in a former engage- ment, and who strove to deter them from entering the territories of his republic ; but his bold speech was rewarded with death by Boiorix, king of the Cimbri. The Roman senate, dreading a fresh irruption of these warlike barbarians, re- called Marius from Numidia ; and, hav- ing remunerated his late services with a triumph, appointed him General against the enemy, and Sylla to serve under him. They accordingly departed, and gained such important advantages, that the Gauls became dispirited, and remained with- in their own borders, till Orgetorix per- suaded his coimtrymen, the Helvetii, to burn their villages, and to go in quest of new conquests. At this juncture the whole country of Gaul fell to the lot of Julius Caesar, and that illustrious Roman exerted himself in so extraordinary a manner, that the Helvetii were defeated with dreadful slaughter ; the Belgae, the Nervii, and the Veneti, who had taken up arms for their common preservation, were suc- cessively overthrown ; the valiant Ver- cingetorix was compelled to surrender at discretion ; and the reduction of Uxel- lodunum completed the conquest of Gaul, from the Alps and Pyrenean mountains to the Rhine : all which extensive tract was now provinciated and governed by a praetor sent thither from Rome. Shortly after this period Gaul was di- vided into sixteen provinces ; each of which groaned, more or less, under the Roman tyranny, according to the disposi- tion of the emperors or praters who ruled over them. However, we do not read of any revolt among the inhabitants till GOTHS. 679 the reign of Nero, when the brave Julius Vindex, then Governor of CeUic Gaul, resolved to deliver his country from sla- very, and the empire from so sanguinary a tyrant. This design was no sooner made public, than the discontented Gauls flocked to him from all quarters, and quickly formed an army of a hundred thousand men ; but they were totally defeated by Rufus Virginius, and their unfortunate leader terminated his exist- ence by an act of suicide. In the reign of Galba they were heavily oppressed and loaded with taxes, but durst not make any resistance. Adrian visited their coun- try in his progress through the empire ; built several magnificent edifices ; and left, wherever he passed, some tokens of his munificence. Gaul was again made the theatre of war in . the remark- able conflict between Posthumius and Gallienus, the former of whom had been acknowledged Emperor, for some im- portant services which he had rendered to the natives ; but was afterwards mur- dered by his own soldiers. Shortly after this occurrence, Aurelian marched against the rebellious Gauls, (who had invested Tetricus with the imperial dignity) and reduced them to obedience. Under Con- stantine their country was divided into seventeen provinces, six of which were styled consular, and the rest under certain presidents who resided in their respect- ive capitals. Such was the state and go- vernment of Gaul previous to the incur- sions of the Goths, the Franks, the Bur- gundians, and some other nations. GOTHS. These warlike people are said to have come, originally, from Scandinavia ; but the time when they first settled in that district is very uncertain. The Danes, however, readily acknowledged that their country was first peopled by the Goths of Scandinavia ; that to them they owe their origin ; and that Dan, king of the Goths, was the founder of their kingdom. And the peopling of the Chersonesus, of the islands in the Baltic sea, and the adjacent places on the continent, are called, by northern writers, the first mi- gration of the Goths or Getes. Their second migration happened sev- eral ages after, under the conduct of Be- rig, who seized on the country of the Ulmerugians, now Pomerania, and even compelled the neighboring Vandals to share their possessions with his follow- ers. From Pomerania a numerous col- ony was sent into Scythia ; and in pro- cess of time, they returned into Germa- ny, under the command of Woden, a he- ro of great celebrity.' With respect to the customs, manners, and character of the Goths, they appear to have been famed, even in the earliest ages, for their hospitality and kindness to strangers. They encouraged the study of philosophy above all other barbarous nations : and Horace has bestowed some warm encomiums on the virtue of their women. Polygamy, however, was uni- versally countenanced among them ; and their martial disposition induced them to commit many unwarrantable depreda- tions on the territories of their neighbors. Apollinaris Sidonius has described them as wearing high shoes, made of untanned hides, green cassocks, with red border, and garments of various colors, scarcely reaching to the knees ; their principal weapons consisted of bearded lances, and missile hatchets. Their govern- ment was monarchical ; and their reli- gion similar to that of the other northern nations whose histories have been already related. The Romans appear to have dreaded the power of this nation at a very early period ; for, even in the reign of Alex- ander, which began in 222, considerable sums were annually paid out of the treas- ury to prevent them from making irrup- tions into the empire. And, on the de- mise of Maximin, they broke into the province of Mcesia ; destroyed the city 680 GOTHS. of Istria on the southern mouth of the Danube ; and retired, unmolested, to their own couniry. About the year of the Christian era 245, Ostrogotha led a numerous body of forces into Moisia, and compelled the in- habitants to compound with him, in or- der to avoid the calamities that were usu- ally attendant on his progress. And Cnvia, the successor of Ostrogotha, hav- ing made himself master of Philippolis on the Hebrus, ravaged the greatest part of Thrace and Macedon ; defeated the Ro- mans in a pitched battle ; slew the em- peror Decius and his son ; and obtained the promise of an annual pension, on condition of remaining, for the future, within his own boundaries. Seventeen years after this event the Goths made an unexpected irruption into Thrace ; reduced the province of Mace- don ; and attempted to penetrate into Achaia ; but Marcianus, having attacked them by surprise, gave them a signal overthrow ; and compelled them to elude a general slaughter by flight. About the same time another tribe of this na- tion crossed the Hellespont ; plundered the temple of Diana at Ephesus ; burnt the poor remains of ancient Troy ; and returned home loaded with plunder. On the accession of the emperor Clau- dius, the Goths, with several other bar- barous nations, resolved to invade the empire both by sea and land. Accord- ingly they embarked with a numerous body of forces in two thousand vessels, and, landing in the Lesser Scythia, laid siege, at the same time, to the city of Tomi in that province, and to Marciano- polis in Moesia ; but, finding a vigorous resistance at both places, they re-em- barked on the Euxine sea, and sailed to the straits of the Bosphorus, where their fleet suffered materially from the rapidity of the current and stress of weather ; and their tropps were bravely repulsed by the inhabitants of Byzantium. Hereupon they entered the ^gean sea, in order to refit their vessels near Mount Athos, in Macedon ; and afterwards laid siege to the cities of Cassandria and Thessalon- ica. But, whilst they were busied in ravaging the country, and forming new schemes for the aggrandizement of their own military fame, a pestilential distem- per swept off" a prodigious nnmber of their mariners, and most of their land forces were overthrown by the emperor Claudius, who, on this occasion, assumed the surname of Gothicus. Notwithstanding these disasters, the Goths made an irruption into Pannonia, about the year 270, and committed many alarming outrages ; but Aurelian, who had just assumed the purple, marched against them at the head of a powerful army ; and, by that measure, induced them to sue for peace. However, they soon renewed their incursions, and exas- perated Aurelian so highly, that he not only drove them beyond the boundaries of Thrace, but even passed the Danube, and defeated Cannaband, a Gothic prince, with dreadful slaughter. The Goths appear to have made a settlement, about the year 274, in Dacia and the Danube ; and to have afterwards invaded the provinces of Pontus, Cappa- docia, Galatia, and Bithynia ; but Taci- tus prevailed on many of them, by a pe- cuniary compliment, to abandon these territories ; and the rest were driven en- tirely out of the empire. In 278, the Goths concluded a treaty of peace with the emperor Probus ; and in 289, they suff'ered so complete an overthrow by Dioclesian, that one of their tribes was entirely cut off", and the province of Da- cia beyond the Danube re-annexed to the Roman empire. For this victory Dioclesian assumed the name of Sarma- ticus, as appears from the inscriptions on several antique coins. In the fifteenth year of Constantino's reign, the Goths, who had for some time, been engaged in a sanguinary war with the Vandals and Burgundians, made a fresh irruption into the Roman territories : but Constantino, having marched against them with all possible expedition, defeat- ed them in several engagements ; took an incredible number of captives, and reduced them to such extremities, that they not only sued for a cessation of hos- tilities, but also consented to assist the victor, with a numerous body of troops, against Licinius. Upon the accession of Valens to the imperial dignity, this turbulent race broke GOTHS. 681 into the boundaries of Thrace, and com- mitted their usual depredations ; but, on the receipt of a handsome gratification from the emperor, they returned peacea- bly to their own country. However, they soon repeated their outrages ; and by espousing the cause of the usurper Procopius, involved themselves in a dangerous war with Valens, who having passed the Danube with a select body of forces, ravaged the greatest part of their country with fire and sword ; cut off a prodigious number of their men in differ- ent encounters ; and, at length, defeated their king, Athanaric, at the head of his army. Hereupon the barbarians sued for peace : and Valens returned with his victorious troops to Constantinople. Shortly after this event the Goths, being driven from their ancient territories by the more savage Hunns, fled in such prodigious numbers, to take shelter among the Romans, that Valens admitted two hundred thousand of them into Thrace, upon their promising to live peaceably in that province, and to serve, when re- quired, in the Roman army ; but the offi- cers who were appointed to supply them with provisions exercised so unjust a severity, that the barbarians immediately rose in arms, and commenced a sangui- nary war with their oppressors, which continued with various success till The- odosius I, granted them certain lands in Thrace and Moesia ; indulged them with an exemption from all taxes ; and kindly undertook to redress all their grievances. During this reign the unfortunate Athan- aric took refuge in the imperial palace at Constantinople, and was treated with unparalleled generosity by the emperor ; but he was so violently afflicted with the loss of his dominions, that he died about a fortnight after his arrival. About the year 395, a numerous army of Goths, being stirred up by Rufinus, penetrated into the provinces of Panno- nia, Macedon, and Thessaly, and com- mitted the most cruel depredations upon the inhabitants. They afterwards passed the straits of Thermopylae without oppo- sition, and proceeded under the conduct of their celebrated chief Alaric, to the very gates of Constantinople. Upon the first report of these daring outrages, 86 Stilicho hastened from Gaul to repel the Barbarians ; but his intentions were all frustrated ; for Arcadius having conclu- ded a peace with the enemy, appointed Alaric to the command of the troops in East Illyricum ; and Stilicho, by the malice and cupidity of his treacherous accusers, was stripped of all his honors, declared a pubhc enemy and reduced to poverty. The Goths remained tolerably peace- able for about three years ; but at the ex- piration of that time they resolved to en- rich themselves with the spoils of the empire, and accordingly conferred the regal title on Alaric, who, notwithstand- ing his employment under Arcadius, readily took the field against the Romans, and, after ravaging the fairest parts of Italy, made himself master even of Rome itself, which he abandoned to the plunder of his rapacious followers. From Rome the victorious Barbarian passed through the provinces of Campania, Lu- cania, Samnium, and Apulia, with a de- sign to pass over to Sicily, and thence into Africa, but on his arrival at Rhegium he was seized with a fit of illness, which terminated both his conquests and life in the space of a few days. Ataulphus, the successor of Alaric, invaded Gaul in the commencement of his reign, and afterwards married Placi- dia, the sister of Honorius, who had been taken captive in the late expedition against Rome. After the solemnization of his nuptials with this princess, Ataul- phus seemed extremely desirous of con- cluding a peace with Honorius, and of turning his arms against the Vandals, Franks, and other barbarous nations, who had broken into Gaul ; but these designs were frustrated by the intrigues of Con- stantius ; and the king of the Goths, be- ing compelled to retire into Spain, was soon afterwards taken off by assassina- tion. His successor, Sigeric, shared a similar fate about six days after his elec- tion to the sovereignty. Vallia, the next king of the Goths, having concluded a treaty of peace with the Romans, waged war with the Alans and Silingians in Spain, and, after de- feating them in several battles, obliged them to flee for protection into Galicia 682 GOTHS. For this important service, Vallia was al- lowed to form a settlement in Aquitania, where he died after a reign of three years. Theodoric had no sooner obtained the sovereignty than he broke the alliance which his predecessor had made with the Romans, and made himself master of some important places in Gaul ; but at the approach of ^tius he abandoned the enterprise, and was, soon after, obliged to sue for a renewal of the peace which he himself had so lately violated. How- ever, about ten years after this transac- tion, Theodoric broke again with the Romans, and, having reduced several towns, at length laid siege to Narbonne ; but his designs were all frustrated by the vigilance of the enemy, and, after some time, the warlike Goth renewed his alli- ance with the Romans, in whose defence he afterwards fought with extraordinary bravery against the Hunns, and lost his life at the famous battle of Chalons. Thorismond, the successor of Theodo- ric, evinced the utmost impatience to revenge his father's death, and according- ly, having engaged Attila, king of the Hunns, with a formidable army, drove that invader from Gaul with equal loss and ignominy. However, the conduct of Thorismond gave such umbrage to his subjects that he was soon taken off by assassination. Theodoric II, has been described, by Sidonius, as a prince of superior abilities and great accomplishments, but a mere hypocrite with respect to religion. In the commencement of his reign he form- ed an alliance with the Romans, and as- sisted them, with a chosen body of troops, against the Bagaudae. He, afterwards, caused Avitus to be proclaimed emperor at Thoulouse ; recovered several provin- ces from the turbulent Suevians ; and reduced several important places in Lusi- tania. Emboldened by these successes, he renounced the emperor's friendship, and soon made himself master of the greatest part of Spain, together with some places in Gaul, which had hitherto belonged to the Romans ; but his ambi- tious projects were at length terminated by his brother Euric, who caused him to be murdered in the thirteenth y^ar of his reign. Euric having, by this nefarious action, established himself in the sovereignty, resolved to carry on the war with vigor. Accordingly he committed great depreda- tions in Lusitania ; made himself master of Pampelona, Saragossa, Coimbra, and Tarraco ; and eventually chased the Ro- mans from Spain, after they had held that country in subjection for the space of seven hundred years. He afterwards led his victorious forces into Gaul, and compelled the Romans to purchase a shameful peace by delivering up the pro- vince of Auvergne. The other places in Gaul which had submitted to Odoacer were afterwards yielded to Euric, whose dominions, by this addition, extended from the Loire to the Alps ; but whilst this ambitious prince was projecting new conquests, his career was suddenly stop- ped by death, in the nineteenth year of his reign. He had ascended the throne by an act of fratricide, and governed his subjects with unrelenting severity. War and bloodshed were his chief objects of delight ; and the success which usually attended his campaigns rendered him ex- tremely formidable to all the neighboring nations.- He was, however, a man of uncommon penetration, and is said to have been the first who gave the Goths a code of written laws. He left one son, named Alaric, who succeeded him, and a daughter, who was married to a barbarian prince named Sigismer. From the description which Sidonius has given of that prince, Vale- sius supposed him to have been a Frank by birth, and that Euric gave him his daughter in marriage with a view of con- ciliating the friendship of the Franks, who began, about this period, to be very powerful in Gaul ; but, if this were the case, Eurics' hopes were extremely ill grounded, for the Franks unanimously rose in arms against his descendants, and put a final period to their dominion in Gaul. Upon this overthrow the Goths retired into Spain, and fixed their royal seat at Toledo, {see Spain.) HUNNS. 683 HUNNS, The posterity of the Albanians, hav- ing migrated from their native country, estabhshed themselves in that part of Asiatic Sarmatia which bordered on the Palus Maeotis and the Tanais, the ancient boundary between Europe and Asia. They appear to have been divided into several tribes, but were all comprised under the general name of Ugri,* which was afterward changed into that of Hunni. The Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns are described, by the best historians, as a hardy, warlike, and ferocious people, who subsisted entirely on roots or raw meat ; lived, constantly exposed to the air, in the woods, or among the excava- tions of the mountains ; were accustomed even to eat and sleep on horseback ; and professed the utmost contempt for rai- ment, houses, and other conveniences of life. They were equally destitute of re- ligious and civil institutions, and aban- doned themselves without restraint to the gratification of their unruly passions. Hence we find them making frequent in- cursions into the Roman empire in defi- ance of the most solemn oaths, and even occasionally turning their arms against their own countrymen for a pecuniary reward. They are said to have mangled the cheeks of their male infants, in order to strike terror into the enemy by their distorted countenances ; and in war they usually rushed towards the foe with hideous shouts ; but, if their first attack were vigorously resisted, their fury soon abated, and they fled in the utmost con- fusion. Their first excursion in quest of new settlements appears to have been made about the year of the Christian era 376, when they passed the Palus Mseotis ; made a dreadful slaughter among the Alans, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths ; and took possession of that vast tract of coun- * The word Ugre, whence Ugri is derived, signifies, in the Sclavonic language, aquatic, or living in the water — a name well adapted to a nation residing in the marshy places which bor- dered on the Palus Maeotis and the Tanais. try which extends from the Tanais to the Danube. About the year 383 the Nephthalite or White Hunns, broke into the Roman ter- ritories ; overran Mesopotamia ; and even laid siege to the city of Edessa ; but they were bravely repulsed by the garrison, and compelled, after some time, to aban- don their daring enterprize. This tribe inhabited a rich tract of country, at a considerable distance from the Sarmatian Hunns, with whom they had no affinity nor intercourse. They lived according to their own laws ; dealt equitably with each other ; and seldom made inroads, unless provoked, into the territories of their neighbors. The Sarmatian Hunns, emboldened by their success against the Alans, Goths, and other barbarous nations, crossed the Danube in 391, and committed the most dreadful outrages in Thrace and Maesia ; Stilicho overthrew them in a pitched battle, and surrounded them so complete- ly in a narrow valley, that they must either have surrendered at discretion or perished with himger, had not Claudian generously offered to conclude a treaty of peace. Four years after this event, the Hunns made an unexpected irruption into the eastern provinces, and penetrated even to the walls of Antioch ; marking their progress with such enormous cruelties and depredations, that St. Jerome says, " All the East trembled at the approach of an enemy, who, equally destitute of religion and hum'nity, roved without con- trol wherever they pleased, massacreing those who had scarce begun to live, and who smiled, unconscious of danger, at the very weapons that were lifted to destroy them." Indeed the barbarians appear to have spared neither age, sex, nor con- dition, in this expedition ; but to have filled all places with slaughter and deso- lation. From this period they seem to have remained quiet till the year 404, when crossing the Danube in prodigious multi- tudes, they ravaged the province of 684 HUNNS. Thrace, penetrated into East lUyricum, and returned home loaded with phmder. During the minority of Theodosius II, llldin. King of the Hunns, entered Thrace, at the head of a formidable army ; but the gallant resistance of the Romans, and the defection of his own officers, com- pelled him to repass the Danube with the utmost precipitation. On this occa- sion the Scyri, a northern nation in alli- ance with Uldin, received an overthrow, by which they were almost utterly extir- pated. On the demise of Honorius, in 423, sixty thousand Hunns were led by ^tius to the assistance of John, who had as- sumed the imperial purple ; and an obsti- nate battle was fought with the troops of Assar ; but ^tius, being informed of the usurper's death, thought