imm III PI immi wM -, . ,! J& r -7-', .-A - 4?!":;. , ^' ■ .V. C 5-> , 'Ji '0 o ^^^;^ > 0' f ;'}g^^\ ^^ ..^^'' .-^ ■■^•.v^' :^ •\^ <^ % ■<^J^ 4 5 N ' \V 'a^ it ». V ^^' ^,..,'^^_ Vo.o> aV- ,\' *- '^^ ^c.. .^^ •% ^ .^^' V> .0 ,•/•/ Transfer Engineers School liiby^ 29,1931 A i«'^'. iT iJE 1 _ = - >4a-i Ci D ^lETY, ^2. ff _^jir /7^^' /«*' a> 'v£__^^^f__Jfff_^^7^ rsoo JVsiatic Persia -j EMl^lkE Tmkey Arabia J Bortiigal Europe anlirrke^ Greece Itaa.Ihwauesi _Austi'.Eirtp. Sardinia ^ TxLscaiiy ' ^ -Popedom ^ap les "^^tzerland. HszzacbarPiTissia Ln H ,4! AnntrH » GeraiaiL States Sweden Derunark Russia Brit America ITnited / States .?'^_ Mexico I'' Peni-BoL^a .V QuliEcuador THE WORLD'S PROGRESS gittionarg of gaits. BEING A CHROiXOLOGICAL Ai\D ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF J. ESS£i\TlAL FACTS IX THE PROGIIESS OF SOCIETY, FEOll TBE CREATION OF THE WOELD TO THE PRESENT TIME. WITH A CHAET. GEO. PrrUTNAM, A.M XWBNTIETU EBITION. NEW YORK: G. P. PUT]S"AM'S SONS, Fourth Avenue and 23d Steeet. 1873. ) 9 7^ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by G. P. PUTNAM & SON, 'a tlio Clerk'B Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Transfer Engineers School LI by. June 29, 1931 Poole & Maclauchlan, printers and bookbinders, 205-213 East X2th St., NEW YORK. NOTE TO THE KEYISED EDITION— (1867). In this edition tbe Synchromstical Tables have been brought down to July, 1867. The Biographical Index has been re-stereo- typed, with large additions, condensed in a single alphabet; and the alphabetical arrangement of Historical and Statistical Facts has been revised and continued to the present day. New YoEiz, August 10, 1867. CONTENTS, PXGt I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WOKLITS rR0GRESS(lS51 to 18GT), . . . . 1 II. DICTIONARY OF DATES 145 III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY 609 IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &.c 618 V. TABULAR TIE-VVS OF UNIVERSAL HISTOEY, IN CONTEMPORARY COL- UMNS {new paging) . 1 ' I. ANCIENT HISTOEY. Period I— The Antediluvian (1G56 years) . . {neio paging) . 2 Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (4-27 years).— The Deluge to Abraham . 4 Period III.— The Abrahainic or Patriarchal (4o0 years).— Abraham to Moses . 6 Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years).— Jloses to Saul . . 8 Period Y. — The Monarchical (4S8 years).— Saul to Cyrus . . ,14 Period TI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander . . . 21 Period YII.— The Grecian (164 years).— Alexander to the Fall of Greece . 26 Period VIIL— The Eoman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 8S IL MODERN HISTOEY". Period I.— (806 years.)— From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine . 4S Period II.— (170 year.*.) --Constantine to Odoacer . . . .58 Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet .... 62 Period I Y.—.<178y€ars).— Mahomet to Charlemagne . . . .68 Period Y.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to "William the Conqueror . . 72 Period VI —(233 years.)— "NVilliam the Conqueror to Othman I, . . .86 Period YII.— (154 years.)— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . 102 Period VIIL— (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nairtcs . 112 • Period IX.— (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 122 Periob X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon . 134 Period XL— (52 years.) — Napoleon to the year 1S67 ... . 146 71. BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OE INDEX . ijmc paging) . 1 EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, Representing, in a Chronological Series, the Rute, RcA^olutions, and Pall cf i,W principal Empires oj th£ World. ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. PRIESTL3CT. If is necessary to notice, that the space aHotted .o each country is rather according loitp le ^uvc political importance, than to its geographical extent The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- tury or lUO years ; those between the Iwnzo-ntal lines represent countries, tlie names of which are expressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations ai 'the period we fix upon. For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see stales forming in Greece; the Israelites in Egypt cfrom whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Persian, Chinese, and i)ther kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their history unceitain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states of Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking clong the chart norizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively.— The Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan I45I ; under the Judges about 1300; under Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 538, by the Assyrians restored by the Persians, 535; under the Macedonians, 330; restored to independence by the Mac cabees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. D. 622; afterwards by the cru- eaders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — JE^n^/and subdued by the Romans in the first cen- tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ire-land, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with ♦Scotland, 1600.— Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300— 2(iC s. 0. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modem times, divided into several small republics and principalities; joined to the French empire about I iO), and MOW divided chiefly between Austria, the' Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c. :ho Pope, and the King of Naples. " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the re.stless ambition of mortals shed, and in what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part nt Qiiix species ! "—Priestley. PREFACE. While revising a chronological manual, in compiling whicn I had at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations to the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; and showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- cary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while the more elabx)rate and ponderous works of IJhiir, Talboys, and ♦ Ckrr/iioloiry — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12aio. Lcavitt, iXe»- Voik. 1033. The volume h;is bc^-n luii^ out of priiit. U rrwEFACE. otliers, are availaLle to the historian or the merely literary man, they are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of tbe governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these eventSj and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of useful information in the smallest po.jsible compass. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names and dat>os — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instance3 the dictionary varies from the tables; but these instances are not numerous or important. The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- sons lived during the life-time of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to b<3 euppof^ed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all fcasoL'able expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government G. P. P. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS' 1851 to 1867. BEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DSTKIIfa THOSE TEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. A.BATTOIRS, slanghter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected near Paris; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened ou June 13, 1855. In New York City abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1866. ABB ASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400 years until 1258. The CaUph Haroun al Rashid was of this line. ABECEDARIANS. A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un- derstanding of the Scriptures. ABSTINENCE, Total, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi zation in the United States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J. Clark, of Moreau, N. Y., 1808; "members fined fifty cents for intoxication;" Ameri- can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826 ; total abstinence from dis- tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting in Philadelphia in 1833, but voted down. See Temperance. Tetotallers in Eng- land organized in Lancashire, 1834. ABYSSINIA. A large country in north-east Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitae (from its chief town Auxume) flour- ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The yoimg king escaped; and the royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant, Icon Anilse. In the middle ages it was said to be rilled by Prester John, or Prete Janni.. The Portuguese missions com- menced in the fifteenth century, but they were expelled about 1632 ii; conse- quence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov- ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christianity intro- duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng- land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has beea given by Bruce, (1790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parky ns, (1853). 1 2 THE world's PKOGKESS. ACADIA. Now called Nova Scotia, settled by the French m 1604, and finally ceded to the English in l^lo. It was three limes conquered by the English, and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel- low's Evangeline) 1755. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68. ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States. ident Taylor, July 9, 1850—* -(p. 1 52.) On the death of Pres. \[ir.Li.K:!> FiLLMOBE, of NewTork (Vice-President), became President. He appointed Boon after, the follow ing Cabinet, viz. : f.apiel Webster, Museachusetle, Secretary of Stnte. Tf'^tnas Coivin, Oiiio, . Secretary of 'I'reasory. ti-.t-rles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War. ■^ .)Jian> A. Graham, North Carolina, Secretary of Navy. A. H. H. Stuart, Virgini.i, Secretary of Intenor. Nathan K. H^ll, New York, PostmaBter-GeneraL •John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney-General, William K. Kiug, Alabama, was elected President of the Senate, and became Acting Vicf-Pics't of IT. S. Howell Cobb, Georgia, {conthmed in office), \ Siieakers o^ H Rena Linn Boyd, Kentucky, December, 185L f bpeakers ot id. Keps. Fkankltn Pierce, of New Hampshire, iraugura.ed March 4, 185:i, President. Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. R. King, Ai^ril 18, 1853— William L. Marey, James Gntlirie, Robert M'Clelland, James C. pol>bin, Jell'erson Davis, James Campbell, Caleb Cusliing, James L. Orr, THE CABINET. New York, Kentucky, Michigan, North Carolina. Mississipi'i, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, South Carolina, James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, inaugurated March 4, John C. Beeckiniiidge, of Kentucky, Vice-President. Lewis Cass, J. S. Black, Isaac Toncey, John B. Floyd, Joseph Holt, Hcwell Cobb, Philip Tliomas, 'ohn A. Dix, Jacob Thomiison, Joseph Holt, Horatio King, J S. Black, E. M. Stanton, Nathl. P. Banks, ;Vm. Pennington, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Appointed Dec. 1860. Connecticut, Secretary of State. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of Interior. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of War. Post Master-GeneraL Attorney-Gen< ral. Speaker ol H. Reps. 1857, President. Virgini; Kentucky, Georgia, Maiyland, New York, Mississippi, Kentucky, Maine, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Appointed Jan. 1861. Appointed Dec. 1860. Appointed Jan. 1861. Jan. 1861. Dec. 1860. 1856. 1859. Secretary of State, Secretary of Navy. Secretary of War. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of Interior. > Postmaster-General. ^ Attopney-GeneraL I Speaker of H. Reps. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1861, President. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President. Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State. *0misssio>s on page 152 " World's Progress." lush S. Legare, S. Carolma, May 9, difcJ June 20, 1843, ) a„ » „* c, ♦ John C. Calhoun, S. CMiolina, M.-rch 6, 1841, to March, 1, 1845, f ^®'^^' "* ^'^^'^' George M. Bibb, Kentuiky, June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of Treaa. William Wilkins, Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of War. Thomas W. Gilmer, Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844, f Secretary of Interior. ^ Postmaster-General i Attorney-General, Sreak( r H. Reps. Chief-Justice. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. Akdkew Johnson, of Tennessee, "Vice-Presidem. [President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1SG5.] Andeew Johnson became President. April 15, 1?C5. Lafayette iS. Foster, of CoiinecUcut. eleeitd President of the Senate. [Succeeded by Bln. F. Wade, of Ohio, 1867. Wm. H. Seward, Kcw York, (conli7iued in office)., Hui^h McCulloch, Indiana, do Eiiwiii M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, do Gideon Welles, Connecticut, do John P. U^her, Indiana, do James Harlan, Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. Orville H. Browning, I'lino's, Appointed June, 1866. W. Deimifon, Oliio, {cvvliuned in office), Alex. W. Randall, Wiscnnsin, Appointed June, 1866. James Speed, Kentucky, (continued in office), Ileiiry J^tanl ery, Ohio, Appointed June, 1S66. Schuyler Colfas. Indiai a, 1863-'65-'67.' Speaker H. of Reps. The s'alary of each member of the Cabinet was raised ir. 1853 trom $6,000 to $8,000 Secret arj' of State. Si crctary of Treasury. Secretary of War. Secretary of Navy. S Secretary of Interior. i Postmaster-General. V Attorney-General. ADMINISTRATIONS of England after 1846. Lord Jonx ErssELi/s Administra- tion, July 6ili, 1846. [He and his colleagues resign Feb. 1851, but resume office Mai-ch 1851.] Earl of Derbj', Disraeli. Spencer H. W'alpole, Duke of Northinnberland, &c. Feb. 1852. Earl 01 Aberdeen, Yiscount Palnier- tton. Lord Russell, «&c Dec. 1852. [Ruesell retires, and Lord Abenleen and Ministry resign Jan. 1855. Pal- inerstoii reconstructs cabinet with Lord Cranworth, &c., Feb, 1855, but Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se- cede from it and Palmerston forms a new ministry with Russell and Earl of Clarendon, &c. Feb. 24th, 1855.] On vote of censure they resign. Feb." 7th, 1858. Earl of Derby's Administration — Disraeli, Walpole, Stanley, «fcc. Feb. 26th, 1858. [They resign on vote of I'arli anient expressing want of confidence in them. June 1859] Lords Palmerston and Russell, &c.. June ISth, 1859. [Palmerston dies, Oct, 1865.] Eahl Russell's Ministry — AVith Gladsioi.e Chancellor of the Ex- chequer; Lord Cranworth, Lord Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c. Dec. 1865. Derby Administration — Earl of Derby, First Lord, &c.; D'Israeli, Chancellor of Exchequer ; Lord Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Aflairs, &c. ' June 19, 1866. ADULTERY in England, (p. 155.) By 20 Victoria, c. 85, (1857,) the "action for criminal conversation" was abolisbod, and the "Court lor Divorce and ]tfatrimonial Causes " was established, which has power to grant divorces for aduhery and ill usage. Sec iJivorce. ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, Eng. (p. 145.) The duty on them was all together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1853. For a copious article on this subject see Appleton's Ct/dopccdia. ADVERTISEMENTS in U. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 5 to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A fe»^ montlily and quar- terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise- ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the N. y. Tribune were about $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in Anieiican papers are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 2,000 copies circulation are exempt. Tiie duty on advertising in England was abolished in 1853. ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England. They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S. .^OLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : beginning about 1124 b. c. The Cohans bu'lt several large cities both on the mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. .^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known before. ^QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands annexed after a conflict, 4*71-302 b.c. AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 184Y;Tylor in 1840, and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. J^STHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially in art); a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work ''iEsthetica" was published in 1750. AFRICA, (p. 15.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849, (by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa, accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851, and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce- ments to Dr. Barth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Baith returned to England, and re ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His travels were published in five volumes in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in November, 1857. In February, 1858, he was appointed British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after. Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur- ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185-; his journey from Zanzibar to the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it published in London and N. Y., 1860. The publication of M. du Chaiilu's travels in Central Africa created much controversy and excitement in 1861. Second expoditon of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1S58. Du Chailln starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug. 1S63. Dr. Livinp;stone returns July 23. Ie64. Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30, 1864. . [He was sent as srecial onvoy to the Negro tribes near the NiL'er b^'the T'oreif;n Office about 1854. He opened commercial rela- dons with Central Africa.] Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, sap- posed to be another source of the Nile, %vliich he named Lake Nyanza Albert, March, 1864. Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner Africa, March 24. 18(35. Reported to be killed by natives, Apr. 1867. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy deUvered Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of the source of the Nile in Lake Nyauza Victoria, Feb. 23, 1S63. [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his oAvn gnn while alone near Bath, Sept. 15, 1S64] Some Duich ladies unsuccessfully ex- plore the White Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863— 1864. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 6 lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of tlie Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little attention till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's ".Economie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction has taken })lace, and much controversy ensued. Liebig's " Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act ot July 2, 18C2, Congress made pro- vision for "donating public lands to the Siveral States and Territories which may provide Colleges tor the benefit of agriculiuie an-l mechanic arts." Up to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in- troduced Agricu'inre among ihe blanches ot their scientific course. Agricultu- ral ccillege at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867). AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS of 1851 : Gkeat Britain. France. United States. Russia. Acresof Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 115,000,000 243.000,000 Busliels of Wlieat, av. peraiinum, 3o6,000,000 576,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,000 Number of Horned Cuttle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,800,000 25,000,000 Number of Horses, ' 1,600,000 2.818,000 5,000,000 18,000,000 Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 S2,C00,t)00 22,000,000 50,000,000 Numberof Swine, 19,000 000 5.000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000 Population of each comitry, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000 In 1866, the wheat crop in the U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80 per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.) ; sheep, 41,253,652, increase nearly loO per cent. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged in iigricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 1860 the number of acres in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 mil- lion dollars. lu the same year the value of agricultural implements was |24'7,- 000,000. 1860. 1862. 1865. Bushels of Wheat l.'',2,COO,000 181,000.000 148,000,000 Bushels of OatH 172,000,000 171.000,000 235,000,000 Bushels of Rve 20,000,000 21,000,000 19,000,000 Tons of Hay.' 19.000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000 PoundsofWool 60,000,000 114,0'0.000 Bales of CottOM 4,000,000 1,000.000 Bushels of Corn 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000 In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In 1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted to 29,700,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were '77,300,000 bushels. The cereals of the northern states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 n)illion bush- els, valued at |1.04'7,000,( 00. The southern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti- mated at 2,000.000 bales. "Departm«nt of Agriculture " established May 16, 1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse informati'on on subjects con- nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S. AIR OR ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re- searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. — • See Oi^one. ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515; free colored, 2,250. Total fiee, 428,765 ; slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white, 464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in 1860: white, 6 520,444; slaves, 435,473. The slaves have increased more rapidly than the whites. Ordinance passed " seceding" fiom the United States January 7, 1861. During the wiir the ^^tate was untouched by the national army until March^ 1865, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavalry, penetrated its most productive region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor. The state sent 120,000 men to the war, :ind lost 35,000. Estimated loss in wealth, §;500,000,0u0. Present debt (1865) is $3,400,0ii0. ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865,62,613. It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,(<00 worth was received there. Its Law Library, the best in the country, contains 70,000 volumes. ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musasus. ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, Jidy 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 is levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Ni- cator about 299 B. C. Tlie pachahc of Alepi)0 is one of the five govern- ments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a. d. 638, who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent; 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the cholera in 1832. Aleppo suflFered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct, 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way; three churches were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose scon after the foundation of Alexandria, 332 B. c. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 b. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (".^87-212), ApoUonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about A. D. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members w^ere Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus the geometer (350). ALGIERS, (p. 162). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (for a short time) to Prince Napoleon, ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Granada. about,1253. It surrendered to the Christians, Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones, and Jules Gowi-y, published 1842-5. There is a fae-simile of a court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London. ALIENS, (p. 162.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 1863, 233,408 ai rived. Of these 106,000 came fiom Germany ; 68,000 from Ire- land ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, July, 1666.) See Emigration. ALIWAL, Battle of, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the Britisk under Sir H. Smith (I2,0(j0). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,0u0, Jan. 28, 1846 BUTPLEMENT, 1851-67. ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p. 162) between tlic high European powers: Alliance of Swetleii with the weBtern ] lowers Dof. 19, 185i Alliance of Prussia aud Auriina against ]J)c-uniaik 186-1 Alliance of Prussia and Italy a;;aiu«t Auslria ISCd Alliance of England, France, and Tnrkey (signed at Con>tantino pic) March 12, 1854 Aili:iine of England and France, ratified April 3, 1854 Alliance of Sardinia with the weet- oru powefd (signed at Turin), Jan. 26, 1855 ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman CaLholic chuicli to com- memorate the souls that are iu purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. ALMA. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 1854. See Jiusso-Turkish War aud Crimea. The English, French, and Turk- ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Meiischilj. The " National Almanac" (valuable and comprehensive), published by Childs of Phila., appeared only 1863 aud 18l4. At the present time (1807), no general alma- nac of any special value is published in tho U.S. The " Farailj'^ Christian Almanac" of the Tract Society has a wide circulation. ALPACA (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c., (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotetitiary, {Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. Tc the smaller states, " Ministers resident" are sent, 22 in all. Niunber of con- suls from U. S to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 8 as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Num. ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 356, AMERICA, Ckntral, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their iudependence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 18g3, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were de- feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 j the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate- mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing 'a new con- stellation.' " AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848. ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of Herodotus, about 1687 b.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (708). ANESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill eftecls followed the 3,000 cashes he had up to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on the subject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were for- bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. & J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive. ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con- taining poetry, tales, and ess.iys, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations ol Keepbakc ]8"J8-.ii Hood's Comic Ahiiiial I&0O-08 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 9 einnlar books in Germany. The duration of tlie cliiur of these publications vj here given — FoiKct-mc not ( Ackerman's) 1823-48 Amulet 1S27-34 Frion, Consta liuopie t-eijuii.A. d. 532 C.'aiitcrbury Cathedral a. n. 602 Mosque of Omar a. d. 637 York Minster begun a. d. 741 .RCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North-West Passage, and Frankliu's Expedi- iions. Lt. Hartsteia Avith the Arctic and release leaves Brooklyn, Mav 31, 1S55, and fin-s. Present foi' Dutij. Ayarerjnte. July, 1861 ... 14,108 .. . . 169,480 .... 18:^,588 .. . 286,751 Jan. l.lS&l ... 19.871 .. .. .5n7,:'.n3 .... 5-27,'204 .. . 17.\917 Jan. 1, 1S63 .... 19,lt)9 .. . . 679,633 .... 693,8.>2 .. . 918.191 Jan. 1,1864 .... 17.J:.7 .. .. £91,013 .... 621. -150 .. . 8(;i),7".7 Jan. 1,1865 .... 14.6C,1 •• •• CC6.-263 .... 620,924 .. . 959,4r,0 May 1,1865 .... 797,^07 .. . 1,034,064 From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,'.)75. By act of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army comprises 45 regiments of infantry, 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantrv are col- ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,3ii0. The higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut. -General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbuised $1,029,- 239,0o0 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the war was 28u,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or'died of wounds, and 2,321 ofiicers and 182,329 men died of disease. See Ln'ist 12 THE world's PKOGKESS. ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished th« army during 1861-65 : Cannon— number 7,892 Artillery carriages — number 11,787 Artillery projectiles (shot ami bhcll)— nunibtr 6.335.595 Gra])e and canister shot— poui.db 6,539,999 Field artillery ammunition— rouudt 2 8(.2,177 Small arms, muskets, rilles, carbines, and p t-U)^ 3,477,055 iSw ords, sabres, and lances^ 544,475 Infantry accoutrements— compie;e t,e1b 2,146,175 Cavalry accoutrements— conip.ete sels: 216,371 Horse equipments— Bets 5S9.544 Two-horse artillery harness— bet f 28,164 Horse blankets— number 732,526 (Cartridges for f^mall arms— nuuiLei 1,022,176.474 Percussion cajis for smail arms— nnniljci l,*.^U),f)55,435 Cannoi. -primers 10,281,305 Fuses for si. ell 4.226,377 Gunpowder— pound^ 26,440,054 Nitre— pounds 6,395^152 Lead in pigs and bullets— poun us 90,416,295 This only includes what was consumed in the army, and nut what was used by the navy. ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artoii?, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about £12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to Calilbrnia. ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- tributed to it by members, which sold for $7, 500. The object of this society is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859. ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the U. S. since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S. for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. In 1864, 30 collec- tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures and sculptures. A handsome building ior the Yale School of Fine Arts wag completed at New Haven in 1866, the-gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- mittee ; See Paintings ; Tuckerman's Book of the Artists. ART UNION. For distributing works of art by lot. The first was in Germany founded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1S28), Dresden, Loipzic, Bremen, Dnsseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art- Unions " were started in 1851. London Art L'nion founded 1837; its receii)ts increased in nineteen years from |;5,()00, to $90,(i00 per annum. The first in the U. S., the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrJb- SUPPLEMENT, 1951-C7< 13 uting works to the amount of §463,853. It was closed in 1851 as being forbidden by the state laws against lotteries. ASCEXSIOiSI DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day alter hia resurrection from the dead, May 14, a. d. 33 ; first coinmemorated, a. d. 68. Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St, Jerome says that it was visible in his time. ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. The follow- ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department, showa the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in eacii state and territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1806 : States and Ten Uoiies. Collfctionn on Bullion. Bullion Assayed, California $294,121 $49,020,250 Colorado 1,219 219 860 Idaho 3,210 535,105 Mit^souri 4 815 Nevada 91.635 15,272,246 NewJersey 82 13,(;88 New York 43,774 7,295,803 Oregon 28,711 4,785,2>1 Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218 Ehudclslan.l 13 2,211 Utah 361 60.278 "Washinglon 837 139,533 Total $488,377 $S1,389,M1 The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States Mint at San Francisco, wliich amounted to $20,000,000. ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843. At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, U. S. N., Prot. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of Yale^ Prof. 0. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket, have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seen from Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. E. Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, 0. M. Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, Ponghkeepsie. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. See Pneu- matic Railicay. AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustine, who died a. d. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustius held the doctrine of free grace, and were the rivals of the Dominicans. AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) ol 14 THE WORLD'S PE0GEES8. the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been for- bidden in the fourth century by Noctarius, archbis^hop of Constantinople. It was first enjoined by thi' Council of Laicran in 1215, It was one of Six Articles of Faiih enacted by lienry VIII. in 1539, and by the Council of Trent; but was abolislu-d in England at the Kelorination. Its revival in England was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with- out success. AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions of this phenomenon on record are those of 1560 in London, in the form of burning spears ; 15*74 (det-cribed by Stow), and the close of the 18ih cen- tury ; again in 18o5, 1836, and 1S37. In Northern Europe, this phenomenon, now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United Slates, and the telegraph wires were sensibly afiected by the electricity. AUSTRALIA, The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Rornco, its area being about 3,O0O,0i.O square miles. Its colonization by convicts was first piopoi^ed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, (or Port Philip), and "Western Australia (or Swan River). Capt Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770 1 First Ch. of Eng. Bishop (Broughton),.1836 Sydnev founded 1788 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 Gov. B lull for his tyranny de- | 'rrai'sporiation suspendec! 1839 posed l.y au insurrection 1808 | Transportation ceased 1853 AUSTRIA See p. 184. Trial by jury abolished 1852 Marriage of the emperor lo Eliza- beth, dnuijhter of Maxim lian, duke of Bavaria Api-. 24,1854 Alliance -witli England and France on the Eatitern Ques- tion Dec. 2, 1854 Den;rading Concordat with Rome AuL'. 18, 1855 Diplomatic relations witii Sar- dinia broken off on ace. of at- tacks of Sardinian press Marcli, 1857 Excitement on the address of Napoleon III. to Austrian minister, Hubner J;in. J, 1859 Preparations for war. Banks of the Ticino fortifitd Feb. and March, 1859 Austria demands that Sardinia disarm. Refused Apr. 26. 1859 Austrians cross tlie Ticino Apr. 2ti, 1859 French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1S59 Frei.ch emperor declares war May 3, 1859 Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20, 1859 do do Pa!estro, May 80-1. 1859 do do Majrenta, June 4. 18.i9 do - do Mariifnano, June 8, 1859 Death of Prince Mettcraich, aet 80, June 11, 1859 Austrians dcf. at Solferino, June 2J, 1S59 Armistice agreed upon July 6, 1859 Emperors of France and Austria meet July 11, 1859 Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- ca, Lombardy to belong to Sardinia Tuly 12, 1859 Fruitless conference of envoys at Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 For war against Dei inaik, and against Prussia and Italy, see Prusniu. BAALBEC, OR HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Woosburti, Penn., (Eebs. de- feated).: July 1-4, 1863 Chickaniauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- feated) Sept. 19-20, 1863 Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison- ers and 220 guns surrendered to U. S. forces under (Jen. Grant) July 4, 1863 Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- ers surrender to U. S. forces). July 8, 1863 Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo- rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863 National " Red River Expedi- tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- feated) April 8, 1864 Wilderness, Va. (indecisive>; loss heavy on both sides). May 5-6, 1864 Spottsylvania.Va., (Heavy fight- ing, but Rebels retire). May 10-12, 1864 Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs, retreat) May 15, 1864 Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. re- pulsed) June 1-3, 1864 Battles about Petersburg, Va., (indecisive) June 15-19, 1864 Sherman fails in an attack on KenesaAV Mountain, Ga. June 27, 1864 Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- feated) July 30, 1864 Terrible fighting about Atlanta, Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1864 Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman, Sept. 2, 1864 Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept. 19, 1864 Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again d efeated) Sept. 22, 1864 Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally defeated alter gaining some success) Oct. 19, 1864 Sherman starts on his march across Georgia Nov. 14, 1864 18 Franlilin, Tenn., (Ri-bp. de- | Grant defeats Lee at Five fented) Nov. 30, 1864 NashvilU-, Tenn., (llebs. com- pletely routed, losiuL'60 gunev Dec. 15-19, 1864 Sherman enters Savannah, Ga. Dec. 21, 1864 Fort Fisher, N. C, taken l>y a^- sult of U. S. forces Jan 15, 1865 Kinubton, N. C, (Rcbs. re- pulsed) March 10, 1865 iorks, and continues fighting until tlie latter surrendered ai Appomalox Court Ilonse, Va. April 1-9, 186i Gen. Johnston (llehel) Kurren- derri to Slierinan licai- Raleigh, N. C April 26, 186* Tile l:ir-t rebel army under Kir- by Smith surrenders \\e>t of the Mis^sissippi May 'J8, 1865 For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopeedia, 18(35. l^ee Naval Battles^ Atlanta^ Antietam^ Gctlysburg^ Vicksbury^ Nashville^ Corinth. BAVARIA. Louis II. (b. 1846), became king on death of his father Maximilian, March 10, 1864. Fopulaiion of Bavaria ISeil, 4,689,837. BEDOUINS. Wandeiiiig tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a form of Mahommedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- ing him, B. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. BENEVOLENCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty of the principal religious societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of $82,uOO a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly ^500 an hour. And yet this is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was $774, 530; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. $645,380; of the Church Mis- sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490; of the London Missionary Society $366,440. BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 199). The receipts of some of the principal be- nevolent societies of Ne?/ York for the year ending April 30 were : 1857 Amer. Tract Society " B.ble .441.805 " B. C. Foreign Missions, 388,932 « Home Missionary See 178,060 " Sunday School ¥nion Charities^ Missions, etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total receipts of 28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698,81. These are national organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 15 per cent. BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 1722-8; Kittos "Cyclopaedia of Bililical Literature," (3 vols.) 1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) I860. See Concordances. BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- trating Scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventuia, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. Afac-si?nile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some Ro- man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. CIiambers''s Ed. CI. The British and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jaa, 3«58 1859 1860 $348,049 1866 390,759 415,011 4:9,799 642,625 334,000 S.^0,815 435,956 175,970 188,189 185.216 (sales). 202,426 234,436 ^ SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. l9 1, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and forty different lan2^u;iges. The Auieiicaa Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1866. expended $10,-134,953. SIBLIOGRAPHY, the sciknce of books. The following works on this subject are hif^bly esteemed: Peip;not, J/cmwe^, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliogrnphy, 1814; Scriptural — Orme, Bibliothcca Bibiica, 1824: DarHng, Cvclopwdiu Bihhograpliica, 1854-8; Classical — the works of Fahii- eius, Chirke, and Dibdin; English — Watts' Bibholheca Britanniea, 1824; Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Querard, 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet's Manuel du Lihrairc, 1842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and American bibliogrnpliy is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. K 8vo., 1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett pubfished the bibliography of the American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. BIRDS Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight (1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The mo>;t remarkable works ever published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John Gould in England ; the latter will coiLsist of thirty-one folio volumes of color- ed jlate.'^, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great work on Birds of America was engi-aved and published by him in Edinburgh, in four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, at New York. BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. Lieut, -Gen. I'olk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops numbered forty-five. BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters. BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- landers to the Highlander.-;, for the protection of their cattle; existed till within a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agiicultural improvement almost impossible. BLIXD. The first pul)lic school for the blind was established by Valentine Hauy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in rai.sed Roman characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowh'dge ill which blind persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, born inJ829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instrnctor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females : about one blind in 975. Asylu.ms for THE BLIND. The number in the U. S. in 18nO was 20. The first one was the "Per- kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil- 20 adelpliia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, N. C, 1848. Number of Wind persons in the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. E.stimated at about the same number in 1866. BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru; was declared indepen- dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug. 11, 1825. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, took place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre gcvern- ed ably from 1826-8; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. Gent-ral Cor- dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen. Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Aeha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. BOLOGNA, (p. 208.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw oflf the temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts should be headed '' under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." BOOK-TRADE, United States, (p. 211.) The number of new books recorded as published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new works and new editions recorded as then first Dublished in the U. S. was about 2,400. There were in the U. S. (1860) abouf3,00() booksellers and 400 pub- lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate nublications ; in 1865, 1,802, of which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The nicreased cost of paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since the rebellion began. BOOK-TRADE of Grkat Britain, (p. 210.) Number of new publications in 1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,5u7 different works entered for copyright, and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent, on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1836, and about 50 per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of publications was 3,553. BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 210.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 1,820,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,855 francs; increased of exports smce 1851, 30 per cent. BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Ave* tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 1604, established factoiies in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit- ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took possession of a part of the island. Sir James Brooke being appointed "Rajah" of Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brooke, and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak, Nov. 1858, but declined. BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 212.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,5f 8 in 18(')0, 177,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858. Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers, ^3,668,(>00 ; for school- houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000— a total of $6, 629,358, which ia claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev- eral high schools is $4,0i)0. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " Nor th-East SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 21 Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Wasliini^ton, 1842. The Oiegon Boundary, adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1850. BRAZIL, (p. 216.) First steamsliip line to Europe, 1850; Slave trade sup- pressed, 1852 ; Railways coninicnced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro li.^hted v.ilh f^as, 1854. War with Uruguay. Brazillinns march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to Brazil, estat)lis!ied thiough the agency of Rev. J. C. Flc-tcher, 186-. Kiddei and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- sive editions 1859-1867. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 1867. The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. BREWERIES, U. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, was 9t)9. In that year 3,235,345 barrels of ale and beer were manulactured. Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- ber of breweries than any other city, BRIBERY IN THE JJ. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare in this country. BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS IN ENGLAND, (p. 217.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void by bribery in 1853, and at other places 1857-9. BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in 1860, 13,700. The time for burning bricks is 3 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. Sawyer, of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value- of products, $10,253,734. BRIDGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., remarkable lor their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was built by Mr. Finley about 1800, The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. suspension bridge over the Niapara was built by Mr. Roebling; completed in 1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. Height of pier, 80 feet; width, 45 feet; size of cable, 12 inches; cost $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susqiiehanna at Havre de Grace is 3,273 feet long ; completed in 1805, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. Cost, |;1, 500,000. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. The 22 THE world's PROGEESS. essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Br.ckland, William Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewcll and Williiin Kirby) were published in 1834-37. BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science. It holds annua; meetings, the first of which was held at York in 1831. One of its wAii ob jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A vclume containing reports of the proceedings is published annually. BRITISH AMERICA. United by act of Parliament under the name of Doniin- ion of Canada, 1867. BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 220). In 18^6 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was opened to the public, May 11, 1857. Tlie room contains about 80,000 vols., and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,0 )0 vols., exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alpnabetical catalogue was completed from A to H in May, 1858 in above 1,000 folio vols. BROOKLY;"^, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 18 >0 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con- solidated witli Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 18(J0, it had 2*7,^,425 ; in 1865, 296,378. See Additions. rUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the Ganges and Japan, from wl.ich Brahminism is derived. Buddha, or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or l,10o b. c. The Buddhists believe that the soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous,' it will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India about A. D. 596. BUENOS-AYRES, S. America, (p. 222.) The independence of the province was declared July 19,1SI6, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been depo.sed Sept. 10, 1852, invested the city, Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron, April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July 13, and the civil war ended. In 1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor for three years, May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,0u0. BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who would build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in Xew York m 1848-49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. BURMESE OR BiRMAN Empire. For the events of war with England, and of the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20, 1&63. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 22 CARIXET, U. S., See Administrations. CABlilOLET. Oue-liorsed cabriolets {vnlpo, cabs) were introduced in LoiidoB us public conveyances in 18*23, when the number in use was 12, In 183G they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and other Amer. cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. An improved pattern — the coujje, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some extent. CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The I^ones of March, May, July, and October, i'ell on the '7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the JVones on the 5tli and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends^ ad Grcecas Calendas^ " on the Greek Calends," meant nevei'. CALIFORNIA, (p. 230.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 23,000. By the cen>us of 1850 the number was i)2,597 ; by that of 1852 it was 2r)4,435, of whom only 2-j!,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula- tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 10,000 Irish; 1(>,000 Germans; 2,000 Enghsh; and 15,000 various (white) nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 75,301 Ciiinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the same time. Population in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 600,000. In"l865 there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. Over 18,000,000 busliels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. CALORIC EXGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 1833, andthen considered a success, but not made practically available till 1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, -consumes but little fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one (other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and conunerce is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. CANADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and lower provinces united and desigtiated Canada East and Canada West. Sir Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856. Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony by the Prince of Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004; 24 THE WORLD S TEOGEESS. Lower Canada, 890,261. In ISo? it was estimated thus: I pper Canadn, 1,305,923 ; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was £6,751,666. Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,o06,'755. Producta of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Reciprocity Treatv," in 1862, $14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. ExpJrts, ^3,317,873. Total militia force, (1863) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864, a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by some confederates, created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, U. S. A., ordered that U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- ada," consisting of the United Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, &c., established by the Queen's consent, 1867. CANALS, (p. 223.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000; completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 3* miles, cost $235,934 per mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- duce from the west were brought to tide-water. CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York (1866-7). CANNON, (p. 234.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American fons was a 24-pounder; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. A vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Parrott in- vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has a range of 5,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot of 250 lbs. 5^ miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100 lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ef- fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, carrying shot of 525 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- ment (U. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for tlie army and navy. Steel cannon were first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the U. S. navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. CANTON, (p. 235.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856, by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857, and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. CAPITOL OF THE L'kited States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the Briti.^h 1814; re- stored 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pies. Fillmore, July, 1851. The present structiire is 751 feet long, and covers 3-i acres. The co* lossal statue of Fieedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec, SUPPLEMENT, 18S1-67. 25 2, 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- ble and the setting of the same was ^2,4()2,O00. CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (II. B.), (.John Doyle [!5 = HB), K. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known '• Punch " was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction (Douglas Jevrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Fair," commenced in New York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but was shortlived. See Satire. CARNIVAL. (Cnmi vale^ Italian, e c, Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence, and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. CAROLINA.— See N. and S. Carolina. CARPET MANUFACTURE.— The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 1855 was §1,362.000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857, valued at $2- 181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but ot these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required.; in the best houses. CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are said to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The Duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol- lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 354 fires in the United States where the amount of loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,427 wounded; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 ■wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded ; and 324 steamboat accidents, by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. CAUCASUS, (p. 241.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of Sohamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar. CAWNPORE. A town in India ; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- lock, July 17, 1857. CAYENNE, (p. 242.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the FreQch emperor since 1852. CEMETERIES, NatioxNal. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves. The " Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them marked " unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1867 for substantial headstonea and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev- eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 26 CEXSUS OF THE United States, has been taken at eight different periods, vir, 1790, ISOO, 1810, 1820, 1830, ]840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at intermediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. Other states have diliereu't periods for a census. In 1865, it was taken in the states of Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. The liumber of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ; expense to the Government, $1,045,206. CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri- can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 1790, the population of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 1860, 31,443,321. Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000.' The unimproved lands of the United Stages, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at $6,645,045,007. Estimated product of our manufactures in I860, §4,00i),0'00,0i'0. Com- mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649, 000. City railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006*; te?chers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445; students, 54,969. Churches, 54,00(). Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,000 copies, Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In 1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,(i00; militia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates, and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ; and the aggiegate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,(:00. If the Confederate foices be added, the grand total would be reached of 4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country or age of the world. — Christian Almanac. CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Dan. 2, &c. CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245) Sir Thomas Wilde, created Lord Truro Sir Eilw. Kuirden, created Lord St. Leo arris 1852 Robert Mousey Roife, created Lord Cranworth 1852 Sir r'red. Thesiger, created Lord Chelmsford 1858 John. Lonl C;inipt)ell 1859 Hichaid Bethel, l^ord Wisiburv, Juiie*'26, ""861 Thomas, Lord Cranworth, ap in July 6, 1865 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between the Army of the Potomnc under General Hooker, and the rebels under Geneial Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rappahannock ; on May 2, General " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- take. Gen. Stuart took his commiind, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both piuiies. Hooker was compelled to retreat across the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 1846 SUPPLEMENT, 1861-67. I'.T CHARITIES OF THE WAR in the U. S. A careful statement made (>'< th« amount contributed by the people of the loynl slates lor pliilanthropic pur- poses connected with the war, not including the donations for reli^nous or educational objects, gives the following noble recoid : The total contri!)ution8 from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, aniouisted to §187,209,608.62; the conlribiitions of associations and individuals Inr the care and comfort of soldiers were $24,0-44,865.96 ; for sullercrs abroad, ^380 - 040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, ibr freediiicn and white reiugeets, $639,633.13: making a grand total, exclu>^ive of f.xpenditures of the ^v^vern- mont, of $21 2,274,248 45. Sec Sanitary Commission, &c. CHAKLESTOX, S. C. Population in 1860, 40,578. A severe firo des.r-oyec" the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks wsre sunk by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, J861. The c'^y surreo dered to National troops, February 18, 1865. CHASTITY. The Romon laws justified homicide in defence of one's self v. relatives; and British laws jusiity a woman for killing a man in defence of her chiistity ; and a husbnnd or father in taking the life of him who attempts t.* violate his wife or diuighter. In 1,000 years from the time of Kuma, 7?.0 B. C, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a. i). 394, only eighteen Homan vestals had been condemned for incontinence. CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between the Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits; Sherman forced the left after hard fighting. On the 25th thi» .\hole of Missionary Ridge was in the hands of the Union army, and the eneri;y complett ly routed. This has been regarded as one of the most brillinnt achievements of the war. Union loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoner? and 42 guns were captured. CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260: m 1865, estimated at i80,. 000. This city is the largest pork-pjicking depot in the country; 1,000,000 hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 1866, $2,457,673. CHICK AM AUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a severe battle between the Uinon and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. Thomas withstood the fierce assiiults of the enemy, and saved the army from a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longsu-eet irom Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted enthely on the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. CIIILI, S. America, (p. 248.) The present presideni (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558,458. Exports in 1857 amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pre?. 1861. Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in 185*7, 1,558,319. CHINA, (p. 249.) Death of TaonKw^ang... Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take Nankin, Mnrch 19, Rebellion breakb out in Quansr-si, Amoy, May 19, fcshang. ae, Aug. 1850 Sept. 7, 1852 Rebel emperor or pretender Rebels besiege Canton unsuc- Tienteh appears March, 1851 ceesfully Nov. 1854 28 THE world's PROGEESS, .■anton forts taken by the Brit- ish (see Canlon) Oct. 8, 1S56 .t».mer leans capture ;it'.>rts, Nov. 21, 1856 OhiQi'se bum Eur.Ji ean fac- tories, and mur.ier English sailors D -c. 1856 Lord Elgin sent out as Briiish envoy March, 1857 Britir^h' destroy the Chinese tlei-t, June 1, 1S57 British blockade Canton Aug. lSd7 C;u)lvin taken by English and French Dec. 28-9, 1857 TTeh, gov. of Canton, who is .s lid to have beheaded 100,000 rebels, sent to C;dc(itt;i Jan. 1858 Forts at inoiiih of Teiho captured by the English and French. May 20, 1858 Treaty of peace signed by Key- ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. Gros. June 28, 1858 [Principal articles: Ambassa- dors to be at both courts ; free- dom of trade ; Chrldiianity to be tolerate! : exp. nses of war paid by China ; tariff to be 1859 1800 revised ; Chinese epithet of •' barbarian" no longer to be applied to foreijmers.] Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- ped at tlie moulh of the Peiho. Admiral Hope attempting to force the passaue defeated, losing 81 killed, 300 wounded. June 25, Pekin taken by the French and English forces, and the em- peror's palace sacked Pekii given up by allies. ...N.. v. 5, Ensjlish and French embassies established there 1861 Mr. Burlin^amc appointed U. S. Minster to China 1861 Emperor Hien-fung d is, and is succeedeii by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, 1861 Canton restored to Chinese. Oct. 21, 1861 English and French aid the gov- ernment against the rebels 1862 English Capt. Gordon deleats robe s a .d tak' s Nankin, and rebel emperor Tienw.ing kills himself .July 18, 1864 CHINA TRADE. A large trade is developed with China through the city of San Francisco. "Flour, wheat, 'umber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and Vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value of exports from the U. S. to Jhina in 1862, was $4r,825,500. lu 1866, 2.530,- 000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one shipment reached New York, via California and Panama, in 60 days. In 186*7, a regular line of steamers was established between China, Japan, and Califor- nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New Yorli. Anson Burlin- game appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. CHLOROFORM. See Anesthetics. CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most severe at the west, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. I>om July to Sept., 1866j there wei-e 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 583 in N. Y. city. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded by Edward VL, 1552. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors. CHRONOI.OGY. (p. 253.) The following works are much esteemed : Play- lair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Clifonologv, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosso in 1856). The Oxford" Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 253.)' The number of churches in England for Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Pubhcatiou of " Essays and Re- views." and numerous Replies, 1861-2. The Church divided into High, Low, (or Evangelical) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the opinions of Dr. Aimold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a work on the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- ceeding declared by the Privy Coinicil to be null and void, Oct. 21, 1865. "Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 2» CnURCri RATES in England in 1854 iunounted to £318,200. Bill to ab(Jish them passed by the Hou:^eof' Commons but defeated by tlie H. oi' 7 (n-/iich see), termed also " The Club," and Johnson's Club. 1703 UnitLd Service 1815 Travellers' 1819 Oxford aud Cambridge 1829 Carlton (Consertuitive) 1832 Ref < .rra ( Lihfrat) 1 S36 Army anfl Navj Ib37 ■NVhittii glou (founded by l)ou:ilas Jerrold and others) 1846 French. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentiaMy politi- cal, and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Dantou and Camille Desnioulins. From these two clubs '.anie the Ilountain party which overthrew the Girondists, 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were re- vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former eminence. COAL IN THK U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined ai d used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pcnnsvlvania, Ohio, &c., extend 70o miles. The "Stat'istics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub- lished in Philadelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal pro- ducts in all parts of the world. The rnthracite coal of Pennsylvania was first used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first mined 'in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in ]86(', 6,218,( 80 tons. Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the states. The upper soam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal in the U. S. is 206,939 square RITPPLEMENT, 1861-67. -?1 miles; 470 miles is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 was 22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal in France, in 1780 only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,')00 tons in 1815. The Dnited States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,OoO.- 000; and Franci-, 4,500,000, in 1855 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed- ing on the cactus^ became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Euro[)e about 1528. It was not known in Italy, in 1548, although tiie art of dyeing then flourished there. See Dyeing. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Tenerilfc, the vines having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,36o,0n0 lbs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,332. CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810. This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing. COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at aifilsrent periods is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus : 1821 Tia, 4,586,223 116 Coffee, n,586,063 Il.s. ISGO " 6.87:3,091 lbs •' 38,363.(i87 lbs. 18o5 " 11331,638 l!.8 *' 91 753,0;J2 lbs. 1842 " lo,4S2,(345 lbs '^ 107.387 567 U '8. 1846 '• 16.891,020 lbs " I'.'A 3'^6,054 lbs. 1856 " 240,676,227 lbs. In 1867 a company was being organized to iunodece the cultivation of coffee in South Florida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff* of July, 1862, is five cents per pound. ODD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy fo" cnronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongli's treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844; in English in 1849. COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mitit was established in 1792. The gold coin- age consists of double eagles $;20, eagles, hah-sagk^s, quarter eagles, and dol- lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. Thefirst deposit of California gold for coining was made by Mr. David Carter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866, incmsive. Gold. ToiaA. 1793 to 1850. 57^ years 117.569,825 196,O&4,0?.'' 1851 to 1860, 9^ yiars .470,838,180 520,175,553 1861 to 1866, 6 years -'57,12)^.086 271 ,194,433 Total, *846,536,590 $987,424,026 COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672, of vhich 176,o28,672 belong to the East Indies. COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U.S. organized March, 1861. Area, 104,000 square miles. Capital. Denver City. In 1862, ^12,000,000 in golil was produced from its mines. Population in 1S60, 34,230, and about 6,000 Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a slate passed Congrei^s, but was vetoed, May, 1866. COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Virginia and Maryland to the United State.*, for the purpose of forming the soat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in 1800, 14,093; ia 1840, 43,'7]2, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. In 1850, 51,687, including 3,687 slaves ; in 1860, 61,403 ; :n 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools were in operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867, 318,800, of whom there were several thousand more women than nien. Im- partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis- trict, 1867 ; put in force at the municipal election of 1867, when colored votes were cast for city officers. COMBAT, SINGLE, in England. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659. Introduced into England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by the king in 1631. COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob- served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calculated to be 228 millions of miles from our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40 millions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comets were discovered in 1862 ; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam- bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet took place in the begmning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were found, none of them in the IJ. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with any certainty. COMMANDEKS-in-Ckief, F. S. army. Jacob Brown 1821 Geo. B. McClellan 1861 Alexander Macomb IS'S Heury W. Halkck 1S62 WinfieidScolt... 1841 Ulyeses £. Gram 1861 British Army. Duke of Mdninonth ...,,. ..167-4 Hon. Georee Cimwav 1782 Duke of Marlborou},'!) ..KiPO Duke of York ". 1705 Duke of Schomberg 1691 Sir Davirl Dunda.< iSOj) Duke of Ormoml 1711 Duke of York ;.^ai 1811 Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Welliugion 18-7 Fieldmarsi al Witde 1745 Lord Hill 1S28 Lord Ligonier 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842 Marquess of Granby 1706 Lord Ilardinge .1852 Lord Amherst... ,..., 1778 Duke of Cambridge 1856 COMMERCE. See Exporta and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. COMMERCIAL FAILURES The circular of Dan, Boyd, & Co., of N. York gives the following statistics of failures in the U. States; 1857 1858 1859 1860 Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676 Amount $291,750,000 .$95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000 Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $1*7,625,000. CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854, the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, ' established in 1488. CONCORDANCE. (P. 268.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, P remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, was completed in 1844, after ten years' labor. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 33 "CONFEDEKATE STATES of AMERICA." The cfTorts of the Fouthorn States ior the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern t?tates for its iibolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the gieat seces* sion of 186U-1. !?ee U7iited States, also Chroiiolof/ical tables. On Nov, 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republitan or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded i'rom the Union ; and Alaban^a, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded early in 1861. Jell'erson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Athanasian, and Mcene creeds. Augsbnrgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed, to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833. CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Cougiess, March 4, 1862, under the census of 1860, increased the number of R( presentatives to 242. There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who deliberate but have no vote. The Senatois in 1862 were 62 in number. Eiich Senator and Repre- sentative is allowed 1^10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years) de- ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators and Representatives from Tennessee. CONGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern states met at Montgon:ery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, chaiiman. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S. On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the " Confederacy ;" Jelf. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7, 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled again. CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850,370,792; 1860,460,670. This state sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. CO>;SCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French and other armies. On Sept. 6, 1798, a military conscription was or- dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age: ft om these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, — for all the country, 80,000 men — which may be increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are peimitted. A con- scription for 350,( 00 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian canip.iign, and in Dec. C'f same year another for 300,000, after the battle of Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-5, "drafts" were ordfied and enforced at two different times. The first draft w^as the (nominal) cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics, to denote the opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the "Conservative party," in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery party of the south. 3 34 THE world's PEOGIiESS. CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term *' Consols,") was formed of the otlitT funds in 1786. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. CO^nSTITUTION op thk U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, abolishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ot the stiites, 27 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives sliall be apportioned according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S. government; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (1867) been nitified by three-fourths of the states. CONSULS. See Ambassadors. CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their owners on the ground that they were " contraband of war." Since then the term has been used for " blacks or slaves." CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British Parliament, 1782. CONTRIBUTIONS, in aid op the Goyernment op the U. S., (1861-65.) See Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to §187,209,608. The contributions of associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were $24,041,865; for sufferers abroad, $880,01:0; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services i'or the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during the war. See Sanitary^ &c. CONVENTION, m the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished men from the states met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Conference, to pro- pose compromise measures between the north and south. Thcis- propositions were referred to Congress, which rejected them. *' Phila. ConviMition" of delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy ot Prcs. Johnson in regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace witli the South on iiny terms. COPYRIGHT OF DESIGNS, for manufactures in Enjrland, first granted 178V, for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 3 years, by act of 1842, and still further in 1850." 1851-67. 35 COPYRIGHT IN THE U. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ig to be sent to the Mbrary of Congress, histead of Siiiithsonian Inst. 1805. (?) The law of ISol gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 yeais, and a riglit of renewal to himself, his wile and children for 14 years more, niuk ing -12 years in all. No foreigner can secute a copyright unless residing in the U. S. So far (1867), the American government lias refused or failed to re- spond to the British otter of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty l?r tliii purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 185-1, but never acted upon, COPYKIGHT OF BOOKS, Produce of. The most profitable copyrights ii< the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have welded large sums to the authors. Of literary and histoiieal works the most |)rotita- ble have been the works of Prescott, Ban«Moit, Irving, Longfellow, Kane. Mrs. Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (I8C5-7). COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived from the Eutycliians, a sect of the fifth century. CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi; important during the w£.r as a military position. After the battle of Pittsbuig Landing, Gen. Beauregard, (Coiifed.) entienched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces under Gen. Halleek. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was evacuated by the rebels, May 29, 1862. CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total result is 880,000,0; bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted to §12,299,879. COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America estabhshed in 1848. It has been mu-.h disturbed by filibusters from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Central America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president. COSTUME, An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with very hmited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline^ ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birtii of the heir to the French thione (about 1854). The latter was the prevailing fashion until 1S66-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very small expansion. COTTON, U. S. (p. 278.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced ^stated in millions of pounds weight) : 124 mil 6., average price 16 cts. - 9 u 14 " 6 «' 11 " 8 " 9 " 12 " 11 « Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Value in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 6 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 784 per cent. ; India, 104 ; Brazil, 1 : Egypt, 3-^ ; "West Indies, cfcc, -^ per cent. In England a cotton supply association to obtain from Alrica, India, &c., was formed at Manchester about 1821 124 1830 298 1840 743 1849 1.026 1850 635 1855 1098 1856 1351 1857 1048 18.58 1118 1859 1386 mills. aver ige Pi ice 11 cts. 1860 1707 " «' c. 11 U 1861 307 " << " n.^" 1862 5 *' «« " 23i« 1863 11 '« (C ♦' 66 " 1864 lOJ «' (( " 83 " 1865 el" (( " 88 " 1866 650 «' <( .( j3 u •^6 THE world's PEOGRESS. ■857. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states oha\ cotton grows there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth i? manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product of 1,750,000 bales of 4l0 pounds each in 1866. Tho estimates are made up as follows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Carolina, 152,000 ; Georgia, '205,01.0 ; Florida, 36,0(0 ; Alabama, 220,000 ; Mississippi, 27(),000 ; Loui- siana, 100,000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,0( ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 babs. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, $18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,800. COTTON GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and prepares 300 lbs. per day; by the old mode only a single pound a day could be cleansed. COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. Official Valup. • Offlvial Value. 1697 .... i:5.915 18fi0 .... jE52,012,430 1701 y3,253 1S«1 4«,872,4S9 1780 .... 85.%('U0 1SC2 . , . . 36,75<',97l 1790 l,«6v,o69 1863 47,587.188 1800 .... .'5,406,501 . 1864 .... 54,85ti,289 1820 20,509.926 ! In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India. COTTON RAW Imported into Great Britain. Uis. I Tos, 1697 .... 1,976,359 I 1830 .... 264. Oi 0.000 1730 .... 1,545,472,1840 .... 5'.'2,5« O^'OO 1764 .... 3,S70,S92 1860 .... 1,390,988,752 1790 .... 31.500,000 1S61 . . . . l,25h,£;S4,7;:6 1800 .... 56,000,000 j 1862 . ,. . . 523,973.i96 1810 .... 132,500.000 J863 . . . . t;C9,583,264 1820 .... 151,500.000 ! 1864 .... 893,304,720 COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operation: Great Britain, 17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 70(',000, Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420.000; Spain, oOO,( 00 ; Italy, cOO,000 : Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480. Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent, or 81 per cent, in gold 'be- tween 1860 and 1866. COURT, SUPREME, of the U. S. By Act of Congress. July 23, 1866, no vacancy in this Court is to be tilled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Couits. COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comand- ing distinct posts, and all general officeis, can convene courts-martial. There are several limitations to the act. The nnmber f( rming a court is from five to 13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In 1860, 8,188 records of courts martial and military commissions were received and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice,. Washington, D. C. CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with this name was established at SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 37 Paris, Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Eiiiile Perelre, and otliers. It takes up or originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle ol commandite, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on tlie ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2§ millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716, and likely to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May, 1858, no dividend was paid. CRIME, Nevit York City. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners ; 15,948 were Irish, 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inraaies of the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 11,222 were convicied in the court of Special Sessions. During the war, there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See Prisons. In England. Tiie number of convictions by trial in England and Waks was, in Pevftons. Cfipifal Ofences. 1849.-, ,... o 21,001 66 ia&5 19.971 50 1858 13,216 i.3 1864.......... 14,726 32 Since 1848 there had bi'en no commitments for political offenci'S, such as treason or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. En 1856 there were 2,686 persons liberated on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- nal prosecutions m 1856 were £194,912. CRIMEA, OR Crim Tartars. War having been declared by England and France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops vvere sent to the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c., sailed for Varna, where they disembarked May 29, The expedition against the Crimea having been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15tli, and 16th, witi)()ut opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong (under Prince Menschikoff"), intrenched on the heights of Ahna, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the aUies quitted the Crimea in July following. CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone, &c., revived in France, England and the United States, since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life, by coming in con- tact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Ihiler, published Jan, 5, 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat thea in fashion. See Costume. 38 CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suflFcrcd on Mount Calvary, was said to have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, witli two otliers, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Ciiosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation ot the Cross," es- tablished in 642. It is asserted by church wiiteis that a shining cross, two miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantino, and that it led him to adopt it on i)is standaids, with the inscription "/« hoc signo vinces^^^ "in this sign thou shalt conquei." With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 2*7,312. Lengiet. Signing with th° cross was first praciised by Christians to dis- tinguif^h .themselves fiom the Pagans, about 110 ; ai.d in the time of Tertulian, 260, it was deeni<^d efficacious against poison, witcucraft, &c. I Crosses in churches and cliamhers were introduced about 431 ; and ?et up on ttejiles aliout 668 Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from church<:is, and crosses in the street* demol- ished by order of parliameui. 1641 CRYSTAL PALACE ix rJ'EW York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a cross, with a dome, was conmienced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the pubHc (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by lire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. 1859. CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exliibition of the World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- ditional projection. Entire area, 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and oper.ed May 1, 1851. Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030. CRYSTAL PALACE at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials used in the foregoing, was commenced August 6, 1852. Capital of the com- pany £1,0 00,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1857 the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditures, £87,872. CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell, in U. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph. C-USTOM DUTIES in the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 000; 1S55, .^53,000,000; 1863, $69,000,000; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 1861, ^'1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, 83,238,936 OO, CYMRI, OR KiMRi (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied the greater part of Europe, about 1500 e. c. About a. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- nmd reigned "King of the Cymri." See Wales. CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antistheues (about 396 r,. c, Diog., Laert.^ Clinton)^ who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, SUPPLEMENT, 1851-G7. 39 except morality; were very free in reprehending vice; lived in public, :ind practised £:reat obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died S23 B. c) DACIA. A Roman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it waa subdued by Trajan, a. d. 1(,6, when Decebulus, the Dacian leader, was slain in battle. DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were en^^aged in this business in tiie U. S. In 18G7, the number must be nearer 30,00u. The art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former uss of metal plates. See Fhoiography. DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired theie a. n. 3Uo. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1G99. By the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1197, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^e the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 1814, it reverted to Austria. DAMASCUS, (p. 287). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, whicli was con- quered by Trajan about a. d. 1u6, and abandoned by Aurelian about 2'70. For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they w?re placed under the protection of Russia. Tlie Russians quitted these provinces in Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between the Sultan and Austria), and remained ihere till March, ISOV, The govern- ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conference, Aug. 19, 1858. DARDANELLES, Passage of the. (p. 287.) The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853. DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. Hmnult. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, was not called the dauphin. DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums lor the insane, with about 2,840 patients. In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the "in- struction oi' deaf-nmtes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in the world" {National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, of whom 8 were deal-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded in 1817. Whole number of graduates l,3(jO. In 1862, there were 22 institu- tions in the country ibr the deaf and dumb, with 13f> teachers and 2,000 pupils. Their annual support requires about §350,000, of which $30U,000is appropriated 40 THE world's progress* 'oj the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Araariah Biigham, Dr. But- ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolshed in the state of Wis- consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consolidation acts of 1861. the death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in 1&64. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., was established in France in 1790, and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the EngHsh Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur- rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use of the MeCric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for our present system. It is alieady used in some arts and trades. By act of Congress, July 2*7, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. DECLARATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 1775, two months before that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia. DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of MjEce- nas, 17 B. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and learning, that it has been customary to style any one imitating his example, the Maecenas of his age or country. The Sciiptures speak of the dedication of the Tabernacle, b. c. 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 10u4. The Christians under Constantine built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- nity, in A. D. 331 et seq. DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of pontifical origin. Bjuvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of Arts, A. B. ]^y a further course of study for three years, they become Master of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students on their graduation from medical schools. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished persons. DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled in 1030, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. Penn in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of tlie U. S. by a unanimous vote ia Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,094 ;' 1810, 78,085, includ- ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves ; in 1860, 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. Tlie Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a milo long cost the Government $2,000,000. DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made far SUPPLEMENT, 1851-G7. 41 the use of the Dauphin {in usuvi Delphini), son of Louis XIV., edited :v Huet, bishop of Avninches, Madame Dacier, and others. Eacli author ij illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the work, Tiie number of volumes published was sixty, printed between IGlV and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1750. A new edition with additional notes, published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century. DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves {demos^ pech pi:, and kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C (who termed their opponents aristocrats, from arisios, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery par'y in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists vfciQ called liepublicans. Into these two great parties a number of ismaller ones were absorbed at the presidential election in 1856. In 1800, the Republicans formed "Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Linccln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860 DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, conipured (1850) : Votes No. to Countrv. Pop. Votes. Pop. Ei:gUind ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26 Wales 850.000 o7,9'24 1 in 23 Scotland 8,i-Ou;00O 72,720 linGS Ireland 8.000,000 98,006 liuSl Votes Fo. to Country Pop. Votes. Pop, •'SSwi 28,650,000 830,37111,, 42 France S4,00O,C00 250.000 1 in 137 United States., 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7 DENMARK. Frederick VIL, son of Christian VIIL, succeeded to the throne 1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedriclistadt bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9, 1850. Treaty of European powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown. May 8, 1852. New constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1, 1855. Sound dues abolished for a compensation, March 14, 1857. Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 186:3. Danes retire Irom Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21,1864. Prus.^-jans tal>j Schleswig, Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle ofl Heligoland, May 9, 1864. DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationaHsts or inde- pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn. DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God''''). Formerly in England, anything (such as a horse, carriage, &c.), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished (1846), D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was aihrmed to be A female^ at atrial at the King'y BL-nch in 1771, in an action to recover wages as to liis sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. DEPUTIES, Chamijer of. The title given to the French legislative assemb'y, from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took tiie name of Corps Legislalif. DESIGN^ ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in the Gothic style, was erected in I860. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150,« * The Reform Bill of 1867, largely increased this Jiumber. 42 THE world's PEOGKESS. 000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July See Arts, Paintings. DETROIT, Michigan, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 16*70. Came into the possession of the British, 17 GO. In 1*783 surrendered to the United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same year. In 1805, the town was comydetely de.stroyed by lire. It was the capital of tlie State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000. DIAMONDS. The Eohinoor, or "Mountain of Liglit, " found at Golconda in 1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England and presented to the Queen, 1S5U. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small hen's egg; value about tuo millions sterling. DICE. The invention of dice is asciibed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 b. C. The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice. DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriani), in 1844-5. A new and erdarged edition appealed in 18(i4 ; it contains 1 14,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, *he latter at Cambridge, Mass. DILETTANTI, Societt of. Established in 1*734 by several noblemen, desirous of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing Stuarts Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. DIF'llTHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro- tonn^au of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of the Tj. S, particularly among children, 1859-60. The number of deaths by this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1*805, was 2,942. DT^LOMACY or the United States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britair. and France. (See p. ) GREAT BRITAIN. 1852 James Buchniian, Pa. min. plen. 1853 JaiTies K. Inscis^oll do. do. 185C George M. Lia'.'as, do do. 1801 Clis. FranciE Adam^.Mass. do. FhANCE. 1853 James Y. Ma eon, Va. min. plen. 1857 Cliailcs J. Faulkner, Va. do. 1861 AVm. L. l)a\ ton, N.J. do. 1865 John Jiiiiy:iaca, in Japan; Simoda, in Niphon, nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854. Jeddo n: arly destroyed, Nov. 11, 1855. Island of Sanger (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost, March 12, 185C. In Calabria, several towns destroyed, 22,000 lives lost. Dec. 16, 1856. Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858. Quito; niuchinjvu-ed, and 5.000 lives lost, March 29, 1859. Mendoza, S, America, 7,0i;0 lives lost. March ; 0,1861. Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persona peiish, June 3, 1303. At Rhodes, and Macii, mountains crusliinsf a village, 600 lives lost, March, 1851. At Valparaiso, 400 honses destroyed, April 2, 1851. In South Italy, Melfi destroyed, 14,000 lives lost, Au2. 14, 1851 At Philippine isles, Manilla nearly de- stroyed. Sept.— Oct.. 1852. N. W of England, slight., Jfov. 9, 1852. Thebes iu Grreece, nearly dest. Sept. 1853. St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696; (le.'^troyed by tempest, 1703; rebuilt 1706; burnt, 1755; rebuilt by Smca.'on and finished, Oct. 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861. EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James VI. (I. of Eng.) 15S2 45 New buildinfrs erected 1789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancellor o? the Univ., 18(50. EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened Nov. 1, 1861. Said, Viceroy, July 14, 1854, dies Jan. 18, 18(53. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863 ; visits France and England, July, 1867. EL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, they began to look fur new sources of wealth, and having heard ot a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust, (which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they oi'gaiiized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall. EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and Roiisseau, in France, 18th century; Basedon, Walke, and Pestalozzi (Swiss), Fcllenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), m England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un- der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1833, from repoits of the Prussian system by Cousin. In England (p. 306). See Oxford, Cambridge, and F'on. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous "Charity" schools were ibunded, and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 et^eq. Jos. Lancaster started his "Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc, 1808. The Gov. grant of £20,000, in 1834, for public education, Avas increased to £15(!,000 in 1852, and £450,000 in !856. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding. Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted and systematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am. Inst, of Instruction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 18G4-5, the very large sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000), to promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges and Scliools. ELECTRIC CLOCK and Ball. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have first conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837; his clocks, as well as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric clock with four dials, illumin:ited at night, was set up in front of the office of the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York, 1860. ELECTRICITY, (p. 308.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far- raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and published "Re- searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55. Sir Wm. Snow Harris received £5,000 for hia invention of hghtning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the knowledge of electricity and its uses, have been niadp; by Prof Jos. Henry, and Prof. Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of Xew York, &c. 46 THE world's progress. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Bre- guot of Paris, in the manufacture of theodolites and the finer kind of mathe- matical instruments, in 1855. ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to great perfection by Elkington & Mason, of Birmiuqham, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into New York, 1858-9. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, (p. 308.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, were acknowledged by the French government in 18o9, by the voluntary pre- sentation to him of §80,000 (?) ; and by pu-blic honors and rewards from other governments of Europe in 18G0. House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain'a electro-chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1855; the American com- bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour, adopted by the American Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone'a automatic printing telegraph patented, I860. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles; in Eng- land, 10,000; in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Prussia, 4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,(tu0; iu Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total iul858, 96,350. Over all the lines in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,00(>,- 000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for Ics.s than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submnri7ie Telegraph. In the United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Mon- roe in 1861. Ninety-live lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers. ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in- vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro* tected by a patent, Mr. Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842). ELZEVIRS. A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. EMIGRATION from Great Britain, (p. 309.) increased from 129,851, in 1846, to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in 1852 ; and then fell off as follows:— in 1853, 329,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder to Australia. To the United States. The total number of alien emigrants v-ho arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to 1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000: in all, say 5,000,000 ar- rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came from Great Britain and Ireland; 1,.600,000 from Germany; 200,000 from France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Smtze,rland, and 18, 0()0 from Holland. {AppletorHs Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi- grants at Castle Garden, N, Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was 237,397. See Aliem. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The Iconographic Cyclopcedia, 6 vols., based on a German work, published at New York, 1853-4. The Enjlhh Cyelopfedia (Charles Knight), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1855-60. The 8th eilition o^ Ency- clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopedia 1857-62, 16 vois. (N. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 4V is a complete review of the groat events in the worla, of each year. The volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Ohronolo,icai Tab'es, p. "i^O to 120. ENLISTMENT, U. S. The Ibllowiiig is a list of the various " calls'' for troo;:i: by the Government during the war: — ,,--.*• j Date nt Call Nam!>eri>f Mm. Term of Service. Namterohtau.ui A.pril 15, 1S62 Vi-OOO 3 moaths 93,326 Mav to J uiio 25, 18G2 5^0,000 3 yearB /14,213 Jury2,1862 300,000 3 years 431^5 a4.4,1S62 3^0,000 Q.Hontks ...... 8.,OoC Oct! 17 1863 oOO.OOO 3 yc^irs I 3.4 807 Feb. 1,1864 '^^0,000 3 years ^ March i4,lS64 v-00,GOa , J years 284,021 Ju;yl8,i864 500,000 ..... 1-2-3 years 384,882 Dec.l9'l864 300,000 1-2-3 years 204,568 There were other culls for 30 and 100 d^iys' men. The whole number called for was li 759 049 ; total obtained, •J,656,o53. By Act of March 3, 1803, called the " Conscription Act," the Pret^idcni was authorzed to draft troops. The act provided lor an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest of desertei s. About 3,000,000 men betwean the ages of 20 and 45 were en- rolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were oraers for drafts. But probably not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes were obtained. '^ The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of moncv paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a ''Bounty Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $25,902,029. See Army of IT. K EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song). Narratives in verse. Some of the most famous are : Homer's " Hiad " and " Odys- sey" (Grek), between 8tli and 9th centnry, before Chr.st. Viri^il's "^Deid ' (Latin), about 3. 0. 19 Ovid's, " Metamorphoses " (La- tin) about A. D. 1 Dante, (died 1321) " Divina C(im- Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso" (Itai.) A.B. 156 Ca-noen?, " Lusiad" (Portuguese) 1569 7'ai^so, " Jerusalem Delivered" (Ital.) 1581 Milton, " Paradise Lost" 1667 Vollaire "Henriade" (French). ..1728 Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel" 1805 media" (Italian) a. d. 1472 Mmstrel ' louo The chief American epic which has hitherto been recognized as at all worthy of a national fame is Barlow's ''Columbiad." EPIPHANY. The feast of Epiphnnv (Jan. 6), called Ti/elfth Day, celebrates the arrival of the wise men of th.> East, and the manifestation to the world ot the Savior bv the appearance of a blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be found. Instituted a. d. 813. W/>eatley. Pardon says " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance ot^ their gods upon the earth, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it.' EPISCOPAL CHURCH in the United States. Episcopacy established in New York bv law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The hrst bishops of the iProtestnnt Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Pennsylvania and Provost of New York, consecrated in London, 1/87. First Episcopal convention, 1 789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS They were used bv the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and others. Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published, in England, a collection called Chronicles of the Tombs, in 1857. EOU \TOR (or Ecuador). A South American republic, founded in 1831 when the Colombian republic was divided into three; the other two being Vene/Aiela, and New Granada. The populat on of Equator ia about 1,040,400, of which 48 THE WOELD's PROGKESS. V6 000 are in Quito, the capitiil. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859: defeated in battle by Gciierul iUores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861), G. G. Moreno. i^^iQUlTY COURTS of U. S. In New Ergland, New York, and several other States, the same Ju'Jge niav try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac- iions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice '.s still preserved (ISG'?). i^.KASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized Krastus), a German physician (1528-84) who taught that the Church had no right to exclude any person tVom the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- communication. ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the Court of Chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. ESQUIRE, TITLE OF, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of ahn-ost every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated \>y Aza B. c. 941 A d3'natr:iy of Jtthii'pion Kings roignt d over Egypi from b. c. 765-715 Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, muiclies against Sein;acherib n. c. 710 Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- byses without success between B. c. .322-326 Can dace, Queen of Mcroe, ad- Tai;cii.g against the Roman 6ettlemei;ts at Eleplantino, de- feated and subdued by Petro- Eius A. D. 22-23 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- tory of Manki7id, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, estabhshed in 1843, publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- dent. ' It has published 3 or 4 vols, of '' Transactions." The works of School- craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of thehuman race has been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon {Ethnological JResearches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1S66, donated to Yale College $l,oO,000 to maintain a museum and Professorship of Archasology and Ethnology, also a li'ke amount for the same purpose to Harvard College. ETNA, MoiJKT (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1734, 477, 425, B. c. Eruptions also A. D. 40, 254, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of Italv, wlienee the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquend by a colonv of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 49 to reinstate the Tarqtiins, 506. b. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- cans still remaining show the dep^ree of civilization to which they had attained. See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- ed 1771. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York, The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the TJ. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About £20,000, 000 of these are often in circulation. EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. EXHIBITION OF 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits £150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. The exhibition was opened by the duke of Cambridge and a distinguished company on May 1, The Exhibition was closed on Nov. 1. when the total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- ants) had Deen 6,J 17,430. The success of the Exhibition was much impared by the de- cease of the prince consort, Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the civil war in the United States of America. The foreign exhibitors in 1851, were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Yincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, waa published in 1845. The scientific reports ^^ the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 4 50 THE world's progress. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. (Stated in round mlUions.) ExportH of Produce. of Manufactures. Total. Imports. ijlolmilliohs ._..... 16 millions 147 millions 147 millionB, 1849 $131 1850 134 .1860 816 1861 '204 1862 182 186 i 249 1S64 217 1865 254 18G6 466 149 364 .247 .-15 .2ii9 . .'62 318 .530 178 .362 .286 ,275 .252 .3^9 .234 .437 EXPORTS OF Great Britain, (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, £175,126,706. In 1851, £190,397,810. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 £115,826,- 948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; 1865, £218,865 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U. S. Since the formation of the government in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired : Square Miles. iSqaare Miles. 599,599, Louisiana, &c., by purchase of France, for $150,- 000,000 1803 66,900, Floiida, hy treaty with Spain cost $6,489,000 1820 318,000, Texa6, by annexa- tion; tendered by itri peupic 1845 308,052, Oregon, settled by the treaty with Great Britain. ...1846 550,445, California, i>j tieaty with Mexico 1848 Mesil.ia Valley (Ari- zona), by pnrchiise ot Mexico for $10,- 000,000 158 Ru6.~i:in America by purchnse fi-om Ru^- Bi^, negotiated by Mr. Seward. Sec. of Slate 1867 j'ATROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, Seen by Americus Vespucius; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession of by France, 1763; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set- tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there. FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843." FASTS, (p. 319.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in timos of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan appointed a public fast on account of threatened secession of slave states, which was observed Jan. 4, 1861. National Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif. ferent times during the war. Fast on account of his assassination. May 186). FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal : , Athanasius, . d. st:? , lfi6 Ephrem tsyrus, d. about , , •iU • • 200 Basil . . d. . yi!) Cyril of Jcrusak'ni, (/. , , :j8t5 Gregory Is'azianzeiijrf. 389 Grciioiy Is'yseeu, d. about . , ;.94 , . 217 Epipliaiiius . d. 402 , 253 (Jlir^NSDSiom . d. . ^ 407 Cyril of Alexandria, d. . 444 . 220 Latin. , 230 Amobins , Jl. . , ^ 3(^3 , , 258 Lacautius . d. about , • , 330 Ambrose , d. » • 397 OrtitTe, Jerome . . d. • • 420 340 Augustine • d. 430 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. SECOND CENTrRY. Greek. Jusliii Martyi', d. about Irei seus . . d. about Athenagoras. THIRD CENTURY. Greek, Clc-mciits . . d. al.'out Or.g».n . . d. about Latin. TcrtuUian . d. about Minutius Felix,^ al out Cyprian . . d. about FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Eusebius . • d. about FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-books, flourished about the end of the 15th century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants. FENIANS (See p. 29*7). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, pledged to work for the hberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First at- tracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year Nov., a Fenian Congress met in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the order numbered 80,0( 0. " Head Centre " Stephens figured coii>picuously as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. la the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buttalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. lu 1867, the excittment over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessiul. Several of the leaders were arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was 7io^ an Amer- ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297. FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America in the 17th century, ^qb Buccaneers, It was applied to Walker and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-. but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-londer used in this country. During the war, great inipiovements were made in this branch of ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in I860, carries seven cart- ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 1861. 120 shots have been fired from it in 5;^ minutes, including the time for leloading. The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle, muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal (1866-7). 52 FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the following cities had introduced the new systeiiias t'ollows: — Steamers. Men. Baltimore, 7 114 Boston, 11 2S1 Biiffiilo, 7 I8y Cleveland, 5 56 Cost $73,000 16-.>,0y8 40,470 39,000 Steamers. Men. Cost. Chxaeo, 13 140 $245,500 Citicinnati, TJ 140 141,000 New York, 34 664 869,957 FIRE-ESCArES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires hud been attended, :ind 57 persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1859-60. Two or three ditferent fire- escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1860. FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were $214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $48,419,000. The largest lire of late years was at Portland, M.iinc, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build- ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,0)0 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- ville, Teun., July 24, 1866, loss, $l,0(jO,000. Cok's Armory, Hartford, burned, Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical College, N, Y., burned, May 21, 1&I36. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned Jan. 24, 1865 ; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. FLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. n. 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Renault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. FLORIDA, (p. 322.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 11, 1861, and seized the U, S. Navy Yard at Peiisacola. Population, 1860, 87,445, In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 186fi, 77,747 white ; 62,677 colored ; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, July 13, 1865. FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec, 23, 1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the ITnited States, gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. FRANCE, (p. 326,) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological Tables^ page 65 e< seq. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 63 GOVERNMEKT. NewEepiiWic proclaimed ; provi sional governmeiit ('^tablislled, Luinuriine at the head 1848 Louis Napoleon Boimparie diclar- ed Trcs. by Ibe Nai. Assembly, Dee. 19, 1848 Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French. Voti-s for ihe empire, 7,8;;9,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; null, 63,609 Nov. 21, 1852 The Emperor proclatmed.. Dec. 2, 1853 EmprtxH : Marik Eluenif. (a Spa- uiard), born Mi.y 5, 18.;6, married Jan. 29, 1853 I/eir : Napoleon-Eugenie-Louis- Jean Jo.-eph, boru....M:irch IG, 1858 IJeir pi-cNUiii/jtice, in default of Louis Napoieon's issue : Prince Jkkome Napoleon, a ud his heirs male FRANKFORT-OX-THE-MAIX. (p. 327.) The restricted diet of the Germanio Cont'ederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. Tlie plenipoten- tiaries of Austria, Bav.iria, Saxony, Hanover, Wnrtemberg, Meclilenburg, assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic Diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. FRANKIXG PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866. FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command ofH.M. Ships Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24-, 1845. His last despatches home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the British gov. in 1850 offered £iO,000 reward to any who miglit discover or assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them from England and the U. S., viz. : 1. H. M. Bhip Plover, Capt. Moore, Jnn. 1, 1848 2. Land Expedition under Sir J. Richardson and Dr. Rae,Mch.25, 1848 8. Sir Jas. Ross, in the Enterprise and Jiivestigator June 12, 1848 4. Capt. Coilinson and Coin. Mc- Clure sailed in same vessels June 20, 1850 5. Capt. Austin, in the lientlute, &c Apr. 25 1850 6. Capt 8. Penny and Steward, in the Lndi/ Franklin, &c Apr. 13, 1850 7. The Grinsell (Amer.) expedi- tion, under Ue Haven (Dr. Kane, Burgeon), in the Advitvce and Rescue May 25, 1850 8. Sir John Ross in the Felix, May 22, 1850 9. Sir Ewd. Belcher's exneditioa (5 vessels), Asbinlance, &c. Apr. 15, 1862 Lady Franklin fitted out the four next (private) expeditions, viz. : 10. The Prince Albert.... June b, 1850 11. The same vessel June 4, J 851 12. The Imbel, Com. Inglefield, Nov. 1852 13. The same vessel 1853 14. H. M. S. Itaitlemake Autc. 1853 15. Second American exptd. (Dr. Kane, in the A(ivance)...''iwD.e 1853 16. The Phani'X, and others under Capt. Ingletifld May, 1854 17. 3d American exped. (in senrch of Dr. Kane), Lieut. Hartstene, in the Release and si earner A'-nic May ol, 1855 19. The 18th British exp. equippid by Lady Franklin and friends, in the Fox, Capt. McCliiitock (found remains of the Fninkln Expedition), sa led Jiuy 1, 1857 20. 4ili. American exi)ed. ( n pe och of Po'ar sen), niider Dr. Tlaycs (surgeon to Kai.e exped.). sailed from Boston July. ISfiO Returned 1863 FREE TRADE, Principles advocated by Adam Smith in his " Wealth of Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the comn)ercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Mr. Richari Cdbden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, has been termed "The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the Briti.'^h exports have been tripled. In New York the advocates of Free Trade established a " League " in 1866 (V) Wm. Cullen Bryant, President; and a monthly periodical called the League was first issued May 1867. FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient onea 54 THE world's peogeess. exist in Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parlia ment, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Siinto, a cemetery at Pisa, execuied in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. FRONDE, Civil wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), duiing the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Muza- rin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were called Fro?ideurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., and passed, Sept., 1850. It imposes a fine of *1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was de- clared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864. GALAPAGOS. Islands on the coast of Ecuador (N. Pacific), ceded to the United States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other powers pro- testing against it. GALATiA. An ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3d century B. c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Helles- pont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked by Attains in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in w hat was called afterwards GallogrsB- cia and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire B. c. 25, on the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians was probably written a. d. 58. GAME LAWS (p. 330), have been enacted in several states for the protection of game during certain seasons, to prevent its entire destruction. GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, d), for which the seven first letters of the alphabet are now employed, is ascribed to Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. GAS (p. 332). Introduced in Boston, 1822 (?); New York, 1823 (N. Y. Gas Light Co.); now used in nearly every large town of the United States. Used in 43 towns of N, Y. State, 1860. Price in 1860 ranged from $1 50 per cu- bic foot in Pittsburg, Pa., to $7 in Belfast, Me., and other places. GAUL, Gallia. The ancient name of France and Beljrium. The natives were termed by the Greeks, Galatae, by the Romans, Galli or Celtae. They came originally from Asia, and invading eastern Europe, were driven westward and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymrior Gaeli). They gave great trouble to the rising Roman republic by their fre- quent invasions, 528 to 591 B. c. The Gauls under Brennus defeated the Romans and sacked Rome, but were expelled by Camillus, b. c. 390 Tliey overran Northern Greece, B. c. 280. Gaul invaded by Julius Caesar and subdued in eight campaigns, b. c. 58-50. Christianity introduced in Gaul, A. D. 16w. Franks and otiier invaders defeated by Aurelian, a. n. 241. Ju- lian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360. Invasion and settlement of Burgun- dians, Franks, Visigoths, &c., 406-450. Huns under Attila defeated near Chalons, 451. Paris taken by Childerick, the Frank, 464. Frank kingdom, established, 476. History of Gaul by Parke Godwin, pub. New York, 1860. GAUNTLET. An iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhap* SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 55 about 1225. It was a part of the full suit of armor, being the armor for the hand. It was comiiioiily throwu down as a challenge to an adversary. GAUZE. This fabric was much prized by the Roman people, iibout the begin- ning of the 1st century. "Brocades and duniasUs, and damasks and gauzes, have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — Dean iSiri/t, in lO'.lS. The manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric, at Paisley, in Scotland, where they maintain great repute, was commenced about 1759. GENEALOGY (from the Greek, genea, birth, descent). The art of tracing pedi- grees, A:c. The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, loth, and 11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many geneal- ogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many books on tlio subject have been published in all European countries: one at Magdeburg, Theatruni Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598; Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 173*2 ; Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1856, will be found a useful guide. The woiks of Collins (1756 et seq.\ Ed- mondson (17G4-Si), and Nicolas (1825), on the British peerage univers:dly esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, was established in 1858. The New England Hut. an I Genealogical iSoc, founded 184-, publishes a quarterly magazine O'.i those subjects. A volume called American Genealogies, publish- ed in Albany, 1855, and numerous private publications of family genealogies, have been printed in New England. Savage's Genealogical Hist, of N. Eng- land. 4 vols. 8vo., Bost. 186U-1. GENOA (N. Italy), (p 333.) April, 1849, the city was seized by insurgents, who, after a miuderoua struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a republic, but soon after surrendered to General Maiinora. Genoa warmly supported its sovereign, Victor Emanuel, in the struggle with Austria (1859), and furnished many volunteers for Garibaldi's demonstration on Naples. 186i». GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The Am. Geographical and Statistical Society was incor- porated April 3, 1852, at N. Y. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly ot original papers. GEOLOGY Works on, U. S. " Geology of the Globe " by Prof. E. Hitchcock, ls5;;. Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. " Text-book of Geology," Prof. Dana, 1863. Besides these text-books there are many treatises and reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the country, such as Prof. Hall's Geology of New York; Owen's, of Indiana; Per- cival's, of Wisconsin ; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts ; each in quarto volumes. GEORGIA. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves), 1,057,286. Act of ''secession" passed Jan. 19, 1861. The state was occupied by Sherman's army in his great march, and Savannah surrendered to him Dec, 1864. Debt of the state in Oct., 1866, $5,706,5* 0. Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Russia, near the Ciiucasus, submitted to Alexander, 323 b. c, but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by Pompey, 65 B. c, but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was intro- duced into it in the 3d century. In the 8th ceiiturv, after a severe struggle, Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 10G8; and by the Tartar hordes, 12;55. From the 14th to the 18th centmies, Geoigia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part ot Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler, Heradius, surrendered his teriitoiies to the czar iu 1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. GERMANY, (p. 335.) 6G THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. German National Assembly elected the King of Prussia empiTor of G-firaany, (but de- clined) March 28, 1849 Treaty between Austria and Prustiia Stpl. 30, 1849 Treaty of Muuich betw. Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtembur<<. Feb 27, 1850 German Confederation Assem- bly, at Frankfort Sept. 2, 1850 Austrian and Bavarian demon- stration against Hesse-Cassil, Nov. 1,1850 See Austria, Fncssia^ Hanover^ &c. Conference at Dresden, for set- tling German affairs. Dec. 1850 to May, 18^1 Great excitement throughout Germany in regard to French BUcciBses ill Lombardy I appre- hension of French designs on German territory... May-June, 1853 Meeting of new Liberal Party at Eisenach, in Saxe-Weimar, proposing a strong central gov't., (no practical results). Aug. 14, 1859 GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July, 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn. near the Maryland line. Uuion forces 60,000 and 200 guns; Confederate about 80,000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps, (U. S. forces) were at- tacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy : Maj.-Gen. Reynolds (U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th 3d and 2d corps came up, and the whole under command of General Meade formed line on Cemetery Ridge. No fighting until 4 P. M., when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the rebels, and tierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of the Union army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when the enemy retired. On the third day the sanie furious charging and stubborn resistance was continued The Union army bravely held its ground, and at night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,709 wounded, 6,643 missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, tiie rebels lost 3 guns, 41 standards, 13,621 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed and wounded. Over 6,000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical period. GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scien- tific ghosts in March, 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. GIRONDISTS. The name of a party, which played an impoitaut part in the French Revolution, and was principully composed of deputies from the depart- ment of the Gironde. At first they were ardent lepublicans, but after the cruelty of Aug. and Sept., 1792, they labored strenuously to restrain the cru- elties of the Mountain party, to whom they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergmand, and many others were guillotined, Oct. 13, 1793, at the instigation of Robespieire. Lamartine's eloquent " Histoire des Girondins," published in 1847, tended to hasten the revolution of 1848. GLASGOW, Scotland, (p. 337.) Erected into a burgh, a. d. 1180. Its pros- perity dates from the union of the kingdoms in 1707, and was much increased by American trade. Population in I7u7, about 12,000; in 1861, 394,857. GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying ohve oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine and the arts. GNOSTICS (from the Greek, gnosis, knowledge). " Heretics," who appeared from the first rise of Chvistiauity, and who endeavored to combine the simple principles of the Gospel with the Platonic and the other philosophies. They SUPPLEMENT, 1851-G7. 57 were so culled because they pretended to extr.ioniinary illnniinaiions and kiiowli'figi'. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Tievos as a lareiic, in 384, fur endeavoring to revive Gno^;Iicisnl. GOLD MINES, (p 339.) On April 28, 18f.8, a nugget from Australia, paid to woigli 1-16 poiindi;, was shown to Queen Victoria. In 1858, gold was discov- ered in what is now termed New Columbia, British America. Said to have been fouud in Vermont, 1859. Australia j)! oduced as follows : 1851. 1852. 1856. 1857. £907,000 £9,735,000 £12,740,000 £11,764,000 GOLD AND SILVER, (p. 339.) Chevalier estimated the total Hnioimt of gold and sliver existing in various forms in 1848, at 8,500 millions of dollars, of which one-third was supposed to be gold. The annual gold product from 18C0 to 1850, was 16 millions of dollars. The U. S. Mint received 41 millions in 1858, all but $400,000 being from California. The exports of gold from the U. S. iu recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars). 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. U. 'I9h. 42^. 27i. 41. 56. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66|. 28, 36. 63. 69. 64. 86. GORGET. The ancient breastplaie, or gorget, was veiy large, and extended to the body and limbs of the warrior or knight, as armor ; but its size and weight varied at dift'erent periods. The present modern diminutive breastplate was in use at the period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after. GORILLA. A large ape of West Africa, in anatomical structure the nearest ap- proach to man of any known animal. It is a match for the lion, and attacUs the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the hairy peo- ple called Gorullai, by the navigator Hanno, in his Feriplus, about b. c. 400 or 500. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a li\ ing one died on its voyage to France. In 1859, Prof. Owen discoursed on Goril- las. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Du Chaillu in his Afiican adven- tures, 1860-1, killed 21 of them, and exhibited some of their skulls in London and the U. S. GRANADA. A renowned city of Spain ; was subdued by the Moors in the 10th century, and formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. l-i36, Mohammod- al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous till its subjugation by the great captain Gousalvo de Cordova, in I4y2. In 1609-10, the useiul and industrious Moors were expelled from Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada was taken by Maishal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. GREECE, (p. 343.) Ilarbdr of Piraeua blockaded by British fleet under Admiral Paiker, to enforce some mer- Ciintile claini!^ Jan. 18, 1850 The dispute settled Aprilig, 1850 Eupture between Greeco and Turkey March 18,1854 Olympic gainer i roposed to be revived Oct. 1858 The iiatioual ai-sembiy elects M. Balbis president, Jan. 29: and declares I in ( o Alfred of Eng- land elected Kinir of Greece, by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes. Fib. 3, 1863 Military revolt of Lieut. Canards against Bulgnris and otliere, who resign, Feb. 20 ; the as- sembly api^oint a new miidstry under Balbis Feb. 23, 1863 The jissembly decides* to ofier the crown to Prii ce "William of Schleswig-Holstein, Miirch 18, and proclaim Lim as Kine George 1 March lo, 1863 Military revolt at Athens, sii]- pre^sed Jui e 30, July 9, 1S63 Tlie King arrives at Athens, Oct. 30 ; takes the oath to the con- stiiution Oct. 31, 1863 " GREENBACKS," U. S. A term given to legal-tender notes issued by the U. S. Tieasury, in 1862. So called on account of the green print on their backs. All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint 58 is tht\t it cannot be photocfraphed or in any way counterfeited. It was first dis- covered by a Canadian. The " American Bank Note Company" print the notes. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, near London, built in reign of Charles II. The "Astronomers Roval," who have superintended astronomical observations here, were Flamsteed, 1675; Halley, 1719; Bnidley, 1742; Maskelyne, 1764: ; John Pond, 1811 ; Geo, B. Airy (the present A. R."), 1835. GUANO, OR HUANO. (The Peruvian term for manure.) The excrement of sea- birds that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This sub- stance is found chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying off the coasts of Porn and Bolivia. Humboldt was one of the tirst by whom it wag carried to Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture. — McCulloch, It is also found on Jarvis's, Baker's, and Howland's islands, on the Pacilic coast, from which it is brought by thc3 American Guano Co., of New York, who im- ported in 1858, 15,000 tons", and exported in 1860, no less than 100,000 tons. In 1857, the U. S. injportcd 213,000 tons, and Great Biitain, 205,000 tono. In 1864, 4,131,358 tons. GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America; declared independent 1821 President (1859), General Cari-era, elected 1851. It is the most populous of five states of Cent. Amer., having 971,450 in 1851. GUIANA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 16tb, century ; explored by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French set- tlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain in 1814. GUN-COTTON, A highly inflammable and explosive substance, discovered by Professor Schonbeiu, of Basil, and made known by him in 1846. It is, to all ap- pearance, common cotton wool, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture composed of equal parts of nitric and suphuric acid and afterwards dried. Dr. Boettenger and others also lay claim to the discovery. GUNTER'S SCALE. Invented by Edmund Gunter, an English mathematician, who died 1626. GUTTA PERCHx^, is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European commerce. In that year two cwt. were shipped experimentally from Singa- pore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.); in 184^5, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the firstfourand ahalf years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at |274,19i), were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which was sent to England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thou- sands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brook- lyn, K Y., first applied it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of • Newark, N. J., claims to have applied it thus at the same time or before. Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited in New York, 1858. GYROSCOPE. (From gyrare, to revolve.) The name of a new, popular, rotatorj SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 59 apparatus, invented by Fessel, of Cologne (1853), since improved by Professor Wheitstone, and Mr. Foucault, ofParis. It is shniliar in appeaiaiice to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger, of Tiibingeu (born 1765, died 1831). Tlic gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and contripital Ibrces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either. It thus illustraten the great law of gravitation. H. HAARLEM. An ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland ; was taken by the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven raonilis. He viohited the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was drained in 184:9-51. HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the U. S. provides that this law (adopt- ed from that of England) " shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebel- lion op- invasion the public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April 27, 1861. In Sept. 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by miUtary authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas corpus, to "continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863. C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congx-ess, being arrested for disloyal ut- terances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines, May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathizers in the country. HAXOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This state was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will. HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shen- andoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of "John Brown's raid." On Oct. 17, 1859, he with 16 white and five colored men seized the U. S. arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisioners, and gave out as his object "to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the 18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This af- lair created intense excitement througiiout the country. At the breaking out of the rebeUion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861. Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U.S. troops surrender to "Stonewall Jackson," at Harper's Ferry. In 1867 it was decided not to re-establish the arsenal there. HARVARD COLLEGE, U. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denom- ination, Unitarian. In 1863, it had 44 instrucrors ; 814 students in all depart- ments; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and endowments, over .$2,000,0: »0. Annual expenses of the University, $13\0;)0. Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President : Rev. Thomas Hill, D. D. HAYTI. (p. 250.) Faustin I, deposed Dec. 25, 1858, and Gen. Geffrard made President of the Republic of Hayti. HEALTH, Board of, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb. 26, 1866, establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preser- vation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organ- ized March 5, 1866; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district iiicludea the counties of New York, Kings, Westchester, Richmond and part of Queens. 60 First annual report Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring nuisances to be removed. Death rate in Xew York city, 1 in 33.33 ; in London, 1 in 45. HELLENES. The Greek race which supplnnted the Pelasgians from the 15th to 11th cent. B.C., derived their name from HcUen, king of PhLhiotis, about b.c 1600. From them came the Dorians, .^olians, lonians, and Achaeans. HELVETH. A Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Swit- zerland. The " Helvetian llepublic " was established iu Switzerland, in 1*798. HERCULANEUM. (p. 352.) The Antichita di Ercolano. 8 vols, folio, publish- ed by Xeapolitan government, 1757-92. HESSIAN FLY. This plague to 'agriculturists was introduced in this country by the foreign mercenaries ou Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the forage of their horses. HIPPOPOTAMUS (p. 327) (Greek, river horse). A native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by Comniodus, and others;, about a. d. 138. The first in England, in 1850, is now in the Zoological Gardens, London ; another, (a female, four months old), was placed thtie in 1854. Two young ones, born at Paris, in May, 1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb. 10, 1809. It now numbers nearly 2,000 members. After occupying rooms many years in the New York Uni- versity Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire-proof building on 2d avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated, Nov. 17, of that year. The society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes, particularly rich in historical works and manuscripts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection of antiquiues, coins, medals and charts. Among its collections are a series of large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The Massachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791,. is limited to fifty members. This society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books in English literature, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas Dowse, of Cam- bridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in the country. The Massachusetts Historical Society has published about 30 vols, of transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies also in nearly every state in the Union, several of which have valuable col- lections, and have published transactions. HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists iu the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fundamental priti- ciple being similia similibns curmdur — was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The first periodical organ of the system was established 1822. Although violently attacked and ridiculed by " allopathic " practitioners the system was practised in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Eurojie, and 2,500 in the United States. It has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S., and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany. (1861.) An attempt to establish a State Homoeopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was stren- uously opposed (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allow- ing the Homceopathists certain rights in the hospitals. HONDURAS. One of the republics of Central America {which see). Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, general J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 1864. Population, Abyssinian 3,000,000 Papuan 3003,000 Negrillo 3,000,000 Australian 500,000 Hottentot 500,000 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 61 about ?;50,000 (1860). British Honduras, Central Amftrica, was settled b^ English IVoni Jamaica soon after a treary with Spain in 1667. They weio often disturbed by the Spaniards and sonioiinies expelled, till 1783. Balize or Bt'lize, the capital is the great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the population was 25,635, and the revenue £35,757. HONG-KONG. An islaud off" the coast of China. The British under Capt. Elliott took possession of it in 1839 ; founded the chief town, Victoria, in 1842; made it a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring was governor Iroiu 1854 to 1859. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY of London. Founded 1804, Publishes annual volumes of transactions ; has had annual exhibitions since 1831. HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, are as follows : White 850,000,000 Mongolian 300 000,000 Malayan 120,00' ',000 Telingan 60,000,000 Negro 55,000,000 Ethiopian 5,000,000 HUNGARY. (See p. 359.) Kossuth, Bern, &c.. escape to the Turkish frontiers, aud are placed under the protection of Turkey, at New Orsova, (Sea Turkey-) Aug. 21, 1849 Komorn snrrenders to the Aus- triaue ; close of the war. .Sep 27 1849 Baithyani tried at Pesth, and shot ; many other insurgent chiefs put to death Oct. 6, 1849 Amnesty granted to the Hun- garian insurgents, who return home Oct. 16, 1849 HYDROGEN (from hydor^ water), under the name of combustible air was ob- tained by Paracelsus in the 16th century, In 1766, Cavendish described i-s properties ; and, in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the combination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One volume of oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. Hydrogen is never found in the free state. Gmelin. HYDROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases by water, commonly called the cold water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vincenz Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered as its founder, the rational part of the doctrine was understood and maintained by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. Braiide, Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estal)- lishment in U. S., at 63 Barclay St., N. Y., 1844. Those at Nesv Lebanon, N. Y., and Brattleboro, Yt., opened 1845. Bern dies at Aleppo, ....Dec. 10, 1850 The country remains in an un- settled state , many executions 1853-5 Crown of St. Stephen and royal ins gnia discovered and sent to Vienna Sept. 8, 1853 Amnesty for polit.cul oflenders of 1S48-9 July 12, 1856 The Emperor of Austria crowned king of Hungary, with great pomp June, 1867 Kossuth elected to Hungarian Parliament July,1867 ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who .^hipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 156,540 tons. 62 THE world's pkogeess. In New York in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up. The exports of Ice from 186i) to 18(36, avoragfcd about 48,0u0 tons. During the four years ending June 30, 1861, §712,000 wortii was exi)orud from the U. S. In 1856, §S,O()0,i^O.j were invested in tlie ice trade, giving employment to 8,' 00 or lo,000 men. Ice is not subject to duty in the U. S. 6oO,uOO tons were provided for the consumption of N. Y. city in 1867. ICHTHYOLOGY. The science of fish. Eminent writers are WiMoughby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Fislies" (1836- 69), is a classical work. ICONOCLASTS (image- breakers). The controversy respecting images (which had been introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300), was begun about 726, and occasioned many insurrections in the Eastern Em- pire. Leo Isauricas published two edicts for demolishing images in churches in that year, and enforced them with great rigor in 736. The defenders of images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 78u. This schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. The- ophilus banished all the painters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated in 869. This controversy led to the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. In the contests between the Iconoclasts and their opponents, thousands perished. Many images in churches -were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the civil war, 1641-8. IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square miles. Population in 1864 about 24,()00. This territory has been settled rapidly by adventurers and gold seekers, within the past few years (1867). Boise City is the capital. Estimated product of gold and silver in 1865, §7,000,000. IDES. In the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in March, May, July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these four, it was six days before the nones, and in the other months, four days. The Ide of March wms the day on which Julius Cassar was assassinated in the senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other conspirators, 44 b. c. IDIOTS, Education of. The first efforts for the education of idiots in America, were in 1889. In that year, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in New York received a mute boy, who was instructed for three years, by I^rofessor Morris, with favorable results. The same year, Dr. Howe of Boston treated and greatly improved a blind idiotic child, and afterwards two others. Two or three children were also under instruction at the American Asylum at Hart- ford before 1848. ILLINOIS, U. S. Population in 1850,851,470; in 1860,1,691,233, Increase 1840-50, 80 per cent. ; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population in 1865, 2,151,007 ; giiin since 1860 of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, §391, 683,284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863, the State placed in the field 119,40.) men. Amount expended for school purposes in 1861, $2,007,000. Number of schools 9,811. There are in the State, 1 institution for deaf mutes, 1 for the insane, 1 for the blind. IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In 18C0 they amounted to $362,000,000; in 1862 |2i 15,000,000 ; in 1865 $234, 000,000 ;' in 1806, $437,s. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost eftbrtsof their officers, fled in dis- graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. In March, 1862, when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall '* Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated McClellan before Richmond, 'June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of Washington on Sept, 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the authority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas- 72 THE world's progress. cuSj and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Diuses in 1860, and some accounts make the Marouites the original aggrosfors. Maroons, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again look arms, but were speedily put down and transported to Nova Scotia. JBrande. They were also sent to Sierra Leone ; and many of them are among the Dutch of Surinam. MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. MARPJAGE. (p. 414.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in 1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96.883 1850 was 152.744 1800 ♦* 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrar.-*' returns, that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the marriage rt gister with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceaned wife's sister, without success. A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected by the Lords, July 23 following. MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the circumstance of some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when it was little known there, in 1792. Brande. . MARYLAND, (p. 415.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including 74,728 free colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 year.-!, U per cent.; decrease oi slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- tempts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the *' Con- federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479. MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population. In 1860 the population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 1,267,329. MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun- dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about |1, 000,000. * In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 243,fi74 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, vhich are very minute and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456; bachelors a'?.d widows^ 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; "widowers and widows, 222. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. IS MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical schools and colleges iu the U. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1765. MEDICI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy; were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re- called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled " the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. Moscoe. From 1569 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany. MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, (" of which the very ruins are stupendous ;") is said to have been built by Menes, 3890 b. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 b. c. It was erected by Alexander, 332 b. c. ; and restored by Septimus Severus, a. d. 202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b. c, began, and the founding of Alex- andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis. MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th centurv, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe and embraced ruany communities ; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched off. MENU Institutes of. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans- lated' them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 962 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b. c). Haughton's translation appeared in 1825. MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-752. MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburo-. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766 ; con- tending, by "a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused through' the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro- selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government at length appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it.* METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- nese as early as 644 b. c. ; bv Greeks and Romans (a few only) ; by Kepler (1623), Halley, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 1719, 1783, 1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c., July 20, 1 860. Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof. Olmstead of New Haven. METHODISTS, (p. 422.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at Baltimore, 1784, Wesley sanctioning it as the " Meth. Episcopal Church of America." Introduced in S. Carohna and Georgia, 1 785. Secession of Anti- • In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbishop Whately being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vxoe presidents. 74 THE wokld's peogress. Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the ' "Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1844. The northern branch had iu 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The "M. E. Church South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124, 811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership was 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges and 27 high schools for females ; and a publishing house at Nashville which issued 6ij0 million pages in 5 years. The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers. No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000; number of churches, 11,638; ministers, 10,911. MEXICO, (p. 423.) Herrera, president, 1848 ; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15, 1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, Jan. 1854 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 days. Alvarez made president by a junta, but after a few weeks resigned in favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, March, 1856. New constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zilloaga to the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to'Yera Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the " Constitutional president." Zu- loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke of Austria, who accepted it ; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864 ; defeated the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by whose assistance Mnximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with- drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximilian in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed in Mexico for years, and Maixmiliau's object was to reduce the country to order under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty. City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman Catholic Church, under the title of "St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- ing to Butler, was a. d. 487. MICHIGAN, (p. 423.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 1840-50, 87 per cent.; 1850-60, 89 per cent.; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to the army in 1861-5, 90,119. MILITIA, (p. 424.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri. mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. TJ. S. The mili- tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,090,109 men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 75 4 more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers in the war are exempt from duty for a certain period ; in Conn, lor 3 years. MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814. The provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by tiie Mincio. MINES, (p. 425.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 18G0, after nearly 12 years' labor. Tiie shaft is 68()-| yards; deep, and its sinking cost eorae §^500,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8^ in. thick, and is calculated to yield 500 tons a day for 30 yea is. The shaft is 12|- feet in diameter, and near the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. U. S. The famous Hayward gold mine, in Amadon county, California, extends 1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $'7,000,000 have been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies irom 500 to 1,000 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly $150,000,000. MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and with various modifications by the British army in 1852. MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1857. Population, 1850, 6,0'77 ; 1860, 176,535 ; 1865, 248,848. A terrible Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre- dations extended over an area of 20,000 square miles in the western part of the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. MINT. (p. 426.) In England, first regulated by Athelstau, about a. d. 928. See Coinage. MIRRORS, (p. 427.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as follows : North America, 125 ; South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218; Northern Africa, 6 ; West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 419; Burmah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860). Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 50(),000 persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic. The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, for 18o7, from all parts of the globe, amounted to $838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, $284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, $73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent was about $32,- 000. It is stated that Protestants in the U. S. alone, give more for foreign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of Catholics in all parts of tne world. *IQ THE world's PROGEESS. MISSISSIPPI, (p. 426.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) Population 1850, ()06,326 ; 18G0, 836,658; increase from 1840 to 1850,61 per cent. The Htcral translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it '■'■Missoissippy /" Hennepin " Mettchasipi.^^ Sape is river, running water; the prefix means " ^rea^, " " ii^'. " "Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. passed Jan. 9, 1861. Wm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the pardon of Jefferson Davis, -A.ug., 1865. MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1856 911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 1 201,214, including 115,619 slaves. Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession^ but they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United States and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, $678,660. MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. NorthoucJc. MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sura of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- ject to the English. MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantino (a. d. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died a. d. 456. He is said to have lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, about a. d. 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are so many varieties of Bene- dictines. MOXROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. Upon thi=? doctrine the U. S. protested against the establishment of French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, Avhere Lannes defeated the Austrians June 9, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lost about 700, including general Beuret. MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was con- quered by Solyraan II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and establish SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 11 ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, enduied, but not recognized by the Porte. MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. MONTI DI PIETA, charit;ible institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Fitle were not established in France till 1*777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroker^ p. 464. MONUiMENT of LONDON, begun in a. d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The pedestal is lorty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost about £14,500. MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- feated by the Swiss, June '20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bonea of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place. MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 5,760 members. MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was made Governor by Pres. Fillmure in 1850, The U. S. chief justice being repu- diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned. Col, Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- pointed govei-nor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred Cummings appointed gov. by Pres, Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. troops, Oct. 6. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially among the Waldeiises ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smitli, was really written by Rev. Sol, Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co,, Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormons has been estimated as high as 100,000; and some are reported in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints," Their church organ- ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C, Kimball, and Daniel H, Wells; next the Twelve Apostles; then the quorums of Seven- ties, of which tiiere are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, Priests, Teachers, and Deacons, A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa- triarch, wliich has been conferred on John Smith (.-on of Hy rum and nephew of their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {Naiional Almanac.) Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com 78 THE woeld's pkogeess. plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg* iiiient from all the Northern States during the war. This record shows that 28U,'751 officers and men lost their lives in tlie service; of whom 5,221 com- missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died of disease. MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The ludinns inhabiting this coast have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- nanted not to " occupy or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any do- minion over any part of Central America." MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased for the nation for the sum of $;200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany, was founded, it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1*741, and 1743; and by the French, under Moreau, July 2, 1800. Munich abounds in schools, institu- tions and manufactories. The University was ibunded bv king Louis in 1826. MURFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between the U. S. troops under Rosencrans and the Rebels under Bragg, iJcc. 80, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad- ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe appeared in New York, under Signor Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, his daughter, met with gieat success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in all laige towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,01^0,000 worth of Pianos are man- ufactured yearly. See Fianos. NAPLES (p. 434). Amartial ana rchy prevails Dec, 1849 The chiefs of the'^Liberal Party arrest- ed in 1S49 Bettembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, at'ier a mock trial, are con- demned, aid consigned to horrible dungeons for life June, 1850 After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical government (May), the English and French am lias' a- d;rs ave'withdniwn Oct 28, 1856 Attcmpttd assassination of the king by Milans Dec, 1856 The Cu,000, or 43 ** Italy 760,000,001), or 34 " Spain $725,000,000, or $46 per head. Holland 425,0(l0,00ii, or 121 " Tiukey 255,00(1 000, or 115 •♦ Prussia 215,000,000, or 12 •* Portuaal 175,000,000, or 40 ** Groat Brit liu's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. United States. At different times : See Zoaws. In 1791 ihe debt was 175,463,476 In i 800 " " 82.976,294 In 1810 " " 53;i7:;,217 In 1816 ♦* " 127,3S4,9:34 In 1820 " " 9- ,01.5,566 Jan. 1 , ] 865. it was 6(3,243,721 Dec. 1, 1S61 " 267,654,153 Jan. 1, 1863 " 764,535,854 Dec. 1, 1863 " 1,293,243,544 Feb. 13, 1865 «« 2,279.5^2,484 In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406 In 1835 '* " 37,733 In 1845 « « 16,801,647 Inl848 " " 65,804,450 Aug. 31, 1865 it was 2,757.689,571 (It reached its highest figure at this date.) Jan. 1,1866 it was ....'. 2,716,581,536 Nov. 1, 1866 " 2,551,31«t,005 May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096 Sept. 1867 " 2.500.000,000 NATURALIZATION Laws, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to establish " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- ralized. NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, feathers, &c.. into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies tit for printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and in the same year Dr. Branson suirgested the application of electrotyping to the impression.^. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressioiia of agates a"d fossils. The first practical application of this process in England was m "The Eerus of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley. 80 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidencj of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy, During the wur it was removed to Newport, R. I. It has since been re-established at Annapolis. NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of Secession : Fort Sumter, S. C, five disabled, the fort receiving no great injury. April 7, 1862 The Confed. ram Albemarle at- tacks U. S. gunboats at Plymouth, N. C, sinks one, and disperses the rest April 19, 1864 Brilliant engagement off Cher- bourg, France, between U. S. gunboat "Kearsarge," and Con- fed, privateer "Alabama." The latter sunk in two hours June 19, 1864 Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, silencing the forts, and capturing two heavy ironclads. One U. S. Monitor sunk by a torpedo. . . .Aug. 5, 1864 Gunboat fight near Memphis, Tenn. The Union fleet com- pletely routed the enemy's, cap- turing 3 and disabling 4 of their vessels June 6, 1864 Formidable fleet of ironclads and frigates with 300 guns, under Admiral Porter, attack Fort Fisher, N. C. Under cover of the terrible fire, land forces storm and capture the fort.... Jan. 15, 1865 For li>;tof miiiOr engagements, see Greeley's '■'■ Amer. Confiici^'' VoL IL The Confederate forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet of Com. Stringham, and taken by land forces of Gen. Butler. Aug. 28, 29, 1861 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com. Foote Feb. 6, 1862 Great naval action in Hampton Koads,Va.,March8,9,1862. The Confed. ram Merrimac from Nor- folk, attacks the U. S. frigates "Cumberland" and " Congress,'* and sinks them. On the follow- ing day the U. S. "Monitor" (battery of 2 guns), arrived in time to save the frigate Minneso- ta, and finally forced the Merri- mac to withdraw in a disabled condition. Com. Farragut, with a fleet of 50 vessels and 2i;6 guns, passes forts Jackson and Philip?, destroys the enemy's rams, and takes New Or- leans April 18, 26, 1862 Grand military and naval expedi- tion, under Dupont, captures forts at Hilton Head, d. C Nov. 7, 1861 Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss. Admiral Farragut, in attempting to pass the batteries, loses his flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 Combined attack of ironclads upon NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 440). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 saihng ves- sels, carrying 9,594 guns ; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns ; also 155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service. NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 440) has been greatly increased by the present empe- ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 saihng vessels and 37 steamers), and S98 other vessels, in all 449. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p. 489). In 1860 consisted of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re- ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In ,1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing $18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 13,600. NEBRASKA, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 81 about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians. Admitted into the Union, March 1st, 1867. NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1S61. Capital, Carson City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, 1S(50, 50,568, of whom 16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted aa a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer- ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States, NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 441). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072; increase, 3 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. NEW JERSEY (p. 442). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 rears, 35 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the ai-my in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 1865, 773,700. NEWSPAPERS (p. 445). Some of the chief dailies : N. Y. Herald founded 1835 jTiraes 1850 j Evenms: Post 1801 Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | Commercial Adverti8er.l797 Washington Intelligencer. . , ♦ ,1801 In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In 1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office. ESTABLISHMEKT OP THE PHESENT PEINCIPAI, XONDON NEWSPAPERS. Daily. Times 1788 I standard 1827 PuHic Lerlger 1759 MorniDg Chronicle 1770 Morning Post 1772 Morning Htrald 1781 | Globe 1803 | Morning Star.'. 1S56 Sun ...1792 Daily News 1846 Morning Advertii-er. .1803 | Daily Telegraph 1855 Weekly. Observer 1792 Bell's Messenger 1796 Weekly Dispatcli 1801 Examiner 1808 Literary Gazette 1817 John Bull 1820 Bell's Lif'> in London. 1820 Sunday Times 1822 Atlas 1826 Athenseum 1828 Spectator 1828 Illustr'd London Newsl812 Lloyd's Weeklv Paper.l8J2 News of the World 1843 Economist 18 J3 Leader 1 850 Pl•ej^8 1853 Saturday Review IbJ- NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 184S. Organized as a territory, 1850. Capital, Santa Ee. Populatiou in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal Indians. NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 444.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the " Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it stands. Founded bv the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1803. Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,. 800 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleaus surrendered to the 6 82 THE world's peogeess. U. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land forces commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 18G-2. The misrepresentations aa to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by Haydn (p. 513), and believed in England, have been long since exploded. Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 18G3. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864. Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the "Radical Conven- tion," July, 18G6. NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. In 1865 it was re-established at Annapolis. NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten years, 24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621, Pupils in public schools, 851,- 533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,507 (1860). Population in 1865, 3,831,'7'77 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 583,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State — principally a re- sult of the war — was 137,980. It seat 473,443 troops to the war. Number of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,873. City of. Population in 1850, 514,547 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula- tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $5l,000,OuO. Value of real and personal property in 1S65, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efibrts of the con- federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to m,arry any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov, 5 ; they rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war: a fund was raised in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to £44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. NINEVEH, The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see AnHyria), founded by Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B. c. Abbe Lenglet. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b, c), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b, c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries hn;? not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83 before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the sculptures brought to Englaud and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy- rian god Nisroch (from JVisr, an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b. c. 2 Kings xix. 37. In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. A coUeciion of bas- reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) KITROGEX OR Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirablc ele- mentary gas. Before 1777 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost simultaneously vs^ith Lavoi.^ier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- sion " null and void " Oct. 7, 1865. NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 448.) The honor of actually effecting the north- west passage was achieved by Capt. McClure, in the British ship Investigator, which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. Collinson, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty chart showing the discovery published 1853. NO VARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the king Cliarles Albert and the Sardinian army. The contest began at 10 a. m. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the Sardinians lost between 8,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king (1867). NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c, when Numidia became a Roman province. NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introduction to the science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell, Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad. OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof E. Loomis. In 1840, 84 one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at West Point, foi the U, S. Milkary Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas« sed Congress, Aug., 1842. In 1844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss. U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. Capt. Gilliss appointed in 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Misa Mitchel. OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered Ohio. Population in 1860, 2,37*7, 917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5,317,133. In 1866 there were erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,889,1300, 4,850 houses, 1,168 barns, 78 mills, 311 factories. OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville, Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley of Oil Creek, Pa.; SOnO barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. In 1862, $60,000,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan, 1862, the price of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10 ; in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the petroleum fever had greatly diminished. OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 452). In 1858, M, Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. OMNIBUSES (p. 452). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- buses with 204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 down the city. OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs, of opium were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending every year. The duty on opium is $2.50 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok- ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5), OREGON (p. 455). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. ORGANS (p. 455). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- mental performers. The largest organ in the U, S. is that in the Music Hall at SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 85 Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecher's church at Brooldyn, 1866. OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (West- ern Goths) about a. d, 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &e., their great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. OUDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the Great Mogul. On tlie dismemberment of his empire about 1760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal lamily. YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez^ hear ye ! The term used by a public crier in law courts, &c., to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the date not known. OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 was valued at 820,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 wortli was distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conu., is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schonbein has since discovered another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone. PAINTING, IN THE U. S. (p. 458.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New York, historical painters. More recently, Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in laud- scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscape paint- ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the works of Church, Bierstadt, Gifford, and others have won fame and honor beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hist, of Fine Arts, etc. PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol- ogy, Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, may be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The Palasontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the author of an elaborate work on the Palasontology of New York. A Professor, ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by Geo. Peabody, Esq. PALESTINE. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. in 1516. PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. Anew State, named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- ident (1860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855. PAPER. The manufacture of printing and v/riting papers in the United States 86 THE world's PEOGKESS. has been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- ted at $20,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. 3Iass. manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in 1865, 11 ; value of stock $5,381, 671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for making paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging, cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canes and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- ducing 280,000,000 lbs., w^hich at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000. The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United States, for the year 1865-66 gives the following results: Total income of ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- tion reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of $314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,070,000; United States, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the U. S. was $238,677,218. PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as great in 1P"6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated ; (from I7yv» to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296) : rears. 1843... 1850 Applied for. 819 2193 Granted. 531 .. 995 Years. 1857 1S5S Applied for. 4771 5364 Granted. 2710 3710 1855... 1856... 44:35 4960 2024 2910 1859.. .. 6225 4538 The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859. Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign appUcants, No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378. Expenditure $189,803. PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St.: in 1859 it was extended to 110th st., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2^ miles long, •J mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 142 acres is occupied by the tw^o Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) were follow- ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap- pointment of Mr. F, L. Olmstead as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief." Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3500 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 87 persons have been employerl to this time (1867) under the general direction of conmiissioners appointed by tlie Lcjrislature. A park oi' about cfiuil extent to the " Central Park," is projected but not vet (1867) conipleiod lor the City of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860, The " Common " at Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- closures in the world. PAPIER MACH:6. This manuf\icttire (of paper pulp combined with gum and sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuft-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier mache is now largely employed in ornament- ing the interior of buildings, kc. PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright. PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and conquered by Alvarez Nufiez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who establislied an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. Francia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present (1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185-. PARSEES, the followers ofZerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai ISaoroji, a Parsee merchant, has been several years professor of Gujerali at University college, London. PARIS, (p. 461.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon, 1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug, 24, 1855, the first visit of an English sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The great Ex- position of 1867, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- riiis, archbishop of Canterbury, a. d. 636. The parishes of England and Wales now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a. n. 1538 PARLIAMENT, (p. 462.) The Peers took possession of their house, tlat porlion of the palace being ready April 15, 1847 The memhers of the Commons' House of Parliament assem- bled in their new house Nov.4, 1852 Baron L. Rothschild, tlie tii-st Jew admitted July 26,1858 PARMA, (p. 462.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, and established a provisional government, May 3 ; the duchess-n-gent retired to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to qtiit one country or enter another without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system Avas some- what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced i'lom 88 THE 6s. to 6d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in Sweden in 1860; and (with regard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June 26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863; and are falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States dnring part of the war of 1861-4. PASSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1552. By this pacification the Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662 the cathedral and greatest part of the town were consumed by fire. PAWNBROKERS, (p. 464.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- ent street of bankers in London. Tlioy have been humorously described as meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would never be redeemed. PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gave £150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, 1867. PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found- ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright, Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. PELASGL The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 19oO b. c. and in Italy about 1600 B. c. They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, -^Eolians, and lonians; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279; and by Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793 ; surrendered to the allied Enghsh and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their payment, $1,1&:^>,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860, In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, S300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, $13,459»996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866). SUPPEMENT, 1851-67. 88 PENNSYLVANIA. Populatioa in 1860, 2,906,115. Number of common schools in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers ibr the war. It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having been made by the legislature to support such. PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con* version of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £7 4s ; now the commonest pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are now made to a large extent in the \5. S. PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. PERU. tiaries from Chili and other states meet to concert measures for de- fencp atjainst European powers.. No v. 1564 Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re- stored Feb. 3, 1865 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 2S ; 8e%-eral provinces soon lost.. May 1865 The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes president Nov. 1865 Marshal San Ramon president, Oct. 24, 1862 General J. A. Pezet president, April 3, 1863 The Spanish ndmiral Pizon took possession of the Cbincha isles (valuable for guano), belonging to Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the claim of hisgovernment ontliatof Pern was" satisfied April 24, 1864 Congress at Lima : plenipoten- PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 b. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, • Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal soldiers was afterwards indemnified. PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be- gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In 1837, there were presented to parUament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 24,886, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This riglit defended by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented a petition for dissolution of the Union. PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now termed " Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this country, and many accidents having taUen place through its inflammability at I'/iV temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum" was passed in July, 1862. PETROPAULO VSKL A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat 90 THE world's PROGEESS. ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug. 30, 1854. It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed. PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading pew with a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of druga and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in New York founded in 184-. PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war for the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Clubs. PHILOSOPHY, (p. 470). MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. Ancient Schools. — Pythago- reati^ about b. c. 500 ; Platonic, (the Academy), by Plato, 374; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic^ by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic^ by Diog- enes, 330; Epicurean, by Epi- curus, 306 ; (SVotc, by Zeno, 290 •. Middle Academy, by Ar- cesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Carneades, 160. Modern Systems, — Rational, Ba- con, ab't A, D. 1624 ; Cartesian, Descartes, about 1 650 ; Reflec- tive or Perceptive, Locke, J 690 ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec- tive, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Tran- scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab- solute Identity, Schelling, 1800- 20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30; Ulililarian, Beiitham, 1790-1830 ; Positive, Co into, 1830. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Greek and Latin.— Thales, about B. c, 600 ; Pythagoras, 590 ; Aristotle and'Plato, 350 ; Eu- clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, ahout 100; Julius Caisar, 50; Ptolemy, A. D. 150. IdiddU ^^res.— Arabians ; Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen ; &c., 1100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, 1266. INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY. Copernicns's system published 1543 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 Galileo's Dialogues 1632 Royal Socif ty begin .<(w/ac/i see) 1645 Otto Guericke— Ai r-pump 1654 Huyghens on Pendulums 1658 Newton — Fluxions, 1655 ; Analysis of Light, 1699; Tlieory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia published 1687 ; Death 1727 Bradley discovers aberration 1727 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets. ...1748 Black on Heat 1762 Laplace on Tides 1775 Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique 1788 Gaivanrs and Volta's reseaichej? 1791 Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799 (See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, c£c. PH(ENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, at)d Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir- teenth centuries before Christ, they established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus; and are said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B. c. ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Romans, 4*7 ; and was added to the Otto- man empire, a. d. 1392. i>HONOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So- ciety, wliose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman, secretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91 Among other works publi:>hed by the promoters of this system was the * Pho- netic News." rnOSPHORUS. (p. 470.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in« creased since the manufacture of hicife * matches. In 1805, Schiotter of Vienna, made the importiint discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor* phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phos- phoi'us. PHOTO-GAL VANOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and presented by him, in 1827, to the great botanist, Robert Brown, in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process wiiich he called " Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the benefit of the public. PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented by Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859. PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the sixteenth century. The phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter and WoUaston (1801). From the results of these in- vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first photographer. His paper was entitled "An Account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of sih^er." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J. Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in 1826 joined Niepce, and worked witli him till the death of the latter in 1833. The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839; and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1839, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho- tograph [i. e. with the lights and shades n'versed), from which any number of positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Tathotype or Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853. It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the astronomer of Cambridge, U. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. In the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog- raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro- fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture. Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851, although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855, Mr. C. D. Frediicks made the first successful life-sized pliotograpiis, with an apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. Snelling. Professor 13ond, of Cambridge, Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Photographs of rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs. 92 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. McKaje & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farru ^ut, Greeley, and others. PIANO-FORTES. Those made by Stein way of New York, and Chickcring of Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 186Y, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 15 years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry. There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers (18G7). PIEDMONT {Pedemontium^ Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, which see. PINS. (p. 472.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the U. S. — Haydn. PISTOLS, (p. 472.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin- drical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel for firing. The earliest model for this kind of arn) is to be found in the United Service Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufac- ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis- tol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng- land. The perfection and economy of this system of manufiicture induced the British Government to establish the Enfield Armory in the year 1855. — Haydn. In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded his manufactory at Hartford, Conn,, where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws, and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is completed. Various other revolving pistols have been invented, but none so successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball. PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862 a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss, and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main- tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows : Massilia, by A. de Gasparis Hygeia, by A. de Gasparis. April 12, 1849 Parthenope, by the 8an)e....May II, 1850 Victoria, by J. R. Hind.... Sept. 13, 1850 Egeria, bv A. de Gasparis. ..Nov. 2, 1850 Irene, iiy'j. R. Hind May 19,11^51 Eunomia, by A. de Gasparis.JuIy 29, 1>51 Psyche, by ithe same Miu c)i 17,1^52 Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 1852 Meipomene, by J. E. Hind.. .June 24, 1852 Forluna, by the same Aug. 22, 1852 Sept. 19, 1852 Lutetia, by H. Goldsmith.Nov. 15, 1852 Calliope, by J. R. Hind... .Nov. 16, do Thalia, by the same Dec. 15, do. 4 in 185:5 ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in l.-^65 : 5 in 1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858 ; 1 in 1859; 5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1862 : 2 in 1863 ; 3 in 1864 : and 3 in 1865. PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels thiough tubes by means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down in Threadneedle street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail- way station to the N. W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1866, tubes had been laid down between Euston railway and Hulborn ; and on Nov. 7, several persona travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Ramraell. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 98 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians calling themselves " the Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851 they had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectarian. They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant churches, but they recognize no order of ministers. POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850. POLICE. The ''Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub* urbs, passed 1857, resisted by the naayor (Wood), and a serious collision re- sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 1857. The new law pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old force is disbanded next day. The present police force of New York (18G7), is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap- tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door- men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this force in 1866, $1,836,120. POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 478.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on this subject, are those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as at protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others. POLYNESIA. A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. PONTIFFS (Latin, Fontifices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians were afterwards added. Sylia increased the number to 15 (8 majores^ Y minores). The chief Avas called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, obtained this office, 254 b. c. POPULATION OF THE Globe, (p. 481.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results, with his grounds for them. Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000 Population of Europe 272,000,000 " ''Asia... 755,000,000 " " America 200,000,000 " " Africa 59,000,000 Total 1,288,000,000 or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 87,671 in a day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on an average every second, and more than one is born. Of the U. S. In 1850, 23,191,000 ; in 'i860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,- 000:— New York, 805,651; Philadelphia, 585,529; Brooklyn, 266,661; Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 177,812 ; New Orleans, 168,675 ; Cincinnati, 161,044 ; St. Louis, 160,773 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial but reliable estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula- tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882. PORTLAND, Maine. Population in 1860, 26,342. See Fires. PORT ROYALISTS. The name popularly given to the learned members of the celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; ana refounded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by 94 Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished names con- nected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de Sacy, and Tillemont. The school books which were published for the use of that institution were greatly esteemed. PORTUGAL, (p. 485.) An American squadron arrives in the TaiTUS to enforce claims against the Portuguese j^overn- raciit June 22, 1850 Death of the queen Maria II. Nov. 15, 1853 King-consort recognized as re- gent ". Dec. 19, 1853 The young king visits England June, 1854 A nd France May, 1855 All the slaves on the Royal do- mains declared free... I Dec. ."30, 1854 Inauguration of the king.Sept. 16, 1855 Resignation of tlie Saldanha ministry June 5, 1856 Fir.?t Portuguese railway (from Lis- bon to Saritarem) opened Oct. 26, 1858 The French emigrant ship for negroes Cliarles-et-Georges, seized Nov. 29, 1851 Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and eh ps of war to the Tagus ; the vessel re- stored Oct. 2.'^, 1858 1853. Peter V. (Do;: Pedro), born Sept. 16, 1837 ; the present (1^59) king of Portugal. Married to the princess Stephania, of Hohenzollern Sigmar- ingen, May 18, 1858 : who died July 17, 1859 [Heir, Prince Louis-Philip, the king's brother, bom Oct 31, 1838.] n do 3 do 3^ do 4r do 7- do 5, do POST OFFICE, U. S. (p. 484.) For the year ending June 30, 1859 : number of post-offices, 28,539 ; increase during the year, 562 ; mail routes, 8,273 ; aggregate length, 260,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of which by railroads, 26.010 miles, total, 27,268,384 miles, at 11.9 cents per mile ; by steatnboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569,962, at 25.3 cents per mile ; by coaches, 63,041 miles, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at 7.1 cents per mile. Ex- penditnres of the department for 1859, $14,964,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ; deficiency, $6,996,009. See Tab'e in Appendix. Nearly 2,000,000 " dead letters " annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re- ceipts were in 1854 7 millions loss H millions. 1855 7i do 1856 7i do 1857 -i do 1858 8 do 1859 8i do 1860 8i do Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, $11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes ; $23,315 worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were conveyed in the mail.^, of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4.368,000. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,122. The revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the states previous to the rebellion by '$6,038,09i). The most money that can be sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,« 122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over the preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-Genei-al thinks SUPPLEMENT, 1851-G7. 9c that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted bj Great Britain. POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices were added, making IvO such post offices. The lurgost amount that can be sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the , charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents on any order over $20. POST OFFICE, British. The net revenue was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in 1857, £1,293,971. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of tlie old system wa^;, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 523 millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, afthe rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually pa?sing through the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, is four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table : No. of Letters per Postal Postal Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. United States ■..25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 ' Great Britain 30,000,000 410.817,489 13,693 14,884,800 9,245,000 France 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 Spam 14.000,000 30,775,686 2,209 ],095,398 1,281,761 Belgium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 Hoiland 3.200.000 13.349,553 4,357 156,785 288,162 Switzerland 2,300,000 19,'773,671 8,299 341,028 447,752 PRAETORIAN GUARDS were in.'^tituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13), and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. PRESBYTERIANS, (p. 488.) The Presbyterian church in the United States was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, accommodating 2,040,000 persons. The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization, Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- tions "that to support tlie President and the Government of the U. S. is relig- iously the duty- of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 2,301 ; churches, 2,629. ''New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 1,694 ; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 1862, 200,000. Contributions of " Old School" in 1865, $2,400,000 ; " New School," $2,200,000. PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce,'* "News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the " Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did uot express trea- son or give information to the enemy. PRINTING, (p. 490.) In the United States this important art has made great ad> 96 vances during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam- brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, Dearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and chcapnesa have been more studied in England. PRINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850. FEINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of Faust, A.J) 146*7, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed ("Repo?e in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage published in England " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautii'ul specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in the art. It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leigh ton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as well as durability. — Haydv. This art is also practised considerably in the U. S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Phila., about 1848, has been carried to great perfection. PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 488.) The largest presses more recently constructed by Hoe & Co., of New^ York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machines." Two of these have been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four daily newspapers in New York. Tiie cost of each press is about $3u,00o. Of the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now manufactured by Hoe & Co. PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25. No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners ■ in them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. PRISONERS. During the ''Rebellion," U. S., at the close of the war, 174,223 were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex- change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,800 Union soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From 1861 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rich- mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoners) placed under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retahation for bombarding the city, 1864. PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing with a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweetj SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 7. 97 Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856 ; but the U. S. govern- ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from New York, 40 from Salem, and 81 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See Coggeshall'' s Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabUng the President to cover every sea with Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently effective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many miUions. The fleetest of these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned by seamen from those nations. PRIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- tribution among seamen $20,501, 927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. PROPERTY IN THE TJ. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the TJ. S was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11, 317,611, 672 (more than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop- erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. PRUSSIA, (p. 494.) The king takes the oath required by the new constitution. Feb. 6, 1850 Treaty of peace between Prus- sia and Denmark July 2, 1850 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 223,000 infan- try, 88,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artillery, with 1,080 field-pieces. Nov. 7, 1850 The Prussian troops commence their retreat from Hesse-Cassel Dec. 5, 1850 The king celebrates by a grand banquet the 160th anniversary of tb e Prussian monarchy, Jan. 18, 1851 The king revives the council of state as it existed before the revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 A Prussian Industrial exhibition opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 Prussia repudiates a customs union with Austria.... June 17, 1852 But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19, 1853 Continues neutral in the war. . . . Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854 Excluded from the conferences at Vienna Feb. 1855 Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia appointed regent for three months Oct. 23, 1857 Prince Frederick William of Prussia, msu-ried to the prin- cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1858 7 Prince of Prussia made permanent regent Oct. 7, J 858 Prussia declares its neutrality, but arms to protect G-erm'y, May & June, 1859 Death of the king and the accession of the Prince of Prussia, as "William I, Jan. 2, 1861 War was declared by Prussia and Italy against Austria ; Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover sided with Austria; The Prussian army occupied Hano- ver and Saxony. (See Battles, Austrian and Prussian) June 17, and 18, 1866 Negotiations for an armistice com- menced July 12, 1866. Prussian ad- vance in sight of Vienna, July 22. Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30; Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles- wig-Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- tions her population became 23,583,- 000 ; the strength of Austria remain- ed united, but she paid Prussia $28,- 000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded to Italy ; a vote on the question of annexation of Venetia to Italy was held in that province, resulting in 641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. Oct. 19, 186« The King of Italy entered Venice, amid great demonstrations of joy Nov. 7, 18M ?3 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelnsium, in Egypt (about a. d. 140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B, c.) was revived by Copernicus (a. d. 1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (1687). PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands reached 122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,802 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,48*7,495 acres ; the quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. PUBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of our points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 14S5; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). Q QUxVDRANGLE, or Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian fortresses in North Italy : — (1) Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio, near the lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and Ruj-sians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It was taken by the Sardinians in 1848; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The Sardinians were about to invest it in 1850, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, on the Mincio ; (3) Yerona : and (4) Legnano; both on the Adige. QUAKERS, (p. 497.) In 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized Phlladelphiii, where on Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In England, on Jan. 23, 1883, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia- ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the peculiaiities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mcb " of citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. QUININE OR Qdinia. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cliichona barks, especially of the yellow bark. R RACES, (p. 501.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarket, established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park' SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 09 hurst (they have been annual since lYSO) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Donciistei-, in 11^6, and at Goodwood, begun by the Duke of Richmond (who died in 180G). The English JoLke;^ Club began in the time of George IL The New York Jockey Chib end ihe race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 35^ miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1*741, aged 26 years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter, a fast trotter, Aug. ISe'Z. RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Union" was formed. In 1856, there were 160 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, • where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500 boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. Tn New York and other large cities of the U. S., " Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in- dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute ciiildren, who would otherwise have received no instruction. "■ Mission Schools " also have gathered in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only with oral teaching, but -with lodging, food, and raiment. The " fourth Ward '* and "Five Points " Missions are of this character. RAILROADS of the World. / Area sq. mile. » , -Population » Miles of To mile To mile railroad. of KR. of RR. N. America 39,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,SG9.3 West Indies 410.3 100,000 243.7 3,500,000 8.529.8 e. America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,bl4.4 22,500,000 21,595.1 Tot. Amer.... 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 Europe .50,117.5 3,600,000 71.8 285,000.000 5,686.6 Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 Africa 375.4 11,700,000 81.166.7 200.000,000 532,765.1 Australasia. 607.7 3,200,000 5,265.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 Total of world 95;727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.8 See table in detail, in Com. & Financial Chronicle, N. Y. RAILWAYS, (p. 502.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 m.iUions ; the railway mania and panic year w^as 1846, when 2*70 railway acts passed. Up to 1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. In June, 1859, the length of railwavs in operation in the United States was stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961, 047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,057 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,985 miles; cost $1,432,649,0(10 ; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 3,393; Illinois, 3,206-' New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in which 335 persons were killed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,683, and the exi^ense $2,821,625. 100 THE WORLD'S PBOGEESS. RAILWAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mode of travelling is ranch safer than the old modes. Thus in the French postsy* tern there were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows Passensrers. In Prussia, killed or wonnded 1 in 1,294,075 In Belgium, " " " 1,611.237 In France, " " " 375,092 Passengers. In England killed or wounded I in 31 1 ,340 In United States, " " le8,459 The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R,, 42 killed, Oct. 27, 1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k, and w., Nov. 1, 1854 •, Camden andAmboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855; Pacific R. R., near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R, R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., July lY, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 3,611 injured. RAPE, Punishment of, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted of rape. REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846, and received a gold medal from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. REBELLIONS in U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786. Tlie " Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan. 9th, 1861. See Secession, Treasoyi. In British History. The most im- portant were : Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro- mised by the grant of Magna Charta, June 15 following. See Magna Charta. Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- lector to his daughter. Having killed the collector in his rage, he raised a party to oppose the tax itself, - which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of York, against Kenry VI., 1450. Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in the execution of Warbeck. Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; it ended in his death. Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pre- tender 1716 ; quelled Ln 1716. Of the Scots, under the Young Pre- tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1746, when lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock were beheaded. Of the Americans, on account of tax- ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss of the chief North American colonies and to the independence of tte United States, 1782. Canadian Insurrection, L>t-cemher, 1837 to Nov. 1838. Of Cliartists, Nov. 3, 1839. Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion ; termi- nated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 29,1848. Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866, Ir Ireland 1867. SCTPLEMENT, 1851-67. lO! RECIPROCITY Treaty with Canada, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1851. It allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1804, the President was authorized to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have the same rights as the EngUsb, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the British Provinces. REPUBLICAN PARTY, U. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854. The wiiig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas- Xebraska bill, and the repudiation of the Missouii Compromise. All wlio op- posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards "Republicans." In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. (Greeley^s History.) Their first presidential convention v.as held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Fre- mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican 'Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Repubhcan." REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES, (p. 508.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853 ; sold to new pub- lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 185*7, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, ceased 18t;0. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey Magazine 1867. British, (p. 507.) London Society 1862 Victoria 1863 Union Rev 1863 Fortnightly Hev 1865 A rgosy 1865 " Belgravia" Mag 1886 Broadway 1867 Tiusley's 1S67 Tait'8 Mag., founded 1833 j (Dickens) 1?58 Dublin University 1833 Ouce a Week 1859 North British Rev 1844 MacMilLm'-? 1859 New Qu.'irterly Rev. . .1852 Household Words (Dic- kens) 1852 Lon. Quarterly 1853 National Rev 1855 All the Ytar Rouhd Cornhill Mag. ^Thacke- ray) I860 Temple Bar Mag. (Sala) 1860 St. James Mag 1860 Good Words 1861 Popular Science Rev 1861 REVIVALS OF Religion. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to Scotland and Ireland. REVENUE OF THE United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1850 $43,000,000 I 1860 $56,054,599 18£5 65,000.000 1861 41,476,299 1859 53,000,000 j 1862 51,925,720 Revenue of the U. S. for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans) : Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Exnenditures. 1863 $37,640,787 i»69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,796,630 1864 109,741,134 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144.656 1865 209,464,215 84,928,260 333,714,605 1,897,674;224 1866 309,226,813 179.046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666 Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, was $1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 2-3, Congress passed laws lor increased revenue to maintain the war. The Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. REVIEW Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at the 102 close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, 1865. The army of the ^Jvest under Sherman, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab- inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White House, occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country were present to witness the sight. REFORM IN Parliament (England), (p. 504.) A new Reform bill, introduced by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords July 15 1867. REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of architecture. RENTS IN England, were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, a. d. 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, the duke of Sutherland received his rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of England, including, land, houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen rail- lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on tlie Reve- nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,10? were born in, the state. It sent 25,455 sol- diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. RIOTS IN THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three days. The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 13, and at Richmond, Ya. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866.. RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the secession of Yirginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern Con- federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at by the " Union army of the Potomac," The place was fortified with great skill. It fell April "2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The notorious "Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond. ROADS AND PAYEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng- SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 103 land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; at Whiteliall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. In Xew York and some other American cities the best pavementa have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- tioduced which has proved satisfactory. ROBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, a I). 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an his- torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. IG'JO. In later times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. ROCHE LLE (W. France) A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France; and was vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but they, from distrust, declined to admit him. ROMAN CATHOLICS in the United States, m 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859: 1839 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 1000 2108 D oceses ....16 30 48 Churches 418 966 2334 Bishops 18 26 45 | The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the TJ. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000. ROME. (p. 511.) The pope issues the bull estab- lisliinLi a E,oman Ontholic hier- archy in E.igland (see Papal Ajfjression) Sept. 24, 1850 Important concordat with Aus- tria Auic., 1855 The pope visits diflerent parts of his dominiuns June, 1857 Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bo- loa;na and F'errHra June, 1850 They declare for adhesion to Pied- mont Sept. 1859 Accept Buonconipagni as Governor- General ,,...Nov. 1859 ROXCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, slain, A. D. 778. ROSETTA STOXE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 2^ feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemv Epiphanes (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. Young and ChampoUion. ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Rod Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- ings with the landgrave of Hesse, tliat prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to hive been £25 ),000), in 1806, when the French held his country. With this sum as capital, Ansehn traded and made a large fortune, and re- stored the £250,00j to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons coi> 104 THE world's PEOGEESS. tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester ic 1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1836. ROTTERDAM. The second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the thir- teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations in 1775 and 1825, Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. KOUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the capital of Normandy in the tenth century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re- taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of France in 1449. ' RUSSIA, (p. 513.) EuBsia demands an expulsion of the Hungarian and Polish refu- gees from Turkey (see Turkey) Nov. 5, 1849 They are sent to Koniah, in Asia Minor Tan. 1850 Harbor of Sebastopol completed, Feb. 1850 The czar concentrates his forces on the frontiers of Turkey Feb. 1853 Orign of the Russo-TuiKlsh war, {which see) March, 1853 The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will only com- bat for the faith and Christian- ity April 23, 1854 Death of the Czar Nicholas ; no change of policy March 2, 1855 Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at Nicolaieflf)..Nov. 3, 1855 He visits his army at Sebastopol, Xov. 10, 1855 Amnesty granted to the Poles, May 27 ; political offenders, &o. Sept. 7, 185e Alexander IT. crowned at Moscow, Sept. 2, 1866 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, Sept. 25 -and the Em- peror of Austria at Weimar. . -Oft 1, 1857 Emancipation of the serfs decreed, July 2, 1856 A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean, creates some political excitement Aug 1858 New Commercial treaty with Great Britain Jan. 12, 1859 Eussia reproves the warlike move- ments of the Grerman confederation during the Italian war May 27, 1859 Alexander II., son of Nicholas, born Aitril 29, 1818 ; succeeded at hia father's death, March 2, 1855 ; mar- ried April 28, 1841, Mary, Princess of Hesse ; the present emperor of Russia 1860 Heir : his son Nicholas, born Sept. 20, 1843 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a mixed commission, which decided in favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, March 9, 1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians now made further claims. Menscbikoffs ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted Constantinople, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattischeriff confirm- ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his allies. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay. On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Pruth and entered Moldavia, July 2, The sultan, with the advice and consent of a grand national council, after demanding the evacuation of the principalities, Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow- ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, Marck 27 and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed ia April following. The Sultan declares war against E,ussi:i Oct. 5, 1853 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay^ andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope, Nov. 30, 1853 At the request of the Porte (Dec. 5.) the allied fleets enter the BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 105 Miss Niuhtingale and nnrsos arrive aL Sc luari Nov, 6, 1854 Sardinia joins England and Tranc-c, Jai:. 2G, 1855 Deatl) of Emperor Nicholas ana acces- sion of Alexander II. (no chaig;- of war policy) Manh 2, 1855 Sonic from tlie Malakliolf tower (15,0'JO men) repulsed March 22, 1855 Resi^naiion of Gen. Caurobert, bul-- ceoded by Gen. Pelissier May 10, 1855 Death of Lord Eaglan ; t^uccceded by Gen. Simpson June 28, 1855 Russians invest Kar:* in Armenia, ile- fcn.led by Gen. Williams luly 15, 1855 The French take the Mnlakholf (M;//tc/i see) V)y assault ; the English assault the lledaii witliout success ; the Rus- sians retire from Seljastopol to the North Foi-ts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet. . .Sept. e, &c. 1855 Explosion of 100,(!()0 lbs of powder in the French sietre-train at Inlvennan, with great loss of life Nov . 15, 1855 Capitulation of Kars to Gen. Moura- vieO; after a gallant defence by Gen. Williams Nov. 26, 1855 Council of war at Par s Jan. 11, 1856 Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- pleted Feb.l, 1856 Peace conferences open at Paris, an aiTQislice till March 31, agreed oa Feb. 25, 1856 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, April 2 ; in London April 29, 1856 The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856 RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861, exports from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports ; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia. Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July, 1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed Congress May, 186Y, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- nation. ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 512.) Presidents. Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. Napier March 11, 1854 Treaty between England. France, and Turkey March 12, 1854 France and Knirland declare war against Russia March 27, 08, 1854 Gen. Canrobert and French troojjs arrive at GalUpoli, soon after followed by the English March 31, 1854 Bussians defeated by the Turks at Karakai May 30, 1854 Bombardment of Odcfsa by al'ied fleet April 22, 1854 Bombardment and burrci der of Bomarsund Aug. Id, 1854 The Russians defeated by iScha- myl in Georgia. .about Aug. 28, 1854 They begin to evacuate the prin- cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854 Battle of the Alma Sept. i-'O, 1854 Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopo: Sept. 23 1854 Death of Marshal St. Arnaud, Sept. 29, 1854 General Canrobert appointed his successor Nov, 24, Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack (without success) Oct, 17, Battle of Balaklava — gallant charge of the light cavalry un- der Lord Cardigan, with severe loss Oct. 25, 1854 Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of the Russians Nov. 5. 1854 1854 1854 1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1792. Benjamin West. IS'JO. Sir Tiiomas Lawrence. ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 512.) Presidents. 1660-3. Sir Robert Moray. 1663-77. Lord Brouncker (the first under the the charter). 1680-2. Sir C.Wren. 1684-6. Samuel Pepys. Io98-1703. John Lord Somera. 1703-27. Sir I. Newton. 1727-41. Sir Hans Sloaue. 1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks. 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 1850. Sir Charles Eastlake. 1866. Sir Francis Grant. 1820. Dr. "W. n. 'Wollastoil. 1 820. Sir IT. Davy. 1827. Davies Gilbert. 1S30. Duke of Sussex. 1S;>8. Marquis of Northampton, 1848. Karl of Ros>^e. 1854. Lord Wrottesley. 1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig Hacker between the years 1740 and 174Y at Ephrata, Lancaster comity. Pa., among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used aa an hospital after the battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occa- Bioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sundaj 106 THE world's progeess. school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about 1V82. SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 511.) Kamehameba lY. (or Tamehameha) when 20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre- tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., Prest., Fred. Law Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1, 1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and California, $1,233,97'7. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487; that at Phila- delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, Svo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- bursed for teachers at the South, in 1805, $318,6*70; for supplies, $490, V55. Total, $809,425. SANITARY REFORM, U. S. (p. 517.) The ventilation of buildings has been greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 1838, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally. SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health, about 1832; his "Philosophy of Health " having excited much atten- tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sayiitary C'ovwiission. SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir VVni. Jones, who published a translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professoi ship of Sanscrit at Ox- ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. II. Wilson, ap- pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhira, the sacred hymns of the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams (elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max Miiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. SARDINIA, (p. 518.) See Italy. Bill for suppression of convents passed March 2, 1S55 Convc'iition wth Englai.d and Fj-ance s gned, a co tingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied aicauist Russia A prii 10, 1855 10,000 troop-i under G -rieral La Marmora arrive iu the Crimea, Ma\- 8, 1855 Who distinguish themselves iu the battle of the Tchernay;i,Autr. 16, 1855 Thu ki. g visits Louivii, &c. Nov. SO, &c. 1865 Imiiortant note on Italy from Connt Cavour to England April 16, 1856 Count Cavour declares in favor of free- trade June, 1857 PreiimiiarifS of peace signed at Villa Franca; Count Cavour resigns, July, 1S59 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich. Nov. 1859 Sai-dinian troops besiege the King of Naples at Gaeta Sept. 1S6C Gaela capitulates to Victor EiKinue', Feb. 13, 1S61 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 107 ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly by Fauslin I., dethroned in 1858. ST. GEORGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantio Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the fi;stival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in pot-session of it until 1600, when they ■were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it lo the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ; and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia ■was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice -was laid June 21, 1675. The whole edifice was completed in 1710. The total cost (including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome, 145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city in May 27, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some ■wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house ot brick; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the iniperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. The winter palace was burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail- way to Moscow was finished in 1851. ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306. About the middle of the fitteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present magnificent pile was designed byBraraante; the first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the work to Michael Angelo, 'R'ho devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the mnjestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet ; and the entire 108 height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Eoman Catholic church in the world. SARATOGA, Bukgoyne's Surrender at. Here General Burgoync, commandei of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war of Independence (Oct. 1), being surrounded, surrendered to the American General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 17, 1777, SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications are the Biglow Papers and Fahle for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Wa7'd, " Petroleum V. Nasby, and others ; and the very cleVer pictorial satires of Thos. Nast. SAVINGS BANKS, TJ. S. The number of savings banks in the New England states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of deposits, $70,000,000. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,786,400. There are comparatively few savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 574, besides above twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but un- known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511. SAVOY, (p. 520.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, May 3, 1842 ; no issue). Heir (presumptive) ; Prince Alfred of England, born Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 19, 1863). SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favored literature, and their capital, "Weimar, has been called the Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. SAXONY, (p. 520.) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1801), the present (1861) king. Heir : His son, Fredei-ic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828. SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- mandy (about A. D. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 26,000 Swedes, and 5,000 Danes (1860). SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec- tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education were: for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £184,560. United States. Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established by the SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109 ^rst settlors of New England on their arrival ; were soon made obligatory by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commenced about 1800. Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established 1795 ; first state school sup't., New York, 1812; first state school system, Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com- menced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report on Prussian school-^, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu- cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first nor- mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- tice. The following totals for the United States are approxin)ate for 1858 : children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,- 324,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education^ Colleges^ &c. SCIENCE IN THE U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Keports, to be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on .the Mexican Bounda- ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in about 20 quartos, the great work of Agassiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy, Observatories dec., SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely propelled by the screw, SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W, point of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine 11., memorable for its eleven months' Siege, by the English and, French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the MalakhofiF tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Rt dan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants were compelled to retire alter a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. " SECESSION," TJ. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican" candidate for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several southern states for another Union ; the resignation of Federal officers in those states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 110 TEE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. the army and navy; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, and arsenala The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the following: Besien:;:ion of S. C. senators of theU. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 U. S. H. of Rej). appoints a com. of 33 on the state of the Union, Dec. 6, 1860 Resignation of Howell Cobb, Sec. of Tivas., U. S Dec. 10, 1860 U. .■^. Btucks (6 per ceni) so!d for 89, Dec. 10, 1860 Resii^nat.un of Mr. Cass, Sec. of State Dec. 14, 1860 Boutb Carolina Ordii.ance of Se- cession passed Dec. 20, I860 Ma.;. Anderson transfers the U. Slates gairison at Fort Moultrie to Fori Sumter, in Charleston harbor Dec. 26, 1S60 S. Carolina aiuhorliies seize Fort Woulirie and oiher U. States property Dec. 28, 1860 J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War re- Big ,6 Dec. 29, 1860 Forts Pulaski and .Jackson, in harbor of Savannah, seized by Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 8. C. cominissi()ners' demands refused by the President Jan. 3, Fast-day observed in the U. S. Jan. 4, Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by the fcti'te J:in. 4, Bteamer btar of the West with U. S. troops for Fort Snniter, fired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, Mississi] pi secession passed, Jan. 9 : and U. S. forts and 1861 1861 Alabama secesMon passed Jan. 11, 1861 Florida eecessioa passed, and U. S. forts at Pensacola seized Jan. IJ, 1861 Georgii secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida senators of the U. Slates resigned Jan. 21, 1861 Louisiana secession passed Jnn. 28, 1861 Texas tecesBion pas-ed Feb. 1, 1861 "Peace Conference" at "Washington, Feb. 4, 1861 Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. Bouligny withdraws from Congi-ess Feb. 5, 1861 Congress of seceding states at Mont- gomeiy, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jeffer- son Diivis of Miss. Pre.-^., and Alex- H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861 Tennessee votes against secession, Feb. 9, 1861 Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- ence with slavery in any state passed unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861 Jellerson Davin inaugurated Pres. of Southern Co.fedcracy Feb. 18, 1861 The " Peace Con erence ■" at Washing- ton agrees on proposition for '* com- prom se," and adjourns March 1, 1861 Gen. Twiggs, having surrendered the U. States "forces and property in Texas is dismissed from the U. S. army as a traitor Murch 1 , 1861 Missouri votes againtt seces.-ion, in conventioi March 1, 1861 Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of Un ted Stales March 4, 1861 See Battles, U. S., War, <& . Also lables, p. 190, &c. property seized there... Jan. 10, 1861 SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier). The term applied to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, 1857. SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced 1716. Parliaments had been triennial from 1688 to that date. SERVIA, A principality nominally subject to Turkey, pouth of Hungary. The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about A. D. 640, The Emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; but they recovered their in- dependence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostle John was commanded to write the epistle contained in the 2d and 3d chapters of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila- delphia, and Laodicea, a. d. 96. 1. Ephesus. Paul founded the church here, a. d. 57, aid ui a. d. 59, was in great danger from a tumult creat- ed by Demetrius. Kphcsus was in nruiiious state even in the time of Justinian (a. d. 627), and still re- mains so. 2. Smyrna. Now an important com merc'al city and seaport of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, suffered martyrdom, A. d. 175. 3. Pergamos, Capital of the kingdom of the same name, founded by Phil- etaerus, b. c. 283, and part of 'Bithy SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill , Philadelphia. "Was built by Attains Philn* deli)hue, kin;; of Perea'iT'S (about b. c. 169, 158) ; was taken bv r>ainz(;t I. A. D. 1300. It is now called Aibili Shehr, " The city of God, " and is a miserable town of 3(100 iioiues. Lunclicea. In Plnygia near Lydia. has siiflVnd niucii from earthquakes. It ie now a deserted place called Eekehi=sar. " The old Castle." nla. Tt -was renowned for its libra- ry. Attains 111., the last king, be- queathed his kingdom to the lloman peotle, B. c. 133. It is still an im- portant place called Bergauid. Parch- ment iw said to have been invented here. 4. Thxjatiro. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called Akhissar, " White Custle," 6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom of Croesus (b. c. 560), is now a mserable village, named Sart. SEWING-MACHINE. The practical fewing-maohinc was the invention of Elia>< Howe, an American mechanic. These machines are all of American criniii. Haydn. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the world the first practical sewing-m.ichiiie. Here also, it has received its fullest development. Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very little advance was made for the next six years. Since that period the tales of reliable ma- chines have been as follows : 185;^. 2,509 : 1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856, 7,225; 1857,12,715; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- ized, and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new branches of industry ; rendered healthful, pleasant, and piotitable an employ- ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most benelicial invention of the age. In the domestic world it ranks as do railroads and telegtaphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the manufacturing interests of the U. States was estimated in 1860 at $342,000,- 000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma- chine in stitching the various parts of the following garments. BY MACHINE. BY HAJTD. Hours. Minutes. Hoiitk Minutes. Ger.tlemen's ebirts. 1 16 14 26 Frock coats 2 38 ..^ 16 35 Satin vests 1 14 7 19 Slk dress 1 13 8 27 MerinodresB 1 4 8 27 SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake- speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616. Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, 1836. In 1847, a number of persons of distinction interested themselves for the preservation of the bouse in which Shakespeare was born, then actually set up for sale. In the end Shakespeare's house was sold at the auction mart in the city of London, where it was " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and Stratford for the large sum of £3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave £2, ."-00 to purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure the poet's house from the risk of fire. SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. was 21,723,1)00; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Iitdiana, produced the most. California, iu 1860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,0(0,000. The ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 186(1 about 500,000, worth $2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Vei- monr, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Hambuig. in 1863, against all the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia, and 112 Silesia. They were sold for $5,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, s\ir prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S. SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents, the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b. c. Judges^ ch. xii. The term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. SHIPPING OF THE U. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods. Yeiirs. Tonnage. 1861 5,009,813 1862 5,112, 165 1863 5,126 081 1864 4,986,081 Tpam. Tonnage. 1865 (old) 3,516,787 " (new) 1,579,994 1866 (old) 942,299 " (new) 3,368,479 The above table shows the loss of American i^hipping, or its transfer to for- eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States, June 30, 1858, was 5.049,808 tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 2,49t),74l ; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,0^^6 ; steam navigation, 729,390. In- crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was 5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but two in Boston. This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboard cities. Ships which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the same currency in the British Provinces (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly three-fourths in foreign vessels. Number of ship-carpenters in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. Before the war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every ocean. The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of the United States, 5,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kept the lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five years ending with 1861, the carrying trade .of New York amounted tc $1,644,000,000, of which over $l,000,00u,000 was done under the American flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other nations on the globe. With the advent of war there came a disastrous change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer thfir ownersiiip to a Joreign flag. Thus in the four years which followed, out of SI, 700,000, 000 of foreign trade for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 were done under tlie Stars and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were carried under foreign flags. In 1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229, of which $345,750,622 was in f«)reign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships. This is a humiliating and exasperating record ; yet in the recent Fenian movements our government and people refused to retaliate. — Clir. Almanac. SIAM. A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siara was re- discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreigc minister of Siam, and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 113 succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and one with France in August following. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in England Oct., 1857, and had an audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov. 16. A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859. SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa- rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi- nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox- imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight and well made, and walk with a gait like other people, being perfect in all their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib- ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now (1860) have several children. Sicily! See itdy. SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said about 2080 b. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (238), the sculptors. SIDON (Syria). A city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus about 537 ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phoenicia. The town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Stop- ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 18-10. SIEGES, (p. 529.) of Rome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-5 ; of Ears, 1855; Delhi, 1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861. SIKHS. See Punjab and India. SILISTRIA. A strong miUtary town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end- ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount- ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin- age of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. In the year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces. Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at Sin Francisco, Cal., and the rest from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 3 cents per oz. was levied on silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re- moved, 1866. SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed 8 114 THE world's PEOGEESS. by Napoleon in 1801-*7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes bj galleries through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. The number of worlvmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. SINKING FUND, in England. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose act was passed in 1716. The act estabhshing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of £900,000 in tJae revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million, which wiis to bi^ iuvarialjly applied to the reduction of the national debt. la July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue. SINOPE (Sinoud). See Russo-Turklsh War. -SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Olaus Magnus (d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about by an iron-shod po! ■. AVooden skates with iron blades were invented in Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve ekatos, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented, running on small wheels of India rubber. SLAVERY, (p. 530.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b. c. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit- tance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. C. PoUio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 B. c. Cascilius Isodorus left to his heir 4,116 slaves, 12 B. c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. — Serfdom^ a modified form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 1766, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his hereditary states in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do- mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander II., effected its total abolition throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). In the United States (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro- duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13, 1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the govern ment of the territory to the N, W. of the Ohio," which contained an ^* unalter- able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved of this prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchised, which act was considered by many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com- promise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850 another compromise was effected: California was admitted as a free state; but the Fugitive Slave Act was passed {which see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding states; in the latter of which civil war ensued. See Kansas ; United States. An attempt to create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by John SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 115 Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,313 ; in 1860,3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Steph- ens, o» Georgia, declared that "slavery "was the corner stone of their confeder- acy (18G1). During the war, slaves were held to be "contraband of war" by the U. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery waa forever excluded i'roin the territories. Jan. 1863, the great "Emancipation Pioclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the tebellious states /r), and is repudiated also by the congress of the *' Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1861), but the latter abolished the death penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U. S. In defiance of these laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be- f'. re sailing and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain for further measures against trade in slaves, 186- SNUFF-TAKING. (p. 623.) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuflf and cigars were imported. See Tobacco. SOCLIL SCIENCE. The British National Association for the Promotion of So- cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its ob- ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham. jOCIETIES and Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See Academies (p. 147). American Ethnological Society at N. Y. | American Institute (for Agriculture and American Oriental Society at New Haven. Useful Arts), N. Y. American Geographical and Statistical So- Natioual Acadt-my of Sciences 1865. ciety, N. Y. | In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to the collection and preservation of historical records, printed and in MS. ; several of them have published transactions and collections. That of the Mass. Hist. Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols. Great Britain. All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated. An act was passed Aug. 11,1854, "to afford facilities for the establishment of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of land, &c., and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt- ed from the operation of the act. SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &C. Royal Society Charter 1662 Medico-Chirurgical Society Society of Antiquaries (Charter 1834) 1805 (Chaiter 1751) 1717 Society of Dilettimti 17o4 Royal Society of J£flinl)inuh (Charter 1783) 1739 Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 175 J Jloyal Irisli Academy ....Charter 1783 Liimcun Society. . .(Charter 1802) 1788 Horticultural Society (Churtei- 1809) 1804 London Institution i SJ5 Genlog cal S;>ciecy..(CiiartL'r 1826) 1807 Roj'al Society of Literature (Chaiter 182G) 1820 Eoy.il Asiatic Society.... Charter 1823 Mechanics' Institution, London.. .1823 Zoo;..gic il Society 1826 British Association i8;il Entomological Society 183S 116 THE world's progress. Statistical Society. 1834 Boyal Institute of British ^Arclii- tects (Charter 1837) 1835 Botanical Society 18:^6 If umismatic Society 1836 Electrical Society 1837 Ornithological Society 1837 Royal Agricultural Soc ety 1838 Camden Societ y 1838 Royal Botancal Society 1839 Microscopical Society 1839 Ecclesiological Society 1839 Pharmaceutical Society 1841 Philological Society 1842 Dublin Philosophical Society 1842 Archaeological Associatio. 1843 ArchaeolOifical Institute 1843 Sydenham Society 1843 Etlini)logical Society 1S43 Syro-Etiyptian Soc ety 1 844 Ray Society 1844 Cavendish Society 1846 Hakluyt Society 1846 Institute of Actuaries 1848 Parker Soc'ety 1840 | Arundel Society 1849 Percy Society 1810 ; Meteorological Society 1851 Loudon Library 1840 i Photographic Societv 1853 Shakespeare Society 1S40 Horological Institute 1858 Chemical Society 1841 ' SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), celebrated as the site ofihe chief struggle on the great battle of June 24, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General Hess; the emperor being present. The Austriaus after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Miiicio, and took up a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus- cans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, which they did on June 23. The conflict began early the next morming, and lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and Niel ; the Austrians to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 ofiicers, and 1*7,305 soldiera killed and wounded. This battle closed the war; preliminaries of peace be- ing signed at Villa Franca, July 12. SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 635.) Population 1850, whites, 274,463; free colored, 8,960; slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186; slaves, 407,185, Ordinance delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, 1860. The *' Star of the West " with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the state early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1865. Act of Secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt, $4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by act of Congress 1867, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867, he w as removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen., Canby. SPAIN, (p. 537.) Narvaez ex'led to Vienna.. .Jan. 1863 General O'Donne'l, Concha, and others, bai.ished Jan. 18, 1854 Peace restored ; the d(!graded generals reir.stateri, 3. In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 350,000. V VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore- gon. Settlements were made here by the English in 1781 ; which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. VEmilC TRIBUNAL {Vehyngerichte). Secret tribunals established in West- 126 phalia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings were enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome, persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th century, SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." VENEREAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea, Morbus Gallicm. This disease is said to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494, whence the French term it mal de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng- land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun- try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too, at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to the old world, 1493 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of America. VERMONT, (p. 579.) Population in 1860, 316,827. War expenses, $8,811,600. The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5. VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 580.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and June 1859, caused great destruction. VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and its batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the west side and marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy at *' Port Gibson, " " Champion Hills," and " Big Black River Bridge," and on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 2^0 ; small arms, 70,0(»0. Union loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South Wales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region. First colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculation and consequent embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2, In 1851, the province was declared independent of New South Wales, In the same year a reward of £200 was offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near Melbourne. VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St, Law- rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1859. It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and about 7-^ times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The cost £1,400,000. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating ice, but the stonework remained firm. VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferino); on the next day thev signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which see). SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 127 VINE DISEASE. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. Tlic spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of thf- usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress ol the disense, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not in Portugal. VIOLIN, (p. 583.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur- passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at Cremona about a. d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius; those of the former excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous prices. VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 1850, was $530,000,000, viz:— Real estate. $278,000,000; value of slaves, $147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read noi write ! The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, in the 111th arti- cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of the United States.'' Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. Id 1860,1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861. Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir- ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle. Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the 1st militarv district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,- 061,300. VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330. The Emperor Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi- tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted tliem to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers; In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muga, in 1711, when their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their rule in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507. VIVARIUM. See Aquarium. VOLTAIC PILE, OR Battery. An apparatus which was constructed in conse- quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Conio (born 1745), for tliirty years pro- fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Rova! Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and wag otherwise greatly honored While young he invented the electrophorus, elec- tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1S26, aged 81, The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. Tlie nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was devised in 1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former is very 128 THE world's progress. much used in England ; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See MiC' tricity. VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, in England, This species of force was formed in England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. The EngUsh volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou- sands were enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army. VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published). A term appUed to the Latin version of the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri- buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834, The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in the beginning of the second century. Critical editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper- fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. W. WAGER OP BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him. Repealed by statute 59 George IIL, 1819. WAGES IN England (p. 685). Harvest men, 1857, 6s. In United States. In 1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day'a labor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's labor. WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, by Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi- navian heroes after death. WALKING, &c.. Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes- sive hours ; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1.000 miles in 1,000 hours, which feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours ; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket- ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com- pleted the IjCOO mUes July 29, following, winning a considerable sum. WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by Baron Neuman and others in 1813. Raikes. WAR — Cost of that in the Cbimea. The cost to England, for two years, was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 millions of dollars. Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris, March 31, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carolina forces on Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conffict. Until the SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 129 summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But after the fall of Vicksbuig, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army was almost uniformly victorious until the final sun^ender of the rebels. See Army, Battles^ VolnniC' rx, &c. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Feb. 12, 1850. WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry style of the last century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley, Fielding, Varley, and the great Turner; by Pyne, Caitermole, Prout, &c., within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805. WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis XIV. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d. 1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila- delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1799, and succeeded by those at Fairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Croton Aqueduct, finished in 1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and afterwards from ('ochituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for use in 1848. See Fahllc Worka^ Aqueduct. WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley; or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with ''Tales of my Land- lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 1827. WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West Virginia; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863; capital. Wheeling ; area, 23,000 square miles. Population by census of 1860, 393,200. The new state sent 31,880 men to the Union army. WHALE FISHERY, In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 600 ships and barks, 19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 195,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year, owing to the increasing scarcity of whales, Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1,540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone. WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these designations to various occasions and vai-ious epochs. Referring to what is stated under the head Tory^ it may be here added, that we are told the name Whig M-as a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists for resembling the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot- land ; and the other was given by the country party to that of the court, comparing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 1678. Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were formed : the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques- tion, and this party styled those who believed in the plot Whigs. The other party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, Tories. WINE, U. S, In 1866, California produced 1,252,70) gallons of wine ; Ken tucky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,()0i); N. Carolina, 54,000: Illinois. 47,000 ; Connecticut, 46,000 ; Virginia, 40,000 ; Pennsylvania, 38,000 130 During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,476,814 gallons were imported into the U. S. WISCONSIN, (p. 697.) Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years 90C per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. WITCHCRAFT. CreduHty in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts of England. On Sept. 4, 1868, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con- sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene- fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation ; and even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or estates. WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Seven. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The m;iu,*oleuni or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the hou3e of lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, in England. The first was established in Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 ; a third in Cambridge, and in 1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class; and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful. WRECKS, (p. 602.) Arctic, U. S, mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the Fe.s^a, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27, 1854. City of Philadelphia, Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. sloop of war Albany, from Aspinwall, Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from. City of Glasgow, steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854 Pacific, Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis appeared and never heard of. John Riitledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon- nau, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic, 134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York, burnt in the middle of the Atlantic; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea coast ; 459 lives lost ; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,- 000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer iV^ia^ara, burned on lake Michigan; 60 lives lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herudon, Aspinwall to New York, founders, 427 fives lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, S^pt. 8, 1857 Russian line of battle ship in the Baltic, founders, all on board, (825) lost Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during 1859, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase over the previous year of 114 vessi-ls, and $l,12S,< the Kineteonth Centur}'. (From BelVn Edition of Bredoxd's Tables of Universal History.) 1. Florentine Sohool.— Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace— 1'24(», Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, Andrea Taffl; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Ma^^sacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 14.32, Andrea Verrocl.io, Andrea Cast^na, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Lkonardo ua Vinci; 14G9, Bartoloinmeo di San Marco; 1471, BaUlassarre Per uzzi ; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 14S4, Dominico Beccafumi; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493. .lacopo Oiirrucci da Pontorino; 149 i, Del lloss-'- 1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509. Daniel da Voltorra; 1510. Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vassari ; 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1.559, Luigi Cardi; 15G.3, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 161.% Benvenuto da Garo- foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti ; 1695, Giovan' Geroniino Servandoni; 17o2, Pompeo BattonL 2. Roman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical Btudy of the antique and of nature ; heads of tiie most sublime beauty ; coloring and chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturicliio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, Raffs.el ; 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; 154;^, Frederico Zucchero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicliohis Poussin; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini ; 1599, Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine ; 1602, Cerioz?' ' 1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspre, J.616, Luigi fecaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Romanell ; 1623, Giacinto Brandi; 1623, Filippo Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1684, Ciro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raflfael Mengs. & Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, zindrea Mantegtia; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477, Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore); 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano del Pioinbo; 1510, Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 15-39, Dario Varotari; 1540, Felice Riccio ; 1540, .Jacopo Palma (U Vecchio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino; 1660, Maria Tintoretta; 1561. Leonardo Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tinelli; 1590, Aless. Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi ; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti ; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc. Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci ; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera : 1075. Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canaie; 1698, Giov. Bati Tiepolo; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 4. Lombard and Bolognese Schools.— Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo**- ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of desisn, and many of tlieir fupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Corresgio. 1450, Francesco" Franco ; 490, F. Primaticcio; 1494, Correggio Antonio Allegri ; 1495. Polidori Caldari ; 1504, Fr. Maz- zuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi ; 1546. Camillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car- ravaggio; 1555, Lbdov. Caracci; 1557, Agostino Caracci ; 1560, Annibale Caracci : 156o, Bartol. Bchidone; 1575, Guido Reni, called Guido; 1576. Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 1.57S, Francesco Albano; 15S0, Giacomo Cavedcne: 15S1, Doin. Zampieri, called Domenichino; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1.597, Lodov Lana : 1600, Mic. Ang. Colonna; 1606, Grimaldi ; 16H, Giorg. And. Sivani; 1612, Simone Caniarini ; 1624, P.Fran. Mola; 1628, Cignani ; 1638, P. F. Caroli ; 161.3, Lodov. Quaini ; 164S, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, Guis. del Sole ;^ 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 16 5, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani; 1671, Donato Creti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Paainl. (Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded a.s having founded general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapol- itan.— The painters of^this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affecte, Ber. V. Oriev; 1499, J. de Mabuse ; 1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 15-36, J" Straden ; 1540, F. Por- bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, C. Van Mander; 1.550, H. Steenwvck; 1555, Denys Calvart ; 1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel: 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Eubens ; 1580, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthonv Van Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois ; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst; 1668, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort 7. Dutch School.— This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School 1467, Erasmus; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; 1493. Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, Ab. Bloemart; 1.579, Sol de Brey;"l555, Cornelius Poelenbera ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. D. de Heein; 16i»0, John "Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuvp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Evn ; 1608, Gerard Terburs; 1610, Adrian Van Ostado ; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- zu; 1620, Philip Wouvermans ; 1624, Nicholas Bersham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Lndolph Bakhytzen; 1633. W. Van der Velde; 163.5, Jac. Ruvsdael, Hobbema; 1635. Fran, Mierirs; 1636, John Steen; 16-37; Van den Hevden ; 1633, Adria"n van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 1664, John "Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 16S2, John Van Huysum. English Pain'tees. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1430, Hans Holbein ; 154-3, F. Zucchero; 1.572. Inigo Jone<, ; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cor.per; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620. Ric Gibson; 16J9. John Greenhill; 1643, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James Thornhill; 1697, AVilliam Hogarth; 1714, Eich. Wilson; 172-3. Jo.shua Reynolds; 1727, Thom. Gainsborough; 17a3. Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg ; 1735, David Allan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt ; 1746. James Northcote; 1743, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Eeinagle ; 1751, William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beecliey ; 1755, Thom. Stothard ; 1753, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie ; 1764. Geo. Morland ; '1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1.774 Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1737, Geo. Hen. Hariow ; , Tho- mas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786, E. B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott; 1789, W. Etty. 8. French School. — The good painters of tliis School are formed on the model of the differ- e:it Italian Schools, of which they bear the sev-eral characteristics ; they are in general more successful in composition and design than in coloring, It is emancipated from the degradation and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien. and become the most numer- ous and flourishing school of all.— 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Rosso de Rossi ; 1502, J. Cousin ; 1582, Simon Vouet ; 1.594, Nicholas Pousin ; 16iin, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Valentin; 1600, James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Seb.astian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur ; 1619, Charles le Brun; 1640, Charies de la Fosse: 1644. -Tolm Jouvenet; 115.57, Joseph Vivien 1667, Nicholas Bertin ; 1667, Anth. Rivallv; 1634, Ant Watteau ; 1683. Francis Le Moine; 1699 Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794. F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vie* 1729, J. B. Deahays; 175«, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet. DICTIONAEY OF DATES. CHIEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ABDITlONJi ABBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired'to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim. in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360, The first in Ireland waa in the fifth century: see Chgher, Elphin. Daicn. The first in Scotland was in the sixth century : see Ides. And the first in Britain was in 5G0 : see Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino. near Naples, founded by St. Benet in 529. was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Sainton. The revenues of 193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2.653.000 These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry Vm. 1539. See Monasteries. ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later times of most remarkable character and greatest political" importance, and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- napane family. See Spain. May 1, 180a Of Joseph Bonapane of Naples, to take the crown of Spain. . June 1, 1908 Of the same (by flying before the British 1030 Of Henry IV. of Germany, Of Stephen 11. of Htingary, sumamed Thunder, Of Albert of Saxony, .... Of Lestus V. of Poland Of Uladislaus m. of Poland, Of Baliol of Scotland, .... Of Otho of Hungary, .... Of Eric IX. of Denmark . . OfEricXm. of Sweden, . Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . Of Christina of Sweden, Of John Casimir of Polemd, . . . Of James n. of England. . Of Frederick Augustus II. of Folamd, . OfPhilipV. of Spain, . . , Of Victor of Sardinia, . Of Charles of Naples, . . . . Of Stanislaus of Poland, . Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1S02 Of Francis H. of Germany, who becomes emperor of Austria onlv, . Ausr. 11. 1304 1114 114-2 1200 1-206 1306 1309 1439 1441 1556 1654 1069 16S3 1704 17-24 1730 1759 1795 from Madrid). . . Julv -29, 1303 Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, ISIO Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct.'-20, 1S13 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1314 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13. 1321 OfPedro of Portusral, . . Mav 2, 1326 I Of Charles X. of France, . Ani. 2. 1330 Of Pedro of Brazil. . . April 7. 1331 Of Don Misruel of Portujal (by leaving the kingdom), . ". . Mav 26, 1334 OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1S40 Of Chrisima of Spain, queen dowaser and queen regent. . . Oct. "1-2, 1340 Of Louis Phillippe of France. Feb. 24. 1^18 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March '^2, 1318 Of Ferdinand L emperor of Austria. Dec. -2. ISiS Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, Aug. 1S19 Their amour so celebrated for its passion and Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his son, ... . March 19, 1808 ABEL ARD AND HELOISE. misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118. when Helolse (a canons dangh- t^r) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his body, and had 7 I4t5 THE world's progress. [aca it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pfere La Chaise, in 1817. ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- tory. Their posterity was called LMtini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being t/jsque origifie, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. Tb* word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally applied to any original inhabitants. ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- gust 1, 1798. See Nile. ABRAHAM. Era of. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- gern, commonly called St. Mungo. lived by similar means to 185 years of age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor- mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Aibano. Gilbert Jackson, of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov, 1841. See instances in Holler's EUmentcB Physiologies; Cornaro; Pricher's Surgical Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. They appeared iu France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — Bossxiet. A BYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics .378 B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- andria about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also 4CH J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 147 Darned as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius mentions 550. of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical academy in France was esta,blished by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal ScJtiety of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal academies : — Marseilles, Belles- Lettres, 1726. Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. Naples, Mossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 15£0 1 Sciences, 1695; Hercutaneum, 1755. New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. • Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. Padua, for Poetry, 1610 ; Sciences, 1792. Palermo, Medical, 1645. Paris, Surbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu« sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. Parma, the Innominati, 1550. Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filir^iti, 1574. Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Mihtary, 1732; the School of Arts, 1764. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; Infecondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi. 1690; English, 1752. Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles- Lettre* 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. Toulon, Military, 1682. Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. Turkey, Military School, 1775. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Venice, Medical, «fec., 1701. Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. Woolwich, Military, 1741. ACCEINTTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis. after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by other grammarians in the various languages. ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achaeus. the son of Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the iEtohans until about 284 b. c. The Achasi were descendants of Achaeus, and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- clidae drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na- tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, ^Egira, ^geum, Bura. Tri- taea, Leontium, Rhypae, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dymse, and Pharae. Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 2( } Philopoemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- val battle, .... 194 American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. American Philosophical Society, 1769. Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1 624. Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 1799. Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. Brussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. Copenliagen, Polite Arts, 1742. Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Dublin, Arts, 1749 ; Science and Literature, 1786 ; Painting. Sculpture, &c., 1823. Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. Florence, Belles- Lettres, 1272; Delia Cms- ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807. Geneva, Medical, 1715. Genoa, Painting, &c.,1751 ; Sciences, 1783. Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural History, 1652; Military, 1752. Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. London : its various Academies are de- scribed through the volume. Lyons, Sciences, 1700 ; had Physic and Ma- thematics added, 1758. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; Painting ana the Arts, 1753. Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. The Achaean league, . . B. C. 281 Fortress of Athenaeum built, . . 228 Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans, and Lysiades killed, . . 226 Battle of Sallacia, . . .222 The Social war begun, . ^ The Peloponnesus ravaged by the .SJio- lians, .... 219 Aratus poisoned at ^Egium. . . 215 Battle of Mantinea; Philopoemen defeats the Spartan tyrant Mechanidas, . 206 Sparta joined to the league, . ISl Tne Achaeans overrun Messenia with fire and sword, . . .182 The Romans enter Achaia, 165 Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 The Achaean league dissolved, . 146 Greece su>^jectea to Rome, apd named the province of Achaia, . 146 Now extinct 148 THE world's mOGRESS. [ada The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that of the Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance to it in their confederacy. ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the diflferent sounds of vibrating strings, and the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, B«rnoulli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. ACRE. St. Jran d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192. after a siege of two years, with the loss of 6 arclibishoi)s, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 'Chris- tians perished. 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the nurder of the nuns, who had mangled their f.ices to repres^ the lust of the Infidels. Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27. 1799. when, baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore Bonaparte relin- quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2 000 in killed and w^ounded, and 3.000 prisoners, while the ]3ritish had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. See Syria and Turkey. ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Pans, in Atiic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2 000 years, was destroyed in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was marked by terraces and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high towers, each at :he distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. ACTITJM. Battlr OF, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, and of JNIarc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate of Antony. 300 of his galleys going over to Cffisar ; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c. This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman empire is commonly dated from this ja'ar. In honor of his victory, the con- queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. aNCTRESSES. "Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- atre at court. — Thcat. Bios:. ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Par- liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been annually large although varying considerably in every session. Between the 4th and lOtli of George fV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed) and 443 rep<>alefl in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at large and 225 to Ireland solely. ADAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. AUM J DICTION ARV OF DATJ-^S. 141) 130. The) assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ. — E^lscbius. This sect, with an addition of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply,'' was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named Tandeme. who, being followed by 3.000 soldiers, violated females of every age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian. named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon. ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sin^ the formation of the government: — First Administration;— 1789 to 1797;— 8 years. Q.'orge Washington, John Adams, Thomas JefTerson. Edmund Randolph, Timothy Pickering, Alexander Hamilton, Oliver Wolcott, Henry Knox, Timothy Pickering, James M'Henry, Samuel Osgood, Timothy Pickering, ToFeph Haber.sham, Edmund Randolph, William Bradford, Charles Lee, Virginia^ Massachusetts, Virginia, do. Pennsylvania, New York, Conneciicut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, April 30, 1789 President, do. 1789 Vice President. Appointed. Sept. Jan. Dec. Sept Feb Sept. Jan. Jan. Sept. Nov. Feb. Sept. Jan. Dec. 2G, 1789 ■) 2. 1794 > Secretaries of S'ata 10, 1795 S 11, 1789 ( Secretaries of the 3, 1795 { Treasury. 12, 1789 7 n '•^"'^ ■ Secretaries of War. 2, 1795 27, 1796 26, 1789 7, 1791 > Post Masters Gen 25, 1795 26, 1789 27, 1794 > Attorneys General 10, 1795 ^ Speakers of the House of Representatives. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut^ 2d do. 1791. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. Second Administration; Massachusetts, Virginia, ' 1797 Vice President. Appointed. Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, -1797 to 1801 ;-4 years. March 4, 1797 President. Timothy Pickering, John Marshall, Oliver Wolcott, Samuel Dexter, James M'Henry, Samuel Dexter, Roger Griswold, George Cabot.* Benjamin Stoddart, Joseph Habersham, Charles Lee, Virginia, May 13, 1800 < Secretaries of Stat« Secretaries of the Treasury. J onathan Dayton, Theodore Sedgwick, Connecticut, {continued in office.) Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 Maryland, {continued in office.) m Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War. Connecticut, Feb.- 3, 1801 S Massachusetts, May 3, 179S ^ Secre'iarie-s uf the Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. Georgia, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen. Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney General. Speakers of the House of Representatives. New Jersey, 5th Congress, '. 797. Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799. Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Burr, George Clinton, James Madison, Samuel Dexter, Albert Gallatin, Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. Virginia, March 4, 1801 New York, do. 1801 , New York, do. 1805 \ Anpointed. Virginia, March 5, 1801 Mass. {continued in office.) Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 ' President. Vice Presideoct Secretary of State. Secretaries of thl Treasury. Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established it 179& loO THE \\0 R LD S TH OG K ESS. [ ADX Henry Dearborn, Benjamin Stoddart, Robert Smith,* Joseph Habersham, Gideon Granger, Levi Lincoln, John Breckenridge, Caesar A. Rodney, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, March 5,] 801 Secretary of War. Md. {continued .n office.) ( Secretaries ol the Maiyland, Jan. 26, 1.S32 i Navy. Georgia, (continued in office.') f Post Masters Ge- Connecticut .Tan. 26, 1892 S neraL Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys GenwaL Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S Speakers of the House of Representatives. North Carolina, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Massachusetts, 7th Congress, 8th do. 9th do. 10th do. 1801. 1803. 1805. 1807. Fourth Administration; James Madison, Virginia, George Clinton, Elbridge GeiTy, Robert Smith, James Monroe, James Monroe,t Albert Gallatin, George W. Campbell, Alexander J. Dallas>, William Eustis, John Armstrong, James Monroe, William H. Crawford, Paul Hamilton, William Jones, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Gideon Granger, Return J. Meigs, Caesar A. Rodney, William Pinkney, Richard Rush, to 1817 ;— 8 yeim. March 4, 1809 President, New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) ? ^. p-„-,,.., *'— 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) \ ^^^ iTe^^-a J Appointed. March 6, 1809 ) Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretaries of StatA Feb. 25, 1815 S Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) Tennessee, " ' Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia, Virginia, Secretaries ol the . Treasury. New York, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, 9, 1814 Oct. 6, 1814 ) March 7, 1809 i •'^"" if' liln > Secretaries of War. 15^ Sept. 27,1814 March -2, 181 March 7, 1809 Jan. 12, 1813 Dec. 19, 1814 Connecticut, (continued in office.) Ohio, March 17, 1814 Delaware, (continued in office.) i Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys GeneraL Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S Secretaries &. the Navy. Post Masters Ge- neral. Joseph B. Varnum, 'ienry Clay, Henry Clay, Langdon Cheves, Henry Clay, Fifth James Monroe, Danie D. Tompkins, John Q. Adams, William H. Crawford, Isaac Shelby ,t John C. Calhoun, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Smith Thompson, Samuel L. Southard, Return J. Meigs, John McLean, Richard Rush, William Wirt, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. Kentucky, 12th do. 1811. Kentucky, ( ^g^j^ ^^ J 1812. South Carolina, Kentucky, 14th do. / 1814. 1815. Administration ;— 1817 to 1825 ; —8 years. Virginia, New York, March do. Massachusetts, Georgia, Kentucky, South Carolina, Massachusetts, (continued in o New York, Nov. 1 New Jersey, Dec. Ohio, (continued in office.) do. Dec. 9, 1823 Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 1817 1817 Appointed. March 5,1817 March 5, 1817 March 5,1817, Dec. 16, 1817 ' '^818 ' 1823' President. Vice President. Secretary of State; Secretary of Treaa Secretaries of Waj. Secretaries of the Navy. Post. Masters Ge- neral. Attorneys Genera: • Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of Massachusetw., Secretary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appintments ; and Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's ailmi' oistration. t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary cf War. ' Isaac Shelby declined the appomtment. adm] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 151 ADMINII?rRATIONS (United States) contirmed. Speakers of the ITotise of Representatives. Henry Clav, Kentucky, 15th Congress, HemyClay, S®"''",^r'^; i I6th do. John W. Taylor, New York, ^ Philip P, Barbour, Vn-gmj^ Jgh do. Henry Clay, 1817. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1823. John Q. Adams, John C Calhoun, Henry Clay, Richard Rush, James Barbour, Peter B. Porter, Samuel L. Southard, John McLean, William Wirt, John W. Taylor, Andrew Stephenson, Sixth Administration; Massachusetts, South Carolina, -1825 to 1829 ;— ' March 4 do. 1825 Appointed. March 8, 1825 March 7,1825 years. 1825 President. Vice President. Seventh Administration ; Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, Kentucky, March 8, 1«25 Secretary of State. Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825 Sec'yoftheTreas'y Virginia, do. New York, May New Jersey, (continued in office.) Ohio, (continued in office.) Virginia, (continued in office.) Speakers of the House of Representatives. New York, 19th Congress Virginia, 20th do. ic 1829 to 1837 ;— 8 years. March 4, 1S29 President. 1^ ( Secretaries of W-ir. Sec'y oftheNavy. Post Master Gen Attorney General. 1827. John C. Calhoun, INIartin Van Buren, Martin Van Buren, Edward Livingston, Louis McLane, John Forsyth, Samuel D. Ingham, Louis McLane, William J. Duane, Rosrer B. Taney, Levi Woodbury, John H. Eaton, Lewis Cass, John Branch, Levi Woodbury, Mahlon Dickerson, William T. Barry, Amos Kendall, John McP. Berrien, Roger B. Taney, Benjamui F. Butler, Andrew Stevenson, Andrew Stevenson, John Bell, South Carolina, New York, New York, Louisiana. Delaware. Georgia, Penj:isylvania, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Ohio, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New .Jersey, Kentucky, Kentucky, Georgia, Maryland, New York, ^^' 1833 i ^^*^® Presidents. Appointed. March 6,1829^ 1831 183:3 1835^ March 6, 1829' 1831 1833 1833 1834 March 9, 1829' 1831 March 9, 1829 ) Secretaries of the \fi\ Navy. March 9, 1829 ) Post Masters Ge- 1835 S neral. March 9, 1829 i 1831 > Attorneys General. 1834 S ■ Secretaries of Stale, Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Virginia, 21st Congress, Virginia, 22d do. Pennsylvania, -1837 to 1841 -A years. 1829. 1831. 1835 Eighth Administration ;- M-irtin Van Buren, Richard M. Johnson, John Forsyth, Levi Woodbury, Joel R. 1 oinsett, Mahlon Dickerson, Jame-s K. Paulding, Amos Kendall, John M. Niles, Benjamin F Butler, Felix GrunJy, Henry D. Gilpin, James K. Polk, Robert M. T. Hunter. New York, Kentucky, 1837 I'resident. 1837 Vice President. Appointed. Georgia, (continued in office.) Secretary of State. New Hampshire, (continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury, South Carolina, 1837 i . - „, New Jersey, (continued in office.) > Secretanes of Waf New York, 1838 > Kentucky, (continued in office.) ? Post Masters Ge- Connecticut, 1840 < neral. New York, (continued in office.) ) « . Pennsylvania, > Attorneys GenenL Pennsylvania, 1839 ) Speakers of the House of Representatives. Tennessee, l®''* Virginia. '**• 152 Tin: WORLDS PROGRESS [ ADl, iLDMINISTRATlONS (Uxitkd ?-;at!;s) continued. Ninth Admimsxration;— 1841 to 1845. Wiliiam II. Harrison, Ohio, Died one month aftc inauguration, and Virginia, John Tyler, Siimuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, New Jersey, North Carolina, -4 years l&ll 1841 ]!^1 1^1 Appointed. 1841 Preside tt. ^ Vice Presi tent, ( became ac.ing Pre§, ? Acting V. Pres. and S Pres. Senate. Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, 1841 Thomas Ewing, Ohio, 1841 Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, 1841 John C. Spencer, New York, 1841 John Bell, Tennessee, 1&41 John C. Spencer, New York, 1841 George E. Badger, North Carolina, 1841 AbelP. Upshur, Virginia, 1841 David Henshaw, Massachusetts, 1841 Francis Grancrer, New York, 1841 Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky, 1841 John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, 1841 Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina 1841 Jolm Nelson, Maryland, 1841 Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives. John White, Kentucky, John W. Jones, Virginia, Tenth Administration ; —1845 to 1849 ; James K. Polk, George M. Dallas, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, years. 1845 1S45 Appointed. 1845 1845 1*15 > Secretaries of Stat*, 1 Secretaries of th* ] Treasuiy. > Secreuries of War. 1 Secretaries of the ] Navy. ) Post Masters Gea S eral. > Attorneys Genera,'. 1841 1843 President. Vice President. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, William L. Marcy, New York, George Bancroft, Massachusetts, John Y. Mason, Virginia, Cave Johnson, Tennessee, John Y. Mason, Virginia, Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, Speakers of the House of Representatives, John W. Davis, Indiana, Robert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts, Ei>BVENTH Administration Secretary of State. Secretary of Treas Secretary of War. 1845 I Secretaries of the 1847 \ Navy. 1845 Post Master Gen. 1847 ( •A^^o'^sys General 1845. 1847. -1849 to 1853 ;-4 years. Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, John M. Clayton, William E Meredith, William B Preston, George W. Crawford, Thomas Ewing, Jacob Col lamer, Reverdy Johnson, Howell Cobb, Louisiana, New York, Delaware, •Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, Ohio, Vermont, Maryland, Speaker of the House of Representatives. Georgia, 1849 1&19 Appointed. 1849 1849 1849 1849 1849 1849 1849 President. Vice President Secretary of State. Soc'y of'Treasury. Sec'y of the Navy. Secretary of War. Sec'y of Interior.* Post Master Gen. Attorney General. ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from the accession of Henry "VTII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — KING HENRY VIII. | Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . ?529 Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer . . . .532 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. fslote. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several admim* nations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made b^ the Presidents^ were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senat« ♦f the United Suites." Am. Almanac, &c. M I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 153 Anc" ord Cronr.well (earl of Essex) . 1534 Uu^e of Norfolk, carl of Surrey, and bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 KING EDWARD VI, The earl of Hertford, continued John., duke of Northumberland . 1552 dUEEN MARY. Biehop Gardiner . . 1553 Q,TJEEN ELIZABETH, Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord Burleigh; chief minister during al- most the whole of this long reign Earl of Leicester, a favorite , .1564 Earl of Essex . . . .1538 Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 KING JAMES. 1. Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North ampton. ... Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches ter, a^^ericards earl of Somerset Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar- nuess, and duke of Buckingham 1608 1612 1615 KING CHARLES I. Duke of Buckingham continued Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 Archbishop Laud, earl of StraflTord, lord Cottinston . . . 1640 Earl of Essex . . .' . 1640 Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 [The civil war commenced, and all went into confusion. J KING CHARLES II. Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 Lord Ashley, Lo~rd Arlington, Sir T. Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created earl Shattesbury, and Sir Thomas Osborne .... 1673 Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir William Temple . . . 1677 Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 KING JAMES II. Earls of Svmderland and Tyrconnel, sir George afterwards lord .leffries 1685 Lord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- dleton, visct. Preston , . 1G87 KING WILLIAM III. AND Q,UEEN MARY II. Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- wards duke of Leedp, «fec. . . 1688 The earl of Sunderland, &c. . .1695 Charles Montagu, aftericards earl of Halifax, earl of Pembroke, viscount LoQsdale, earl of Ozford, &c. . 1697 Q,TTE-^N ANNE. lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord Pembroke, duke of Buckingham Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 171 lu Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, diikcb of Marlborough and Newcastle . 17u? R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 1710 Earl of Rochester, ord Dartmouth, and Henry St. John, esq. afterwards visct. Bolmgbroke ; lord llarcourt . 17U Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 17 1< KING GEORGE I. Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, marquess of Wharton, earl oi Or- ford, duke of Marlooroueh. visct. Townshend, ility of the state, and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for the first time for centuries, in 1797. ADULTERY", ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx, 10. This law was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal of the waters of bitterness, Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgua punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his OAvn chil- dren. — Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. .\DULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It w»s punished by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stoise. The ears and no.se were cut off under Canute. 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650; but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 1564. — Anderson. k F'VERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of oOZ. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1751. — Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 8s. Qd., and in Ireland at 2j. 6-'/. each adtertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England to Is. 6rf., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833 I •''6 THE world's PRlGRESS. T AFP iEDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There wer^ three de^ree^ of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices of the peace. The plebeian ajdiles presided over the more minute affairs ol the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all the provisions of tlie city, and executed the decrees of the people.— Farro. -ENIGMA. The origin of the genigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews borrowed tht'ir senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The philosophy of the Druids was altogether aenigmatical. In Nero's time the Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond ii an elegant specimen of the ainigma : — Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. iEOLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. Id63 ; but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his. time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that hydrj^gen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air. 1777. The true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- golfier, 1782.— See Balloon. Julius Caesar, on account of the chalky clifls upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it. and held possession about 400 years. On their quitting it. it was successively invaded by the Scots. Picis, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in 1792. A.T.BUERA, Battle of, b tween the French, commanded by marshal Soult 160 THE world's PROGRESa. [ ALU aud the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord Beresford, May 16. 1811, After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men previously to their retreat. ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may bo had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost '? The Arabians are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, about A.D. 410. — I<^ab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Ri/mer's Fad. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, aflSrming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God sent it to their prophet by the Angel Grabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. — See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &c. ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi- cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry HI. may be said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in tho United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. AliE AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes.— Tl in England, by Richard Pynson .... 1497 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . '644 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500.000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this company, and the two universities. The stamj) duty on almanacs was abolished in England, 1834. ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- se)ia to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the Phauiician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks avplia^ and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- lowing : — A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, H, P, 2, T, T. Those letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, X, *, E about 1224 b. c. ; and Simoni^es added Z, Y, H, n, about 489 b. c. — Ariindellaii Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the diflerent nations contain the following number of letters : — English . . 26 German . .26 Greek . 21 Turkish . . 33 French . .23 Sclavonic .27 Hebrew . . 22 Sanscrit . 50 Italian .20 Russian . . 41 Arabic . 28 and Spanish . . 27 Latin . . 22 Persian . . 32 Chinese . . 214 ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface^ written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. AIiTARS. were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks the wor.ship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Slxtus I. in 186 ; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylv^ester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 034. — Slowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- ported their use. ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 j was brought to perfection in England, in J 64 THE WORLl S PROGRESS. [ AilS 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sul^ hu- ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. \ MAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend* ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- mony was a shameful servitude ; but to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumtus Curtiui. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1281 b. c. The Amazons were con- stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned ofl' whence their name from the Greek, nan and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris. visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him. in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred females Avere in her train. — Herodotus. AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- tries they have great and peculiar ])rivileges ; and in England, among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — Phillips. AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- dom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favor of each opinion. AMEN, This word is as old as the He^brew itself In that language it means Irue, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- plies, so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. AMENDE HoNORABLR, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous ]ninishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender Avas delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped off a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; he was then led into court and was obliged to pray pardon of God. the king, and the country, Deatli or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. AMM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 65 AMERICA: See United StaUs. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d, 1492, on the 11th of Octo. ber, on which day he came in sight of St, Salvador. See Bahavia Islands. This grea* navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. Newlbundland, the first British colony in this quarter of the world, discover- ed by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista 1497 Virginia, the first English settlement on the main land . . . 1607 New England, the second, by the Ply- mouth company . . .1624 New York, settled by the Dutch . . 161^ [For other occurrences, see Tabular Views — United States. See also separate states, Maine, &c. AMEKICA. SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion of the Western World, had the largest aixl richest share of it. When they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530. they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the;- were soon subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July. 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United States, chiefly tbrongh the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823. etseq.; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &.c. AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the nimiber three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- logy. Sermons, &c.. 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80 ; Pohtics and Law. 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are rej^eated.] AIMETHYSTS. When this ^^tone w-as first prized is not known ; it was the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling Avine mixed with water. One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- mond in lustre valued at 18 000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemviarum. Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. AMIENS. Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France. Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed on March 27. 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for England. Jose])h Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpen- ninck for Holland. AlklMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated * Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records many instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .Jamaica, he says, they hanged ihe unre- si.?tiiig natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrcw the limb of a human bein? to f^ed their dogs, and have seen them the next "day return a quarter o\ aimiher victim to the lender!" 166 THE world's progress. [ana by Jephtliah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- quished; and Antiochus the Great tookRabboath their capital, and destroyed all the Avails, 198 b. c. — Josephus. A3INESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends ; having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 b. c— Hume's Essays. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all aflfairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, which was composed of the Avisest and most virtuous men of some c'ties of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyong. and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. — Suidas. AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in full senate " Omnium mulienim viruvi, et omnium vironim imdierem." In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and OA^al buildings, the people a.ssembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its building, as a city, wa** commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was built in" 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia. Avhen that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder,'in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety ; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Arnong the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. OvAd. Among the Ciiristians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. ANA BAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was knoA\Ti in England )>efore 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- tists of Munster (who are of course, properly distinguished from the existing mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- ance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster they called Mount Zi-on and one Mathias. a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, anci tNG j DICTIO^JARY OF DATES. 167 they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than tlu not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. ANACllEONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in hif eighty-tifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour. " Quid est Veritas 7^' we have this admirable anagram, "-Est vir qui adestP The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — Henault. ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua vi. 17) Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. t>uch ecclesias- tical den-mciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic countries to this day. — Ashe. ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy : they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living- criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodi«s of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. — Freind's History of Physic, ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, Avho impose voluntary pim- ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS FOR SHIPS are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost i;450. — Phillips. I NEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. fi NGEl JC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The Angdici were instituted by Arigelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191 I'he Ansellco', an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louis« Torolli, A. D 1534. 158 THE world's progress. [ant ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of an^^els. Some Avill have it to have been at the same time with our world ; otliers, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion, — Cave'. Hist. Literal. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, nsr COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 65. ^d. in the reign of Henry VL, and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 15G2. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hand.s of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 143L — Wood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Trcatyse of Fijsshinge, the first book printed on angling, appeared in 1496, Isaac Walton's book was printed in 1653. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at Vienna, about 177-1 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The etfect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- lage near Sleswick called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Utta, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792.— See Britain. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. Burnet. ANNO DOMINI ; in the yeax of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of onr Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See Era. Charles III. of G«^vmany was the first sovereign who added " in the year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879, ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west and 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American Exploring Expeditions, under D Utville and Wilkes, respec- tivel}' on the same day, Jan. 19 1810; a coincidence the more singular, as the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1830. A^TEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at t.hf ANT J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 169 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, wouM rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was ca4:)able of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multii)lication only; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- ries that preceded the Flood : — I. . 10 V. . 2,560 IX. . . 6.55,360 XIII. . . 167,142,160 II. . . 40 VI. . . . 10.240 X. . 2,621,440 XIV. 671,0SS,640 III. . . 160 vn. . 40,960 XI. . 10,485,760 XV. . 2,684,354,460 IV. WO VIII. . 163,840 XII. . 41,^3,010 XVI. . 10,737,418,211 This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest e.stimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. WTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiei-s, and St. Ambrose, were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — Lengkt. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea Islands, &c. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30. and Jeremiah iv. 30. and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is .suffi- cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold that crimes are not crimes w^hen committed by them, that their own good works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. ANTIOCH. built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one day, 100 000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 6492 years b. c. VTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that ant:- pedes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz. legate o\ pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes island. — Brookes. ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 8 170 THE world's PROGhESS. [ APO credit, A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden. Stowe, and others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- ceived its cliarter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c.. under the title of Archccologia, in 1770. The Society oi Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New-York, an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases then? from prison, Jan. 27, f847. ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. T.iis doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it was adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Avians, Socini- ans. and Unitarians. ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the French after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, Avritten in the Isle of Patmos, about A. D. 95. — IrcjicEus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545. et seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Martvr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A. D. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged by the council of Trent, held in \b\^,et seq. — Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c ApolHnarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. APOLLO. Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnae, 4RA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 17 i built 434 B. c. during a period in which pestilence raged, ^^as burn' iu a. d. 362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lcnglet. APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostles Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great "while after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 300. Thej^ wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- ual sisters, preaching against the growing corrui)tion of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the tirst who paid divine honors to their great men, and the Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begim at Rome by Augus- tus, in favor of Julius Caesar, b. c. 13. — T'dkmoiit. AITEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817- a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16. 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the statute book, 59 George III., 1819. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introduced Jamiarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water. AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the Appian-v:aij. about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362. and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara- 172 THE world's progress. [ aeo cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. ARBELA, JBattlk of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codoraanus. which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b.c. The army of Darius consisted of 1.000.000 of foot and 40 000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7^000 horse. — Arrian The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis. and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. * RCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- selves of longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in theii manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, a;i being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery f hey honored him as a god 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty- live kings, whose liistory is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of militciry glory, although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by CEno- trus into Italy, 1710 b.c. and the country in which it settled was afterwards called Magna (rrcBcia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. AliCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after the arriv^al of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- terbury, A. D. 596. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- con, who attended on the bishop, without any power; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532, ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye." struck it. and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previou.sly to a. d. 440, and Ha. rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow? of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which kille(i the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- ard II. 1397. — Stmoe. The citizens of London were formed into companiea of arclrers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporal* 4flG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 173 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henrv VIU. 1538, — Northou/i's History of London. A.RCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino were magnificent. ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the TjTians, about 1100 b. c. Their Kuig, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 e.g. The ait passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engagtid during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 b. c. ARCOLA, Battle of, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the Austrians imder field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12 000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four fiigs, and eighteen guns. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin'' s Bay. For the subsequent and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., ^qq No7-th-West Passage. AREOPAGIT^. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. - Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pagos, the Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- der of Hallirhotius. who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. ARGENT ARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought iu Alsace, between the Alknvanni and the Romans, the former being defeatecl by the latter with the los.s of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a, d. 37&, — Dufresnoy. ARGONAUllC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship w.^s called Argo, from its builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. AHGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years bo iTi THE world's progress. [ ARK fore the first 01j'nii)iad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder wer« called Inachida. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclidse took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards 9. republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Euripides. Inachus founds the kingdom . B. c. 1856 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . 180'^ Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 The city of Argos built by Argus, son ofNiobe 1711 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his father, and reigns .... 1641 Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes part of the Icingdom, and calls it af- ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 " " Fl " Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- crificed theirs. i'Siee Flambeaux) -B.C. 1425 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose ixfe had been preserved by his wife, de- throne? Danaus . . , . ! 425 Reign of Abas ... 1384 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- sius 1361 Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 136i Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- cenae {which see.) .... 1313 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a, d. 1686. It was lost to the Turks in 1716, since Avhen it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king. January 25, 1833, See Greece. AJIIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny L^e divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de VHeresie. ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050— into Eng- land. 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte Snpjndandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to.be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territorv in 1819. and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves AftM] DICTIOr'ARY OP DATES. l/A AHMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C' volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis« persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The Englisb lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. A.RMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444:. ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- ers, December 16. 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 234T B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- menia, fell to the kings of S.vria. The Armenians Avere the original wor- shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis. to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage. — Martin's Memoires sur V Armenie. City of Artaxarta built . . b. c. Tigranes the Great reigns He is called to the throne of Syria, as- sumes the fastidious title of " King of Kings," and is served by tributary princes . . . . .83 Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 He is restored to his throne, and dies.— Blair .1 Reign of Venones . . a. D. 16 Zenon reigns , . . .18 Tigranes IV. reigns Tigraaes defeated by Lucullus . 69 He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 Again defeated, and lays his crown at Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power the feet of Pompey . . 66 j paramount in Armenia , 62 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . .54 Armenia reduced to a Persian province Anavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- | under Sapor ... 365 lius Caesar . . . . 48 | Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against j Irruption of the Turks . . 755 Marc Antony . . . 36 I Agam made a Persian province, under Antony subdues, and sends him loaded | UfFan Cassanes . . , 1472 with silver chains lo Egypt, to grace | Subdued by Selim H. . . 1522 his triumph . . . .34 Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 The Armeman soldiers crown his son, Surrender of Erzeroura . July 1829 Artaxias .... 33 (See Syria.) ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- .spondence with Europeans. ARMTLLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a maimer that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 176 THE world's progress. [arm natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It ii said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c. ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espousfe the principles of the Church of England: especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as tbeii necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines ol the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other iefence 'ban the sliield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail. Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, not only for battle, but for mourning Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees. Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is .commem- orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present da3^ — Meyrick. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul. 1093 b. c. — Euscbius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standmg army, existing as such in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles U. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310 000 ; Prussia. 350.000 ; Tur- key. 450 000 ; Austria, 500.000 ; Russia, 560 000 ; and France. 680.000. ARMY. BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums vot«d for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official records : 17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . sum vote J JE7,847,000 1800, War ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.000 1810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26.748i000 1815, Last year cf the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39.150,000 18'20, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253,000 1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 In 1845. the array, of all ranks numbered 100,011 men: and the sum voted was jC4,487 753. See Militia and Volunteers. ASS I DICTIONARY GF DATES. 177 AJITILLERY. The first piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery V was used, it is said, 'by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1S77.—: Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543. — Rijmi 's Fadera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Iryn. ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this society, and was re})eated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19, 1824. — See British Museum ; British Institution ; National Gallery, <^c. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B. c. and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of Pares, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. 'i'he characters are Greek, of which there are two translations: by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676. — See Kidd's Tracts ; and Porson's Treatise, 1789. ASCALON, Battj>e of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40.000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cinerum, or Ash-Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia M^as the first quarter of the world peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. AjSPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809. and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 men. and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial efiect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- bury anil others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond, Surrey, af 178 THE world's progress. L ass he came fVora liuni ing. The object of the conspiracy was i o have been con« summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. — Hist. England. \SSASSINS. A tribe in Syria,, a famous heretical sect among- the Mahometans, settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the title of ''Ancient of the Mountains.''^ ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furu^eh 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- dencies. — Alison. ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted in 813. ASSURANCE, ^reinsurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Caesar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it. appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 1601. — Molhieaux' s Lex Mercatoria. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- rians of Babylon. Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Ijcnglet. The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her 6; xl I.— Blair - - B.C. 22^7 dominion.—Lenglet - b. c. 2017 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, Astronomical observations begun by and India. — Lenglet - - - 1975 the Chaldeans - - - 2234 I The Arabs seize Nineveh • • - 1937 Belus reigns 55 years.— C/sAer - 212^ I Belochus, the last kmg of the race of Ninus, son of Bolus, reigns m Assyria, and names his capital after himself - 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- lishes what is properly the Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of empire. — Blair - - 2059 Somiramis enlarges and embellishes Ninus.— B/azr .... 1446 He makes' his daughter, Artossa, sur- named Semiramis U., hia associate on the thi-one . . - • 1433 Belatoves reigns .... 1421 The prophet Jonah appears m iJie streets of Nineveh —Blair • ■ 840 Nineveh taken by Arbaces - . 88S AST ] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1/i* A.SSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy. Phul the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c. and the kingdom continued until 621 b.c, wheuSarac, or Saraanapalus II.. i)eing besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by the Turks in 1637 a. d, — PriesLley. Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- m neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- lem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army.— - 770 Isaiah xxxvii. . b. C- 7\.% [Commentators suppose that this mes- senger of death was the fatal blast 740 known in eastern countries by the name oi Samiel.] Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes Babylon.— Z^/a/r - - - 690 He invades Judea —Blair ■ . . 677 721 Holofernes is slain by Judith ■ - 677 Saosduchinus reigns.— C/sAer - -667 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 PV.ul raised to the throne, about the year. — Blair ■ - b.c. He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword. — Blair: 2 Kings XV. 19, 20 - . ■ Tidath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes great con- quests .... Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports the people, whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. —Blair He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years. — Blair ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The early history of astrology in England is very little known ; Bade was addicted to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee. the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- vanced in Chaldaea under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, ana believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c— began his new cycle of the moon in 143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- ered, hy Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected^ it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and SpainJ but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. The Alphonsine tables {which see) were composed • - - a.d. 1284 Clocks first used in astronomy, about • 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 The science greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe, about - - - - 1582 True laws of the planetary motions, by Kepler - - - - - 1619 Telescopes and other instruments u.-cd in astionomy, about - - - 1627 The discoveries of Galileo were made a.5)out - - - . . 1631 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk first observed by Horrox, Nov. ^ a.d. 1639 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante.— See Bologna - - - 1655 The aberration of the light of the fixed stars discovered by Horrebow - 1659 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 Map of the moon constructed by Heve- lius 1670 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Halley - . - 1670 Discoveries of Huygens - - . 168i Newton's Principia published, and tb* 180 THE world's progress. [ate ASTRONOMY contimied. system as now taught incontrovertibly | Ilerschel, March 13. — See Georgium, established • - - A. d. 1687 Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- stead 1688 Satellites of Saturn, «fcc. discovered by Cassini 1701 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 1780 Uranus and satellites discovered by Siidus . - - - 1781 Mecanique Celeste, published by La Place 1796 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 • 1801 Pallas, by Dr. Gibers, March 28 - 1802 Juno, by Hardins, Sept. 1 - • - 1804 Vesta, by Gibers - - - 1807 Neptune, by Le Verrier • - - 1846 Unued States astronomical expedition to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from lis than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 milUons of millions of miles ; so that a cannon-hall would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for those who, bj' accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This security was abolished a. d, 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. Athanasius. who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- tury. — Du Pill. ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscietwiares, because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — lA>rd Bacon. " Si 4TT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181 Dieit n'etistait pas il faudrait Vinventer ;" If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. ATHENE A. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor oi Minerva. One of them was called Panathenaea, and the other Chalcea ; they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. \\ HEN^UM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athenaea were at. Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — T'illei/io Ill's Life of Adrian. ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent ruius yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or Noah's flood") that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, and. lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21. ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, stathig it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; its density and elasticity by Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele. Lavoisier, and Cavendish , and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. .ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns: two witnesses ;n cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 WDliam III. 1694-5. — Blacksto/ie. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683. was reversed under William, in 1689. Tlie rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least intrresting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wl i was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. ATTILA, suriiamed the " Scourge of God''' and thus distinguished for his con- quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro 182 THE world's progress. [Aur man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the province* He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico. about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills agaiast the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William de Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Bealson. ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a laAv reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 ''practis- ing lawyers'" in the United States is given in the Lawyers Directory^ 1850. ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he. had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. AUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twentj^-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- ony, his son. and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Aug.sburg. AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Minister and Ni- meguen. AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is named, was the inventor of augury by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of Augustus Caesar, from M'hom it was named in the year b b. c, because in this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate thrico .Ub \ DICTIONARY OF DATES. Idtx ttiumphed in Rome, subdued Eg-ypt to the Roman empire, and made ac end of til 3 civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March. AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle. Alexander of Rus- sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec, 26, same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Oi a population of twent)^-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d. 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire^ Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in the German language implies. Rodolph, count of Hapsbure, seizes Austria from Bohemia, and makes himself archduke - - - 1273 Revolt of Switzerland from the house of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to three crowns — the imperial, and those of Hungary and Bohemia; his family still possess the empire, - 1438 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of that province . -1477 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. ol' Austria with the heiress of Ara- gon and Castile - - - 1496 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Neiherlands. and their dependen- cies, abdicates, and retires from the world, leaving his German dominions to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II.— See ^jiain - - - 1557 The Protestant princes of Germany, being oppressed by the house of Aus- tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden, and this leads to the treaty of Westphalia - - -1648 Leopold I reigns.— See Germany - 1658 Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, who marries the celebrated queen of Hungary, Maria Ther';i^, daughter of the deceased emperor, Charles VI, - 1745 Reign of Joseph II. - - - 1765 Religious toleration granted - - 1776 The emperor controls the pope - 1782 Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790 Reign of Francis II. - - -1792 Austria beconie.<; a distinct empire, and Francis II. of Germany lakes the title of L of Austria - Aug, 9, 1804 The emperor issues his declaration against France - - Aug 5, 1805 Napoleon, after many victories, enters Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 Vienna evacuated by the French, Jan, 12, IBOe They again capture it - May 13, 1809 ButVestore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, the daughter of the emperor - - April 1, 181C Congress at Vienna • Oct. 2, 1814 Treaty of Vienna , Feb. 25, 1815 Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835 New treaty of commerce with England July 3, 1833 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; freedom of the press and national guard granted by the emperor March 13- 1H« The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- lition of the censorship and conven tion of the states ; the people demand more, and are refused March 18, ''' Milan revolts, and contends successfully with the soldiery - March 23, " Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia March 23, • Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion March The emperor retires to Innsbruck May 13, «♦ Austrian army under Radctsky holds in check Charles Albert of Sardinia, m . Lombardy - - May — " Is defeated jind driven to Mantua May 29. * 184 THE world's PROQRESb. [ AZO AUSTRIA, cojitinued. Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his oroiher, summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; May 20, 1818 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph InsuiTection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 184fc blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1841 detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it MarcK 30, " The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, ' • minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus- the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , '" measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, " Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, '• The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the city and mastera it Nov. 2, '• Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE. WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with beech- trees, and he called it therefore Fayal; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called, Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812. BAC ] DIG :iONARY OF DATES. 18S B. BABEL, THE Tower op, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. Tht temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one r f them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb ( if the founder, Belus (the Nirarod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company of the god. — Blair. FiABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and dehver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, Empire or, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b.c. — Lenglet. Ninus of Ass3Tia seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 b.c. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assyria. and names his capital after himself, Nmeveh.—Lenglet • - b. c. 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - • - 604 He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 He is driven from among men - - 569 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Nineveh - - -2245 The astronomical observations are be- gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans.— Blair; Lenglet - - -2234 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- pire over the neighbormg states, de- feats the Babylonians, and makes them tributary. — Usher - -2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, ' Taken by Darius.— f/s/ier • - 511 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidse. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is scarcely known to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist. BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called Dlomjsia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacchanalia. BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vnssius. After twenty-five years of ago, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 12^. 10s. for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695 Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants in 1785, BACKGAMIVON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly '^ne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b. c. It is IS6 THE world's progress. [ BRl stated by some to liave been invented in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. — Henry. BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrerdered to the French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- ringen, who died a. d. 1074, From Christopher, who united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation, in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right of public meeting. Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13. 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate, in his state- ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North, West Passage. BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Turks. — Blair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece ol Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, a. d. 51. BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized for the crown of England. 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- rendered to Captain Rogers. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was laken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and IMary and in later reigns. BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin imder the name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There are still some places v;here the chief-magistrate is called bailiff as the high bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-bail iff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good b^ havior, —Blackstone. BaL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187 BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, antf control ambition ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian poli- ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France— Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power was finst recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- duced ballads into England. "The harp M^as sent round, that those might sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Mahnshury . Canute com- posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Vi7ier. BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesmar, has said, 'Give me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. Vlll. of Eng. &Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Giiicciardini. In the next century, they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfler, in 1783, whenRozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pil&tre Desrozier and M. Romaiu perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23.000 feet. Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an expeiimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of th^ Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city in 1797. Pojmlation in 1790. 13 603; in 1810, 35.583; in 1830, 80.625; iii 1840, 102 313. including 3.199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city commemorates its successful defiiuce against the attack of the British under general Ross. Sept. 12, 1814. BALTIMORE, Battle of. between tlie British army under general Ross and tho Americans; the British in niak'g jm attack upon the town were unsuc>- I 83 THE world's progress. [ Ban cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower ol London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T. laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the, mint, in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu- able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — Bank of Venice formed - -1157 Bank of Hamburgh . - 1619 Bank of Geneva 1345 Bank of Rotterdam -1635 Bank of Barcelona -1401 Bank of Stockholm -1688 Bank of Genoa 1407 Bank of England - -ew Bank of Amsterdam -1607 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 18i« BANK OF ENGLAND, (See preceding article.) originally projected by a mer chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- sideration of 1,200.000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and tioo pounds were put into circulation. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821, For a number of years the financial mea- sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- culation is as follows : — . JE26,803,520 - 27,174,000 - - 20,620,000 - 18,21.j;220 - - 17,231,000 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the buUion in the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, " that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many ot the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., all formed since 1828. See Funds. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. — A new one with cap. of 835,000.000. 1816. The act of Congress rechar- tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sei)t. 23, 1833. Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- sibility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mt 1718 (earliest account) - JEI, 829,930 In 1815 1778 - - 7,030,680 1820 1790 - 10,217,000 1830 1800 - - 15,450,000 1835 1810 - 23,904,000 1840 axr J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 8^ WeDster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter oa their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834. Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Suh-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16» Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of a,V i he Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng« land and New-York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- ture of N. Y, Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended san;.'. month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VTII. 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrui)t may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, passed October 1831. — Statules at Large. NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GKEAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 . - 1725 . 1750 1775- - According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826. there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was. however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Edward of 100,000 English, of w^hom 52.000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised b;y all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was - 38 1 1800 - 1339 1830 - 1467 - 416 1810 - - - 2000 1835 - - - 954 - 432 1820 - - 1358 1^0 - 1308 . 520 1825 . - - 2683 1844 . - - 1064 l90 THE world's PRC GRESS. [^ BAK by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by theii opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. B A.RB ADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed,' by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1781. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of I/ikle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b.c. In England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the barbers pule until lately used b}' them was a burlesque imitation of the former sign BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barbciF, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1161. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in the fifHi . The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See Ballndf!. BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- wick, Easter-day, April 11, \^ll.— Brooks. BAROMETERS. Torricelli. a Florentine, having discovered that no principle uf suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature'3 abhorreiice of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, in 1613, and Descartes explained the phenomena. Wiieel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1696; marine in 1700. BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned to parliament ; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firsi bat] dictionary of dates. 19 J precept to be fbund is of no higher date than the 49th Henry HI., 1265. The first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beauchamp, created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum* moned to parhament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com* pelled him to sign the great charter of our Hberties, and the charter of the forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete armor in the reign of Henry HI. — Beatson. BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- geants, &c. BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the infant. BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled do\9n by the infuriated populace, July 14. 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. "The man with the iron ma&k," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. BaTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred here in one day. 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782, Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Aucbmuty, to whom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. BATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome, Tha therma3 of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla. — Slrabo. BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate < / England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629. and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were div tributed, 1066. 192 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BAT BATTLE, Wager of, A trial by combat, formerly allowed bj English laws, where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of murder, AsJiford v. Tliornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, the court ailowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this mode of trial, 5-9 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. li ATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost efiects of our battering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- building the new edifice in 1675. BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- dier's vigilance by giving him a wsLtch-woi-d.—Lenglet. The following are the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in general history, and are those also that are most commonly referred to : A. D. Berwick ... . 1378 31 Bilboa (^British legion} Dec. 21, 183^ 331 Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 Blackrock (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 3. 1813 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 Blenheim ^Marlborough) Aug. 2. 1704 Borodina - - - Sepi. 7J 1812 Boswoith - - Aug. 22, 1485 Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 Bciyne, Ireland - Bovines (French and Germans) Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, Brandywine - . - Sept. lli Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 Brenau (Azistrians and Bavarians) - 1743 Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 Briar's Creek • ■ - - 1779 Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 Bridgewater (Americans and British) July 25, 1814 Buena Vista (Atner. and Mexicans) Feb. 22, 1847 Buenos Ayres (Popham) (Whitelock) Bunker's Hill Busaco - Browiistown (Canada) Actium (the empire of Rome is con- jirvied to Augustus) • Arbela (Fall of Persia) Ahoukir (Turks) July 26, 1799 Acre (Siege commenced) - Mar. 18, 1799 May 27, ibid Nov. 3, 1840 Adria.iople (Constantine) - 323 Albuera May 16, 1811 Alford (Covenariters) - July 2, 1645 Alexandria (Abercrombie) • Mar. 21, 1801 (^Abercrombie) May 17, 1799 Aiders (Exmouth) - Aug. 27, 1816 (French) July 4, 1830 Alderton Moor - - 1643 As-incourt Oct. 25, 1415 Aliwal (India) Jan. 20, 1846 Almanza,, in Spain April 4, 1707 Amoy ( City taken) - Aug. 27, 1841 Almeida Aug. 5, 1811 Anjou, or Breagne - ■ ■ 1421 Antoign - Aug. 13, 1792 Areola Nov. 19, 1796 Ascalon (Richard I.) ■ Sept. 3, 1191 Assaye ( Wellesley) - Sept. 23, 1803 Auerstadt Oct. 14, 1806 .\ugsburg Aug. 24, 1796 Austerlitz Dec. 2, 1805 Badajos Mar. 11,- 1811 Balkan, passage of the - July 26, 1829 Baltimore Sept. 12, 1814 Bannockburn June 25, 1314 Barnot (Edward IV.) April 14, 1471 Barrosa - Mar. 6, 1811 Bautzen May 20, 1813 Bayonne ■ Mar. 19, 1794 Belgrade - I 1456 - 1717 - Aug. 1777 Bennington (Amer ^ Brit.) Bergen - Apri^ 13, 1759 July 1, 1690 1214 17-04 1777 June 21, 1806 July 6, 1807 June 17, 1775 Sept. 27, 1810 Aug. 8, 1812 B.C. Cannae ( Victory of Hannibal) Carthage (taken by Publitcs Scipio) Choeronea ( Tolmidas) • (Philip) . (Sylla) Cnidos (Lysander killed) - Cranon, in Thessaly Cyzicum .... Sept. 19 and Oct. 2, 1799 rSergen-op-Zoora (taken) ■ - 1747 - Mar. 6, 1814 Berijsina - • - Sept. 7, 1812 Calais taken Calcutta (India) Camden (Amer. 6f Brit.) (Amer. S{ Brit.) • Campo Santo Canton (Bogue forts taken) Castel Nuovo Casiella 216 146 447 - - 338 . 86 - - 394 . 322 . . 406 - Jan. 7, 1558 June 1756 Aug. 16, I78ft April 25, 1781 - 1743 Feb. 26, 1841 Sept. 29, 1806 Apiil 13. 1813 DICT.ONARY OP DATES. 193 BATTLES, continued. Cassano (Prince Eugene) Castlebar (French) - - Aug. 28, Castislione ■ ■ July 2, Castillon, in Guienne • ■ - Charleroi . . . . Charberoi Fleurus • - June 17, Charleston (taken by the British) May 12, Chepultepec (Am.S^Mex.) Sept. 12-14, Chippewa - July 5 and 25, Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, (stormed) - Jan. 19, Clontarf, Ireland Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, Contreras (Anier. and Mexicans) Corunna, (Moore) - - Jan. 16, Cowpens (Amer. df Brit.) CrEiney island (Ainericans and Brit.) June 21, Cressy (Teh Dien) ■ - Aug. 25, Culloden (Pretender) - April 16, Cunnersdorf- - - Aug. 12, Detroit (surrendered) - Aug. 16, Dettingen ( George 11.) - - - Dresden - - - Aug. 26, Dreux. in France - - - - Drogheda (taken by storm) Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) - Nov. 12, Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, — — (King of Scots taken) ■ - — , Siese of, - - - DunganHill- - - July 10, Dunkirk - - • Sept. 7, Dunsinane - - • • Durham, Nevil's Cross Eastport (Americans and British) July Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23. Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15, Erzeroum ( Turks and Prussians) ■ Euiaw Springs Evesham Eyiau Fairfield (Amer. Sf Brit.) Falkirk, (Watoce) - Flatbush, L. Flodden Fontainebleau - Fontenoy Fort du Quesne - French Town, Canada Friedbur^ Friedland Granicus - Aug. 4, Feb. 8, July 22, (Am. ^ Brit.) Aug. 27, - Sept. 9, Feb. 17, April 30, July 9, Jan. 22, June 4, June 14, Germantown - - - Oct. 4, Gisors (Dieu et man droit) Guilford - - - Mar. 16, Halidon Hill, Berwick ■ July 19, Halle (Bernadotte) ■ - Oct. 17, Hanau ( Wrede) ■ Oct. 29, Hastings (Conquest) • Oct. 14, Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, Hochkirchen - ■ Oct. 14, Hoheniinden - • Nov. 3, Ipsus (Antigonus slairi) Ifsus (.110,0(X) Persians slain) A. D. 1705 1798 1796 1453 1690 1794 1780 1848 1814 1814 1812 1812 1039 1837 1848 1809 1781 1813 1346 1746 1759 1812 1743 1813 1562 1G49 1715 1650 1296 1337 1647 1793 1054 1346 1814 1642 1814 1745 1781 1265 1807 1779 1298 1776 1513 1814 1745 1755 1813 1745 1807 B. 0. 334 A. D. 1777 1198 1781 1.3.33 1806 1813 1066 :464 -.758 1800 B. C. 301 333 9 Jamac - - • Mar. i Jemappe • - Nov. b., Jena .... Oct. 14, Ket and Warwick Killiecrankie, Scotland • July 27, Kowno • ■ - Dec. 14, Krasnoi - • • Nov 16, Leuctra - - . - - Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - - Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) —(Austrians) - April 21, Langside • • May 13, Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, Lewes - - - May 14, Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19 Ligny - - Lincoln June 16, Feb. 2, May 19, Dec. 5, May 10, Aug. 27, May 2, Lisle (taken by the Allies) Lissa - . - • Lodi Long Island - Luizen - Lutzingen ( Gustavus slain^i Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) Munda, in Spain • - - • McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) Oct. 13, Malplaquet (Marlborough) Manheim - - - May 30, July 12, . Sept. 23, May 29, • Jan. 31, Jime 14, . Sept. 15, Jul' Mantua • Marengo - Mariguan, Italy Marston Moor - - July 3. iNIexico - - Sept. 12-14, Milan • • - April 27, Minden - - - Aug. 1, Mittau (Swedes and Russians) Mockem - - - April 1, - - - Oct. 14, Mohartz, Hungary • - - - Molwitz - - • April 10, Monmouth (Amer. df Brit.) ■ June 28, Monterey (Mexico) - Sept. 24, Montmorenci - - Aug. 10, Moodkee, India - Dec. 18, Morea ( Castle surrenders) Oct. 23, Moscow (burnt) - Sept. 4, Moskwa - • - Sept. 7, Moscow (retaken) - Oct. 22, Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) Naseby - - - June 14, Newark - - - - - Newbuiy ----- (second battle) - 0(X. 20, New London (burnt by the British) - New Orleans - • Jan 8, Niagara, Fort - - - Nov. Nii?bet - - - May 7, Norfolk (burnt by the British) June Northallerton, (or the battle of the Standard) A. D. 1569 179a 1806 1.549 16J9 1812 1812 B. C. 370 A. D. 1747 1745 J809 1568 1813 1829 1264 1775 S15 1141 1217 1708 1796 1757 1776 1813 16:32 B. C. 363 45 A. D. 1814 1709 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1800 1515 1644 L848 1799 1759 1705 1S13 1813 1687 1741 1778 1S46 1759 1^5 1828 1812 1812 1812 1700 1645 ld44 1613 l&U 1731 1815 1813 1402 1779 1138 194 THE WOR. DS PROGRESS. l„- BATi'LES, continued. Ndrwalk {burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, Novi {Suwarrow) • Aug. 16, .... Jan. 8, Ogdensburg (British and Americans) Feb. 22, Oporto - - - May 11, OtteThmn {Chevy Chase) - - ■ Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, Pharsalia . . . . Philippi {Roman Republic ends) Palo Alto (Is/ o/Amer. 4- Mex.) May 8 Parma {Austrians and French) {Suwarroto)- ■ July 12, Patay {Joa7i 0/ Arc and the English) Pavia {French and . lustrians) Feb. 24, Pensacola {taken bj general Jackson) Nov. 20, Peterwarden • • Aug. 5, Pfaffendorf • ■ - Aug. 15, Pinkey - - - Sept. 10, Plattsburg {Americans and British) Sept. 11, Poitiers - - - Sept. 19, Prague • • - Nov. 9, May 6, Jan. 2, July 8, Dec. 26, .July 28, June 16, Princeton {Amer. ff Brit.) Pultowa {Charles XII.) Pultusk . Pyrenees ftuatre Bras Quebec {or the plains of Abraham) Sept. 13, ■ {death ofMontgomery)Y)&c. 21, . . ■ April 28, ftueenstown {Amer. 6^ Brit.) Oct. 13, Ramilies {Marlborough) - May 23, Resaca de la Palma {Mexico) May 9, Rosbach • - • Nov. 17, - - - Nov. 5, Sackett's Harbor {Americans and British) . . . . Salamanca - - • July 22, San Maretal {Spaniards) Aug. 4, Saratoga {Burgoyne's surrender) Oct. 17, Savannah {taken by the British) Dec. 29, Schwerdnitz - • Aug. 16, Sedgemoor - • • July 5, Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31, Sempach - • - July 9, Seringapatam - - . . . ■ ( Tippoo reduced) - - ( Tippoo killed) May 4,. Shrewsbury • • July 21, Skenesborough • - July 7, Smolensko - • - Aug. 27, A.. D. I 1779 1799 1800 1813 1809 1308 1708 B. C. 48 42 A.D. 1846 17:34 1799 1429 1525 1814 1717 1760 1^7 1814 13.% 1620 1757 1777 1709 1806 1813 1815 1759 i 1775 I 1760 1812 1706 1846 1382 1787 1813 1812 i 1813 ' 1777 I 1778 ; 1762 I 1685 ! 1831 ' 1386 ; 1791 1791 1799 1403 1777 1812 ▲. o. Sobraon {India) - Feb. IC. 1846 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 Si. Albans ( York and Lancasxer) - 1455 {second) - • • • 1461 St. Denis {Montmorenci) • ■ 1567 St Dizier, France - • Jan 27, '814 St. Sebastian -• - May £,1836 Stamford - - - Mar. 13, 1470 Stony Point {taken by the Americans) 1779 Straiton {poet Waller) - May 16, 1643 Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, . 812 Tewkesbury - • May 4, 1471 Thames {Ainerica-t^ and Brit.) Sept. 1913 Thermopylze {Greeks) ■ July 13, 1822 Til Ic-nont {French and Allies) - 1705 Toplitz {Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 . - • Aug. 30, 1813 Tournay . - • May 8, 1793 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 Toulouse - . - April 10, 1814 Towton . - - Mar. 29, 1461 Trenton {Amer. Sr Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 Turin {French and Germans) Ulm .... June 21 {surrendered) - Oct. 29, 1805 Valenciennes - - May 23, 1793 Varna {surrenders) - Oct. 11, lt25 Vera Cruz {taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) March 27, 1847 Villa Franca Vimiera ( Wellington) - Vitioria, Spain 1706 1800 Wagram Wakefield Warsaw April 10, 1812 Oct. 21, 1808 - - 1702 June 21, 1813 July 5, 1809 Dec. 31, 1460 Oct. 10, 1794 Nov. 8, ibid Sept. 8, 1831 {taken') Washington {burnt by the British) Aug. 1814 Waterloo . - June 18, 1815 White Plains {Amer. Sr Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 Nov. 30, ibid Wilna {Poles) Worcester {Charles II.)* June 12, 1831 Sept. 13, 1642 - ' 1651 July 1778 Wyoming massacre York {Canada) captured by Ameri- cans - - - April 27, 1813 York Town {surrender of Cormcallis) Oct. 19, 1781 B.C. Zama {Scipio and Uajinibal) • • 202 Zela. {Coisar : veni,Tidi,vici) • 47 Zeuta, Hungary {Prince Eugene) Zurich . . . - - 1697 - 1799 BAVARIA. House OF. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: this house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of tlie Guel- phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke jf Bavaria by Conrad II.., em- Otho, count Wittelpatch, was in 1624. Bavaria was peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, made duke in 1179: and Maximilian I. elector * This battle and defeat of (Charles put a period to the civil war in England. N. B.— Many of the above battles are described more fully under lach B&« J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 195 erecred into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1806 ; and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- ber recommends freedom of the press, &c.. by almost unanimous vote, Oct. 17, 1817. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, Feb. 9, 1818. Violent movement ai Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of his son, Maximillian XL, March 22, 1818. KINGS OF BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicatad^ 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848. tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian 11. BAITEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066. — Rapln. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to the Norman court and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presCi. ;ed in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon was invented at Bayonne. in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1603, 'with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. BE .\DS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by Dervises and other holy men of the East. They w^ere in general use in Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nuniber of prayers were re- cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler. BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body covered with liair. — Diet, de Trevonx. The great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. BEAUVAIS, Hkroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men. the women under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette. or Laine, particularly distin- guished themselves and the duke was obliged to raise the siege. July 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 196 THE world's progress. [ BKT Beaiivais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of tboirdelivjsrance — Henault. BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry 11. say, in a moment of exasperation, " What an unhappy prince am I. who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220 ; and were taken up and burned in the reign of H( nry VIII. 1539. — Stmoe. BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts. — Whiltaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used in tlie royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on " ale called here.'' one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 183-4 amounted to about 60.000. See Brewers. BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- dance of honey, has been poetically called the '• empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee. or apis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie't America. BEET- ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraflf first produced sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. BEGLTINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modem times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they coull, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch cf the order in 1311. BEHEADING— or Dccollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 1074 when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Sah,io/i's Chron English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particn- DEL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 197 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirtj'-nine miles, 1728, BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgaj, who were conquered by Juliua Cajsar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed into a kingdom in 1831. Became an acquisition of the house of i Austria .... 1477 1 Charles V annexed the Netherlands to the crown of Spain - - - 1556 Seven provinces, under William, prince of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny of Philip II.; freed- - - 1579 The ten remaining provinces are given to the archduke - - - 1598 These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 And three to France - - - 1748 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- wards restored - - - - 1789 The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 Placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange - - -1814 The revolution commences at Brussels Aug. 25, 1830 The Provisional Gavernment declares Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the Dutch a:re di'iven to the citadel, from whence they cannonade the town, Oct. 27, 1830 Belgian independence acknowledged This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty milHons of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- admissible. BELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 1790. BELGRADE. Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was under- taken in May, 1717. under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the Turkish army, of 200,000. approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20.000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered. Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. by the Allied Poweis, announced by VandcrWeyer - - Dec.26, I&30 Duke de Nemours elected kmg; but his father, the kingof France, refuses his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent of Belgium - . Feb. 24, 1831 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected kmg - - July 12, 18.?1 He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 The king of the Netherlands recom- mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] A conference of the ministers of the five great powers is held in Loatjon, which terminates in the acceptance of the 24 articles of pacification • Nov. 15, 1831 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter of Louis Philippe - . Aug. 9, 1832 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 1832 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - April 19, 1839 " Among other instances (be.^sides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, bi.'headed, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Sali-sbury— the latter remarkable for hel resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it ; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- Bued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoai7 head, and at length took it off, aftei mangling the neck anr! shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughtej of George, duke of Clarence, and last of 'bo royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, lbi\.—Hume.. 198 THE world's progress. [ BEW BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish church, used in excommunication, which see. BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the hel] (Dr. Sancroft) and five bishops were suspended for refusins: to take the oaths to "William and Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — ~War7ier's Eccles. Hist. Tlie sees o< Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded in 1846. — See Manchester. BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402. thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Tha see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts. who, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrfe, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- lution 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to bt i.ext to viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London. Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops; the others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- cided in favor of the former who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See CoMtv- dar and Leap Year. BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed it to the Romans. 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took Prusa. its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed Constantinople. BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII.. 1535. in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the black book." BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law o< BLJ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms w^as introduced, and oecame heredi- tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with diflerent figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. — Dugdale. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife. Forfar, and Renferew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1795. — Blanchiment des Toiles. BLENHEIM, Battle of; between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. Fought Aug. 2, 1704:.— Hume. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.— Fm?i^. Bhsters are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aret«us, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD Circulation op the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved afterwards by experiments. 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatl er Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by whom it was fully confirmed. 1628. — Freind's Hist, of Phydc. BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 206 THE world's progress. [ strengtlL 1438. — Renault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles %t the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed tha* the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans>- fusing the blood of young persons, dra^vn from their veins, into those of the infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and prevailed for many years, till the most fatal efiects ensued from the opera- tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in Englaal (but the instances are rare) since 182S.— Med. Jour. " One English physi- cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 1691." — Freind's Hist, of Physic. BLOODS CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the regal cro^\^l from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of jESOO per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to hterary ladies, and was originally conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most active promoters of the society was Benjamin StilUngfleet, the distinguished naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. oj Bowijer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the afiairs of trade was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone. a collection of a hundred stories or novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. _ This identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. BOilOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia. Hyantis. Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- dar, He&iod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminoudas, and the accomplished and beautiful Corinna. BOlJ DICTIONARY OF DATES 207 4-r Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 12lf Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages of obscurity follow - - - 1125 ***** Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The- bans defeat the Athenians Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- nians at Leuctra, restores his country to independence, and puts it in a con- dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 37 1 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 338 Alexander destroyed Thebes, tlie B(E0T1A continued. Arriva: of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- mea - - - b. c. 1493 Reign of Polydore - • - 1459 Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, kills him Ui an affray, confirming the oracle as to his death by the hands of his son 1276 OEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- solves her enigmas War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 Here the greatness of this country ends. capital, 335 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres, BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king- was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- ditary. — See Germany. The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are ruled by dukes - • a. d. 550 City of Prague founded - - - 795 Introduction of Christianity - - 894 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III., who spreads devastation through the country - - - 1041 The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, the first king - - - - 1061 The regal title is farther confirmed to Ottoacre I. - ■ - - - 1199 Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his arms into Prussia - - - 1258 Ottoa ;re, refusing to do homage to the emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- quished, and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Camiola - - - 1282 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of silver are first discovered, and agri- culture is encouraged and improved (e? sea.) sla 1284 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen to succeed .... 1310 Silesia is made a province of Bohemi* 1342 King John slain at the battle of Crecj fought with the English - - 346 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which occasions an insurrec- tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed them, is deposed, and the Imperialists are di-iven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the late emperor and kingj and receives the crowns of Bo- hemia and Hungary - - - 14J?7 The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1458 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- diebrad 1471 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown - - 1527 The elector palatine Frederick is diiven from Bohemia - - - - 1618 The crown is secured to the Austrian 1643 1742 1744 1757 1775 1806 family by the treaty of Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia Prague taken by the Prussians - The memorable siege of Prague Revolt of the peasantry The French occupy Prague See Gernumy. BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be i)unished by boil- ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th« same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 208 THE world's progress. L boo BOLOGNA, Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth century. Taken by the French, i 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles 11., 1661. Granted by Wil- liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were lost. Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. BONDAGE, OR VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See Villain. BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science — Freind's Hist of Physic. BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attains, king of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still more ancient are preserved. BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30Z. ; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices varying from lOZ. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,000^. — Times. II Dccamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260Z.. June 17, 1812.— Phillips. A copy of the " Mazarin Bible." being the first edition and first book ever printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London BOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 in April 1846 for 50^Z. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schaetfer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 1460. See article Devil and Dr. FausLus. The second printed \\as Cicc/o de Officiis, 1466. — Blair, The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of tlie C/iesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vitce, in 1762. Ivuciafi's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — Stowe's Chronicles. The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigrew, (Biblio. Sussex.) the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by John Guttemberg at Mayence; about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe. [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account^books and large volumes introduced 1841. BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- kceping in 1569. — Anderson. BOOK TRADE of Gn^at Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new works published in successive years is thus stated : France. Germany. — - 5,G54 — - 5,926 — - 6,074 The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 65,474, or 1681 each year. England. — The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, from 166G to 1680, was 3,550; e(iiial to 253 yearly;— but deducting the Gt. Brit 1S28 842 ISM - 1,142 1834 - 1,220 Gt. Brit. France. Germany 1836 . 1.332 - — . 7,891 1849 . — . _ . _ 1850 - — - 7,208 . — 210 THE world's progress. [boo reprints, i)amplilets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new books may be computed at much less than 100. The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts,'' issued during 56 j^ears, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 6,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 each year. The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in* eluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was, according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro- duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamjjhlets, and periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average impression of each volume at 750 copies ; — annual total, 1,125 000 volumes : — value at 95. a volume, je506.250. " The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about je750,000." France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive work {Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie). published in 1827. estimated the number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any thing inferior. The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. Germany. — ^The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, as France, Switzerland Denmark, &.c. This trade began to flourish in 1814; the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7 000. " An Augsburg y)aper states." (says the '■ Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836.) " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000 000 of volumes are annually printed in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names oi more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now living upwards of 50 000 persons who have written one or more books Tlie total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated from 5 to 6 000,000 dollars." Russia. — In the j^ear 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. Siveden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- holm. 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping. and 1 in several otier places. BOOK-TRADE of thr UNITED STATES. The number of new works wh'ch appeared in ihe United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formir- Travels - - - 8 - 10 Fine Arts - - - 8 - Miscellaneous works • 59 - ' 43 BOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2 I 1 1,300 volumes and the cost of which may be estimated at $1,220,000. In 1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books published in that year cannot be computed at less than S 1,500,000. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : —originals 1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ;— number of volumes printed (1,000 for each edition), 1,884,000. In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted English worlds have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling estabUshmenta amounted in 1836, to $1,350,000. The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- ported literary productions in 1834 : Original. Reprint. .JrigtncU. Reprint. Education • -73-9 Poetry Divinity - - • 37 - 18 Novels and Tales - 19 - 95 History and Biography - 19 - 17 Jurisprudence - - 20 - 3 Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may be formed from the circumstance, that of some of the most popular com- pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly doubled. [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in tn.e Booksellers^ Advertiser., edited by G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly registei mthe Literary World.] American PuBLiCATiONS—J'anMar?/ to June, 1849. Reprint, i Original. Reprint. 7 j Travels - - - 21 - 7 25 ' Metaphysics - - 3-8 28 I Miscellaneous - -25-10 12 : Law ) 6 ; Juvenile > not ascertained. j Periodical ) 9 For six months - 200 - 128 6 I Total, 328. Tlic number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. BOOT'S. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after theii inv(mtion, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 907 B. c. BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of. one of the most sanguinary in the records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812. between the French and Russians • commanded on the one side by rTi^toleon. and on the other by Kutusoff Original. Education 36 Divinity - - 25 Novels and Tales 18 History - 20 Biography 15 Political Economy 3 Medicine 12 Science . 11 Poetry 11 212 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ BCri 2i0,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See Moscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since tha election of burgesses in the reign of Henry HI. 1265. Burgesses were flrst admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the Irish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by Malcolm m. in 10Q2.— Haydn. BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. Population in 1700, 7000 ; in 1790, 18,038 ; in 1810, 33.250 ; in 1820. 43.298 ; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the.^arl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII.. the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- tests between the "Roses." many of the most ancient families in the king- dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, M^ien the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between 1535 and IGOO. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnreus, the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys- BOU] DlLTiONARY OF DATES. 213 tem, in 1758. At the time of Linnaeus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Biitain. The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and Transportation. BOTTIiES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, France, Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 1804. In that year. Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17. 000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- sion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostook, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army. March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first bounties granted on corn, wei'e in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands. April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti" neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. BOURBON, House of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justlj 214 THE world's progress. [ BOt styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The cro'wn of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- teed by tlie peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that year. — See France. FJOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545, The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Mauritius. BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, Richard II.. (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS. a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland. England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists. about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge. — Memoires de Granimont. BOWS .4ND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- bow was from 300 to 400 yards; the length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING. OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the piigilatus of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage whicli gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- bra] dictionary of dates. 2l£ Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November — endowed 1691. BOYNE, Battle of, between king William in. and his father-in-law, James 11.^ fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France, The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip U. of Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 — again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. Those of pearls and gold Avere worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on Avhich this family continues to reign. — Abbs Vertot. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- ments. — Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. BRANDENBURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Bo.nber, which signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry L, surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- stowed the gov(irnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title ol Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fel! to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 216 THE world's progress. [ BRB and silvei with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible sa>s, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du t%-esnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He. called it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. Th« g< "Id mines were first opened in 1684 ; and the diamond mines were discov- ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — See Portugal. BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hisv. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Itmocents, a. d. 1594. — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top. and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. Tlie invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793 and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho* norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other coun- tries, and at length it became general. BRlJ DICTIONARY OP DATES. 217 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. RRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern. who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody od both sides, Nov 22, 1757, when Breslau was "taken; but was regained the same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. BREST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English, A.D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391, Lord Berkeley and % British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. It was first called the cusfos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIH., and other popes. The quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day, BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo- Saxon ancestors. — Tindal. '■' One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with ^old, 1414." — Stowe. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides. 28,000 victuallers, &c., who brew their owti ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. BRIBERY, In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288 ; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351, Another judge was fined 20,000Z, for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole. secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- citing a bribe, January 1784. BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable offence, Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 10 218 THE world's progress. [ BRi an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803; and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886.