proper to submit to Theodosius, and accordingly persuad- ed the barbarians to return home. To- ward the close of the same year Thrace was overrun and pillaged by one of the northern tribes under the command of Rougas ; but this marauder being killed by lightning, and many of his men swept off by a pestilence, the survivors retreated with precipitation to their own country. In the year 435 a numerous body of Hunns joined iEtius against the Burgun- dians, of whom they slaughtered twenty thousand. However, they soon expe- rienced a reverse of fortune in this ex- pedition ; for the Burgundians, having watched a favorable opportunity, fell upon them with resistless fury, cut ten thou- sand of their men to pieces, and obliged the rest to save themselves by flight. Attila, king of the Hunns, having, with the assistance of his brother Bleda, sub- jugated most of the norlliern nations, con- ceived the daring design of seizing the Roman empire. Accordingly, having passed the Danube at the head of a pow- erful army, he made himself master of several cities and fortresses ; ravaged the country, wherever he passed, with fire and sword ; and overwhelmed the Romans with such consternation, that Theodosius was reduced to the neces- sity of concluding a peace upon very dis- advantageous terms. About the year 451 Attila entered Gaul at the head of a numerous army, declar' ing that he had no design inimical to the welfare of the Romans, but that he only wished to traverse Gaul, and pass the Loire at Orleans, in order to fall upon the Visigoths in Guienne and Languedoc. Hereupon the credulous Romans laid aside their apprehensions, and several cities opened their gates ; but the artful invader had no sooner penetrated into the country than he threw off the mask, and committed the most horrid depreda- tions. At Mentz, in particular, he per- mitted the most infamous cruelties to be exercised on the inhabitants ; massacred the priests even before their altars ; and reduced the greatest part of the city to ashes. He next took possession of Or- leans ; but was driven thence with great slaughter, and, after a bloody engage- ment in the plains of Chalons, he retired to the banks of the Rhine. As the other principal exploits of this warlike barba- rian have been already noticed in the history of Rome, it is only requisite to add, that his reign was at length termi- nated by the breaking of a blood vessel, and his funeral obsequies were perform- ed with great solemnity. Ellac, the son and successor of Attila, is described as a person of great bravery and resolution, well versed in the arts of war, and, consequently, capable of re- taining his father's numerous conquests ; but, whilst his brothers were clamoring for a division of the sovereignty, the Gepidae broke out into an open revolt, and marched a body of forces to the banks of the Netad, in Pannonia, where upwards of thirty thousand Hunns were put to the sword, and Ellac himself was cut off in the very commencement of his reign. The surviving Hunns were so disheart- ened by this defeat, and the subsequent revolt of several other nations, that they immediately retired toward the Euxine sea and the mouths of the Danube, leav- ing the Gepidae in possession of all an- cient Dacia. About eight years after this occurrence, Dinzio, one of Attila's sons, made an irruption into the territo- ries of the Goths, and invested the city of Basiana, which was situated between the Save and the Draw ; but his de- sign was soon frustrated, and himself HUNNS. 685 compelled to retreat with considerable loss. In the year of the Christian era 466, a numerous army of Hunns passed the Danube, in the depth of winter, and com- mitted some dreadful ravages in the pro- vince of Dacia ; but Anthemius, march- ing against them with a select body of troops, they were defeated in a pitched battle, and compelled to abandon their enterprize. Dengizic, one of Atilla's sons, attempted to retrieve this misfortune by assembling a greater body of forces ; but his designs were rendered abortive by the vigilance of Arnagastus, who guarded the banks of the Danube, and his head was sent by the victor to Constan- tinople, where it was carried through the streets on the point of a spear. Overwhelmed with confusion by these repeated overthrows, and dispirited by the loss of their most valiant chiefs, the Hunns continued quiet for the space of sixty years ; but, on the accession of Justinian, two of their kings, Styrax and Clones, penetrated the Roman territories, at the head of two formidable armies. At this juncture, however, Boarox, queen of the Sabirite Hunns, led an army of one hundred thousand men to the assis- tance of the emperor ; gave the invaders a signal overthrow ; and sent Styrax himself in chains to Constantinople. In the thirteenth year of Justinian's reign, the Cuturgurian Hunns, crossing the Danube in prodigious multitudes, ravaged the greatest part of Thrace, Greece, lUyricum, and all the provinces from the Ionian sea to the very suburbs of Constantinople ; and, having passed the Hellespont, committed many enor- mous acts of cruelty in Asia, and return- ed home with an immense booty, and one hundred and twenty thousand captives. To prevent a repetition of these expedi- tions, Justinian allowed the Cuturgurians some lands in the province of Thrace, and agreed to pay them an annual pen- sion, upon condition that they should serve, when required, under the Roman banners ; but as this scheme proved in- adequate to the preservation of the em- pire, a quarrel was artfully fomented be- tween the Cuturgurian and Uturgurian Hunns, which divided the attention of the former, and finally terminated in the destruction of both. Venantius Fortunatus asserts, that, about the year 560, a numerous body of Hunns took their route through Germany, with a design to cross the Rhine, and form a settlement in Gaul ; but Sigebert, king of the Franks, arrested their pro- gress on the baaks of the Elbe, and gained a complete victory, many thou- sands of the barbarians being killed, and the residue compelled to retire into Pan- nonia. From this period no farther notice is taken of the Hunns till the reign of Charles the Great, when they were possessed of Dacia Mcesia, and both the Pannonias. Two of their princes, Caganus and Ju- gimus, formed an amicable alliance with Charles in the year 776. But their sub- sequent treachery, in sending succors to Tassilo, duke of Bavaria, and a dispute which arose respecting their boundaries, gave such umbrage to their illustrious ally, that he not only renounced their friendship, but ravaged their country with fire and sword, for the space of eight years, till he had almost extirpated their name and nation. Some authors, indeed, are of opinion that the whole race was entirely destroyed ; and that the country was afterwards peopled by the surround- ing nations, to whom the present Hunga- rians owe their origin. However, it is certain that the Hunns were finally sub- dued, by Charles the Great, about the year 794, and that Henry, duke of Friuli, took their royal palace, and stripped it of immense treasures — a considerable part of which was sent, by the emperor's order, to Rome. 686 JEWS. JEWS. Jews, a name derived from the patri- arch Judah, and given to the descendants of Abraham by his eldest son Isaac. We shall here present the reader with as comprehensive a view of this singular people as we can. 1. Jews^ history of the. — The Al- mighty promised Abraham that he would render his seed extremely numerous : this promise began to be fulfilled in Ja- cob's twelve sons. In about two hundred and fifteen years they increased in Egypt from seventeen to between two and three millions, men, women, and children. While Joseph lived, they were kindly used by the Egyptian monarchs ; but soon after, from a suspicion that they would become too strong for the natives, they were condemned to slavery ; but the more they were oppressed, the more they grew. The midwifes, and others, were therefore ordered to murder every male infant at the time of its birth ; but they, shifting the horrible task, every body was then ordered to destroy the male children wherever they found them. After they had been thus oppressed for about one hundred years, and on the very day that finished the four hundred and thirtieth year from God's first promise of a seed to Abraham, and about four hun- dred years after the birth of Isaac, God, by terrible plagues on the Egyptians, obliged them to liberate the Hebrews un- der the direction of Moses and Aaron. Pharoah pursued them with a mighty army ; but the Lord opened a passage for them through the Red Sea ; and the Egyptians in attempting to follow them, were drowned. After this, we find them in a dry and barren desert, without any provision for their journey ; but God sup- plied them with water from a rock, and inanna and quails from heaven. A little after, they routed the Amalekites, who fell on their rear. In the wilderness, God delivered them the law, and con- firmed the authority of Moses. Three thousand of them were cut off for wor- shipping the golden calf; and for loath- ing the manna, they were punished with a month's eating of flesh, till a plague brake out among them ; and for their rash belief of the ten wicked spies, and their contempt of the prromised land, God had entirely destroyed them, had not Moses's prayers prevented. They were condemn- ed, however, to wander in the desert till the end of forty years, till that whole generation, except Caleb and Joshua, should be cut off by death. Here they were often punished for their rebellion, idolatry, whoredom, &c. God's marvel- lous favors, however, were still continu- ed in conducting and supplying them with meat ; and the streams issuing from the rock Meribah, followed their camp about thirty-nine years, and their clothes never waxed old. On their entrance into Canaan, God ordered them to cut off eve- ry idolatrous Canaanite ; but they spared vast numbers of them, who enticed them to wickedness, and were sometimes God's rod to punish them. For many ages they had enjoyed little prosperity, and often relapsed into awful idolatry, worshipping Baalim, Ashtaroth, Micah and the Danites introduced it not long af- ter Joshua's death. About this time the lewdness of the men of Gibeah occasion- ed a war of the eleven tribes against their brethren of Benjamin ; they were twice routed by the Benjamites, and forty thou- sand of them were slain. In the third, however, all the Benjamites were slain, except six hundred. Vexed for the loss of a tribe, the other Hebrews provided wives for these six hundred, at the ex- pense of slaying most of the inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead. Their relapses into idolatry also brought on them repeated turns of slavery from the heathen among or around them. See books of Judges and Samuel. Having been governed by judges for about three hundred and forty years, after the death of Joshua they took a fancy to have a king. Saul was their first sovereign, under whose reign they had perpetual struggles with the Ammon- ites, Moabites, and Philistines. After about seven years' struggling between the eleven tribes that clave to Ishbosheth, JEWS. 687 the son of Saul, and the tribe of Judah, which erected themselves into a kingdom under David, David became sole mon- arch. Under him they subdued their neighbors, the Philistines, Edomites, and others ; and took pessession of the whole dominion which had been promised them, from the border of Egypt to the banks of the Euphrates. Under Solomon they had little war : when he died, ten of the Hebrew tribes formed a kingdom of Isra- el, or Ephraim, for themselves, under Jeroboam, the Son of Nebat, in opposi- tion to the kingdom of Judah and Benja- min, ruled by the family of David. The kingdom of Israel, Ephraim, or the ten tribes, had never so much as one pious king : idolatry was always their estab- lished religion. The kingdom of Judah had pious and wicked sovereigns by turns, though they often relapsed into idolatry, which brought great distress upon them. See books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. Not only the kingdom of Israel, but that of Judah, was brought to the very brink of ruin after the death of Jehoshaphat. After various changes, sometimes for the better, and sometimes for the worse, the kingdom of Israel was rumed, two hundred and fifty-four years after its erection, by So, king of Egypt, and Halmanaster, king of Assyria, who invaded it, and destroyed most of the people. Judah was invaded by Senna- cherib; butHezekiah's piety, and Isaiah's prayer, were the means of their preserva- tion ; but under Manasseh, the Jews abandoned themselves to horrid impiety ; for which they were punished by Esar- haddon, king of Assyria, who invaded and reduced the kingdom, and carried Manasseh prisoner to Babylon. Manas- seh repented, and the Lord brought him back to his kingdom, where he promoted the reformation ; but his son Amon de- faced all. Josiah, however, again promoted it, and carried it to a higher pitch than in the reigns of David and Solomon. After Josiah was slain by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, the people returned to idolatry, and God gave them up to servitude to the Egyptians and the Chaldeans. The fate of their kings Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Je- hoiachin, and Zedekiah, was unhappy. Provoked by Zedekiah's treachery, Ne- 1 buchadnezzar invaded the kingdom, mur dered vast numbers, and reduced them to captivity. Thus the kingdom of Judah was ruined, A. M. 3416, about three hun- dred and eighty-eight years after its divi- sion from that of the ten tribes. In the seventieth year from the begun captivity, the Jews, according to the edict of Cy- rus, king of Persia, who had overturned the empire of Chaldea, returned to their own country. See Nehemiah, Ezra. Vast numbers of them, who had agreea- ble settlements, remained in Babylon. After their return they rebuilt the temple and city of Jerusalem, put away their strange wives, aud renewed their cove- nants with God. About 3490, or 3546, they escaped the ruin designed them by Haman. About 3653, Darius Ochus, king of Persia, ra- vaged part of Judea, and carried off a great many prisoners. When Alexan- der was in Canaan, about 3670, he con- firmed to them all their privileges ; and, having built Alexandria, he settled vast numbers of them there. About fourteen years after, Ptolemy Lagus, the Greek king of Egypt, ravaged Judea, and car- ried one hundred thousand prisoners to Egypt, but used them kindly, and assign- ed them many places of trust. About eight years after, he transported another multitude of Jews to Egypt and gave them considerable privileges. About the same time, Seleucus Nicanor, having built about thirty new cities in Asia, settled in them as many Jews as he could; and Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, about 3720, bought the freedom of all the Jew slaves in Egypt. Antiochus Epiphanes, sbout 3834, enraged with them for re- joicing at the report of his death, and for the peculiar form of their worship, in his return from Egypt, forced his way into Jerusalem, and murdered forty thousand of them ; and about two years after he ordered his troops to pillage the cities of Judea, and murder the men, and sell the women and children for slaves. Multi- tudes were killed, and ten thousand prisoners carried off; the temple was dedicated to Olympius, an idol of Greece, and the Jews exposed to the basest treat- ment. Mattathias, the priest, with his sons, chiefly Judas, Jonathan, and Simon, 688 JEWS. who were called Maccabees, bravely- fought for their religion and liberties. Judas, who succeeded his father about 3840, gave Nicanor and the king's troops a terrible defeat, regained the temple, and dedicated it anew, restored the daily wor- ship, and repaired Jerusalem, which was almost in a ruinous heap. After his death, Jonathan and Simon, his brethren, suc- cessively succeeded him ; and both wise- ly and bravely promoted the welfare of the church and state. Simon was suc- ceeded by his son Hircanus, who sub- dued Idumea, and reduced the Samari- tans. In 3899 he was succeeded by his son Janneus, who reduced the Philis- tines, the country of Moab, Ammon, Gi- lead, and part of Arabia. Under these three reigns alone the Jewish nation was independent after the captivity. After the death of the widow of Janneus, who governed nine years, the nation was al- most ruined with civil broils. In 3939, Aristobulus invited the Romans to assist him against Hircanus, his elder brother. The country was quickly reduced, and Jerusalem took by force ; and Pompey, and a number of his officers, pushed their way into the sanctuary, if not into the Holy of Holies, to view the furniture thereof. Nine years after, Crassus the Roman general, pillaged the temple of its valuables. After Judea had for more than thirty years been a scene of ravage and blood, and twenty-four of which had been oppressed by Herod the Great, He- rod got himself installed in the kingdom. About twenty years before our Saviour's birth, he, with the Jews' consent, began to build the temple. About this time the Jews had hopes of the Messiah; and about A. M. 4000, Christ actually came, whom Herod (instigated by the fear of losing his throne) sought to murder. The Jews, however, a few excepted, rejected the Messiah, and put him to death. The sceptre was now wholly departed from Judah ; and Judea, about twenty-seven years before, reduced to a province. The Jews since that time, have been scattered, contemned, persecuted, and enslaved among all nations, not mixed with any in the common manner, but have remained as a body distinct by themselves. 2. Jews, sentimeiits of. The Jews com- monly reckon but thirteen articles of their faith. Maimonides, a famous Jew- ish rabbi, reduced them to this number when he drew up their confession about the end of the eleventh century, and it was generally received. All the Jews are obliged to live and die in the profes- sion of these thirteen articles, which are as follows : — 1. That God is the creator of all things ; that he guides and supports all creatures ; that he has done every thing ; and that he still acts, and shall act during the whole eternity. 2. That God is one ; there is no unity like his. He alone hath been, is, and shall be eternally our God. 3. That God is in- corporeal, and cannot have any material properties ; and no corporeal essence can be compared with him. 4. That God is the beginning and end of all things, and shall eternally subsist. 5. That God alone ought to be worshipped, and none beside him is to be adored. 6. That whatever has been taught by the prophets is true. 7. That Moses is the head and father of all contemporary doctors, of those who lived before or shall live after him. 8. That the law was given by Moses. 9. That the law shall never be altered, and that God will give no other. 10. That God knows all the thoughts and actions of men. 1 1 . That God will re- gard the works of all those who have performed what he commands, and pun- ish those who have transgressed his laws. 12. That the Messiah is to come, though he tarry a long time. 13. That there shall be a resurrection of the dead when God shall think fit. The modern Jews adhere still as close- ly to the Mosaic dispensation, as their dispersed and despised condition will per- mit them. Their service consists chiefly in reading the law in their synagogues, together with a variety of prayers. They use no sacrifices since the destruction of the temple. They repeat blessings and particular praises to God, not only in their prayers, but on all accidental occa- sions, and in almost all their actions. They go to prayers three times a day in their synagogues. Their sermons are not made in Hebrew, which few of them now perfectly understand, but in the language of the country where they reside. They JEWS. are forbidden all vain swearing, and pro- nouncing any of the names of God with- out necessity. They abstain from meats prohibited by the Levitical law ; for which reason, whatever they eat must be dress- ed by Jews, and after a manner peculiar to themselves. As soon as a child can speak, they teach him to read and trans- late the Bible into the language of the country where they live. In general they observe the same ceremonies which were practised by their ancestors in the cele- bration of the passover. They acknow- ledge a two-fold law of God, a written and an unwritten one ; the former is con- tained in the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses ; the latter, they pretend, was de- livered by God to Moses, and handed down from him by oral tradition, and now to be received as of equal authority with the former. They assert the perpetuity of their law, together with its perfection. They deny the accomplishment of the prophecies in the person of Christ ; al- leging that the Messiah is not yet come, and that he will make his appearance with the greatest worldly pomp and gran- deur, subduing all nations before him, and subjecting them to the house of Judah. Since the prophets have predicted his mean condition and sufferings, they con- fidently talk of two Messiahs ; one Ben- Ephraim, whom they grant to be a per- son of mean and afflicted condition in this world ; and the other Ben-David, who shall be a victorious and powerful prince. iThe Jews pray for the souls of the dlad, because they suppose there is a paradise for the souls of good men where they enjoy glory in the presence of God. They believe that the souls of the wick- ed are tormented in hell with fire and other punishments ;'that some are con- demned to be punished in this manner for ever, while others continue only for a limited time, and this they call purgato- ry, which is not different from hell in respect of the place, but of the duration, f humanity to read the account without be sees, and are as much attached to tradi- tion as their ancestors were ; and assert that whoever rejects the oral law de- serves death. Hence they entertain an implacable hatred to the Caraites, who adhere to the text of Moses, rejecting the rabbinistical interpretation.-.See Caraites. There are still some of the Sadducees in Africa, and in several other places ; but they are few in number ; at least there are but very few who declare openly for these opinions. There are to this day some remains of the ancient sect of the Samaritans, who are zealous for the law of Moses, but are despised by the Jews, because they re- ceive only the Pentateuch, and observe different ceremonies from theirs. They declare they are no Sadducees, but ac- knowledge the spirituality and immortali- ty of the soul. There are numbers of this sect at Gaza, Damascus, Grand Cai- ro, and in some other places of the east ; but especially at Sichem, now called Na- plouse, which is risen out of the ruins of the ancient Samaria, where they sacri- ficed not many years ago, having a place for this purpose on Mount Genzim. David Levi, a learned Jew, who in 1796, published " Dissertations on the Prophecies of the Old Testament," ob- serves in that work, that deism and infi- delity have made such large strides in the world, that they have at length reached even to the Jewish nation ; many of whom are at this time so greatly infected with scepticism, by reading Bolingbroke, Hume, Voltaire, &c, that they scarcely believe in a revelation ; much less have they hope in their future restoration. 3. Jews, calamities of. — All history cannot furnish us with a parallel to the calamities and miseries of the Jews ; ra- pine and murder, famine and pestilence within ; fire and sword, and all the ter- rors of war without. Our Saviour wept at the foresight of these calamities ; and it almost impossible for persons of any They suppose no Jew, unless guilty of heresy, or certain crimes specified by the rabbins, shall continue in purgatory above a twelvemonth , and that there are but few who suffer eternal punishment. Almost all the modern Jews are Phari- 87 ing affected. The predictions concern- ing them were remarkable, and the ca- lamities that came upon them were the greatest the world ever saw. Deut. xxviii, xxix. Matt. xxiv. Now, what heinous sin was it that could be the cause of such 690 JEWS. heavy judgments ? Can any other be as- 1 Soon after the forts of Herodian and signed than what the Scripture assigns ? - - •• 1 Thess. ii. 15, 16. " They both killed the Lord Jesus and their own prophets, and persecuted the apostles : and so fdl- ed up their sins, and wrath came upon them to the uttermost." It is hardly pos- sible to consider the nature and extent of their sufferings, and not conclude the Jews' own imprecation to be singularly fulfilled upon them, Matt, xxvii. 25. " His blood be on us and our children." At Cesarea 20,000 of the Jews were killed by the Syrians in their mutual broils. At Damascus 10,000 unarmed Jews were killed : and at Bethshan the Heathen in- habitants caused their Jewish neighbors to assist them against their brethren, and then murdered 13,000 of these inhabit- ants. At Alexandria the Jews murdered multitudes of the Heathens, and were murdered in their turn to about 50,000. The Romans under Vespasian invaded the country, and took the cities of Gali- lee, Chorazen, Bethsaida, Capernaum, &c, where Christ had been especially rejected, and murdored numbers of the inhabitants. At Jerusalem the scene was most wretched of all. At the pass- over, when there might be two or three millions of people in the city, the Romans surrounded it v/ith troops, trenches, and walls, that none might escape. The three different factions witliin murdered one another. Titus, one of the most mer- ciful generals that ever breathed, did all in his power to persuade them to an ad- vantageous surrender, but they scorned every proposal. The multitudes of un- buried carcasses corrupted the air, and produced a pestilence. The people fed on one another ; and even ladies, it is said, broiled their sucking infants, and ate them. After a siege of six months, the city was taken. They murdered al- most every Jew they met with. Titus was bent to save the temple, but could not : there were six thousand Jews who had taken shelter in it, all burnt or mur-i dered ! The outcries of the Jews, when they saw it, were most dreadful ; the whole city, except three towers and a small part of the wall, was raised to the ground, and the foundations of the tem- ple and other places were ploughed up. Macheron were taken, the garrison of Massada murdered themselves rather than surrender. At Jerusalem alone, it is said, one million one hundred thousand perished by sword, famine, and pestilence. In other places we hear of two hundred and fifty thousand that were cut off, be- sides vast numbers sent into Egypt to labor as slaves. About fifty years after, the Jews murdered about five hundred thousand of the Roman subjects, for which they were severely punished by Trajan. About 130, one Barocaba pretended that he was the Messiah, and raised a Jewish army of two hundred thousand, who mur- dered all the Heathens and Christians who came in their way ; but he was de- feated by Adrian's forces. In this war, it is said, about sixty thousand Jews were slain, and perished. Adrian built a city on Mount Calvary, and erected a marble statue of swine over the gate that led to Bethlehem. No Jew was allowed to enter the city, or to look to it at a dis- tance, under pain of death. In 360 they began to rebuild their city and temple ; but a terrible earthquake and flames of fire issuing from the earth, killed the workmen, and scattered their materials. Not till the seventh century durst they so much as creep over the rubbish to bewail it, without bribing the guards. In the third, fourth, and fifth centuries, there were many of them fu- riously harassed and murdered. In the sixth century twenty thousand of them were slain, and as many taken and sold for slaves. In 602 they were severely punished for their horrible massacre of the Christians at Antioch. In Spain, in 700, they were ordered to be enslaved. In the eighth and ninth centuries they were greatly derided and abused ; in some places they Avere made to wear leathern girdles, and ride without stirrups on asses and mules. In France and Spain they were much insulted. In the tenth, elev- enth, and twelfth centuries, their miseries increased ; they were greatly persecuted in Egypt. Besides what they suffered in the East by the Turkish and sacred war, it is shocking to think what multi- tudes of them the eight crusades mur- dered in Germany, Hungary, Lesser JEWS. 691 Asia, and elsewhere. In France multi- tudes were burnt. In England, in 1020, they were banished, and at the corona- tion of Richard I, the mob fell upon them, and murdered a great many of them. About one thousand five hundred of them were burnt in the palace in the city of York, which they set fire to themselves, after killing their wives and children. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- ries their condition was no better. In Egypt, Canaan, and Syria, the crusaders still harassed them. Provoked with their mad running after pretended Mes- siahs, Calif Nasser scarce left any of them alive in his dominions of Mesopo- tamia. In Persia, the Tartars murdered them in multitudes. In Spain, Ferdinand persecuted them furiously. About ] 349, the terrible massacre of them at Toledo forced many of them to murder them- selves, or change their religion. About 1253, many were murdered, and others banished from France, but in 1275 re- called. In 1320 and 1330, the crusades of the fanatic shepherds, vvho wasted the south of France, massacred them ; be- sides fifteen hundred that were murdered on another occasion. In 1358 they were totally banished from France, since which few of them have entered that country. In ] 291 king Edward expelled them from England, to the number of one hundred and sixty thousand. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, their misery continued. In Persia they have been terribly used ; from 1663 to 1666, the murder of them was so universal that but a i'ew escaped to Turkey. In Por- tugal and Spain they have been misera- bly handled. About 1392, six or eight hundred thousand were banished from Spain. Some were drowned in their passage to Africa ; some died by hard usage ; and many of their carcasses lay in the fields till the wild beasts devoured them. In Germany they have endured many hardships. They have been ban- ished from Bohemia, Bavaria, Cologne, Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Vienna ; they have been terribly massacred in Moravia, and plundered in Boun and Bamberg. Except in Portugal and Spain, their pre- sent condition is generally tolerable. In Holland, Poland, and at Frankfort and Hamburgh they have their liberty. They have repeatedly, but in vain, attempted to obtain a naturalization in England and other nations among whom they are scattered. 4. Jews, preservation of. — " The pre- servation of the Jews," says Basnage, " in the midst of the miseries which they have undergone during 1700 years, is the greatest prodigy that can be ima- gined. Religions depend on temporal prosperity ; they triumph under the pro- tection of a conqueror ; they languish and sink with sinking monarchies. Pagan- ism, which once covered the earth, is extinct. The Christian church, glorious in its martyrs, yet was considerably di- minished by the persecutions to which it was exposed ; nor was it easy to repair the breaches in it made by those acts of violence. But here we behold a church hated and persecuted for 1700 years, and yet sustaining itself, and widely extended. Kings have often employed the severity of edicts and the hand of executioners to ruin it. The seditious multitudes, by murders and massacres, have commit- ted outrages against it still more violent and tragical. Princes and people. Pa- gans, Mahometans, Christians, disagree- ing, in so many things, have united in the design of exterminating it, and have not been able to succeed. The bush of Moses, surrounded with flames, ever burns, and is never consumed. The Jews have been expelled, in diff'erent times, from every part of the world, which hath only served to spread them in all regions. From age to age they have been exposed to misery and perse- cution ; yet still they subsist, in spite of the ignominy and the hatred which hath pursued them in all places, whilst the greatest monarchies are fallen, and noth- ing remains of them besides the name. " The judgments which God has ex- ercised upon this people are terrible ; ex- tending to the men, the religion, and the very land in which they dwelt. The ceremonies essential to their religion can no more be observed : the ritual law, which cast a splendor on the national worship, and struck the Pagans so much that they sent their presents and their victims to Jerusalem, is absolutely fallen, 692 LOMBARDS for they have no temple, no altar, no sa- crifices. Their land itself seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse. Pagans, Christians, Mohammedans, in a vpord, almost all nations have by turns seized and held Jerusalem. To the Jew only hath God refused the possession of this small tract of ground, so supremely ne- cessary for him, since he ought to wor- ship on this mountain. A Jewish writer hath affirmed, that it is long since any Jew has been settled near Jerusalem : scarcely can they purchase there six feet of land for a burying-place. " In all this there is no exaggeration : I am only pointing out known facts : and far from having the least design to raise an odium against the nation from its miseries, I conclude that it ought to be looked upon as one of those prodigies which we admire without comprehend- ing : since, in spite of evils so durable, and a patience so long exercised, it is preserved by a particular providence. The Jew ought to be weary of expecting a Messiah, who so unkindly disappoints his vain hopes ; and the Christian ought to have his attention and his regard ex- cited towards men whom God preserves, for so great a length of time, under ca- lamities which would have been the total ruin of any other people." 5. Jews, number and dispersion of.-^ They are looked upon to be as numerous at present as they were formerly in the land of Canaan. Some have rated them at three millions, and others more than double that number. Their dispersion is a remarkable particular in this people. They swarm all over the east, and are settled, it is said, in the remotest parts of China. The Turkish empire abounds with them. There are more of them at Constantinople and Salonichi than in any other place : they are spread through most of the nations of Europe and Africa, and many families of them are establish- ed in the West Indies ; not to mention whole nations bordering on Prester John's country, and some discovered in the in- ner parts of America, if we may give any credit to their own writers. Their being always in rebellions (as Addison observes) while they had the Holy Temple in view, has excited most nations to banish them. Besides, the whole people are now a race of such merchants as are wanderers by profession ; and at the same time are in most, if not in all places, incapable of either lands or offices, that might engage them to make any part of the world their home. In addition to this, we may con- sider what providential reasons may be assigned for their numbers and disper- sion. Their firm adherence to their re- ligion, and being dispersed all over the earth, has furnished every age and every nation with the strongest arguments for the Christian faith ; not only as these very particulars are foretold of them, but as they themselves are the depositories of these and all other prophecies which tend to their own confusion and the establishment of Christianity. Their num- ber furnishes us with a sufficient cloud of witnesses that attest the truth of the Bible, and their dispersion spreads these witnesses through all parts of the world. LOMBARDS. The first credible account of this na- tion was given in 379, by Prosper Aqui- tanus, bishop of Rhegium. That pre- late, in a chronicle of his own composi- tion, asserts that the Lombards, leaving their original country, Scandinavia, in quest of new settlements, attacked and vanquished the Vandals in Scoringa. They afterward migrated into Mauringa, and thence into Gothland, where they first elected a king, and conferred a regal title on Agilmund, the son of their de- ceased chieftain Aion. Lamissio, the successor of Agilmund, is said to have gained a signal victory over the Amazons and Bulgarians. Of his successors, Leta and Ildehoc, noth- ing satisfactory has been recorded, ex- cept that in the reign of the latter the Lombards took possession of Rugiland, LOMBARDS. 693 which had been recently depopulated by the sword of Odoacer. During- the reign of Adoinus, a war was kindled between the Lombards and Gepidse, and a general engagement took place, in which the latter were defeated with great slaughter. As the victory gained on this occasion was chiefly ow- ing to Alboinus, the king's son, the prin- cipal men among the Lombards earnestly requested that he might be indulged, as a reward of his extraordinary gallantry, in dining at the royal table. Adoinus replied, he would readily grant this re- quest, but that the ancient laws of his nation forbade even the princes of the blood to receive such a mark of dis- tinction, till they had publicly appeared in the armor of some foreign prince whom they had overthrown in battle. Hereupon the warlike prince, attended only by forty resolute men, repaired to the court of Turistind, king of the Gepi- dae, to demand the armor of his son, who had been killed by Alboinus in the above- mentioned battle. Turisund, instead of off'ering any violence to the intrepid claimant, entertained him with the utmost hospitality, and granted his request, with which he returned in triumph, and was permitted to sit at table with his royal parent. The Lombards under this reign were masters of the champaign country bordering on the Danube, and many of them, by permission of Justinian, fixed their abode in Pannonia. On the demise of Adoinus, the valiant Alboinus succeeded to the sovereignty, and gained some important advantages over the Gepidae, whose king he slew with his own hand, and, according to the custom of savage warriors, caused his skull to be converted into a drinking cup. By this victory Alboinus gained such reputation, that his subjects were perfect- ly enraptured with his martial disposition ; his valor and prowess became the favorite theme of Gothic bards ; and even Nar- ses solicited his assistance against the Ostrogoths in Italy. For their services on that occasion the Lombards received d profusion of rich presents ; and con- tinued faithful allies to the Romans so long as they remained in Pannonia. About the year 568 the Lombards, with a numerous army of auxiliaries, took their route towards Italy, which they entered without opposition, and made themselves masters of several important cities ; the inhabitants having retired precipitately to the neighboring islands in the Adriatic. Alboinus having cantoned his troops in the adjacent villages, took up his winter quarters in Friuli, and erected that city and its territory into a duchy, conferring^the titleof dukeon hisownnephew Gisulphus. Early in the ensuing spring Alboinus took the field ; and successively reduced the cities of Monte Selce, Vicenza, Ve- rona, and Trent, in each of which he placed a strong garrison, under the com- mand of an officer whom he honored with the ducal title ; but these dukes were only governors of their respective cities, and bore that appellation no longer than the king thought proper to continue them in their command. In their third campaign the Lombards became masters of Bresica, Bergamo, Lodi, Como, and the other towns of Li- guria, quite to the Alps ; the inhabitants either fleeing at their approach or sur- rendering without resistance. The citi- zens of Milan, indeed, made some efl^orts for the preservation of their liberty, but, after a short struggle, they submitted : and Alboinus was proclaimed king of Italy amidst the acclamations of his followers From Milan the conqueror marched to Paira, which, being well garrisoned, and furnished with an abundance of provis- ions, sustained a siege for upwards of three years ; but at the expiration of that time it surrendered upon honor- able conditions, and was, shortly after, chosen by Alboinus for the metropolis of his new kingdom. Alboinus being now master of all that part of Italy which comprehended Vene- tia, Liguria, Umbria, iEmilia, and Etru- ria, resolved to establish the government and security of these provinces before he attempted to extend his conquests ; but whilst he was making the necessary arrangements for this purpose, he was assassinated by command of his queen Rosamund,* whom he had incensed * This princess was the daughter of Cuni- mund, king of the Gepidse, whom Alboinus had killed with his own hand in battle. 694 LOMBARDS beyond forgiveness by commanding her to drink out of her father's skull, Avhich was used as a drinking cup in a royal banquet at Verona. To reward the execution of her re- venge, Rosamund bestowed her hand on the assassin Helmichild ; and promised to invest him with the sovereignty ; but the Lombards were so violently exasper- ated at the loss of their beloved prince, that both herself and her new consort were compelled to flee to Ravenna, where they implored the protection of the ex- arch Longinus. Here Rosamund formed the design of attaching Longinns to her interest by the same means which had formerly prevailed with Helmichild, and accordingly presented the latter with a deleterious potion as he returned from bathing ; but Helmichild, experiencing an extraordinary sensation on taking the first draught, compelled the treacherous queen to swallow the remainder, by which means she participated in his untimely fate. Meanwhile the Lombards, having per- formed the funeral obsequies of their de- ceased sovereign, proceeded to the elec- tion of a new king, and, after some con- sultation, fixed their choice on Clephis, a man of known valor and abilities. This prince undertook the re-building of Imola, which had been destroyed byNar- ses ; reduced Rimini ; and extended his conquests to the very gates of Rome ; but the cruelty of his disposition tarnish- ed the lustre of all his military achiev- ments, and eventually induced his own subjects to take him off by assassination. Upon the demise of Clephis, the Lom- bards resolved to abolish the monarchi- cal form of government, and accordingly lived under their dukes or commanders of cities for the space of ten years, dur- ing which time they committed many depredations in Gaul, and reduced sev- eral cities of importance in Italy. But the powerful confederacy which was formed against them in the time of the emperor Mauritius, induced them to re- store the ancient regimen, and to unite their forces under the authority of an in- dividual who might undertake the man- agement of so dangerous a war. Pursuant to this resolution a general assembly was called in 585, and the re- gal title conferred on Autharis, the son of Clephis. This prince had no sooner ascended the throne than he assumed the name of Flavius, and ordered it to be used, in imitation of the Roman empe- rors, by all his successors. He then obliged the dukes, who for ten years, had ruled with absolute authority over their respective territories, to contribute a moiety of their revenues towards the maintenance of his royal dignity ; and enacted various salutary laws against murder, adultery, theft, and other crimes, which, at that time, were frequently com- mitted by his subjects. Nor was Autharis only attentive to the government and welfare of his people ; but, on the first intimation that Childeric, king of the Franks, was marching into his dominions, in violation of a recent treaty, he assembled his troops with in- credible despatch, and animated them so effectually by his exhortations and exam- ple, that the invaders were utterly over- thrown, and pursued to the mountains with incredible slaughter. A second ex- pedition was undertaken by the Franks to retrieve this signal loss, but victory again declared for Autharis, and their at- tempts were only productive of confu- sion and shame. Some time after the retreat of this enemy, Autharis reduced the province of Samnium and the city of Benevento. He is also said to have projected the reduction of Rome, and the exarchate of Ravenna ; but previously to the accomplishment of this design, he was taken off by poison, after having worn the crown about six years. Au- tharis was the first Lombard king who embraced the Christian religion, and his example was followed by most of his subjects ; but, as they were unfortunately instructed by Arian bishops, they contin- ued long infested with that heresy, which occasioned many warm disputations be- tween them and the orthodox bishops of the cities subject to their dominion. Agilulf, duke of Turin, a person of ex- traordinary merit, was next elevated to the regal dignity, in 590. At the request of his queen Theudelinda, he embraced the Catholic faith, and induced many of his subjects to abjure their former errors. LOMBARDS. 