—Sazo7i Chron. The size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed. 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. See Building. BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by the ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her parents ; it is ment ioned 880 b. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Jol n, near Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality near to Bride's well ; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, w^hy simi- lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it At Shaflfhausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the ligiitest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles, BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are BKT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 21^ distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St Peter iii a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, agahist king Stephen, 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the loAver order of the citizens, a riot en- sued, which was of several daj^s' continuance, and which did net terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832 ; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earUest records of the history of this island are the manu- scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- tain, including England. Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 65 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York - " - - - A. D. 306 The Roman forces are finally with- drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the natives against their northern neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- ons "attack the natives themselves, driving them into Wales - - 455 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, since called Brittany - - - 457 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven kmgdoms - - - 457 Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and establishment of Christianity - - 596 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, began his reign - - - 678 The Saxon Heptarchy ends - • 828 See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 75, &c. ITiat Britain formerly joined the Continent has l^een inferred from the simi- lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, a large part of the clifis of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips'' s Annals. BRrnSH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Julius Csesar - - b. c. 55 Cymbeiine, king of Britain - - 4 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 London founded by the Romans - 49 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 A vast army of Britons is defeated by Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 Reigr. of Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world - - 179 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboi-acum - - - 207 He dies at York - - - - 211 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne of Britain - - - -286 He is killed by Alectus, who continues the usurpation - - - - 293 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- feat of Alectus .... 296 220 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BRl grant by parliament of 20,000^. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000/. The library contained 50 000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the ca^ aloguc of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species oi curiosity, MSS., sculpture and Avork of art, and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian. and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- nese. — Johnson,. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly imy)roved in the gardens of Eng- land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- brokers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a benefice in the church of; England. — Collins' s Eccles. Hist. BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The illustrious Bruce, the '' Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Aby»- '^LC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 sinia, iu Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14tli, 1770, lie obtained the great object of his wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. SRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelpli III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. Again, by Dumouriez. 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and Law's Bubble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that cnntinent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont. in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when her followers dispersed. BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and aftei 222 THE world's progress. I BlTi* expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13. 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309 B. c. See article Armor. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11. ; but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman IL at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1626. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See Hungary. BUENA VISTA, Battle of, between the American force, of about 5.000 men, un- der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and watj retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1810 . the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- nos Ayres and Monte Video. EnglatKi and France blockaded the port of Bue- nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings hsid jesters, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be referred in England to Benedict, or Benet. a monk, about a. d. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl ci Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 15 000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. BULL, OR EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ; and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- tors, and corsigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 1688. BUI.L-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- bition of bear-baiting then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- tom. May 24, 1802. — Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There waa a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first mentioned in the Fczdera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron. — Ashe. BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killed and wounded; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 60,000 people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads throughout the volume : — Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, Deposes the French directory, and bc- Aug. 15, 1769 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 He first distinguishes himself in the Sends overtures of peace to the king of command of the artillery at yowZore - 1793 England - - - Jan. 1 180C He embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- Js repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799 chine" • - - Dec. 31. 180( He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 £24 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ BUB BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. Elected president of the Italian, late , Is defeated at Waterloo Cisalpine, republic - Jan. :^, 1802 ■ Returns to Paris Elected consul tor 10 years - May 8, 1802 Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802 Accepts 'he title of emperor from the senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 Divorced from the empress Josephine Dec. 16, 1809 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 A son, the fruit of this marriage, bom, and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 His overtures of peace to England re- jected - - - April 14,J1812 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow in quick succession.] He renounces the thrones of France and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 Embarks at Frejus - • April 28, 1814 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 The allies sign a treaty for his exter- mination - - - March 25. 1815 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 June 18, ISia June 20, 1815 And abdicates in favor of his infant son - • - June 22, 1815 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the Belierophon - ■ Julv 15, 1°15 Transferred at Torbay to the Northum- berland, Sind sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- creed by the allied sovereigns he shaU remain for life) - Oct. 15, 18iS The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from France by the law of am- nesty - - - Jan. '2, 1816 Death of Bonaparte • May 5, 1821 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22. 1832 The French chambers decree, with the consent of England, that the ashes of Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives at Cherbourg with the 'emains of Napoleon, in the care of lie prince de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 They are interred with great solemoity in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 distinction coeval in England with Leaves Paris for the army • June 12, 1815 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ; in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 1413. — Viner^s Statutes. See Borough. BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- ished with death. BURGOS, Siege or. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortificar- tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad 11. of Ger- many being declaredlieir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip 11. of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to eartb. The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — Eusebuis. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758, Vaults were erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland. 1729; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cenietcries. BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in BUR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stmce. A tax was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, jBSO, and for that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. — Stab^otes. See BUls of Mortality. BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- cuted with Williams., one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar murders), December 5, same year. BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- pra. the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn- ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, covibustio animes, to burn the soul. — See Suttees. BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir WiUiam Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401, In the reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop oi Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE IMIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the modern improvements of Settalla : of Tchirnhausen, 1680 ; of Buffon, 1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- ments of the fiLsion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning • It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violence* ■ltd barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake ; besides those who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suflfered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers. 55 women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- diner and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to deilVe a savage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 10* Substances fused. ' Weight. Time. A topaz ... 3 grains 45 second*. An emerald - • 2 grains 25 f?econcls. A ci7stal pebble • 7 grains 6 ieconds. Flint - - • - 10 grains 30 seconda Cornelian - . 10 grains 75 seconds. Pumice stone - - 10 grains 24 seconds. 226 THE woiild's progress. [ byz BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, cmitinued. Substances ftised. Weight. Time. Pure gold - • 20 grains 4 seconds. Silver - - - 20 grains 3 seconds. Copper ... 33 grains 20 seconds. Platma . - - 10 grains 3 seconds. Cast iron - • 10 grains 3 seconds. Steel - • - 10 grains 12 seconds. Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. BliRYl NG ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d, 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greect. BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same with the hervicB of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 1466. — Vasari. BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose oflSce was to kill. The butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — Annals of London. BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. — Miingo Park. BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late year.s, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- proved. — Phillips. BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round the globe. June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack."— Bellchambers. BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716 B. c. — Eusebins. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid inruina by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and aftot him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople €AD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 227 c. CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. Therabbius were cabalistSj and the Cliristians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of live lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the CaJ)cd., from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- dale, 22 Charles 11. 1670.— Hume. ''ABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so eaily as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690 ; Offa, king of the Mercians, 768, and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the great ofl5cers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :* Lord president. Lord chancellor. Lord privy seal. First lord of the treasury. Chancellor of the exchequer. Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. President of the board of contjol. President of the boari of trade. Master of the mint. First lord of the admiralty. In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of Englana. CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy in 1812. CADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Graj league, 1424. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 20,000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- - serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c— Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, * The term cabinet ccuncil is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus: the affairs of elate, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vane and Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee cl felato, reproachfully called the j«nfo, and. aftenvards, enviously, the cabinet coumil'—Lo^v Cijl- REMPON. 228 THE world's progress. [CAl against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Dmke, 1587 Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he failed. Bombarded by the Britisli in 1797; and blockaded by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. CjESARS, era of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine, CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, A. D. 1642. CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation hy the Christian invaders, called Cru- saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great flre, June, 1754, when 40'000 persons perished. Set on tire by a lady of the beglerbeg, .Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- barded by the English. 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See Bengal and India. CAXiEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appew TAL J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 229 to have "been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, wbo passed over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlandera and the inhabitants of the southern borders Caledonian monarchy, said to liave been founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330 The Picts Irom the north of England settle in the southern borders - - 140 Agricola carries the Roman arms into Caledonia, with little success, in the reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- bred II. - - - a. d. 79 He is signally defeated by the forces of Corbred 80 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 The country is invaded by the Scuyths, or Scots, and the government is over- thrown, about • - A. D. 306 The < 'aledonian monarchy is revived by Fergus II. - - - - - 404 After many sanguinary ware between the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, unites the whoLe country under one monarchy, and gives it the name of Scotland - - - 838 to 843 See Scotland. The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- able tictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling Avas granted by parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, and opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so; but the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 ysars. because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three daj's in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are avoided. See Nevj Style. V ALJCO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Con paiiy, in 1631. Cahco prmting, and the 230 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [ Caj. Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700 ; and again, in 1721, They were first made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cottoii. CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of jVlexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by PhiHp 11. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the. ill-used natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits in 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New "California 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery, July 8. 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper California May- August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c. 1846. Cali- fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico. 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Cs^n- vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose, arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. Herbert. CALLIGRAPHl . Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- tes, Avho is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth century. Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. — Holinshed. CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the exception of one man. who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some centuries before. cam] dictionary Of DATES. 231 CALVARY, Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33, Calvary was a small eminence 6r hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 38. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all Christian countries. CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoul^me, where he composed his In&ti- tAitio ChristiancE Rehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561 where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George 11. 1758. Readmitted in 1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fre- quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1^4..— Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- nent ; the last was produced in 1839. CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -.5 (/rwi. 232 THE world's progress. [ c'ah CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. CAMPEACHY-B AY. Discovered about a, d. 1520 ; it was taken by the Eng- lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free- booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 1662. CAMPERDOWN, Battle op. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct, 11, 1797. CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d, 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously visited by them, Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces. Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of ill, 000 for Papi- neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline, American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30. 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- calfe, governor-general, 1844, Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath. Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying losses by the lat« rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849, Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against such movements as high, treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean CAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. '233 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That oetween the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83 000 metres, of which 17,0(.h3 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton. 1817. The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the Turks obtained it. after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright hght. CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward YI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. CANN^, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards ; and Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of whom 40 000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21, 216 B. c. — Bossuet. CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 234 THE WORLDS x'ROGRESS. [ CAR Ameri<;an tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America See A7itkropophagi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but ihis Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Richard U. 1383. — Rymer's Fcedera. Louis XIV.. upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See ArtiUery. CANNON, REM.4RKABLE. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, case in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in tlie bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, " Charge me well, and sponge me cleau, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was fired three times m the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 11 8S.-~ Phillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. • Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law authc, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — St owe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so accumulated, ever}' day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault. CANTERBURY. The DurovernuvL of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) diXid withinit are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince. CANTERBURY, Archbishopric oi\ This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of Kmt. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great tutors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in tlie capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas &. Becket, mur- dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- litan of all England and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all oflicers of state and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the church of Rome. 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. Austin was the first bishop, 596. TLe see was made superior to York, 1073. tap] dictionary of dates. 235 — See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. l"; $. M.-' Beatson. C ANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medical practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c— FreincVs History of Physic. CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822. a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called Hczvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — See India Rubber. CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the ^^ead, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a; one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is icferred to the year 1449; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles YU. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20<^. (40 cts.) nor cap above 2s. U. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. ( 1 APE OF GOOD HOPE ; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was Originally called the " Cape of Tempests." and was also named the " Lion of the Sea." and the " Head of Africa." The name was changed by John IL, king of Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama. Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphlnstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 1820. The Caflfres have made soverol irruptions on the British settlementi here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct. 1,834, Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 236 THE world's progress. [ CAf CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undei the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered b}' Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 14W C APE ST. VINCENT, Battles or. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war. and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, oflf Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, bein^ in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 3000Z. a year. CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, A. D. 987. — Henault. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- quinius Priscus. 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70. The Capitoline games in- stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes 11. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king - B. c. 744 His successors are unknown for nearly three centuries. Reign of Ariarathes I. - • - 362 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- rathes is crucified - - - - 322 Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217 Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164 Mithridates, sumamed Philopator, as- cends the throne - - - 162 Orophemes dethrones Philopator • 161 Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro- phemes dethroned - - - . - 154 Philopator joins the Remans against Arisionicus, and perishes in batUe - 153 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- ing the throne, poisons five of her own children, the sixth and only remaining child is saved, and the queen put to death 153 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes VII. 153 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VTl. - 97 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - • 96 Cappadocia declared a free country by tne senate of Rome • - - 95 The people elect a new king Ariobar- zanes I. - - - - - 94 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns • 65 He is dethroned by Marc Antony • 38 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to the Roman empire • a. d. 17 CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. (CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, from their wearing a great Cajncchon. or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap. or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Altho igh the CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for thei*. extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocka and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. Carbonari, a dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- ment in Sept. 1820. CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul 11. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say hi 1623. — Du Cange. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave. — Mezerat, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom. — Malkno. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines Barrington. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6^. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840.— ParZ. Reports. CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the initials H. B., ar*' political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William 11., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies and free institutions, August 1, 1819. CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of -thu four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141, Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 238 THE world's progress. [ CAB Interrupted succession from Elyah. Elisha, &c. Mount Ctruol has a monas- tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See N. - lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c. when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of this once powerful republic. — Eusebius. CAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 CARTHAGE, continued. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. —Blair - - - b. c. 869 First alliance of the Carthaginians with the Romans - - - - 509 The Carthaginians in Sicily are diefeated by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480 They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407 The siege of Syracuse - - - 396 The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379 ' Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 They are defeated by Agathocles, and immolate their children on the altar of Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 The first Punic war begins - - 264 The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- mans in a naval engagement - - 260 Xaniippus defeats Regulus - - 255 Re^ulus is crucified - ... 256 A'sdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 Romans defeated before Lilyboeum - 250 End of the first Punic war - - 241 War between the Carthaginians and African mercenaries - - - 241 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he takes wilh him his son, the famous Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first made him swear an eter- nal enmity 40 the Romans - a. c. 237 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- tones - - - - - 227 Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 22C Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as the Iberus - - - - 21 '3 The second Punic war begins - - 21 ] First great victory of Hannibal - • Ql 7 Hannibal cvosses the Alps, an I enters Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 Great battle of Cannae (which see) - 216 New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated and slain in Italy - - - 207 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 Scipio arrives In Africa, and lays siege to Utica 204 Hannibal recalled from Italy - - 203 Great battle of Zama (i^hich see) - 202 An ignominious peace ends the second Punic war .... 201 The third Punic war begins - - 149 Destruction of Carthage, which is burned to the ground .... 146 CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca. tlia- ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of jE1,200,000 in 1697; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Dauphin^. Their rules were formed by Basil VIL, general of the order, and were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave ; and their clothing was cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. CA.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2. the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter .■and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4^ the Death of Ana- nias; 5, Eljonas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in Avood. next in stone, and afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention- ed by Homer. CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawla is described as being " the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spriiig.'' The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Hudderstield. 240 THE world's progress. f CAT Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, aboat the year 1650. — Bernier. CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- ples and Sicily, in 1783, this to^^n was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 persons perished ; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. CL\JSTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, commanded by general Wurmser: the battle lasted five days successively, from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dom^inions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. See Arragon and Spain. CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions, on his accession, in 1154. CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years ago: among others, a chef-d' ccuxre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- combs, especiall} ^hose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. CATANIA, OR C ATANE A . At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadfui overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693. Catania was nearly swal- lowed up. and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They CAU J nCTIONARY OP DATES. 241 were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.— Pardon. CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- gory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed the Catho* lie; A. D. 739 The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. See Spain. CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin cf his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspii- ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c. His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. C ATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the inde- pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages,- and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates. Brunt, Davison, Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their CO iviction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, on May 1, following. — Haydn. CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 1 648 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasice PortcE, and it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hero- dotus. C \USTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress Glycere, whom he represented ns sitting on the ground, and making gai- lands of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was 242 THE world's progress. [cem bought afterwards by LucuUus for two talents, received the name of Stepia- ■)Con, 335 B.C. — Plinii Hist. Nat. CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charlej'. I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round* heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated foi their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmae ; the com- mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In tho early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field : they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 e.g.: and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b, c. — Plutarch. CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1664. IV was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum^ or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the same period. CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St, Anthony in Egypt, about A, D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon. Hume, Adam Smith. Harvey. Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel. Wolsey, Pascal. Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains— Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of tlic Turks are hand- some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that grow in them and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only cey] dictionary op dates. 243 within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in thes« countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Plre la Chaise at Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in their natural features than any of those uear Loudon or Paris. CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over l^rivate families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of the Roman State. In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new census, 1841, CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken this year, 1850. — See Population. CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 b. c. CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded by church historians. — Pardon. CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements * Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and fcis confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by thi? beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it ia then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minor, and Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented Btone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put aboui their graves. — Mailet; C/mndler; Butler. 244 THE world's progress. [ CHA were seized by the British; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffiiapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. CIL^RONEA, Battlks of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chaeronea, in which Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle of Cha3ronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by Sylla. and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. t HAIN-B RIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ol ont! mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the first chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast ol Wales, July 1818.— See Me7iai Bridge. CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgae of Britain in the time of Caesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Csesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, about a. d, 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chario* CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to the r'ver Seine, with an area sufticient to contain a million of people. Here was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous '-fSd^ration," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by the municipality in the Champs Ely sees and elsewhere, and Paris Avas illumi- nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the 'altar of the country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under the eye of Bonaparte. May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of EngHsh kings the champion still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary in the Dymocke family. CHANCELLORS LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks atler the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage whc TMA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it was not until 1818 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-ChancelU r was permanently held. LORD CHANCELLORS OP ENGLAND, I {From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.) \ 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 1530 Sir Tliomas More {beheaded). I 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. ] 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 1545 Lord Wriothesley. I 1547 Lord St. John. 1547 Lord Rich. 1551 Bishop of Ely again. 1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper. 1653 Bishop of Winchester. 1555 Arclibishop of York. 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 1592 Sir John Packering. 1596 Sir Thomas Egerton. 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord Verulam. 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1639 Sir John Finch. 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord Littleton. 1645 Sir Richard Lane. 1648 In commission. 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon. 1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 1690 In commission. 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards Ion Somers. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 1710 In commission. 1713 Lord Harcourt. 1714 Lord Cowper again. 1718 In commission. 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl oi 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord King. 1733 Lord Talbot. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. , 1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, and earl of Norihington. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 1770 Hon, Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next day. 1770 In commission. 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- ed as earl Bathurst. 1778 Lord Thurlow. 1 1783 Lord Loughborough and others (in commission) l^SS Lord Thurlow again - 1792 In commission. 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 1801 Lord Eldon. 1806 Lord Erskine. 1807 Lord Eldon again. 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. 1830 Lord Brougham. 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again 1835 In commission. 1836 Lord Cottenham. 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - 1846 Lord Cottenham again April 9 - Dec. 23 April 14 - Feb. 7 March 25 April 2C Nov. 22 Nov. 14 • Jan. 16 Aug. 31 July 6 CHANCELLOR of IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- ment, in the reign of Henry III., Gefl'rey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named, 1232. CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a better footing by William I., in l^iQ'l.—Stowe. This court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to oi afi;ainst infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 246 THE world's progress. I CHA \voraen, notAvithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, bi-eachea of trust and confidence, for which there is no ledress at common law, are relievable here. — Blackstone. KPPECT8 OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE POLLOWINO DECElfKIAL PERIODS. 1770 • Amount lodged - i;5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - £26,212,000 1780 . ditto - - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - :M,2l>8,7,So 1790 - - ditto - 13,3:38,000 1830 • - ditto ■ 38,886,135 1800 - ditto - - 19,834,000 I 1840 - ditto ■ - 39,772 746 There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the nnmbcr of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari Returns. CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donoTS.—Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement ot the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant- ers. — See Chanting. CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused asserohlage of inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation ot the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whoir. the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. w See Geology. CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot racing w^as one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28. 31, was, it is supposed, something in the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Caesar relates that Cassi- belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, 4"*c. CHARITIES in the United States.— See Benevolence. In England there are tens of thousands of charit-able foundations ; and the charity commission rei)orted to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to £l. 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are do scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until May follow- ing. Population in 1790, 16.359 ; in 1810, 24.711 ; in 1820, 24,780 ; in 1830, 30 289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 slaves. CHARTERS OP RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry 1. A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna Chai ta, or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified by Henry III. in 1224, et seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. CHARTERS to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles H. CHE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2i1 1684 ; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II,, 1665, was concealed in an oak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of charter governraents in America, 1688. CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient . chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry III., about 1243. CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- ported. x\nother Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are ; 1. Uni- versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts Avere brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect- ing a western continent. 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken as a plane, was drawn, 1556. CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called Scylla on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim, became a proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church song. — Dufresnoy. CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711 . — Black- stone's Comm. CETEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu- ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruy^re of Switz- erland, In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about a, d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine? 248 THE world's progress. [ CHI and embalming: was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaintance with chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- sophy were of our own country; Bacon. Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton. &c. The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, and other distinguished men, CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 s. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest plums from Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year £1000, a. d. 1540. See Gardening. CHESAPEA.KE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obUged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet in 1812. The Cliesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1813. CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c; and ac- cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-playoi' was exhibited in England in 1769. CHEVALIER D EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be a, woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — Bio. Die. CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases they were taken care of and humanely protected by the state. The custom which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — Mat. Paris. At Darien. it was the practice when a widow died, to bury with her, in the same grave, such of her children as ^ere unable, from their tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to prevent them from immediately drowning. I 'HILL Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d. 1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected iOr them gold and silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, and with various success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by SiJi Martin eve? 5ai ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 24S the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from ItH op- pressors, and declared independent. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. f'SHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when they Avere confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among them ; but this is disputed. THINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the gun, moon, and planets, and were ucute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. The Chinese slate their first cycle to have commenced - - b. c 2700 The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties commenced .... 2207 ***** • In the history of China, the first dates which are fixed to his narrative, by Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651 Confucius, the father of the Chinese philosophers, born - - - 551 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 The dynasty of Han - - • - 206 Literature and the art of printing encou- raged 202 Religion of Ta tse commenced - - 15 Religion of the .'bllowers of Fo, com- menced about - - A. D 60 Embassy from Rome - - - 166 Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Sliin, flourishes .... 449 The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach their doctrines - - - 635 They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 The seat of the imperial government is transferred to Pekin - - - 1260 Wonderful canal, called the Ya Ho, completed about - - - 1400 Eur:; -sans first arrive at Canton -1517 Macao is granted as a settlement to the Portuguese - - - . 1536 Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope from Rome - - - - 1575 The country is conquered by the East- em Tartars, who establish the pre- sent reigning house - - - 1644 An earthquake throy ghout China buries 300,00 persons at Pekin alone - 1662 11* Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- blish Christianity - - - - 1692 The Jesuits are expelled through their own misconduct - - - 1724 ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. Earl Macartney's embassy; he leaves England - - Sept. 26, 1792 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, Oct. 7, 1793 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 [His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, naving refused to make the prostration of the kou-tou^ lest he should thereby compromise the ma- jesty of England.] The exclusive rights of the East India Company cease - April 22, 1834 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 7, 1834 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 British and other residents forbidden to leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 The factories surrounded, and outrages committed - - March 24, 1839 The opium destroyed during several days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839 The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of the emperor, and the Icist servant of the company leaves the coimtry this day - - Dec. 6, 1831 Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and intercourse with England forever • • - Jan. 5,1840 1^50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [cm CHINA, continued. Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- ing 4,UUlJ troops on board, by orders from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 Seizure of Cam. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 Lin deprived of his authority, and finally degraded; Keshin appointed imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 Honsr-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Bi'itain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days to the British authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the conditions of the treaty made by Ke- shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 Hostilities are in consequence resumed against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of the army - - March 2, 1841 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 guns captured • - May 25, 1841 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, of which 5,000,000 are paid down, and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 Arrival at Macao of Sir Hemy Pottin- ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- claims the objects of his mission; Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns capturedj and the island of Chusan re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 Chin-hae taken, with 157 gims, many of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 Treaty of peace signed before NankiOj on board the Comical' s by sir Henry Poltiiigcr for Englanc, and Keying Elepoo and Neu-Kien on tht part of the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1843 coNDnioua op the treaty. Lasting peace and friendship beiweea the two empires. China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part forthwith and the remainder within three years. The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo- foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the British. Consuls to reside at these cities. Tariffs of import and export to be esta- blished, &c. «fcc. The emperor signifies his assent to the conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottmger as British commissioner ■ Feb. 16, I8w Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 Treaty between China and the Uni- ted States negotiated by Caleb Gushing, Arnerican Commis- sioner - - July 3, 1844 ratified at Wsishington Jan. 16, 1815 Alexander H. Everett appointed commissioner to China from the United States - - - 1845 John W. Davis appointed commis- sioner trom the United States - 1847 CHINESE EMPERORS. The following is a list of those who have reigned for the last two centuries : — Chwansr-lei 1627 Shun-che 1644 Kang-he 1669 Yung-ching .... 1693 Keen-lung 1736 Kea-ding 1796 Taou-kwang- - - - - 1821 Sze-Hing, present emperor ■ - 1850 I he embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic information respecting- this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- vinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at i;66,000,000 ; and the army, in- cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800.000 cavalry; the religion is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- ences in general, are encouraged, -and ethics are studied profoundly, and influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle Kingdom." SHEN"A PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at Bow in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the ingenious Josiali Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq. CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- dreds of thousands of years ; and their annals and histories record evevts CHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 25 1 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were ie- feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall; the latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. c^HIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the M- teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the dutiea of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- s.elf to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect tlie distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court of chivalry, when the otfice of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by the labors of the record commission : — "Robert Fitz Seward renders account of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the loife of Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used in Spain. It was sold in the London coflee-houses soon after their establish- ment, IQm.— Tatler. CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- bury, A, D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. — See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient chorus. — Warhurton. CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London., February 13 ; and in Dubhn, March 3. same year. The mortality was very- great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 252 THE world's progress. [ CHft May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States until Nov(3ml)er of that year. CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- siah, in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Saviour), the name of the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. CHRISTIAN. This name was first g'whn to the believers and followers of Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, J ./. xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- ing to Butler; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who were lo be exorcised. CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th 01>inpiad. in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. CHRISTIAN KING; Most Chrtstian Kixg; Christianissimus. This title was given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469; and never was a distinction more unworthilj^ conferred. His tyranny and oppressions obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4.000 persons were executed publicly or privately in his nierciless reign. — Hcnault : Fleury. CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility, Constantine the Great made his solemn I InSweden, between 10th and llih centuries, declaration of the Christian i-eligion a. d. 312 Christianity was established in France under Clovis the Great - ' - 496 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 In Flanders in' the seventh century. In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi • - 894 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992 In Hungary, under Geisa - 994 In Norway and Iceland, undei Olaf I. - 1000 In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, when they were returnir.g from the holy wars - - - a. d. 122' In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- lished, about - ... 1386 In China, where it made some progress (but was afterwards extirj)ated, and thousands of Chinese Christians were put to death) - - . . 1575 In Greece, where it was once more re- established .... 1628 It is said that Gregory the Gi-eat, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who were set up for sale, he iiiquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagaius, he i» gua.ge,''''S^onAngli,sedAngeli,forent,siessentChriaianiJ- •laid to have cried out, in the Latin language. ■^HU ] DICTIONARY DF DATES. 253 Chiistianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea^ Angola, and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the world. CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com memoi ation of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ* mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {ivhich see) were dei'med but one and the same feast; and to this day the church universally keeps a continued feast within those limits. The he Uy and misletoe used at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so with many other like customs. CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, Jews and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. — Phillips. CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the different eras through the "wlume. •'^UURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of un ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire. where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- yards were permitted in cities in 742. I HURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, and was formallj established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest vicars ; thc-e, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, that is, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time lie was struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the year 596 —Goldsmith. * Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians ^ere assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the chuich (o be set on fire, and six hundred perished in thr; burning pile. Thi.s was the commencemf it of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 254 THE world's progress. [ CIN and chd,pelries, mi ke the number of preferments of the established church, according to tlie last official returns. 12.327. The number of churches foi Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. CHIFRCH OP IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- ralities Act of "William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that act providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- estant worship, 2109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other houses of prayer. See Bishops. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of faith attributed to John Knox and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was approved by the parliament and ratified in 15G7 ; was finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- pacy in Scotland in 1688. there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- oprics, which were then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts— the General Assembly, the Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. CHURCH jNIUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- tuted. — Johnson's Canons. CHURCinNG OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley. It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after her lying in. if she had a son. and eighty if she had a daughter, at the expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. See Piu-ijicatwn. CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, he is said to have frequently passed off* cider upon the nobility of that coun- try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — Bullcr. CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri. 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius. on the banks of the Rhine, where 80 000 Romans are slain. 105 b. c. The Teutones are de^ feated by Marius in two battles at Aqure Sextiae (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 aro killed, and 70 000 made prisoners. 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy; 120 000 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk in that of the Teutones or Saxons. CINCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in tlie United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England ant^ CIR J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 255 New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 182Q 9,642 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. CINCINNATI, Society of. Established by the officers of the American army-j in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six- teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic in the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- ally Jews. — KlaprotKs Travels in the Caitcastcs and Georgia. CIRCUL ATING LIBR AR Y. The first in England , on a public plan, was opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergu- son's Blog. CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- firmed experimentallj^ by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Pkysic. CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to "which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed to their names. See Navigators. Clipperton, British - - A. d. 1719 Roggewein, Dutch - - 1721 Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 17C4 Wallis, British - - - -1766 Carteret, an Englishman - - 176f Cook, the illustrious captam - - 1768 On the deatri of Captain Cook, his last voyage was continued by King - '.779 Bougainville, French - - - 1776 Portlocke, British - - • 178S Wilkes, American - - - - 1837 D'Urville, French - - -1837 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globulir, waa Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keepmg a westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but ]\Iagellan was killed or his homeward passage, a; 'iie Philippiiics; in 1521. —Butler. Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519 Groalva, a Spanish navigator Avalradi, a Spaniard -1537 -1537 Mendana, a Spaniard - -1567 Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1.577 Cavendish, his first voyage .1586 Le Maire, a Dutchman - - 1615 Q,uiros, a Spaniard - 1625 Tasman. Dutch - -1642 Cowley,' British -1683 Dampier, an Englishman -1689 Cooke, an Englishman . - 1708 256 THE world's progress. I" en Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named elsfc- where. CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which vas built by the elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was t hree stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150.000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight.—- Pliny. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most austere. — De Vitri. CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, manners, and arts. — Robertson. CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1658. — Stowe. The title of citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from the position. CIVIL LAW. Several codes conie under this denomination of laws, A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was firat collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b, c. ; and a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, .53 b. c. The Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the Justinian. 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian codo, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Bla^lr. Civil law was intro- duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterward* CLE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 arclibishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courti only, and in maritime aflairs. See Laws. CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600.000Z. and that of Charles I. was but 800,000/. After the Re volution a civil list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700.000Z., iho parliament taking into its own hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list of George 11. was increased to 800,000Z. ; and that of George lU. in the 55th year of his reign, was 1,030,000Z. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000Z. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000Z. ; and Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per ann. 4 Victoria, 1840. CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laics. They may be said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George 11, , 1746. — Ruff head. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan.— Chambers. CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. — Pardon. CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servius in making divisions of the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 573 B. c. ' CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314. pubhshed by his successor, — Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine years, then merged into a common monk. CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts of France, Castile, Scotland. &c. adhenng to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 258 THE world's progress. I CLC England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon th(* death ol Gregory XI. 1378. — Hwnie. CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title o* presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, undeT Constantino, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- lar power. CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number earl)'' in the seventli century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fi uit!* of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conference. Two thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, rathei than subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under .ames II., 1689. The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. CLERK. Tlie Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the officers being cler- gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- stone's Comm. CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by p(){)e Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus. archdeacon of Verona, invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. Thescapement, ascribed to Gerberi, A. D. 1000 ; den) and the younger Galileo con- A clock constructed by Richard, abbot ' structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 of St. Alban's, about - - -1326 Christian Huygens contested this disco- A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulum clock A perfect one made at Pari.? by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658 The first portable one made - - 1530 Fromaniil, a Dutchman, improved the In England no clock went accurately , pendulum, about - . - 1G59 before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented (maker's initials, N. O.) - - \:A0 by Barfow, about - - - 1676 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape- the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- ! ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex scaperaent invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, Arnold, Earnshaw and others. CLOCK. MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. i LOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in- vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced 1331. — Rymer's Fas- dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. JMedleys were manu- factured, 1614. Our fine broad clotlis were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in Englan i hy one Brewer, from the Low Coun- tries, 16G7. The maiufacture \vas di.scouraged in Ireland and that of linen coa] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 25S countenanced, at the request of botli houses of parliament, 1698, See Woollen Cloth. '^l.OVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion and pub- lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, he exclaimed, "O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, and Goths, aa provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault. COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana-, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France travelled on horseback the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen. earl of Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. COALITIONS. ■ The great coalitions against France since the period of the French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They were entered into as follows : 1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 2ncl. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- sia, Naples, Poriusal. and Turkev, signed - .^ ' . June 22,,1799 Srd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1S06 5th. By England and Austria • April 6, 1809 6th. By Russia ard Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 See Treaties. COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated mixi- istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and Avhich was rendered memorable as an extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, same year. See Admhii&trations. COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use by the ancient Britons. — BroMdt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- upon-Tyne in 1284, some say earlier ; and others in 1289. Sea-coal was pro- hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human health ; " a,nd even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stov^e. Coala were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard II. 1381. — Rymer's Fcedera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints ' In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned erei Mncf the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing .that Buckingham was drawn about with fix iiorses in his coach (being the first that v.js so), he put on eight to' his, and in that mannel pfasse-" trom the tower through the city. — Rapin. ii60 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ CoaJ against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lou- don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign of Charles I., 1625. NUMBER OF CHALDRONS OP COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS : 1650 - - 160,000 chald. I 1800 - • 814,000 chald. I 1830 - - 1,588,360 chald 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - - 980,372 ditio. 1835 - 2,299,816 tea". 1750 . - 510,000 ditto, j 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1810 - - 2,638,256 ditto. The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there aro now about 25,000.000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — PhUlips, Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast colheries there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from Newry, in 1742. — Burns. COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &.C., extend 700 miles. COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 1665. COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 1,081,776, in 1845. COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was a Cock-pit Roxjal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- couraged by the law. COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (?) practised upon the creduloiTS multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600. The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need of as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sail*, jordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoronous were instituted 1807 b. c. : those of Lycurgus. 884 b. c. ; of Draco. 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrcnus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529— a digest from . - Tea, 4,586,223 lbs. . " 6,873,091 lbs. ■ . - " 12,331,638 lbs. . " 13,482,645 lbs. • - « 16,891,020 lbs. OOIj DICTIONARY OF DATES 261 this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the fouEdation of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. C0DI(3ILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the first who introduced, the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, about 31 B. c, CCEUJv DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223, This latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm. (JOFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848) thus : — • Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. - . « 38,363.687 lbs - - " 91,753;002 lbs. - - " 107,387,567 lbs. - - " 124,336,054 lbs. COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom- bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea and coffee. COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616; and wore carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732. COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree ; ow- ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542 — Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money * Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- formed by a goat herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then wake at night, ai d sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to pro-i e its virtues. He ac cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent thei.r sleeping at matins, and he found that it cherked U\eir slumberB. 262 TiiE woi ld's progress. [col was of gold and silver. Both -were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but others are bel'.eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresiioy. Julius Caesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon their money : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- ceived divine honors. COIN IN ENGLAND. The fii-st coinage in England was under the Romans at Camulodununi. or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a^ d. 1351. Coin was made sterling in 1216 before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stowe end to the circulation of private lead The first gold coins on certeiin record, struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (C'am- deyi) 13.37 First large copper coinage, putting an en pieces, more. SeeGtuneas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. Elizabeth - • £5,832,0(10 I James II. - - je3,740,000 I George lU. and regency, James I. - - 2,500,000 | William HI. - - 10,511,9^1 gol^ - - JE74.501,586 Charles I.- • - 10,500,000 I Anne - - - 2,691.026 George IV. - -41,782,813 Cromwell - - 1,000,000 George I. . - 8,725,920 I William IV. - - 10.827,603 Charles IL - - 7,524,100 | George II. - - 11,966,576 | Victoria, tol848, 32.370.814 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. — Pkiltips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin. 1830. — Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-live millions. " See Gold. COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was establish.^d in 1792. The coinage from that time to 1836 was thus : — Pieces. Value. Gold - - 4,716,325 - - S22,102,035 Silver • - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 Copper - - 77,752,965 - 740,331 Total - 197,891,502 - - $69,581,549 1837 101848 inclusive 145,389,748 - - $81,436,155 Total in 56 years - 313,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles S'20. eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Cailer, 1804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. COI, j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 COINING. ITiis operation was originally performed by the metal beiug placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill wai invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinerj at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was le** below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but sonte authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. Cheshunt College (bunded - a. d. 1792 , Mareschal College, Aberdeen - A- D. 1593 Maynooth College - - - 1795 Physicians, London - - - - 1518 Sion College - . . . 1329 Sion College, re-founded - - - 16.30 Surgeons, London - - - 1745 Trinity College, Dublin - - • 1591 University, London - - - 1826 Winchester College - - - - 2387 Doctor's Commons, civil law ■ - 1670 Durham University - - - * * Edinburgh University - - - 1580 Eton College - - - - - 1441 Glasgow University - - - 1451 Harrow - - • - - 1585 Highbury College - - - 1826 King's College, Aberdeen - - - 1494 King's College, London - - - 1829 COLLEGES IN THE United States. The first established was Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard. 1638: and this is now the most im- portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven. 1700. Fourth, College of Nezv Jersey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Columbia, New- York. 1754, Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh. Brown University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H.. 1769, Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard College opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618. and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- gins said to have been put to death along with her. COTiOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 264 THE world's progress. [col declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefs have been contending one against another, and each state lias been a pre) to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. New Grenada, discovered by Colum- Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly bus - - ■ - A. D. 1497 : overthrown - - June 24, 1821 Venezuela discovered - • - 1498 1 he Caraccaa formed into a kingdom, under a captain-general • - 1547 The history of those provinces under the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- niards, presents but one continuous scene of rapine and blood. • ****♦* Confederation of Venezuela - -1810 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico formed - - - June 30, 18^1 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1823 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- sident of the republic - Aug. 1826 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 132U He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 Independence formally declared • -1811 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1828 Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 I Conspiracy of Santander against the Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 ; life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of j Bolivar resigns his office of president of Sombrero - • - Feb. 1818 , the republic - - April 11, 1?29 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, ISiO nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1810 (!OLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. — Siiidas. It was kno\vn to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2 500 000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- tion, were 770 280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemens Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and fur compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 & 4 William IV, 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 1834. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- cated by Jefferson as early as 1777. urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top. from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been impaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 'f^^eighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in trauspordng it to Alexandria — Uit Fresnoy. COLIJIVIBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown OOM J D )TIONARY OF DATES '265 and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia, Popula- tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves, COMEDY, Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion anf\ Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine, — Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy. 434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Lselius and Terence were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- land about A, D, 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Diienna), and the best after- piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which Avere seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c, — Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov,, 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1889, and its fourth in 1845, COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. rOMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, ^ and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets describe/i as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns, — Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years • it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- eracy of marithne cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of Columbus and ihe enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 12 266 THE WOULD S 1'K.tKiK fc.^6. ^_ JOM sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England to encage extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articks connected witk this sidject. COMMERCE. See Navigatio7i. COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783. COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings. 1 Edward I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 11. 1308.— Anderson. See Treaties. ilOMMON COUNCIL op LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella • tion. and which ma\- fairly be rendered the court or assembly o( the i)eoplc. COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which leugtb. of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and heil as law, called lex noil scripta. in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (wLich wa^ lost), a. d. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See Custom. Laws. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- liament, and the Directory {which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS. House of. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen bis own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry HI. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258, — Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to parliament in the reign of Henry HI., while Westminst-t-r wa& not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIIFs life, or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832:— English and Welsh - 50G English.— County members - 144 Universities - - - 4 Cities and boroughs - - 323^-471 Welsh. — County members - - 15 Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — ^29 Scotch.— County members - 30 Cities and Boroughs - 23 — 53 Irish. — County members - - 64 University - - - - 2 Cities and boroughs - - 39—105 English and Welsh - 500 Total (see Parliament) COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the {Person of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the govern- CON J " DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 ment of kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia. Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, m the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- til the battle of Actium from which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. C. OMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232; The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thvre are ninety-one city companies in London; the first twelve are 1 Mercers - - - A. d. 1393 I 7 Merchant Tailors - - a. d. 1466 2 Grocers ..... 1345 8 Haberdashers - - . 1447 3 Drapers .... 1439 9 Salters 1558 4 Fishmongers - . . - 1.3?^4 10 Ironmonsers .... 1484 5 Goldsmiths .... 1327 1 11 Vintners" 1437 6 Skinners 1327 I 12 Clothworkers .... 1482 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly b}^ designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulua a Venetian, a. d. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or smaU split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now^, 1302. Its variation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION OP THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church iu honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established 1488. 268 THE world's progress. j (OTi CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, ir 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. vONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It ,vas first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, wlio published nis classification of the Testacca in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also u.sed for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a poi)e. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Viterbo in 1268. the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at ViterbO; shut' the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical j>cvlace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible Avas made under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abbh Lenglet. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff* was sign- ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a, d. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half-marriage, is still in use in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See Chavip de Mars, Basiile. CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, tbe minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to herve in case of war. and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 See Germanic Confederatiort. CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court pulace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance o:' the king, 2 James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the United States ; and during the meeting some alteraoions in the church Hturgy were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest ; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifiereut, by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church of England. — Burnet. rONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch; it was used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacrament by the church of Rome. CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — Congress of Soissons • June 14, 1728 Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9. 1797 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 Congress of Carlsbad - Aug. 1, 1819 Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 See Alliances, Conventions, ^c. CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress met at Phila. Sep. 5. 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 1776 ; met at Bait. Dec. 20. 1776 ; at Phila. March 4, 1777 ; at Lancaster. Pa. Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; at N. York. Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- ington, 1800. CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days ; they were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- charged by a corps called rocket-men. CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise was written by Aristaeus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 2:'0 THE world's progress. [ccs written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo; tlie ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. CONJURATION AND WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be f(Oony by various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force aga'nst them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration vvaa felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II, , 1735; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- meanor. — English Statutes, CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New- Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in ' the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1810, 309978. CONQUEST, The, The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- liam I. — Selden. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic and the Caasars : because their names were written in the registers of the senate. CONSECRi^TION. Tha' of churches was instituted in the second century, the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron s%int. Tl>^ consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- ted in the refornued religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the laUcr church in 1549. — Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Handred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded cons-piracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- ties of note : — Of Anthony Babington and others, hgainst Elizabeth - - A. D. 1586 T* : Gunpowder Plot {which see) • 1605 Inmurrection of the fifth monarchy men i.gainsf. Charles II. - - - 1660 O* Blood and his associates, who seized the Duke of Ormond, wounded him, and would have hanged him; and who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, and English .lesuits to assas- sinate Ch. n. revealed by the infa- con] dictionary of dates. 27 i mou3 Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and others - - . . . 1678 The Meal-tub plot 1679 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house plot) .... 1683 Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against Queen Anne, - « - - 1703 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- turn the government - - - 1802 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, against Bonaparte - I'eb. 15, 1804 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the king's ministers. (See Cato-streef) - 1820 (CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I John Henry's secret mission from the United States .... 1807 British government, to undermine I the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of divines (!) which con- demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to he burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery M'hicli attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickhffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration IS not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government.— if w,??ig. CONST ANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremont. was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Palaeologus, thus restoring the old Greek line,' 126l! Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palaeologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe See Eastern Empire and Turkey. CONSTANTINOPLE. Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 6509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- lations ; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. Ptolemaeus, about a. d. 140. CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends tht, whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 272 THE world's progress. [con it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the terra government, in this respect— that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the LAW. — Sheridan. CONSTITUTION op the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several state* at different times. See the respective states. The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others see Naval Battles. CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France. November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambacere. and Lebrun, were made consuls; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000^. ; and 200,000Z, were transmitted from India in 1799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. C0NVP2NTI0NS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through out the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d. 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald. in 630.— Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Woks and Trans- portation. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. ^ Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. la his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why* hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- lutioii and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept, 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty • A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan. tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed m July 176S, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a compariscjn of the observa- tions made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood; tbe distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at 106,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000. — Butler. 12* 274 THE world's progress. [ CO? mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of WiL liam III, COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money ia of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. CJOPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely, — See Engraving. COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, a. d.1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright furtlier secured by a statute en- acted in 1709, Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act. 54 George III., 18l4. Dramatic au- thors' protection act, 3 William IV.. 1833. The act for preventing the pub- lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV.. 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary Property. — Haydn. COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer. May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the libra^y of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. POETRY. Byron's Works (in all) - - jE20,000 Moore's Lalla Rookh • - - 3,000 Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after ten years' publication) - - 1,000 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 FICTION. It was estimated that Scott's novels Fragments of English History, by C.J. Fox- - - - je5,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- tosh 5,000 Ditto, by Linsard - - - - 4,633 Life of Napojeon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 1 and remainder, jEGOO per annum for ten years, say - - - 3.000 Prescott'sHistorical Works are said to have produced to the author (who yet owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 BIOGRAPHY. LifeofWilberforce - - - JE4,000 Lifeof Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,o00 Irvjng's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4.000 produced for copyright at least - 250,000 Bulwer received for his novels, each 1,200 to 1,500 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. Johnson for - - - • 63 Goldsmith received for " Animated Nature" - - - - 800 Noah Webster is said to have derived iSlOOO per annum from his Spelling Book. COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 CORDAGE, The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See He'iwp. CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris in Nov, 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, wliich see. CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acro- corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls, The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romanp. Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, (Abhe Lenglet) . - b. c. 1520 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first called by its name - - - 1410 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon the city (idem) - - - - 1375 The Pythian games instituted, it is said by Sisyphus .... 1375 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors are called Bacchidas, in remembrance of the equity of his reign - - 935 The Corinthians invent ships called A colony goes to Sicily, and they build Syracuse - - - b. c. 732 Sea fight between the Corinthians and Corcyreans - - . . 664 Periander rules and encourages genius and learning - - . . 629 Death of Periander - - - . 585 The Corinthians form a republic - 582 War with the Corcyreans - . 439 The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ■ 242 The Roman ambassadors first appear triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth - - . . 228 benches of oars - - - 786 Thelestes deposed, and the government of the Prytanes instituted :^Auto- menes is the first on whom this dig- nity is conferred - - - 757 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius who sends to Italy the first fine paint- ings there seen, they being part of the spoil (Livy) - - . .146 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- cacy, tenderness, and beauty of tlie whole composition. The invention of it is attributed to CaUimachus, 540 b. c. CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 395, by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- tra, which see. CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c.^ Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. — See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its importation into England, in 1686. CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'' or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting ita importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842 ; act fixing 27b THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COB tbs duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that atl«. per quarter^ passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws— and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, October 28, 1216. A plain circle Avas used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew Paris. Rymer. CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonized), to Ethelred 11. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f(Stes given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of former times. CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every coun-ty in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward I. I'TiQ.—Stotoe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mai • colm 11., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of illness. Aug. 22, 1843. CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch,. CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covjel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d. .1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. — Blackstone. CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of thi» island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times, Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insoln-eucj COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hi? creditors, ani died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street : — " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead; Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and ue opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was '•elin- quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for tlie French. CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- ularly convened, CORUNNA, Battle of. between the British army under sir John Moore (who was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use. — Aske. The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane. — Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography respectively. COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- vincibly COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was lamous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, •and their gataents, which were always white, were so clear and thin, that 278 THE world's progress. [cot their bodies could be seen through them Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, ^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Pariaii Marbles. COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since made. The'names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have be->n yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- ed in 1774. — Haydn. HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Thejollowing brief items of the history of cotton., from 1730 to 1836, are taken from, a t^South Carolina paper :— y 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn in England by machinery. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from Surinam. 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; but not successful in its operations. 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in England. 1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made in England for the first time. 1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent for the spinning frame, which he further improved. 1768. The stocking frame applied by Hammond to making of lace. 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export of machinery u.sed in cotton factories. 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 1782. First import of raw cotton from Brazil into England. 1782. Watt took out his patent for the Bteam-engine. 1783. A bounty granted m England on the export of certain cotton goods. 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- wright — steam engir.es used in cotton fac- tories. 1785. Cotton imported into England from the United States. 1786. Bleaching first performed by the agency of the oxy muriatic acid. 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put in operation in France. 1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States ; and upland cotton first cul- tivated for use and export about this time. 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents the cotton gin, which he patents. 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton erected in Switzerland. 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced into Saxony this year. 1803. First cotton factory built in New Hampshire. 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely introduced into England. 1807. The revolution in Spanish America begins to furnish new markets for cottoa manufactures. 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa tented by John Bum. 1813. The India trade more free, and more British manuluctures sent thither. 1814. The power-loom introduced into the United States ; first at Waltham. 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — higher than since 1810. New method of preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt. 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama cotton lands. 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt into Great Britain. 18"25. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 25 cents per pound. 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented in England by Roberts. 1827. American cotton manufactures first exported to any considei-able extent. 1829. Highest duty in the United States oa foreign cotton manufactures. 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced a machine from the United States into Eng- land for the purpose of making cards. 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported inta the United States reduced ; and in England it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, to work them more than ten hours per day, or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; m consequence they work at something else. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 18-35. Extensive purchases made of cottoa lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. cou] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 279 50 COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William in. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated aU affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- endon. — See Cabinet Council , Common Council^ Privy Council, &c. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or «jcclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. The second Lateran, tenth General, In- nocent II. presided ; the preservation of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, the principal subject, which occa- sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- thers of the church - - A. D. 1139 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; held against schismatics - - 1179 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under fiope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory X. - - - -1274 Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Arragon at- tended. The order of the Knight Templars suppressed - - - 1311 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre- gory Xn. and Benedict Xni. deposed, and Alexander elected - - 1409 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; Martin V. is elected pope ; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- demned to be burnt - - - 1414 Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- ral, begun by Julius 11. - - 1513 Continued under Leo X. for the sup- pression of the Pragmatic sanction of France, against the council of Pisa, &c. till 151/ Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- ral council, styled Ecumenical, as re- garding the affairs of all the Chris- tian world ; it was held to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin.— J.66e Lenglet 1544 Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to suppress the Donatists; three fathers of the English church went over to attend it - The first CEcumenical or General Ni- cene, held at Nice, Constantine the Great presided; Arius and Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council composed the Nicene Creed - At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- sius was canvassed The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy gained ground At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted eighteen months At Sardis \ 370 bishops attended Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith The second General at Constantinople ; 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- masius presided The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- lestine presided Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- cian and his empress attended The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Vigilius presided The sixth a.5 Constantmople, when pope Agatho presided Authority of the six general councils re- established by Theodosius The second Nicene council, seventh Ge neral ; 350 bishops attended - Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the emperor Basil attended - - 869 The first Lateran, the ninth General; the right of investitures settled by treaty between pope Calixtus XL and the emueror Henry V. - • 1122 - 314 325 335 337 342 347 451 553 715 - 787 280 THE world's progress. L ^^^ COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. I, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyfes, consuls pro- itsoires. — See FraTice. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward L, 1284. Coun- sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HL 1696, Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 6 «fc 7 WiUiam IV., Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See Commons, and Parliament. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. \A^^.— Renault. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areo'ptv- gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia MUitaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819, In these countries, Mr.' Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- stitutions. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those' persons who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects ol the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his efligy is shown to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- CRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 28 1 panicd by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to het limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became genera] in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner. in 1796. He was re- warded by parliament with the muviticent grant of i;10,000, June 2, 1802.— See Inoculation, Sviall-Pox, Vaccination. CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, a.d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the ono side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so caUed. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 220 B. c.—Livy. CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the hst of Eng lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555»; and Cran mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- duced Cranmer. some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning. CRAYONS. They were known in France before a.d. 1422— improved by L'Oriot, 1748. CREATION OP THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and DufVesnoy, 4004 B. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour, Plato, in his dia- logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient ChaJ- 282 THE world's progress. [ JRi deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud make it 5344; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in A. D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. CRESSY, OR CRECY. Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France. Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Boheuiia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30 000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto ^' Ich Dien," in English, " I serve ;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- land. — Proissart, Carte, Hume. CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a Hon on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was I'egularly borne as weU on the helmet of the kings, as on tlie head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia, which see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It was conquered by the Saracens, a.d. 808; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the Turks, in 1669.— PmsZfc?/. CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, ''a one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime. ' A comi)arative view of foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on the great mass of the pop-ilation. In North America pauper- ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre CRO J DICTIONARY 01" DAlES. 283 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormit)^ are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- ence ia painfully exemplified : — Scotland. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people- - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criirdnals among the people - 1 in 5093 - I in 920 - 1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV,, 1834. . See Executions, Hanging, Triah, S>cq.— Haydn. •S^RIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- ical criticism, as it is now known. It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30. 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself) pubhshed in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Liter a- ioive was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756 ; the Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Ami'ri- can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila.',- 1827 ; the New York Review, bj Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Qm/rterly, at Charleston, 1842. See Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism' Was ' established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c, CiiOCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza. in Italy, about A. D. 1310; and it is still cali^d/a^/mce in French. See EaHkeoiware 28 4 THE world's progress r CUL CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first Torn in En- gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XIl, form- ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crow a with two circles. — Rainaldl. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it: it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- padocia. when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prison- ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- tine, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. CRUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of Croisds. Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volovte de Dieu, "God's will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2 000.000 of men. — Voltaire. CUBA . Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered by Valasquez. in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- gan took Havana in 1669, See Buccaneers,. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing al Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, defeated May, 1850. CUBIT, This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we rea.l of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holien. The Fe- brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' .sh feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe extremi^ of the middle finger. — Calmet. CUCUMBITRS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CDLLODEN. Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the Last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 meo CYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 0001. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. n/RACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to i single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This was a Norman institu- tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I . a. d. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, ■ all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to Lex scripfa. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from a, d, 1189, do'RTiwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty j'ears in ecclesiastical cases. CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- red n., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parhament was estab- hshed 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20.000Z. for several vears. in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stoice. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000^. in the year 16m.—Davena7it. In 1530 they amoxmted to - - jei4.000 i In 1748 thev amounted to - jK,000,000 In 1592 ditto - - • 50,000 In 1S08 ditto - - 9.973.240 In 1614 ditto - - 148.000 In lS-23 ditto - . - 11:498,762 In 1622 ditto - - - 168.000 I In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540.-323 In 1642 ditto . - 500,000 I In 1835 ditto - - - 18.612,906 In 1720 ditto - - - 1,-555,600 | In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool. M.; on every last of hides, 6rf. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine.— Ami als of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 Greorge in., 1782. See Revenue. STATES. The amounts coUected USTOMS ( DUTIES) IN THE UNITED were, in 3789-9. 1800 1S05 1810 - 1815 - $4.3^9,473 - 9;080,938 12,9:36,487 • 8;583.309 - 7,282,942 1820 - - j 18-25 - 1830 . . ia35 - . - 1840 . - $15,005,612 - 20;09S.714 21,9-22.391 19:391:311 13:499,940 1845 1846 1847 1848 - 027.528,113 - 26,71-2.668 • 23.747.864 - 3i;757,070 'See Tariff. CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is' nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair. 286 THE WOIir.D's progress. [ DAG CYCL01>iEDIA.— See Encyclopcedixi. CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record It was made of brass, like a kcitle drum, and some think in the same form, but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele. by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. Tho f«!stivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Autisthenes, 396 b. c.—Diog. Liiert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without blushing. — Jde7n. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generaUy slept on the ground. — Diog. Laert. CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus, who subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular pro- vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648 ; but recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570, — Prieslley. CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. — Laer. Ar. Cicero. CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 680 b. c. Aristseus. who was the chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B. c. It is now a desert— Priestley. CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King), — Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. D. DAGUERREOTYTE, The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre Ol Paris, in 1839. by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same time by M. Niepcd. and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the French government; that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000 francs. t'AR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- ander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about a. d. 30, Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachahc. DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint- ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B. c. — EiLsebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — XJ&her. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance (contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. — Spelman. DANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the French after a siege of four months. May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- sit, it was restored to its former independen je, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10.000 head of cattle and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9. 1829. ll-ARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV.. in 1659, and were named Dardanelks from the contiguous tO'FD of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing 1 he passage of the Dar 288 THE world's progress. I DE4 danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 180*7 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from the province of Dauphin^, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert U. to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. MAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- set among tha Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the ^nstitutif^n of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in Edinburgh in 1773. DEAF and dumb. BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1840 there were 6.916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population; 7,659 deaf and dumb or 1 in 2 228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about ., 2,840 patients. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. DEATH. P'JNisHMENT OF. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- ment among the Britons before 450 b. c.—Stowe. The most eulogized heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture mai>y days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the fate of Mithiidates. an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; see also Rav iliac ; Boiling to Death; Burning to Death. &c. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment DEL j DICTIONARY OP DATES. 289 of (ieath was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9. in other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- fort, same day, August 4, 1848, DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year ia March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, in 71 J B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the year IjKCEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — hivy. The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virg-inia, and the office was abolished, the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. DEEDS, They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, ia that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343, The English tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be used in all law-suits in May, 1731. DEFENDER of the FAITH. JP^dei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church of Rome, then accounted Domicilium Jidei CatholiccB, and against Luther, who had just begim the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c, — Snellius. The first degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation than that of Atheism. — Virofs Instructio'ti Chretienne, 1563. Deism is a rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baroa of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin, I')ELAWARE. The smallest of the U, States except R. Island. First settled in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm, Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally imited to Pennsylvania until 1775. This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 13 290 THE world's progress. [ DEN ▼ote ill convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population — 1790, 59,»94; 1840, TS'OSo ; including 2,605 slaves. DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire: :t is now in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 17o8, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed : 100.000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword ; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,OOOZ. sterling was said to be collected. DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia. in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyous, ]263 B. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- ple was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the Alcmasonidae, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Pliocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c a Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7. 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales, Septuagint b. c. 3246 Jackson - 3170 Hales - - 3155 Josephus - 3146 Persian - b.c. 31ft3 Hindoo - -3102 Samaritan - -2998 Howard - - 2698 Playfair - b. c. 2352 Usher - - 2348 English Bible -2348 Marsham - - 2344 Petavius - b. c. 2329 Strauchuis - 2293 Hebrew - - 2288 Vulgar Jewish 2104 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine dry one, a. d, 1524. DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according to Euscbius. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Gcths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and viark, a German word signi* fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. DKN J DICIIONARY OF DATES. 291 DENMARK, continued. Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. 60 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 [Ragnor is killed in an attempt to ir.- vade England, and for more thar 200 years from this time the Danes were a terror to the northern nations of Eu- rope, and at length conquering all England. See Daves.], Reign of Canute the Great • - 1014 Reign of Waldemar the Great - - 1157 Waldemar XL, with a fleet of 1000 sail, makes immense conquests - - 1223 Gothland conquered - - • 1M7 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into one kingdom - - 1397 Revolt of the Swedes - - - 1414 The nations reunited - - - 1439 Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 Accession of Christian I., from whom the present royal family springs - 1448 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 Lutheranism established by Christian III. 1536 Danish East India Company established by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- testant league - - - - 1629 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes large conquests • - 1658 The crown made hereditary and abso- lute 1660 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, Tormingen, and Stralsund; reduces Weismar, and drives the Swedes out of Norway - - - 1716 e^ seg-. Copenhagen destroyed by a iire which consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., who promotes the happiness of his subjects - - - - 1730 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- denly confines his queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of Georse III. who is afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 The counts Struensee and Brandt are seized at the same time, on the charge of a criminal intercourse with the queen ; and the former confessing to avoid the torture, both are beheaded for high treason - April 28, 1772 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at Zell - - - May 10, 1775 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frederick is appointea regent 1784 One-fourth of Copent agen is destroy sd by fire - - - June 9 1795 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- ed. The Confederacy of the North (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- solved - - - April 2, 1801 Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard Copenhagen, and seize the Danish fleet of IS ships of the line, 15 fr ^ales, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 Commercial treaty with England - 1834 Frederick bestows a new constitution on his kingdom - - - 1831 A new constitution offered by Christian VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de- mand separation from Denmark March, 1848 The king grants freedom of the press and of public meetings - March, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- volt and join the great German na- tion - - - March 26, 1848 Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- izes the Grand Duchy of Posen March 26, 1848 Danes victorious over the Germans, April 10 : but diiven out of Schleswig April 23, 1848 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- while) - - - July 10, 1848 Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 (See Copenhagen.) ^ KINGS OF DENMARK. D 714 Gormo I. 1014 Canute H. the Great. 750 Ragnor Lodbrog. 1036 Hardicanute II. 770 Sigefrid. 1041 Magnus I. 801 Godefrid. 1048 Suenon II. 809 Olaus I. 1079 Harold IV. 811 Hemming. 1080 Canute III. assassinated. 812 Siward and Ringon, killed n a sea-fight. 1086 Olaus n. 814 Harold and Regner; the latter made 1097 Eric HI. prisoner in Ireland and died in a 1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. dungeon there. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 849 Siward II. deposed. 11.38 Eric V. 856 Eric ; killed in battle 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by WaldemM 858 Eric II. for assassinating prince Canijt*. 873 Canute L 1157 Waldemar the Great. 915 Frothon. 1182 Canute V. 920 Gormo II. 1202 Waldemar H 925 Harold. 1240 Eric VI. 928 Hardicanute 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition againsi 930 Gormo III. the Prisons. 935 Harold IH. 1252 Christopher I., jioisoned by the bishop of Arhus, 960 Sueaon. 292 THt world's progress. 15'^ Frederick. 1534 Christian III. 1559 Frederick II. 1588 Christian IV. 1648 Frederick lU. 1670 Christian V. 1699 Frederick IV. 1730 Christian VI. 1746 Frederick V. 1766 Christian VU. 1808 Frederic VI. 1839 Christian VHI. died Jan. a, 1648L DENMARK, continued. 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1286 Eric VIII. 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of seven years.) 1340 Waldemar III. 1375 Olaus III. 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and Norway. 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1439 Christopher III. 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1481 John. 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a dungeon, where he died. DENIS. St. An ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the north- ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous foi its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolnrion; the latter desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place ol sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. • DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the policy. to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition of •' The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great munber of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil.; and if he had not fled, he would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — TUlemont. DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in a. d. Q\Z.—Lenglet. DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpour Mas the first^'known; and where the mines of Golconda were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, ■weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was valued by M. Romeo de Tlsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400 OOOZ. The diamond called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul. was the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the size of DIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES 293 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great dia- mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166Z. besides an annuity for life, to the owner, of 1041Z. which was refused ; but it was afterwarda sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, with- out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- day, 17-72 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France for 125,000Z. in 1720. DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It wjij set on fire on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist. DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in stituted 498 e.g., when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, 'was ap pointed. This oflSce, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 b. c. DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in eight langnages, about a. d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to think," — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- printed in ] ^adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1882. Numerous abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bo.^n published. See Encyclopedia. DliCT OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of electors, the coUege of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179, The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in fjerson, was beld in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, wa? held in 1529 ; 294 THE world's progress. ( DII aud the famous i.iet of Augsburg, in 1530, In the league of the German ^ princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- | fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany. DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parde ot the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dku et mon droit " the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained A. D. 1198. — Rymer's FopAera. PIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. I?ist. Oral. Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- diction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of which twenty-one are sufii-agan to Canterbury, and three to York, DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- tians in the reign of Diocletian. DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and in the completeness of the illusion. DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain and France, GREAT BRITAW, 17a3 John Adams. 1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1792 Thomas Pinckney, ofS. C, min. plen. 1794 John .Jay, of N. Y. do. 1796 Rufus King, do. do. 1803 .lames Monroe, Va. } Jointly, 180S Wm. Pinckney, Mass. S in 1806. 1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 1830 Louis McLane, Del. do. ia31 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 1832 Aaro-!. Vail, charire d'affaires. 1836 And. Stevenson, '^a., minister plen. 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. lSi5 Louis McL&ne, Md. do. 1846 Georse Bancroft, Mass. do. 1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. FRANCB. 1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'm 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaireo. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. 1797 E. Gerrv & John Marshall, ' 1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, and W. Vans Murray, do. 1801 James A. 'Bayard, Del. c©. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co. 1804 John Armstrong, do. oa 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do. 1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 1823 James Brown, La. do. 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 1833 Edward Livinsston, La. do. 1836 Lewis Cass, MicJj. co. 1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. da ISIO W. C. Rives, Va da DIV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295 DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England at the period of the civil war. It was drawn np at the instance of the par- liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given, which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. iJlRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, with Cambacerfes and Sieyfes, became the ruling power of France, the three governing as consuls, the first as chief Nov. 9, 1799. DISSENIERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Ehza- beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act. so much of the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- orating eflect have been since passed, DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, <^c. DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b. c. The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off" Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-^eZZe was the wife of Captain Mor- ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 29r> THE world's progress. I DOG to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a, d. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos- tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole race. — Buffon. Bufibn describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such efiects might be expected. The star not only varie* in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may. by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton. DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stare; »nd they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 milliotis of miles. They maintain that a sound wouH n(>t reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thei.-ce to oui flobe. DOR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 29' prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- pensed with. See Adriatic. DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- licane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis AnslicB- A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties ol England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- rate survey- was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day book. DORIC Order of Architkcture. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name V> 13* 298 THE world's progress. y DR> the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu: ; took place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. DORI . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446, It arose in the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- pally upon points '-f justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. DOUAY, IN France, Erected into a university by Philip 11. of Spain, who founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the ''''rench next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of thv Bible, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv-essive popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines. DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — Sigonius de Repiib. Athen. DRAKES CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was viae-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expedition's and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs. — Stoice. Rapin. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The fi^st comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a goat, 536 B. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. •Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and DUO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 29S afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy, Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- ent performers ; he danced himself^ and gave the singing to a younger exhibitor. — Livy. DllAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VH.'s reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles H., Killegrew's and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar* zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones, us to have exceeded the value of 66OOI, ; and he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the ftH'Hh at Paris, in 1772 : and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societieg 300 THE world's progress. [duk have been instituted in other countries. The motto of tne Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : — Laieat scintiUula forsan — a small spark may lurlc unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Caesar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. [>9.— Rowland's Moiia Aiitiqua. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb. " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. Constantine. king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. DUBLIN, This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a, d. 140. DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Du Gauge. Coined by Robert, king ot Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 45. 6d., and that o/ the gold 9s. 6d. — Pardon. DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- duced into England. 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles 11., 1679. Duelling was checked in the array, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, i^c. An many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- tence of the law. — Haviilton. i- DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Rot^rt de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, pi ince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. DUKE. Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EAR J mCTIONARY OF DATES, 301 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, and his son. Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR, Battle op, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English undc" Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DI7NKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles 11. for 500,000/. t< Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057, The history of Macbeth is the sub- ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey. and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished.' Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 'DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art i?i the north" (of England) 1628. EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard n. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earis. They had. anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of tho sheriff" 's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridg^.d. Alfred \ised the title of earl as a substitute for king. 3U2 THE world's progress. EAR EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1676. The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. EAJITHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See China. — Porcelain. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred : — One which made the peninsula of Eubofa an island - - b. c. 425 EUice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, swallowed up ... 372 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and mounted on a stalely horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasion- ed (Z,irj/) - - - - 358 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; and twelve cities in Campania also buried - - 345 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its inhabitants .... 283 Awful one in Asia, which overturned twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried - 79 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, aiid two in Galatia, overturned • • 107 Antioch destroyed - - A. D. Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Nicea in Bithynia, overturned In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and towns damaged. - Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants buried in its ruins One felt by nearly the whole world • At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy- ed, and thousands perished - In Africa ; many cities overturned Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- ed all calculation In France, Germany, and Italy Constantinople overtuined, and all Greece shaken One felt throughout England - One at Antioch ; many towns deetroy- 114 126 35f 358 543 558 560 742 801 936 1069 BAS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303 EARTHQUAKES, continued. ed : among ihem, Maris3um and Ma- mistria - - - a. d. 1114 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142 At Calabria, when one of its cities and all its inhabitants were overwhelm- ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1 186 One again felt throughout England - 1274 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- ants perished .... 1456 One felt in London : part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell - 1580 In Japan, several cities made ruins, and thousands perished - - 1596 Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638 One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- ed Port Royal, whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons perished - - - 1692 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18.000 inhabit- ants, not a trace remained; more than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons perished - - - 1726 Again in China; and 100,000 people swallowed up at Pekin - - 1731 One in Hungary, which turned a mountain round - - - 1736 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent : but the monks escaped 1740 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 Adrianople neai-ly overwhelmed 1752 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the houses, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, were swallowed up, and whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- turned. In Spain, a large part of Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished « there. Above half of the island of Madeira became waste: and 2,000 houses in the island of Meteline, in the Archipelago, were overthrown : this awful earthquake extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 One in Syria extended over 10,000 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 EASTER So called in England from the of Easter was instituted about a. d. 6S was fixed in England by St. Austin, in A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D 177& At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried - - 1780 One which overthrew Messina and a number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 178^ At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of the earth swallowed up many houses and lOGO persons - Sept. 178? Another fatal one in Sicily - - 1791 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing forth its tlames overwhelmed the city ofTorre del Greco - - -1794 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons lost their lives - 1794 The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed, including the cities of Cusco and Q,uito, 40,000 of whose people were, in one second, hurled into eternity - - - 179>J One at Constantinople, which destroy- ed the royal palace and an immen- sity of buildings, and extended into Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. ISM In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 persons lost their lives - - 1805 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- chael's sunk, and a lake of boilmg water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 Several felt throughout India. The district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were buried with it - - June 1819 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns ; great damage sustain- ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 One fa'^1, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 One ill Spain, which devastated Mur- cia, and numerous villages; 6000 persons perished - March 21, 1829 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- fotaro ; and at Pontremoli many ouses were thrown down, and not a chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hundreds of houses were thrown down, and thousands of the inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 At Martinique, by which nearly half of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged - Jan. 11. 18-311 At Ternate : the island made a waste, almost every house destroyed, and thousands of the inhabitants lose their lives - - Feb. 14, 1-SlO Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat : in one of the districts of Armenia 3137 houses were over- thrown, and several hundred persons perished - - July 2, 1840 Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 Saxon goddess Eostre. The festival ! ; the day for the observance of it 597. It was ordained by the council 304 THE world's progress. I ECL of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantine XIIL, the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortuaate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Consta,ntines, and com* . menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adv.lteFy, probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome, [n A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they * chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- andria, about A. D. 1. — Dry den. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon : — OF THE SUN. That predicted by Thales ; observed at Sardis (P/m?/,/i'6. ii.) - b. c. 585 f)ne at Athens (TTiucydides, lib. iv.) - 424 Total one ; three days' supplication de- creed at Rome (Livy) • - 188 One general at the death of Jesus Christ (Josephus) ■ - - A. D. 33 One at Rome, causing a total darkness at noon-day (Livy) ■ - - 291 One observed at Constantinople - 968 In France, when it was dark at noon- day (.Du Fiesnoy) - June 29, 1033 In England, where it occasioned a total AdiYkn&ss (Wm. Mcdmsb.) • -1140 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning (Camrfe/J) - June 23, 1191 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by their glasses {Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191 Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 A total one ; the darkness so ereat that the stars shone, and the birds went to roost at noon (Old^nixon' s Annals of Geo. I.) - . April 22, 171S ED.jJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305 ECLIPSES, continued. Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) - 219 Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior of Eui'ope - Sept. 7 1820 OP THE MOON. The first, observed by the Chaldeans al Babylon (Ptolemy, lib. iv.) - b. c. 721 A total one, observed at Sardis (Tku- cydides,lib. vii.) - - - 413 One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 One terrified the Roman trcops and quelled their revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 b. c, EDEN, GARDEN op. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEHILL, Battle op, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to France 800 000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50 000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they exceljed ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- dersoti's Orig. of Englisli Commerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records. Dun Edin, signifying the ' hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria. who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts. 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 306 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [egy EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, Literary Convention at New Yorlc, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000^. for national education, pro- posed in parliament liy Lord John Kussell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. his relative ; but this did not save him from a like doom. Ho wa.s guillotined Nov. 6, 1793, EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. 1 Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) b. c. 2188 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbs Lenglef, Blair) - 2126 Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 2111 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits to be repre- sented in sculpture and painting ( Usher, Lenglel) - - - 2100 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt and hold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080 The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- mon letters ( Usher) - - • 1891 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Lenglet) • - - - 1822 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all Egypt (Lenglet) ■ - 1821 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 1728 He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Sesostris reigns; he extends hh do- minion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- let)' 1618 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Rampses, v/ho imposed on his sub- jects the building of walls and pyra- mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, Blair) - . . - - 1492 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the country, hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) ■ b. o. 1485 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) who had the faculty of as- suming whatever form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire 1189 [These fictions were probably intend- ed to mark the profound policy of this king, who was eminent for his wisdom, by which his dominion flourished.— jB/a/r.] Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- sels of the Temple - - - 971 The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with Petubastes (Blair) • 825 The dynasty of Saites (Blair) - 781 Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted alive ( Usher) - • 737 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the longest siege in the an- nals of antiquity (C/sAer) - - 647 Necho begins the famous canal be- tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- terranean sea (Blair) • - 610 This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 600 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries ( Usher) - - - 581 Apries taken prisont )• and strangled in nis palace (Diod. Sicu/us) - - 671 The philosopher Fnhagoras comes from Samos into Egypt, and is in- structed in the i. vsieries of Egyp- tian theology ( Usher) • - S36 ' The epoch of the reign of Sesostris! is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As to the achie^ ements of this monarch, '.hey are supposed to have been the laboi-s of several kings, attributed by th - Egypiian priests to Se3)stris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. ELE J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 307 EGYPT, continued. The line of the Fharaohs ends in the murder of Psaramenitus by Camby- ses {Blair) ■ - b. c. 526 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses; he puts the children of the grandees, male and female, to death, and makes the coui try a waste (Herodotus) • 524 He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish in the burning sands {Justin) - 524 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by Xerx:es {Blair) - - 487 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - - 463 Successful revolt under Amyrt^us, who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) • 414 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its temples pillaged ( Usher) - - 350 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it from the Persians, and builds Alexandria (BZa») - - 332 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of Alexandria (Btoir) - - - 283 The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- tament made about this time - 283 The famous libi-ary of Alexandria also dqtes about this period (Blair) • 283 Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 Ptolemy Euex-getes overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils, and 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian temples (Blair) - - - - 246 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 At the death of Philometer, his brother Physcon marries his queen, and on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son of Philometer in its moth- er's arms .... 145 He repudiates his wife, and marries 130 His subjects, wearied with his cruel- ties and crimes, demolish his stat- ues, set fire to his palace, and he flies from tlieir fury (Blair) b. 0. 125 He murders his son by his new queen ; also his sou by her mother, sending the head and limbs of the latter as a present to the parent on a feast day 129 Yet, defeating (he Egyptian army, he recovers his throne ; and dies - 12S Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- sons perish in Egypt - - - 1^ Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous city of Thebes destroyed after a siege of three years (Diod. Siculus) - 82 Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to his eldest sou, Ptolemy, and the fa- mous Cleopatra (Blair) - - yl During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Alexandria is be- sieged by Caesar, and the famous library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) - . - - - 47 Caesar defeats the king, who, in cross- ing the Nile, is drowned; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign - - - - - 46 Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 years of age) and reigns alone - 43 She appears before Mark Antony, to answer for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt 40 Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the battle of Actium (Blair) - 31 Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman prov- ince 30 her daughter by his brother (Blair) ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a yesir in land, 39 Henry VI., lAQO.—Ruffhead's Statutes. Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their votes, 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who posses.sed the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- peror. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 n. c. Electricitj was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances by Br. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its power, of ( onductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the *' Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, and that it would fire spirits,. 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 808 THE world's progress. [ EM* was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au« rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- vaui, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by Winckler, atLeipsic,l746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery ot 'Galvanism," at Bolonga. 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832. patented 1840. Tht; first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between Wat-hington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- gland, 1S40. Bains patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6.679 miles. — See Supplement ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointed 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — Baker's Chron. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries Avere the most celebra- ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- dosius the Great, a. d. 389. ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived chiefli'^ from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- dias about 500 B. 0. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING, The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible £MP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309 but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies^ some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is no"w lost. Vrhen Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. — JoJin xix. 38. EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the porta of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 2MBR0IDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux Tapestry. EMERALD, The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1515 ; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River, Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, accord?ng to official returns, 154,291. In the decennial period to 1840. the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Great BritaLi and Ireland - - 148,212 | Denmark - • - - 210 Germany .... 58,018 I Switzerland 319 France - .... 7,748 Other countries or unknown - - 3,043 Sweden and Norway - - 903 1 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode ijf putting criminals to 310 THE world's progress. I ENO death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, paiticularly bj^ the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Sovthern. Wil- liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- clitfe Highway, London. Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo IIL a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, A. D. 1749. ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot. D'Alembert, and other savans contri- buted, was published in 1782 e^se^., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of ; the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and published by A. &C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been ;el26,000, of which i;28 000 were pa '.d to the contributors. This was pro- bably the most costly uudertaking.of the kind ever achieved by private enter- prise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 1796-1830 and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Aviericana was com- menced in :>hiladelphia in 1820-80, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844, fUVGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain Thomas Ruddhad the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Tb* corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a fiNG] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at Washington. E^'GLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. Englan'l and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the Latin disused, May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450, The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — De Piles. ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr, Ackermann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; Sir Christopher Wren further impi oved it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is prodaced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he com- nunicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en- graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography, i^c. ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftei it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and tine impressions, in- 312 THE world's progress. [ KPl definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahZeTS, or manufacturers of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printing. Tlie art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss. a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leydea in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils. Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnasus, a. d. 1739. Tlie London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys E.xtraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, a. d. 1639. EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa? one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200. broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could clieck and restrain the authority of the kings and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See HOMKR. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder of it. about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — " Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in our language : — " Live while we live !" the epicure will sav, " And tasle the pleasures of the present day." " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, " And give to God each moment as it flies." Lord ! in mt/ view let both united be, We live in pleasure when we live to thee.—Doddridsr^ EltiJ J DICTIONA.IY OF DATES. 31 54 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhns. Its early history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. Reign of the great Pyrrhus - b. c. 306 He enters into a league against Deme- trius ; the battle of Beraea - - 294 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first battle against the Romans - - 280 ''•'e gains another great battle - - 279 /is "conquest of Sicily - - - 278 Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 272 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown at him from a house-top by a woman - - - - 272 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon ■ 2S0 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 His last battle with the Romans - 274 ; Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1468 He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274 ' KPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33. when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishopa. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — Burnet. KPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States, Episcopacy estabhshed in New- York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram. — Boileau. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- rn;s from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — Bossuet. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- larly adopted. — See Eras. Creation - - - - b. c. 4004 Deluge 2348 Calling of Abraham - - - 1921 Argonautic expedition • - - 1225 Destruction of Troy - - 1184 1st Olympiad • . . . 776 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When the sun in his progress through the echptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See C/tattr' eery. ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order, a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 14 Building of Rome - - B. c. 753 Nabonassar - 747 The Seleucidae - 312 The battle of Actium - - 38 The Christian era - A.D. 1 Diocletian ■ 284 314 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. | ElfB the astronomical obsen-ations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 26. 747. The era of the Seleucidae (used by the Maccabees) commenced 8li2 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date nom the year 776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards from the IBth year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christiana have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chieflj used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the World, and the ap{)<3arance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians havo made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era,. — Cassiodoj-us Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in this Avork. — See Creation, and Christian Era. ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. — Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- covered by Kunkel. in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. BouUay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, oi Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance eve] dictionary op dates. 315 called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by rehgion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments, FTNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 B. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carver a. One in 1012. — Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169, Eruptions eaually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669^ when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov, 18, 1832. EUCLID, Elements of, Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 b, c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- rems of his own, to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon GrynaBus, in A. D, 1533, EUNUCHS, This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b, c, — Leng- let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by th€ French under the marquis de Bouill^, Nov. 26, same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- stored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a, d. 44 ; Luke ia 55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out umhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patnios, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100, — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists, EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain, Henry III, at one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not 316 THE world's progress. [ exb kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory brok« up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 12G5'. EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome. 493 b. u. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7. 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit iu Ja^. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1S44. EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting vif oflScers whose functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Faucon bridge, bishop of Lon- don, in the reign of Henry IIL, about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- ment from Jan. to May the 24th. Charles II. 167B.—Stowe. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long ir&{\i&- ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an oflSce opened in 1643. and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 See Revenue. AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE REVENUE OP GREAT BRITApj IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 1744 Great Britain - je3,7M,072 1830 United Kingdom JE18,644,385 1786 Ditto - 5,540,114 1834 Ditto " - 16,877,292 1808 Ditto - - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto . - 14,518,142 1820 Ditto . 26,-364,702 1840 Ditto - - 12,607,766 1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 1845 Ditto - 13.585,583 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, " his excommunicated body" was five 3^ears above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign; and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208. when all England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary in(^ul- gences were oflfercd to all who should assist in deposing her. • EXECUITONS. See CHme. In the reign of Henry VHI. Cthirty-eight yean,) EXP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 317 it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. — Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbei of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending- 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. EXECITTIOS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS. In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 1&35 - nil j In the year 1838 - nil I In the year 1841 - 1 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the year 1842 - 9 In the year 1830 - 6 j In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | In the year 1^3 - 1 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly foiir years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. Years, Imports. Exports. $19,012,041 Years. Imports. 74,450.000 - Exports. 1791 ■ $52,200,000 . 1820 - 69,691,669 1792 31,500,000 - 20,7.53,098 1821 62,585,724 64,974,332 1793 - 31,100,000 26,109.572 1822 . • 83,241,541 - 72,160.281 1794 34,600,000 . 33,026.233 1823 77.579,267 74,699,030 1795 - 69,756,268 47,989,472 1824 - 80,549,007 . 75,986,657 1796 81,436,164 - 67,064,097 1825 96,340,075 99,535,388 1797 - 75,379,406 56,850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322 1798 68,551,700 . 61,527,097 1827 79,484,068 82,324,827 1799 - 79,'168,148 78,665,522 1828 - 88,509,824 - 72,264,686 1800 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 1829 74,492,527 72,358,671 1801 - 111,363,511 94.115,925 1830 - 70.876,920 - 73,849,508 1802 76,333,333 - 72,483,160 1831 103,191,134 81,310,583 1803 . 64,666^666 55,800,033 1&32 - 101,029,266 - 87,176,943 1804 85,000,000 - 77,699,074 1833 108.118,311 90,140,433 1805 . 120,000,000 95,566,021 1834 - 126,521,332 - 104,336,973 1806 129,000,000 - 101,5.36,963 1835 149,895,742 121,693,577 ?807 . 138,500,000 108,343,150 1&36 - 189,980,035 . 128,663,040 1808 56,990,000 - 22,439.960 1837 140,989,217 117,419,376 1809 - 59,400,000 52;203;231 1838.. 108,486,616 - 113,717,404 1810 85,400,000 . 66,757,974 1839 121,028,416 162,092,132 1811 . 53,400,000 ■ 61,316,831 1840 . 131,571,950 - 101,805,891 1812 77,030,000 - 38,527,236 '1841 127,946,177 121,851,803 1813 - 22,005,000 - 27,855,997 1842 - 100,162,087 - 104,691,534 1814 12,965,000 . 6,927,441 1843 64,753,799* 84,346,480* 1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t ■ 111,200 046t 1816 147,103,000 - 81,920,452 1845 117,254,564t 114,646 ,606t 1817 - 99,250,000 87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,48J>;5l6t 1818 121,750,000 . 93,281,133 1847 146.545,638t 158,&4^,622t 1819 - 87,125,000 70,142,521 1848 - 154;977,876t - 154,032,131t EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward IE. , by his encouragemen t of trade, turned tl le scale so much in favor of Eng 'lish mercl landise, that b y a balance of trade taken in his time, 1 the exported commodit ies amounted to294,000^., and the i mported to only 3^ \Qm. VALtJE P EXPORTS PROM ORE at BRITAIN T( ) ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD viz:— In 1700 - JE6,097,120 In 1820 . -JE51,733,11 3 In 1842 . -.£102,180,517 In 1750 - - 10,130.991 In 1830 . 66,735,44 5 In 1843 - 100,260,101 In 1775 - 16,326,363 In 1835 . - 78,376,73 2 In 1844 - . 117,877,278 In 1800 - - 38,120,120 In 1840 - 97,402,72 6 In 1845 . 131,564,503 In 1810 . 45,869,839 In 1841 ■ - 102,705,37 2 1 In 1846 - - 134,509,lHi Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 318 THE world's progress. [ FAt The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of BHtish and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : In 1811 • -jE116,479,678|In 1843 - -£113,844,259 11111845 - - dE145,961,749 In 1842 • - 116,903,668 | In 1S44 • - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85,281,958^; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65.598,028Z. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — Brit. Revenue Returns. EYX(AU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba^ a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war a^inst the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. — Sir William Jones. The well-known .^sop's fables {which see), were written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in religious or civil matters, and is ahvays taken in an ill sense. FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred, a. d. 88Q.—Spelman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Feria, at which the monks celebrated th8 festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- mand for goods, wares. &c. They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slain 1 rSOl DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 B. c. Livy. Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 | voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, At Rome, attended by plague - - 262 In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark of trees - - - 272 In Scotland, and thousands die • • 306 In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) • - 450 In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 and vermin - - - a. d. 1315 One in England and France {Rapin) - 1353 Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern roots (Stowe) • 1438 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 One general in Great Britain - - 1743 One which devastates Bengal - • 1771 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- perish - - - - 1775 Again, when thousands starve - - 823 j One grievously felt in France - - 1789 Again, which lasts four years - - 954 i One severely felt in England - - 1795 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 In England and' France ; this famine j At Drontheim, owing to Sweden nter- leads to a pestilential fever, which ■ cepting the supplies - - - 1813 lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 I Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Another famine in England - - 1251 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- I FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc Jiabellum et ventulnmhuic sic facito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — Sbowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church. — Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- mon, 1005 b. c. — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish chuTch were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubikes. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- tled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Common Prayer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, eracuated by the Austrians, ex- cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. Tlie 32C THE world's PROGRESb. [FIR slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 100«. Tliis waa done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746.— i>i^i!Ho?i,; Rufffvead; Blackstone. FEUILL ANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M. rocco States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century, FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction of law- shall EVER so far prevail AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OP THE FACT. AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I., A. D, 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons (see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland directly from England, by Malcolm II,, 1008. FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when Jksus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jepus Christ king at London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653, FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and z.ero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900, They were first known in England about the year 1253. previously to which time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. Th« poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- tries of the East, 2115 b. c. — Juslin ; Plimj. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a Rod omnipotent, and FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321 taught this theory about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the carl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy. in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftie forcing ])ump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Kapin. i?'IRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to tlie Chinese in remote ages : they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360 ; and were first exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America, In New York, destroying 600 warehou- i New York, destroying 302 stores and ses and p'^operty to amount of $20. 000,000 - - - Dec. 16, 1835 At Washington, destroying the General Post Office and Patent Office, with 10,000 valuable models, drawings, dwelling-houses, and property worth $6,000,000-^ lives lost - July 19, 1845 St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town destroyed — 6,000 people made houseless - - June 12, 1846 «fec. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and ' burned to death - - June 14, 1846 1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued New York ; 46 buildings ; loss, $10,- ! $800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, $500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and property valued about $6,000,000 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides steamboats &c., '2A acres burned over, loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, .849 Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, immense loss of property, and se- veral lives, May 2.S, 1845. Another, burnnif 1.300 dwellings; in all, two April 10, 1845 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, $750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 1.5 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about $3,000,000 - - May 17, 1849 thi'ds ofthe chy - June 28, 1845 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July J*, 1860 32'-^ THE world's progress. [pro FIRE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eighty- nine churches, including St. Paul's; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House. Guildhall. Sion College, and many other public buildings, besides 13 20U houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2. 1666, and continued three days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses. — Hume; Rapiti; Carte. FIRST FRUITS. PriviiticB among the Hebrews. They were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the first fiuits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poor clergy by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 1838. FLAGELLANTS, Sect or. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad Schmidt, was burnt. 1414. FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgae; conquered by Julius Csesar, 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shook off the Spanish yoke In 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrun by the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected into the kingdom of Belgium in \^ol.—^e& Belgium. FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hevip. FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James TV. of Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIIL of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfoi-tunate policy ; and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10.000 of his army were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, lost only persons of small note. Henry VIIL was at the time besieging Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9. 1513. FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and en- larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- emy, and the Accademia della Crvsca, were instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany; the latter is so named because it rejects like brnn all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796. and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot sailing under the English flag in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- FLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 323 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 153'J. Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few jetavn after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The Seminole chief Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723; in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A Jloren was issued by Ed- ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam- den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. — Aske. The florin : f Germany is in value 2s. 4d. ; that of Spain 4s. 4t^d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland 2s. — Ayliffe. FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good- ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the following : — FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. Acacia, N. America, before - , Allspice shrub, Carolina Anniseed tree, Florida, about - Arbor Vitae, Canada, before Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope Auricula, Switzerland Azarole, S. Europe, before Bay, royal, Madeira Bay, sweet. Italy, before Camellia, China Chaste tree, Sicily, before Christ's thorn, Africa, before Canary bell-flower. Canaries - Carnation, Flanders Ceanothus, blue. New Spain - Canary convolvulus, Canaries Convolvulus, many-flowered - Coral tree, Cape Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape Coral tree, tremulous, Cape Creeper, Virginian, N. America Dahlia, China Dryandra, New Holland Evergreen thorn, Italy Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape Everlasting, giant, Cape - Fernbush, sweet, N. America - Fox-glove, Canaries Geranium, Flanders Gillyflower, Flanders 1640 172c), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 5'ORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, A. D. 1079-85.— ^-towe. FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off. the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 1634. FORGERY", Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made, and the highest infiuence was exerted to save him, but when the case came before the council, the minister of the day said to George IIL, " if your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ot using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the T<^alian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. FO THERINGAY CASTLE Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard in. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose deatli is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8. 1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England, FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision for the preservation of exposed children; but foundling hospitals are a modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807 had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in 1784, was 40,000- in 1798, over 51,000; in 1822, 138,500. The increase in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine H. built a *ostly one near Moscow, where 8000 infants were succored. 326 THE world's progress. [FRi FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul, in the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger- many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, first into 84. and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Vieus, 65 et seq, 1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoj in London. 1364. Charles V., sumamed the Wise; ih« first prince who had the title of dau- phin. (See article Dauphin.) 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 1422. Charle.s VII.. the Vict-jious. 1461. Louis XL, detested for his atrocious cruelties. 14&3. Charles VIII., the Affable. 1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, sumamed the Father of his People. 1515. Francis I. 1547. Henry II. : died of a wound receivea at a tourrmment. 1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, afterwards queen of Scots ; diea the year after his accession. 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his moiher, obtained the regency, which trust she abused. 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar. In this The Franks, under their leader Phara- mond, settle in that part of Gaul till late called Flanders - - a. D. 420 Reign of Clovis the Great - - 461 [The Events in !■ rench History and the succession of sovereigns will be found in the Tabular Views in this volume, commencing p. 65.] 720. Childcric XL 737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway during an interregnum. 742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned monk. THE CAULOVINGIANS. 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- tel ; this race called Carlovingians. 768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; also emjSeror of Germany. S14. Louis I., the Gentle, sumamed, also, the Debonnaire ; dethroned, and im- prisoned in a monastery. 840. Charles U., surnamed the Bald; poi- soned by his physician Henault. 877. Louis the' Stammerer. 879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter died, 832. Carloman reigned alone. 884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 887. Eudes or Hugh. 898. Chanes III., the Simple ; deposed and died in prison. 923. Rudolph. 936 Louis IV., d'Outremer ; died by a fall from his horse. 954. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said b} his wife Emma. 986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by his wife Blanche, and in him ended the "ice of Charlemagne. THE CAPETS. 987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of kmgs are called Capevingians. 996. Robert the Sage. 1031. Henry I. 1060. Philip I., the Fair. 1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. 1137. Louis VII., the Young. 1180. Philip II., Augustus. 1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in his camp bef(ne Tunis; canonized. 1270. Philip 111., the Hardv. 1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. 1314. I^uis X., Hutin. 1316. John, who reisned only eight days. 1316. Philip v., the Lons. 1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; kmg of Navarre. HOUSE OF VALOIS^ 1323, Philip de Valois. t X prince was extinguished the hou.so 1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- cis Ravillac. (See Rarillac.) 1610. Louis XIII., the Ju.st. 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled Dieu-Donne. 1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; bu". which surname he lost. 1774 Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo- tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 1789. The Revolution commences with the destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. FRENCH EMPIRE. 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes the iron crown, May 26". 1805. Re- nounces the thrones of France and Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 1814. BOURBONS RESTORED. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the throofti May 3. 1814 ; dies. Sept. 16. 1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, 1&30; retires to Rainbouillet same daj, and subsequently seeks protection in England. HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 1830. Louis-Philippe ; declar.xi I the Frencn," August 9. king 01 vwAao^v FK.E ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an- ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure In Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as thej were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for comi- ties on persons having 405. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., l^QQ.—RiiffJiead'i Statutes. See Electors. FRANCISCANS. An prder of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIIL, they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d. 1536-38. FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. FKEDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable b]' the death of Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. He was found in that position, with his hand upon liis sword, and a prayer- book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis- tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, afiirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been fixed at the year a. d. 674 ; although by other authorities it is assigned a much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of Edward III., im2.—Stowe. FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the American general, Winchester, January 22. 1813. It was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- can commander and his troops were made prisoners. FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- land, which was carried on also by the Americari colonies, 1689. The French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco. Me.. &c., 1690 ; but were defeated by Schuyler at La Prairie. 1691. Peace of Ryswyck. 1697. " Queen Anne's war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine 1703. French and Spanish invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French in Port Roj'-al, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of TTlrecht. 1713. Another war declared by England. 1744; Louisbourg and Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. Frencl) en- 328 THE world's PROGRESJ5. L *'*^® croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3 Wasliington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken by French, 1756. and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the Eng- lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- deroga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga. a goddess wor- shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by whicl Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half hei dominions. FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, .». d. 1642. Visited by WalHs, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook, who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- tion of the natives, 1773. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- times, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. iTROSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 401.— C/?in-. Hist. A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred miles from the shore.— CA/w^\ Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035.— S/?fcr/. The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable rUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the eifecta of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year more than 400,000 men. FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth, between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Floicers. Among others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- out success. — Hackluyt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits whose introduction into England has been traced : — FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame- Almond-tree, Barbary - - A. d. 1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry, the paper^ from .U pan, before 1754 Apple, the custard, North America - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 1562 Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - - 1730 Apricots, Epirus • - - - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, Chiaa - 1771 Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges - - - . - 1595 Cornelian cherry, Austria - - - 1596 Peaches, Persia - - . . 1562 Currants, Zante .... 1533 Pears, from various climes - . * * • Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 Fig-tree, south of Europe, before - 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 1525 Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy - - - -1522 Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 j Plum, the d^ate, Barbary - - - 1596 Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before - - 1548 I/eraons. Spain - - • - 1554 Quince, Austria - - - - 1573 Limes, Portugal - - . - 1554 QuinceJ the Japan - - - 1796 Lime, the American, before - - 1752 Raspbeny, the flowering, N. America - 1700 Melons, before .... 1.540 , Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696 Mock orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 Strawberry, Flanders . . - 1.530 Mulberry, Italy . - - . 1520 i Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 M ilberry, white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N, America, before 162i; FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues (the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — Mtr'- timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- house. 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- ties. 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Fivo^er cent, annuities, 1797, and 1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one. 580 b. c. They were in- dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d 1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus. 353 b. c. Po- pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 330 THE world's progress. [ g*k which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliua Caesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- tus. 580 B. c. FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- ury advanced, they were used by princes as finings for their tents. They were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward HI. enacted that all such persons as could not spend lOOZ. a year, should be prohibited ihia species of finery, 1337. G. GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were invented by the Corinthians. 786 b. c. — Btair. They were built at Athens, 786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting in them, see Polybius. GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani. wife of Dr. Galvani of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon: and in 1791. Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- rious facts observed which have excited much attention among philosophers. See Electro-Galvanism.' Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 livres. in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesvierism. GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the nortli of Euro]ie, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5, Nume- rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. GAMING. Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — Camden ; Sluice. Act. prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c.. to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. — RufflieacTs Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London for one season have been estimated at 150 OOOZ. In one night a million of money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. G AMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective) heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted ou new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See the Capitoline, Islhmian, Oiijmjnc. Piilhian, Secular, and other Games. tJARDENING. Gardening was otp of rh,' first arts that succeeded the art of building houses. — Walpole. Noah jihuited a vineyard, and drank of the wine. Of fruit, fiower, and kitche i gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt SAR DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 n^nVT ATITT?Q Carrots - Flanders Plums - - Damascus iuMCtXAiiljCdO* Brocoli - - Cyprus Oranges - - Spain - Ethiopia Beans - - Greece Lemons • Spain - Asia Peas - - Spain Pink . Italy • Syria Provence-rose - Marseillee - Crete • Cyprus - Asia FRUITS AN! FLOWERS. Convolvulus Arctopus - Canaries - Cape Jasmine - Circassia Bell-Power - Canaries - Brabant Elder-tree - Persia Cherr.-os - - Pontus . Holland Tulip - Daffodil . - Cappadocia Figs - - Italy . The East - Italy Date-plum - - Barbary - Siberia Lily - Syria Mulberry - - ii'^y. - China Tuberose - Java, (fee. Nectarine - - Persia - East Indies Carnation ■ Italy, &c. Passion-flower Brazil - Astracan Ranunculus Alps Pomegranate - Spain - France Apples • Syria Rosemary • Il^'y - Italy Apricots - - Epirus Laburnum - - Hungary - Flanders Currants - Zante Laurel - Levant - Brazil Damask-rose - Damascus Lavender • - Italy - America Hops - - Artois Peaches - - Persia - Holland Gooseberries - Flanders Quitice - Austria • Egypt Gilly-flowers - Toulouse Weep. Willow Levant - Egypt Musk-rose - Damascus Fennel - - Canaries the protuiype.— /(^ew. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par- terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one in that of our William III.— Idem. The art of gardening became better understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced abou/ 1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — ROOTS AND 1 Rice, from Buckwheat • Borage Cresses Cauliflower Asparagus - Lettuce - Artichokes - Garlic Shallots Horse-radish Kidney- Gourds Lentils - Chervil Celeiy - Potatoes Tobacco Cabbage Anise - Parsley Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. , about 1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, in Sussex. 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by archbishop GrindaL about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted flowers unknown in England, as gilly-fiowers, carnations, the Provence rose, &c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots from Vienna. 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 1600. See Mowers; Fi-uits. GARTER, Order OF THE. This institution outvies all other similar institu- tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward HI., who conquered France and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of Ir.s mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreiga knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor •, it was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward gave his garter for the signal of a Imttle that had been crowned with suc- cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner; and Edward the Black Prince- 332 THE world's progress. [ GEW his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, A. D. April 23, 1849-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- scrii)tion in old French — " Honi soit qui mal y pense " — evil to him who evil thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled Equites aurece Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805, Gas-lights were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16. 1807. They were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) first lighted with gas, 1823-4. GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because una gazclia, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — Trusler. A gazette Avas printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 1715. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 1, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed to the Lomloii Gazette, Feb. 5. 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter was forged with a view of affecting the funds. May 22, 1787. The fraud succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the church was held December 20. 1560. The General Assembly constitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. See Chiirch of Scotland. ^rENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the title of General of the French armies, a. d. \2f)?,.— Renault. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. Memorable insurrection here. February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in consequence of it. applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 60 000/,. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives oamc to GEO J DICTIOXARY" OF DATES. 3b3 Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- mans, 115b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745, Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of the people was such^ that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Tagurian Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly invested, Augnst 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 1805. It surnmdered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 1814 ; and was transferred to the- king of Sardinia in 1816. flisurrection against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen- tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, about A. D. 1430. — Sidney. GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lengiet. The invention of the mari- ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, a. d. 1489. GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand yoars 334 THE world's progress. [ OE}« upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to tm same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teemiug with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blovijield. (rEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inucdationa of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The scienoj of geometry was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stowe. GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general Moreau, general Pichegru. Georges Cadoudal. who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIIL, Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, whicli see. GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- thorpe, who, with forty followers founded Savannah. Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war. Dec. 29. 1778 ; the town and State evacuated by them in Julv 1782. The State unanimously adopted the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 17&'8. Population in 1790. 82 584'; in 1840, 691,392, including 280 944 slaves. Staple commodities^ cotton and rice. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called should no longer exist; but that instead thereof a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- rangement was adopted in 1815 by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is now governed by a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixt)''-five, divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans to subdue them although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432, the Huns, driven from Cliina. conquered the greatest i)art of this extensive iiountry ; but it was not totally subdued till Cliarlemange, the lirst emperor, became master of the whole, a. d. 802. Charlemagne crowned emperor of the ; Charles III. was the first sovereign who West at Rome - - a. D. 800 He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany are united in him - - 802 J,om? (Dehonnaire) separates Germany fr ni France . . . ". 814 added " in the year of our Lord" his reign .... p.s The German princes assert their inde- pendence, and Conrad reigns - 9iit [Tlie electoral character assumed about this time. See Electora.] - - Sli i*BR J DTCTIONARY OF DATES. 335 GERMANY, continued. Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned emperor by the pope - 962 Henry HI. conquers Bohemia, wasting It with fire and sword - - 1042 Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders through Germany, where they mas- sacre the Jews - - - . 1095 Henry IV. excommunicated by pope Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106 Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 Conrad HI. leads a large army to The holy wars, where it is destroyed by the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 Teutonic order of knighthood - - 1190 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, chosen by the electors - - 1273 The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356 Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He^beirays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who are burned alive (see Bohemia) - - - 1414 Sigismond being driven from the throne, Albert U., duke of Austria, succeeds. (In his family the crown resides for three centuries) - - - 1438 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1439 The empire divided into circles - 1512 Era of the Reformation (Luther) - 1517 ^ Abdication of Charles V. - - 1556 "War of the two parties, the Evangelic union under Frederick, elector pala- tine, and the Catholic league, under the duke of Bavaria - - - 1618 Battle of Prague, which lost the elector palatine the crown - - - 1620 Treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 Jolin Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats the Turks in many battles, and obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1722 The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- pied with wars against the Turks, and in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- tion, in favor of the succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, married to the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742 Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of Austria, the celebrated Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; ana is elected emperor - - 1745 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismemberment of Poland - -1772 Again, by the final partition of that de- voted kingdom - - - 1795 [In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his territories west of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 1793, et seq.] Francis I. assumes the title of empe- ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1S04 Dissolution of the German empire ; for- mation of the Confederation of the Rhine - - - July 12, 180a General agitation among the people, | and demands for refonn granted in various degrees by sovereigns of Prussia, Bavaria, &c. : and by those of the smaller principalities of Ger- many - - Feb. and March, l&iS A federal union of the German States demanded by Prussia March, 1843 Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit- ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1815 German Parliament meets at Frank- fort - - - May 18, 181? The archduke, John of Austria, elected by the parliament as lord-lieutenant of the Empire - - June 29, l8iS He is installed at Frankfort, and names his ministers - - July 15, 1848 Great excitement in Germany on ac- count of the execution at Vienna of Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, for aiding the insurrection Nov. ? 1848 A. D. EMPERORS C ? GE JMANY. 800. Charlemagne the Great. 814. Louis the Debormaire. 840. Lothaire. 855. Louis II. 875. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 878. Louis III., the Stammerer. 879. Charles III., the Gross. 887. Arnould. 899. Louis IV. 912. Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the dignity on account of his age. 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. 919. Henry I., the Fowler. 936. Otho I., the Great. 973. Otho 11., the Bloody. 983. Otho III., the Red; poisoned. 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy and Lame. 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 1039. Henry III., the Black. 1055. Henry IV. ; deposed. 1077. Rodolphus ; killed in battle. 1080. Henry IV. ; re-instated. 1105. Henry V. 1125. Lothaire II. 1138. Conrad III. 1152. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned iaBo» hemia. 1191. HenryVL, the Sharp. 1198. Philip; killed at Bamberg. 1208. Otho IV; deposed. 1211. Frederic IL ; deposed. O 1245. Henrv VII ; killed. 1246. William ; killed in battle. 1273. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, tli« first of ihe Austrian family. 1291. Adoiphus; deposed. 1298. Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 1308. Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest vo the consecrated wafer. 1314. Louis IV., c f Bavaria ; killed by a aU from his 1 irse. 1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 1378 Wenceslaus. king of Bohemia. 1399 Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 1410. Sigismond, king of Hungary. 1437. Albert II., duke of Austria and king a^ Bohemia. 1440. Frederick lU., archduke of Aiiistrit. 336 THE world's progress. f Gil GERMANY, continued. 1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress of Burgundy. 1519. Charles V., kins of Spain. 1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 1564. Maximilian II. 1576. Rodolphus II. 1612. Matihias I. 1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. ^637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 16i58. Leopold I., ditto 1705. Jo.sej)h II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 1711. Charles VI. 1742. Charles VII. 1745. Francis I.; husband ol Maria Theresfc queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 1765. Joseph II. 1790. Leopold II. 1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em peror of Austria only, in 1806. 1806. Confederation of the Rhme (which see'), J 815. Germanic Confederation. 1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. (See Tabular Views in this vol., begioning p. 76 ; see. also, Austria, Bavaria^ I^russia, Wurtemburg, «Scc.) There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Ma.ne (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of Marlborough in a. d. 1706. and several times taken and retaken by the con- tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an or- Unary man. — Zningllus, ••The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in 1578. was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- es long ; he died in September 1806. in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 Enghsh feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Glbel- Tarik. Mountain of Tarik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors; and the English, under sir George Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has sinco continued an appendage to the British crown. 20.000 men, and lose 5000, while the loss of the English is only 300 - 172J Memorable siege of the Spaniards and French, whose prodigious arma- ments* (the greatest eVer brought against a fortress) were wholly over- thrown. The siege continued from .July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 21st July, and taken on the •24th, a. d. 1704 Besieged by ihe Spanish and Frencli ; they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- ous English but 400 - Oct. U-, 1704 The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 They again attack it with a force of • The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troopj of Prance. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, thera &LE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 GILDING.. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. ITie capitol was the first building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pi'my. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Trusler. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- niac was first introduced by Margaritone. in 1273. The art of gilding on wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. GISORS. Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the day was " Dieuet mon droit" — "God and my right;" and from this time it was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. GL .\DIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. "When Pacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 600. — Lenglet. GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest commerce was in salmon, about 1420. GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first gla§s windows, next France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses in the reign of Henry 11., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. — Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the Feign of William HI. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- ted, 1845. GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530. GI.ENCOE. Massacre of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ; and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 2! 2 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb- ketches, cutlers, and gun and mortar boats; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 sheJia wore, daily thrown into the town T and on a single occasion, SOOO barrels of gunpowder were ex- pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red hot balls, and their whole line of works anu ihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot. Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy'? loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,600,000/. sterling B U their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred Sept. 13, 1782. 15 838 THE world's progress. [ GOD in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa. circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, were taugVit, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. 0. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and evecing star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere ol the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air. the sphere of tire the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos. main- tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See Ctrcuvinavigation^ and Earth. GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with hoi^a. glory, a, d. 382. GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580. and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which they diftered among themselves as much as they did from others. GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the chief, called Giles Gobelin. Avho lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Prei- noy. GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander; according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d {iOO '' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339 130. In Catholic countries they ha\« godfathers and godmothers in the bapti'?m of their bells. t*OLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most abundant in Africa, Tapan, and South America, in which laet gold was dis- covei-ed by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- fcvnia, April 1848. GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as stated in the Mining Journal : Gold. Silver. Mexico JE6,436,453 = jei39,818,032 Chili -.-..... 2,768,488 = 1,822,924 Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27,182,673 Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,9 81 j£l7,003,579 = jE170,326,6r0 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^ times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,377. 500,. Those of Cahfornia, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6:^, Indian Archipelago, 4|. Africa 14. See Coin. GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^etes, king of Colchis, had seized, after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for tke re- covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c. GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 b. c. — Plimj.- To find the golden number or year of the Lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide "by nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number. GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour en Friday, April 3. a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be pecuhar to the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri^ 340 THE world's progress. [ GOV day, on account of the great length of the olfices observed, and fastings en- joined on this day. GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia, Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable,' the oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- cle, 33(> B. c. fiORDONS "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. Greorge'a Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging burning, and pulling down the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally ov'erc( ining lue civil power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end. 210 of the rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. — Annual Register. GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; St. Luke in 55 -, and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, and laanished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of CYivi^i.— Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wicklifle, who first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377? — Bishop Burnet. G«>rHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli. the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric. became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till a. d. 553. when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. GCTERNMENT, cost or, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847. this result is reached, viz. . O^JH J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 34. in the United States : aggregate of national expenditure, lor each in- habitant - - - - SO 97 Aggregate of State expenditure, for each inhabitant - - - 50 Aggregate of town or city expendi- ture, for each inhabitant - - 92 Total cost of Government in the United States, per head - - $2 39 or $47,800,000 if the population is 20 millions. In England, according to Maccul- loch, the average is equal, per head, to - In France, according to Chevalier in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 millions of francs, or 40 francs per head — say - - - - Thus, France pays about three times, and Great Britain five times as much for Government as the United States. (See Administra- tions of the United States.) - $12 33 $7ta GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, jElius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athen^us, and other distinguished men, were of this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- cover one error." GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. — Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 B. c. — Bossuet. GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200. See Chimneys, GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the Avaters, about A. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub- lished it as a system. The principles of gravity Avere proved by Galileo, at Florence, about 1633 ; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, about 1687. GRiECIA MAGNA , That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies 342 THE world's progress. [ORB but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Graecia compre- hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lemp-iere. GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Grceco was so called from a very ancient king named Graecus ; and another king named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For 1 ancient Grecian history, see 'Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. Sicyon founded {Eusebius) - b. c. 2089 Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) - 2Qi2 Revolt of the Titans - - - * ' War of the Giants - - - * * Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius) - 1856 Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia (idem) - 1796 Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in Greece by Phoroneus - - - 1773 According to some authors, Sicyon was now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773 Deluge of Ogyges Xwhich see) - - 1764 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under CEnotrus : the country first called (Enortria, afterwards Mag7ta Groicia {Eitsebius) - - - 1710 Chronology of the ArunJelian marbles commences (Eusebius) • • 1582 Cecrops comes into Atiica iidem) - 1556 The Areopagus instituted - - 1-506 Deluse of Deucalion {Eusebius) - 1503 Reign of Hellen {idem) - - ■ 1459 Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, settles in Boeotia - • • 1493 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called Sparta - - - - 1490 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship ever seen in Greece • - - 1485 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty daughters - ... 1475 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the Idcbi Dactyli {Eusebius) ■ 1453 Iron discovered by the Idcbi Dactyli • 1406 Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches the art of making bread - - 1383 The Isthmi«.i games instituted - - 1326 Mycenae created out of Argos - -1313 Argonautic expedition {which see) - 1263 The Pythian games by Adrastus - 1263 War of the seven Greek captains -1225 The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 Rape of Helen by Theseus - 1213 Rape of Helen by Paris - - 1)98 Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of the month Thargelion (27th May, or Uth .June) - - 11»4 .aEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and arrives in Italy - - - 1181 Migration of the iEoliao colonies, who build Smyrna, &c. - ■ 1124 Settlement of the lonians from Greece it: Asia Minor ... - 1044 The first laws of navigation originate with the Rhodians - • - 916 Homer flourishes about this time {Arundelian Marbles) - - 907 OlyiQpic games revived at Elis - 884 The first Messenian war • b. c. 743 The second Messenian war • - 685 The capture of Ira - - - 670 The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and give their own name Messene to Zan- cle (now called Messina) - - 668 Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corinthians and the inhabitants of Corcyra .... 664 Byzantium built by the Argives - 653 Sybaris, in Magna Grajcia, destroyed, lOO.OCiO Crotonians under Miio defeat 300,000 Sybarians - - - 508 Sardis taken a.nd burnt, which occa- sions the Persian invasion - - 504 Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496 Battle of Marathon {which see) - - 490 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 480 at Thermopylce by I.eonidas • Battle of Salamis (u^A/cA see) - - 480 Mardonius defeo'ed at Plataea - - 479 Battle of Euiymedori - - • 476 The third Messenian war - - 465 Athens begins to tyrannize over the other states of Greece - - 459 Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455 The first sacred war - - - 448 Herodotus reads his history ir '.be Council at Athens • - - 445 The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 394 Battle of Mantinea - - - 633 Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes all the cities of the Phoceans - 348 Battle of Chaeronea - • - 338 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and destroys the city of Thebes - - 335 Commencement of the Macedonian or Grecian Monarchy - - - 331 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the throne of Darius - - - 33(* Alaric invades Greece - - a. D. 395 The empire imder Nicephorus com- menced - - - - 811 Greece mastered by the Latits - - 1204 Re-conquered - . - . 12*»l Invaded by the Turks - • - 1350 Its final overthrow. See Eastern Em- pire 1353 [This country, so long illustrious for the military exploits, the learning, and arts of its people, became of late years the scene of desperate con- flicts with the Turks, in order to re- gain its independence, and the coun- cils of the great powers of Europe were friendly to the design.] Great struggle for iiidependence • J 770 gre] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 GREECE, continued. The first de-cided movement in these lat- ter times, by the Servians - a. d. 1800 The Servians del'eat th^i Turks at Nyssa April 2, 1807 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, overrun the country, committing the most dreadliil excesses - - 1813 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople - April 23, 1821 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- rest; even the women and children not spared ... - 1821 Independence of Greece formally pro- claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822 Siege of Corinth - - - Feb. 1822 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible massacre recorded m modern history* • April 23, 1822 Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, Thermopylae, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 National Congress at Argos - April lU, 18i:3 Victories of Marco Botzal-is - June, 1823 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote himself to its cause - August, 1823 Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- solonghi - - April 19, 1824 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samos - - August 16, 1824 The Provisional Government ofGreece instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 The Provisional Government ofGreece invites the protection of England July 24, 1825 Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging Turks are defeated in a formidable attack upon it - August 1, 1826 The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet Jan. 28, 1826 Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault - - April 23, 1826 The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle with Orocr Pacha - June 1, 1^6 Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 182S Ticaty of Loudon, between Great Bri- tain, Russia, and France, on behalf of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827 Battle ol Navarino "^which see); the Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1828 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State established - Feb. 2, 1828 National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 Greece divided into departments, viz. Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messe- nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and Arcadia, and the islands formed also into departments - April 26, 1828 Final evacuation of the Morea by the Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 Greek National Assembly commences its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 The Porte acknowledges the indepeiju- ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 Prince Leopold finally declines the so- vereignty - - May 21, 1830 Count Capo d'Istria, President of Greece, assassinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- force ministerial responsibility and national representation, is consum- mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843 The king accepts the new constitution March 16, i&44 [See Athens. Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, and other states of Greece.] GHEEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a half terminated in a separation : this church is called Greek in contradis- tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- ity as usmg the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the estabhsbed reli- gion of Russia. GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, * The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the^fire which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar- anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of f-hem, butchered! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and more beautiiul women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- der, violation, and crime, w^hile the infidel army was let loose upon the captured citv. is too long and too shocking for transcription here. 344 THE world's progress. f UD4 in order tt destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effecttd by the general of tlie emperor Pogouat's tleet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; but it is now lost. GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe about A. V. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honor to teach Erasnius, 1490.— Wood's AtJmi. Oxon. GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a d. 980, and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for the whale fisherj' by the Muscovy Company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, and sufiTered incredible hardships till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at thu solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, so called from the grt^at astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the meridian of this place. 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- flector ; and among other tine instruments and objects is a famous camera obscura, GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregor^ XHI., from whom it derives its name. a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710; and adopted by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calendar, and New Style. GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715 ; it was the last kingdom pos- sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762. and was ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again. in 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The Grocers* Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- don, incorporated in 1429, GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by the French in 1635. Taken i»y the English in 1769, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure RUy ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was. however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the Ghil)elines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1816. (SUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Synibolica Questiones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there called the Mo.nnaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some .hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 225. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitate Magia, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux, January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. GrUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be- stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, "determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 15* 346 THE world's progress. [ hau cost him 18,793^., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense hxxm of 219,499/, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000Z. was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In MTest- liiig and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- sium — guvinos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published iu Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- cendants of a great body of Egyptians who rev olted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece^. tion in ^hat age of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against theii itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- ecuted at one assizes for baring associated with gypsies for about a month contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants. May 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. H. HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' PFrzY of Right, passed for the security and liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to Magna Charta. for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts wich a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — • Blackstone. HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- horse {haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-a-haquaiee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin ; but the aristocratic taste of Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle. HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the Stat«^.s-Geneial, and residence o** the former earls of Holland, the f/iu'^es o/ RAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 Holland. &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip U. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five ai'ticles of the re- monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- ary, 1795; favorea oy a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly after the battle of Leipsic, and the sta,dtholder returned to his dominions and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce botweea England and Holland, December 16, 1837. HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution. — hid^rus Hlspalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Bound-heads. It was again out of fashion in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, which yielded 20,000Z. per annum. HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. HALLIDON HILL. Battle of, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com- paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward EL, July 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of Scotland. — Robertson. HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment ; but king James I. in the year 1620. took this power away: and the town is now under the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit. HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper Tandy, (see Napper Tandy.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and -estored to its S48 THE world's progress. [ MAP independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and th^ members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See Conference. HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- man's son, 25 Henry III.. 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. — Sto'we. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was seized by Prussia. April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a number of port to\vns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be admitted into it. and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar. king of Denmark, about the year 1348. and against Erick in 1428. with forty ships, and 12,000 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. In 1630. the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the name, were Lubeck. Hamburg, and Bremen. HAPSBURGH, Housk of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, HAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273, See Germany. HARLEQUIN". This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance used to call him Harlequino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now noeans an expert dancer at a play-house. HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party --olors, and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 1352. HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in- vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third ia 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- fected in 1772. HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. H A STINGS, Battle of. one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066, HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government which, i1 was thought, ought to have led to a difterent result. Among other charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of lOO.OOOZ. from the nabob of Oude and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular meana of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, b50 THE world's progress. I" HEO 1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has-: tiuga, attracted universal admiration. HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is ft-om this reign that the use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of the chap6roons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time both men and wonien wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stmce. Very high crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping: here failed, August 7, 1804. HAYTL OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus ^.n 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3.000,000 of its inhabitants, including women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 1, 1802. Des- salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe. a man of color, became president in Feb. 1807. and was crowned emperor by the title of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the name they now bear. HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen ; and in the end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. Aboat twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ; the era commences on the following day, viz :— the 16th of July. Many chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Ma/wnietism ftnd Medina. DOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 35 i HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate: the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- heim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University oi' Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346 contained in 1840, 622 students. HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was thi< most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and. to defend her person and character from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice ot Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen : carrying her away, though not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris Priam, received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his diath by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he had so basely deserted; but he expired on the way. The nymph., however, still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12. assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden, Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of the British crown. HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Chi'isto- pher Scheiner in 1625. HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise- above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helnaet of the Greeks was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surn-^ounted by a crown, 1306. — GwilLni. EIEI.OIS The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate 352 THE world's progress. [hek resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 8,83 b. c. The Spaitans, not satisfied with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helotce, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directe '' CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned bj 354 THE world's progress. [ HOI the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostihty against the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to British liberty, the 25th of Edward IE. 1552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the jjresent day. By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same maimer as the case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. EIIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VH. ; and this, and sometimes Yotir Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. HINDOO ERA. or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the English universities until the j^ears 1724 and 1736. when Regius professor- ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. HOHENLINDEN, Battlk of. between the Austrian and French armies, the latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10 000 more, November 3, 1800. HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and the Waal, which they named Bettuive. or Batavia, from Batton. the son of their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion cf Francs and Frisians. Soveiei^ty founded by Thierry, first count of Holland - - a. d. 868 The county of Holland devolves to the counts of Hainault - - - 1299 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy - - - l-iJtJ lOO.UUO persons are drowned by the sea breakuis in at Dort • • 1446 Burgundy and its dependencies become a circle of the empire - - - 1521 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecution cause a revolt in Bataviu - - - 156« The revolted states with William, prince of Orange, at their head, en- ter into a treaty" at Utrecht • - 1579 ROL.] DICTIONARY. OF DATES. 355 HOLLAND, continued. They elect William as Stadtholder - 1579 The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- nated - .... i5Si The Dutch East India company fomid- ed 1602 After a struggle of thirty years, the king of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- tavians free - - - - 1609 The republic wars against Spain in the East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- nish galleons, value 20iX)0,000^. ster- ling - ... -1635 Cromwell declares war against Hol- land, and many naval battles are fought ; Blake signally defeats Van Tromp 1653 William, prmce of Orange, having married Mary, daughter of James II., is called to the British throne - 1688 The office of Stadtholder is made here- ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 Era of the civil war - - - 1787 The French Republican army march into Holland ; the people declare in their favor - - . - - 1793 The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 Battle of Caraperdown, Duncan sig- nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with thirteen Indiamen. surren- dered to the British admiral Duncan, without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 A new constitution is given to the Ba- tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 Holland erected into a dngdom, and Louis Bonaparte declared king June 5, I80G Louis abdicates . . July 1, 1810 Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed to its dominions Nov. 18, 1813 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- vereisn prince of the United Nether- lands" - - . Dec. 6, 181J He receives the oath of allegiance from his subjects . March 30, 1814 And takes the title of king as William I. - - - March 16, 1815 The revolution in Belgium (which see) commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp Qwhicii :£e) - - Oc 27, 1830 Belgium is sepa^fated from HoLi.nd, and Leopold of Cobourg is elected king - - - July 12, 1831 Holland renews the war against Bel- gium - - - Aug ?j 1831 Conference in London on the affairs ol Holland and the Netherlands termi- nates, see Belgium • Nov. 15, 1831 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - Aprd 19, 1839 Abdication of William I. in favor of his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 The king promises his assent to all re- forms passed by the chambers March 14, 1848 New constitution appears, April 17, 11S48 Death of William II. • March 17, lt49 STADTHOLDERS, ETC. .D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- vinces owe their foimdation and glo- ry : killed by an assassin, hked by Philip of Spain. 1584 Henry Philip William. 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 1625 Frederick Henry. 1647 William II. 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, and king of England in 1689. 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass ing a ferry in Holland. 1711 Charles Henry Frizo. 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- holder. 1751 WiUiam V. KINGS. 1813 William I. 1840 William U 1849 William TIL, present king, (1852.) See Belgium. HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first discovered. In 1605, e^seg., various parts of the coast were traced by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and Van Diemen's Land. HOLY" ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- ber 26, 1815. HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— Ashe. 356 THE world's progress. [ HOT HOJMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish xna two most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses aftet the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- stantinople, A. D, 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Uiiiv. Hist. The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b c. He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a moon's age. after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-rnoon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hyclromel on his marriage-day, that he died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed to another cause. See Attila. ** HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui mat y pense'' " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith, HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 B. 0. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there ar© between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually imder the * The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, the Paradise Loeloi Mii.TON. and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and Milton's is considcrec lo rauk ::ext to HOiMER's. " Paradise Lost, is lof the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr IuHM BOS. " only because it is not the first."— J5M//e HUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefor i, Kent, and Worcestershire, HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori' ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for hig^ chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeatan. A horse can perform the work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses Avere only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- tax was imposed in 1784, and Avas then levied on all saddle and coach horses in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, amounts to about 350.000Z. per year. See Race Horses. HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries. HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff" who decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention of water-clocks (which see), 158 b. c, the time was called at Rome by publie criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 358 HE world's progress. iiun HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all \om occa- sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed by riotous assemblies. HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Ths memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572.— See Bartholomew, St. A ir.m siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Christiar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, neaded by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of " The Scourge of God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians. Bavarians. Franks, Swabians Saxons &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. Stephen receives the title of Apostolic king from the pope - - a. D. 997 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout Hungary, Bohemia,and Russia, 12-26 et seq. Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- ria, Servia, and Dalmaiia - - 1342 Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 He dies, and the history of Hungary now presents a frightful catalogue of crimes - ... - 1378 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, queen of Louis, is drowned, and kin^' Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and causes the rivers of Hungary to Qoyr with blood .... 1378 The uahappy Hungarians call the Turks to their assistance - - 1380 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond in battle .... 1389 Sigismond recovers from this blow, and makes Wallachia and Moldavia tributary to him - • - 1390 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is elected emperor of Germany . 141C Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of Hungary, thus laying the founda. tion of the subsequent power and greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 Ii passes to the king of Poland - 1439 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- vades Hungary, and lakes Buda; battle of Moliatz {which see) - - 1526 Buda sacked a second time by the Turks, and all the inhabitants put to the sword - - - - 1540 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men in a fruitless attempt to take Buda from the Turks - - 1684 He at length carries Buda by storm, and delivers up the Mahometans to the fury of the soldiers - - 1686 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by prince Eugene . • . • 1718 * The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and conse- gaeniiy, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charhs Duras, came to the crown, she wa.^? style.: King Ma\y. mjN j DICTIONARY OP DATES. 359 HTTNGARY, continued. Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace of Belgrade - ■ 1739 Temeswar incorporated with the king- dom of Hungary - - -1778 The struggle for independence com- menced in - - - - 1848 Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the emperor of Austria ; martial law proclaimed ; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- atia, appointed to the supreme gov- ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- dent of the defence committee and dictator - - - - Oct. 1848 [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] Hungarian army advances within six miles of Vienna; Jellachich also ad- vances there, Octcber 11 ; Kossuth retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, Hungary declares itself an independent republic - - - Dec. 1848 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 Ukase of Russiar emperor Nicholas, declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- tria against Hungary - April 26, Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- ders the Hungarian army to tlie Aus- trians at Viilargos - Aug. 11. 1849 The war ended by the complete subju- gation of Hungary, and the flight or execution of her leaders. See Germany. KINGS OP HtnSTGART. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 1038 Peter I., deposed. 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is again deposed, and has his eyes put out. 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Bela. 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1073 Geiga I. 1076 St. Ladislaus. 1095 Coloman. 1114 Stephen II., sumamed Thunder; turn- ed monk. 1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by his uncle Coloman, so that his queen ruled the kingdom. 1141 Geisa II. 1161 Stephen III. 1173 Bela III. 1191 Emeric. 1200 Ladislaus II. 1201 Andrew 11. 1235 Bela IV. 1275 Stephen IV. 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 1291 Andrew III. 1301 Wenceslaus. 1304 Otho. 1309 Charles Robert. 1342 Louis I. the Great. 1383 Mary. 1389 Mary, and her husband Sigism lid. 1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the Turks. 1444 Ladislaus V. , poisoned while an infant. 1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- gent. 1490 Ladislaus VL 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the Turks. 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 1534 John Sepusius, again. 1539 John II. 1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor o^ Germany. 1573 Rodolphus. 1609 Matthias II. 1618 Ferdinand IL, emperor of Gennany 1625 Ferdinand III., ditto. 1647 Ferdinand IV. 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 1687 Joseph, ditto 1711 Charles VJ ditto. 1740 Maria Theresa. 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. See Germany. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed bv their descendants. See HirNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 12C)0 years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chhiese, in a. d. 93, and the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by them, about a. d. 433. 100.000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 360 THE world's progress. f UJI a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the name of Hungary, wkick see ; see also Atlila. HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promott> a refor- mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same fortitude and constancy of mind by Jkrome of Prague, the intimate com- panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. See Cramner, and M-t,rtyrs. HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, " and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," — Pardon. HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science in 1746. HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B. 0. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 B, c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. I. TAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira. wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical efi'usions ; and from her free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on thtf old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. — Herodotus, :D0 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common salt, with Ave of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their hbrary, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 26, 1847. ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus, drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the early part of the eighth century. See Iduis. IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on which Julius Csesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other conspirators, 44 b. c. IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- aanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c.—Diifresnoy. Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the 16 3t>2 THE world's progress. I JMl* religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming of St. Augustin. See CkrisLtaiiity. II.- 62,004,0(XI 1750 1775 7,289,582 14,815,855 1810 1820 41,136,135 36,514,564 1840 1845 - 85,28i,a53 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — Boleyn. She and her confederates were hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— Rapin. In the first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made for the purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the queen and the princ?-, and also against the mass and confession, for which she was sentenced to stand upon a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- mon-time, and make public confession oi her imposture, 1553: she was called the Spirit of the Wall.— Baker's Chron. William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 34 Eliz., 1.591. James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, and his tongue bored through with a hot iron on the pilloiy, by sentence of the House of Commons, under Cromwell'a administration, 1656. ■^''alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, who pretended to cure all diseases by stroking the patient ; his imposture de- ceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in England, where it fell into disrepute, in 1666, upon his examination before the Royal Society, after which we hear no more of him. Birch's Memoirs of tht Roy. Society. Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies. Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. The Cock-lane ghost imposture by Wiliiani Parsons, his wife, and daughtei-, 1762. Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed hel conception of the Messiah, and had a mul titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1814 IN THE UNITED STATEfa. Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31. Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- tended he had a letter from the Redeem- er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem'; he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and deserts, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by the inquisition of Spain, in 1360, George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled himself the nephew of God, sent into the world to adopt children worthy of heaven ; he denied the resurrection, preached against marriage, in favor of a community of women, and taught that the body only could be defiled by'sin ; he had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556. Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had put to death ; but he maintained that ano- ther child had been substituted in his place : he was supported by the arms of Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- sians, who invited him to the throne, and delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- ing czar, and all his family, whom he cruelly put to death : his imposition being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. — D'Alembert's Revolutions of Russia. Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- stantinople and other places, by person- ating our Saviour, 1666. IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. Two men crucified, both pretending to be the Messiah ; and two women executed for assuming the characters of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 1221. Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- tion, by pretending to inspirations from heaven, fortelling that the king would have an earlj and violent death if "he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 364 THE world's progress, ' IMD practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- lic boards, and none except by an oflScer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by th-^ Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. INC'EST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. In our own country. Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil. June. 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage. Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece. Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826. she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650, [NCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. — Rapvi. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 1802 ; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150Z., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — In 1804, at \s. in the pound - ^£4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2^. in the pound - JB1I,500,000 In 1805, at Is. M. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,935 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657. 937^. ; from fund- ed and stock properties, 2,885 505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088Z, and salaries and pensions, 1,174.456Z. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax of 2Z. 18s. ^d. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842: it produced about 5 350,000Z. a year. This tax was renewed for three years more, in March, 1845, INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland, They are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they aflSrm that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY, A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent iND J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull ol pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. — Ashe. lIsDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan ia reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — Rentiei. whom 123 perish in one night. See Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at Plassey - - June 20, 1757 Warren Hastings becomtjs governor of Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 Supreme court established - - 1773 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the British • Sept. 10, 1780 He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras - - - June 22, 1781 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote .... July 1, 178) Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 178P Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 Government of lord Mornington, after- wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered .... 1800 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 Marquis Comwallis resumes the gov- ernment - - July 30, 1805 Act by which the trade to India was thrown open ; that to China remam- ing with the company July 31, 1813 Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1,1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c. to China, forming a new era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833 Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he leaves England - - Sept. 1835 Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) July 23, 1339 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and he and the British army enter Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839 English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 184C Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral his successor is killed by accident, and Dost Mahom»5d, next heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 184f General rising against the BiHish at Irruption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. Patna, or Afghan empire founded Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most bloody conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 of the human race perish by his sword, under the pretence of establishing the worship of one god ; he died ----- The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- lane, invade Hindostan Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- feats the Indian army, makes a con- quest of Hindostan, and butchers 100,000 of its people - The passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama Conquest of the country completed by the sultan Baber, foimder of the Mo- gul empire - . . - Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the greatest prince of Hindostan - Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions extending from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and nearly as much in longi- tude, and his revenue amounting to 32,000,000^. sterling - Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan . - - - At Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 persons perish He carries away treasure amounting to 125,000,000/. sterling Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas - . - - [The Mogul empire now became mere- ly nominal, distinct and independent sovereignties being forme i by nu- merous petty princes. The empe- rors were of no political consequence from this period. 1000 1205 1237 1398 1399 1497 1 I 1525] 1555 i I 1738 i 1738 I 1739' 1749 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and north-west passages - 1528 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 Levant company make a land expedi- tion to India - - - . 1589 First adventure from England - - 1591 First charter to the London company of merchants - - - - 1600 Second charter to the East India com- pany 1609 Calcutta purchased - - • 1698 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. See Calcutta. . . - - 1756 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 366 THE world's progress. [ 3tt> INDIA, cirntinned. Cabul; Sir Alexander Bumes and other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 Lord Ellenborough appointed governor- general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassinated - Dec. 25, 1841 The British, under a convention, evacu- ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 Ameers of Scmde defeated by Sir Ohar- les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an- nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 184-3 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib- raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, '843 Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- nor-general - • May 2, l&M The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, and attack the British post at Feroze- Dore, which was held by Sir John THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. The citadel of Lahore is occupied by the British under Sir Hugh Gough; and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 Great battle between the British under Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1843 Moultan taken, after a long <\ese, Jan 3. IS49 Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough Feb. 21, 1849 The Punjaub formally annexed to the British crown - March 29, 1849 Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated Jan. 28, 1846 Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated with immense loss in killed and drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 2,338 in killed and wounded.] INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En- ghsh with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. Their stock then consisted of 72,000Z., and they fitted out four ships, and meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold at 500Z, for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. INDIA RUBBER, Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several plants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Eiastica. or syringe tree. Incisions in the bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it * flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5.641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 685,866. INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbera IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 are yearly becoming- smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- tacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the French 1754-9 ; CheroKees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. [During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both sides, but chiefly by the British.] 'Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Dela wares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, Gren. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, Tessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for them west of the Mississippi - ..... ,31,357 Number yet to be removed ......... 72,181 Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains .... 150,341 Total within the territory of the United States • - 352,879 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinqufehing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- sippi for $1,000 000. Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837 ; Powell alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans tribe entirely destroyed — Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and. carried off 64 pri- soners from a, missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. rXDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope it was conveyed like other Indian products, partly through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men- tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. INDULGENCES. They w^ere commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800; were much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- ma^ pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 368 Til i: world's progress. [ ino England, in 1534. — Bovver's Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of iEsculapius for a cure, as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularlj' in London, numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise various colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. INNS OP COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stowe's Survey. INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr Tenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was voted 10,000Z. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- berated Dr. Wickham -when a prisoner of war, at Jenners request, and subsequently theemperoi liberated whole families of English, making it a * Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair ny our grandfathers. The London Daily Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph :— " We hear that the son and daughter of" Thomaj Davison, esq., of Blakest one, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II.. empress of Russia, in 1768. S«e SmcUl Pox. ass j DICTION ARr OP DATES. 86U point to refuse him nothing- that he asked. Innoculation introduced ia the United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See Small Pox a,nd Vcbcciriation. [NQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishops only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 , and Gregory IX. in a council held dt Toulouse in 1229. gave it its final form, committing the management of it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was 'established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still :?xer- cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. TNdANITY. In England within twenty j^ears, insanity has more than tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in England is as follows: lunatics 6806— idiots 5741 — together 12.547; but allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- rage of one to every t/iousand of the population. In Wales: lunatics 133 — idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland has 3652 insane persons — or ojie to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- _ ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, were not completed. — Sir Andrev) Halliday. The number of insane persons and idiots in the United States in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr. A. Brigham of Utica, formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this cause. INSOLVENCY m the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837. a ' commercial crisis' was at its height. The 'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone amounted to 260. besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1. 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately after. INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose debts are less than 300^., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose compositions and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- son and pioptirty, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended. 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. LVSURANCE on SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Su3tonius conjectures thai 16+ H70 THE world's progress. [ IND Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general ase in Italy in 1194. and in Eng-land in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insiurance was enacted in 1601. Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the great fire of London. An ofiice was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of ihe first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Hand-in- Hand, in 161)6. A duty was laid on insurances of \s. Qtd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first io surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in IVfassa- chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies , Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &>c. INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twtlfth cen- tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain. Grermany and Flanders, by Charles V. in 1560. — Rob:rt>on. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII.. 1546. This law was repealed by Edward VI. : but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne. 1714, at which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent.; regulated 14 George III.. 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. Jhe law does not now apply to bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laics. INTEREST OP MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- ent States, viz: — In La. five 7?r. ct., in Maine, N. H.. Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa.. Del.. Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and F\ov.. ^\g)M per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Me., Conn.. N. Y.. N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md.. N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most remarkable:— An inundation at Glai^gow, which (irowned more than 400 families, 738. — Fordiin. Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and harbor of Osiend totally immersed, 1108. The pre?ent city was buih above a league from the channel where the old one lies submerged.— ///i/one de Flandre. At the Texel, which first raised the com- merce of Amsterdam, 1400. The sea broke in at Doit, and drowned 72 villages, and lUO.OOO people, and formed the Zuyder Sea (see Durt), April 17, 1446. The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried away men, women, and children, in their beds, ai d covered the lops of many mountains ; the water?, settled upon the lands, and were called The Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— Hollinshed. A general inundation by the failure of th« dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number oi drowned said to have been 400,000, At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- ed, 1617. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock opened, and poured out water to the height of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide PhiL Trans. Part ol Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitanta were drowned, and incredible damage wm done at Hamburg. 1717. At Madrid, severaf of the Snanish n«teJ ^ low J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 ENIJNDATIONS, continued. and other persons of distinction perished, 1723.— Du Fresnoy. In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787. At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island near Widdin. were surprised, and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. In Silesia, 6000 inhabitant.<5 perished, and the ruin of the French arm) under Macdonald was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- land 4000 lives were supposed to have been lost, same year. In Germany, 119 villages were laid under water, and great loss of life and property was sustained, in March 1816. Awful inundation at Danizic, occasioned by the V'istula breaking through some of its dikes, by which IO,(X)0 head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- habitants laid under water, Feb. LSSO. 10,000 houses swept away, a' m c.b(nii lOOO persons perished, at Cantor., ir Chma, in consequence of pi ir ui-dation, occasioned by incessant raius. Equal or groater ca- lamity was produced by the same cause in other parts of China. Oct. 1833. Awful inundation in France ; the Saone poured its waters into the Rhone, broka through its banks, and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in A vignon 100 houses were swept away • 218 houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; anr! upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840. Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- ed, May 12, 1849. The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi. &c., at different times, have caused greai destruction of property, and (at times) of life. lives lost, April 9, 1829. INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about A. D. 593. — Aske. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, prayers and oblations for and to them. IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement on the Doric, was founded by the louians, about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by PerrauU. TONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. •OWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purcha3ed in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- litory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111 372 THE world's progress. Li«» IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kinj^dora by the de- feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- sandcr. ^The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. A nti gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b, c. — Plutarch. IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wa« originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. Arrival of Heremon - - b. c. 1070 A colony from Spain bring with them the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 Arrival of St. Patrick - - A. D. 448 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is crowned at Tara - - - 1002 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates the power of the Danes - - 1039 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath^ Connaught, and Munster; besides a number of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- tinually war with each other.] Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- vade Ireland, on condition that he compelled every Irish family to pay a carolus to the Holy See, and held it as a fief of the church - -1157 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- ceives the submissions of the kings and princes of the country, settles the government upon a footing similar to lat of England, and makes his son John lord of Ireland - - - 1172 Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 English laws and customs introduced by king John - - - . . 1210 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruelly mas- sacre the Protestant settlers m Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, com- menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 Landing of king William III. at Car- ricklergus - - June 14, 169C Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of Schomberg killed July 1, 1690 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- pressed until the next year - - 1799 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 Emmett's insurrection • July 23, 1803 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 Great repeal movement ; meeting at Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 15, 1»47 Famine and great distress in Ireland throughout - ... 1847 Relieved by England, and by voluntary gifts from the United States. Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- Lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds, Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude. in Sussex, in 1543. — Ryrnei-'s Padera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers, &c., see Steamers. * Taere is iron enough in the blood of fcrty-two men to make a ploughshare . he 137tJ Naples conquered by C;>arlc6 VIII. - 1492 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- lian provinces in a single campaign, assailed by the pope,' the emperor, and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- ces, opens the sale of indulgences and absolutions, which soon replenishes his treasuiy .... 1517 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of Tuscany by Pius V. . - - 1569 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. SeeJeddo - - - -1619 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, and choose Theodore for their king. See Corsica - . . . 1736 Milan vested in the house af Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 Division of the Venetian states by France and -Austria - - - 1797 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte - - - . - 1798 The Italian republic - - - 1802 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- leon crowned - - . . 1805 Eugene Beauhamois made Viceroy of Italy 1805 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon • • - - 1814 [The various other events relating to Italy will be found under the respec- tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy. Mi' Ian, Naples, Rome, Venice, ^'c] The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23,677,000.- Alm, de Gotha. J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du Presnoy. JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about I'orty gentlemen and men of letters who had united to disseminate JAS J DICTIONARY OI; LaTES, 37£ political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- radaeus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- tinction is now entirely lost. JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jon&h embarked, and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson. Avere massacred 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An an-^ful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundi'cds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 1843. The Cholera in 1850. JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres. about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Augusti- nus," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- versv on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a buU of pope Ur- ban Vlll. .^ANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See 7iext article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa. 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This g'ld was painted with two faces 37fi THE WORLD S PE OGRESS. [ J£^ because, as some persons have it, on the one side the firstof January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customary for iriends and acquaintances to make each other presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, Temple op, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the tune of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, viz :— under Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war. JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN, This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535, The Japanese are as fabulous us the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period beguis with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- ber of Christians in diflferent parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under, went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jeddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814, JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1.680,000 inhabitants, a num- nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of Paul V, to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622. and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. JEMMAPPES. Battle or, one of the most obstinate and bloody of mrvdem times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this bittle, whl^h lasted four days. According to the most authentic account.'S the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. JKNA, Battle or, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperov Na- poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated , with the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoner* In 7ES I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced tj the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new const* lution of 1846. JUR] DrCTIONARY OF DATES. 38 j years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- dane eras used at diflferent times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Juhan period from 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of C. Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year JTJNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year, [t had its name Junius, which some derive A Junone, and otliers d Jimiori- bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. "When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but \he matter is still hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with mQ."— Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury empanelled in their actio*, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat \t.—Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791,— Phillips. 382 THE world's progress. [ Klft JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. — Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. JUSTINIAN CCDE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. K. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- covered, by Morosco, a Cossack chief a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1097 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728, Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected subsenuently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000^. a vast expenditure in those times. KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. Was a pa^t of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73 677 ; in 1810. 406,511 , in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779.828, including 182,258 slaves. KEYS. The inventionX>f them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. K I EL. Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission was fruitless. On the contrary, tlie English blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and th«» die* elected the king of Sweden to be their king. tIN I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38S KING. The Latin Rex., the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Roo. all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the tirsl founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities iu Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, tlit sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject : there was a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he sbouh] devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice. the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, were all prescribed. E"ING o-p ENGLAND. The style '• kirg of England," was first used by Egbert A. D. 828 ; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of '• king of Ire- land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until 542, when Henry VIII. changed' lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — ''Georgius Tertius, Dei G-ratia Britcmniaraim Rex, Pidei Defensor,''^ "George the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King. Defender of the Faith." KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title oi " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that oJ " king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792: but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under the style of the '• king of the French." August 9, 1830. See France. KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ol Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See Hungary. RING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons might be chosen their successors in their own lifetime politically ob- tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry IE. of England, was induced to go to Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April. 1811 ; but the title ceased with the extinction of the djmasty of Napoleon, April 5, 1814. KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The name of this court has been altei-ed to that of Queen's Bench, since tho d84 THE world's progress. [ ^^' accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions m immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. KINrx'S EVIL Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. Tl^e fiTst who touc^hed for it was Edward the Confessor 1058 TMs ^"^ g^' ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height that in four- teerySrs%2107 perfons we touched; and, acWmg to Wiseman the kind's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- nounced in tbe LondJn Gazette, March 12, 1712, her roya intention t^ touch pSly for the cure of the evil; and touching for it continued a custom un- til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. E'lNG'S SPEECH. The fiist royal speech from the throne was delivered by Henry I in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarkiRg with his accus- tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become chief of a new administration, said-- Canning being now mmister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we ^^^11. ;^\«. °V'°'%f'!:"^^th; ca blunders in king's speedies; these things will still be wnttenm the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in a perspicuous and pure aty [e."—CobbetL KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus supposed to have been the Nimrod of Hol| Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonian monarchy 2245 b. c- Usher. Menes. or Mi..raim, makes his son Atholas, Trnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt; and another son Toso- thms, he estabhshes at Memphis. 2188 b. c.-Btair. Ninus founds the As- syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c.—Leaglet. KISSING Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of^salutation amSng the Jews, as we may collect from Judas approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- hL the pole's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth cenIur)^ From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneelmg to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. KIT KAT CLUB A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703 for the Purpose of promoting the Erottstant succession in the house of Hanover which they efiected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele and Dr Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of the clui) The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, who hved near the tavern where they met. in King-street, Westminster, and who served them with paiStvj. —Bowycr's Life oj Queen Anne. KNIGHT The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in Homer With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who after tlieir union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 750 B. 0. — Livy. KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and Germany Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return ot the cru- saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the cjuef amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don Quixote. RjaCHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, Mter kfh] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarch/ The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state Avas Athti- stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelmati: The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Henry III. 1254.— >SaZmo7i. KNIGHTHOOD m EUEOFE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- valry, knighthood if: to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state ol anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men ot the highest rank and largest possessions, adiiisuion into the order was ♦leemed a great honor. MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND Alcantara, instituted Alexander Nevskoi, Russia Amaranta, Sweden Angelic Knights, Greece Annunciada, Mantua Annunciation, Savoy Argonauts, Naples Avis, Portugal Band, Spain Bannerets, England, 1360. Eenewed. See Bannerets Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See Bath Bear, Switzerland - - - - Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Frederick I. - Blood of Christ, Mantua Brotherly Love, instituted ' ■ Burgundian Cross - - - • Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San cho III. .... Carpet, England Catharine, Russia Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir temberg Christ, Livonia - Christ, Portugal Christian Charity, France Cincinnatus, Aniei-ica Conception of the Virgin Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh Crescent, Naples - - - - Crown Royal, France - Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by Christian V. - - - - Death's Head, Female Order, by the widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe Mersburgh Dove of Castile Dragon, Hungary Ear "of Corn, Brittany Elephan'. Denmark, by Christian I. jirmine, France - Garter England • • • - 17 HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD 1160 G(!nerosity, Brandenburgh 1700 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip, surnamed the Good Golden Lion, Hesse- Cassel Golden Shield and Thistle - - - Golden Spur, by Pius IV. Guelphic, Hanover - - - - Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - Holy Ghost, Rome Holy Trinity - - - - - Hospitallers (jchich see) Januarius, Naples - • - - .lerusalem. See Malta - .lesus, France - - - - Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. Knot, Naples . . . . La Calza, Venice - - - - Legion of Honor, France, instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte - Lily of Arragon - - - - Lily of Navarre - - - - Loretto, Lady of - - - - Malta. See Malta. Martyrs, Palestine - - - - Maiia-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain Mauritians, Savoy Merit, instituted by the landgrave of Hesse Cassel - - - - Merit, Prussia . . . - Noble Passion, Germany - - - Oak of Navarre, Spain - Passion of Jesus Christ, Ilfance Pius, founded by Pius IV. - - - Porcupine, Fran-.e Red Eagle, Prussia - - - - Redemption, instituted - Rosary, Spain - - - - Round Table, England— See Knights of the Round Table - ,St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes to this saint the introduction of Chris- tianity into Muscovy) St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed 1452 ; and again by James VI. St. Anthony, Ethiopia 1645 456 1618 1355 1382 1147 1232 1725 1213 1701 1608 1708 1535 1156 1553 1698 1719 1203 1319 1590 1783 1619 1660 1448 802 1671 -1709 -1379 -1439 - 1050 -1478 - 1450 - 1350 -1685 1429 1785 1370 1559 1816 1559 1198 ]21l 1092 1738 1048 1206 1610 1351 1400 1802 1403 1048 1587 1531 1319 1792 1430 1785 1740 1704 722 1382 1559 1393 1792 1212 1172 1605 357 36 THE world's progress. IH. St. Michael, Germanj - St. Patrick, Ireland - S'. P.iul, Rome - S • Peier, Rome St Rupert, Germany, by tl.sarchbish op olSaltzburgh Si. Sepulchre, Palestine St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, grand-iluke oCTu.scany St. Thoma.s of Aeon - Saviour, Greece - - June 1, Seraphiins, Swelen - Ship and Cre.scent, France Sincerity, instituted by the elector of Saxony .... Slaves of Virtue, Germany Swan, Cieves Sword, Cyprus - Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived Templars. — See Ttvtplan Teste iMorte, Wurtemburg - Teutonic, 1190; renewed in Prussia Thistle of Bourbon Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived • Trinitarians, Spain Truxilto, Spain United Ladies for the honor of Lie Cross, in Germany Virgin Mary .... Virgin of Mount Carmel, France V^arfare of Christ, Poland - Warfare of Christ, Russia Wing of St. Michael, Portugal Wladimir, Russia 1618 1783 1540 1520 1701 1091 1561 1370 1833 1334 126^; 169(1 1662 960 119.^ 1772 1118 1652 1522 1370 1540 159.4 1227 1666 1233 1607 1705 1325 1165 1682 KiMGHTHOOD in EUROPE, conUn'm I. St. Anthony, Hainault - - - 1382 St. Blaze, Aeon - - ■ 12-50 St. Catharine, Palestine - - .1163 St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698 St. Denis, France - - - 1267 St. George, Austria - - - - 1470 St. George, Carinthia - - - 1279 St. George, Defender of the Immacu- late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- ward 111. See Garter - ■ 1349 St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by Frederick 111. - - - - 1460 St. George, Rome - - - 1496 St. George, Russia - - - - 1782 St. George, Spain - - - 1318 St. George, Venice • - - ■ 1200 St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of Juliers and Cieves - • -1417 St. James, Holland - - - - 1290 St. James, Portugal - - - 1310 St. Jjimes, Spain - - - - 10.30 St. Jerome, Germany - - -11.54 St. John of Aeon - - - -1.370 St. John of Jerusalem ... 1048 St. John of Malta - . • -1522 St. John of Rhodes - - . 1300 St. Julien, of Alcantara - . -1176 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - . 1572 St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed - 1.562 St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1^33 St. Mary de Merced, Spain - - 1218 St, Michael, France - • - - 1469 KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superioi worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womer also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved tho city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the Moors were forced, to raise tire siege. Large immunities and favors were granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 528. — Asset's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day. 1344. The king. Avith a view to the recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest and thereupon projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. KTv^IGHTS OF THK SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the latter, or lesser barons were allowed to choose two representatives, hence called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. KKIciHl'S TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118 They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple in London; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights were arrested in France in one day. being charged with great crimes, and possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct. LAB I OICTIONARY OF DATES. 387 1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei. order was abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Viennc, in 1312; and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given to the knights of Malta. See Malta. KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. K'ORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho^ met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet c^Jmitted the divine mis- sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortiii. The leading artutle of faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; Islamism ; Mecca; Mahometis/n, (^c. L. LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England, May 19, 1692. LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on two diflerent islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; the second in Egypt in the isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, 683 b. c. ; "and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the Hetruriae, about 520 b. c— Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of B88 THE world's progress. [ l^m Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton Court that is much visited. FiACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in Fra«ce and Flanders in 1320 ; and tine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills foi the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. LACED^MON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lolegia, in Laco- nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedae- nion, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta was built about this lime, and hence the name by whioh the couutry is mosl known. The Lacedaemon republic became famous in nistory after 700 b. c. particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Tkucydides ; Priestley. LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of Louis XH." of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women of eminence or gentility. See Lord. LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in nun* ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, he named the islands the Ladroncs, or Islands of Thieves, which they are called to this day. LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 350, according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th of March. LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American independence ; he arrived at Charleston. April 25, 1777, being then nineteen years old. He raided a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- wine; employed in Rhode Island, 1778; visited France, promoting new re- inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His trinniphal reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure. Aug. 13. 1824 ; re- ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200 000 and a township of land in reward for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 7, 1825. LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 drachmas a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. Lam\)s were in general use through the streets of London up to the close LAN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. See Safety Lamp. LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell; they were not much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's sys-tem attracted general attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded ia Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry YIIL 1544. The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000Z. in 1600. It was about 14,000,000?. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. LANDGRAVE, This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be- came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. LANGSIDE, Battle OF; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Ehzabeth. LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embracedby Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro- foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- fore gave the Phcenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to aU other nations, G47' B. C. — Herodotus, Polycen., Strabo. LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, spoken ir; the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain- ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin sprung the Italian, French and Sjanish ; and from the Spanish the Portu- guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian, From the High .Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danisli, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 000 THE AVORLD'S progress. [ LAT &c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world Of these, 937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American language? and dialects. — Professor Adelung. LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, A. D. 872-901. — Stowe's Ghron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn have served for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are preferred. See article, Lamps. LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group ia allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by human hands. LATERAN, COUNCILS OP the. They were held in the Basilica of the La.- teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry v., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias- tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was the famous council of Julius II., 1512. LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. o. Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Saraos. Modern lathe engines frequently cost thousands of pounds. LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy, about a. d. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- mus, brother of Ina, in tiie seventh century. During six or seven hundred years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot, 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 901 b. c. Laureutum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under ^neas. and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had founded the city of Rome in their country. LAWj DICTTOXARY OF DATES. 301 LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre- sented. By some we are told that their ^nets do not vary much from those of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- nians, 623 B. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of Solon, 578 b. C. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. C. ; they remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The G-regorian and Hermoginian codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's code of laws, whicli is the foundation of the common law of England, was compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated his- laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136; Henry IL'a confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I, 1194. See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation by Henry III., 1216, et seq. See Mo^gna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, * That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield, LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- blishing a bank, an East India,' and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same fatal year, 1720.— Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, in 1604. There are about 12u0 barristers in England : and the num- ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- neys, soHcitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers ia the United States, was published m New York. 1850. 392 THE world's progress. [i.i:a LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- tain, and iu some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use in 1236. LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The League of Smalcald, 1529 The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- nence, to prevent the accession of Henry lY. of France, who was then of the reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- mers of Julius Caesar, 45 B. C. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Tear, Gregorian Calendar, &c. LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the Greeks during the fourth century B. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a.d. 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, canle Brunetto, Latini, and numerous enlightened men ; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- ragement to literature and the arts. The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. — Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the "golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature. LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of ma.^ufactured bides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. C. The ancients un- derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, and "found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in England, 450,00OZ., and in Ireland, about 5O,OO0Z. It was abo ^'iShed in both countries. May 29,1830. LEP] DICTIOXAET OF DATES. 393 LEGHORN". Livorno. This citv suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July It, 1796, but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. LEG-ION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 b. c. "When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c, the legion consisted of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B. c, it was 6200 soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, about 5 b. c. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. LEGION OF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions iq the array, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to tha state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- parte, when first consul. May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon family, Louis XYIIL confirmed this order, April 1814. LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it two years afterwards, thougli they did not retain it long. In the late wars it has frequentl}^ fallen into adverse hands. See next article. LEIPSIC, Battle of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of modern times, between tlie French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80.000 men perished in the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- den, entered 'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash- Wednesday {tvhich see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- tion. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday which is now called the first Sunday of Lent; and the four days beginning were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. — Baker^s Ghron. LEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined fleets of Spain, Yenice, and Pius Y., and the whole maritime force of the Turli:s. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys of which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, . Oct. 7, 1571.— Fotuiire, 17* 394 THE world's progress. [lex LETTERS. Those of the alplialiet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian 1822 -B. G.— U^her, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri- sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Bymer^s Feeder a. They were first granted in 1295. — Baker's Ghron. Tiiey are usually granted in time of war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of belligerent nations. — Powel. LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — Hist, of the French Revol. LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the mo.st famous of ancient history, fought at the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, under Epaminondas, and tlie superior force of Cleombrot\;s, king of Sparta, the victory being with tlie former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 Lacedemonians were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 37 . B. C. From this day the Spartans lost tlieir preponderance in Greece, which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans. — Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck were the chiefs. These two began by pulliug down all the images in the churches which Luther had left standing ; and then finding an army in their followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head ot 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- gistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march to enforce these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusi- asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be- headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist At the period of the French Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. LEWES, Battle of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In th'S battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- struction. See Evesham. LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. See article, Dictionary. LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the ws»r Xib] DICTIOIS-ARY OF DATES. 39? of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos. ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by Iho Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. LETDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d. 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce« lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. Tlie university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel ladeu with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. LIBEL. By the laws of Eome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which aflfectec the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor- don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- ment for five years and fined 500Z., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times^ Hbel on the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Posies libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, in LAmbigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was made with good motives and for justifiable ends. LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei- intendent of the colony; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — Oct. 5, 1 847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- gust 1, 1849. LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body; that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; rehgion a mere state trick; with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in A. D. 1525; and the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. c. The second of any note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly de- stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c. — Strabo. The first library at Rome was instituted 167 B. c. : it was brought from Ma- cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Noitv. Did, Hist. Pope Gregory L ordered that the library of the Palatine 396 THE WOKLD S PROGRESS. ("lib Apollo should be committed to the flames under the notion of confining the clergy to the jittention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- ing which was not sanctioned by tlie authority of the church, has been emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The earl/ Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the destruction of the Alexandrian library; their emperor, Chee-wang-teei, ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered, by suc- ceeding emperors with great difficulty. LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- licly accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 339 ; in Tuscany, 261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria, 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95 ; in Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention of printing, is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Qosmo de Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, (imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See table, below. In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,0C0 volumes each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are not taken into the account : France has 170 Public Li- braries, containing Belgium has 14 do. Prussia " 44 do. Austria " 48 do. Saxony has 6 Bavaria " IT Denmark " 5 Tuscany " 9 G. Britain " 83 4.000,000 vols, 533.000 " 2,400,000 " 2,400,000 « Taking the capital cities we find the following results : Paris has 9 Public Li braries, containing Brussels has 2 do. Berlin " 2 do. containing 554.000 vols, do. 1.267,000 " do. 645,000 " do. 411.000 " do. 1,771,493 " Vienna Milan 8 do. 2 do. Dresden has 4 containing 840,500 vols. Munich " 2 " 800.000 " Copenhagen " 8 " 557,000 " Florence " 6 " 818.000 " London " 4 " 490,500 " 1550 1753 1550 1650 1440 1656 1712 Milan, Brerea Lib., Paris (3), St. Genevieve, Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, Florence, Magliabecchian, Naples, Royal Lib., Brussels, Royal Lib., Rome (1), Casanate jLib., Hague, Royal Lib., Paris (41, Mazarine Lib, Rome (2), Vatican Lib., Parma, Ducal Lib., Founded. Vols. 1,474,000 vols. 14.3,500 "■ 53!»,000 " 458,000 •' 230,000 " Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as follows : — Vols. 824,000 600,000 446,000 435,000 412.000 410.000 313,000 800.000 200.000 200,0<10 187.000 180,000 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order : — Founded. Vols, i Founded. VoU. Founded. Paris (1) National Lib., 1505 Munich, Royal Lib., Petersburg Imperial Lib., London, British Museum, Copenhagen, Royal Lib., Berlin, Royal Lib., Vienna, Imperial Lib., Dresden, Royal Lib., M.idrid National Lib., Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 Paris\2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 1797 1624 1760 1714 1839 1760 1661 1465 1760 170.000 150,000 150.000 150,000 150,000 138,500 120,000 100,000 100,000 100.000 100,000 Gottingen, Univ''ty Lib., 1736 Breslau, University Lib., ISll Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1697 Tubingen, Univ'ty Lib., 1562 Munich, University Lib., Heidelburg, Univ'ty Lib., 1708 Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 Bologna, University Lib., 1090 Prague, University L'b., 1777 360.000 ! Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115.000 250.000 j Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000 220,000 ' Copenhagen, Univ'rsity Lib., 1730 110,000 200,000 I Turin, University Lib., 1430 110.000 200,000 Louvaine, University Lib., 1639 105.000 200.000 I Dublin. Trinity College Lib., 104,289 166,724 I Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 150.000 ' Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 130,000 I Edinburgh, University Lib., 1682 90,864 ltb] dictioj^aey of dates. 397 The lars-est Libraries in Great Britain are those of the Founded. Vols. Eoyal Institution, London, London Institution, London Library, Founded. Vols. 1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 3 University, Cambridsce, 1484 160,724 4 Advocates. Edinburgh, 1682 148,000 | Sion College, &c, 5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,239 | LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief pubhc and college libraries in the United States in 1849, was stated to be 1.294,000. The number of libraries is 182, Of these, 43 contain over 10,000 volumes each ; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the prec(^dence of the largest as to numbers stood thus • Vols.f __ „ . Vols. 1 Harvard College, including Divin- ity and Law Schools, 72,000 2 Philadelphia and Loganian Lib., 60,C00 S Boston Athen.'Bum, 50,000 4 Library of Congress, 50,000 5 New York Society Library, 82,000 The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. The Smithsonian institution at Washington has not yet commenced collecting its library. Tlie number of volumes in the School District libraries of the State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 1,631 volumes; in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : — 6 Mercantile Library, New York, 32,000 7 Georgetown College, D. C, 25,000 8 Brown Uaiversity, 24,000 9 New York State Library, 24,000 10 Yale College, 21,000 11 Astor Library, New York, 20,000 Vols. Vols. 1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 6,000 Brought up. 84, 453,609 2 Columbia, Dist. of, has 2, 53,000 12 New Jersey, has 3 28.500 8 Connecticut, " 6, 81.449 13 New York, " 12, 157,411 4 Georgia, (C 1, 13,000 14 North Carolina, » 1, 10,000 5 Kentucky, « 1, 7,000 15 Ohio, " 1, 30,497 6 Louisiana, " 1, 5,500 16 Pennsvlvania, " 14, 1511,200 T Maine, " 3, 88,860 17 Ehode Island, " 3, 87.1S5 8 Maryland, « 1, 12,000 IS South Carolina, " 2, 30,000 9 Massachusetts, " 14, 200,000 19 Tennessee, " 2, le.o-X) 10 Missouri, « 2, 14.300 20 Vermont, " 2, 16,254 11 New Hampshire > " 2, 22,500 21 Virginia, " 4, 41.000 34 453,609 Total - - - 72, 979,656 The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, parish, and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Farl. Eep. Brtt. Mus. ; Prof. JeweWs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in K Amer. Eev., July 1850, &c. r.IEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- vents, "the pai^adise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo^ men." In the time of Louis XL of France, a.d, 1461, Liege was a large and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702; and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, iii 1814. 398 THE world's progress. [lib LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the aucient commercial people, and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles; the Pharos of Messina ; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa, August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, il having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged into tlie kingdom of Italy. LIMA>^ See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Perj, was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de las Reyes, or City of the Kings. This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known aa Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see. LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253, Before this period woollen shirts were generally w^orn. A company of linen weavers established itself in London in 1368; and the art of staining linen became known in 1579. A colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc- ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- raged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- lin, was opened 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshu*e, and Barnesley in Yorkshire, are, in Great Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. LINNiE AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, or, as his name is Latinized, Linnseus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, orders, and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and frait the test of his vari- ous genera. The Linnsean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and was incorporated March 26, 1802. LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city when they conquered it, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur "Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. LISLE, Siege op. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deejned impregnable, it was taken after a tliree months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications LIV] DICriONAEY OF DATES. 39S of Dunkirk: this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- cory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct, 7, 1792. LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gre- gory J., in or about 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in 1543.— CoZ/^er's Ecc. Hist. LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- right was overruled Feb 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were hving, the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acta extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is stiU to endure for 42 years, for which term also bmj work published after the author's death ia to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same protection to Enghsh authors. LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &e. The various societies connected with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. The Literary Fund, in Lincohi's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty ; this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Societv of Literature was established Sept. 15, 1825. LITHOGrRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 1841. LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first composed, and was approved aud confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8, The offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- lish language in 1550. and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637. Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- kiugton, and dean May, and secretary Smith. LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- ment, and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 400 THE WORLD'S PROGRKSS. [l-OC increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first rank after tlie metropolis, in Enjrland, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- day-book und<^r the name Esjnedane, or, Smedune. In other ancient records its various appellations are, Litherpul, and Lyrj^ul, signifying probably, in the ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the " Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 1172, its fovorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, tlie number of ships which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British, 2,G15, of the aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. Tlie amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan- uary, 1844, was £4,121.522.— Pari. Eet. LLOYD'S, LoxDON. The coffee-house in connection with the Royal Exchange, and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, O'Neiirs rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up- wards of 30,000 British were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. — Sir William Petty. In the firsc two or three days of It, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were destroyed.— XorrftTtor- «tulon> Befbre the rebellion waa entirely THE world's progress. [m MASSACRES, continued. suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massacred. — Sir W. Temple. Of the unoffending Alacdonalds of Glencoe, May 9, 1691.— See 67e«coe. Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by plk»s, perpetrated by the insur- gent Irish, at Ihe barn of Scullabogue, Ireland, in 1798.— ^Sir Rteh. Musgro'oe. Massacre of 64 American prisuners at Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit- ish Government,) April 6, 1S15. MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception of tlie ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James L 1603.— Baker. MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from among the most learned equity members of the bar. MASTER OF THE ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, whicli being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for that name. MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci- pline ; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, so early as 1950 B. c. — Josephus de Aatiq. Jud. MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins imply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow ^ the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a. d. 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty ofParisin 1814. MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi- cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b. c. MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they oftered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Porapilius by adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which before was the third, 713 B. c. MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in MEC] DICTION AET OF DATES. 419 England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-day, an entenainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class'the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of the feast. MATjSTOOTH college, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of students who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 35 G-eo. Ill, 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,000^. for the en- largement of the buildings, and 26,000/. annually, were granted by parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy in England. MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et seq., under the la?t kings of the Mero- vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port- reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign of Richard I. MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- wards ; they were very early known in England. Standards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London. 8 Richard I., a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed ha England, 1257. They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. d. 571. The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to ofier up Isaac. 1871 B. c. ^ » MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so httle known, that they have been ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for , instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of ' Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and elevated. The first writing on mechanics, was by i The water-mill was probably invents i Aristotle, about , . . b. c. 320 in Asia ; the first that was described The Statera Eomana invented . . ** The fundamental property of the lever and other instruments was demon- strated by Archimedes . . . 205 The hand-mill, or quern,wa3 very early in use; the Romans found one in Yorkshire ** Cattle mills, molmjumentarim, were also in use by the Eomans, and in parts of Europe . . , . •• was near one of the dwellings of Mithridates . . . . b. c. 70 A water-mill is said to have been erect- ed on the river Tiber, at Eome . 50 Floating mills on the Tiber . A. d. 536 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice about .... 1078 "Wind-mills were in very general use in the twelfth centmy . . . ♦♦ 420 THE world's peogeess. [aoaf MECHANICS, continued. Saw -mills are said to have been in tise at Aussbiiig . . . .A.D. 1832 Theory of the inclined plane inves- tisrated by Cardan, about . . 1540 ■Work on statics, by Stevinus . . 1586 Application of meclAnics to astrono- my, parallelogism of forces, laws of motion, &c., Newton . a. d. 1679 Problem of the catenary with the analysis, by Dr. Gregory . . 169T Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . 16381 Spirit level (and many other inven Theory of oscillation, Huygens . 1647| tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 1702 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . 1662 The Mechanics' Institute in London was formed in .... 1823 Mechanics' Institute in New York formed 1888 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Eoemer . . • • 1675 Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli; hedied . . . .1679 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in England. MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It revolted from Arbaces 820 B. c, and afterwards became an independent kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the Mede, 536 B. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and shared its Me.—Blair; Priestley. Cyrus made king of Persia . b. c. 559 Astyajros deiM>sed by Gyrus . . 550 Croesus kingof Lydia defeated, and his throne seized by Cyrus . . .548 Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar to death : and makes Astyages (or Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 588 By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- comes master of all Persia; and this era is properly the commencement of the Persian empire.— Zewg^Ze^. . 367 Revolt of the Medes.— ^Zair. b. o. The country was subjected to the As- syrians. — Idem. .... 766 Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, Armenia, and other countries . . 647 Battle of Eases ; the Assyrians defeat the Medes.— 5Zai/- 625 War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar- mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun so alarms them, they conclude peace ■without striking a blow . . .585 The reign of Astyages.— -BZ«4r. . . 585i The Medcs were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- ury into Persia. They admitted polygam3% and a man was deemed infamous who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast of at least five husbands. — Aspin. MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi- tory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the East, about a. D. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe genefallv. until the close of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of medicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in^ a large mosque, closed wdth rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho- met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one's country or friends. MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- sented to us as if they were ipvesent.— Cardan. Simonides, grandson of Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olyrapia for teachmg artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. C. — Arimdelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Qer- many in 1807. See Mnemonics. MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religioM MES] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421 who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — DominicanSi Pranciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders subsequently branched from them. ifENSURA-TION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were dis- covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B. c. MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to havo been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Fardon. They are, how- ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. MERC E ANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an English corporation in 1564. — Haydn. MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512.-- Nouv. Did. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- lius early in the seventeenth century; the first direciKons for its preparation were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785. MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry YHL, and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — LEsirange. Johnson. MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about a. d. 310— Baronius, Annal. MESSENIA, now Maiira-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b, c. It is celebrated for its long and san- guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundi^ed cicies, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the Achaean league 21C B. c. MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. The first began 743 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 422 THE world's progress. [met to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commou to both nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made so great a carnage, that tlie Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. Tlie second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan j-oke, and lasted fourteen years, ending m the defeat of the Messenians who fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 B. c, it endured ten years, when the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. MESSIN'A, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city^ then called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. — In the eleventh century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- pression. Great Messinian conspirac}^, 1282. The memorable revolt took place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity ; since which it has been handsomely rebuilt. METALLUR&Y. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- tals. METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated with Aristotle, "What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor- dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly called the revival of learning. METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B. c. METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. " Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the early days of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The methodists may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a d. 1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho- distce, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence oT the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But thes6 missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz* ed. for their support, until 1817. mid] dictionary of dates. 422 MEXrCO. Discovered in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun iu 1535. This country, hke other states in the new world, has recovered its in- dependence. Iturbide made emperor. May, 1822. Mexican constitution proclaimed by the president Vitloria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year, Mexican revolution; the president Guerrero deposed Dee. 23, same year. The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil war between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and Herrera made president, Dec. 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the mortgage or sale of church property, Jan, 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Yista, Feb. 22, 1847. Yera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati- fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18, Vera Cruz surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1, See War of the United States and Mexico. Signor de la Rosa, first Mexican minister lo the United States after the war, presented his credentials, Dec, 2, 1848. MEZZOTINTO, A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop- per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648 ; but baron Heinikui states that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving, MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen- eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830 31,639; in 1840, 212,267, MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d. 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, F.R.S., who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Diet MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He- 424 THE world's peogress. [mil brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B. C, is stjied by some the fiitlier of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad- vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and under Galen, who lived ad. 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Henry YIL, 1518. The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the Romans 222 B.C.; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221; and lastly waa governed by dukes from a. D. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger- many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Phihp II. Milan was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8, 1847. Colhsion of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on proposed union with Piedmont. — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing it till the end of tlie war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather than allowed, as law.— Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- try, July 26, 1803, Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the insurrection of June, 1848. MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the * Agnodice. an Athenian virgin, dissuiscd her sex to learn medicine. She was tanght by Hieropholus. her fatlier, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex CO her jiatients. This brought her int > so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and u law was made to empower ail free-born women to learn midwiferf. —Hyg.fa. 274. MINJ DICTIOXAEY OF DATES. 425 appointment of officers are different in the different States See Encyclo- pedia Americana. The aggregate mihtia force of the United States, as re- ported in 1848, was 1,888.538, but as the returns in some instauces were for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the road by which- heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed tliat Juno ac- cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, who, while she slept, was laid by her side; but perceiving who he was, she threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c. MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- piration of the seven thousandth j^ear from the creation ; and that during the last thousand years Christ and the saiuts would reign upon earth. It was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was propagated by Papias. Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to. tho effect that our blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet. MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be derived from Milan. Tliere are men-millinei's in England, and the adoption of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while the perfumed coxcomb ['-He was perfumed like a milliner." — S/iaksjjeare.] measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. See article Mechanics. MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, occurs 47 Henry III., 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, and salt exist in great abundance, m various States: lead mines in Mis- souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copj^er, Tin, Gold, &c. ALINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40» 30' norf- lat . and between 91* 10' and 102" west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants from the United States about 1845-6. * I look upou a man-mininer not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons harantrning- upon the merits of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of con- tempt ; for the employ menl that degrades this man might have p. ceerved a woman from pros titution. — Dr. SotUhey. 426 THE world's PEpGEESS. [mIS MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of 1802. MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk into neglect. MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; atDahlonega, 1838. See Coining. MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B. c. See Looking Glasses. MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a bottle, about 1782, was the first actress announced as Miss. — GaWs Lives of the Players. MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. The Jesuits had missions to China {which sec\ and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick lY., in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4,1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions, The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ce\'lon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che- rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- tions of about $200,000 The statistics of its operations in various parts of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu- merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See BtnevO' lent Societies. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nf.{,- chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida The territory, together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817, wiien it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929j in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. mog] dtctioxary of dates. 427 MISSOURI, oue of the Uni ed States. Was included with Louisiana in the purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French in 1764, but was little more than a trading- post until 1804, when the terri- torial government was formed Missouri admitted into the Union as a State in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending iu the Missouri ComproTnise, which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in- cluding 58,240 slaves. MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716 The cele- brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital ia said to have amounted to 100,000,000/. See Law's Bubble. MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 B. c. It was formerly thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the capital medicines of our shops. MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 b. c, and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, tlie devastation of human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mitlundates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lenglet. MITRE, The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have it, was announced in G-ermany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no ticed in the London monthly periodicals. MODENA. Erected ^ into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi- sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah, His son, Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards known as Turks, Tartars and Moguls The first conqueror of the Mogul empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouh Khan, the famous Bophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 428 THE world's peogress. [mon MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or ahnost universal monarchies, — ihe Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. See them respectively. MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in A. D. 270 ; and according to otliers, in A. D. 305. The suppression of monastic houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among otiier persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear atEphesus: he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed vhat their eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When tSt. Austin arrived in England a. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and hia successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, whose descendants enjoy them to this day. MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was made of difi'erent ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 15'74. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- dity. See articles. Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mini, &c. MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup- posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular monastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in 1 683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on the 20th of the same month. "Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VllL about 1535. MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, iliat parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622; and were totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, as was previousl}'- tlie custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — Ander son's HisUn-y of Commerce. MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- UORJ DICmOXARY OF DATES. 429 ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift ot prophec}^ and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 12, 1775, and Vv'as retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- suits' college, prison, and many buildings bui'nt down, June 6, 18u3. Great military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the ''Rebellion Losses" Act; the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- tans, and the G-reeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by Thales, 610 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B. c. — Diog. Latrt. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at full moon is 90,000 times less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less. — Bouguer. MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. 113.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens in Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d. 1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being iheir last refuge from the power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI, of Leon and Castile, slew 200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- nand Y., who conquered Granada. 1492. Philip III. banished them to the number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Friesiley. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science of etliics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 b. c. And Grotius is esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, about A. D. 1623. — Bate, &c. MORAVIANS. United Brethren'. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn , 1741. In order to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now so general MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe 430 THE world's progress. [mxtn Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen Atchinson, Oct. 28, 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Romans it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallah, a leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dj^nasty which ended in tlie last sovereign's defeat in Spain. About tliis period., 1202, Fez and other provinces shook off their dependence : but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1 650, subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with Franco provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was taken by Tamerlane, 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19. and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Ru.«?sians See Borodino. MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- ted A. D. 1609. MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XL by pope Paul IL, 1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dleu ei mon Droit was first used by Richard L, a. d. 1193. The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, " I serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendrai, ^^I will maintain,^' was adopted by William HI., 1688. And Semper eadem was or- dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasions it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief ior the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in Europe is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; and it was white in Spain, until A. D. 1498 — Herrera. MUNSTER, Treaty of, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster^ Oct. 24, 1648. KUSJ DICTIONATvY OF DATES. 431 MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetae was established by Demophoon fov tiie trial of murder. 1179 b. c. The Per- siaus did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarch)'-, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry YIIL'a time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed ]»enetit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, ov petit treason, may happen in three ways ; by a servant killing Lis master ; a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instanr.o. The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed 7 William lY., July 1836. — Haydn. MUSEUM Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Piyta- neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus who here placed his library, about 284 B.C. See JBriiish Museum, &c. MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And Zarlino to the sound of water. It isj^owever, agreed that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B c. The tiute and harmony or concord in music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Premoy. Pythagoras maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angei was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author- ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third century. MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, a. d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi- tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries about 1616. MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was established in 1741. and other musical societies followed The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobilitj'- and gentry uniting to promote the performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- sic established 1822. MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 12 Henry VIII 1521 .— Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. — Branstone. MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so called as not being bare but having a downj'- nap on its surface resembling rioss, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first brought 432 THE world's progress. [mti from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in England in 1778. MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- cicntl}', a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one day. and three drnnghts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d. 1605. see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III judgment is awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary, at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, Aug. 21, 1801. — Phillips. MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie; m"d- shipraan Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty. MYCALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b c, between the Greeks and Persians; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- mos with an immense booty. MYCEN^. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidae Perseus removes from Argos to Mycenae, and reigns, 1.313 B. c. Mycenae destroyed by the Argives, 568 B. C. MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an iii- stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks The Eleusinian mj'steries were introduced at Athens by Euraolpus, 1356 B. c. The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civ.J- ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389. MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated : and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortiiJ, and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence thera with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed -o have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B. c. ; and Cadmus the worship of the' Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 nap] DICTIONA.EY OF DATES. 431 NABONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 b. o. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; if after Christ, add to it 748. XAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their names, genius, and fate, Tlie popes changed their names at their exaltation to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Plaiina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, It was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it up to the Allies, in 1814. NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this country. Taken from the Frencli and annexed to Spain - - - - 1504 The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to an insuiTection, excited by Massa- niello, a fisherman, who In fifteen days raises an army of 200,000 men 1647 This insurrection subsides, and Massa- niello is murdered - - 164T Attempt of the duke of Guise to pos- sess the crown - - 1647 The kingdom completely conquered by prince Eugene - - 1707 Discovery of the ruins of Hercula- neum. See Herculaneum - 1711 Naples ceded to the emperor by the treaty of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily 1T20 Both kingdoms are recovered by the crown of Spain ... 1734 And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, reigns - - ' - 1735 Reign ot Ferdinand IV. - - 1759 His flight on the approach of the French republicans - Jan. 14, 1799 Nelson a[)pears, Naples is retaken, and the king restored - July 13. 1799 It Is again taken by the French, Ap"'17,lS0l Dreadt'al earthquake felt throughout The Goths having become masters of Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by Belisarius, general of the Eastern empire - - - a. D. 537 The Lombards next get possession of Naples, and are dispossessed by Charlemagne - - - 800 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France, obtains the crown from the pope, to the exclusion of the rightful heir, Conradin, who is beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266 The French becoming hated by theSi- cilians, a general massacre of the in- vaders takes place, one Frenchman only escaping. See Sidlia/n Vespers March 30, 1282 Peter of Arragon reigns - - 1282 The two crowns disjoined - 13o3 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of Hungary,is murdered there by order of the queen regent, in her presence 1386 For this murder she is taken out of her carriage, and drowned in the river Boseth - - - - 1386 Sicily again united to Naples, and the , kings ever since called king of the Two Sicilies - - - 1442 134 THE world's progress. [nat NAPLES, continued, the kingdom, and thousands perish July 26, 1805 Treaty offensive and defensive be- tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1805 Ferdinand is again driven from Na- ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned king • Feb. 6. 1806 Joseph abdicates for the crown of Spain- - - June 1, 1808 The crown is transferred to Joachim Murat - - -July 1,1808 Naples is surrendered to aBritishtieet, and Ferdinand re-enters June 17, 1815 Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15, 1S15 Kevolutionary movement, headed by general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 Suppression of the Carbonari Sept.l6, 182(1 Eeign of Francis I. - - - 1826 And of Ferdinand 11. - Nov. 8, 1830 Commencement of the dispute rela- tive to the sulphur monopoly,(which is afterwards amicably adj usted) March 15, 1840 NARYA Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. and reform, fired upon at Naples, and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1847 Sanguinary disorders at MessinaJan.4,lS48 Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1S48 Palermo bombarded Jan. 18-19, 1848 The king siirned a constitution Jan.2S, 1848 Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- rison - - - Feb. 22, 184S The parliament of Sicily declares that island independent ;' Messina bom- barded by theNeapolitan fleet Ap.3, 184S The national guard raises barricadesat Naples - - May 14, 184ii The people put down by the king's troops ; 1440 killed - .May 15, 1848 TheSicilian parliament elects the duke of Genoa as king of Sicily July 10, 1348 Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 New constitution conceded to Sicily March 6, 1849 Catania bombarded and reduced.\p. 5.1849 Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. NASEBY, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- fax and Cromwell. The main body of the roj^al army was commanded by lord Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory was witli the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor- tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 14, 1645. NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry YI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted in tlie year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarming magnitude In 1702, On the accession of queen Anne, the debt amounted to- - - - £14,900,000 In 1714, On tiie accession of Geo. I. it amounted to . 54,000,000 In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- nish war, it amounted to 78,000,000 In 1T63, George III.: end of the 7 years' war, it amounted to ... . 139,000,000 In 1786,Threeyears afterthe Ame- ricanwar,itamounfd to 268,000,000 Inl79S, The civil and foreign war, it amounted to - 462,000,009 NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times. In 1791 the debt was - $75,468,476 In 1800 " " - . 82,976,294 In 1810 " " - - - 53.173,217 In 1815 " " - - - 99.8:33.660 In 1816 " " - - 127,334,934 InlS20 " " - • - 91,015,566 NATURALIZATION. It is defined ttO be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were^ In 1802, Cloi^e of the French Ke- volutionary war, it a- mounted to - £571,000,000 In 1814, Close of the war against Bonaparte - - 865,000,000 In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- lish exchequers were consolidated - 848,282,477 In 1830, Total amount of the funded and unfunded debt - - - 840,184,022 In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578.000 In 1845, Funded debt In 1830 the debt was In 1835 " '^ In 18:19 " " - In 1845 " " In 1848 " " - 768,789,241 - $4S,56\406 37,73:i - 11,93{,733 - 16,801. (>47 - 65,804,450 NAVJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 435 both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did nM belong to." The first act of naturaUzation in England passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Mai repaired to the Jeu de Faume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That tbe citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau- mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed and opened in 1837. NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon record, 1263 b. c. — Bu Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthians and Corey reans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol- lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the page of history. at Cnidos : Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is killed; and the mari- time power of the Lacedemonians destroj'ed — TJiucydides - - 394 The Roman fleet emplo5'ed in the siege of LilybiBum, burned by the Carthaginians - - - 249 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lutatius - * - - 242 The Eoman fleets vanquished by Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene- ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 16,000 prisoners ; second Punic war - 209 At A ctium,'between the fleets of Octa- vianusCtEsar andMarc Antony. This battle decides the fate of the latter, 800 of his galleys going over to Cae- sar, by which he is totally defeated 81 ANNO DOMINL The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their sb.\lis,.—Du Fresnoy - - S69 BEFORE CHEIST. First sea-fight on record, in which the Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664 The Athenian fleet under Themistoc- les, with 880 sail, defeat the Per- sian, consisting of 2000, at the straits of Salamis - - - - 480 Again, at the mouth of the river Eu- rymedon ; Cymon, theAthenian ad- miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and army, in one day. — Serodotua 470 The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al- cibiades, the Athenian - - - 410 The Spartan general, Lysander, total- ly defeats the Athenian fleet under Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end to the maritime power of Athens - 407 The Persians engage Conon to com- mand their fleet, with which he en- tirely vanquishes theLacedemonian fleet, and takes 50 sail out of 90 - 400 The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 436 THE world's progress. [nav NAVAL BATTLES, continued. The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, and Pius V. defeat tiie Turlvisli fleet in the Gulf «.f Lepanto. The Christiai! fleet consisted of 206 gal- leys, and 80,000 men. The Turks, out of 250 galleys, saved only 100; and lost 30,000 men in killed and prisoners. — Voltaire - - - 1571 Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- ards. This was a bloody conflict and decisivevicturyandsettledforatiine thesuperiorityof theDulch,Apr. 'i5, 160T NAVAL ENGAGE.MEKTS IN BRITISH IIISTOBY, Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire coxsL—Asser's Life of Alfred 807 Near teliiys; Edward III. defeated the French fleet of 400 sail, which were all sunk. 30,000 French were killed in this engagement - - 1340 The English and Flemings; the latter ^ signally defeated - - . . 1371 English and French, in which the latter power loses SO ships - - 1389 Near iMilford Haven; the English take 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford takes 500 French ships - - 1416 In the Downs : the Frei;ch fleet cap- tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 Bay of Biscav ; English and French, the latter defeated - - - 1512 Sir Edward Howard defeats the French under Prejeant - - 1513 In the Channel; the British defeat the French fleet with great loss - 1545 IheSpanishArrnadficMven from the EuglishChannel tothe roadof Calais, bya running fight the Spaniards los- ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are aeain defeated, and obliged to bear awayior Scotland and Ireland,when theirfleet isdispersed in a storm, and they lose 17 more ship.s, and 5000 more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588 Dover Straits; between the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, and admiral Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng- lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 40 English, six of which are taken or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi- ral sails in triumph through the channel, with a broom at his mast- - head, to denote that he had swept the English from the seas. June 29, 1652 In the Downs; same admirals, and nearly same loss Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war and 80 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, and Blake the English admiral - - - - Feb. 10, 1663 Again, near Portland, between the English and Dutch ; the latter de- feated - - - . Feb. 18, 1653 Again, off the North Foreland The Dutch and English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war each. Van Tromp commai.'ied the Dutch; Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- lish. Six Dutch ships were taken ; 11 were sunk, and the rest ran into Calais road . . . June 2, 1653 Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad- miral Tromp Wiis killed - July 31, 1653 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000.000 pieces of eight, were taken by the English - - - Sept. 1656 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by Blake - - - Ajiril, 1657 English and French ; 130 of the Bor- deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of York - - - - Dec. 4, 1664 i The duke of York (afterwards James II.), defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- wich; the Dutch admiral blown up with all his crew ; 18 capital :hips taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of war and 2 India ships - Sept. 4 1665 A contest between the Dutch and Enjjlish fleets for victory ,maintain- ed for four davs. The English lose 9,and theDutch 15 ships, June 1—4, 1666 Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, when tiie English gain a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals kill- ed, and 4,000 officers and seamen. Fought - - - - July 26, 1666 The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the J- rench of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 Coast of Holland; by Trince Kupert, May28.June 4,and Aug. ll,D'Etree8 and ituyter defeated - - - 1678 Several actions to the disadvantage of the Dutch. They agree to strike to the English colors in the British seas. 25 Charles II. ... 1678 Off Taugiers, battle between the En- glish and Moors, which lasted 11 davs 1679 Off Beachy-head; the English and Dutch are defeated by the French, June 30, 1690 The English and Dutch combined fleets gain a signal victory over the French fleet,uear CapeLallogue ; 21 of their largest men-of-warwere de- stroyed.— See La Hague, May 19, 1692 Off St. Vincent; theEngli.-rh andDutch squadrons,un(ler admiral liooke,de- feated by the French - June 16, 1698 Ott'Carthagena.between admiral Ben- bow and theFrench fleet,command- ed by admiral Du Casse, fought Aug. 19, 2703 The English and Dutch fleets, under sir George Kooke,defeatthe French fleet (having theSpanish salleonsin convoy) in the port of Vigo. They take 9 out of 13 galleons,laden chief- ly V ith silver, and six men-of-war; the other 4 iralleons, and 14 men-of- war, destroyed, fought - Oct. 12, 1702 Oft" the Lizard, when the English fleet was defeated - - - Oct. 9, 1707 NAV] D OTIONARY OF DATES. 437 N'AYAL BATTLES, continued. In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took sixty French vessels laden with provisions - - May 22, 1708 The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro of Messina ■ - Aug. 11, 1718 Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews and Lestock against the fleets of France and Spain. Here the brave captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- tory was lost by a misunderstanding betwe^en the English admirals.— iVa- . vaL Hist. .... 1744 Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet taken by admiral Ansoti May 3, 1747 In the East Indies ; the French retired to Pondicherry - - - 1747 Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took seven men-of-war of the French Oct. 14, 1747 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet commanded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a projected invasion of England, Jbught Nov. 20, 1759 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- gara, the latter deieaied and taken prisoner, losing 8 .ships Jan. 8, 1780 At St. Jago ; Moils. Suffiein defeated by commodore Johnston April lb, 1781 Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) and sent the French admiral, count de Grasse, prisoner to England April 12, 1782 The British totally defeated the fleets of France and Spain, in the bay of Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; July 24, 1797 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 ships of war, with the admiral (De Winter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, Aug. 1. 1798 Gibraltar bay ; engagement between the French and Bnti.sh fleots ; the Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, 1801 Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory over the French and Span- ish fleets; 1 ship captu-ed, fbu2fh' July 12, 1801 Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish combined fleets, off F'erroi - July 22, 1805 Ofl' Trafalgar; memorable battle, in which lord Nelson defeated the fleets of France and Spain, and in which he received his moi-tal wound. — (See- Trafalgar) - - Oct. 21, 1806 Sir R. Sirachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 French ships of the line, off Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 In the West Indies ; the French defeat- ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on shore Feb. 6, 1806 Sir John Borlase Warren captures the French fleet under command of ad- miral Linois • - March 13. 1806 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles, Feb. 19, 1307 Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- renders to lord Cathcari and admiral Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sepi 7, 1807 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the TtPgus, surrenders to the British, Sept. 3, 180b Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. See Algiers - - Aug. 27. 1816 Navarino ; the British, French, and Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- rino - - - Oct. 20, 1827 Action between the British ships Vol- age and Hyacinth., and 29 Chinese war junks, which were defeated Nov. 3, 1839 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British squadron under admiral Stop- ford achieved this triumph with tri- fling lo.ss. while the Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners. See Syria ■ Nov. 3, 1840 Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- | teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 17"6 His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 ' He captures the British frigate Serapis | Sept. 23, 1779 Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- pblitans - - - - 1803 —recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804 Tripoh bombarded by commodore Pre- ble - - - - Aug. 1804 Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the British ship Leopard, for refusing to be searched .... 1807 Frigate President, vs. British sloop LMeBelt . • May 16, 1811 Constitution captures British frigate Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812 Captain Elliott captures two British frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. a 1812 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro lie, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by British 74, Poictiers - Oct 20, 1812 Frigate United States, captain Decatur, captures British frigate M^Cv'i'oniaii 1312 Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures British snip Peacock, captain Peake, Feb. 23, 1811 438 . THE world's progress. [NA"V NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. [Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- I Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, aded by British.] captures British brig Epervier Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the I April 29, 1814 Britifh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 i Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 1 Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- E;u- E.;terprise captures the British i toriousover the British on lake Cham- brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 { plain - - - Sept. II, 1814 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, | Frigate President, surrendered to the captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 i British frisate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 Fl.-tilla, commodore Chauncey, cap- I Frigate Constitution captures British tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, | brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maaeria Oct. 5, 1813 ! Feb. 1815 Frigate Essex, commodore P<../ter, cap- , Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- tured by frigate Phcebe and sloop | tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, Cherub- - - March28, 1814 I Feb. 23, 18 E Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, I U. S. naval force under commodore surrendered to British frigate Or- | Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly pheus • - - April 21, 1814 , with the land force under general i Scott) 1847 NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England. France, and Russia, under command of admiral Codrington and the Turkish nary, in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the" Turks themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an " untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phcenicians, about 1500 b. c. The first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians. 916 b. c. The first account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- iards ; and from these to the English and .Dutch. Plane charts and mariner's compass Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- used about - - - a. d. 1420 j tion by Gunter - - a. D. 1620 Variation of the compass discovered Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 by Columbus - - - -1492 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood -1631 That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- Hadley's quadrant - - . 1731 rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 | Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 First treatise on navigation - - - 1545 i Nautical almanac first published - 1767 The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 1 compass - • - - - 1820 Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, ^c. measuring angles, about - - 1600 1 NAVIGATION, INLAND, of thr United States. An official report of U. S. Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- ghanies. navigable for steamboats. 16 674 miles; entire length of lake coast, of which 2000 belong to British possessions. 5000 miles. The steamboat tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of commerce on the western rivers, S183 609,725. Estimated amount of lake tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, see Skipping.] NAVIGATION, INLAND, op Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well the NAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194 See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See Naval Battles.} NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA. COMPAKATIVE VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP ET] ROPE AND AMERICA, 1846. Relative naval power of each nation. In commission. Building, ordina- ry, &c. Total. s d 6 2 Vessels. Guns. Vessels. Guns. Vessels. Guns. "<> Z " Great Britain, 332 4,583 304 13,098 §636 17,681 40,000 141 France, 215 4,293 131 4,635 3-16 8,928 27,554 68 Russia, - 179 5,896 179 5,896 59,000 32 Turkey, - 62 2,636 4 24 66 2,660 26,820 9 United States, 47 1,155 30 1.190 77 2,345 8,724 5 Egypt, - - - 35 1,148 3 312 . 38 1,760 1 Holland, 48 302 86 1,344 134 1,646 4 Sweden, - 330 660 50 1,196 380 1,856 2 Denmark, 96 344 12 732 108 1,076 Austria, - 74 086 74 686 Brazil, . - . 31 450 11 325 42 775 -- 8 Sardinia, ... n 226 220 15 446 2 Spain, - 21 348 21 348 4 Two Sicilies, 17 338 17 338 Portugal, 59 Mexico 23 42 -- 23 42 -■ COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. Nations, in the order o( their commercial importance. United Kingdom of Great Britain, ' United States . . . . France, Norway and Sweden - - . Holland, Russia, Two Sicilies, .... Austria, . . . . . Turkey, Sardinia, Denmark, - - Portugal, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, No. of vessels in commerce and fisheries. 23,898 19,666 13,782 5.450 1,528 Not known. 9,174 6,199 2,220 3,502 3.036 798 2,700 Unknown. Unknown. Tonnage, No. of guns D each 100,000 tons of com- merce. 3,007,581 2,416,999 839,608 471,772 241,676 239,000 213,198 208,551 182.000 167,360 1.53,408 80,525 80,000 Unknown. Unknown. 97 1.063 224 683 2,466 153 321 1461 '265 709 410 THE world's progress. [ NEM NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of \he Danes, was built by Alfred, a. d, 897. The nimiber of galleys had increased undei Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- miral under him: such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 13J:7 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British na\y, may therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap- pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stouV ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Giison's Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever bui *. — Glbson^s Continuation of Camden. ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ROYAL NAVY OF ENGLAND, PROM HEHRT VIIl'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WAR, 1814. Yr. Ships. Tons. 31671 voted Navy es/im. , Yr. S/iips. Tons. Men voted Navy estim. 1521 16 7,260 no account. 1760 412 321.134 1 70,000 £3,227.143 1578 24 10,506 6.700 no account. 1 1793 493 433,226 45,000 5.52o;a31 1603 42 17,055 8..346 no account. 1 1800 767 668,744 135.000 12,422,837 1658 157 57,000 21,910 no account. 1808 869 892,8001 143,800 17.496,(M7 I63S 173 101,892 42,000 no account. 1814 901 960,000 146,LK)0 18.786,509 1702 272 159,020 40,000 jei,0.-^,6.915 1 In 1814, Great Britaii. had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 1830 she had 621 shii)s. some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- sion was 183. NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys; in this year the French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr'Mitly educed in the late wars against England. NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as j'et (1850) unorganized, oc- cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- plored by Fremont, on his way to Oi'egon, in 1842. NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of homo trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapsido, London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain^ but, as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest degree of perfection. — Stoioe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this time. — Anderson. NEMEAN GAMF,S. So called from Nemsea, where they were celebrated. NEW j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441 Tliey were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorusi who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were observed in Greece. The Argives, Coi'inthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- onae, generallj'^ presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- Hcrodotus. NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Gralli; of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some lime bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was the mother of Jesus Christ as man. yet she was not the mother of God, for that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he Avas subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as oth'(?r men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly applied than in ordinary men. The generality "of Christians in the Levant go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmar tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see Holland and Belgium. ^EVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Seb these respectively. NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328- in 1840, 284.574. NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 19* 442 THE world's progress. { XEVI by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was dispovered by Tasraan, in 1042. Captain Cook, in 1V70, explored the east and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove- ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the .supposed south extnaiiity, which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemens Land, was found, in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, «fec. The east^ ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of tbe Bri- tish dominions. See New SoiUh Wales. NEW .JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by th^^ Dutcli from New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finnt on the De- laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted by the duke to lord Berkley and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued • by the Dutch in 1672/ but surrendered by them, 1674; purchased by a company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne. 1702 ; continued under royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 1790, 184.189; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840. 373.306. NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- ington— an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken posses- sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F^, and founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is yet (July 1850) undecided. NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol- land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788 : but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear eleven days were left out of the calendar— the third of September. r752, being reckoned as the fourteenth— so as to make it agree with the Grego- rian Calendar, which see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- v^en days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- forehand with the former; so that when a person using the old style dates the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. HEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is th«j oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed NEW 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, witli salt, incense, and wine ; and all the mechanics began something of theyr art or trade ; the men of letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- sen befc re, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ci owd, all in new clothes, when two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens, together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity offered their vows for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or imtoward word. The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch , but is also observed in Paris. NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New- Year's gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having consi- dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strense, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo- ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern- ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed in the United States. NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of Manhattan, where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry Hudson, an Englislinian, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently settled on Manliattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla- tive assembly, 1683; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689; episcopacy esta- blished by law. 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active jjart in French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured by English, 1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution bv 30 to 35. 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population ia 1732 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,872.812 ; in 1840, 2,428 921. NEW YORK, City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by tliem at S. point of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed value of all the property in the town in 1668, was .£78.231 ; city taken by the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- vailed here in 1795 and 1806 : cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 444 THE world's progress. [ NE"Vf the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed proper^ valued at about S20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 1845 • the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population m 1790, 33,131; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589; in 1840, 312,710. NEW ORLEANS City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815 Population in 1810, was 17,242 ; in 1830, 46,310 ; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 slaves. NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry IIL in 1239 ; but in 1306, the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this place for more than 500 years. NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista. June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583 In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, m Ibn.—Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- creased so much that the ports of Devonshire aloae employed loO ships, and sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- milies reside here all the vear ; and in the fishing season, beginning m May and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen.^ New- foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ^1,000,000 sterling, June 9, 1846. NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh account of any thing.— Sid7iey. It is something not heard before.— I.'^:^- trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times.— Addi- son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters of the cardinal points of the compass, thus;— s importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarteni of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of *hQ Gazette. A pubhcation, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had HEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 previously ai)peared ; it was called the English Mercury* and came out un. der the authority of queen li^lizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. In the reign of James 1., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and in the year. 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles : — England's Memorable Accidents. The Kingdom's Intelligencer. The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- liament. The Mercurius Aulicus. The Scotch Intelligencer. The Parliament's Scout. The Parliaments Scout's Discovery, or Certain Information. The Mercurius C'ivicus, or London's Itv- telligencer. The Country's Complaint, S^c. The Weekly Account. Mercurius Biitannivus. In 1810 - - -20,172.837 In 1835 - • -32,874,652 In L820 - -24,852,186 In 1B40 - - 49,03:3,:i84 In 1825 - - -26,950,693 In 1843 . - -56.443,977 In 1830 - - 30,158,741 In 1849 - - 76,569,235 A paper called the London Gazette was p 1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwei^t Passage." The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British navigators, in the years respectively stated : — Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a nortii-west passage to China, sailed from the Thames* May '20, 1553 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a north-west passage to China - 1576 Captain Davis's expedition to find a north-west passage • - - 1585 Barentz's expedition - - • 1594 Wevmouih and Knight's - - 1602 Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken (See Hudso?i's Bay.)- - -1610 Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 Baffin's.— See Baffin's Bay - - 1616 Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631 [A number of enterprises undertaken ' by various countries, followed.] Middleton's expedition - - - 1742 Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 Hearne's land expedition - - 1769 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- grave, his expedition - - - 1773 Captain Cook in the Resolution and Discovery - • - July 1776 Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- turned from a voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west coast of America - - Sept. 24, 1795 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition • Oct. 1S15 Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition in the Dorotheaand Trent 1818 Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the Isabella and Alexander • - 1818 Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla and Griper - • May 4, 1819 They return to Leith • Nov. 3, 1820 Capts. Parry and Lyon, m the Fury and Hecla - • - May 8, 1821 Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Hecla . ■ - May 8, 1824 Capts. Fianklin and Lyon, after having attempted a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 Captain Parry, again in the Hecla., sails from Deptford - March 25, 1827 And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on liis re- turn from his arctic expedit m, after an absence of ^our years, aj.d when all hope of hu return had been near- ly abandoned • - Oct. 18, 1833 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- tic LantI Expedition, after having visited the Great Fish River, and ex- amined its course to the Polar Seas Sept. 8, 1835 Captain Back sailed from Chatham iii command of His Majesty's ship Ter- ror, on an exploring adventure to Wager River. [Captain Back, in the month of Dec. 1835, was award- ed, by the Geographical Society, the king's annual premium for his polar discoveries and enterprise .June 21, 1836 Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- vening space between the discover- ies of "Ross and Parry, and establish that there is a north-west passage Oct. 1839 Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- land - - - May 24, 1^5 Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849 Another expedition (one sent out by lady Franklin) in search of sir John Franklin, consisting of two vessels, sailed from England, April-May 185C Still another, consisting of two vessels, the Advance and Rescue, liberally purchased for the purpose by Henry Grinnell,a New York merchant, and manned at Government cost from the U. S. navy, under command of lieut. de Haven, sailed ft-om New York May 1850 NORTH CAROLINA, one of the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- * The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage for discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where tha court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost th« noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal object of the parada was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen X» ieath. on the coaot of Lapland.— //acAZttJ/^. MUL ] ^ DICTIONARY OP DATES. 449 secution, about 16G0. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it. 1663. The chi(;i magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. This constitution abolished, as defectiv^e, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- ed by the crown for Xl7;500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d, 1000. The city of Bergen w-as founded in 1069. The kingdom Avas united to Denmark in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united, in 1439. Pdmerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. w-aa proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notabks of France was con- vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI., in 1788. The deranged state of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his jjlan, but any reform militated too much against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, v:hich see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622. by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided ihto two provinces, in 1784; and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (Avhence its name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar, and Augustus ; but this the emT)eror absolutely refused, saying, '• What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars '? '' NO VI, Battle of. in which the French army commanded by Joubert was de- feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 10.000 of the French slain w-as their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8, 1800. SflTLLIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 450 THE world's progress, [oat claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho Nullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Colnmbia, S. C. same day. Calljoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in consequence of ]>tr. Clay's compromise taritf, March 11, 1834. KUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge to Ihe Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans. 141 B. c. — Llcy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia "wa,s unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- ricanus was empowered to finish the war. and to see the destruction of Nu- mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all destroyed themselves, b. g. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio and his admission to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- tion. NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina. sister to St. MarHn. a. d. 360.— !>«* Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, king of Kent, 630. — DugdaLe's Monai^' Icon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys and Monasteries.- The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 1790. O. OATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man. at one time chap- lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, he becam'e a lecturer in London; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, Catholics, were accused, and upon ialse testimony, convicted and executed, A. D. 1678. Oates was aftersvards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whii>- ped from Newgate to Tyburn and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685; but was pardoned and a pension granted him, 1689. OATHS, The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduce J by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapiii. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Sfnwe's Chroii. Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and OOT "1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 45 abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William Jll. 1701, Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words " So help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those pei • sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far abov( any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.— Ovid, <^c. OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they ditfered very much as to their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 14 B. c, OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, ■1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles 11. a. d. 1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mak» their calculations. First moilem meridional instrument, by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 First observatory at Cassel - - • 1561 Tyo.ho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 Royal (French) .... 1667 Royal Observatory at Greenwich • - 167^ Observatory at Nuremberg - - 1678 At UUecht 1690 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- tion - • - • -171* At Bologna - - - - - 171^ At Petersburg .... 1725 Oxford, Dr. Raddiffe - - - 1772 Dublin, Dr. Andrews - - • 1783 Cambridge, England - - - 1824 Cambridge, Mass. ... New Plaven - • - - - Cincinnati .... OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tentL in the year of Numa. 713 b. c. From this time October has still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered it to be called Faustlnus, in honor of Faustma, wife of Antoninus the emperor ; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitian Domitdanus. October was sacred to Mars. ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositiom accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing is that of our court poets at this day. OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no othei 452 THE world's progress. [omjm than the uni/ersal delige; but according to some writers, if it at all oc- curred, it arose in the overflowljg of one of the great rivers of the country. See Deluge. OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, April 1788 ; second settlement was Symraes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at GaUipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 1830, 937,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467. OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was the prize at the Panathenaean games. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. OliBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus was successfu] i-:.. che Olympic games. This era differed from all others in being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking" a date, the yeai and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olj'mpiad began in 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 740, &c. OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Tho.se who were conquerors in these games \vere highly honored by their coun- trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufresnoy. OMENS. See Aiigury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said to have had these superstitions; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclip.scd that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londou circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named Shillibeer. and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- bably originated in Paris, where they ure now also very numerous. In Neyi on j JJICTIONARY OF DATESs. 4r4 York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 46fi licensed in New York in 1849. OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and othef dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero. however, disputed this honor with him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Han lei were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain refused to license for performance a second pa*.-t of it, entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gay. OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by • lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of HaUey, and is now one of our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. X.Iansen and Galileo have also been staled to be the inventors.] Cassegrainian reflector - - - 162] Law of refraction discovered by Snell- ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 Reflecting telescope, .Tames Gregory - 1663 Newton - - 1666 Burning lenses known at Athens at least - - - - B. c. Two of the leading principles known 300 to the Platonists First treatise on, by Euclid, about - 280 The ma.^nifying power of convex glass- es and concave mirrors, and the pris- matic colors produced by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, aboutA.D. 50 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120 Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 Hints for spectacles "and telescopes giv- en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 Spectacles (said to have been) mvented by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 Camera obscura said to have been in- vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, about - - - . - 1571 Telescope made by Jansen (who is said also to have invented the micro- scope), about ... - 1609 [The same instrument constructed by Galileo, without using the produc- tion of .lansen] Astronomical telescope suggested by Kepler 1611 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- vented by Drebbel, about - - 1621 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] Double refraction explained by Bartho- linus 1665 Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 Telescopes with a single lens, by Tschimhausen, about - - - 1690 Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about - ... - 1700 Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 Hei-schel's great reflecting telescope, erected at Slough - - - - 1789 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaslon) - 1807 Ramage's reflecting telesccpe erected at Greenwich - • - - 1820 OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have be«n N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1538. — Nouv IHct. 454 THE world's progress. [ »^R1» ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- mous was the oracle of Deli)hi. 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle? were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep noi awake/had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- ginnmg of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but it imniediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon. ORANGE. House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dilembourg. who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais. daughter and heiress of Godfrey count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert having married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of NassaiT in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 1732. ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions taken from the codes of the Germans. That byfircAvas confined to the upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men. as at this day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- • The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course ol lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or lesrs into scalding water, which if they brought out without nun, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. ORR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455 ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henrj^ III., 1261. — Law Diet. Ryvier'i F(Bdcra. ORDINATION. In the ancient cliurcli there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis. 1808 ; Pacific Fur Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (Enghsh) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- ded at the 49th parrallel of lat.. leaving all north of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta- bhshed by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authorit5\ It is also at- tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarviine. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile off; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100- stops, and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. ORLEANS, Siege op, by the Enghsh, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so a.« its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepiditj^ and heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29. 1429. Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain 156 THE world's progress. [ ov> the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the clepsydrse and other horological automata. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. The planetary clock of Fin^e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of Be Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has been greatly improved of late years. OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- niards, from July 1601 to September 1604. when it surrendered by an honor- able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748, In the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend. which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing Hyperbolus. a mean person. OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called itGeorge the Third Island. Captain Cook came hither iii 1768, to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of Ihe French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- zure of Mr. Pritchard. the English consul, March 5, 1844. TTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir Wilham Dou- glas, who was slain by Henry Percy surnamed Hotspur; but the Scots ob- tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Wahlngham. OITOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [. on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of their army whose victories were not considerable. He Avho was thus re- warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to bo allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capltol, PAl j DICTIONARY OF DAIES. 457 whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiua Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered bj captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- mit to this insult; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Ccok and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. OXFORD L'NIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have, been a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet tliat no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester ; first called St All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichely, abp.' of Canterbury 1437 Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah his wife ; he was father to Baliol king of the Scots .... 1263 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester - - - - 1516 Exeter. Walter Stapleion, earl of Ex- eter 1314 Hertford College- - - -1312 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Elizabeih 1.571 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop of Lincoln - - - . 1475 Magdalen. Waynflete, bishop of Win- chester - - ' - - - 1458 Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 New College. William of Wykeham, -1375 Mary of Winchester Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. Whitwick, clerk - - - 1620 Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward in. - - -1340 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 155^ University. Said to have been founded by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- liam of Durham - - -IITU Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy his wife - - - - 1612 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- inally called Gloucester College - 1714 HALLS. St. Albans .... 1547 St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 St. Mary's .... I6I6 St. Mary Masrdalen - - - - 1602 New Inn Hall - - - .1392 OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, Aug. 1774. P. PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in A. D. 1540. PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tlllemont. PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. Osymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting 2100 B. c— Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. 335 b. e. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said io have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art was 20 458 THE world's progress. [ PAl introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, rvho on tliai account was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy.'* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth by Mumniius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages; Ludius, who wras very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint, ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, who died in 735. knew something of the art. It revived about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, ia awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are regarded as the foimders of the Flemish school of painting in oil. 1415. — Du FVesnmj. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. FAINTING IN THB UNI FED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born in Scotland. 1685), who commenced painting por- traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston. 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Pa.. 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston. 1738; first painted in 1760: he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754). John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756). William Dunlap (New Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists in succession in the United States. See Dunlap's Arts of Design, &c. PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted tliem 24 000Z. for their support. 3000 were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss Protectants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 Anne. 1709. — Anderson. PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was build- ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b.c, though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 1183 e.g., • Parrhasius cf Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once cont«>nde(l for pre-eminence in iheir profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said. " Remove tlie curtain, that we may see the painting." The curiain itscll was the painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, '• Zeuxis had ddccived the birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Parihasius dressed in a puiple robe, ai'.d wora ft crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c, — Plutarch. TAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 459 and preserved by the Romans -with the greatest secrecy in the temple of \esta. and esteemed the destiny of Rome. PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosaunas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Pains Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theii hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sonietimes wore toga falmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, w'hich are chiefly of white marble, prove it to have been more tKtensiv^e and splendid than even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- ness built by Solomon. Zenobia. the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below- were so covered -with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed to touch one another. PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles. PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1187; they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the PaiidectcB Florentince. F.\NORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. In 1788. Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama,'' to attract notice, and was ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, \)y Banvard, a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, wdthout precedent in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since w'hich numerous similar works have been achieved. PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus C^sar, some say by Agrippa his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, w iiere the particular image or representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda. PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus. 