695 However, the commencement of his reign was disturbed by rebellion ; and he found himself obliged to take up arms against his own countrymen ; for the dukes of Bergamo, and the island of St. Julian, revolted from their allegiance, and claimed an absolute authority in their respective districts ; but these dis- turbances were at length quelled without much bloodshed ; and a peace was con- cluded with the exarch of Ravenna, who had vainly attempted to recover Italy during the intestine commotions. Notwithstanding the conclusion of this treaty, Callincius, the treacherous exarch, taking advantage of some fresh disturb- ances that were raised by the dukes of Ve- rona and Bergamo, fell unexpectedly upon the city of Parma, in which he found a considerable treasure, and took the king's daughter and her husband prisoners. — Hereupon Agilulf resolved to pursue the war against the Romans with unremitting vigor, and engaged Chagan, king of the Avares, to make a powerful diversion in Thrace, while he carried on his military preparations in Italy. This design was im- mediately followed by the reduction of many Roman cities, and a vast effusion of blood both in Thrace and Italy ; but Chagan was at length compelled to re- tire by a pestilence which raged in the army ; and Agilulf hearing that the em- peror had issued out orders for the resto- ration of his daughter, son-in-law, and treasures that had been taken at Pavia, agreed to grant the Romans a truce for six months, which was afterward pro- longed to three years. The swords of the Lombards had no sooner returned to their scabbards, and the inhabitants of Italy congratulated them- selves on the return of peace, than Cacan- us, king of the Hunns, made a sudden ir- ruption into the dukedom of Friuli ; made himself master of Forum Julii, the me- tropolis ; ravaged the country with fire and sword ; and carried all the inhabit- ants, who escaped death, into captivity. About the same time Joannes Lemigius, exarch of Ravenna, was murdered by the populace of that city on account of his tyrannical conduct ; and Joannes Composinus, duke of Naples, resolved to shake off his allegiance to the empe- ror ; but, on the arrival of Eleutherius from Constantinople, these disturbances were effectually quelled. On the demise of Agilulf, which hap- pened in 615, the Lombards bestowed the regal title on Adaluald ; but, as that prince was a minor, he suffered the state to be governed by his mother Theude- linda, under whom the church began to flourish, and the Lombards to taste the sweets of uninterrupted peace. In the eighth year of his reign, however, Euse- bius, who was sent from Constantinople to conclude a permanent peace with the Lombards, gained the confidence of the young king, and wrought so artfully upon his passions, by pretending to unravel a secret conspiracy, that twelve of the Lombard nobles were put to death by the royal command ; an outrage which occa- sioned the immediate deposition of Ada- luald and Theudelinda, the former of whom is supposed to have been taken off by poison, and the latter soon fell a victim to unconquerable grief. Ariovald, duke of Turin, who had es- poused the daughter of the deposed king, was next placed on the throne ; and, ex- clusive of some disturbances which hap- pened previously to the death of Adaluald, his reign was marked by public tranquil- lity both at home and abroad. He is said to have confined his queen to the castle of Amellum on the false accusation of one of his nobles, who had vainly endea- vored to obtain the gratification of an un- lawful passion ; but, after some time, the cause being tried by single combat, ac- cording to the custom of the northern na- tions, the accuser was convicted of false- hood, and the virtuous princess was re- stored to her former dignity. Shortly after this incident, Ariovald died ; and, as he left no successor, Ro- tharis, duke of Brescia, was elected to the sovereignty in 636. This person, exclusive of his theological tenets, was, in every respect, worthy of that dignity, and has been equally commended, by the writers of his own age, for his valor, equi- ty, and moderation. He undertook, in imitation of the Romans, the promulgation of written laws ; augmented his domin- ions by the reduction of all the cities in Venetia, which had been hitherto held 696 LOMBARDS. by the Romans ; and, after a glorious reign of sixteen years, sunk to the tomb in full possession of his people's love. Rodoald, the son and successor of Ro- tharis, appears to have been a prince of a pacifie disposition, for none of his trans- actions have been recorded in history. He is said to have been infected with the heresy of Arius, and to have indulged himself in illicit amours, for one of which he was assassinated. Aripert was next proclaimed king of the Lombards in a general assembly ; but none of his actions have been transmitted to posterity, except his rebuilding the oratory of St. Saviour in Pavia. He is said to have reigned nine years, and to have divided the kingdom between his two sons, Partharit and Gundebert. This division of the regal authority soon produced the most fatal consequen- ces; for Partharit, having roused his brother's indignation respecting the seat of royal residence, Gundebert resolved to seize on the whole kingdom, and ac- cordingly sent Garibald, duke of Turin, as his ambassador to Grimoald, duke of Benevento, inviting him to his assistance, and promising to give him his sister in marriage if he succeeded in the undertak- ing ; but Garibald, instead of executing his commission with fidelity, exhorted the duke of Benevento to expel both the brothers, and seize on the kingdom for himself. Hereupon Grimoald assembled a numerous army, and marched towards Pavia, where he was persuaded, by the treacherous Garibald, to murder Gunde- bert in his own palace; to seize on the royal treasures ; and to cause himself to be proclaimed king of the Lombards. Upon the first intelligence of this dis- aster, Partharit abandoned his capital, and fled to the court of Chagan, king of the Avares, while his queen Rodolind, and his infant son Cunipert, were left at the mercy of Grimoald, by whom they were sent prisoners to the city of Bene- vento, about 662. Notwithstanding the readiness with Avhich the LoRibards submitted to their invaders, Grimoald could not suppose himself secure, while his competitor re- sided at the court of Chagan. He, there- fore, sent an embassy to that prince, complaining of the protection he had af- forded Partharit, and threatening imme- diate war unless the cause of discontent was immediately removed. The king of the Avares was extremely reluctant to abandon his unhappy guest to the malice of an enemy ; but, after some considera- tion, motives of policy triumphed over humanity, and an order was issued out for Partharit to retire to some other coun- try. In this distressing exigence, the royal exile resolved to throw himself up- on the generosity of his rival, and accor- dingly despatched one of Ids trusty friends to obtain leave for him to reside, as a pri- vate citizen, at Pavia. Grimoald readily acceded to this proposal, and ordered a residence to be prepared altogether suit- able for the quality of his petitioner ; but the demonstrations of joy which marked Partharit's entry, and the avidity with which the nobles flocked to visit him, soon rekindled the flame of jealousy in Gri- moald's bosom, and finally compelled him to issue out private orders for the unfor- tunate prince's assassination. This act of barbarity, however, was prevented by the vigilance of one of the Lombards, and Partharit was enabled to escape, first to Hasta, and aftervvards into Gaul. Clotair ni,kingof the Franks, listened with compassion to the sorrowful tale of Partharit, and readily undertook to re- place him on the throne ; but, though this project was immediately put in execution, the expedition was rendered abortive, and Grimoald still triumphed in his new possessions. Some time after the defeat of the Franks, a more redoubtable enemy appeared in the person of Constans, who, at the head of a formidable army, landed at Tarentum, and thence proceeded to Benevento, marking his progress with slaughter and desolation ; however, after some obstinate conflicts, Constans was obliged to retire with considerable loss ; and the Lombards improved their recent victory by the reduction of several places of importance. Grimoald, after these successes, devoted his time chiefly to the emendation of the laws ; the regulations of government ; and the fulfilment of other royal duties ; but his reign was at length suddenly terminated, after he had governed the Lombards for the space of LOMBARDS. 697 nine years.* He appears to have been a prince of extraordinary parts, and the general equity of his conduct endeared his administration to the subjects of his conquest. He had been educated in the principles of Arius, but he renounced the doctrines of that heresiarch, after his ele- vation to the throne of the Lombards ; and his example operated so pow^erfuUy, that Arianism was gradually abjured by the generality of the nation. Garibald, thou2:h considerably younger than his brother Romuald, w^as appointed by the late prince to succeed to the crown ; but his dig-nity was of short duration ; for Partharit was, almost immediately, re- called and reinstated in his lawful pos- sessions ; while Garibald retired to his brother in Benevento. Partharit, having governed in perfect tranquillity for eight years, took his son, Cunipert, for his col- league in the kingdom, and reigned with him ten years more ; at the expiration of which time he died, universally la- mented by his faithful Lombards. Upon the demise of this prince, Ala- chis, duke of Trent, threw off his alle- giance, and chased Cunipert, the son of Partharit, from the throne ; however, he did not long enjoy the fruits of his treach- ery, for the principal men among the Lom- bards undertook to recall their lawful sovereign, and an engagement ensued, which, after an obstinate resistance, ter- minated in the death of Alachis, and the total defeat of his partisans. After this victory, Cunipert built a magnificent mon- astery in honor of St. George, and sway- ed the sceptre in undisturbed tranquillity till the year 703, when his death occa- sioned an universal lamentation among a nation who had ever admired his quahfi- cations, and reverenced his extraordinary piety. The government next devolved upon Luitbert, son of the deceased monarch, A. D. 703 ; but, as he was a minor under the tutelage of Asprand, a person of great distinction, Ragumbert, duke of Turin, resolved to embrace so favorable an op- portunity of gratifying his ambition ; and * He had been let blood in one of his arms ; and as he was, nine days after, bending a bow, the vein burst, and all means for closing it prov- ing ineffectual, he bled to death. accordingly caused himself to be pro- claimed king of the Lombards, after hav- ing defeated Asprand in a pitched battle ; however, his career was soon terminated by death, and the crown descended to his son Aripert, who caused the lawful heir to be stifled in a bath, and exercised the most shocking cruelties on the family of Asprand, who had himself escaped destruction by a precipitate flight. At the expiration of nine years, however, Asprand returned into Italy, and a bloody engagement en.sued, which terminated in the usurper's destruction ; for, his for- ces being totally routed, he abandoned Pavia in the utmost confusion, and was drowned in attempting to ford the river Tesino. The conqueror was then placed on the throne by the unanimous consent of the people, but he died about three months after his accession. Luitprand, the son and successor of Asprand, had scarcely assumed the in- signia of royalty, A. D. 711, before two conspiracies were formed against his life ; but these were rendered abortive by the courage and foresight of the king, and the very men who had engaged to im- brue their hands in his blood were after- wards converted into sincere friends and faithful servants. Having taken suitable precautions for his own safety, Luitprand strengthened his interest by marrying the daughter of the duke of Boioarii, and ap- plied himself so zealously to the promul- gation of a new code of laws, that he has been accounted the chief legislator of the Lombards, next to Rotharis. However, ambition appears to have been his darling passion ; for, while the tranquillity of Italy was disturbed by an edict of liCO Isauri- cus, relative to the destruction of images in the church, Luitprand suddenly led his forces against Ravenna ; and, having carried it by storm, gave it up to be plun- dered by his soldiers. The reduction of this important place, together with the surrender of several other cities in the exarchate, greatly alarmed Gregory 11, bishop of Rome, who immediately wrote to Ursus, duke of Venice, and used such pressing arguments on behalf of the dis- tressed exarch, that the Venetians readily consented to oppose the Lombards with all the forces of their repubhc ; and Ra- 698 LOMBARDS, venna was soon after recovered, while Luitprand was triumphing in the success of his projects at Pavia. Gregory, having contributed so essen- tially toward the recovery of Ravenna, persuaded himself that the emperor would now, from motives of gratitude, attend to his remonstrances, and consent to revoke the unpopular edict against the worship of images ; but Leo, knowing that the pope had been rather influenced by mo- tives of interest, than any regard for the empire, expressed the utmost resentment at the delay of his commands, and, after some time, commanded the exarch to seize on the pontiff, and send him in chains to Constantinople ; but this design was frustrated by the interposition of Luitprand, who justly supposed that, by assisting sometimes one and sometimes the other, he might effectually weaken both parties. Leo, however, still persist- ed in his resolution, and gave the exarch such instructions for putting his edict in execution, that all Italy was convulsed by feuds and rebellions ; the populace of Ravenna committed the most daring out- rages ; and the exarch himself was event- \ially murdered ; while all the cities of Pentapolis and of Romagna rcA^olted from the imperial authority, and tendered their allegiance to the king of the Lombards, who took especial care to improve the discontent of the people to his own ad- A'antage. Eutychius, the new exarch, knowing it would be impossible to reduce the re- bellious Romans, while they were sup- ported by the king of the Lombards, em- ployed all his arts to bring over that prince to the imperial party ; and, at length, per- suaded him to attempt, in concert with Leo's forces, the reduction of Rome. However, Gregory found means to soften the royal Lombard so effectually, that he publicly implored pardon for entering into an alliance against him; divested himself of his girdle, mantle, gauntlet, sword, and crown, in the church of St. Peter, to ex- press his humiliation ; and, finally, effect- ed a reconciliation between the pontiff and the exarch. On the demise of Leo, his son, Con- stantino Copronymus, renewed the edict against images, and even forbade the in- vocation of saints ; by which means Italy was again involved in confusion, and the Romans were confirmed in their resolu- tion of separating entirely from the empire. Zachary, who had now succeeded to the papal chair, despatched a solemn em- bassy to Luitprand, entreating him to re- store some cities which Gregory had sur- rendered upon his raising the siege of Rome. This request was readily granted, and Luitprand, on a future occasion, gave a more convincing proof of his respect to the pontiff, by abandoning a project which he had formed for the augmentation of his dominions. Shortly after these transac- tions, Luitprand died, in the thirty-second year of his reign, leaving behind him the character of an equitable and nmnifi- cent prince, who always treated his sub- jects as his own children, and whose only faults resulted from an insatiate desire of conquest. Luitprand was succeeded by his grand- son Hildebrand, in 743 ; but the Lombards, finding his abilities inadequate to the cares of government, deposed him, after an in- glorious reign of seven months, and be- stowed the sovereignty on Rachis, duke of Friuli, who was universally esteemed for the suavity of his disposition and the sanctity of his manners. This prince commenced his reign with confirming the treaty that had been recently conclu- ded with the Romans, and publishing a new code of laws. After some time, he began to thirst after an aggrandizement of power, and accordingly led a numerous army against the Roman dukedom ; but, Mdiile he was employed in forming the siege of Perugia, Zachary paid him a visit, and wrought so effectually upon his pas- sions, that he not only abandoned all his warlike projects, but, in the course of the next year, renounced his kingdom, and, assuming the habit of St. Benedict, retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino, where he ended his days, and where, after his decease, he was canonized as a saint. Upon the resignation of Rachis, A. D. 751, the Lombards assembled, and be- stowed the crown on his brother, Astul- phus,aman equally admired for his cour- age in action and his prudence in council. He concluded a peace with Stephen II, bishop of Rome, in order to divert that LOMBARDS. 699 pontifl' from opposing the design lie had upon the exarchate, which he reduced, after an obstinate resistance, and event- ually changed into a dukedom. He then required the Romans to acknowledge him for their sovereign, alleging, in justifica- tion of his demand, that the exarchate, which he held by right of conquest, gave him the same power which the emperor had formerly possessed over that part of Italy and the Roman dukedom. At the same time he advanced, with his victo- rious troops, to the vicinage of Rome, and proclaimed his intention of plundering that august city, unless the inhabitants consented to acknowledge him, by pay- ing an annual tribute. The Pope, alarmed at these proceed- ings, endeavored to divert the enemy from his purpose by arguments, entreaties, and sumptuous presents ; but these were all rejected with contempt, and an applica- tion to the emperor proved equally un- successful. At length, however, Stephen repaired in person to the court of France, and prevailed on Pepin to espouse his cause by making war upon the Lombards. Hereupon Pepin entered Italy at the head of a numerous army, and invested it so closely on every side, that Astulphus was overwhelmed with consternation, and will- ingly consented to restore the exarcharte, together with Pentapolis, and all the places he had seized in the Roman duke- dom, to the Pope ; and delivered forty hostages to Pepin for the performance of these articles. But an immediate viola- tion of this treaty roused the resentment of Stephen, and induced him once more to recur to his powerful protector, who immediately re-crossed the Alps, and be- sieged Astulphus so closely in his metro- polis, that he was compelled to surrender the exarcharte and the other countries, according to his former promise, in order to obtain a cessation of hostilities. His warlike disposition, however, prompted him to make some further efforts for the reduction of Ravenna ; but his ambitious projects were suddenly terminated by ac- cidental death. Upon the demise of this prince, Desi- derius, duke of Tuscany, assumed the regal title, in 756, and contrived to fix the Pope in his interest. He also en- deavored to strengthen himself by marry- ing his two daughters to Charles and Carloman, who had succeeded Pepin on. the throne of France ; but this alliance proved of short continuance ; and a dis- pute with Adrian, who had now succeed- ed to the pontificate, involved the king in a serious embarrassment ; for, whilst his troops were busied in ravaging Pentapo- lis, and Rome itself was threatened with destruction, Charlemagne crossed over into Italy, and attacked the Lombards with such irresistible fury, that they fled be- fore him in the utmost consternation, and Desiderus himself thought proper to take refuge in Pavia. Charlemagne, hearing that the king had retired to his metropolis, ordered his uncle, Bernard, to besiege that city with the utmost vigor, whilst himself, with a select body of troops, should invest Ve- rona, and pay a visit to Rome, in order to celebrate the feast of Easter. Verona was reduced, after an obstinate resis- tance, and the conqueror was received at Rome with every demonstration of honor, gratitude, and esteem. A procession of judges and magistrates met him at a con- siderable distance from their city; a choir of beautiful children , bearing branch- es of palm and olive in their hands, chaunted his great achievements ; the Pope received him with a paternal em- brace, and the air re-echoed with shouts of " Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord." In 774, after a residence of eight days in Rome, during which time he had gra- tified his own curiosity, and confirmed an ancient donation to the Pope, Charle- magne returned to the camp before Pavia, and finding it impossible to effect his de- j sign by force, turned the siege into a ! blockade. This measure was crowned with success ; for, a dreadful pestilence ! beginning to rage within the walls, and the inhabitants being reduced to the most I pitiable extremities, Desiderus was com- pelled after a long and intrepid resistance, to surrender the city to the royal be- j sieger, who sent him and his unfortunate ; family, prisoners to France, and abolish- I ed the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, j after they had possessed that country for I the space of two hundred and six years. 700 MAURITANIANS, MAURITANIANS. Mauritania, so called from the Mauri, an ancient people frequently mentioned by the old historians and geographers, was bounded by the Mediterranean on the north ; by the Molucha on the east ; by Gaetula on the south ; and by the At- lantic Ocean on the west. It contained several cities of note ; and was famed for a luxuriant produce of grapes, apples, and other hortulan productions. The islands on the Mauritanian coast were also so highly esteemed, on account of their happy climate, fertile soil, and sa- lubrious air, that the ancients honored them with the appellation of " Fortune," and here fixed their Elysian fields. With respect to the origin of the Mau- ritanians, it appears that they were de- scended from Phut, the son of Ham. The Phcenicians, however, planted colo- nies among them in very early ages ; and it may be inferred, from the testimony of several respectable writers, that the Arabs had a place among the most an- cient inhabitants of their country. Their government seems to have been monarchical from the earliest ages ; for Justin says, that Hanno, a Carthaginian nobleman, in order to accomplish some ambitious design, had recourse to the king of the Mauri ; and the great figure which the Mauri made in Africa, before the Romans became formidable in that country, serves to indicate that most of them were united under one sovereign ; though mention is occasionally made of several reguli, or heads of the Kabyles, who were engaged in sanguinary wars with each other. Their religion cannot now be satisfac- torily described, its peculiarities having been, for many ages, buried in oblivion. It appears, however, that Neptune was one of their principal objects of adora- tion; that the sun and moon were worship- ped after the manner of the other Libyan nations ; and that human victims were occasionally sacrificed to their gods. Their characters appear to have been the same with the Numidian, and their language seems to have differed from that of Numidia in the same manner only as a dialect of one tongue does from an- other. Of their arts and sciences, historians have said but little. It is evident, how- ever, that they had some knowledge of nautical affairs, not only from their inter- course with the Phoenicians and Cartha- ginians, but also from the testimony of Onomacritus, who affirms, that they form- ed a settlement near Colchis, whither they came by sea. They applied them- selves, in the earliest ages, to the study of magic, sorcery, and divination ; and Ci- cero informs us, that Atlas first introduc- ed astrology and the doctrine ofthesphere into Mauritania — a circumstance which probably gave rise to the fable of Atlas bearing the heavens upon his shoulders. Neptune, who reigned in this country, is also said to have first fitted out a fleet, and invented tall ships with sails ; so that the Mauritanians must have possessed some ideas of astronomy, astrology, geo- graphy, and navigation, at a very early period. All persons of distinction in Mauri- tania were richly apparelled ; and took great pains in cleansing their teeth, combing their beards, and curling their hair. The poor class, however, usually wore a thick garment, and a coarse rough tunic, which resembled that of their neighbors the Numidians. They were strangers to the art of husbandry, and roved about the country like the ancient Scythians or Arabes Scenitae. Their tents or mapalia were so extremely small, that they could scarcely breathe in them ; and their principal food consisted of corn and herbage, which they ate green, without any preparation. They are said to have possessed considerable skill in the preparation of poison ; and perpetual exercise rendered them very skilful in hurling the dart. Their soldiers bore a remarkable savage appearance, being clad in the skins of lions, bears, or leo- pards, and carrying targets or bucklers made of elephants' hides. Their horses wore small but exceedingly swift, and so MAURITANIANS. 701 perfectly under command, that they would follow their riders like dogs. The two first princes of Mauritania, except Neptune, mentioned by historians, were Atlas and Antseus. Several corro- borative testimonies, however, seem to justify the opinion that these were but different names of the same person ; for they were both the sons of Neptune, who reigned over Mauritania, Numidia, and a considerable part of Libya; they both ruled with despotic authority over a great part of Africa ; both are said to have been overcome by Hercules; and both are celebrated for their superior know- ledge in the celestial sciences. Antseus is said to have evinced the most undaunted bravery and resolution in his war with Hercules, and to have achieved some important advantages ; but that famous warrior, having intercepted a numerous body of Libyan forces, de- feated him with great slaughter ; and thus made himself master of the king- dom and royal treasures ; hence arose the fable that Hercules took Atlas' globe upon his shoulders, vanquished the dragon that guarded the orchards of the Hesperides, and took possession of all the golden fruit. Nothing worthy of notice is related of the Mauritanians from the defeat of Antasus till the time of Bogud, who, in conjunction with Publius Sittius, con- tributed very considerably to Caesar's success in Africa, and rendered him some important services, when the memorable victory of Munda annihilated the Roman republic. After the death of that illus- trious general, he joined Marc Antony against Octavius, and endeavored to make a diversion in favor of the former in Spain : but, whilst he was engaged in this expedition, the Tingitanians revolted from their allegiance, and bestowed the sovereignty upon Bocchus, who was con- firmed in his new dignity by the emperor. After making some unsuccessful efforts for the recovery of this part of his do- minions, Bogud was slain by Agrippa, at Methona; and Tingitania was soon af- terwards, provinciated. The younger Juba received the two Mauritanias from the munificence of Au- gustus, who also gave him the princess Cleopatra (daughter of Antony and the famous queen of Egypt) in marriage. This prince, having received a liberal education at Rome, imbibed such a vari- ety of knowledge, as afterwards enabled him to vie with the most learned natives of Greece. He was remarkably well acquainted with the Assyrian, Arabic, Greek, Punic, African, and Latin histo- ries; and wrote some excellent treatises on grammar, painting, natural history, &c. ; a few fragments of which are still extant. His mild and equitable conduct in the government of Maurtania is honora- bly mentioned by ancient writers, and con- ciliated the esteem of his subjects so ef- fectually, that they ever retained a grate- ful recollection of his administration, and erected a statue to his memory. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy, in whose reign Tacfarinas, a native of Numidia, who had served among the Roman auxiliaries just before the third consulate of Tiberius, assembled an army of barbarians, and committed many de- predations in Africa : but, after some time, he was defeated by Dolabella, and most of his followers put to the sword. Ptolemy was, soon afterwards, cut off by Caius, either from a principle of ava- rice or jealousy, as appears from the united testimonies of Dio and Suetonius To revenge the death of his beloved master, ^demon assembled a body of his countrymen, and took up arms ; but, a Roman army being sent against them by the emperor Claudius, they were com- pelled to desist from their daring enter- prise ; and, the following year, a treaty was concluded between the adverse generals, by which Mauritania seems to have been delivered up to the Romans ; for it was, soon afterwards, divided into two provin- ces, the one called Mauritania Tangitana, and the other Mauritania Caesariensis. 702 OSTROGOTHS. OSTROGOTHS. As the origin, customs, and manners of the Goths, from whom this people dif- fered only iu their * name and situation, have been already noticed, we shall, in order to avoid repetition, commence their history with the reign of their famous king Hermanaric, and relate the most interesting concerns of their nation, from that period till their iinal expulsion from Italy. Hermanaric, king of the Ostrogoths, was descended from the illustrious family of Amali, and signalized himself in so many engagements, that he has been compared, by the ancients, to Alexander the Great. The Heruli, the Venedi, the iEstii, and many other nations, were suc- cessively reduced by his extraordinary valor ; and Ablavius has asserted, that he was obeyed by most of the tribes in Scy- thia and Germany. This account, how- ever, is probably exaggerated, as Her- manaric was so well apprised of his ina- bility to withstand the Hunns, who inva- ded his country in 376, that he chose rather to kill himself than to behold the calamities that threatened his subjects. Upon the demise of this prince, his son Vithimer assumed the regal title ; and boldly led his troops against the ene- my ; but he was soon defeated and slain. His son Vitheric retired, with many of his countrymen, into the present Podolia, but nothing farther is recorded of his transactions. About the year 453 the Ostrogoths ob- tained permission to settle in Pannonia, and received an annual pension, on con- dition of their guarding the imperial fron- tiers, and serving, when required, in the Roman armies. They were scarcely established in their new territory before the Hunns fell upon them in the neigh- borhood of Sirmium ; but Valemir, prince of the Ostrogoths, defeated the invaders * The Goths, previously to their leaving Scan- dinavia, were called Visigoths and Ostrogoths, or Western and Eastern Goths, from their situation to the west and east ; the former inhabiting that part of Scandinavia which borders on Denmark, and the latter the more eastern parts near the Baltic. with great slaughter, and compelled them to take refuge in that part of Scythia which bordered on the Danube. In the year 455 the Ostrogoths, being provoked by Leo, made an irruption into lUyricum, and committed many depreda- tions ; but they were repulsed with con- siderable loss, and a peace was soon after concluded between the nations. During the short reign of Glycerius, the Ostrogoths resolved to make war on the empire, and accordingly divided their forces into two bodies, one of which was to invade Italy under the commaed of Videmir, while the other marched under Theodomir against the emperor of the East. This plan was reduced to execu- tion ; but Videmir died shortly after his arrival in Italy, and Theodomir was pre- vailed on, by a profusion of rich presents, to abandon his daring enterprise. Theodoric, the son and successor of Theodomir, appears to have espoused the cause of Zeno against Basiliscus with extraordinary zeal ; but the ungrateful behavior of that emperor soon obliged him to renounce his alliance, and to take up arms in his own defence. However, on Zeno's yielding him part of Moesia and Dacia, giving him the command of the troops of the household, and naming him consul for the ensuing year, Theo- doric put a stop to the depredations of his soldiers, and performed some prodi- gies of valor against the usurper Leontius, who was eventually defeated, and driven to the fortress of Papyra, in Cilicia. A second disagreement with the emperor induced Theodoric to retire from Con- stantinople, to renew his ravages in Thrace, and even to form the design of besieging Constantinople ; but whilst the inhabitants of that city were overwhelmed with consternation at his approach, he marched back to Moesia, and, at the em- peror's request, consented to turn his arms against Odoacer, who, having put Orestes to death, and deprived Augustu- lus of the imperial ensigns, had assumed I the title of king of Italy. [ Next year Theodoric, having assem- OSTROGOTHS. 703 bled a numerous army, and received some auxiliaries from Constantinople, began his march towards Italy; and, after de- feating some troops of Gepidse and Sar- matians who opposed his passage' came to an engagement with Odoacer, who was soon overpowered, and obliged to shut himself up in Ravenna. Theodoric, having now no enemy to oppose his pro- gress, made himself master of Milan, Pa- via, and some other places of importance ; but Odoacer, having ventured from his retreat with a select body of forces, soon changed the aspect of aflairs, and redu- ced the Ostrogoth to shut himself up, with all his followers, in the city of Pasia. However, Theodoric was relieved by a re-enforcement from the Visigoths ; Italy was gradually subjugated ; and Odoacer was driven to such extremities, that, after a long siege in Ravenna, he submitted to the victor, who, notwithstanding a solemn promise to the contrary, caused him to be put to death. Theodoric, having thus delivered Italy from the insupportable yoke of the bar- barians, assumed the diadem, amidst the acclamations of the people ; while the emperor of the East congratulated him on his brilliant success, and cheerfully acknowledged his sovereignty. To the toils of war succeeded the cares of domestic government, in which the conqueror acquitted himself with such equity and moderation, that the generality of the Italians were equally fascinated with his character and government. The same laws, magistrates, and policy, were prudently retained. Such of the natives as had been most zealous in defence of Odoacer were generously pardoned ; the Ligurians, who had long groaned beneath the oppressive yoke of the Burgundians, were ransomed ; liberty of conscience was allowed in all matters of religion ; and the sweets of peace were happily mingled with those of security. Theodoric, having visited Rome, and contributed largely towards the repairs of that august city, resolved to chase the Burgundians and Franks out of Gaul, and re-unite that country to Italy ; but, as the Burgundians were then a very powerful nation, and masters of all the passes in the Alps, he deemed it expedient to con- ceal part of his intention. Accordingly, he formed an alliance with Clovis king of the Franks, and prevailed on him to invade the Burgundians on one side, while himself should attack them on the other — a project which soon put him in possession of Marseilles, with all the countries lying between the Alps, the Durance, the Lower Rhone, and the Mediterranean. Some years after this event, Clovis having killed Alaric in bat- tle, and defeated his army, the king of the Ostrogoths resolved to check his progress ; and accordingly compelled him to raise the siege of Carcassone, which he had recently invested. Next year the Franks attempted the reduction of Aries, then inhabited by the Visigoths ; but Theodoric sent such powerful suc- cors to his countrymen, that this project, like the preceding one, was rendered abortive. Some time after these transactions Theodoric turned his arms against the Alemans ; but nothing satisfactory has been recorded of this war, except that he obliged them to pay an annual tribute ; and subdued the inhabitants of Suevia. Hitherto Theodoric had swayed the sceptre in Italy with such prudence, justice, and moderation, that (independent of his religious principles, which were strongly tinctured with the vile heresy of Arius) he deserved to be proposed as an example to all crowned heads ; but the lustre of all his virtues suffered a sensible diminution, about this time, by an act of tyrannic and unwarrantable cru- elty. Boetius, a man of extraordinary learning and abilities, who had been twice honored with the consulate, and was de- scended from one of the most illustrious families in Rome ; who had devoted near eighteen years to the study of phi- losophy at Athens ; who had translated the works of Aristotle, Pythagoras, Nico- machus, Euclid, Archimedes, and Plato, into the Latin language, for the service of his countrymen ; and who was equal- ly venerated by every good man on ac- count of his erudition and morality. This man, being accused of treasonable prac- tices, was unjustly banished to Pavia, together with his father-in-law Symma- chus, who, like himself, was universally 704 OSTROGOTHS. famed for his extraordinary abilities and unblemished character. The illustrious exiles submitted with resignation to their hard fate, and Bcetius calmly undertook the excellent composition which he enti- tled De Consolatione. But whilst he was employed in benefiting mankind by his labors, fresh accusations were laid against him at Ravenna, and the emperor, to the utter astonishment of all Italy, was per- suaded to pass sentence of death both upon him and Symmachus. The exe- cutioner, however, had scarcely perform- ed his bloody task before Theodoric was convinced of his own injustice, and abandoned himself to such inordinate grief as soon occasioned his death, in the seventy-second year of his age, and the thirty-fourth of his reign. Theodoric had, at the time of his death, two grandsons, Amalaric, king of the Visigoths, and Athalaric, son of Amalasuntha. To the former he deliv- ered up all the countries in Gaul and Spain belonging to the Visigoths ; and declared the latter his successor in Italy, and in all his other dominions. As Athalaric was, at that time, too young to assume the government, his mother, Amalasuntha, took charge of the public aftairs, and acted with such prudence and equity, both towards the inhabitants of Italy and their allies, that Theodo- ric was scarcely missed by the public. Some of the Gothic lords, however, were highly incensed at her mode of educa- ting the young prince ; and insisted so warmly on the dismissal of his Italian tutors, that she was obliged to submit to their desires ; and Athalaric, being now freed from restraint, abandoned himself to such debaucheries as put a period to his life in the eighth year of his reign. Amalasuntha had suffered so severely, even during her son's life time, from the factions and discontent of the Ostrogoths, that she now deemed it indispensably necessary to take a colleague in the go- vernment, and accordingly made choice of her cousin Theodotus, a man of great erudition, and descended from the illus- trious house of Amali. In this choice, however, the queen was peculiarly un- fortunate ; for Theodotus, notwithstand- ing his birth and accomplishments, was, in realitj^ destitute of gratitude, honor, or probity, and scrupled not to commit the vilest actions when stimulated by his own unbridled passions. On his first acces- sion to the throne he solemnly engaged, upon oath, that his cousin should exer- cise her former authority without con- trol, and, in his letter to the Roman senate, acknowledged himself entirely indebted to the queen for his new dig- nity. But the mask of dissimulation was soon laid aside, and the ill fated Amalasuntha was banished to a solitary island in the lake Bolsena, and there cruelly put to death. To revenge the death of this princess, who had on every occasion testified her friendship to ihe Constantinopolitan go- vernment, Justinian resolved to make war upon the Ostrogoths; and according- ly ordered Mundas, one of his principal officers, to march into Dalmatia, and at- tempt the reduction of Salonaj, in order to open a passage into Italy, while Beli sarins, who was invested with the su- preme command, should make a descent upon Sicily, with four thousand legion- aries, and eight thousand auxiliaries. In 535, the emperor's orders were im- mediately executed, and crowned with great success ; for Mundus, after a faint resistance, made himself master of Sa- lonse ; and Belisarius effected the reduc- tion of Sicily with more expedition than he could possibly have expected. At Palermo, indeed, he was engaged with extraordinary fury by the Gothic garri- son ; but, after some time, he compelled them to surrender, and, by that exploit, struck such terror into the neighboring provinces, that Abrutium, Lucania, Pug- lia, Samnium, and Calabria, made volun- tary submissions ; and the city of Naples, though obstinately defended, was soon given up to the plunder of the victorious Romans. Theodotus, alarmed at this formidable invasion, which he had neither courage nor inclination to repress, entered into a private conference with the Constantino- politan ambassador, and shamefully con- sented to resignthe kingdom to Justinian, on condition of receiving an annual pen- sion suitable to his dignity. The empe- ror readily embraced this proposal ; lands OSTROGOTHS. 705 were assigned to Theodotus out of the imperial domain ; and Belisarius was or- dered to take possession of Italy. This agi'eement, however, was soon violated; for Theodotus, hearing that the Roman army in Dalmatia had been sud- denly attacked and defeated, refused with great haughtiness, to fulfil the articles of the treaty, and even threatened Justinian's ambassador with death for presuming to expostulate on the impropriety of his conduct. Exasperated at this behavior, Justin- ian despatched Constantianus to levy new forces in lUyricum, and ordered Belisa- rius to pursue the war with vigor, and use his utmost efforts for re-annexing Italy to the empire. Hereupon Constan- tianus entered Dalmatia at the head of a formidable army, and defeated the Ostro- goths with great slaughter ; while Beli- sarius, having vanquished all the pro- vinces which compose the present king- dom of Naples, maixhed his victorious troops to the neighborhood of Rome. In this situation of aflliirs, the Ostro- goths, having vainly attempted to con- clude a peace with Belisarius, deposed their cowardly king Theodotus ; and in- vested with the regal title one Vitiges, who, though of mean extraction, had ac- quired a considerable degree of celebri- ty by his prudence and valor in some pre- ceding wars. Theodotus, overwhelmed with consternation at this occurrence, quitted Rome with the utmost precipita- tion, and retired to Ravenna, but he was soon overtaken and put to death, after an inglorious reign of about three years. Theudegisclus shared the fate of his pusillanimous father, so that the new king was now firmly established on the throne without any competitor. Vitiges, after exhorting his countrymen, by a circular letter, to exert their ancient valor in defence of a kingdom which be- longed to them by right of conquest ; and obliging the principal inhabitants of Rome to take an oath of fidelity, remov- ed to Revenna, where he assembled the Ostrogoths from all quarters, and formed an encampment under the city walls. Meanwhile Belisarius, having taken suitable precautions for the defence of his new conouests in Campania, ap- 89 proached the city of Rome, which he entered without resistance, and reunited to the empire sixty years after it had been reduced by Odoacer, and thirty-four after it had submitted to Theodoric. The walls and other fortifications of this au- gust city were now carefully repaired ; the granaries filled with corn ; and every precaution taken against a siege which Vitiges, in the urgency of his affairs, might probably resolve to form. Whilst Belisarius was thus employed at Rome, and the greatest part of Sam- nium, with many cities of Tuscany, vol- untarily received Roman garrisons, Viti- ges formed a confederacy with the Franks, and marched, at the head of a hundred and fifty thousand men, to the vicinage of Rome, where a bloody conflict ensued between him and Belisarius : but the latter eventually chased the Ostrogoths to their camp, and entered the city amidst univei'sal acclamations. Vitiges, being now resolved to invest the city without delay, used every effort to distress the garrison and inhabitants for want of water, and showed himself an able commander both in contriving his military engines and disposing the at- tacks. But his adversary made so vigo- rous a defence, and was attended with such brilliant success in his occasional sallies, that, in the space of seven months, the besiegers lost above forty thousand men. The Romans who had long murmured against Belisarius for involving them in the calamities of a siege, were so elated with the success that attended an exer- tion of some auxiliaries from Constanti- nople, that they insisted on putting the whole to the issue of a general engage- ment — in consequence of which their forces were defeated with great loss, and narrowly escaped utter destruction. At length, however, while the citizens trem- bled with apprehension at each attack of the enemy, and their numbers were sadly reduced by the united scourges of pesti- lence and famine, a body of auxiliaries, consisting of three thousand Isaurians, eight hundred Thracians, and thirteen hundred horse of other nations, arrived at Ostia, and entered Rome, by the Osti- an gate, while the forces of Vitiges were 706 OSTROGOTHS. fully employed against Belisarius in an- other quarter. The Ostrogoths were no sooner in- formed of the arrival of these troops than they began to despair of effecting their purpose, and, after a truce of three months, which was granted by Belisarius, they broke up the siege and marched to Rimini, which had been taken by the Romans. Whilst Vitiges was employed before this city, and Uraia, his sister's son, was despatched to recover Milan, Narses ar- rived in Picenum with five thousand Ro- mans and two thousand Heruli; and, Belisarius having advanced to meet him, the two armies joined at Firmum, now Fermo, where a council of war was held to consider whether it would be most ex- pedient to relieve Rimini or to besiege Auximum, a strong town then in posses- sion of the enemy. Belisarius, was ap- prehensive that if they marched to Ri- mini, the Ostrogoths would sally out of Auximum, and harass the neighboring country, which had recently submitted to the Romans ; but a pathetic letter from Rimini overbalanced this consideration, and induced the brave general to succor his countrymen. Accordingly, having left a sufficient number of troops to over- awe the garrison of Auximum, he divided his army into three bodies, one of which embarked in a great number of vessels, another marched along the coast, under the conduct of Martinus ; and the third followed Narses and Belisarius across the mountains. This prudent division of the forces was crowned with complete suc- cess ; for Vitiges, alarmed at the appear- ance of a fleet, and the approach of two dis- tinct armies, raised the siege, and retreat- ed with such precipitation, that the great' est part of his baggage was left behind. At this important juncture an unfortu- nate misunderstanding arose between the Roman generals, and their jealousies were carried to such a height, that Narses actually refused to serve under Belisarius, and a division of the forces ensued, which consequently retarded the reduction of the country, and gave the enemy leisure to provide for their defence. The cities of Urbinum, Imola, and Urbi- ventum wexe indeed taken by the im- perial troops ; but Vitiges, in the mean time, made himself master of Milan, massacred the inhabitants, and ravaged the whole province of Liguria. Narses being now recalled to Constan- tinople, and Vitiges employed in negoti- ation with Chosroes, it was deemed ad- visable to pursue the war with all possi- ble vigor. Accordingly Belisarius march- ed with eleven thousand men to Auxi- mum, and at the same time sent a strong detachment, under one of his lieutenants, to attempt the reduction of Feesulse. Meanwhile the Franks, supposing that both nations were materially weak- ened by hostilities, resolved to attack them without delay, and seize on the country, for which so many struggles had been made. Accordingly Theodebert, regardless of the solemn oaths he had taken both to the Romans and Ostrogoths, passed the Alps, at the head of a hun- dred and fifty thousand men, and pene- trated into Liguria. As they had care- fully abstained from pillaging the country on their march, the Ostrogoths were elated at their arrival, and suffered them to en- ter their camp, near the Po, without op- position ; but they were soon undeceived, for the treacherous invaders, falling upon them by surprise, chased them into the open country with great slaughter, and seized on all their baggage. A body of Romans, who lay at a small distance, perceiving the sudden flight of the Ostro- goths, concluded that they had been de- feated by Belisarius, and, in that opinion, hastened to the assistance of the victor ; but the Franks turning suddenly upon them, they were utterly overthrown, and compelled to retreat into Tuscany, whence they sent an account of their disaster to Belisarius. The Franks, being now in possession of both camps, found a considerable quantity of provisions ; but these being soon consumed by their numerous army, and the circumjacent country entirely exhausted, they were compelled to resign all thoughts of advancing farther in quest of new conquests ; and, an expostulatory letter from Belisarius having demonstra- ted the absurdity of the enterprise, Theo- debert gave orders to march, and return- ed home with an immense booty. OSTROGOTHS. 707 Some time after the retreat of this re- doubtable enemy the garrison in Faesulae surrendered to Cyprian ; and the citizens of Auximum, after performing the most astonishing prodigies of valor, followed their example. Belisarius, after remunerating the toils and suffering of his army with half the spoils of Auximum, marched thence to Ravenna, which he invested both by sea and land, in order to prevent the impor- tation of provisions. The place was well fortified, and defended by a very nu- merous garrison, who fought immediately under the eye of their sovereign ; but Belisarius commenced the attack, and carried on his military operations with such vigor and success, that the inhabi- tants were overwhelmed with consterna- tion, and Vitiges despatched ambassadors to conclude a peace with the emperor upon the best terms they could obtain. Justinian readily consented to withdraw his troops upon condition that the whole of Italy, except that beyond the Po, should be re-annexed to the empire, and that the royal treasures of the Ostrogoths should be equally divided between him and themselves. These conditions were accepted with every demonstration of joy by Vitiges and his nobles, who were now reduced to a most pitiable condition ; but Belisarius, provoked that he should be thus deprived of the glory of terminating the war, and leading Vitiges, as a cap- tive, to Constantinople, positively refused to sign the treaty, and renewed the siege with unabated vigor and intrepidity. The leading men among the Ostro- goths concluding, from his behavior, that Belisarius intended to revolt from the emperor, and being equally weary of Vitiges and fearful of Justinian, agreed privately to declare the Roman general emperor of the west, and accordingly des- patched a messenger to tender their alle- giance. Belisarius abhorred the very name of a traitor ; but in order to facili- tate the grand object of his wishes, he pretended to accept of this offer, and, after acquainting his chief officers with all that had passed, he was admitted into the city as king of Italy. He behaved with great moderation toward the inhabi- tants, not permitting his troops to offer them the least violence ; but he seized on the royal treasures, and secured the per- son of Vitiges, according to his first re- solution. It is proper to remark, that the Roman army appeared so inconsiderable upon this occasion, that the Gothic women could not forbear spitting in their hus- band's faces, and branding them with the disgraceful epithet of cowards. Upon the departure of Belisarius,* who was recalled by Justinian to assume the management of the war against Chosroes, the Ostrogoths who resided beyond the Po, resolved, in a great assembly, to in- vest one of their own nation with the regal title. They accordingly chose Ildebald, at that time governor of Verona, a man of great experience in military af- fairs, and nephew to Theudis, king of the Visigoths. This prince immediately un- dertook the re-establishment of the Goth- ic affairs in Italy, and acted with such ex- traordinary prudence, that his army was soon augmented, and he was enabled to take the field against Vitalis, governor of Venetia, whom he defeated with great slaughter. After this battle, Ildebald subdued the whole province of Venetia ; but, on his causing Uraia (to whom he was beholden for his crown) to be put to death, he incurred the hatred of all his subjects, and was soon taken off by as- sassination. Eraric, a Rugian, was next elevated to the throne ; but the Ostrogoths were so universally dissatisfied with his govern- ment, that he was soon deposed and murdered ; and Totila, nephew to Ilde- bald, was chosen in his room. Upon the accession of this prince, the Roman officers who commanded in Italy, resolved to make an attempt upon Verona, the chief city of the Ostrogoths, and, upon the reduction of that place, march with their whole army against Totila, who was at the head of a small body in Picenum. This design, however, was * On Belisarius' return to Constantinople, with the king and royal treasures of the Ostrogoths, Justinia^n treated him with great respect, and con- ferred on him the dignity of patrician ; but, as he neither granted him a triumph, nor suffered the treasures he had taken to be exposed to pub- lic view, it seems highly probable that the empe- ror had entertained some jealousy respecting the late transactions in Italy. 708 OSTROGOTHS. totally frustrated ; for the Romans, after being gallantly repulsed at Verona, Avere defeated both by sea and land ; several important fortresses in Tuscany and the adjacent provinces were successively re- duced ; even the city of Naples vi^as taken and dismantled ; and the victorious Ostrogoths advanced, by rapid marches, to the neighborhood of Rome itself, which was now cut off from any communica- tion with the neighboring country. The emperor, alarmed at the news of these proceedings, recalled Belisarius from Persia, and commanded him to march without delay to the assistance of the army in Italy. Belisarius according- ly departed for the west, and, having raised above four thousand men at his own expense, hastened to Ravenna, whence he sent several detachments against the cities of Emilia. This at- tempt proving unsuccessful, the Romans threw themselves into Auximum, then besieged by the Goths ; but, finding the provisisons inadequate to the support of so numerous a garrison, they marched to Pisaurus, now Pesaro, which stood at a small distance, and was still possessed by their countrymen. Belisarius, being chiefly concerned for the safety of Rome, entrusted the government of the city to Bessas, and appointed Barbation and Artasiris, per- sons of approved valor and experience, to command under him, strictly enjoining them to hazard no sallies in case the town should be besieged. He then wrote to Constantinople, representing his inability either to check the progress of the Ostrogoths or to relieve the besieged cities ; and earnestly pressing for a re-en- forcement. Meanwhile Totila, having reduced the cities of Firmum, Asculum, Auximum, and Spoletum, marched his victorious troops to Rome, which he invested on all sides, after defeating a body of Romans whom Barbation and Artasiris had im- prudently persuaded to make a sally. The Ostrogoths had not long carried on their operations when a re-enforcement arrived from Constantinople, and Belisa- rius hastened to the relief of Rome ; but, he being disappointed of a farther supply, and the besieged having struggled for a long time with every calamity attendant upon famine, Totila was privately admit- ted into the city by some mutinous Isau- rians. Upon the first alarm, Bessas and most of the other commanders took to flight, and those who remained, took sanctuary in the churches. The Gothic soldiers were then permitted to remune- rate themselves with plunder, but the citi- zens, excepting sixty who were killed at the entrance of Totila, were all spared. The Ostrogoths were extremely desirous of putting Rusticiana, the widow of Boe- tius, to death, because she had excited the Romans to throw down the statues of Theodoric, but Totila generously took both her and all the Roman matrons un- der his own protection, thereby to secure them from the insolence of the soldiery. Totila, having thus recovered the cap- ital of Italy, in the year of the Christian era 547, sent an embassy to Justinian, offering to respect him as a father, and to assist him upon any future occasion provided he chose to accept of his alli- ance ; but threatening, at the same time, to revenge the rejection of this proposal, with all imaginable severity on the city and senate of Rome. Justinian replied, that Belisarius was fully empowered to manage all affairs of that nature at dis- cretion — an answer which incensed To- tila so highly, that he determined to put his threats in execution, and actually be- gan to demolish the walls of Rome, but on the receipt of an expostulatory letter from Belisarius he laid aside his designs, and marched his army into Lucania, whither he sent the Roman senate, and all the other inhabitants, under a strong guard, not leaving an individual in the city, which he had spared on account of its magnificence and antiquity. Totila had no sooner marched towards Ravenna than the Roman troops made themselves masters of Tarentum and Spoletum ; and Belisarius, having under- taken to repair the fortifications of Rome, enjoyed the exquisite pleasure of rein- stating the ancient inhabitants, who had been dispersed in various parts of Italy, in their houses and possessions. Upon the first intelligence of this pro- ceeding Totila returned to Rome, sup- posing that Belisarius would immediately OSTROGOTHS. 709 retire to a place of superior strength ; but finding himself deceived in this expecta- tion, he formed an encampment at a small distance, and commenced an attack with incredible fury. However, after suffering three successive defeats from the resist- less bravery of Belisarius and his troops, he abandoned the enterprise, and retired to the city of Tibur, whence he led his army to form the siege of Perugia. Upon his departure from Tibur, John, who had hitherto kept possession of Otranto, marched into Campania, and, af- ter defeating a numerous body of Ostro- goths, set at liberty the Roman senators and their families. To revenge this ac- tion, Totila quitted Perugia, and marched ! by a bye-road into Apulia, where John ! then was; but, falling upon him unadvi- I sedly in the night, the Romans escaped i with the loss of no more than one hundred men, and retreated safely to Taretito. About this time Antonia, the wife of Belisarius, prevailed on the emperor to recall her husband and employ him once more against the Persians, who had now gained some important advantages in the East. Belisarius, accordingly, quitted Italy with much less reputation than he had gained in his former expedition. And Totila, having made himself master of Rusciana, returned before Perugia, which, after an obstinate struggle, was added to his other conquests. Meanwhile the Franks, notwithstanding their solemn promise to remain neuter, and the many favors they had occasionally received both from the Ostrogoths and Romans, made an irruption into ihe province of Venetia, and seized it for themselves. Totila, having received a powerful re- enforcement from the Lombards, deter- mined to march to Rome, and attempt once more the reduction of that famous city. Accordingly he invested it on all sides, and by reducing Pontus, cut off all communication both by sea and land; but Diogenes, an officer of great bravery and experience, who had been entrusted with the command of the garrison, prudently provided against this evil, by ordering corn to be sown within the walls ; so that he might, in all probability, have held out till the arrival of succors from Constantinople, had not the place been, I a second time, betrayed by the Isaurians. j A body of that nation, who had long been discontented on account of some arrears, entered into a private conference with the beseigers, and at a certain hour open- ed one of the gates, while the garrison, j on a false alarm, hastened to the defence of another. When the inhabitants perceived that the enemy was within their walls, they issued, with the utmost precipitation, out of the opposite gate towards Cen- tumcellae, the only strong place held by the Romans in that neighborhood ; but great numbers of them, and of the sol- diers who took the same route, were cut off in their retreat by an ambuscade of the enemy. Diogenes, escaped with a slight wound ; but Paul, a Cilician, whom Belisarius had nominated to command under him, retreated, with a body of ca- valry, to Adrian's tomb, and possessed himself of the bridge leading to St. Peter's church. Here they defended them- selves with incredible bravery against the enemy's whole army, till all their provisions were exhausted ; and then re- solved either to cut their way through the Ostrogoths or perish in the attempt. But, on Totila's generously offering them per- mission either to serve in his army or to return to Constantinople, they threw down their arms, and voluntarily enlisted be- neath the banners of the conqueror. Totila, having restored the senate to their rank and estates, repaired and em- bellished the city, and amused the public mind by an exhibition of Circensian games, despatched ambassadors to Con- stantinople with proposals for peace ; of- fering, upon the emperor's acknowledg- ing him sovereign of Italy, to assist him as a faithful ally against any other nation. Justinian, however, refused to grant the envoys an audience ; and Totila was, consequently, obliged to pursue the war with redoubled vigor. Whilst the warlike Ostrogoth was ex- tending his conquests with surprising ra- pidity, and those who presumed to op- pose his progress were punished in the most exemplary manner, Justinian ap- pointed his nephew, Germanus, general , over the army in Italy, and raised a nu- merous body of troops for the express 710 OSTROGOTHS, purpose of effecting the expulsion of Totila ; but the progress of Germanus was suddently arrested by death ; and the advanced state of the season retard- ed the operations of his successors. Early in the ensuing spring, John and Justin, who were now entrusted with the command of the Roman troops, set out on their march to Ravenna ; but the Sclavi, having made an irruption into the Roman provinces, obliged them to weaken their army by sending out several de- tachments. However, they were soon informed that Narses would march with all possible expedition to their assistance at the head of a numerous body of forces. While John and Justin were waiting the arrival of Narses in Dalmatia, Totila blocked up the city of Ancona by sea and land, and soon reduced it to extremity ; but John, having put the flower of his army on board forty vessels, and being joined by Valerian, with a squadron of twelve ships, hastened to the relief of the place, and defeated the besiegers with great slaughter. At the same time Artabanes landed in Sicily, and recover- ed all the fortresses which had been re- cently garrisoned by the Ostrogoths in that island. Discouraged by these losses, Totila again applied to the emperor, offering to renounce his pretensions to Sicily and Dalmatia, to pay an annual tribute for Italy, and to assist the Romans upon every emergency. But Justinian remain- ed inflexible, and Totila renewed his warlike preparations with greater ardor than ever. The islands of Corsica and Sardinia were soon reduced, and the neighboring cities began to dread a simi- lar fate ; but the approach of Narses, with absolute authority, and a formidable army, soon altered the aspect of aflfairs, and revived the drooping courage of the Ro- mans. Narses having devoted nine days to repose and refreshment in the city of Ra- venna, marched toward Rome, and on his arrival at the village of Tagiria, despatch- ed a messenger to Totila, desiring him either to relinquish his pretensions to Ita- ly, or to appoint a day for a general en- gagement. Totila replied, without hesi- tation, that his nretensions must be de- cided by the sword, and that, eight days after, he would engage the Roman forces. Narses suspecting that some secret design was to be executed within that space of time, made the necessary preparations for an immediate battle, and by that means eluded an overthrow, for Totila advanced the very next day in battle ar- ray against him. Both armies fought for some time with incredible fury and resolution ; but the Gothic cavalry being after an obstinate resistance, thrown into confusion, and recoiling upon the foot, the enemy was put to flight with the loss of 6,000 men. Totila, perceiving it im- possible to retrieve this misfortune, re- treated precipitately with a few horse- men ; but he was overtaken and slain by a commander of the Gepidae named As- bades. This prince has been highly com- mended, by all the writers of his age, for his valor, temperance, and equity ; and even his enemies have been compelled to speak with veneration of his humane behavior to the vanquished. Whenever he reduced a city, he took especial care that no insult should be offered to the softer sex, and is said to have punished one of his most valiant soldiers with death for abusing the daughter of a Ro- man in Calabria. Such of the Ostrogoths as escaped the avenging sword of Narses crossed the Po, and, assembling at Ticinum, now Pavia, conferred the regal title on Teia, a man of approved prudence and bravery. This prince immediately exerted himself to recall his dismayed countrymen, who had taken refuge in the several forts be- yond the Po ; and to secure the royal treasures which his predecessor had left in Pavia. He also attempted to draw over the Franks to his assistance by some liberal promises ; but this design was rendered abortive, and he had the mortification to hear of the reduction of Narnia, Spoletum, Perugia, and even Rome itself, by the Romans. Incensed at the enemy, and despairing of maintaining their own footing in Italy, the Ostrogoths now resolved to take ven- geance on the Romans wherever they could find them. Accordingly, the sena- tors who had been confined by Totila, to Campania were all inhumanly murdered ; VANDALS. 711 and three hundred children of the Ro- man citizens, who had been sent as hostages beyond the Po, were also doomed to death ; and fifty Roman sol- diers were literally cut to pieces in Cala- bria. These barbarities did not, however, go unpunished ; for, after some time had been spent in marches and military evo- lutions, the hostile armies came to a gen- eral engagement, which, after a most in- trepid resistance, terminated in the death of Tela, and the defeat of his troops, who consented to lay down their arms on con- dition of being permitted either to retire peaceably with all their eft'ects, or to re- tain their Italian possessions as subjects of the empire. Thus ended the dominion of the Os- trogoths in Italy, in the twenty-sixth year of Justinian's reign, and of the Chiistian era, 553, after they had reign- ed sixty-four years in that country, from Theodoric to Teia. It is proper to remark that some com- motions were afterward raised in Italy by the Ostrogoths, and the Franks, who un- der pretence of assisting their neighbors, designed to seize on the country for themselves ; but these were speedily crushed by the valor of Narses, and Italy was again re-united to the eastern empire. VANDALS. The Vandals, according to the most credible historians, were originally a Gothic nation, who came out of Scandi- navia, with the other Goths, under the command of king Eric, and settled in the countries now distinguished by the names of Mecklenburg, and Branden- burg. Several ages after this migration another colony settled in Pomerania, un- der the conduct of a chieftain called Berig ; and, in process of time, they ex- tended themselves into Dalmatia, Illyri- cum, and Dacia. The government of the Vandals was, in all probability, monarchical, long be- fore their nation was known to the Ro- mans ; but Godegesilus, who led them into Gaul, about the year 406, is the first of their kings noticed in ancient history. This prince, having sustained a bloody conflict with the Franks, and marched at the head of a numerous army into Gaul, committed many depredations on that country ; and, with the assistance of some other barbarous nations, overran all the neighboring provinces. However, his progress was suddenly arrested by the emperor Constantine, Avho defeated him in several pitched battles, and com- pelled him to sue for peace. To remunerate themselves for the losses they had sustained in the Gaulish expedition, the Vandals crossed the Py- renese, and entered Spain, where they soon reduced several important cities and fortresses ; defeated the Roman troops who had been sent to quell the rebellion of Geronicus ; and eventually divided all the Spanish provinces between them- selves and their auxiliaries. About the year 422, Honorius resolved to attempt the recovery of Spain from these Barbarians, Avho had recently sus- tained some lieaA'y losses from Vallia, king of the Goths ; but, Castinus having imprudently risked a general engagement, twenty thousand of the Roman troops were cut to pieces, and the survivors compelled to take refuge in the city of Tarraco. The Vandals having by this victory firmly established themselves in Andalusia, committed many depredations in the adjacent provinces, extended their conquests even to the Balearic islands, and returned into Spain with an immense booty, and an incredible number of cap- tives. Shortly after this expedition the Sue- vians and Vandals quarrelling, Gonderic, king of the Vandals, gained some signal advantages over the king of the Suevi- ans, Avhom he compelled to retire to the mountains of Biscay, and there blocked him up, together with all his forces ; but Gonderic, being suddenly attacked by Asterius and Mourocelus, was soon 712 VANDALS. obliged to return to Andalusia, where he sickened and died. Genseric, brother of the deceased prince, renounced the Catholic faith shortly after his accession, and embraced the heretical tenets of Arius. He was however, remarkably courageous, and well skilled in the art of war. He gain- ed some signal victories over the Suevi- ans and Romans, and struck such terror into the latter by the reduction of Car- thage and a considerable part of Sicily, that Valentinian was obliged to conclude a peace on the dishonorable condition of surrendering all the countries which the Barbarians had seized in Africa. Some years after this event, Endoxia, the relict of Valentinian HI, despatched a messenger to Genseric, entreating him to revenge the death of his late ally, and rescue her from a tyrant who had forced her to his detested couch, after imbruing his hands in the blood of her husband. Genseric readily embraced the opportu- nity of invading so wealthy a country as Italy, and accordingly steered his course immediately to Rome, which he took, and plundered. In the beginning of the reign of Ma- jorianus, the Vandals made a descent on the coast of Campania; but the Romans attacked them with such extraordinary fury, while they were ravaging the coun- try, that great numbers of them were cut to pieces, and the rest compelled to take refuge on board their fleet. Majorianus, anxious to improve this advantage, imme- diately assembled a fleet of three hun- dred vessels ; engaged a great number of barbarians to serve in his army, and flat- tered himself with driving the Vandals entirely out of Africa ; but, after four years had been spent in preparations, and a prodigious sum lavished on this expe- dition, a squadron of Genseric's best ships surprised the Roman vessels as they lay at anchor in the bay of Alicant, and made such havoc among them, that all the emperor's measures -were disconcerted, and Genseric obtained an honorable peace. On the demise of Majorianus, the Vandals renewed their depredations on the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and ex- tended their ravages to Peloponnesus and the Greek islands. Hereupon Leo, emperor of the East, made such great preparations for chastising the invaders, by carrying the war into Africa, that Con- stantine Manasses observes, " nothing seemed capable of resisting so powerful an armament ; and Genseric himself is said to have entertained some thoughts of eluding the impending danger by evac- uating Africa ; but Basiliscus, who had been entrusted with the command of all the Roman troops, imprudently consented to a truce at the very moment in which he might have made himself master of Carthage, and effected the entire subju- gation of the country. Hereupon the Vandals treacherously set fire to some empty vessels, which being driven for- ward, threw the enemy's fleet into the utmost confusion, and enabled Genseric to obtain a decisive victory. Basiliscus returned, with the few ships that escaped first to Sicily, and afterwards to Constan- tinople, where he took refuge in the church of St. Sophia ; but, though his ill success was universally attributed to treachery, his life was spared, and he was permitted to retire to Heraclea, in Thrace. Such was the unhappy issue of an expedition which drained both the eastern and western empires of their wealth, and was attended with the loss of fifty thousand valiant men. Elated by his recent success, and thirsting after fresh acquisitions, Genseric put to sea, without loss of time, and re- duced Sardinia, Sicily, and all the islands between Italy and Africa, while the Ro- mans gazed in silent agony on his pro- ceedings, and actually trembled at his name. However, in the year of the Christian era, 475, Genseric concluded a peace with the emperor Zeno, on con- dition of his renouncing all claim to the provinces of Africa. Next year the royal Vandal ceded the island of Sicily to Odoacer, and died shortly after the conclusion of peace with that barbarian. Nothing farther occurs in history con- cerning this nation till the time of Justi- nian ; who, espousing the cause of Hil- deric against the usurper Gilimer, gained a complete victory over the Vandals, and re-united the provinces of Africa to the empire. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures According to the version of the Septuagint, 5872 According to the Samaritan version, 4700 2348 The universal Deluge 2247 The building of Babel. -The dispersion of mankind, and the confusion of languages 2227 Ninus king of Assyria began to reign 2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon 2188 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the monarchy of Egypt 2084 The shepherd kings conquer Egypt 2075 Semiramis queen of Assyria 1996 The birth of Abram 1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed 1895 Isaac born 1836 Jacob and Esau born 1825 The shepherd kings abandon Egypt 1823 Death of Abraham 1796 The deluge of Oxyges in Attica 1722 Sesostris or Rameses king of Egypt 1635 Joseph dies in Egypt 1582 The chronology of the Arundelian Marbles begins with this year 1571 Moses born in Egypt 1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens 1546 Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy 1520 Corinth built 1519 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces let- ters into Greece 1513 The supposed era of the history of Job 1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt 1453 The first Olympic Games celebrated in Greece 1452 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written 1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua 1415 The book of Joshua supposed to be written by Phinehas the high priest 1406 Minos reigns in Crete 1263 The Argonautic Expedition.— (According to the Newtonian chronology 937.) 1257 Theseus unites the cities of Attica 1255 The Israelites delivered by Deborah and Barak 1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built by the Sidonians 1239 Latinus begins to reign in Italy 1207 Gideon Judge of Israel for forty years 1193 The Trojan war begins 90 1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks.— (According to the Arundelian Marbles 1209.) 1182 ^neas lands in Italy 1155 Samson born 1099 Samuel delivers Israel 1079 Saul king of Israel 1070 Medon first Archon of Athens 1069 Codrus king of Athens devotes himself for his country 1055 David king of Israel 1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple 980 Rehoboam king of Israel 971 Sesac or Sesostris king of Egypt 923 Ahab and Jezebel reign over Israel 886 Homer's poems brought from Asia into Greece 884 Lycurgus reforms the republic of Lacedae- mon 869 The city of Carthage built by Dido 825 Jeroboam restores the glory of Israel in a reign of forty-one years 820 Nineveh taken by Arbaces and Belesis, which finishes that kingdom 806 Jonah preaches repentance to Nineveh 776 The First Olympiad begins in this year 769 Syracuse built by Archius of Corinth 767 Sardanapalus king of Assyria 752 The foundation of Rome by Romulus 748 Rape of the Sabines 747 Xth Olympiad 724 Hezekiah tenth king of Judah 721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the ten tribes into captivity, which puts an end to the Israelitish kingdom 715 Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome 711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Ju- dea 708 Habakkuk prophesied 700 XXth Olympiad 696 Manasseh sixteenth king of Judah 688 Judith kills Holofernes the Assyrian gene- ral 684 Annual Archons elected at Athens 681 Esarhaddon unites the kingdoms of Baby- lon and Assyria 667 The combat between the Horatii and Cu- ratii 660 XXXth Olympiad 658 Byzantium founded 627 The forty years of Ezekiel began 624 Draco, Archon and Legislator of Athens 714 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 620 XLth Olympiad 606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem 601 Battle between the Medes and Lydians, who are separated by a great eclipse of the sun, predicted by Thales. (Newton Chron. 585.) End of the Assyrian empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar 600 Jeremiah prophesied 599 Birth of Cyrus the Great 694 Solon, Archon and Legislator of Atnens 580 Lth Olympiad 572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt 562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis Croesus reigns in Lydia 551 Confucius, the Chinese philosopher, born 548 The ancient temple of Delphos burnt 540 LXth Olympiad 538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian empire. 536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jewish captivity, which had lasted seventy years Daniel prophesied 529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambysses king of Persia 522 Darius, son of Hystaspes, king of Persia 520 The Jews begin to build the second temple, which is finished in four years 510 Democracy restored in Athens 509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome, and the regal government abolished 508 The first alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians 500 LXXth Olympiad 498 The first Dictator created at Rome, (Lar- tius,) 490 The battle of Marathon The first tribunes of the people created at Rome 486 Miltiades dies in prison Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia 485 Coriolanus banished from Rome 483 Quffistors instituted at Rome Aristides banished from Athens 480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, cut to pieces at Thermopylae Xerxes leaves Greece 476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens The Roman citizens numbered at 103,000 A great eruption oi JEtna, Hiero king of Syracuse 471 Volero, the Roman tribune, obtains a law for the election of Magistrates in the co- mitia held by tribes 470 Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persians 464 Artaxerxes (Longimanus) king of Persia 463 Egypt revolts from the Persians 460 LXXXth Olympiad 456 Cincinnatus Dictator at Rome 455 Commencement of the seventy prophetical weeks of Daniel 433 The number of the tribunes of the people at Rome increased from five to ten 452 The two books of Chronicles supposed to have been written at this time by Ezra 451 Creation of the Decemviri at Rome, and compilation of the laws of the Twelve Tables 449 Peace between the Greeks and Persians concluded by Cimon 445 The law of Canulcius for the intermarriage of the patricians and plebians at Rome. Military tribunes created 437 The censorship first instituted at Rome 436 Pericles in high power at Athens 431 The Peloponnesian war begins, which last- ed twenty-seven years 430 The history of the Old Testament ends about this time Great plague at Athens eloquently described by Thucydides Malachi the last of the prophets 428 Death of Pericles 420 XCth Olympiad 414 The Athenians defeated before Syracuse 413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to the Lacedajmonians 412 A council of 400 governs Athens 405 Lysander defeats the Athenians at ^gos Potamos 404 End of the Peloponnesian war 403 Lysander takes Athens. Government of the thirty tyrants 401 Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks Persecution and death of Socrates Thrasybulus drives out the thirty tyrants, and delivers Athens 396 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians 385 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus 380 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lacedaemonians Cth Olympiad 371 Battle of Leuctra, the Lacedaemonians defeated 363 Battle of Mantinea, Epaminondas is killed 362 Curtius leaps into a gulf in the forum at Rome 358 War of the allies against Athens Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis, Pyd- na, and Potidea 356 Alexander the Great born at Pella in Ma- cedonia The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt by Eurostratus The Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece Philip conquers the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians 348 Plato died End of the Sacred War 347 Dionysius restored at Syracuse, after an exile of ten years 343 Syracuse taken by Timoleon The war between the Romans and Sam- nites, which led to the conquest of all Italy 340 CXth Olympiad P. Decius devotes himself to his country CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 715 338 Battle of Cheronaea gained by Philip over the Athenians and Thebans 337 Philip chosen generalissimo of the Greeks 336 Philip murdered by Pausanias Alexander the Great king of Macedon Alexander the Great destroys Thebes 335 Alexander chosen generalissimo by the states of Greece 334 Alexander defeats the Persians on the banks of the Granicus 333 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus 332 Alexander conquers Egypt and takes Tyre 331 Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbela 330 Darius Codomanus killed. End of the Persian empire Alexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the palace of Persepolis 328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several cities, penetrates to the Ganges 324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, 321 The Samnites make the Roman army pass under the yoke at Caudium 320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt 303 Demetrius restores the Greek cities to then: liberty 300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Lao- dicea CXXth Olympiad 286 Law of Horlensius, by which the decrees of the people were allowed the same force as those of the senate 285 The astronomical era of Dionysius of Alex- andria 284 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt 283 The library of Alexandria founded 281 Commencement of the Achean league 280 Pyrrhus invades Italy 277 The translation of the Septuagint made by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. (Playfair, 285.) 274 Pyrrhus totally defeated by the Romans 272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Ro- mans 266 Silver money is coined at Rome for the first time 265 The citizens of Rome numbered at 292,224 264 The first Punic war begins. The chronicle of Paros composed 260 Provincial Quaestors instituted at Rome CXXXth Olympiad First naval victory obtained by the Romans under the Consul Duilius 255 Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians 253 Manasseh chosen high priest of the Jews 241 End of the first Punic war 240 Comedies are first acted at Rome 235 The temple of Janus shut for the first time since the reign of Numa 228 Hamilcar killed in Spain 225 Great victory of the Romans over the Gauls 220 CXLth Olympiad 219 Hannibal takes Saguntum B. C. 218 The second Punic war begins 216 Battle of Canaj, in which the Romans are totally defeated by Hannibal 212 Philip II. of Macedon defeats the .^Etolians Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years 211 Antiochus the Great conquers Judaea 210 Asdrubal vanquished in Spain by the Scipios Publius Scipio sent into Spain, takes New Carthage 203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa 201 Syphax led in triumph to Rome by P. Scipio 196 The battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic war 190 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Anti- gonus at Magnesia 183 The elder Cato Censor at Rome 180 CLth Olympiad 173 War between the Romans and Perseus king of Macedon 170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem 169 Terence's comedies performed at Rome 167 Perseus defeated by Paulus ^milius, and brought prisoner to Rome. End of the kingdom of Macedon 166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea 164 The Roman citizens numbered at 327,032 149 The third Punic war begins 146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius Carthage taken and destroyed by the Ro- mans 140 CLXth Olympiad 137 The Romans shamefully defeated by the Numantines 135 The history of the Apocrypha ends Antiochus besieges Jerusalem 113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cimbri and Teutones out of Italy 111 The Jugurthine war begins 108 Marius defeats Jugurtha 103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome 100 CLXXth Olympiad 9 1 The war of the allies against the Romans 90 Sylla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Sam- nites, &c. 89 The Mithridatic war begins 88 Civil war between Marius and Sylla— Sylla takes possession of Rome 86 Mithridates king of Pontus defeated by Sylla 83 Sylla defeats Norbanus. The capitol burned 82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible pro- scription 80 Julius Caesar makes his first campaign 72 Lucullus repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontus to a Roman province 70 Crassus and Pompey chosen Consuls at Rome 63 Victories of Pompey -he takes Jerusalem 62 Cataline's conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero 61 Pompey enters Rome in trmmph 716 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. eo" CLXXXth Olympiad 59 The first triumvirate — Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 55 Caesar lands in Britain for a short campaign 54 Cajsar invades Britain a second time, and conquers a part of the country 49 Caesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome 48 Battle of Pharsalia in which Pompey is de- feated The Alexandrian library, of 400,000 vols, burnt 46 Cato, besieged in Utica, kills himself 45 The Kalendar reformed by Julius Caesar, by introducing the Solar year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian Year began 1st January 45 A. C. 44 Julius Cassar killed in the senate-house 43 Second Triumvirate — Octavius, Mark An- tony, and Lepidus 42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are defeated 40 Herod marries Mariamne, daughter of Hyr- canus, and obtains from the Romans the government of Judea 33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman province 31 Battle of Actium, and end of the Roman Commonwealth Oclavius emperor of Rome 30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra 27 Octavius receives the title of Augustus 20 CXCth Olympiad 17 Augustus revives the secular games 10 The temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time 5 Augustus ordains a census of all the people in the Roman empire 4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commencement of the vulgar era A. D. 14 Tiberius emperor of Rome 25 Here the Olympiads end Strabo, the geographer, died 26 John the Baptist preaches in Judea 27 Pilate made governor of Judea 29 JESUS CHRIST is crucified 35 The conversion of St. Paul 37 Caligula emperor of Rome 39 St. Matthew writes his gospel 41 Herod persecutes the Christians 43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain 44 St. Mark writes his gospel 50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens 51 Caractacus, the British king, is carried prisoner to Rome 54 Nero emperor of Rome 64 The first persecution of the Christians raised by Nero 65 Seneca, a celebrated philosopher, put to death by Nero 67 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death Joscphus, the Jewish historian, governor of Galilee A. D. 70 Vespasian, emperor of Rome Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, son of Vespasian 78 A great pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius 80 Conquests of Agricola in Britain 81 Domitian emperor of Rome 95 Dreadful persecutions of the Christians St. John writes his Apocalypse and Gospel 99 St. John died at Ephesus Cornelius Tacitus, the historian, died 103 Trajan subdued the Dacians, Pliny the Younger flourishes 118 Adrian emperor of Rome, who renewed, but afterwards suspended, the persecution of the Christians 119 Plutarch, the historian, died 120 Adrian's wall built in Britain 138 Antoninus Pius, emperor of Rome 140 Ptolemy, a great geographer, mathematician, and astronomer flourished Justin Martyr publishes an apology for the Christians 161 Marcus Aurelius Antonius, emperor of Rome 167 Polycarp suflfers martyrdom Galen, the Greek physician, flourished about this time 189 Saracens defeat the Romans ; this people for the first time mentioned in history 195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus, emperor of Rome. 203 General persecution of the Christians The Scots converted to Christianity 211 Caracalla and Geta, emperors of Rome 212 Caracalla murders Geta 222 Alexander Severus emperor of Rome Romans pay tribute to the Goths 226 Persians totally defeated by Severus 236 The sixth persecution of the Christians 237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sar- matians 238 Gordian emperor of Rome 248 The secular games celebrated at Rome St. Cyprian elected bishop of Carthage 249 Decius emperor of Rome 250 The seventh persecution of the Christians, under Decius, during whose reign the foundation of monkery was laid in Egypt 251 Gallus emperor of Rome Great pestilence in Africa, which nearly depopulated whole towns 254 Origen, an illustrious father of the Chris- tian church, died 257 The eighth persecution of the Christians 260 Temple of Diana of Ephesus burnt 268 Claudius 2d. emperor of Rome 269 Claudius slays, in several battles, 300,000 Scythians, Goths, &c. 272 Ninth persecution of the Christians 284 Diocletian emperor of Rome 292 Partition of the empire between two em- perors, and two Ca;sars 302 The tenth persecution of the Christians CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 717 806 Constantine the Great, emperor of Rome 312 Constantine converted to Christianity Ossian, the poet, died 313 Arius, founder of the Arian sect, flourished 325 Constantine assembles the first general council at Nice 329 Constantine enlarges Byzantium, names it Constantinople, and makes it the seat of the eastern empire 337 Constantine died 338 Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, died 361 Julian, emperor of Rome, abjures Chris- tianity. 375 Valens emperor of Rome 379 Theodosius the Great, emperor of the east 383 The Huns defeated by the Goths 397 St. Chiysostom chosen patriarch of Con- stantinople 400 Alaric, the Goth, ravages Italy 401 Bells invented 405 The Vandals, Alans, &c., invade France and Spain 408 Theodosius 2d, emperor of the east 410 Rome sacked and burned by Alaric 411 The Vandals settled in Spain 416 The secular games celebrated at Rome 421 Republic of Venice founded 426 The Romans withdraw from Britain 432 Christian religion introduced into Ireland by St. Patrick 439 Genseric, the Vandal, invades Italy Carthage taken by the Vandals 445 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Picts and Scots 448 The Romans engage to pay a tribute of gold to Attila the Hun 450 Attila ravages Germany and France 451 The Saxojis arrive in Britain 452 Foundation of the city of Venice 460 Rome taken by Genseric 468 Romans driven out of Spain by Euric,king of the Visigoths 476 Rome taken by Odoacer Extinction of the western empire of the Romans, 507 years from the battle of Ac- tium, and 1224 from the building of Rome 488 Theodric, the Ostrogoth, defeats Odoacer 493 Odoacer put to death by Theodric 497 Clovis, king of France, baptized 499 Alliance between Clovis and Theodric 507 Clovis defeats Alaric 510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the king- dom of the Franks 516 Computation of time, by the Christian era, introduced by Dionysius the monk 525 The Arian bishops deposed by Justin, em- peror of the east, 529 Belisarius, general of Justinian, defeats the Persians The books of the civil law published by Justinian 534 Belisarius defeats the Vandals in Africa 537 Justinian builds the church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople Belisarius subdues the Ostrogoths, in Italy, 543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy A. D. 547 Totila plunders Rome 549 Rome retaken by Belisarius. 550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland Rome recovered by Totila 551 Manufacture of silk introduced into Europe 557 Plague all over Europe, Asia, and Africa ; continues fifty years 565 The Picts converted to Christianity 568 Italy conquered by the Lombards 569 Birth of Mahomet 580 The Latin tongue ceases to he spoken in Italy 596 Augustine comes into England and con- verts the Saxons to Christianity 606 Title of Universal Bishop conferred on Pope Boniface III. 611 Westminster Abbey founded 612 Mahomet begins to publish the Koran 616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians 622 Mahomet flies from Mecca to Medina, in Arabia. His followers compute their time from this era, called Hegira, i. e., the flight 636 Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, who keep possession of it 463 years 640 Library of Alexandria burned 664 Glass invented in England by Benalt 669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens 672 The Saracens besiege Constantinople 685 The Britons subdued by the Saxons 690 Pepin acquires the chief power in France Willibrod, an English Monk, preaches the gospel in the Netherlands 707 Justinian 2d, defeated by the Bulgarians 713 Spain conquered by the Saracens 732 Charles Martel, king of France, defeats the Saracens 743 Constantine emperor of the east ; enemy to images and saint worship 744 The Huns seize Transylvania 745 Constantine destroys the Saracen fleet 751 Pepin king of France 754 Pope Stephen requests Pepin's assistance against the Lombards General council at Constantinople ; wor- ship of images forbidden 756 Abdalrhaman 1st, founds the dominion of the Moors, in Spain 762 Almanzor builds Bagdad 770 Constantine dissolves the monasteries 772 Charlemagne, king of France, makes war against the Saxons 774 He puts an end to the kingdom of the Lom- bards, which had subsisted 206 years 781 Irene, empress of the east, re-establishes image worship 785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons 787 Council of Nice restores image worship and condemns the council of Constanti- nople The Danes land in England 794 Charlemagne extirpates the Huns 797 Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, &c. 800 New empire of the west; Charlemagne crowned emperor at Rome 718 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. D 813 Almamon, caliph of the Saracens, great encourager of learning 816 The eastern empire ravaged by earthquakes, famine, conflagrations, &c. 827 Egbert unites the Saxon heptarchy ; be- ginning of the kingdom of England 829 Missionaries sent to Sweden 843 Kennith M'Alpin, king of Scots, subdues the Picts 845 The Normans penetrate into Germany 848 The Venetian fleet destroyed by the Sara- cens '67 The Danes ravage England Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, ex- communicates Pope Adrian 875 Harold unites the provinces of Norway 880 Ravages of the Normans in France 886 Leo the philosopher, emperor of the east 890 Alfred the Great, king of England 896 Alfred founds the University of Oxford 912 The Normans established in Normandy 915 The university of Cambridge founded 931 City of Geneva overrun by the Saracens 940 Howel Dha, king of Wales, an eminent lawgiver 941 Christianity established in Denmark 963 Pope John deposed by a council of bishops 964 Otho, the Great, conquers Italy 965 The Poles are converted to Christianity 967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens 968 Controversies between the Greek and Latin churches 975 Pope Boniface VIL deposed and banished 986 Hugh Capet, king of France, and founder of the third race of French Kings 991 The figures in Arithmetic brought into Eu- rope, by the Saracens, from Arabia 1002 Massacre of the Danes by the English 1005 Churches first built in Gothic style 1013 The Danes get possession of England Children forbidden, by law, to be sold by their parents, in England 1025 Musical characters invented 1039 Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland Edward HI, (the Confessor,) king of Eng- land, restores the Saxon line 1040 The Danes driven from Scotland 1043 The Turks subdue Persia 1049 Pope Leo 9th, the first pope that main- tained a regular army 1054 Leo 9th taken prisoner by the Normans 1055 The Turks take Bagdad 1058 The Saracens driven out of Sicily 1059 Council at Rome 1061 Rise of the Guelphs and Ghibellines 1065 Jerusalem taken from the Saracens, by the Turks 1066 Harold 2d, king of England The battle of Hastings fought between Harold and William duke of Normandy, in Prance ; Harold slain, William becomes king of England 1070 Feudal law introduced into England 1074 Council at Rome forbade marriage 1076 Justices of peace first appointed in England 1080 Doomsday book began A. D. 1080 Tower of London built Henry 4th besieges Rome 1086 Kingdom of Bohemia began 1095 lilcie first crxisade to the Holy Land 1098 The crusaders take Antioch 1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey Knights of St. John instituted 1104 Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, takes Ptole- mais 1110 The order of Knight Templars instituted 1138 The Scots, under David 1st, defeated by the English 1139 Alphonso 1st, king of Portugal, rescues that kingdom from the Saracens 1150 The study of the civil law revived at Bo- logna 1154 The parties of the Guelphs and Ghibellines disturb Italy 1157 Bank of Venice instituted 1 164 Institution of the order of Teutonic knights, 1171 Becket murdered at Canterbury 1 180 Glass windows began to be used in private houses, in England 1186 The great conjunction of the sun and moon, and all the planets in Libra, happened in September 1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin 1189 Third crusade under Richard 1st, (Coeur de Lion,) king of England, and Philip Au- gustus, king of France 1192 Richard 1st, defeats Saladin, in the battle of Ascalon, in Judea 1200 Surnames now began to be used ; first among the nobility 1202 Crusade sets out from Venice 1204 The Inquisition established by Innocent III. 1208 London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing its mayor and magistrates 1210 Crusade against the Albigenses 1215 General Lateran Council Magna Ckarta, the foundation and bul- wark of English liberty, signed 1227 Gengiskan and the Tartars overrun the Saracen empire 1233 The houses of London thatched with straw Expulsion of the Jews from Spain 1237 Russia brought under subjection bv the Tartars 1258 Bagdad taken by the Tartars End of the Saracen empire 1261 The Greek emperors recover Constantinople from the French 1263 Norwegians invade Scotland 1264 The deputies of boroughs are first sum- moned to parliament in England 1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when eight thousand French were massacred in one night Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, defeated and killed by Edward I., who unites that principality to England 1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks End of the crusades 1292 John Baliol, king of Scotland 1293 Jubilee first celebrated at Rome 1296 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years Wm. Wallace defeats the English at Sterling CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 719 A. D. 1298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland; de- feated at Falkirk 1299 Ottoman, Sultan and founder of the Turk- ish empire 1302 Mariner^s compass said to be discovered at Naples 1304 Wallace betrayed and put to death 1307 Establishment of the Swiss republics 1308 The seat of the popes transferred to Avig- non, for 70 years 1312 Knights Templars suppressed 1314 The Scots defeat the English at Bannock- burn 1320 Gold first coined in Christendom 1331 Teutonic Knights settle in Prussia 1332 Edward Baliol is crowned king of Scots 1333 The Scots defeated at Halidoun Hill 1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne Oil painting said to be invented 1346 Battle of Cressy, won over the French, by Edward «f England, who, at this battle, had four pieces of cannon 1344 Gold first coined in England 1350 Order of the Garter instituted 1352 The Turks first enter Europe 1356 The battle of Poictiers 1357 Coals first brought to London 1362 The law pleadings in England changed from French to English 1377 The pope's return from Avignon to Rome John Wickliffc was brought before the bishop in St. Paul's, and opposes the pope 1380 Tamerlane subdues Chorassan 1381 Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's insurrection in England Bills of exchange first used in England 1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia Cards invented in France 1399 Westminster Abbey and Hall, rebuilt Order of the Bath instituted 1400 Geoff. Chaucer, poet, died 1402 Bajazct, emperor of the Turks, taken prisoner by Tamerlane 141 1 University of St. Andrews, Scotland, founded 1415 Henry V. defeats the French at Agincourt John Huss and Jerome, of Prague, burnt 1417 Paper first made from linen rags 1422 Amurath besieges Constantinople 1428 Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, defeats the English 1430 The art of printing invented about this time 1446 The Vatican Library founded at Rome The sea breaks in at Dort, in Holland, and drowns 100,000 people 1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks Extinction of the eastern Roman empire End of the English government in France 1454 University in Glasgow, Scotland, founded 1460 Engraving in copper invented 1474 The Cape de Verde islands discovered by the Portuguese 1477 University of Aberdeen founded 1483 Richard HI, king of England, killed at the battle of Bosworth. End of the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster A. D. 1491 End of the kingdom of the Moors in Spain 1492 America discovered by Christopher Colum- bus 1494 Algebra first known in Europe 1497 The Portuguese first sail to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope 1499 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America S. America discovered by Americus Ves- pucius 1500 Brazil discovered by the Portuguese 1517 Martin Luther begins the Reformation 1511 Cuba conquered by the Spaniards 1513 Battle of Flodden fatal to the Scots 1516 Barbarossa seizes Algiers 1519 Charles 5th, emperor of Germany ' 1521 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico Gustavus Vasa,.king of Denmark 1522 First voyage round the world, performed by a ship of Magellan's squadron 1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace the Pro- testant faith 1527 Pizarro and Almagro invade Peru 1534 The Reformation takes place in England 1535 Society of Jesuits instituted 1539 Cannon began to be used in ships 1545 Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen years 1553 Lady Jane Grey beheaded 1555 Many bishops burnt in England by Queen Mary 1558 Calais taken by the French 1560 The Reformation completed in Scotland, by John Kno.^ 1564 John Calvin and Michael Angelo died 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24 1574 Socinius propagates his opinions 1579 Commencement of the republic of Holland English East India Company incorporated 1580 The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake 1582 The new style introduced into Italy, by Pope Gregory 13th, the 5th of October being counted the 15th 1585 First attempt to settle Virginia 1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, beheaded 1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada 1591 The university of Dublin created 1594 The Bank of England incorporated 1598 Edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants in France 1603 Queen Elizabeth dies Union of England and Scotland 1605 Gunpowder-plot discovered 1607 Virginia settled Canada settled 1614 New- York settled 1619 Circulation of the blood discovered by Dr. Harvey 1620 African slaves first brought to Virginia Plymouth settled 1625 Barbadoes planted by the English 1636 Rhode Island settled 1638 Harvard College founded 1639 First printing in North America 1641 Massacre in Ireland of 40,000 protestants 1642 Beginning of the civil war in England 720 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1643 Archbishop Laud tried and beheaded 1645 Charles I. defeated at Naseby 1649 Charles L beheaded The Commonwealth of England begins 1652 Tea first brought into Europe 1653 Dutch fleet defeated, Van Tromp killed 1654 End of the Commonwealth of England Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector 1660 Restoration of monarchy in Great Britain 1665 Plague in London, carries off 68,000 persons 1666 Fire in London, destroyed 13,000 houses 1668 Peace of Aix la Chapelle 1675 King Philip's Indian war in New England 1678 Habeas Corpus act passed in England 1682 Settlement of Pennsylvania by Wm. Penn 1683 Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney executed 1685 Revocation of the edict of Nantes 1686 Newtonian philosophy first published 1688 Revolution in Great Britain ; King James abdicates the throne, Dec. 23d 1690 Battle of the Boyne 1697 Peter the Great defeats the Turks 1700 Yale College at New Haven founded 1704 Peter the Great founds St. Petersburgh First newspaper published in America, Boston News Letter, April 24 1717 Great snow in New England, Feb. 20 1721 First inoculation for the small pox in Ame- rica performed, in Boston with success 1725 Death of Peter the Great 1741 Carthagena taken by Admiral Vernon 1746 Dreadful earthquake at Lima 1752 Lightning rods invented by Dr. Franklin New Style introduced in Britain and America, Sept. 2d reckoned 14th 1755 Braddock defeated near Fort Du Quesne Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake 1758 The British troops take Louisburgh 1759 Jesuits expelled from Portugal 1760 Canada taken by the British 1762 Havanna taken by the English 1765 Stamp Act of Great Britain 1769 Cook's first discoveries in the South Seas 1772 Poland dismembered 1773 Society of the Jesuits suppressed Tea destroyed in Boston harbour 1774 First American Congress at Philadelphia 1775 Battle of Lexington, April 19 Battle of Bunker Hill 1776 The Americans declare their Independence 1777 Philadelphia taken by the British, Oct. 3d Surrender of Gen. Burgoyne, Oct. 17 1778 Treaty of alliance between the United States and France 1779 Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards Capt. Cook killed at Owyhee 1781 Surrender of the British troops, to the Americans and French at Yorktown, Oct. 1782 First English Bible printed in America 1783 Peace between England, France, and Spain 1787 Constitution of the United States formed 1789 First Congress under the federal constitu- tion met at New- York Gen. Washington inaugurated president 1793 Louis VL beheaded 1795 Cape of Good Hope taken by the British 1799 Bonaparte First Consul of France Kine pock inoculation discovered by Dr Jenner Washington died December 14, aged 68 1801 Battle of Copenhagen ; Danish fleet de- stroyed by Lord Nelson 1802 Bonaparte declared Chief Consul 1803 War between United States and Tripoli 1804 Bonaparte crowned Emperor of France by the pope British and Foreign Bible Society formed 1805 Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Trafalgar ; Nelson killed 1806 Death of William Pitt The slave trade abolished by parliament Bonaparte defeats the Prussians at Jena 1807 Copenhagen bombarded ; the Danish fleet surrendered to the British Embargo laid on all shipping in the United States First steam boat put in successful operation by Robert Fulton 1808 Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed king of Spain 1810 Bonaparte divorces Josephine J 8 12 Destructive earthquake at Caraccas War declared against Great Britain by the United States, June 18 The French enter Moscow Bonaparte retreats from Russia ; arrives at Paris, Dec. 18 Battle of Lutzen 1813 British squadron on Lake Erie captured by Commodore Perry 1814 Bonaparte abdicates the throne of France and Italy, April 5 The pope restores the order of Jesuits Washington city taken by the British 1815 British defeated at New Orleans by Gen. Jackson, Jan. 8 News of peace between Great Britain and U. States arrived at New- York, Feb. 11 Bonaparte sailed from Elba; arrived at Paris March 21 Memorable battle of Waterloo, June 17, 18 Louis XVIII. entered Paris July 8 Bonaparte arrived at St. Helena, Oct. 13 1817 The Indian or spasmodic cholera appeared at Jessore, in India 1819 The Erie canal opened, Oct. 22 1821 Bonaparte died at St. Helena Beginning of the Greek revolution 1824 Lafayette arrived at New- York, Aug. 16 1826 Jefferson and Adams, two ex-presidents, died, July 4 1827 Battle of Navarino; Turkish fleet destroyed 1830 Algiers taken by the French, July 5 Revolution in Paris, July 26 to 29. Louis Philip king of France Revolution in Belgium in September in Poland, Dec. 1. 1831 Warsaw taken by the Russians Cholera appeared in England in Oct. 1832 Cholera in Quebec, June 8 ; in New-York, June 28 1836 Texans declare their independence, March 2 1838 Victoria crowned Queen of Great Britain \ "^y. 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