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action onl}^, is contem- poraneous with our stage. PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170 B. c. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000 ; and of rags in 1319. White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, 460 THE world's progress. { (Alk iu England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were elected,— Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100 000/. annually. The French refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper ahnost ex- clusively, until they came among us. White paper was tirst made by us in 1690. — Andersofi. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robsrt, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the machinery, M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. PaPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain ' and Holland, about a, d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly unproved in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve sh?,'- lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long before Eumenes's time. PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward III., hi 1327.. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sucB dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, Stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice which upsets Blackstone's tkeory. . PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the Arundelian Marbles, vjhich see. 1*.AJ\IS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovi.-? fixed upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times >•£,- vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who hold it fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438. when the hungry wolves entered the city and committf.d, we are told, greal »ar'} dictionary of dates. 461 The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 15&4 Hospital of Invalids - - - 1595 The Hotel Dieu founded - - ■ 16(X3 The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 The Val-de-Grace - - - . 1645 Arch of St. Denis erected - - 1673 The Palace of the Deputies • - 1722 The Military School - - -1751 The Pantheon ; St. Genevieye - - 1761 devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found under their respective heads. St. Denis founded - - A. d. 613 Rebuilt 1231 Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 The Louvre built (see Louvre') - - 1522 Hotel de Ville .... 1533 The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 Fountain of the Innocents - • 1551 The Tuiieries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 The Pont Neufbegim - - -1578 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, and detached forts, with an e^iceinte of 15^ leagues, were commenced in Dec, 1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding ^65,000,000 ster- ling. See France. PARK, MUNGO, h.^s Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journeys through intertrooi- cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- counts of his murder on th« Niger were a long time discredited; unhappily however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, and all killed, with the exception of one slave. PARKS. The Rcinans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom- pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first ffreat park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, your majesty," She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- tained. PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin from the Saxon general assemblies, called WiUenagemots ; but their constitu- tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken from parler la merit, which in the Norman law-v«ityle signifies to ipeak one's mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wa have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 462 THE world's progress. [P4» place 49 Henry III., 1265. — DugdaWs Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI.. Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. P.AJIMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabetb Farnesc, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, with the title of king of Etrnria. in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma : the confederates. England, France, and S[)ain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10 000 men. and four generals. July 12 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847. and the duke of Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency; flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and is then Hberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog. a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Eg}'ptians used to run sharp reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, bejng exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over all Asia. 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The last king Avas Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the first was a secret convention bet".veen Russia and Prussia, Feb. 17, 1772 ; the second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5. same year; the third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25. 1795. There were oilier similaf treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. PASQUIN ADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in this Avay: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin. at Rome, a number of idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin. and to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge then. selves in raillery at the expense of *he passers by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth PiVj DICTIONARY OP DATES. 463 century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533. PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem- oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp- tians, ^asse^-i n was founded at Mar- seilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- gi'egation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 16C2. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William Penn. of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acren sold by Penn for ^400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors i;130,000 in lieu of quit- rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 ; 1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033. PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- holsterer. a. d. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the crown. — Delaune, 1690. This institution was considera- bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two- penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- office. PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- ner of Boaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 20* 466 THE WORLD'fe PROGRESS. [ PEK PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about 342 B c Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same river where there were trees and shades : this spot was denommated the Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- sophy was called Peripatetic. PERJURY In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive-church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states the false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. PERONNE, Treaty of. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, con- firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon ten The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, A D 64 The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. ^5. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- ian A D 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor Severus 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Deems, more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 8th under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th under Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia. where a multitude of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.— D^L Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556.— Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the Protestants in France, when numbers perished; their assemblies were pro- hibited their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pra- testaiits at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. See Massacres and Bartholomew. PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire was originallv called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from 1 er- seus the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps estabhshed a pettv sovereiffntv. But long before his time, it was subject to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from the Greeks, aud was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when PET DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian monarchy, a. d. 229. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi.— y^sim - b. c. 2115 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- nerally confounded with the king of Bactria. — Zanthus - - - 1082 Cyrus, king of Persia - - - 560 Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 Cambyses conquers Egypt (.which see) 525 Darius made kmg of Persia • • 522 Revolt of the Babylonians - - - 512 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade the Peloponnesus - - - 490 The troops advance towards Athens, but are met in the plains of Marathon, by Miltiades, al the head of 10,000 Athe- nians. — See Marathon • - 490 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of this year, at the head of an immense force. The battle of Thermopylae - 480 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of his troops, and is deleated in a naval engageujent otf Salamis - 480 Cymon, son of Miliiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, takes several cities from the Persians, and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 sail, near the island of Cyprus - - - - 470 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 465 The assassin is put to death in a horrible manner ----- 465 leign of Artaxerxes - - - 464 Oyprus taken from the Persians - 449 Hemorable retreat of the Greeks. See article Retreat - - - - 401 The sea-fight near Ciiidus - - 394 The Sidonians being besieged by the Persians, set fire to their city, and perish in the flames - - - 351 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra- nicus 3M [For the exploits of Alexander Va Per- sia, see the article Macedon.] •, Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is torn m pieces - - - - 331 Alexander founds the third or Grecian monarchy - - - - 331 Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, at the instance of his mistress Thais, sets fire to the palace of Persepolis • 330 [The riches of this town, whose ruins, even as they exist at this day, are of indescribable magnificence, were so immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 horses were laden with the spoils.] Persia was partly reconquered from the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia for near five hundred years, till about - - - A. D. 250 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a common soldier, restores to Persia its ancient title .... 229 Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 238 He is assassinated - - - 273 Hormisdas reigns - - - - 273 Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel and successful tyrant - - - 310 Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 It fell under the dominion of Tamer- lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732 He carried the Persian arms into India, which he ravaged. See India - 1738 In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- petitors for the throne of Persia s[3rung up and caused a period of slaughtei and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- niard 5, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest of th. 5 country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with I ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, which however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these, and two re- inforceiuents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru,, and laid the foi. idation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniarris (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The now Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 21, 1828. PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirnied by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed 468 THE world's progress. [ PttA by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. PETER, TUB WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- wold, electorate of Hanover, whtin George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- nificent pile, which was not completed lander numerous succeeding popes, until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet : the lengtli of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious hall ever constructed by human hands. See PauVs, St. PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. Here, in 1736. a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- sumed 11.000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. PETERSBURGH, Peace of, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5. 1762. Treaty or Petersburgh, for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772. Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24. 1812. PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c. PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- brew w^ord which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri tual pride, and to recommend the virtife of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. PHi ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 469 PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptoiemy Philadelphus, and esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this .ower st 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, if Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible ; — " Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for ihe benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Caesar and Pompey, in which the for- mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Csesar in all its consequences, Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo. ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5. 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken by the British, Sept. 26, 1777 ; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798, Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established here. 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96.664; in 1830, 167.811 ; in 1840, 220,423. PHILIPPI, Battle of, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side, and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b,g. — Bossuet. PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c, PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- tory, which is only the knowledge of facts ; or t(j mathematics, which is the 470 THE world's progress. [ PHI knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which natural etfects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 628 b. c. See Moral Philosophij. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and theii schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has undergone four great changes : — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided between the two last. PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the pliilosopher's stone, have cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loiig time, without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in relation to this subject, see Alchemy. PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 1670. and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — No^iv. Diet. Phos- phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- nological Society has been estabHshed in London. PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- ting. ^PZmy. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. — Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; "and the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching from an atom to God himself It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans. magi ana Hebrew and Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 PIQ ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471 B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is ia its healthy or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason oi the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- ture and" constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. Its date is referred to the same time with physics, whick see. PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term ia referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. PIANO-FORTE Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began toTnanufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-lbrtes wert- made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since greatly improved by others here. PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S. and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- ticle Georges, &c. PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezerai. See ar- ticle Cards. PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudas, or Western Isles. They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the higlilands and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b. c. See Painting. PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. Tlio ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina a 472 THE world's progress. [ Pll pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded b;; means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern limes, the most noted were the i)igeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Tliirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — PhUlips. PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many licen-ses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 7 Henry VL, 1428. PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- ^ gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 1837. PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — Stowe. PISA, Leaning Tower or. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side. PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 1544. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the Bounty. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which sec), Dec. 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right honoml^le William Pitt was sou of the great earl of Chatham. He died PLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 473 Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and stiU loftier pretensions: and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- nor by parliament, and a grant of .£40,000 to pay his debts. PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in A. D. 142. PLAGUE. " The oflTspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba- ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 2000 persons every day, 188 b. c. Pliny. At Rome, a most awt'ul plague ; 10,000 per- sons perish daily, a. d. 78. The same fatal disease again ravaged the Roman empire, a. d. 167. In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, and swept away such multitudes, that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, a.d. 430. A dreadful one began in Europe in 5.58, ex- tended all over Asia and Afi'ica, and it is said did not cease for many years. Univ. Hist. At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- habitants perished, A. d. 746. [This plague raged for three years, and w:as equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece.] At Chichester in England, an epidemical disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — Will. Malms. In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a pestilence, a. d. 954. In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; and in Ireland, 1095. Again in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. — HoU7igs. In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. Again in Ireland, when a prodisious number perished, 1204. A general plague raged throughout Europe, causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- tain and Ireland suflered grievously. In London alone, 200 persons were buried daily in the Charterhouse yard. In Paris and Ltrndon a dreadful mortality prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- land, in 1370. A great pestilence in Ireland, called the fourth, destroyed a great number of the 'people, 1383. 30,(X)0 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- lence in London, 1407. Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub- lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout England a plague which de- stroyed more people than" the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. — Rajjin ; Salmon. The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — Delaune. The pla'gue at London so dreadful that Hen- ry Vlf. and his court removed to Calais, \m).—Stowe. Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in three hours). In most of the capital towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 H. VIII., IbU.—Stowe. Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands perished, 1522. A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence in Dublin, 1575. 30,-578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- tinople, in 1611. In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 persons perished, 1625. In France, a general mortality; at Lyons 60,000 persons died, 1632. The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- ples (being introduced by a transport with sokliers on board), raged with such vio- lence as to carry off' 400,000 of the inhabit- ants in six months, 1656. Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 persons in London, 1665. [Fires were kept up night and day to j urify the air for three days ; and it is thought the infection was not totally destroyed till the great conflagration of 1666.] 60,000 persons persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, brought in a shiii from the Levant, 1720. One of the most awful plagues that evei raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbt Mariti 474 THE world's progress. [ PLi bers were earned off by a pestilent dis- ease in 18(M and 1805. Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much resembling the plague, caused great mor- tality, 1828. The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera} 1832, 1834, 1849. PLAGUE, continued. In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which earned off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 1773. In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died of pla-rue, 1792. In Barbarv, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 217,000 jjerished, 1799. In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a d'vsplay of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated tho plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Rimry II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {which see), 1485. Anti- quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- ing likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. PLAT^A, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian army consisted of 300.000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp \\ as immense. Pau- sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont, PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty upon plate passed in 1784. PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, frona the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery color. It was unknown in Europe until a.-d. 1748, when Don Antonio triloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — Greig. PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14.000 British troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814, The British fleet on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 475 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c. ; but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See Drama. PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued un- til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the courts of law till 1731. POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OP fttTEEN ELIZABETH. Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, who died - - - A. D. 1598 Samuel Daniel, died - - • 1619 Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637 Sir William Davenant, died - - 1668 John Dryden ; he was deposed at the revolution .... 1688 Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 Nahum Tate, died - • a. d. 1716 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 CoUey Cibber, died - - - - 1757 William Whitehead, died - - 1785 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 William Wordsworth, died - - 18.50 The present laureate is Tennyson. POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the in- vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptm-al history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- lime. — Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by Archilochus, 700 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelmi or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close oi the seventh century. 476 THE WOPwLD'S PROGRESS. j "OI POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be pub- licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- markable instances) 23 Henry VIII, 1532. See article Boiling to Death. POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standaid of France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were 'slain. The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, Sept. 19, 1356.— Car^e. POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it t( invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550: and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finall}" partitioned, and its political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- tersburgh, Avhere he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. Abdication of .Tohn Casimir - - 1669 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 He abolishes torture - • - 1770 An awful pestilence sweeps away 250,000 of the people - • -1770 The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the royal plunderers, the empress of Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of Prussia .... 1770 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 A new constitution is formed by the virtuous Stanislaus - -May 3, 1791 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on various pretexts, pour their armies into Poland, 1792, et seq.] The brave Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko, several times content! successfully against superior armies, but in the end are defeated. Kosci- usko, wounded and taken, is carried prisoner to Russia - - - 1794 Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- Piasius, a peasant, is elected to the du- cal dignity - - - a. d. 842 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign was so prosperous that every succeeding native sovereign was call- ed a Piast.] Introduction of Christianity - - 992 Red Russia added to Poland - ■ - 1059 Boleslaus H. murders the bishop of Cracow with his own hands ; his kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, and his subjects absolved of their allegiance - - -1080 He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it by order of Gregory VII., and he at .length kills himself - 1081 Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102 Premislaus assassinated- • • 1295 Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 The Wallachians treacherously carry ofl" 100,000 Poles, and sell them to the Turks as slaves - - - 1498 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 * An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butm per- mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of Austria and Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet they now conspired against a country they we're each pledged to protect, and with unexample'd profligacy became leagued in a scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 5tX),0(X) lives! Russia seized Lithuania, and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of tha provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ; and Prussia secured the maritime .lisiricts. The most extraordinary circumstance attending this afliiir was the total inaction of the two grtal powers, Eiisrland and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by polir/ as well as justice, and depjored by the |ood and.brave among mankind. — Haydn. POL DICTIONARY OF DATES, 477 POLAND, contimied. em 30,000 Poles of all ages and condi- tions in cold blood.] Courland is annexed to Russia - - 1795 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Feb. 12, 1793 Treaty of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807 FThe central provinces form the duchy of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] General Diet at WaiTiaw - June, 1812 New constitution - - Nov. 1815 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 Revolution commenced at Warsaw; the army declare in favor of the peo- ple - - - Nov. 29 1830 The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the Russians lose 70(.O men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 Battle of Ostrolenka ; signal defeat of the Russians - -" May 26, 1831 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 183] Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, 1831 Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1331 [This last fatal event terminated the nemorable and glorious, but unfor- tunate struggle of the Poles.] Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth form an integral part of the Russian empire "Feb. 26, 183?. A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and the treaty which had made it inde- pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1843 DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. t D. 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the dukedom for about 150 years. 700 Cracus I. * * Cracus II. , assassinated by his brother. * * Lechus II., deposed. 750 Venda, drowned herself. 760 Premislaus. who on being elected was named Lescus or Less." 804 Lescus II., killed by the French. 810 Lescus III. 815 Popiel I. 830 Popiel II. 842 Piastus. a country peasant. 861 Zemovitus. 892 Lescus IV. 913 Zemomislaus. 964 MiecLslaus, surnamed the Blind. 999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 1025 Miecislaus II., went mad. 1041 Casirair the Pacific. 1058 Boleslaus IL, killed himself. J.082 Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. 1102 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 1.40 Uladislaus II., fled. 1145 Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 1173 Miecislaus III., deposed. J.178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 1194 Lescus V., relinquished. 1200 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a few months restored Lescus V. ; but for bad conduct he was again forced to relinquish the government. 1203 Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retii-ed. 1206 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- ceeded by his son, an infant. 1^ Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 1279 Lescus VI. , surnamed the Black, son of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., died 1289. An interregnum of five years, when the Poles chose 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- sassinated. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeiicus; he refused the title of king ; deposed. 1.300 Winceslaus. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 1333 Casimir the Great, kiHed by a fall from his horse, while hunting. 1370 Lewis, kmg of Hungary, succeeded by his daughter, 1383 Hedwigis,"vvho married, in 1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- braced the Christian religion, and took the name of Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to Poland. 1454 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle, 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 1447 Casimir IV. 1492 John Albert. 1502 Alexander, pnnce of Livonia. 1507 Sigismund I. 1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue ceeding to the French throne. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- vania. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king ol Sweden. 1632 Uladislaus VII. 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 1674 J. ihn Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter regnura for a year. 1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re. sign. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re tire in 1710, 1710 Frederick -Augustus U., again. 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 1733 Frederick Augustus III. 1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men when past labor, and such children as were horn imperfect. POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pom sage 478 THE world's progress. [pom POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they sayj of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by stt: ute, June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in intioducing a suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the world, large or small, is so M^ell provided as London with an efficient and useful police force; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's WeaMh of Notions, 1776. POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — Henault. POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz.— a duke lOOZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30Z., a knight 20^., an esquire lOZ., and every single private person 12rf., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with' death. In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See Marriages. Polygamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed. POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Gieek words denoting " many lan- guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 : the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483^. for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printt>l at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio. 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunet. POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accomi)anied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- ed at the. time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles we*« J*OP] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 exhibited The ashes buried the whole citj^, and covered the suri-ounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city ; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. PONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in Januarv 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. PONTUS, The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus bj Darius Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- rius Hystaspes - - - B. c. 487 Reign of Mithridates I. - - - 383 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 Mithridates II. recovers it - - - 336 Mithridates III. reigns - - - 301 Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- tal by the Gauls, &c. - - - 252 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- tack upon the free city of Sinope, and is obhged to raise the siege by the Rhodians - - - -.219 Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, and makes it the capital of his king- dom 183 Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 He IS murdered in the midst of his court 123 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Eupator, receives the diadein at 12 years of age .... 123 Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 She attempts to poison him; he puts her and her accomplices to death - 112 Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; conquers Scythia^ Bosphorus, Col- chis, and otlier countries - - 111 He enters Cappadocia • - - 97 His war with Rome - - - 89 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself master of many Roman pro- vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to death - . . . Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this time - The fleet of Mithridates defeats that im- der Lucullus, in two battles Mithridates defeated by Lucullus Mithridates defeats Fabius - But is defeated by Pompey Mithridates stabs himself, and dies Reign of Pharnaces Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by Caesar Darius reigns Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - Polemon II. succeeds his father - j Mithridates VII. reigns Pontus afterwards became a Roman province, under the emperors. Alexis Coranenus founded anew empire of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, a. d. 1204, which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 40 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348. it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to be sustained by '■ parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, Ii600. JE 188,811 665,562 819,000 1,556,804 2,184,950 4,952,421 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- genus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phc^^as emperor of ths In 1580, the Poor Rates were 1680, they amounted to 1698, they amounted to - 1760, they amounted to 1785, they amounted to 1802, they amounted to In 1815, the Poor Rates were 1820, they amounted to 1830, they amounted to 1835, they amounted to 1840, they amounted to 1845, they amounted to .^5,418,845 7,329,594 8,111,422 6,356,345 5,468,^:99 5,543.650 430 THE world's progress. [ POP East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho^ cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII. , a layman, was made pope 1024. The first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 'IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were introduced 19 Stephen, llb^.— Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse. 1161 ; and also for Becket. 1170> Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's crown oflf his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom oi England, 1226. The pa])al seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, for seventy vears. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by parliament, *1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533.— Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books. 1541. The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe -and other ceremonies, were abohshed by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in eflSlgy at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22. 1798, and died at Valence, August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected June 1816, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See ItaJ'y ; Rome; Reformation, d^c. POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for | 1591 Irmocent IX.j died in 2 months crime led to the reformation. 1522 Adrian VI. i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII of England. 1534 Paul III. 15.50 .Julius III. 1.555 Marcelius II. ; died in 21 days. 1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 15.59 Pius IV. 1566 Pius V. 1572 Gregory Xlll. ; learned canon ; re- formed the Calendar, (which see). 1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 1590 Gregory XIV. 1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 1605 Paul V. 1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 1623 Urban VIII. 1644 Innocent X ; violent and cruel. 16.55 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 1670 Clement X. 1676 Innocent XI. ; refoimed abuses. 16S9 Alexander VIII. 1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 1700 Clement XI. 1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of his family. • '- When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle o/Torci, on the Loire, tney both dismounted to receive "him, and holding each of them one of the reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle."— i7M7ne. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. Ilia arrogance was such, that lie obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brek«Bj>eare. He was elected to the popedom in 1154. POP I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 481 1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Ven ice, as Pius VII., March 13. 1823 Aniiibal della Gensa.Leo XIL. Sept.28. 1831 Mauro (Japellari, Gregory XVI., Feb.2. 1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurate'.' June 21, aged 54. - - June Id rOI'ES, continued. 1724 Benedict XIU. 1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious, 1758 Clement XIII. 1769 Clement XIV. GanganeUl. 1775 Pius VI., February 14. For S'iiccessz^?^ of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page 50 to page 115. POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda. and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habitl On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being very learned, was elected pope when Adrian 11. died in 872. Other scan- dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was .-epeated and believed without offence." — Gibbon. POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- pate the Protestant rehgion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — Rapin. POPULATION, The population of the world may now, according to the best and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c., be stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 75 millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 1377 was 2.092,978 souls, . In a little more than a hundred years, 1483, it bad increased to 4,689,000, The following tables of the population of the United Kingdom are from official returns : — POPtTLATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS, Year 1700 Population 5.475,000 Year 1770 Population 7,428,000 1710 - - - ditto 5,240,000 1780 - - - "ditto 7,953.000 1720 - - - ditto 5,565,000 1790 - . . ditto 8.675,000 1730 - ditto 5,796,000 1801 - - . ditto 10;942,648 1740 - - ditto 6,064.000 1821 . . - ditto 14,391,631 1750 - - ditto 6,467,000 1841 - - - ditto 18,844,434 1760 . - - ditto 6,736,000 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. Year 1790 Population 3,929.827 Year 1830 Population 12.866,920 1800 - ditto 5,305,925 imo - - - ditto 17,063,353 1810 - - - ditto 7,239,814 ';See the several States 1820 - ditto 9,638,131 PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OP THE WORLD. Chinese empire Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 Holland - - - 5,10f;,000 iBalbi) - 180,000,000 United States of Dutch monarchy Russia - - - 58,500,000 America* - 17,063,000 (total) - 14,7.50,000 Russian empire - 72,000,000 Turkey - - - 12,000,000 Bavaria - - - 4,600,000 France 36,500.000 Ottoman empire Sweden and Nor- Austria - - - 34,599;000 (total) - - 24,500,000 way - 4,550,000 Great Britain and Persia - - - 11.800,000 Belgium- - - 4,50(-,000 Ireland - 27,000,000 Mexico - - 9,500,000 Poland 4,250.000 British empire - 158.000,000 Kinedom of the Portugal - - 3,050,000 Japan - - - 27,000,000 two Sicilies • - 8,750,000 Republic of Co- Spam - 17,f)0,000 Brazil- - - 6,250.000 lumbia - 3,350,000 Spanish empire Sardiiiia- - - 5,800,000 Eccles. States- - 2,970,000 itotal)- ■ - 19,500,000 Morocco - - 5,200,000 British America - 2,&50,f,00 * In 1810. In la^iO, estima 21 Lted at 22,000,00 a 482 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ FOB POPULATION, cojitinued. Switzerland 2,450,00(1 St. Petersburgh - 405,000 Hamburgh jr^'^ Denmark - - 2,400,000 Vienna - - - 395,000 Lyons 168,00C Hanover • 1,780,000 New York (1845) 371.000 Palermo 147,00C Wirtemberg - - L680,000 Moscow- 355;000 Marseilles - 146,000 Saxony 1.650,000 Grand Cairo - - 3:35,000 Copenhagen - - 145,000 Tuscany- - - i;550,000 Jjsbon 298.000 Turin - 143,000 Baden 1,400,000 Aleppo - 280,000 Seville - - - 142,001^ CITIES Berlin - 280,000 Warsaw - i4i,oa Cities. Inhab. Amsterdam • - 274,000 Tunis - - - 138.000 London (Parlia- Madrid 270,000 Baltimore (1818) 134 ,00c mentary Ret.) 1,776,556 Philadelphia (1848) 258,000 Prague 133,000 Jeddo {reputed) • 1,680,000 Bordeaux - - 247,000 Smyrna - • - 132,(X)G Pekin (reputed) 1,600.000 Bagdad 245,000 Brussels '30,000 Paris - i,ooo;ooo Mexico • - • 225,000 Florence - - 1.>2,00(I Nankin - - - 850,000 Rome - 224,000 Stockholm • li. 1,00(1 Cons;an-inople - 800,a)0 Rio Janeiro - - 200,000 Munich - - - 1 13,000 Calcutta - 710,000 Milan - 193.000 Dresden 114.000 Madras - - - 435,000 Barcelona • - ia3,ooo Boston (1845)- ■ 114,000 Naples 410,000 Frankfort - 110,000 PORCELAIN. Porcelainc. Said to be derived from P our cent anndes, it being formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after which time it was known in England. See ChtJia Porcelain, and Dresden Ckma. PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt by the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 ; in 1840 15,082. PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taker, from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residsnce of Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were established in the reign of Henry VIII. PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman arras about 250 b. c. and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors a. d. 713. They kept possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- tural daughter, and. as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, which he was to hold of him. a. d. 1093. Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here - - - - a. D. 472 Invasion by the Saracens - - 713 The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. establishes episcopal sees • - 900 Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish kings, and is proclaimed king by his armv - - - - - lUJI Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- bon from the Moors • - - 1141 PrJK ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 483 rORTfJGAL. continued. The ki/iffdom of Algarve taken from the Moors' by Sancho I. - - - 1189 Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his country, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into Africa - - - 1415 Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, discovered ■ - 149S Discovery of the Brazils - - 150U The Inquisition established - - 1526 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain 1580 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, duke of Braganza, on the throne. His posterity still possess the crown .... 1640 The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly escapes death - -1758 [This affair causes some of the first families of the kingdom to be tortured to death, their very names being for- bidden to be mentioned; yet many were unjustly condemned, and their mnocence was soon afterwards made manifest. The Jesuits wei-e also ex- pelled on this occasion.] Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- Sensation from the pope to enable is daughter and brother to intermar- ry. See Incest. - - 1760 | The Spaniards and French invade Port- | ugai, which is saved by the valor of the English - - 1762 and 1763 ' Regency of John (afterwards king) owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 The Court, on the French invasion, emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 Convention of Cintra (see article under that name) - ■ Aug. 30, 1808 Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 Return of the Court ♦ - July 4, 1821 i Independence of Brazil, the prince re- | gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 : The king of Portugal suppresses the j constitution - - June 5, 1823 j Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel j departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 I Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 Death of John VL - Feb. 18. 826 Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- firms the regency - April 26, 1826 He relinquishes the throne in favor of his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 Marquess"" of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 162ti Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 Portugal solicits the assistance of Grsat Britain - - - Dec. 3, 182C Departure of the first British auxiliary troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826 Don Miguel formally assumes the title of king - - - -July 4, 1828 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 Revolution at Brazil - April 7', 1831 Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 Insurrection in favor oflhe queen, in which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 Don Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- self regent of Portugal, on behalf of his daughter - - April2, lbi2 He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832 After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 Don Miguel is permitted to leave the country unmolested - May 31, 1834 Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 The queen declared by the Cortes to be of age . - - Sept. 15, 1834 Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of Leuchienberg), just married to the queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 The queen marries prince Ferdhiand of SaxeCoburg - - -Jan. 1,1836 A sudden change of ministry leads to a formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta is established, and other large towns, are seized by the insurgent army ] Actions are fought at Viana, Valpasso.=f, Braga, Torres- Vedras, &c., favorable to ttie queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men in killed and wounded - May 1, 1847 Intervention of England, France, and Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 Claim of the United States on Portugal for damages in the war of 1812, re- sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- bon - - - - July, 1850 KINGS OP .D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- ugal. 1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 USSSanchoL 1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 1224 Sancho II., the Idle, 1247 Alphonsus III. 1279 Dennis. 1325 Alphonsus IV 1357 Peter the Severe. 1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- num for 18 months PORTUGAL. 1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to Peter the Severe. 1433 Edward. 1438 Alphonsus V. 1481 John II. 1495 Emanuel. 1521 John III. 1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 1578 Henry, the Cardinal. 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Eniaa uel, deposed by Philp II. of Sfvain, who united Portugal to his other do minions, ill 1640. 484 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. pot 1750 Joseph. 1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 1799 .John VI. 1&26 Don Pedro; he abdicates May 2, B favor of his daughter. 1826 Maria de Gloria. PORTUGAL, continued. 1640 .John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- claimed king, Dec. 1. 16.56 Alphonsus VI. 1668 Peierll. r07 John V. POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was tho first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed ])0st-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 8U0.-- Ashc. Louis XI. first established ])OSt-houses in France owing to his eager- ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w.th the Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype. POST-OFFICE, The General, or England. See preceding article. The first chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth in 1581.* THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 164.3 It yielded - £5,000 1653 Farmed to John Manley, Esq., for - - - 10,000 1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, Esq., for - 21,500 1674 Farmed for • - - 43.000 1685 It yielded - 65;000 1707 Ditto . 111,461 1764 Ditto 432.048 1800 Ditto . 745,313 1805 Great Britain - 1,424,994 1015 Ditto - - . 1,755,898 1820 United Kingdom - - 2,402,697 1825 Ditto - . . 2,2:55,239. 1835 Ditto - 2,353,340 1839 Last year of the heavy postage - - -2,522,495 1840 First year of the low rate, 1 penny for all distances 471,000 POST-OFFICE IN THE IMITED STATES. Tlie first post-ofi5ce in the colo- nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control— the Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of the cabinet. For successive Postmaster- Generals 9,ee Administrations. The following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States >tt different times since 1790. Year. No. of Post Ojices. 1790 ■ 75 - 1800 - . - 903 - 1810 . - - 2.300 - 1820 - - 4,500 - 1830 . - 8,000 - I&IO - -13:468 ■ 1845 • - 14,183 1846 . -14,601 - 1847 - - 15,146 - 1848 - - 16,159 . Amount of Postage ■ $37,93t - 280,804 - 551,684 . 1,111,9-27 - 1,830,583 - 4,5.39,265 - 4,289,842 -3,487, 199 J - 3,955,893 1 -4,371,0771 Net Revenue. 44,227 Extent in miles of Po^-t Rmds - 1,875 - 20,817 - 36,106 - 72,492 - 115,0(X» - 155,739 • 143,940 ■ 152.865 ■ 153,818 - 163.208 The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450.000. ' Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be- •.w;trecipitate]y galloped from the field of battle tor Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 1745. TRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title oftJw. r^retender, ?RI J DICTIONA RY OF D ITES. \ 4SS or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James IL, born in 1688, and ac- Knovvledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1715; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France^ to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines)' Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilda of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000Z. was offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Fngland, born Ltarch 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the ll.sad of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called helL Above 160 other members were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith,. PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular sects. PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- merly set forth or pubhshed by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — Ashe. PRIMOGENITURE, Right of, an usage brought down from the earliest times. The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his father was priest iji the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and letters. Speculum Humance Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afl^arwards pasted to 21* 430 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PB.4 getlier. John Faust established a printhig office at Mentz, and printed the Tradatus Petri Ilupaai, in 1442. John Guttenbcrg invented cut metal types, and used them in printing the earhest edition of the Bible, which was commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. , Peter Schaetter cast the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of completk VRiNTiNG, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Presnoy. Book of Psalms printed - ? a. D. 1457 The Durandi Rationale, first work primed with cast metal types 1 - 1459 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this time. — Collier. But this statement is discredited by Dibdin.] A Livy printed.— Dufresnoy - 1 - 1460 The first Bible completed.— /dfe/ra'? - 1460 [Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing, in the general ruin, is spread to other towns] - - 1462 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German (whence onx English, or Black Letter) until - - - 1465 Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same year - - • - 1465 Cicero de Officiis printed {Blair) - 1466 Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 A Chronicle, said to have been found in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- lace (the 00 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- erlves at this time, by name, to sovernment, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an order of council, 1004. The masier.s of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, ar, em- barso was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service, liul'^ihe Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated 2Sof the prisoners m Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai fcar. ^ta Plague. Of the 120 few reached America. queI DICTIONARY OF UATES. 499 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac- tual sovereig-ns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen The following list includes'all these royal personages :— Survived Of William I. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flanders; she was married in 1051; and died 1084. William II. This sovereign died unmarried. Of Henry I. Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland; she was married November 11, 1100; and died May 1, 1119. Adelais, dau£;hter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- vaine ; she was married January 29. 1129. Survived the king. Maude oi Matilda. Dc nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to the throne ; she was born IIOI ; was betroth- ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She married, secondly. Geotfrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 11.35 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 1139. Crowned, but was soon after defeated at Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with Stephen, which secured the succession to her son, Henry, 1153 ; died 1167. Of Stephen. Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and iied May 3, 1151. Of Henry II. Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; and died 1204. [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of this prince. Of Richard I. Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- vived the king. Of John. Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; ehe was married in 1189. Divorced. Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of the count de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on whose death Bhe was remarried to the count de la Marche. Of Henry III. Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- nastery, whither she had retired Of Edward I. Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- lend, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she was married September 12, 1299. the king. Of Edwaed n. Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; she was married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she wae conlined for the rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near London — Hume. Of Edward III. Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland and Hainault ; she was married January 24 1328; and died August 16, 136i*. Of Richard II. Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married in .lanuary 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France; she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mv.i- der of her husband she returned to her fa- ther. Of Henry IV. Mary, daughter of the earl of Hf eford ; she died, before Henry obtained the crown, in 1394. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke oi Bretagne; she was married in 1403. Sur- vived the king, and died in 1437. Of Henry V. Catherine, daughter of the kin"; of France 5 she was married May 30, 1420. 'She outliv- ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudot , grandfather of Henry VII. Of Henry VI. Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and died in 1482. Of Edward IV. Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in confinement. Edward V. This prince perished in the Tower, in the 13th year of his age ; and died unraa •• ried. Of Richard III. Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwick, and widow of Edward, prlace of Wales, whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She ia supposed to have been poisoned by Richard (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to make way for his intended marriage with the princess Elizabeth of York. Of Henry VH. Elizabeth of York, princess of England, daughter of Edward IV. ; she was niarrieo January 18, 1486; and died February 11 1503. 50C THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [QUI QUEENS, continued. Of Henry VIH. Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She was married June 3, 1509 ; was the mother of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died January 6, 1536. Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- leyn, and maul of honor to Catherine. She was privately married, before Catherine was divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- er, May 19, 1536. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. She was married May 20, 1536, the day alter Anna'.s execution ; was the mother of Ed- ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, Oct. 13, 1.537. Ayine of Cleves, sister of William, duke of Cleves. She was married January 6, 1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 : and died in 1557. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk; she was married August 8, 1540; and was beheaded on Tower hill February 12, 1.542. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. She was married July 12, 1543. Survived the king, after whose death she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and died September 5, 1548. Edward VL This prince, who ascended the throne m his tenth year, reigned six years and five months, and died unmarried. Lady Jane Grey. Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen on the death of Edward. In ten days after- wards returned to private life ; was tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 1554, when but seventeen years of age. Mary. Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 1598. Elizabeth. Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. Of James I. Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of Frederick II. ; she was married August 2); 1589; and died March 1619. Of Charles I. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. king of France ; she was married June 13, 1625. Survived the unfortunate king; and died in France, August 10, 1669. Of Charles II. Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughta of John IV. end sister of Alfonso VI. ; shi was married May 21, IG62. Survived lh« king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 21, 1705. Of James IL Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde. earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep tember 1660; and died before James ascend- ed the throne, in 1671. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- ried November 21, 1673. At the revoluiioii in 1683, she retired with James to France ; and died at St. Germains in 1718, having eui- vived her consort seventeen yeATP. William and Mary. Mary, the princess of Orange, daughtei >f James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16' 7 ; ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- cember 28, 1694. Anne. Daughter of James II. She married George prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen children, all of whom died young ; lost her husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 1, 1714. Of George I. Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol Zell. She died a few weeks previously to the accession of George to the crown, June 8, 1714. Of George n. Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and died November 20, 1737. Of George III. Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. Of George IV. Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See article Queen Caroline.' Of William IV. Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroling sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she was married July 11, 1818; and survived the king. Victoria. Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen daughter of the duke of Kent ; bom May 24 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin prince Albert of Saxe-Coturg-Gotha, Feb- ruary 10, 1840. QUEENSTOWN; Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri' RAC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501 ca, October 13, 1812 ; bat retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the same day. QtnrCKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- ver was discovered a, d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburg!! in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the frMindation of the sect of Quietists in France. His principal tenet was, that tht. purity of religion coLsisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its jfod. Ma- dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillipt QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {whicli see) celebrated as having been Jhe scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the citv, Feb. 4, 1797. RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chayv- ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — X^amden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles 11. patronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup. value 100 guineas. RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe, The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times aa in- strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now Keen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke o( Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 502 THE world's progress. [ RAi RADCLTFFE LIBRARY. Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40 OOOZ. to the Uni- versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone oi the library was laid May 17. 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. R A.DSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but en rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fied from his brother Rameses, 1485 B. c. — Heylin. RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New- castle so early as the middle of the 17th century; but they were made of wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 :— " The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal-merchants,"— Z>^/c of Lord-Keeper North. Tliey were made of iron, a^'. Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first great and extensive enterpri.se of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. EXTENT OK RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. Miles. Miles Italy 115 Denmark • - - - • 106 Cuba 800 Russia - - - - - 52 British Colonies - - - 1,000 East India - - - - • 500 Great Britain and Ireland - - 3,375 United States (in 1849, 6,117) - - 3,800 Germany (in 1849, 3,100) - - 1,-570 Holland 200 Belgium .... 1,095 France 2,200 Total length of railways opened throughout the world :— in 1847, 21,761 miles. In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour ; in 1829. the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour •, in 1834. the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that Is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railivays, 1847. BAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines comple^ ed reached an aggregate of In New England 1,219 miles, In New York 840 do In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. Total - - - - 6,117 do [See A7n:ncan Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] RAV] DICTIONARY 01 DJ^Tl^S. 508 A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad. &c., &c. The first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convej granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- cester, July 6. same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 1837 Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839, Housa tonic, Feb. 12, 1840. RAILROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezioux 22 miles, commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident on that from Paris to Versailles. 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- ing the celebrated navigator D Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and Brussels Railway, train ran off" a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded. July 8, 1846. R AILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the fiist in Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on Whitsunday, May 23. 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. RATISBON, Peace of, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, October 13. 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat. the great })est of our dwellings, originally came to us fi-om Persia and the Southern regions of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to opi)Ose them ; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, ano^ in some parts of France are still unknown. RAVENNA, B.4TTLE of, between- the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11. 1512. KIVILLAC'S MURDER of HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, Hay 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin were poured. His bodj'^ was so robust that he endured this exquisite pain; and his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to he 504 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ REl puiled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through tliu streets. REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. REFORMATION, Thb. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinu^, bishop of Aqui- leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, Melancthon. Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca. Browne, and Knox. The eras of the Reformation are as follows: — In Sweden {Petri) - - - a. D. 1530 In England ( Wickliffe) • - a. d. 1360 In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 In Germany (Luther) • - - - 1517 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) - • - 1519 In Denmark 1521 In France (CoZrm) 1529 Protestants first so called - • • 1529 In England (Henry VIII.) - - - 1534 In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535 In England, completed (Cramner^ I u- cer^i F'agius, <^-c.) .... (.547 In Scotland (Knox) 15(50 In the Netherlands .... 1562 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See lyuther, Protestanbs, d^c. RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- troduced by Enos, 2832 b.c. — Lenglet. See the ditterent sects as described throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced with the Reformation {lokich see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1568, and receiv- ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. REPEAL OF THE UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. OConnell, in 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 1841. 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150 000 persons, and called "monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were brought to trial, Jan. 15. 1844. RETREAT of thio GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10 000 Greeks who had joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under lEV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops cf moun- tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might •now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosophei who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers whicli he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius. REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- nary, £1 200 000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles IT. Raised to .£6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. OBNERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONftUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. William the Conqueror William Rufus - Henry I, Stephen Henry II. Richard I. John Henry III. Edward I. Edward II. Edward III. Richard II. Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. Edward IV. Edward V. Richard III. Henry VH, - JE400,000 350,000 .300,000 2.50,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 80,000 150,900 100.000 154,000 130,000 100.000 76,643 64,976 100,000 130,000 400,000 Henry VIII. - - Edward VI. - Mary . - - - Elizabeth .lames I. .... Charles I. . . - Commonwealth Charles II. . . . , .lames II. - William III. - Anne (at the Union) - George I. ... George II. ... George III., 1788 - Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom George IV., 1825, ditto - William IV., 1830, ditto - Ditto, 1835. ditto Victoria, 1845, ditto - jE 800,000 400,000 450.000 500;000 600,0(1 895,819 1,517,247 1,800,000 2,001,855 3,892,205 5,691,803 6,762,643 8,522,540 15,572.971 65.599,570 62,871,300 55,431,317 50,494,732 51,067,856 REVENUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1790 - . $4,399,473 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 . - $16,993,858 1795 - • - 5,926.216 1830 • - 24,280.888 1844 • - 28,504,519 1800 - - 10,624;997 LS35 - - . 34,163,635 1845 - - . 29,769.134 1805 - . • 13,520,312 1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 - . 29,499,247 1810 . - 9,299,737 18:37 - - . 18,032,846 1847 - - . 26,:346,79C 1815 . - - 15,411.6^1 1838 - - 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 1820 - - 16,779,331 1839 - - - 30,399,043 REVIEWS and magazines. The first publication of the character of a re- mew was the ^'Journal des Savants,'^ established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence, De Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society oi learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discon;inued ; but in 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few years. The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly Review, in 1749, were the first works of fhe kind published in London, that obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated byNicholsj viz. " Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set forth," 506 THE world's progress. [rev 1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; ' Now Memoirs ol Literature." 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present Sta,te of the Republic of Letters," 18 vols.. 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. The Gentleman'' s Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, David Henry, Avho received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author of " Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession; and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work from its commencement to the present time, is Sjivanus Urban. This Mag- azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is spoken,— that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets vvhich literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun January, 1834; the first series having been completed in 103 voluues The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was established in 1749, by Ralph Grifiiths. LL. D., who continued to conduct it 54 years, assisted by his son in the -latter years of his life. This work was continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 1825 108 volumes. The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished upwards of 2.620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes ; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series was begun in 1815. The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were, the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom di'id in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in monthly numbers ; bv* -^-om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of " The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High Church principles. The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith (the first year), Francis Jefii-ey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh. Brown, Leslie, Brougham, and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, upwards of 20.000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- what less than 9000. The Quatterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- HEV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507 ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Giflford ; then by H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- bered sir WaTter Scott, Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected with the government. The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805, It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, froBi 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members of the established church, was conimenced in 1802. and maintains what are commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bfcv,n republished in this country. Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 1 he Westminister Eevievj, established, in 1824. by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- iham. is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1815. The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united to the Westminster Review. — Avier. Almanac, &c. REVOLUTION, Era op the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 b; c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar. 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, France. Portugal, &c. REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in? modern history. In Portugal, a. d. 1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. Tn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 1830. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In the Netherlands, 1830. la Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 508 THE world's progress. KIO Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary. &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary oulj — the former governments were restored, 1849. See these ccuntries respec- tively. REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- rary journals -n several places in this country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philaaeiphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary ami religious reviews and magazines : BOSTON. Founded. American Monthly Ma- gazine, (the first) es- tablished by Jeremy Gridley, continued 3 years, about - - 1745 Massachusetts Maga- zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 Monttdy Anthology, Prf. Ticknor, A. H. Eve- rett, Buckminster, &c. (to 1811) - - - 1803 General Repertory and Review, (1st Amer. qiiarterly.) edited at Cambridge by Andrews Norton - - 1812-13 North American Re- view, coinmenced/by W. Tudor* - - 1815 Christian Examiner, (quarterly) Channing, Dewey, Ware, ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130. RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b. c. Its famous Colossus (which see) thrown down by an earthquake. 224 b. c, and finally destroyed by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley. RIALTO. AT Venice, This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in his "Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570. and consists of a single arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of Rights. RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States: At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. Disgraceful affray in^Pennsylvania legisla- ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 8, 1&13. Another in House of Representatives of U. S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver. Jan. 25, 1844. Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 churches burned, fourteen persons killed, forty wounded : finally put down by the military, May 6-8, 1844. The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- ed out, July 7,1844. Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer County. N. Y. Commenced August 21, 1844 : renewed in December. Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor Wright to be in a state of insurrection. Collection of rents being resisted by rioter* disguised as Indians, and an under sherifl murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co, N. Y. March 25, 1847. Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y. against Mr. Macready, the English actor 21 killed ; May 10, 1849. Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in th« Senate of the U. S., the first gross li-jsultto that assembly. May, 1850. RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- At Baltimore, oflice of a New.spaper oppos- ed to the war, demolished, July. 1812. At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- tary, Sept. 24, 1831. At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1335. At New York, '• abolition riots," caused by discussions on slavery, and supposed in- tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- gamation" between whites and blacks. July 10-12, 1834. At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause, 1835-6. At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- ney's "abolition" paper desti'oyed, July 30, 1836. At New York, caused by the high price ot flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- very newspaper destroyed, and he was killed, Nov. 7, 1837. At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- nia Hall, &c.. May 17, 1*38. In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different legislatures organized, the Senate expelled from their Chamber by a mob. Militia called out and the contest settled after 4 days, Dec. 8, 1838. 310 THE world's progress. I RJM semblo'l at Chicago, 111., July 5, 18-17. House of Representatives votes (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- ment to promote such improvements, July 1818. ROBESPIERRE S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1701. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers or eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant!" resounded through the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicke«l minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historiaE.3 assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1217, when he died. — Stowc's Chron. ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were first u&^d at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See article Boulogne Flotilla. ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his seat under the act. ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea. in Thessaly. was the author of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.- - Ifiiet de Or \gine Fabul. Roman. ROS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 51 ROME. Once tlie mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- brated city, on the 20th of April according to Varro. in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. In its original state. Rome was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard a ; a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the deatli of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of nearij the whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. The three Horatit. Roman knights, and the three CuriatU, Albans, having been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united" Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — Liry. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. Foundation of the city commenced by Romulus - - - B.C. Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters Italy, takes Rome, and as.sumes the title of king of Italy, which ends the Western empire - - a. d. Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Belisarius . . . - Retaken by the Goths Narses, Justinian's general, again re- conquers Rome Papal power established - Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, and becomes free Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- poral dominion of Rome Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor of the West - - - - 753 476 553 606 726 800 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome - - . '. -1347 [The popes continued in possession of the city and territories. See article Popes and Italy. ] The recent struggles of Rome for free- dom commenced in - - - 1848 Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1818 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ter, assassinated at the senate-house. The populace march to theQuirinal, and present thoir demands to the pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- stituent assembly, a new ministry, «fec. The pope refuses ; the people attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1SJ8 The pope, after bein,^ a prisoner in his palace for seven days, escapes from Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- stituent as.sembly convened - Dec. 29, 1348 The Roman republic proclanned ; Maz- zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 • French armament against the republic reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 French repulsed under the walls of Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1819 Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 days, and false promises on the part of 'the French - - July 2, 1849 Rome entered by the French under Ou- dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 Oudinot surrenders the government iiuo the hands of three com missioners of the pope, who begin the work of reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 Letter of" the French president, dictat- ing the basis of the restoration of the pope's temporal power, viz. : general amnesty, secularization of the admi- nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as being said in 1093. ROSES, The White and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose, and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Laa 512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [rcTM caster chose the ted roses as their mark of distinction, and tho«e of York were denominated from the ichite. These wars originated with the descend- ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- chard II., who being deposed, the dulte of Lancaster was proclaimed king by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the /lira son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira cies during his reign; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdona with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, particularly ir the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle foughv, May 22 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VU with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first ai^peared in Ger many in 1302, and again early in the Hth century. They swore fidelity promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and afiirmed that the an cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- land to the scaffcjld, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava ]i«.rs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. Thii latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselvej putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first president. — Leigh. ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertion* of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter aa '■ The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diff'using the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lecturer and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thii establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded; and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60. were B.U5 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 51S permit ted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights waa called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, IQld.—Goldsinith. RfJSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod. a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till lb-^6, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered Siberia. The foundation of the present monarchy laid A. D. 1474 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- to the East, 1509 to - - - -1534 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, signifying great king, and drives the Tartars clear out of his dominions, 1534 to 1550 The naviraiion from England first dis- covered by Robert Chancellor - -1554 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 30,000 of the people .... 1571 The Novogorodians having intrigued with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- ces before his eyes ... - 1581 The race of Rurick, who had governed Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1593 The imposition practised by Demetrius See Impostors. 1606 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their own kin^, Sigismund II., upon the throne of Russia .... 1610 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613 Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 He visited England, and worked in the dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 The Russians begin their new year from January 1 - - - 1700 Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given to Anne of Courland - - - 1730 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 Peter III. detnroned and murdered ; suc- ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA AD 1461 John in. 1504 Demetrius: murdered. 1504 Basil V. 1534 John IV. 1584 Theodore I. 1598 Bovise Godounove. 1605 Theodore II. 1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated. The young prince, the rightful heir, till now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 The dismemberment of Poland com- menced by Catherine. (See Poland) \7T^ This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- ing criminals; and dies - -1796 Munler of the emperor Paul, who is found dead ia his chamber, March 23, 1801 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 The grand-duke Constantine renounces the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at Moscow -• - . Sept. 3, 1826 Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 182G Nicholas invested with the order of the Garter - - - July 9, 1827 Peace concluded between Russia and the Persians - - Feb- 22, 1828 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared - - April 26, 1828 [For the disastrous consequences to Turkey of this war, see Turkey and Battles.] The war for the independence of Poland, against Russia - . Nov. 29, 1830 This war closed with the capture of Warsaw, and the total overthrow of the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 [For the events of this last war, see ar- ticle Poland.] Cracow, which had been erected into a republic, and its independence gua- ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, is occupied by a Russian and Austrian army ■ Feb. 13, 1836 Failure of the Russian expedition a- gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1^0 Treaty of London. See Syria - July 16, l^t9 1606 Chousky. 1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 1645 Alexis. 1676 Theodore III. 1682 Peter I., the Great. 1725 Catherine I. 1727 Peter II. 1730 Anne, a quk. 22* 5l4 THE world's progress. [ s\'.j RUSSIA, continued. 1740 John V. ; murdered, Jily 17, 1762. 1741 Elizabeth. 1762 Peter III. ; deposed, ani died soon af- terwards. 1762 Catherine 11. 1796 Paul I. ; murdered, Feb 25, l!»l. 1801 Alexander. 1825 Nicholas, December 1. RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy U a.ssassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight days before the plot was to take place, March 22. 1683. The plot was discov- ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Sp«,in, and Holland. signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. S. SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain iiours, meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the Jews, 1549. SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original (amilies, «fcc. — Josepkus. SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to somo public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in belialf of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- tween them, 750 b. c. SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phoci'-ans, 356 B. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch. SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Ab<;l; it con- sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 8875 b. c. — Josepkus; Us/ur. Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of ST. VJJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased Avith the sacri- fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33. SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in ^ . d. 304. They were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were ili ase in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- glish ladies. — Stowe. SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one Sadoc, a scholar of Antigouus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul w^as mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed 'u general with the Sama- ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year, SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes and of dead. ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31- 1813. ST, SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at Rome. ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off tho Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. Vincent), who took four line-of- battle ships, and considerably damaged tb« rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 516 THE WORLDS PftOGRESS. [ »AI» SALAMANCA, Battle or, between the British and allies commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marniont, fought July 22, 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington vvaa victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2&00 more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. SAL AMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- fight. October 20. 480 b. c. Thcmistocles, the Greek commander, with only 366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. Aft<^r this battle. Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, with 300 000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond. a. d. 424. Rati- fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempriere. SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- minster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- pressed in 1696. SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot fi'om the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, EAR J DICTIONARY OP DATFS. 517 among- other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. Sea Shoes. S AjVDWICH islands, a group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were discc i^ered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779, Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds him, 1819. Idolatry abohshed, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng- land. 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jidd, an Ame- rican, prime-minister. 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships. 2630 tons, belong- ing to the Islands— which are important to the United States as a whaling station. See Owhyhee. SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. — Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. SARAGOSSA. Anciently Caesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hxmdred of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to tht American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 1777. SARDANAPALTTS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the mos4 5)8 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [8A1 infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to his subjects, and being- surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apartr meut within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches thus destroyed were worth a thousand mynads oj talents of gold, and ten TIMES as many talents of silver!!! about 1,400, 000, OOOZ. &iQr\\ng.—Athenau$. SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia haa been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging tov.hich various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. Subjugated by the Romans - B.C. 231 Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, who are. however, too weak to expel the Saracens 1132 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes master of Sardinia - - - -1324 Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- lish naval forces - - - - 1708 Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 They again lose posssession • - - 1719 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- valent for Sicily .... 1720 Victor Amadeus, having the title of king abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732 [The court kept at Turin till 1706. when these dominions were overrun by the French arms, and shortly afterwards annexed to the French empire.] The king resigns his crown to his bro- ther, duke of Aoust - . .June 4, 1802 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- parte crowned king of the whole. December 26. 1805 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with Genoa added to it December 1814 King Charles Albert, having protested against Austrian encroachments in Italy, calls out an additional force of 25,000 men - - - Jan. 10 1S48 Proclaims the basis of a Constitution Feb. 8, 1S48 Declares war against Austria, enters Milan with ai\ army, to assist the po- pular cause, and drives the Austrians towards Mantua - - March 23, 1848 Takes Lodi - - . - April 1, **** Forces the Austrian line near Verona, April 17, **** Takes Peschiara - - - May 30, **** Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, |it Goito *'** Sardmian army driven from Vicenza, Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of Milan Aug. 4, **** Followed by an armistice - - .;*•*• Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under Charles Albert, totally defeated by Radetsky **** The king abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and leaves the kingdom - March 23, •*** Insurection at Genoa against the new king April 1, *'" Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, **** and fully reduced - - April 11, **** Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- bon July 28, *•** Victor Emanuel opens the legislative chamber with a moderate speech, and is warmly greeted • Aug. 1. **'* Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, *•*• The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re- lieve the refugees fom various parts of Italy - ' • • Aug 30, ••" KINGS OF SARDINIA. , r. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- nuel duke of Savoy. 1730. Charles Emanuel 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1796. Charles Emanuel. 1802. Victor Emanuel. 1821. Charles Felix. 1831. Charles Albert, AprL 27. 1848. Victor Emanuel SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 8AW] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519 B. c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac- companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was named by them Saterne's-day.— ParcfoTi. It is more probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. — Addison. SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered bj Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1034 ; his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the planets. SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in . ho reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings banks considerably increased up to 1846; and the number of depositors in that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount deposited, 32 661,924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous throughout the United States. SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 895, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country in 1792. and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. SAW. Invented by Dsedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodoriis. Ta- lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he e-rs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador ft'om Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them -A^ere 520 THE world's progress. [ SOB violently opposed ; and one erected hy a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. S.A XONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378, SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he did not hurry himself out of the world 1 "Because," says he, "there is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — Strabo. SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Lc Gendre. SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng- land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday schools) 4.836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38.164: in Ireland, 13.327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund in Maine amounts to $350.000 ; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, $2,077,641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, $225,000; Virginia. $1.448.261 ; Georgia, $262,300; Alabama. $1.215,381 ; Tennessee, $1346.068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio. $1,566 931; Michigan, $500,000; Indiana. $2,195,149; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libraries, &c. SCIENCE IN THE United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752, American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. First :ourse of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of SCr I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men- tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. Thia brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the RomneyTmdi Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, when James VL of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and eac"*! country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name t/ Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq. SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. JiCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipoenus and Scyllis. statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art was known long before. Alexander gave Lj^sippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among th«i Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. — Ahb6 Lenglct. SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European ancj 522 THE world's progress. [ SEN Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were unknown to the ancients., as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The. Scythians made several iiruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 624 when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ they invaded the Roman empire, SEAS Sovereignty of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admii'als. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign two secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washmgton, Sept. 26. 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected by the people. SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- sion, With reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. BalH. Jews .... 4,-500.000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the Christians - - - - 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or Maho- Mahometans - - - 155,000^000 | metan worship - - 665,500,000 SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex- claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use in 1649. SEDUCTION. For this ofience the laws of England have provided no other punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quainte.st fictions in the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paky's Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by the legislature of New York in 1844. ♦SEMPACH. Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- sex] dictionary of dates. 52^ tablishe i the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo* rated with great solemnity at Sempach. SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It beca,me the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into disuse. SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T-^sta: aent, and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josephus. Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. SERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,01)0,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000^. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- fore Seringapaiam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 14; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an Orkney pony, 1808. SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was augmented in VSl, et seq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000Z. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue from it had faUen to 201,482^. SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, a. d. 1563, This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, The peace of Seville, between England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov, 9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812. SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude ol the planets. &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 524 THE world's progress. [SHl iu 1550. — Vince s Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. n 9dd.—Aske. SHEEP. They were impohticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward lY. 1467. — Anderson. Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. SHERIFF. The office of sherifi' is from shire-reve, governor of a shire oi county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some say that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by "William in 1079. SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier ae St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur- gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven- tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called the Great Harry., and cost 14,000Z. — Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships Avere the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from New York— are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the world. See Navy and Steam Vessels. ' SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons — less than London now. In 1840. the number of ships in the British em- pire was 29,174; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels. SHIPPING OF the UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different Years, 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 ISOl 1805 Tonnage. Years. ''Sfl-o Years. Tonnage. 1,298,958 502,146 1806 1821 - 564,437 1807 1.268,548 1822 1,324,699 491.780 1808 1,242,595 1823 1,336,565 6-28;8l7 1809 1,350,281 1824 1,339,163 - 747,964 1810 1,424.783 1825 1,423,112 - 831,900 1811 1,232,502 1826 1,534,190 - 876,913 1812 1,269,997 1827 1,620,608 - 893,-328 1813 1,666.628 1828 1,741,:392 946,408 1814 1,159.209 1829 1,260,978 972,492 1815 1,368,127 1830 1,191.776 - 1,033,219 1816 1,372.213 1831 1.267 ;ai6 892,101 1817 1,399.911 18:32 1,4:39,45-3 949,147 1818 1,225.1&1 18:33 1,601.150 • 1,042,404 1819 1,260.751 1834 ■ 1,758,907 . 1.140,369 1820 1.280,16(3 period Years. 3. Tonnage. . 1,824.§4C 1835 1836 - 1,892,102 1837 . 1,896,685 1838 - . 1,995,63S 1839 - 2,096,478 1840 - 2,18C,7G4 1841 - 2,130,741 1842 . 2,092,390 1S43 - 2,158.602 1844 - 2,280/^5 1845 . 2,417,00-3 1846 - 2,562/l&l 1847 . 2,839, >4C 1^8 . 3,150,50i SHR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 SHIP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000Z. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died Juue 24, 1643. SHIPWREC^CS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping. SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- ally worn in the ^vest of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Presnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans, — Stowe. SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, iinen, rush, or is^ood. Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet ; they wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- feiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe; Mortimer. SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See Acts. SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- sisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henrij /F.J SHROPSHIRE, Battle op, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51 526 THE world's progress. [ 810 While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an humble cottage in Britain '?" The emperor was affected with the British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- mitted to indulge in festiv'e amusements, although not allowed to partake of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and henlce arose the custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell and obtains in London the name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. SIBYLS. The Sibyllas were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato spe«tks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of tea, an opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have ofiered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for the other six. which being still denied, she burned three more, and again demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created to consult them on all occasions, 581 b. c. SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 1264 B. 0. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- dis were formed. — Justin; Livy. Arrival of Ulysses.— Sbwer - • b.c. 1186 The Romans arrive m Sicily - B. 0. 264 He puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 Agrigentum taken by the Romans • 202 Syracuse founded. — Eusebius - - 732 j Palermo besieged by the Roman-s - - 254 Gela founded. — Thucydides • - ■ 713 ' Archimedes flourishes - - • 236 Arrival of the Messenians - - - 668 I The Romans take Syractise, and make ail Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to | Sicily a province - - • - 212 death. — See Brazen Bull - - - 552 ; The servile war began. — Livy • • 136 Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela - 496 ****•• Law of Petalism instituted - - 466 I Conquered by the Saracens - A.D. 821 Beitrii of Dionysius - - - - 405 ' [They made Palermo the capital, and the O Vended with the freedom of the philo scpher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a slave. — Stanley . - . . Plato ransomed by his friends - l)amon and Pythias flourish.— See Damon and Pythias .... The sway of Timoleon - - - 346 Usurpation of AgathocLes - • - 317 standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 years.] They are driven out by a Norman t rince, Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the title of count of Sifiily - - - 1080 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily with Naples, and is crowned km^ of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130 Defeat of Hamilcar - - • 309 i Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king Pillage of the temples of Lepari - 304 of France, ..onquers Naples and Sicily. SIS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 SICILY, continued. depoists the Norman princes, and makes himself king - - . A. d. 1266 The French becoming hated by the Sici- lians, a general massacre of the invaders takes place, one Frenchman only escap- ing. — See Sicilian Vespers • - 12S8 In the same year Sicily is seized hy a fleet sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; but Naples remains to the house of An- jou, which expires - - - 1382 Jane, the late sovereign, having left her crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- tensions are resisted by Charles Du raizo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the throne - - - - - - 1386 Aiphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- sion of Naples - - - - 1458 Th i kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises two hundred thousand men - - 1647 Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of these commotions, procures himself to be proclaimed king; but is, in a few days, delivered up to the Spaniards by his adherents - - - - - 1647 Ceded to "Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht - • a. d. Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI., Sardinia being given to him as an equi- valent - - - - - The Spaniards having made themselves masters of both kingdoms, Charles, son of the king of Spain, ascends the tnrone, with the ancient title renewed, of king of the Two Sicilies Order of St. .Januarius instituted by king Charles - - - - - The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty Dreadful earthquake "at Messina, in Sicily, which destroys 40,000 persons Naples preserved from the power of the French by the British forces under admi- ral Nelson . . . . Violent earthquake in the neighborhood of Naples .... The French invade Naples, depose l ng Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of .fte Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- ther to the emperor of the French For subsequent events, see Naples. 1713 172* 17^4 1738 u:2 7783 1/99 1805 ISOii KINGS OP THE TWO SICILIES. A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he resigned it to the emperor Charles VI., in 1718, and got Sardiriia in lieu of it. 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 1734. Charles, second son to the king of Spain, resigned in 1759. 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former king. 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 1808. Joachim Murat : he was shot, October 13, 1815. 1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- dom of the Two Sicilies. 1826. Francis I. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy ag-ainst Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out "Let the French die!" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex. they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number ol 8000.' Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the massacre became general throughout the island. SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth c.en tury :— Acre, 1192, 1799, by Sona- I Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vesseU Almeida, August 27 , l&lO, parte ; siege raised after \ first used by a French en- Amiens, 1597. 60 days, open trenches. I . gineer named Renau, 1816 Ancona, 1798. Algesiras, 1341. | Alkmaer, 1573. Angouleme, 1?^. 528 THE world's progress. [811 SIEGES, continued. Antwerp, 1576. I se of in- fernal machines 1583,1585 1706, 179:^, 1814. Arras, 1414. Ath, 1745. Avignon, 1226. Azoff, 1736. Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- ken by escalade on the night of April 6, 1812. Bagdad, 1248, Bangalore, March 6, 1791. Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Bayonne, 1451. Beauvais, 1472. Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 1&3, 1717, 1739, 1789, Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Bergen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622, 17'47, 1814. Berwick, 1293. Besancon, 1668, 1674. Bethune, 1710. Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Bologna, 1512, 1796. Bommel; the invention of the covert-way, 1794. Bonifacio, 1553. Bonn, 15S7, 1689, 1703 Bordeaux, 1451, 16.53. Bouchain, 1676, 1711. Boulogne, 1545. Brannau, 1744, 1805. Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. Breslau, .Ian. 8, 1807. Brisac, 163S. 1703. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Buda, 1526, 1241, 1686. Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 1812 ; raised. The French in their retreat blew up the icorks, .Tune 13, 1813. Cadiz, 1812. Caen, 1346, 1450. Calais, 1347, (British histo- rians affirm that cannon were used at C'ressy, 1346, and here in 1347. First used here in 1388.— Ry- mer's Fced.) 1558, 1596. Calvi, 1794. Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. Candia ; the lar^st cannon then knoion inEurope used here by the Turks, 1667. Capua, 1501. Carthagena, 1706. Castillon, 1452, 1586. Ceuta, 1790. Chalons, 1 199. Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 17.36, 1794. Chartres, 1568, 1-591. Chaves, March 25, 1809. Cherbourg. 1450. Chincilla.^Oct. 30, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo. 170t3 ; July 10, 1810; Jan. 19, 1812. Colberg, 1760, 1807. Colchester, 1645. Compiegne {Joan of Arc), 1430. Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. Coni, 1691, 1744. Constantinople, 1453. Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. Corfu, 1715. Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. Cracow, 1772. Cremona, 1702. Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 to Jan. 12, 1314. Dendermonde, 1667. Dole, 1668, 1674. Douay, 1710. Dover, 1216. Dresden, 1745, 1813. Drogheda, 1649. Dublin, 1500. Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. Edinburgh, 1093. Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. Foutenoy, 1242. J'Tnderickshal ; Charles XII. killed, 1718. Frederickstein, August 13, 1814. Furnas, 1675, 1744, 1793. Gaeia, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, July, 1806, 1815. Genoa 1747, 1800. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Ghent, 1576, 1703. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Gibraltar), 1782. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Gottingen, 1760. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794., Gravelines, 1644 Grenada. 1491. 1492. Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. Guastalla, 1702. Gueldres, 1637, 1040, 1703. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. Ham, 1411. Harfleur. 1415, 1450. Heidelberg, 16S8. Herat, June 28, 1538. Huningen, 1815. Ismael: the merciless Suwar- row butchered 30,000 ?rteH. the brave garrison, and 6000 icoinen, in cold blood, Dec. 22, 1790. Kehl, 1733,-1796. .Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 179-2, and 1793. Landrecis, 1543, 1712. Laon. 991, 1594. I^ipsic, 16.37, et seq., 1813. Lemberg, 1704. Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Levden. 1574. Liese, 1468. 1702. Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Lilo, 1747. Limerick, 1651, 1691. Londonderry, 1689. Louisbours, 1758. Lyons, 1793. Maestricht, 1576, 1673. Vau- ban first came into nottct, 1676, 1743, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. Malaga, 14S7. Malia, 150:3, 1798, 1800. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. Marseilles, li>44. Meniz, by Charles V., itUi, 1689, 1792 e/seg., 1797. Melun, 1420, 1559. Menin, 1706, 1744. Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. Messina, 1282, 1719. Metz, 1552. Mezici-res, 1521. Middleburgh, 1572. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746^ 1792, 1794. Mtnrargis, 1427. Montauoan, 1621. Montevideo, ,Ian. j808. Moihe : theFrench, taught b^ a Mr. Muller, an English enginepr. first practised the an of throwing shells. 1634, Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. Naples, i:381, 14-35, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 1806. Nice, 1705. Nieuport, 1745, 1794. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. Olmutz, 1758. Orleans, 1423. 1563. Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. Padua, 1509. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. Paris, 1429. 1485, 1594. Parma 1248. Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. Philipville, 1578. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675,1688, first experiment of firing artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 1795. Platisburg, Sept. 11, 1814. Pondicherry, 1743, 1792. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. Quesnoy, 1794. Rennes, 1357. Rheims, 1359. Rhodes, 1522. Riga, 1700, 1710. Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Rome, 1527, 1798. Romorentin ; artillery firm used in sieges -Voltju*5. 12-56. Rosas, 1645. 1795, 1808. Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. Roxburgh. 1460. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. Salamanca. June 27 1812, Salisbury, 1349. Saragossa, 1710, 1809. Saverne, 1675. Schweidnitz ; first experi- ment to reduce afortrett 8IL] IICTIONARY Oi DATES. 529 SIEGES, contented. by springing globes of com- pression, 1762, ISO?. Scio (see Greece), 1822. Iseringapatam. 1799. Seville 1096, 1248. Stnolensko, 1611. Soissons, 1414. Stralsund ; the method of throwing red hot balls first practised with certainly. 1675>^13, 1807. Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. Tarragona, May 1813. Temeswar, 1716. Thionviile, 1643, 1792. Thorn, 1703. Thouars, 1372, 1793. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Toulouse, 1217. Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 1667, 1709, (this was the best defence ever drawn from countermines), 1745, 1794. Treves, 1675. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Urbino, 1799. Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. Valencienes, 1677, 1794. Vannes, 1343. Venloo, 1702, 1794. Verdun, 1792. Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847 Vienna, 1529, 1683. Wakefield, 1460. Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. Xativa, 1707. Xeres, 1262. , Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794. I Zurich, 1544. 1 Zutphen, 1572, 1586. SIKRRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk- worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis L, about 1510 ; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk- worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London, at Spital- fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs,, and worth 1680Z. In England silver- plato and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TyrelVs Hist, of England. Silver knives, spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. SfLVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius lUctor, 269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 23 530 THE world's PRCGRESS. I SLi were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 155. in silver, being a yearly average of iU,^SOL—ParL Pet. SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprufig up . in France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 2i, 1834. SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien. custom both among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode and circumsiance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by tho empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. a. d. 386, eccle- siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. 'At this time it ■was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern nations, that the devout might not languish and pirfb away with i tedious sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of the world. — SL Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcb music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- nefactor ; PhUopater, lover of his father ; Ph'domeber, lover of his mother, &c. Strato was surnamed Phijsicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- tides Avas called the Just; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; Xenophon, the Attic Muse ; Aristotle, the Stagy rite ; Pythagoras, the Saviian Sage ; Menedasmus, the Eretrian Butt ; Democritus, the Laughing Philoso- pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100, The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed Mac, as Macdonakl, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1485,— Rymer's Fo&dera, vol. x. SLAVERY, Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their proficiency in stratagem and massacre; and once, for their amusement only, they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See Helots. SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their serxi^es or labor, they had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampiey&, 42 b c. Cajcilius Isi'dorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 b. c. Bi.A J DICTIONARY OF DATEb. 53 ( SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known ; and laws respect- ing the sale of slaves wa& made by Alfred. The English peasantry were sc commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were sold in liristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VL that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked Y with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, ind, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1517. fil^VE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481 Volumes have been written, eontined to facts alone, describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, "Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104.100. In 1786, the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500 000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria. Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 9, 1847. SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and convejnng them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should ' European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, rtcollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — <;ooper's Letters on the Slavs Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- pumry. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us tha frowns and the judgments of heaven. '• By foreign wealth arci British morals changed, And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." T.13 trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United States in 1807. By England {see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared agamst it, February 1815. Napol eon," in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, IS17,- with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contmuei to be enco iraged in several states. — Haydn. 532 THE world's progress. [ :;mu be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and Ihsit the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchant abk negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried off 42 000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280, The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. Tho motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83. April 3, 1798. After several other efforts of humane and just nun. the question was . introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- ters. March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. March 25, 1807. SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe. Many of the early navigators to Ame- rica, including Columbus himself, carried considerable numbers of the aborigines to Europe, where they were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- bella commanded the liberation of Indians held in bondage in her pos- sessions, in - •" - - 1501 —but the next /ear the slaveij of j»- dians was re^ ognized as lawful ; and the practice of selling the natives of North America into foreign bondage continued for nearly two centuries. The excellent Winthrop enumerates Indians among his bequests. — Ban- croft. SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. The first negro slaves in the English colonies of North America were brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel of war - - . Negroes " who had been fraudulently brought from Guinea" to Massachu- setts (the first in New England), were sent home at the public expense by the general court of that colony Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- cree against ilavery in Rhode Island White slaves were sold in England, to be transported to Virginia : average price for 5 years' service, jE5 — while a negro was worth jE25. — Bancroft - Virginia had one slave to 50 whites The Quakers abolished slavery among themselves Resolutions against the slave trade passed by the first congress of the colonies . . . . Act against the external slave trade passed by congress of the United States . - - . - -1620 1646 1652 1672 1650 -1754 1774 1789 [Slavery had been already prohibited in most of the northern States in their constitutions.] Act of congress against fitting out ves- sels for slave trade - " - - 1794 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- ted States Irom holding property in foreign slave vessels. United States vessels authorized to seize slavers - 180l' Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, the introduction of slaves into the United States - - - -180 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, punishable"with death - - 1823 [Slavery has, however, been continued in thirteen of the States. See Mis- souri. ] The number of slaves in the United States in 1790 was - - - 697,69'/ In 1800 - - - -• • - 896,849 In 1810 1,191,364 In 18-20 1.538,004 In 16:» 2,010,436 In 1840 2,487,355 fcLAVES. Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20.000.000Z. sterling, passed 3 and 4 William IV.. Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became free. SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years : Pliny says he slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so ab tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, feOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 696 B. c. We have man} , and even very late, instances of persons in these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. SMALL-POX. Ladj^ Mary Wortle.y Montagu introduced inoculation for the small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect success at Adriauople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. Inoculation for the small-pox Avas encouraged under the auspices of Dr. Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pi&. sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inocidation and Vacci7io,tion. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a }ia. tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left :£ 100,000 " to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against smuggling was enacted in 1736. SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- ably more than 8,000,OOOOZ. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuflf, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263Z. See Tobacco. SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the GaUic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. SOBRAON, Battle OF ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken } and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by the French government. SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that al] men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, op fc34 THE world's progress. I 80A gani Scribe tidi Character is, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement and great simplicity. STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of hquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — Anderson. STEREOTYPE. See Prlrting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged STO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543 of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype printing was in use in Holland, in the last century; and a quarto Bible and Dutch folio Bible Avere printed there. — P/iillips. Stereotyping was intro- duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem. STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to havo been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his plan in 1 779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan to ])idot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that which Golden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Gatechism. In June 1815 the Bruces of Now York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — D?: J. W. Francis. STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. — Hoioell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented wath a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much taken notice of — Idetfi. Others relate that Wil- liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind made in England, 1564. — Stowe. STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 837,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols averaged in the year — 1780 - JE63 13 6 1 1795 - £7i 8 6 1 1810 • jES? 16 3 I 1825 - JE90 8 1785 - • 68 6 6 ISOO - - 66 3 3 1815 - - 58 13 9 1830 - - 89 15 7 1790 71 2 6 I 1805 - 58 14 | 1820 - 68 12 1 1840 - 89 17 6 See Public Debt. STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees afiljcted the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this sect is famous for. — Stojiley. STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first; but a bridge exists at Crowiand, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges ThG first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues was manufactired by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1796. S^rONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius i^.mbrosias in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hangist, the Saxon, a i,* 544 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [STC ^*ih.- -Geoffrey of Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am- brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, iii which the Druids officiated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. KTORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo^ rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944 One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed. It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- pests of rain and wind, a.d. 1233. A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through a chamber where Edwai'd I. and his queen were conversing, did them no damage, but killed two of their attend- ants: ]28o.—Hoveden. A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which fell on the army of Edward III., then on its march. The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a peace, 1339. — JVlatt. Paris. When Richard H.'s queen came from Bohe- mia, on setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in the har- bor, Jan. 13S2. — Holinshed. Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1389. — Idem. A hurricane throughout Europe, which did very considerable damage ; more remark- ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 165S, the day that Cromwell died.— Mortimer. A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. The storm called the ^^ Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- land. The devastation on land was im- mense; and in the harbors, and on the coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack Drontheini, a. d. 1719. One in India, when many hundreds of ves- sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many public edifices and 4048 houses were de- stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, Oct. 2-5, 1768. — Annual Register. An awl'ul storm in the north of England, in which many vessels were destroyed, and 4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 177.5. At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 700C of the inhabitants, April 22, 17S2. One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste in France, 1785. A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the Leewartl Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. Awful hurricane on the western coast of England, and in Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were drowned in the neighborhood; the coast and harbors were covered witn wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly half a million sterling. In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more wci-e burnt, the wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- ed dreadfully ;"'London and its neighbor- hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839. Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. 10-11, 1846. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 21. 1848. STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the Grerman stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000i. sterling. The number of per sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddysione light-hou.se was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bi shop ol B&th and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. MulU t^jdee of cattle were also lost ; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. SUOj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port* able braziers. See Chimneys. STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, "ty Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped ofi' to America by the French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France. SI RATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 1643. STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. It was revived by DUdine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in England. STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 e.g. Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act jjassed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. STYLE. ROYAL, op the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles MajesPy and Titles. SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks Avere voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of millions sterling.— PAi/Zi^s. SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf June 12, 1701. SUCCESSION. The WAR op. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 tc 1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. SUGAR, Saccharmn officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 546 THE world's progress. [ 8U1 ancient Jev s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the Juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar wai produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's History of Charles F.* SUGAR-R]'-F1NING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1G59, though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- timer. See Beet Root. SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish liistory is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, think- ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- troyed themselves. 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, \\ the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation •of land and goods. A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLANU, &C. Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 Of lord James Beresford - April 27, lcS41 Of the earl of Munster - March 20, 1842 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25. 1845 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 Of Haydon, the eminent painter June 22, 1845 Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of marsharBerihier - - June 1, 1815 Of Samuel Whiibred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 Of sir Samuel Roniilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Chrisiophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 Of hon. colonel Stanhope • Jan. 26, 1825 There have been only three instances'of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- able passion for su^^ide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets a stop was soon put to the extraordi- nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. ST7LTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes . Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — ^Vattier. It * About the year 1138 the su?ar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence tc Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date su|"a.t was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reisn of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript letter, iVom sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1.546, advertises him that Bir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, '* whiche is eishte penco a pounde." In 1840, thi; imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly .5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly four milliona were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five uilliom; and a half sterling. B1;? ] DICTIONARY OF DATf-fe, 547 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committee piracies on American vessels, the town was desstroyed by the United States frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act uncliastely, 450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ea- ward lU. and Henry VIIL See Dress, Luxury, &c. SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 629 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stabihty of the sim, about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200. when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Sotar System. Ga- lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Macule were first discovered byChr. Scheiner. 1611. Transit of Mercury observed by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779, SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.— Abbe Lenglet. SUNDAY, OR LORD'S D.VY, Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance was made by Constantine. a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of^ Innocent Sunday Sports, au- thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament.— 7?«j9i/i. Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. Act of parliament closing all the post-ofiices on Sunday passed May 1850. SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made nead of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VIII. shook ofi" the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself OuJ kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- ferred upon thecL by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 548 THE world's progress. I SWE tl; o* ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerons others, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones, Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus .^gineta in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century sj)rung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until *^it was enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and a new charter in 1800. SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 : and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwellwas present at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every witness of the scene. — Holweli. The English government in India have dis- couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were a/bolished by English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place, SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d, 628. Introduced in judicial proceedings about 600, — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 25. for the first oflence ; for the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1696, See Oaths. SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of the country. Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 57 I barbarians, falls upon the Nort* > During this reign, Odin, sumamed the Europe, making vasts couques»« ' Divine, at the head of a swarm ol | SV.' E ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549 SWEDEN, continued. Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- lingars, leigns - - - b.c. [The early history of the kingdom is altogether involved in fables and ob- scurity.] 32 Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- duces Christianity among his people, about .... A.D. 1000 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike people and invasions of other coun- tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 Stockholm founded - - . 1260 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular form of government - - - 1279 The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, is made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, or the Foolish, king of Norway, is elected - - . . . 1313 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - • 1361 The crown made elective - - ]^0 Albert of Mecklenburg reisns - - 1365 Sweden united to the crown" of Denmark and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 University of Upsal founded - -1476 Christian II., " the Nero of the North," massacres all the Swedish nobility, to fix his despotism - - - 1520 The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the valor of Gusiavus Vasa 1523 He makes the crown hereditary, and introduce? the reformed religion - 1544 The titles of .ount and baron introduced by Eric XIV. - - . . 156I The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, between 1612 and - - - 1617 He is slain at Luizen - - - 1633 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 Abdication of Christina - - - 1654 Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Charles XII., " the madman of the North," begins his reign - - 1699 He makes himself absolute, abolishes the senate - - . • . • . Battle of Pultowa, where Chailw is defeated by the czar of Rtssia. See Pultowa - - - A.D. 170S He escapes to Bender, where after three years' protection, he is made prison- er by the Turks . - . 1713 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting numerous battles, he is at length killed at the siege of Frede- rickshall - . . Dec. 11, 1718 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- ic government - - . . 1719 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- terwards called Linnaeus - .. 1741 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who are beheaded - - . 1756 Despotism re-established • - 1772 Order of the Svvord instituted - - 1772 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 ; he expired the 29th - - . 1792 The regicide was dreadfully scourged with whips of iron thongs three suc- cessive days ; his right hand was cut off, then his head, and his body im- paled - - - May IS. 1792 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- vernment assumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, Nov. 12, 1810 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 Norway is ceded lo Sweden by the trea- ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 D. 825 Regnard Lobrock. * * * Reigns imcertain.] 966 Eric, the Victor. 994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1035 Edmund, or Amand IIL lail Haquin. 1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 1064 Halstan. 1080 Philip. 1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 1J33 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 1144 Suercher II. 1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- nute, who reigns. 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 1192 Suercher III., son of Charles ; killed in battle. 1211 Eric XL vasa jolm I. KINGS OP SWEDEN. 1223 Eric XII. 12.50 Waldemar. 1276 Magnus IL 1290 Birger II. 1318 Masnus IIL : dethroned by his fiuliioeti 1365 Alb"ert. 1397 Margaret. 1411 EricXIIL; abdicated. 1441 Christopher. 1448 Charles VIII. 14.58 Christian I. 1497 John II. 1520 Christian II. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 1569 John IIL 1592 Sigismond I., kinjj d Poland. 1606 Charles IX. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus IL 1632 Christina ; resigned her croTim to 1654 Charles X., Gustav-us duke oi Dens' Fonts. 1660 Charles XL 650 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [awe SWEDEN, continued. ]599 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her husband was elected. 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 1751 Adolphus Fi-ederick, duke of Holstein. 1771 Gustavus III., Adolphus. 1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 1809 Charles XIII. 1818 Charles John XIV., Beruadotte, Feb. S 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but eo centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Nev" Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius C«sar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marias ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. The Helvetian .converted to Christian- ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 Becomes subject to Germany - . - 1032 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions the memorable revolt under the pa- triot William Tell. - - 1306 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 A maliunant fever carries off, in the cau- 1314 131.5 1335 ton of Basle, 1 1,000 souls Form of government made perpetual • Lucerne joins the confederacy Tlip canton of Zurich jonis, and be- cbmes head of the league - - 1350 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - - 1351 The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 Second league of the Grisons - - 1424 The third league of the Grisons - 1436 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, under Louis XI. - - 1480 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges Swiss independence - - - 1499 Schaffhausen joins the union - -1501 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged' by France and other powers ' - 1516 The Reformation begins at Basle ; llie bishop compelled to retire - 1519 The Grison leagues joui the Swiss .on- federacy as allies - - - 1544 Appenzel joins the other cantons - 1597 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town ; but in the end IS defeated - - - 1602 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- nual festival commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia, Peace of) - a. D. 1648 [From this period until the French Re- volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- lity, disturbed only by the changes arising out of their various constitu- tions. 1 Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and democratic parties ; France interferes - - - 1781 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 Helvetic confederation dissolved; its subjugation by France - - 1798 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal government restored ; and a landamman appointed by France, May 12, 1802 Uri, Schweitz, ana Underwald separate from the republic • July 13, 1802 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 The Allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1S14. The number of can- tons increased to 22, and the indepen- dence of Switzerland secured by the treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 — passes resolves against the Sonder- bund, and troops of Uri attack canton Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 Neufchatel declares independence. Feb! 29, 1848 SWORD?. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1S79 B, c.— 'UniD. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implementa BYR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 551 of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long-. The broad- sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an Englisli king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus stee] swords are tlie most prized ; and next, tlie sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Perraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 3724. SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The "date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mai-y queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holy rood, and that from this little tree have sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it has a legislative council, which was tirst held July 13, 1829. See New South Wales ; Convicts, <^c. SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- gogues. There are in London six synagogues. iSYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding (see CouncUs). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533. :SYNOD OF DORT, The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. —Aitzema. SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c.—Eusebius. 749 b. c.—Univ. Hist. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with nany thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned frcm Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being Involved in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {v.i.iich see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after tha battle of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the SeleucidcB) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- queror, enters Babylon - - b.c. 312 .Era of the Seleucidde (lo/izcA see) - 312 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death of Antigonus - - - - 301 City of Antioch founded - - 299 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his fathe.s'' queen, Straton- ice, he pines away nearly to death • but the secret being discovered, sht is divoixed by the father and marrieri by the son." - - - b. c. 297 * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of paysic Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly vviih Herophilus), had observed, than w.hcn 552 THE WORLD'S TROGRESS. LSTK SYRIA, continued. Battle of Cyropaedion • -B.C. Seleucu3 is loully assassinated by Ce- raunuo. — Lcnglet. Ar.tiDchus defeats the Gauls, and takes the name of Soter, or Saviour Rei?n of Antiochus II., surnamedby the Milesians Theos, or God! Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance ■with Smyrna and Magnesia* - Reign of Seleucus lil., surnamed Ce- raunus, or Thunder - Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus III. is signally defeated Antiochus' conquest of Judea - V''ar with the Romans begins - Rcign of Antiochus IV., who assumes the title of Theos-Epiphanes, or the lUustiious God ! - - - He sends Appolonius into Judea ; Jeru- salem is taken; the temple pillaged; 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 40.000 more sold as slaves Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seieucus with her own hand Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, whom she attempts to poison ; but he compels his mother to swallow the deadly draught herself Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and of Grypus at Antioch Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- ters Syria^and dethrones Antiochus Asiatichus, about 217 204 192 - 123 111 65 Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - -1068 The Crusades from Europe commence (see article Crusades) - • 1095 [The Christians ultimately conquer that part of Syria called the Holy Land.— See Jerusalem '\ Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 1166 Saladin puts an end to the power of the Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 125f Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1400 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 After the conquest by Selini, Syria con- tinued m possession of the Turks till the invasion of Egypt by the French. July 1, 179M Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with great loss - - - Aug. 6, 17t>8 He overruns the country, and takes Ga- za and Jaffa .... 1795 Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 17^^ Bonaparte returns to France from E- gypt - - - - Aug. 23, 1799 Egypt is evacuated by the French army Sept. 10, 1801 Mehemet Aii attacks and captures A -re, and overruns the whole of Syria, 183i-32 Ibraham Facha, his son, defeats the ar- my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various success] Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 The'Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria and places itself at the disposal of Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839 The Five Powers propose to the Porte to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 16, 1839 Death of the celebrated lady Hester Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 Treaty of London (not signed by offend- ed France) - - July 15, 1840 Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1S40 Fall of Beyrout (seeBeyrouO Oct. 10 1840 Fall of Acre (see Acre) ■ Nov. 3, 1840 After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pr.chalic of Egypt hereditary 'u the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13. 1841. .rhia result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its c< atinu- ance among the great powers of Europe, ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his fram«, his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She v/as of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. Or discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished under a hopeless passion. '-Who," asked Seleucus, •' is the object of his love?" '•'■My wife," answered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. '' But if." said Erasistratiia '^ it were \he queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another 1' "Ves," replied Seleucus, "I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to savi my son's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love i^ Stva tonice !"— .Bjo"'. Diet. * This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Ocfoid. I was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles IL rHa] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, July 27 and 28, 1809. 1 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century ; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimoa- ides in the twelfth century. 1 AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adrersary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, and kiUed himself. 1403. — C/ialcon- dila's Hist. Turk. TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719. when ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. — Guicciardini. Manutactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salviori. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum suppoited against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. TARTARY. This nahie is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was known and celebrated in anticiuity under the name of Scythians, it was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and " founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. I'AVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various namea^ 24 554 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEA in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century " In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three tavern?, were allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- street." — Silr Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff' s merriment. — Shakspeare^ Henry IV. Of httle less antiquity is the Wiite Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- lished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by an act of Edward \I., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster. 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cjimbridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects st^^led him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D' Eon's His- toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in kind, as in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- ment, &c. TE DE UM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, O God. It is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about A. D. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a great victory or for a bounteous harvest. TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossorj'' and lord Arlington, from Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1716 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DITTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. - lbs. 27.803,668 - 30,544,404 - 44,360,550 . 33,068,555 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,000/. annually. Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- land, is about 22 000.000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain is 30 0^0. ii^^).— Evidence in the House of Commons. 1830. The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4,278,463 ; while that of coflfea was 89,102,872. 1726. lbs. 700,000 1805. - lbs. 24.133,000 1 1825. 1766. . 7,000,000 1810. . 25,414,000 1830. 1792. . 13,185,000 1815. - 26,368,000 1835. 1800. . - 23,723,000 1820. - 25,662,474 1640. TEM j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 555 TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, aboal 1768, The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor« thumberland at Sion. TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsics, because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrmuent was applied to useful purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. Two erected over the admiralty-office. London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, bv varying the combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See Electric THegraph. TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250. described telescopes and microscopes ex- actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, of Mrddleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by Martin. Hall, Dolland. and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- tory of Madrid, which cost 11000/. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope, made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- meter, 3^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See Herschel Telescope. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that the first ^-reat public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. Oqc of the most prominent of th(i first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The temj»lars were numerous in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, and it suffc^red great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 556 THE world's progress. [ TE\» m the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times snppressed in England, and finally in 1340. TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was i/urchased by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and Middle Temple. TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead, — Eusebius. The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus, The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUonius. For tem- ple of Belus, see Bethel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophorius. about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidje. 543 b.c, A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonidas, about 513 b. c.^ Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w. th her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — The heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Teviples. TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- ter of North Carolina by Charles XL in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1796. Population in 1790, 35 691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681,904; in 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. TESr ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all oflScers, civil and mili- tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, &c., was enacted March 1673; repealed, 1828. TEUl'ONI. OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri. TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine IH., a. d. 1191. See Prussia, &c. TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French k.'ng, Lewis XL. for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. the] dictionary of dates. 557 TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dip- agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas b}^ emigrant from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepei dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th)j after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to IG, J une 8, 1844.] THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption took place. May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland by king Malcolm EX., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the first erected, Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, \s. — Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frc:i Drury-lane ; it runs thus : "By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Hwrnov- rovs Lievtenant.'' After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : "The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the Tlnited States was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New York, 1832. See Drcma, Plays, &c. THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. Ifi the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, and upon ajiy emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 558 THE world's progress. [ TU* gates. 20 000 fig-hting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cam. byses. king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. —Plutarch,. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called Aonia. Messapia. Ogygia. Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Boiotia. Thebes was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by the Romans, 145 b, c.—Livy ; Thucydides. THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- ly punished theft with death, if above 12^^. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's acts, 9 and 10 George IV. THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660, and they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that their religion was better because older and more simple than tljat which was given by God to the Hebrews. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- ver, founded 1808. THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, A. D. l%{)^.—Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Pidgentw. Invent- ed by Saijctorio in 1610. — Borelh. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. THERMOPYLAE Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict with himdreds of thousands of the Per- sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, v.ith their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c- Vossins de Grcec. Hist. THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were -^alled Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived theif origin, as the Achseans, the ^tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. See them severally. THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans. 168 b. c. By- zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which CvHstantinople was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet U., a.d. 1463.- Ptiestky. TIJif ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 559 TIIR ASHING -MACfflNES. The flail was the only instriimeiit formerly in use. The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius. THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council King Wilham expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, " Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make vie confess any thing." THURSDAY. The iifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. TtDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B. c. ; and C;esar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, A. D. 1598; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist. TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in peace, 32 000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of (ifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102.600 acres, and 1026 per annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800 000 loads of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lath wood, &c., together with about 8,000,' 000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 560 THE world's progress. [ TOS TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long ; but as the)' burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-homs, glass being r great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks^ Watches, &c. TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin* mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin. payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in Europe, a. d, 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India. 1740 ; in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 400,000Z. TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — WickUffe. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tith'es upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- ocracy." — Blackstojie. The first mention of them in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Bwni's Ecclcs. Law. Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, A. D. 844. — Henrifs Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege" conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of "Majesty," being that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred " or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emj^erors of Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacnvi. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- top] dictionary op dates. 561 iardvS in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years. — Sluvje's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- tion Avas issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be %s. K)r/. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II. An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased in order to its being destro5^ed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England m 1791 was nine milHons and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was S7, 551, 122. Tobacco is produced also in France, in India. &c. ; that of the United States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad taste of this weed. TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. . 642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- taken. 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English. April 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and M'as confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d, 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes were used in 1663. TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to the kings of England for hfe, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cumngham's Hist. Taxes. TONTINES, Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- holders, his share produced him 8000Z. per annum. He died worth 2.116,- 244^., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798.— Hai/dn. TOPLITZ, Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austriana and Prussians j, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a considerable time in this latter year. Tteaty of Toplitz, being a tripl« 24* 662 THE world's progress. [Tur alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept, 9, 1813. Treaty ol Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in everj country. It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland untiT IGOO. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustavus III., 1786. ft yet continues in other countries. TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- lector of tithes and ta.xes.—Eucijclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives; while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious hberty. — Aske. The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot {■which see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs. TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and sl.ipping in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. TOULOUSE, Francr. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadoxirs. TOULOUSE. Battle op. The final battle between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the French— one of the most bloody that had been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult^ whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British forcing tlie French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that of the French exceeded 10.000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought Ai)ril 10, 1814. TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show TOW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tournert " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, both of liorse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d. 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 1136. Oae was held in Siuithtield so late as the 12th century, wlien tbo taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the king's death in a few days, June 29. 1559. Tournaments were from this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is lied." A maguificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. TOUENAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- pieces, May 6, 1794. TOQRS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, A. D. 732. TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. TOWER OF LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first maiked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and con^pleted by his son William Rufus. who. in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-ottice, and A^arious other divisions and buildings of peculiar interest; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, and many murders See England. TOWTON. Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between the housHs of York (Edward IV.) am' Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 564 THE world's progress. f TRA of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37=000 of his subjecti fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower • his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Enp^- land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every man to do his duty." "Oct. 21, 1805. TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained by ^schylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Tiiealres. TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan "order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- longing life. A. D. 1483. — Henaidt. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English physician, who died in 1691. practised in this way. — Friend' s Hist, of Phys. Transfusion again attcvnpted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were ordered for transportation instead of execution, a.d. 1590; but banishment for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England is reproached abroad for transi)orting persons whose offences are compara- tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was transported for forging a frank. (10^/. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first transportation of felo)is to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished with death until 1834. when an act passed making the oflfence punishable by transportation for life. TRANSUBSTANTI ATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Cave's Hist. Lit. TRE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 565 TRAPPTSTS. OR MONKS or LA TRAPPE. A French order in the clepa^^ ment of Orne. famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- ciphne, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France and 64 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Painboeuf Nov. 19. and were landed from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30. 1831. They have establi-shed themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigor of their order. TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin. TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The .'read-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. TREASON. See Hi'j;h Treason. It wa« punished in England only by banish- ment till after Henry I. — Baker's Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward III., 1319. - Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abohtion of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreign nation v»'as entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civihzed nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following forms an index to them. See Conveiitions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. Abo, peace of - . -1743 Carlsbad, congress of - - 181 i Aix-la-Chapelle - - 1668 ■ Cateau-Cambresis, peace of . - 1.5.58 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of ' - 1748 Chanmont. treaty of - -1814 Akermann, peace of . - 1826 Chimar, India -1781 Alt Radsiadt -1706 Cinti-a, convention of - -1808 America, peace with . • - 1783 Closterseven, convention of . - 1757 Amiens, peace of -1802 Coalition, first, against France - 179S Armed Neutrality - •^ . - 1800 Coalition, second, ditto - . 1799 Arras, treaty of - 14.35 Coalition, third, ditto - - -1805 Arras, ditto - . . - 1482 Coalition, fourth, ditto . ISOG Ausrsbur^h, league of - 1686 Coalition, fifth, ditto -180g Baden, peace of . . - 1714 Coalition, sixth, ditto - 1813 Barrier treaty - -1715 Concordat -1801 Basle, peace of . . - 1795 Conflans, treaty of -1465 Bassein, India - 1802 Constantinople, peace of -1712 Bayonne, treaty of - - - 1808 Constantinople, treaty of - - 1833 Belgium, treaty of London - 1839 Copenhagen, peace of -1660 Belgrade, pfeace of - . - 1739 Cres.^sy . - 1544 Berhn, peace of . - 1742 Dresden - 1745 Berlin decree - - 1806 Family compact -1761 Berlin convention - 1808 Fontainebleau. peace of - 1679 Breda peace of - - 1667 Fontainebleau, treaty of - . 1785 Breiisrny, peace of - 1360 Fontainebleau, concordat at - -1813 Biichkvest, treaty of - - 1812 Friedwald, treaty of - 15.51 Cambray, league of . 1508 Fuessen, peace of -1745 Cambray, peace of - - 1529 Ghent, pacification of - 1576 Campo-Formio, treaty of - 1797 Ghent, peace o*" America) - 1814 Carlowitz, peace of - . 1699 Golden Bull -135? 566 THE world's progress. [TEl TREATIES, continued. Grand Alliance - • • 1689 Greece, treaty of London • • • 1829 Hague, treaty of the - - • 1659 Hague, treaty of the - - - 1CG9 Halle, treaty of ... 1610 Hamburgh, peace of • • - 1702 Hanover treaty - . • • 1725 Holland, peace with • • - 1784 Holy Alliance ^ . - • 1815 Hubertsberg, peace of - - - 1763 Interim ..... 1548 Kiel, treaty of - ■ - - 1814 Laybach, congress of - • • 1721 League - - • • • 1576 Leipsic, alliance of • • - 1631 Leoben, peace of - • - - 1797 Lisbon, peace of • • - 1668 I,ondon, treaty of (Greece) • .1829 London, convention of (Turkey) - 1840 Lubeck. peace of - - - • 1629 Luneville, peace of • , • 18U1 Madrid, treaty of - • - -1526 Methuen treaty .... 1703 Milan decree - - - - 1807 Munster, peace of • - - 1648 Nantes, edict of - - - - 1598 Naumberg, treaty of - - - 1554 Nice, treaty of - - - - 1518 Nimeguen, peace of • - - 1678 Noyon, treaty of - • • - 1516 Nuremberg, treaty of - - -1532 Olivia, peace of - - - - 1660 Paris, peace of (see Pans) - -1763 Paris, treaty of - - - - 1796 Paris, peace of (Sweden) - .1810 Paris, capitulation of - - - 1814 Paris, treaty of - - - - 1814 Paris, peace of - • • - 1815 Paris, treaty of - . - - 1817 Partition, first treaty - - -1698 Partition, second treaty • - - 1700 Passurowitz, peace of - • - 1718 Passau, treaty of - - - 1.552 Petersburgh, peace of • • - 1762 Petersburgh, treaty of - - - 1772 Petersburgh, treaty of • - • - 1S05 Petersburgh, treaty of • • -1810 Peters walden, convention of • - 1813 Pilnitz, convention "f - - - 1791 Poland, partition of - - • -1795 Pragmatic Sanction - - - 1439 Pragmatic Sanction - - - 1713 Prague, peace of - - - 1653 Presburg. peace of - - - 1805 Public good, league for the - -1464 TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES Alliance with France • Feb. 6. 1779 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) Sept. 3, 1783 Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 1785 Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain (Jay's) 1794 Treaty with the Six Nations and other Indian tribes - - . - 1794 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by .1. Q. Adams) ... - 1799 Treaty with F>-ance, by Ellsworth, Pa- thek Henry &c. Sept. 30, 1800 Pyrenees, treaty of the - ' • 1659 Quadruple Alliance - - • 1718 Radstadt, peace of • - • - 1714 Radstadt, congress of • • - 1/97 Ratisbon, peace of - • • • 1630 Ralisbon, treaty of • • • 1806 Relidon, peace of - - • - 1565 Rhine, Confederation of the • -1806 Ryswick, peace of - • • - 1697 St. Germain's, peace of • • 1570 Si. Germain-enl.aye - - - 1679 St. Ildelonso, alliance of Spain with France ..... 1795 Seville, peace of - - • - 1792 Siiirod, peace of - • • -1613 Smalcald, league of- - - - 1529 Spain, pacification of (London) - 1834 Settin, peace of - - - - 1570 Stockholm .... 1630 Stockholm, peace of - - - 1719 S:ockholm, treaty of - - • 1724 S ockholm, treaty of - • - 1813 Temesvvar, truce of • - 1604 Teschen, peace of • • - 1779 Teusin, peace of • - 1595 Til.nt, peace of - - - - 1807 Tolentino, treaty of - - - 1793 Topliiz. treaty of • - - - 1813 Triple Alliance .... 1717 Triple Alliance of the Hague - -1668 Troppau, congress of - - - 1820 Troyes, treaty of - - - - 1420 Turkmauchay, peace of - - 1828 Ulm. peace of • - - - 1620 IJtretht, union of - • • 1579 Utrecht, peace of - • - - 1713 Valenjay, treaty of • • • 1813 Veroira. congress of - • - 1822 Versailles, peace of - • - 1783 Vienna, treaty of - - • - 1725 Vienna, treaty of alliance • .1731 Vienna, definitive peace - • - 1737 Vienna, peace of - • - 1809 Vieima, treaty of, March 23 - - 1815 Vienna, treaty of. May 31 - - 1815 Vieinia, treaty of. June 4 - - -1815 Vossem. peace of - • - 1673 Warsaw-, treaty of - - - • 1768 Warsaw, alliance of • • - 1683 Westminster, peace of - • - 1674 Westminster (with Holland) - -1716 Westphalia, peace of - - - 1648 Wiliia, treaty of - • - - 1561 Worms, edict of - ■ - -1521 Wurtzburg, treaty of • - ■ 1610 Some of the most important : Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- rican srovernmeni - - - 180i Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, signed by J. QL- Adams. Gallatin. and H. Clay, for the . jted States, clos- ing the "war of 1812,-' ^ut leavmg the oriirinal dispute much as belbre - 1314 Ratified by the United Slates, Feb. 17, 1=15 Treaty with the Choctaws and Cherc- kees 1816 Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 1925 Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - 132i Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- ing American citizens for spoliatioM TRI J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 567 Cushing ; ratified by the se. ate Jan. 16, 1843 Treaty cf peace with Mexico, sisned at Guadaloiipe Hidalgo, Feb. 2," iS48 ; ratified by the senate (vvitli modifica- tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- Ibrd, and Mexican minister Rosas May 30, 184S Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between North and South America; signed at Washington by Sir II. L. Bulwer and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 800 years. Banian., in Hindostan, 3,000 years. Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. [For proofs and details see the article re- ferred to. ] TREATIES, continued. during the war with Napoleon Nov. 13, 1826 Treaty with Brazil • March 18, 1829 Treaty with Turkey • May 7, 1830 Treaty with Mexico (commercial) A p.5, 1831 Treaty with do. - - April 5, J832 Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 Treaty with Russia (commercial) Dec. 18, 1832 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster ; i-atified by the senate (39 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. TREES. Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al manac for 1838, p. 102, are. The Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland, 700 years. (Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 years.) Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- seo, New York, 500 years. Yew trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 2,500 years. TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (.but with interrup- tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III,, and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last council was held. TRIALS. Alfi-ed is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Havvarden. nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from among the c(mmions to represent the people, 492 b.c, at the time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a militarj^ force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 'illlNlTY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by all Christian sects except those called Unitarians (which see). Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546.— PFa/X-ms 558 THE world's progress. f TRQ An order of the Trinity was fonnded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti- tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 1813. TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of tha Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovatio7i. TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their difil-rent pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B. 0. 60, was in the hands of Julius Ctesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus. Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagi-eed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See Rome. TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the daughter of Teucer. prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus built a city, and named it, after himself Dardania : Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his succes- sor, converted it into Ilium. Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 nor.— jB/a/r - - B.C. 1546 ' Reign of Priam or PoJarces - -1224 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, Dardanus succeeds Teucer. and builds son of Priam. 20 years before the the ciiy of Dardania - - 1480 1 sacking of Troy. — Homer's Iliad, Reign of Ericthonius - - - 1449 ; book xxiv., line 96-1, Pope's edit. - 12(M Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- ' Commencement of tlie invasion of the pie are called Trojans - • 1374 ; Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 Troy taken and burned in the night of Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 | the llth of .Tune, i. e. 23d of the Reign of Laomedon - - - 12G0 • month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- Arrival of Heixules in Phr}'gia;He- l/lcs. 403 years before the first sione delivered from the sea-monster. Olympiad. — Apollodorus - -1184 — Blair, Usher - - - 1225 ' .Eneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia distant from the old site; but though it bore the same name, and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic ejtpe- TUN J nCTIONARY OF DATES. 569 dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was nearly in ruins, — Priestley. TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. TROYES Treaty op, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown. May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814, TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan Avar. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tu- isco, or TIvj. a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, jjarticularly those of 1789 and 1848. TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was carried to England from America, about 1663. TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its waters, a. d. 1606. TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war. 148 b. c. Besieged by Louis IX. of France. 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the coimtry was recovered by the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blak&, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 57C THE world's progress. [ TUl TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw« parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persians, red woollen. These are the distinguishing marks of their ditferent religions. Sophi, king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the tirst who assumed the red color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, Avho are of the sect of Omar. TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated tlieir army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was deUvered up to the allies, when they restor- ed it to the king of Sardinia. TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom the}' became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of manv races of men. Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca (see Mecca) - - - ad. .571 His imposture commenced (see Maho- metanism) .... 604 The Koran written (see^oran) - 610 Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622 ^ni of the Ilegira (see Hegira) - 622 Death of Mahomet - . - 631 Holy wars begin (see Crusades) - 1095 The Turkish empire first Ibrmed under Othman at Bythinia - - - 1298 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adrianople - . - 1360 Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a guard composed of Christian slaves bred Mahometans - - - 1362 Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the Eastern empire • . 1389. et seq. He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is at length taken by Tamerlane (see Tamerlane) .... 1403 The Turks invading Hungary, are re- pelled by Huniade's - - . 1450 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- der Mahomet II., which ends the Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 Greece made subject to the Mahome- tans (see Greece) - - ■ 1458 The Turks [lenetrate into Italy, and take Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout Europe - - - 1480 Selim I. raised to the throne by the .la-' nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- thers, and their sons - . . 1512 He takes the islands of the Archipelago from the Christians - - "-1514 He overruns Syria - • . 1515 Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 Solymah II. takes Belgrade - . 1521 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. John, who go to Malta - - 1522 Solyman II.. with 2uU,L!0U men, is repuls- ed before Vienna - - . 1529 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to the fears of Europe from Turk- isli power (see Lepanlo) ■ - 1571 Amurath II. ascends ih.e throne; stran- gles his five brothers - - - 1574 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during this reign] The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Schah Abbas - - A. D. 1585 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - - 1595 Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles his father and four brothers - - 1624 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take the city o( Bagdad - - - 1639 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman • 1687 Peace of Carloviiz - • - 1699 Mustapha III. deposed - - - 1703 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- sia relinquishes AzofT - - 1739 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish - - - . 1770 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the Turks having lost more than 200,000 i men. — Ashe.] I War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 ' Passage anil rcpassage of the Darda- nelles eflecied by the British fleet, but with great loss (see Dardanelles) Feb. 19, 1807 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- dered, and Mustapha IV. called to the tlirone - - May 29, lyQ? Treaty of Bucharest (.ickich see) May 28, 8ia A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- turning from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 Subjection of the Wachabees - - 1819 Ali Paciia of Janina, in Greece, declares himself independent - - -1830 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia March 6, 1821 The Greek Patriarch put to death at Constantinople - ■ April 23, '82! ruE. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 TURKEY, continue i. Horrible massa?i'e at Scio; the most dreadful in mjdern history (see note to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822 Sea-fighi near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 New Mahometan army announced to he organized - - ■ May 29, 1826 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 Firman of the sxtan abolishing the Ja- nizaries .... 1826 Fire at Const» uinople ; 6000 houses re- duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet destroyed by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see Navarino) Oct. 20. 1827 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 Russian settlers, from the Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 The emperor Nicholas takes the field against the Turks - May 20, 1828 The Russian emperor arrives before Varna ... - Aug. 5, 1828 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 The sultan leaves his capital for the camp, bearing with him the sacred standard - - - Sept. 26, 18-28 Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. I, 1828 Suirender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 TCRKISH 1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. L388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 1.397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother. 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 1410 Musa; strangled by his brother. 1413 Mahomet I. -"succeeded by his son. 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 1451 Mahomet H. ; left the empire to his two sons. 1481 Co "tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by his father. 1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of his brother. 1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 1.520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1.566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 1604 Achmet; succeeded by his brother. 1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew, 1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a d 1524, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- ou: particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth. TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whon» articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious ■vases Russians retreat from I efore Schursla, October 16, i8Si3 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French - - - Oct. .'iO, 1828 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russi;> 1833 Office of grand vizier abolished by the sultan - - - March 30, ia38 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 EMFERORS. and his uncle restored. 16^ Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- ceeded by his grandson. 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, succeeded by his son. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by his brother. 1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his biO' ther. 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew, 1695 Mustapha 11., eldest son of Mahomet IV., deposed and succeeded by hi" brother. 1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- ther. 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 1789 Selim III. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1808 Mah. Khan II. 1S39 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 572 THE world's progress. f TYR enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets oi the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery; and in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei, ITJRNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other* wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663.— Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. llj'SCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tie title of king of Ecruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy; but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana- iuKe Leopold IT (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 began at Lezhorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Grand-duke giants a national militia. The grand-duke granted a liberal con- stitution - - - - Feb. 1848 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The grand-duke flees from Florence The chambers meet. Provisional government proclaimed, Feb. 9, l&iS Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- can troops - • - May 10, I&IO The grand-duke re-enters Florence and resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as king. TYLER. WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudenes.s of one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), the pro\^oked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the mayor. Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- persed, 1381. TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was bujlt 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- chadnezzar, 572 b. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed to an oppo.site island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difliculty, and only after he had joined the islani to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c. — Slrabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes were the <-iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the flames. — Pkillips. ITfRE Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- perberetaius. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub um] DICTIONARY OF DATilS. 573 tract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. U. UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ar«i Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the treaty of Partition in 1795. ULM, Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great ■ battle between the French and Austrians. in which the latter, imdcr gen- eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. JMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1. a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received unction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Anointing. UNIFORMS. Militar} uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions — lent as ii coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, m fear of rain, borrowed the mnbrtllafrom Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's pattens" As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, tnfirms us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not wilh any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman! why don't you get a coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining wilh the true esprit de corps, yvere clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage.'" This man's sister was compelled to quit J is arm one day from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted for tlu-ee months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and tliei« the English. Now it is beco ye a great trade in London," — New Monthly Magazine. 574 THE world's progress. [^Ni ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted. UNIFORMITr, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles IT., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. UNION OF THK CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year, UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 1800. UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who. besides the Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and eloquent writer. Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London arid Castle of Dub- lin. See Union. UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by thro\\ing off the Span- ish yoke. a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with Wilham, prince of Orange, at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- taerlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland. Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of Orauge as their stadtliolder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as the '• Union of Utrecht." the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of the '• Seven United Provinces." Their independence was acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated •JNI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. UNITED STATES of AMER CA. See America; and the separate States. Maine, .&c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con- sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19. 1775 See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4 1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776. Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treatj^ of peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty of peace signed May 30. 1848. See Wars of the United States. &c. ; also Naval Battles ; also Advunistrations, Exports, NoMonal Debt, Treaties, Po- pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this vol., page 122, et. seq.l UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bologna. Tlie British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- lowing are the principal universities in Europe : Aberdeen founded 1494 Dublin - . -1591 Abo, Finland 1640 Edinbursh, founded by .lames VI. -1582 Aix, 1409 ; re-established 1603 Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged .1390 Alba Julia, Transylvania 1629 Florence, Italy ; enlarged Fra n k for t-on- 1 he- Oder - -1438 Altorf, Franconia 1581 -1506 Andrew's, St., Scotland 1411 Fribourg, Germany . -1460 Angers, chiefly law 139S Geneva -1365 Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged 1364 Glasgow - . - 14.50 Avignon.. France i:38S Gotliiigen -1734 Bamberg 1585 Granada, Spain - . - 15.37 Baale, Switzerland 1458 Gripswald - -1547 Berlin 1812 Groninsen, Friesland - . - 1614 Besancon, Burgundy • 1540 Halle, Saxony - 1694 Bologna, Italy 423 Heidelberg . . 1346 Bruges, French Flanders 1665 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria . 1573 Caen, Normandy - 1417 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia . - 1548 Cambridge, began, 626- according to Kiel, Hoisiein -1665 oihers. 900. See Cambridge. King's College, London . -1829 Cambridge, New England, projected 1630 Konisrsberff, Prussia .1544 Cologne, in Germany, re- fo'jnded 1389 Leipsic, Sdxony - . -1405 Compo::tella, Spain - 1517 Leyden, Holland .1575 Coimbra, Portugal . 1301 Lima, in Peru - -1614 Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged ' 1539 ■ Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra -1391 Cordova, Spain - . 968 London University . .IS2(: Cracow. Poland, 700 ; en arged - 1402 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlarged . 1427 Dijon, France . 1722 1 Lyons, France - . . 830 Dillingin, Swabia - . 1565 Mechlin, Flanders - . - 1440 Dole, Burgundy - . 1426 Mentz . . 148-:^ Douay, Frencii Flanders . ■ 1562 Montpelier - -119a l^resden, Saxony - 1694 Moscow - • •1754 5/6 THE world's progress. [ cm fTNiVERSITIES, continued. Munster 1491 Naples 1216 Orleans, France 1312 Oxford (see Oxford) • - ■ - 886 Paderborn 1592 Padua, Italy 1179 Paleuza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 Paris. 792; renovated - - - -1100 Parma 1599 Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 Perpisnan 1349 Perugia, Italy 13U7 Petersburgh 1747 Pisa, 1339; enlarged - • • -1552 Poictiers 1430 Prague 1348 Rheims, 1145; enlarged • - - .1560 Rome Sapienza 1303 Rostock, Mecklenburgh . - - . 1419 Salamanca 1240 Salerno 1233 Saltzburg .... lea Saragossa, Arragon . . - . 1474 Seville 1531 Sienna - . 1387 Siguenza, Spain 1517 Sorbonne, Paris 1253 Sirasburg 1538 Toledo. Spain 1518 Treves, Germany .... 1473 Tubingen, Wirtemberg - ... 1477 Turin 1405 Upsal, Sweden 1477 Utrecht, Holland 1636 Valence, Dauphine 1475 Valencia in the thirteenth century, Valladolid 134< Venice 1592 Vienna 12:36 Wirtembers . - ... 1502 Wittenberg ... . . 1*502 Wurtzburg - • . - 1403 UNIVERSITIES m UNITED STATES. See Colleges. UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving s chapel, in London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in what was denominated the • Unknown Tongue.'^ She was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in afiright, and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — Ann. Register. URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is asually called Ui-anus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn ; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. USURY. Forbidden bv parliament. 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43^. 65. M. per annum for lOOZ.. which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted (see Jews). By tlie 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- beth. 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word iii' terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 1714. See Interest. U 1.RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), a. d. 15 9. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the T'AL ] DICTIOlMAivY OF DATES. 577 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargemeat of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. V. TACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. Ho made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result t(.) the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- duced Jan. 21, in that. year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received lO.OOOZ. for the dis- covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry VIII. , 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535 ; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence. 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as respects the character of the offender. VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. VALENCIENNES, Siege of. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 1793. It was retaken, together with Cond6, by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. — 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30. 1794, VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, oa agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De^ cember 8, 1813. VALENTINES DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- dom under Claudius II. at Rome. a. d. 271. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of Valentine. ^ALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric, 25 578 THE world's progress. [ via forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen -of each sex, which he called iEones, or Ages. I[e taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms ; to these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- tiousness. VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a raidshipmaa under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. VaNDAI.S. The Vandal nations began thuir ravages in liern uny and Gaul, A. D 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage. Oct. 24. 439. They were driven out. and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread devastation wherever they appeared. VAN DIEMENS LAND. Tliis country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804, VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and ViLlanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, and its slaverj^ increased under William I. Under the Nor- man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover- eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In Ei-gland, a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," was first used by Voltaire, 1748. VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora in order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain; and this induced them to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 1830. See Colombia. VENI, VIDI, VICI. — " I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-knoTvn sen- tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when ho vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela Battle of. TENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 u. c. Marcellus con- vica DICTIONARY OF DATES. 579 qtiered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. Th« ibxands on vliich the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was first governed by a doge (AnafVsto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 1830. Venice declares herself an independent republic - - Aug. 18, 184S Provisional government decrees an as- sembly wiih full powers to be elected by universal suffrage, 1 lo every 1.500 inhabitants - - Dec' 29, 18i8 Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is again in the power of Austria, Aug. 22, . VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- triioqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook^s Voyages. The diuiiial rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims of New-York withdrawn on payment of ^30.000, in 1790. The state admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589 ; in 1810, 217,895 ; in 1830, 280 679; in 1840, 291,948. VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immentie building 580 THE world's progress. [ V£i to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tous //•« gloires de Prance; and freely opened to the public. "VlilRSAILLES. Pkace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day. the detinitive treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain Sept. 3, 1783. In pnrsuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondichorry and Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal were restored to France. Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use foi grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey translated part of VirgiVs ^Eneid into blank verse, which is the lirst composi tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the Engli.sh language ; and the other measure was but little atfected till the reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the otta.va rima. as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. the Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into Italy in his heroic poem La Tezelde, having copied it from the old French chansons. — Metropolitan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vos.nus. See Poetry. VESTA. The planet Vesta (th3 ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.— Annual Register. VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romnlus was one of the vestals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Numa. in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- quin added two. The}' were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins. the high-priest was intrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected and they upon Avhom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. d2.—Bibliotheque Uni- verscllc. VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days tliroughout Naples; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke Avere carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa: birds w(jre suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: this eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by tire. Numerous eruptions have occurred causing great devastation and loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 pei'sons. and a great part of the surrounding country, were destro5'ed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly. Nov. 24 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the thirtv-fourth from the the time of Titus, when VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flc wed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town ol Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since. VETOES OP THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by Washington, twice ; Madison, four times ; Monroe, once ; Jackson, five times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846 French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846, VIENNA. The former ca])ital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England. 40,000/.. in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnilicent. with an army of 300.000 men : but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who totally defeated the Turkish army of 100.000, which had cannonaded the city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14. same year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austrta and Hungary. See next articles, VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other such parts of the S[)anish dominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; signed Nov. 18, 1738. VIENNA, Peace op, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere to t»ie prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia October 14, 1809. VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814 ; signed March 23, 1815. Th& treaty of Vienna betw^een the king of the Low Countries on the one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 682 THE world's progress. f VI» the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedea Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, June 8, 1815. VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to the vill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stowe's Chron. VIMEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir Arthtr Wellesley, and the whole of the P'rench and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21. 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- ant career. VINCENT'S. St. This was long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1763. the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island bj the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scoutfriei mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, and Wine* VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they migiit dip their bread, and kindly invitmg Ruth to share with them in their re))ast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy, It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. * The following: is a tvadilion in relation to the vine :— When Adam planted the first vine, and isft it, Satan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant! 1 will cherish thee;" and thereupon taking three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog. he slayed ihem at the root of the tree, and their blood has liecn iinbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you becor.e furious, and rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reasor. sioks. and, like the bog, you wallow in the mire.— .4s//e. VIE j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was no( proper for drinking till diluted. VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lengiet: The fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200. in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 11. ITIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45, The Presenuition of the Virgin, is a fe^st celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says: ''The Indian incarnate god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising from the dead, he ascended into ht^avcn in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William Jones. VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, "This is all. my daughter ! lean give thee, to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," having been settled. April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- wallis, at Yorktown. October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States adopted June 25. 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefierson, Madison, Monroe, 584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WAG Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, ar.d many distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747.610; in 1810, 974.G22j in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. VISIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately under the grand seignior : he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knalies. VITTORIA, Battle or. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in tlia annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar- shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all hia baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Weihngton tov.i. Jourdan's only remaining gun ! VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. c. by authentic historians. See ELna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out. Sept. 13. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808. VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large army, and 85 000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40.000 Germans, raised the militia to 100.000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- teers were, according to official accounts. 341 600 on Jan. 1. 1804. In the United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized the enlistment of 50 000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order of Necho, pharoah of Eg>pt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed fiom Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery was the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumni;,cigators, and North- Weai Passage. W. WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers. and other coverers ot houfles, had not more than M. per day (about M. of our money) ; and their WAl. ] DICTIO ^rARY OF DATES. 585 servants 1 ^d.— Vinvr's Statutes. By the tlie 23d Henry VI., 14il, the wagei of a bailift' of husbandry was 23s. 4^. per annum, and clothing of the price of 5s. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothii^g 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40fi. ; Avoman-servant, 10s., clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a Hke rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take Qd. a day, without meat and drink ; or with meat and drink M. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day e.xtra. The following were the WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. Year. s. d 1 Year. s. d. Year. s. d. In 1350 per diem. In 1688 ^er diem. 8 In 1783 per diem. 1 4 In 1460 ditto k In 1716 ditto 9 In 1794 ditto 1 6 In 1568 ditto 4 In 1740 ditto 10 In 1800 ditto 2 In 1632 ditto G Li 1760 ditto I In 1840 ditto 3 VVAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists feU upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick es- poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. This battle was fought December 31, 1460. WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- ticular saint'; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and was continued among the Saxons. — Whitaker. Women were hired among the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carince. The Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might lie inactive. WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth century led to the estabhshment of the Holy OflSce or Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the Catholic bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. One of the monk? the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been as- sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to ma -ch into the heretical distric:. All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort. commander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to he pursued with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun- try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking riiins. Such was the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wav constituted first inquir sitor-general, 1208. 25* 586 THE world's progress [ WAll WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern w&h elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; hut the Saxons perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. WALES. PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 128-4., Im- mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dijn," literally in English, 'This is your man," but signifying, ''This is your countryman and king." These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians assert, to " Ich Dien" which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 1307. — Myvyrian Archeology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that head. WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were well received in England. A large Protestant church was gi\ren to them by queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in this part of England. — Pardon. WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus. Pontius Pilate's porter. When they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall he struck him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, 'I am in- deed going; but thou Shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, being about thirty 3'ears of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the death and resurrection of Christ.— Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. ivar] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 3563 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recoi-ded in the annals /)f antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the Platasans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860,000.000 of men have perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- man species as now inhabit our whole earth. WARS, Civil, of Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons against Henry HI, 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of tho White and R^6. Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 1798. WARS. Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, Poictiers. and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE GONQ,UEST. War with Scotland, 1068 Peace 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 Pe ace. 1546 « France, 1116 " 1118 " Scotland, 1547 ' ' 1550 « Scotland, 1138 « 1139 » France, 1549 ' * 1550 « France, 1161 " 1186 " France, 1557 ' ' 1559 " France, 1194 " 1195 " Scotland, 1557 ' 1560 « France, 1201 " 1216 " France, 1562 ' ' 1564 '' France, 1224 " 1234 Spain, 1588 ' 1604 « France, 1294 « 1299 « Spain, 1624 ' ' 1629 Scotland, 1296 " 1323 " France, 1627 ' ' 1629 « Scotland, 1327 " 1328 " Holland, 1651 ' ' 1654 « France, 1339 « 1360 " Spain, 1655 ' ' 1660 >' France, 1368 " 1420 « France, 1666 ' ' 1668 " France, 1422 « 1471 " Denmark, 1666 ' 1668 " France, 1492 " same year '• Holland, 1666 ' ' 1668 " France, 1512 1514 " Algiers, 1669 ' Holland, J 672 ' ' 1671 « France, 1522 " 1527 ' 1674 « Scotland, 1522 " 1542 France, 1689 « ' 1697 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, Fiance, and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of Kyswick, Sept, 20, 1697. It concluded this last war. THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. War with Spain Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- cluded 1721. War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on April 30, 1748. War ; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756, Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Genera* peace of Feb. 10, J7R3 68S THE world's progress. [ W4B Wars, Foreign, of Great Britain — continued. War with the United States, July 14, 1774. | War of the Revolution^ Feb. 1, 1793. Peac« Peace of Pari.s, Nov. 30. 1782. of Amiens, March '27, 1802. War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of War asainst Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. | nally clo.sed, June 18, 1815. War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time, Jan 20, 1783. War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed Sept. 2, 1783. War with the United States, Jime 18, 1612. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. For the wars with India and China, see th: lies, «&c. Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piocept*, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs an4 Fables.' Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. "Book of Precepts.' Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- matical and Philosophical works from the Greek and Arabic. Solomon ben Adras {Ranhha) Theology. Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimonides.' Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason fof the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' •Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,* History. Judah, son of Benjamin, Rii-. al. Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac Dura, 'On Forbidden and Permittert Food.' Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a Ritual of much authority. David Abudraham, astronomy. Levi ben Geison (Ratbag), d. 1370. ' Com- mentary on the Law.' Menachen Aben Seiach, d. 137.5. Ritual. Isaac ben Sheshat {Ribash), 'Questions and Answers on Various Subjects.' Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.' Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bocnan,' a polemic work against. Christianity. Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), Commen- tary on Maimonides.' Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' Ethics and Theology. Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,— ' ' Foundation of Faith' Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* on the Law.' Joshua Levita, 'Introd. to the Talmud.' David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' Sainuel Sirsa, Grammar. Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. Abarbinel, ' Commentaiy on the Bible.' Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- mentary. Isaac Yarro, ' Explanations of the Bible.' Elias Levi, Grammar. Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the .Tews.* Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' Abraham Zaccoth, 'Juchasin,' Sacred cjid Jewish History. Moses Iserle, Astrology. Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' Azarias Edomaeus, History and Philology. Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and Chronology. Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. David Gans, History. 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. . D. St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. St. Paul, St. Peter. St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. GREEK. 611 IMAGINATION, PACT. SPECUIATIVE AND SClENTIPia ». C. 300 Homer, 'Iliad,' 'Odyssey,' &c. Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' «fec. B.C. 900 B. C. 900 rOO Tyrtaeus, Elesics (fragm'ts.) Archilochus, Satires, Ele- gies (fragments). 700 700 600 Aiceeus, Lyncs (fragments). Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). Solon, d. 55c!. Epimenides. Stesichorus, (333-553 Lyrics (fragmei)is). Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- ments.) Anacreon, Lyrics. 600 600 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics, ^schylus, 525-456, Trage- dies. Pindar, 518-439, Odea. Bacciiylides, Lyrics. Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- Euripides, 480-486, Trage- dies. Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- dies. 500 Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) Hecatasus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) Herodotus, d. 484, History. Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- ry of Peloponnepian War. Antiphon, Orations. Andorides, Orations. Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy, Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso- phy. Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo. sophy. Socrates, 46a-399, Philoac phy. 100 Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) Menander, 242-291, Come- dies (fragments.) 400 Ctesias. History (fragm'ts.) Xenophon, 444-359, History, Philosophy, &c. Isgeus, Orations. Isocrates, 536-338, Orations. Dinarchus, Orations. Lycurgus, Orations. Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- tions. .ZEschines, 389-314, Orations. 400 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- cine. Democritus, 450-357, Philo- sophy. Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- phy, Criticism. TheoDhrastus,rf. 288, Ethics. Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- phy. 300 Bion, Idyls. Moschus, Idyls. Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' Calliniachus, Hymns and Epigrams. Theocritus, Idyls. Aratus, Poem on Astrono- my. Cleanthes, Hymns. Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- nautics.' 300 Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 300 Euclid, Geometry. Zenlo of Citium, d. 263, Phi- losophy. Apollonius, Conic Sec'.ioafc Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphera and Cylinder,' &c. Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 612 THE world'3 Progress. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECtfLATIVE AND SCIBNTITia 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 20ti-121, Universal Ilisiory. ApoUodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' Mythology. 200 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conon, Mythology. Scymiius, Poetical Geogr. Dioiiy.sius Haiicarnassus, • Roman Antiquities.' Dionysius Periegeies, Ge- ograpliy 1 Diodorus Siculus, General History. 100 Strabo, Geography. Pausanias, Description of Greece. Plutarch, Biography, Morals &c. Dion Chrysostom, Orations. Dioscorides, Botany and Me- dicine. Epictetus, ♦ Enchiridion,' Philosophy. A. D. 100 lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- nonides, a novel. Lucian, Dialogues. Oppian, Poems on Hunting and Fishing. Athenaeus, d. 194, 'Deipno- sophistac, anecdotes. A. D. 100 iElian, d. 140. Varieties. Appian, History. Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- ander.' A. D. 100 Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- logy. Polvcarp. d. 167, Theolo^. Galen, 103-193, Medicine. Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the Resurrection.' Phavorinus, Lexicon. Ilermogenes, d. 161, Rb«- toric. Polyaenus, Strategy. M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- losophy. Nephaestion, ' On Metres.' Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. Julius Pollux, 'Onomagti- con,' Rhetoric. 200 • 200 Diogenes Laertius. d. 222, 'Lives of Philosophers.' Philostratus, d. 244, Life of Apolionius. Dion Cassius, History of Rome. Herodian, History of Rome. Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of Pythagoras, Philosophy. 200 Ammonius. PhilosTphy. Orison, d. I'A. Theology Hesychius, Lexicon, lamblichus, Philosophy, Longinus, d. 273, 'On th« Sublime.' aoo Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon and Leucippe,' novel. Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- rocome,' novel. 300 Eusebius, d. ^40, Ecclesias- tical History. Liabanius, Orations and Epistles. 300 Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. Athanasius, 298-^71, Theo lotry. Greg. Nazianzen, 3i8-3SSl Theology. LITEPwARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 613 IBIAQINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 300 300 Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo- sophers.' Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 395, Theoloey. Cyril, 315-386, Theology. Diophantus, Mathematics. 30C Aristaenetus, 'Erotic Let- ters.' Ilelioclorus, ' Theagenes & Chariclaea,' novel. Chaiiton. ' Chaereus and Caliniioe,' novel. 300 300 Chrysostom 354-40", The. ology. 400 Lonsus. 'Daphnis and Chloe,' novel. Nonnii.s, ' Conquest of India by Bacchus.' Slobaeus, ' Literary Collec- tions.' Quintus SmyiTiEeus (com- monly called) Calabar, 'Conlin. of Homer.' Musseus, Poem of Hero and Leanderl Eumathius, 'Ismenaeus & Ismensea,' novel. Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape of Helen.' Trypliindorus, Poem on ' Destruction of Troy.' 400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- tles. Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman Emperors.' Socrates, 3S9-446, Ecclesi- astical History. Sozonien. d. 450, Ecclesias- tical History. Theodoret, d. 4-50, Ecclesi- astical History, 400 Nemesius, ' Nature of Man,' Philosuphy. Cyril, d. 443, Homilies, Proclus, d. 445, Theology. Proclus, d. 500, PlatonisU 600 503 Stephanus, Geography. Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign of .Tustinian.' Olympiodorus, 'Hist, of Hunorius.' Cos. Indlcopleustes, Topo- graphy. Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist Agaihias, Byzantine Hist. 500 Simplicius, ' Comments en Aristotle.' Tribonianus, Jurist. 600 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. Theophanes, Byzant.Hist. Theophylactus Simocatta, Byzantine History. 600 Philoponus, Grammarian, 700 700 700 Damascenus, d 750, The- ology. 600 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. Syncellus, Histoiy. John Malalas, Histoiy. 800 Theodorus Studites, 759- 826, Sermons. Photius, d. 891, 'BtbIio> theca.' 900 900 Leontiiis, History. Genesius, History, 900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' OnChri* tian Faith.' 61 THE world's progress. IMAGIMATION. 900 1000 1100 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- danthe and Dosicles,' novel. 1200 1300 Manuel Philea, 1275-1340, Poems. Maximus Planudes, Anth- ology. Leo Pilatus, Literature. 1400 900 Const. Porphvro2enneta, 905-959, Hist.'Serections. Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives of Saints. SPECULATIVE AND SCIBHTVia 900 1000 George Cedrenus, History. 1000 John Xiphilinus, d. lOSO, Abridg. of Dion Cassius. | Theophylactus, Theology. j Michael Psellus, Mathema John Scylitza, History. tics. HOC 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, Nicephorus Bryennius, d. Theology. 1137, Byzant. Affairs. Anna Comnena, Reign of her father Alexius. I Const. Manasses, History, j Zonaras, History of Ro- mans, History of Jews, i Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184,' History. \ John Tzetzes, History in Verse. Cinnamus, History. 1200 Joel, History. Michael Glycas, History. George Acropolita, Hist. Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. George Pachymer, Hist. Suidas, Lexicon. Eustathias, Commentarloa on Homer. Isaac Tzetzes, Commentary on Lycophron. 1200 Nicephorus Blemmidas, Theology. 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 History. Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- clesiastical History. Niceph. Gregoras, History. John Cantacuzenus, Hist. George Codinus, Hist. Michael Ducas, History. 1400 Demet Pam7>eres, Tales. Marnllus Tarchoniota d. 1500, Poems. 1600 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. Origin of Turks. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of Turks. George Phranza, History. 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 1415. Grammar. Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, d. 1450, Philosophy. Eman. Moscopulus, Notes on Hesiod. Bessarion, 1395-1472. The- ology. Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 146S, Aristotelian. John Argyrophilus, Arist* telian. 1500 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, I • 1453-1513, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 615 IMAGINATION. 1600 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. Nicholas Caradza, Trans- lation of Voltaire. 1700 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, ural Philoscphy. Nat- 1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. Chi'isiopulus, Anacreon- tic?, Opera. Calvos. Lyrics. Ilarion, Translation of So- phocies^ 1600 1700 Alexander Maurocordato, History of the .Jews. Meletius, Geography. 1700 Ducas, Translation of Thu- cydides. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, Hist, of Wallachia, &c. Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. Perrevos, History of Suli and Parga. Gr. Demetl-ius, Geography. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- ology. 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. Marcus Tharboures, Me- chanics. 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. 1800 Psaiidas, Metaphysics. Coray, Connnentaries, Lex- icon. Cumas, Dictionary. Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. LATIN AND ITi^LIAN. [The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the modern languages began to appear.' As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head ; but about the sixth century they will be found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which they wrote.] IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC B. C. B. C. B. C. 200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 200 200 Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). P. Terentius, Comedies. M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 100 100 T. Pomponius Atticus, \\Q- 100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti- 33, Letters. ca Lingua Laiina. Vitruvius, Architecture. Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, FaaU CapitoUni. T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- M. T Cicero, 107-1-3, Orator rum Natura. and Philosopher. Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics. Julius Caesar, 98-46, Com- mentaries. Ilir-ius Pansa, Gallic War. C. Saliustius. 85-35, Jugur- thine War.' Corn. Nepos, Biography. P. Virgilius, 70-19. Eneid. Q. Horatius, 65-5, Cues, Sat- ires. Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. T.Livius,59B.c.-19A.D., A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 History of Rome. A. D., Elegies. Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 A. D., Me- tamorph. Fasti. &c. Hyginus, Poeticon Astro- no micon. 616 THE world's rP^QGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVB AND SCIENTWW A. D. A. D. A. D. Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 A. D., Hist. ol'Uoine. Pomp. Mela, Geograijliy. Valerius Maximum, Anec- dotes of Great Men. Phaedrus, Fables. C. Celsus, De Medicina. Quintus Curtius, History of Columella, Agriculture. Alexander. Persiiis. :i4-G'2, Satires. L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philo» Liican, 33-6.0. ' Pliaisalia.' opher. Tragic Poet. Petroiiiiis Arbiter, d. 07, Sa- Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nafc tyricon. Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- ral History. Quintilian Criticism. tics. Silius Italicus, ' Punic War.' Sulpicia, Satires, &c. Statius, d. 99, 'Tliebais,' ' Achilleis.' Mania!. S9-104, Epij.'rams. Juvenal, 48-128. Satires. Pliay the Younger, 61-113, Epistles. 100 100 Tacitus, History. 100 Vaier, Probus, Grammar. Suetonius, Biography. Florus, History of Rome. Frontinus, Strategy. Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- te Metrica. L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass. tira3. C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. Justin, Histoiy. Pompei. Festus, Grammar. Nemesianus, Cynegetica. Jul. Gal purni us. Eclogues. 300 Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel m Ver.se. M. Victorinus, Hymns. Festus Avienus, Geographi- cal Poem. D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. A. T. Macrobius, Satur- nalia. Rrmmachus, Epistles. 300 El Spartianus, History. Jul. Capitolinus, History. ^1. Lainpridus, History. Vul. Gaillcanu.s. History. Tr<-bolliu3, Pollio, History. F. Vopiscus, History. Aurelius Victor, History. F. Eutropius, History of Rome. Amm. Marcellinus, History of Rome. 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. Teriullian, J. 220, 'Apology for Christianity.' Minutius Felix, Dialogue in favor of Christianity. Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- digiis.' Censorinus, 'De Die Na. tali.' Cyprian, d. 253, Theology. 300 Amobius, ' Adversus gen- tes.' Lartantius, d. 325, Defence of Christianity.' JE\. Donatus, Grammar. F. Maternus, Astronomy Theology. Ambrosius, Theology. Jerom. 329—420, Version of Bible. Rufinu.s, d. 410, Ecclesiasti cal History. T. Vegetius Renatus. De Re Militari. Augustin, 354—430, Theol- ogy- LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 617 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SClEHTlfflO 300 C. Clandianus, Poems. A. Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. 300 300 409 Sediilius, Poetical Life of Christ. Martianus Capella, De Nup- tius Phil, et Merc. B^ulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on Martin of Tours. Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, Poems. Ennodius, d. 521, Christian Poems. 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, Sacred History. Orosius, Hist, of World. Victorius, History of Church in Africa. Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 400 500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- sopher. Arator, 490-556, Acts of Apostles in Verse. 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- tory. Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. Evagrius, Eccl. History. 500 Priscianus, Grammar, Fulgentius, 468-533, The- ology. Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, Christian Era. Non. Marcellus, Grammar. 600 600 Secundus, d. 615, History of Lombards. 600 700 700 Paul Wamefrid. History of Lombards. 700 Cresconius, Collection Canons, Verses. 800 800 Erchempert, History of Lombards. Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 800 900 900 Luitprand, History of his Times. 900 1000 1000 1000 Papias, Grammar. Lanfranc, d. 1089, I'heol. 1100 Donlzo, Latin Poe.ry. Ciullod' Alcamo, Siciliar Poetry. 1100 Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 1100 Gratian, Canonist. Campanus, Mathematics. V3m Guido of ("^olonna, Poetry, History. Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, '11 Tesora.' Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, Poems. John XXII., Poem on Me- dicine. 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, History. Marco Polo, Travels. G. de Voragine, d. 1298, Legends of Saints. 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 1274, Theoloery. Bonaventura, Scholastic. G. Durand, Law. Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1? , A.strology, Physics. Torregiano Rustecli»»lli, Commentarfes. 618 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. LMAGINATION. FACT. SPECTTLATIVB AND SCIENTIFia 1300 Dante, 12G5-1321, La Di- 1300 Dino Compagni, 1265-1323, Clirouicies. 1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. vina Cominediii, Vita Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313., Nova, Convito, &c. Giovanni and M. Villani, Alcliemy. F. Barberino, 1264-1348, Chronicles. Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, Poems. Astronomy. Petrarca, 1304-1374, Son- G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- nets, Epic, Literature. nons. Boccacio, 1313-1375, 'II- Bartolus, Law. Decamerone,' Poems and Domenico Cavalca,Ascetic various works in Latin Ferreti, 1356-1429, History and Translat. of Lives and Italian. of bis Times. of Saints. 1400 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. of Florence. A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 'Hermapliroditus.' Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera- lation of Plutarch. ture. Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, Medicine. Literature. B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460. D. Burcliiello, Sonnets. tory of Holy War. Baraterius, Law. Flav. Blondus, 13SS-1463, Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396- History of Venice, &c. 1479, Orientalist. jEn. Sylvius, 1400-1464, Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, History, Poetry, &c. Astronomy. Beccat, Panormita, 1393- 1471, Biograpliy. Pulci, 1432-1487, ' Mor- Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, gan te Maggiore.' Lives of Popes. Franc. Piiilelphus, 1398- F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 1481, Poetry and Ethics. Bio.,'raphy. Loren. de Medici, d. 1492, Pomp. Lietus, 1425-1495, Poetry, Literature. Lives of Cassars, &e. Angelo Poliziano, 1454- Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 1494, Poetry, Drama. graphy. Pico de Mirandola, 1463- Marsilius Ficiuus, 1433- G. Pontano, 1426-1563, 1494, Metaphysics. 1499, Translat. Plato. Wars of Ferdinand I. Bontinius, d. 1502, History of Hungary. Luca di Burgo, Mathem. 1500 1500 E. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, tory. Anatomy. L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, G. Ruccellai, 1475-1526, ♦Treatise on Painting,' 'LeApi.' GiambuUari, 1495 - 1555, &c. Alexander ab Alexandro, History of Europe. G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 1461-1523, Dies Geni- A, Acchillini, 1472-1512, tales. Medicine. M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In- B. Castiglione, 1478-1529, 'The Courtier.' namorato.' Sanazaro, 1458-1530, Ar- caflia. B^rii, d. 1530, Satires, Burlesque, and Orlando Innamorato. Machiavelli, 1482-1528, His- Ariosto, 1474-1533, 'Or- tory of Florence, clesiastical Polity. W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, ' On the Loadstone*' L. Andrews, 1565 — 1626. Sermons. 1600 Edward Coke, .550- -1634, Law. John Napier, 1550—1617, Logarithms. Robert Buncr, 1576— 1€39, ' Anat. of Melancholy.' Francis Bacon, 1560—1626, Philosophy, History. Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, Circulation of Blood. John Selden, 1584—1654, Antiquities, Law, Hist. J. Harrington, 1611—1677, 'Oceana.' James Usher, 1580—1655, Divinity, Sermons, Hist. Thos. Hobbes, 15SS— 1679, Metaphysics W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, Antiquities, History. W. Chillingworth, 1602- 1644, Theology. Isaac Barrow, 1630—1677, Divinity, Mathematics. J. Pearson, 1612 — 1686, Divinity. Brian Walton, 1600—1661 Polyglot Bible Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, Divuiity. Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683. ' Discouise on Govern- ment.' Thos. Browne, 160.5—1682 ' On Vulgar Err )rs.' Edmund Castell, d. 1685 Lexicon Heptag'otton. R. Cudworth, 1617—1,6^8. Metaphysics.' 624 THE world's progress. iMAGINATIOV. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND .SCIEMTIFIO. 1600 1600 1600 J. Eve'yn, 1G20— 1;06, ' Sylva.' H. More, 1614—1687, Th«- olosy. T. Sydenham, 1624-1689, Rochester, 1648—1680, Wm. Temple, 1629—1710, Satires. Memoirs, &c. Medicine. Roscoiiiinon, 1633—1684, W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di- Poems. vinity. N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 1630—1094, John Bunyan, 162S— 1683, Sermons. Pilgrim's Progress.' Archbishop Leight ra, John Dryden, 1631—1701, 1613-1634, Diviiiity. Trasredv, Satire, 'Virgil.' R. Baxter, 1615—1691, Thos, Otway, 1651— IGSiJ, 'Saint's Everlasting Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History Rest.' of England. R. Boyle, 1627—1691, Theology, Chemistry, 4700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700 'The Choice.' Fcedera. John Ray, 1628—170.5, Bot- any, Natural History. John" Locke, 1632-1704, Metaphysics. R. South, 1633-1716, Di- vinity. fohn Philips, 1676— r08. 'Splendid Shillmg.' Thos. Parnell, 1679-1718, S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 'The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton. 1642-1719 Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, Thos. Hearne, 1678-1735, ' Principia.' Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, John Strype, 1643—1737, Astronomy. Eccl. History, Biog. R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Ph Gilbert Burnet, 1643-1715, osophy. 'History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 1670— Matthew Prior, 1664-1721, L. Echard, 1671—1730, 1733. ' Fab. of the Bres.' Poems. History of Enirland. Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, K. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte, 1G86— 1754, Astronomy. Essays. Politics. History of England. Hans Sloane, 1660-1753, Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, John Potter, 1674-1747, Natural History. ' Robinson Crusoe.' kc. Antiquities. Jcs. Addison, 1672—1719, Sir W. Petty, 1623- 16S2, 'Spectator,' 'Cato.' Ac. Statistics. Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718, Traaedy. J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- edy. A. Clark, 169G— 1742, Dl W. Consreve, 1672-1728, vinity. Philosophy. Comedy. D. VVaierland, 1633—1740, lohn Gay, 1683-173^2, Divinity. ' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. M. W. Montague, 1690— Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, R. Beniley, 1661—1740, History of P^ome. Divinity, Philology. 1762. Letters. C. Middleton, 1633—1750, A. Baxter, 16S7— 1750, Mel Robert Blair, 1699—1746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics. ' The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 1751, Politics. Literature ' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' , ] 696 -1782, Elements of Criiicism. R. Lowih. 1710-1787, Di- vinity, Philology. W. Blackstone, r7;;3— 1780, Laws of England, "Junius." Adam Smith, 1723-1790, ' Wealth of Nations.' J. Harris, 1709—1730, Phi- lology. John Hunter, 1728—1793, Medicine. F. Balguy, 1716-1795 Di- vinity. T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- phy.?ics. Sir j: Reynolds, 1723—1792, Art. S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo- logy. Jos. Priestley, 173.3—1804, Metaphysics, Chemistry. Hugh Blair, 1719-1800, Sermons. J.Horne Tooke, 1736—1812 Philology. Wm. Jones, 1747-1794, Orientalist. R. Price, 1723-1791, Meta- )hysics. Divinity. '■"m. Paley, 1743—1805, Theology. Ricd. Poison, 1759—1808, Philology. Ths. Beddoes, 1760— i808s Medicine Wn: 626 THE world's PROGHESS. IMAGINATICN. 1700 Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751— 18.'.6, Drama, Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823, Novels. laOL Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, ' Farmei's Boy.' Mrs. Barbauld, Poems. Tales. Lord Byron, 1788—1824, Poems. John Keats, Poems. P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, Poems. R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, Drama. Miss Austin, Novels. Wm. Godwin, 1755—1836, Novels, Metaphysics. Walter Scott, 1771—1832, Novels, Poems. Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827, 'Course of Time.' Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, ' The Borough,' «kc. Fanny Burney, —1840, Novels. Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844, Novels. Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 1839. Lyrics. Thos. Hamilton, 1789— 1842, Novels, Travels. Felicia Hemans, 1754— 1835, Poems. Barbara Hofland, Novels. 1 Jas. Hogg, -1835, Po- ems and Tales. ' Th^y. C. Hutton, a 1823, Mathe- niaiics. John I'layfdir, d. 1819. P. Elmsley, Philology. T. Wollasion, Chemistry. Thomas Young, Hierogly- phics. &c. T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- physics. Vicessimus Knox, 1752— 1821, Essays. Malihus, Polit. Economy. Wm. Hazlit, Critic and Essayist. Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, Essays, Criticism. Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, Divinity. Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, Chemistry. Jer. Bentham, d. 1832, ' Principl(:s of Legisla- tion.' Adam Clarke, 1763—1832, Divinity. Criticism. Arch. Alison. 1757—1839, Essays on Taste. Francis Baily, 1774—1844; Astronomy, &c. Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837, Theology. Herbert Marsh, 17K.]— 1839, Theolojry. Thos. Mitchell, 1783— 1&45, Classic. Critic. Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, Scient. Miscellanies. SirE. Brydges, 1762—1837, Miscellanies. Win. Cobbett, —1835, Politics, &c. J. Dalton, - 1844, Che- mist. J. F. Daniell, —1845, Chemist. Sydney Smith, —1845, Theology, Essays. Chas. Bonnycastle, — 1840. Mathematics. T.^os. Chalmers. Theology and P j itical Econom7 LITERARY CHRONOLOGY- — GERMAN. 627 IMAGINATION. fACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773—1834, 1800 1800 John Leslie, —1832. Ethics. Mathematician. L. E. Landon Maclean, Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- graphy. J. C. Loudon, 1783— lS4a 1804 -ia38, Novels and Botany, Agricul., Archit. Poems. Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, John Bell, 1763—1825, Wm. Maginn, 1793-1842, Travels. Anatomy & Physiology. Olinthus Gregory, 1774— Poems, Arch. Alison, History of Manyatt, —1847, Nov- Europe. 1841, Mathematics and els.^ ' Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842, Religion. John Gait, 1779—1839, History of Rome. Robert Hall, 1764-1831, Novels. Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 177t)— Sermons. Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks. 1842. Archseologv. Sir Chas. Bell. 1781-1824, Forseries. Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835, Anatomy and Physio- Lady '^Morgan, -184-^ Life of Knox. I- gy. Novels. Sir John Malcolm, History Jas. Morier, 1780— Persia and India. Novels. I. D'Israeli, 1766-1848, Cu- Thos. Campbell, 1777— riosities of Literature. 1844, Poems. Basil Hail, 1783—1844, Voy- Thos. Banim, 1800— 1S42, ages and Travels. Novels. Heniy F. Gary, 1772—1344, Trans. Dante, «fec. GERMAN. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 800 800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of Charlemagne, Annals. 800 Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, Poems, Theology. Nithard, d 8-53, History o' Wars of France. Theology. Gottschalk, d. 869, 'On Predestination.' Otfried, Harmony of Gos- pels in rhyme. 910 900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 900 Hroswitha, Let. Comedies. Batherius, d. 974, Theolo Notger, Trans, of Psalms. Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. gy, Grammar. iOOO 1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 1000 Witpo, 'Praise of Henrv of Saxon Emperors. III.,' Biography. Hermannus Contractus, WUleram, Francic Poems. Universal History. Mar. Scotus, 1028—1086, Chronicles. Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi- astical History. Lambert, General History. Sigebert. rf. 1113, Chron. Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo- ry of Bohemia. uoo 1100 Berthold Constantiensis, 1100 Mangold, Theolofy. Universal History. Otio, d. 1158, Chronicle. Hem 7 of Veldeck, Minne- He 1 mold, d. 1170, Chron. Binger. of Slavi. 628 THE WORLD'S PROGEESf=! IMAGINATION. ^200 Giinther, Poems. Frederic II., 1196-1254, 'De Arte Venandi.' Freydaiik, Poems. 1300 RudgerofManesse, Collec- tion of Ballads. Henry Frauenlob, Songs. Boner, Fables. 1400 Felix Hfimmerlein, Satires. Hans von Rosenplut, Poems. Heinrich von Alkmaar. ' Reinke de Voss.' Conrad Celtes, 1459— lottS. Latin Poems, History of Nuremljure. Thos. Murner, 1475—1536, ' Rojrues' Guild.' L500 Melc. Pfinzing, 1481—1535, ' Theuerdank.' Glareanus (H. L.) 1488- 1563, Classics. HaiiS Sacha, 1494-1574, Poems. John Fischart, 1511-1581, Satires. 1200 Arnold of Liibeck, Chro- nicle of Slavi. 1300 Henrich von Rebdorf. Chronicle. Heinrich von Hervorden, Chronicle. Jacob von . Konigshofen, Chronicle. John Schiidberger, History of Tinionr. 1400 Gobelin Persona, General History. Windeck, Life of Sigis- mund. John Stadweg, Chronicle. Peter von Andlo, de Im- perio Romano. Mar.Behhaim. Geography. Breydenbach, Topogy. Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 1500 Maximilinn, d. 1508, Auto- biography. Griinbeck, Lives of Em- perors. Albert Kranz. d. 1517, His- torv of Saxons, &c. B. Pirkbeimer, 1480—1.530, Hi.«:torv. Poetry. John Aventin, M66— 1534, Anals of Bavaria. Con. Peutinger, 146,5—1.547, History and Geoeraphv. John Carion, 1499—1538, Comp. of History. John Sleidan. 1506—1556, Universal History. G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- vetic Chronicle. Gerard Mercator, 1512 — 1594, Geography. SPECULATIVE AND 8CIEMTIFI0 Epko of Repgow, • Saxot Mirror,' (La'w;. John Semeca, Law. Alb. Magnus, 1193—1280. Natural Philosophy. 1300 John Tauler, Sermons, Jor,r. Huss^ 13Sb— 1415 Theology. 1400 John von Gmiinden, Astro- nomy. Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423- 1461, Theory of PlaneUi. Regiomontanus, 14.36 — 1476 Astron.. Mathemat. Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat Thomas a Kempis, 1330— 1471. Theology. Gabriel Brie, d. 1495 The- o\o'sy. .lohn' Geyler, 1445—1510, Theolosry. John Trithemius, 1462— 1516. Nat. Philosophv. Reuchlin, 1454—1522, Phil- ology. 1500 J. Wimpfelin^en, 1452- 1528, Theol., Poems. Holoander, d. 1531. Law. Corn. Agrippa, 1486- -1535 Phv-'^ics, Theolosry. M. Luther, 1483-1546, Theology. Zwingle, 1484—1531, Th» ology. Melancthon, 1497—1560, Theology. Paracelsus, 1493—1541, Chemistry. Joac. Camerarius, 1500— 1574. Philology. Conrad Gesner, 1516—1565 Natural History. Basil Faber, 1520—1576, Thes. Erud. Schol. Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586 Theology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 629 IMAGINATION. 1500 G. Fabricius, 1516—1571, Lat. Pms. Topography. Rollenha?en, 1542—1609, Frnschmuusler. Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613, Latin Poems. 1600 Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, Poems. Jamer, Balde, 1603—1668, Poem.s. A. Giyphius, 1616—1664, Tragedies. Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, Poems. Lohenstein, 1638—1683, Poems. 1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706, Poems, Hist., Philology, Von Canitz, 1654—1699, Poems. Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems Liscov, Satires. J. C. Gottsrhed, 1700-1766, Poems, Tras., Criticism. Hasedorn, 1708—1754, Fables. Haller, 1708—1777, 'The Alps.' J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, Drama. E. C. Kleist, 1715-1759, Idylls. Gellert, 1715—1769, Fables. Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir. 1500 Simon Schard, 1535—1573, Collec. German Hist. John Pistorius, 1544—1607, Collec. German Hist. Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, Hist. Germy. & France. 1600 P. Cluvier, 1580—1623, Geo£raphy. M. Gbldast, 1576—1635, History. G. Calixtus, 1556—1656, Ecclesiastical History. Olearius, 1604—1685, Travels, y S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 1694, History, Law. D. G. Morhoff, 1G39— 1691 Biography, History. SPECUIATIVU AND SCIENTIFIC. 15C0 Wm.Xylander, 1.532—1576, Philol-ogy. Wesenbeck, 1531—1586, Law. Fred. Syllerg, 1531—1596 Philology. Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, Theology, Philology. C. Rittpvhuis, 1560—1613, Law. 1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, Natural Hisinry. J. Bii.xtorf, 15K-1621, Philolosy. John Kepler, 157i— loSi, Astronomy. B. von Helmont, 1577— 1644, Chemistry. C, Scioppius, 1576—1649, Ars Critica. John Baver. Uranometria. G. Banh, 1.587-1658, Phil- ology. Sol. Glass, 1593—1656, Philol. Sacra. Otio Guerike, 1602—1686, Air-Piimp, &c. Her. Conrii]g, 1606—1681, Antiquities. Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702, Numismatolosy. John Schiller, d. 1705, An- tiquities. 1700 H. Meibomius, 1638—1700,1700 Ludolph, 1649— 1711, Phil History. C. Celfarius, 163S— 1707, Geography, Antiq. C. Frankenstein. 1661— 1717. History, Biog. J. Arnold, 166.'3— 1714, Ec- clesiastical History. J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 17.30, General Hi'^^tory. J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, Bibliography H. Freyer, Gen. Histoiy B. G. Struve, 1671—1738, History of Germany. J. L. Mosheim, 1695—1755. Ecclesiastical History. A. F. Buschi..g, 1724—1793 Geography. | oloey. Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma- thematics, Metaphysics. C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, Law. F. Budasus, 1667—1729, Divinity. G. E. Stahl, 1660—1734, Chemistry. F. Hoffman, 1660—1742, Medicine. J. Bernouilli, 1667—1747, Mathematics. B. Hederick, 1675—1748, Philology. J. M. Gessner, 1691— 17C1 Philology. A. G. Bainriearten, 17M— 1751. Ethics, Metarh. J. J. Gessner, 1707—1787, Numismatology. G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777, Philosophy. F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 1783, Nat. History. J. Winkelmar.n, 1718—1768 Antiquity. Leon. Euler, 1707—1783, Mathematics: 630 THE world's progress. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND 8CIBHTWI0 1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730- Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 1780, Sermons. tical History. J. A. E. Giitze, 1731—1786, Klopstock, 1724-1803, 'TJie Messiah.' Entomology. Im. Kant, 1724—1804. Zachariae, 1727—1777, Metaphysics. Comic Poems. C. F. Weisse, Drama. \. G. Zimmerman, 1728— 1795, 'On Solitude.' Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. Ramler, 1725-1798. Odes. Dusch, 17-27- 1783, Poems. G. E. Lessing. 1729-1781, Drama, Fables. - S. Gessner, 1730-1788, 'Death ol" Abel.' Wieiand, 1733-1813, Ro- C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. mances, Poems. Pfeffel, 1736-1S09, Fables. Semler, d. 1791, Tb., 1532-1573, Odes, Tidge ies, «&c. 1500 Guill. du Bellay. d. 1543, History of his Times. Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593, Translations. 150( J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, Philology. Du Bois, 1478—1555, Aiat. Rob. Stephens, 1503— 1559, Philolosrv. P.Ramu3,l515— 1572,Lode Seb. Castellio, 1515- 1563, Philology. Jas. CujaciuB, 1520—1590 Law. Lambinus, 1516—1572, CommentarieB. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^FRENCH. 633 IMAGINATION. 1500 M. A. Muret, 1526-1585, Poems, Criiicisms. Mich, ie Montaigne, 1533 — 1592, Essays. Fran. Malherbe,155&— 1628^ Odes. leOO M. Reignier, 1573-1613, Satires. J. Chapelain, 1595—1674, La Pucelle.' P. ComeiUe, 1606—1684, Drama. St. Evremond, 1613—1703, Literature. Rochefoucault, 1603—1680, Reflections. Memoirs. Moliere, 1620-1G73, Drama. La Fontaine, 1621—1695, Fables, Tales. Segi-ais, 1624— 1701, Idyls. T. Corneiile, 1625-1709, Drama. M. de Sevign6, 1626—1694, J. Racine, 1639-1699, Drama. Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 1500 J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609, History, Criucism, &c. J. A. de Thou, 155J— 1617, History of France. 17X) Regnard, 1847—1709,^ Comedies. Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. of Arabian Nights. Fcnelon, 1651— 1715, »TeIe- machus,' &c. Deslioulieres, 1633—1691, 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, History of France. An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, Collectioas of Histories Bochart, 1599—1667, « Geo- graphia Sacra.' Henry Spondanus, 1568— 1643, History. S. Guicheron, 1607-1664, Hist, of House of Savoy. Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, Ecclesiastical History. Adr. Valesius, 1607—1692 « Deeds of the Franks.' L. Moreri, 1643—1680, Historical Dictionary. Tilicmont, 1637-1698, Ec- clesiastical History. 1700 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIO. 1500 Hen. Stephens, 152&-1590, Philology. F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al- gebra. Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, Theology. Isaac Casaubon, 1559— 1604, Philology. J. Marsollier, 1647—1724, History, various. Fleury, 1653-1723, Eccle- siastical History. G. Daniel, 1649— 1728, His- 1 tory of France. Vatincoun, 1663—1730, I Biography. C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, Hisloiy and Criticism. Dennis Petau, 1583-1652, Ch..iiolo2y. P. Gassendi, 1592—1655, Pliilosophy. Des Cartesj 1596 1650, Metaphysics. Ma;hem. B. Pascal, 1623—1662, Miscellaneous. D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, Orientalist. Cassini, 1625-1712, Astroa Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, Sermons. La Bruyere, 1636-1696, ' Characters.' Malbranche, 1633-1715, 'Search after Truth.' 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, Dictionary. Hardouin, 161&-1729, Criticism. And. Dacier, 1651-1722, Philology. Anne Dacier, 1651-1720, Philology. Tonrasfort, 1656-1708, Botany. Fontenelle, 1857-1756, 'Plurality of Worlda, &c. Montfaucon 1655-1741, Antiqiiities. Masslllon, 1668-1742, 634 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. 1700 J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741, Odes, Crebillon, 1674—1762, Tragedies. Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, ' Gil Bias.' P. N. Destouches, 1680— J 754. Comedies. J. B. Grecoui-t, 1683—1743, Odes, Tales, (fee. Marivaux, 1683—1763, Novels. Voltaire, 1695—1778, Tra- gedy, Poetry, Hist., hy. Felix de Azara, Zoology. J. N.deAzara, 1731— ia04 Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. Antiquity. 1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, 1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 1800 ' Agrarian Law.' Inquisition. Tol. da Almeida, Satires. Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, Comedies. M. Garcia de Villanueva, ' On the Theatre.' 1. H. Daviia, General Lit- erature. Jose Antonio Conde, His- tory of Moors in Spain. 6.S8 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. DUTCH. IKAGINATIOM. 1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235— 1300, Poems, ' Rymby- bel.' Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, Chronicles. Heij. van Holland, Poems. Claes VVillems, Poems. UOO J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. Dirk van Munster, ' Chris- tian Mirror.' Lambert, Goetman, ror of Youth.' Mir- 15011 A. Byns, Religious Poems. Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and Prose. J. Secundus, 1511—1536, Amatory Poems. Dirk Koornliert, 1522— 1590, Traiisl. Homer. P. van Marnix, Odes, Songs. R. Visscher, Epigrams. Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- tic Poems. 1200 SPECULATIVE AND 8CIEKTIV;3 1200 1.300 1300 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, Chronicles of Brabant. p. vander Heyden, 1393— 1473, Chronicles. Gerard Groot, Theology, 1400 1500 S. Pighius, 1520— 1604, 'Roman Annals.' G. Brederode, 1585—1637, Comedies. &c. D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 1C2G, Religious Poems. Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, Poems, Philology. J. Cats. 1577 — 1660.'Drama. P. C. Hooft, I.'-jS?— 1647, Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of the Netherlands. G. van Baerle (Barlaeus), 1.584—1648, Latin Poems. Just van Vondel, 15S7 — 1679, Tragedies. M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. Jan van Heem'-'verk, 'Ar- cadia.' J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, Epigrams. A. Schott. 1552—1629, His- tory of Spain. 1600 H. de Groot (Grotius), 1583—1645, Hist., Theol- ogy, Poetry, «fec. J. W. Gransfoet, Theo. Rud. Agricola, 1442— 14S5, Philosophy, Hist., &c. 1500 Erasmus, 1467— 1536, The- ology, Literature, &■'• J. Heumius, 1543—1601, Medicine. C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic- tionary. Justus Lipsius, 1547— 160& Philology. Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633, Hydrostatics, Mathem. H. Erpenius, 15S4— 1624, Orientalist. 1600 J. Golius, 1596—1667, Or* entalist. Voetius, 1589—1676. Polemics. Beverwyk, 1594—1647, Medicine. Diemerbroek, 1609—1674. Anatomy. LITEKAPoY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 63^ IMAGINATION. Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687, Epigrams. Jer. D'ecker, 1610—1656, Elegies. D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- tory Poems. MicholusHeins, 1620— 16S1, Poems, Philology. Jan de Brune, ' Wlietstone of Wit.' Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- grams. Rainier Anslo, 1622-166 ' Plague of Naples.' SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 700 P. Francius, 1645—1704, Latin Poetry. J. A. Vander Goes, 1647- 1618, Drama. Eliz. Wolff, Novels. Loosjes, Novels. Bellamy, 1757—1736, Odes Klein, Lyrics. Van Alphen, Odes. 1800 Hincopen, Odes. Helmers, d. 1831, Poems Nieuwland, Poems. Borger, Odes. Bilderdyk. Dramas, Odes, Ger. Brandt, 1626— 16S5, Hist, of Reformation. Can, Collect, of Baiavian History. J. G. Grsevius, 1632—1703, Roman Antiquities. J. Perizonius, 1631-1715, History. 1700 J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, Greek Antiquities. P Bondam, Collection of Batavian History. Simon Styl, History of Netherlands. 1800 Te Water, History. Engelberts, Ancient Hist, of Netherlands. J. F. Gronovius, J611- 1671, Philolo3y. J. Leu.sden, 1614-1699, Philology. F. Burman, 162S— 1679, Theology. Chr. Huygens, 1629-1695, Mathem., Mechanics. B. Spinoza, 16.32—1677, Theology. Swammerdam, 1637— IGSOj Natural History. A. Leuwenhuek, 1632 — 1723, Natural History. 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731, Anat. G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, Anat. C. Vitringa, 1659—1722, Theoloey. Binkersclioek, 1663—1743, Law. H. Boerhaave, 1668—1733, Medicine. Hemsterluiis, 1685—1766, Philolosy. A. Scluiliens, 1686—1750, Piiilolosy. Gravesande, 1688—1742, Ma I hematics. Chr. Hecht, 1696-1748, Philohisy. B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771. Anatomy. Oudendorp, 1696—1761, Philology. W. Otto k'eiz, 1702—1768, Law. D. Gaubius, 1705^1780. Medicine. Hoosreveen, 1712—1794, Phi!ol(t£y. G. van Swieten, 1700— 1772, Medicine. P. Camper, 1722—1789, Anatomy. D. Rnhnker. 1?23— 17S8, Philology. Valckenaer, Philology. 1800 D. Wyttentach, d. 1808, Philology. Van Kami "^-i' Statistics b4U THE WORLDS PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO. Tollens, Poems. Da Costa, Sacred Poems. Wilderbosch, Odes. Kluits. Hist, of Holland. Wesiendorp, Histoiy. Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. De Jonge, Antiquities. Hamaker, Orientalist. Vander Palm, Literamre. SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. S., Sweden; D., Denmark; Ic, Iceland. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIKNTIPIC Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 900 900 Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. Ic. Sffimund, b. 1156, The Elder Edda. 1100 Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice- land. D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 1204, Hist, of Northern Nations. D. Sueno, Hist, of Demnark. uoa D. Sunesen, Jurist. D. Axel, Theology. Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,d.iail, Younger Edda, Hist. of Norway. Ic. Suerron, Tales. 1200 D. Sturla Thoridsen, History of Norway. 1200 1400 1400 S. Eric Olai, History of Goths and Swedes. 1400 S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, Instruction to Kings and Princes. 1500 1500 S. John Magnus, d. 1544, Hist. o( Sweden. S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of Northern Nations. S. P. Lagerloof, 1533-1599, History North of Europe. Ic. Am. Jonas, 1545—1640, Hist, of Iceland, &c. 1500 D. Tycho Brahe, 1546—1601,' Astronomy. D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 1600 D. Anders Arrebo, b. 1587, Religious Poetry. D. Anders Bording, 6. 1619, Poems. B. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem, ' Hercules.' 1600 D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591-1640, Danish Hist. 1600 S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, Orientalist. D. G. Bartholine, 15S5— 1629 Anatomy, Theology. D. Oie Worm, 1 588—1654, A» tiquities, Philo. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK. AND ICEr.AND. 641 IMAQUtATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC Ic. Torfaeus, 1639—1720, Hist, of Norway. S. Ol. Rudbeck, 1630-1702, Botany, Anat., Ac. D. L700 Thos. Kingo, b. 163i. Hymns. 1700 1700 S. John Penngskiold, 1654— 1720, History. D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635-17(HI Phys., Mathem.- D. Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, Collec. Hist. D. Albert Thura, Hist. D L.Ho]berg, 1684— 1754, Drama, Satire, Hist. D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- tory. D Ch. Falster. 1690— 1752, Satirist. 1 D. Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. Danish History. S. Linnaus, 1707—1778, Botany. S. OlofDalin, 1708—1763, Poetry, History. D. S. Pontoppidan. d. 1764, Ori- gines Havnienses. Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- tory. D. Sneedorf, 1724—1764, Poems. S. Wallerius, d. 1V85, Mineralogy. D. P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798, D. Oeder, Flora Danica. D. Tullin, Lyrics. Hist, of Denmark. S. Dire, Dictionary. D. John Ewald, 1743— 1781, Tragedy, Lyrics. D. J. H. Wessei, Humor- ous Poems. S. Bellerman, 1741-1796, Lvrics. D. H. tode, 1736-1806, Dramas, Fables. D. Samsoe, 1759—1796, Tragedies. D. P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758, Drama. S. S. Elgstrom, d. 1810, Poems. Ic, 1800 Thorlacksen. d. 1819, 1800 1800 Transl. Milton D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, Geog- D. C. L. Sander, Dramas. raphy, In French. D. Jens. Bazgesen, d. 1826, Lyrics. Oehlenschlager, S. Thorild Travels. D. S. Berzelius, Chemistry. Poems. D. Rask, Orientalist. Wodderstadt, 'OnYelloi D. B. S. Ingermann, S. Lyrics. S. Afzelius, Iceland Records, Fever.' s Atterbone, Poems. S. Hallenberg, History. s. Liliegren. Northern An- S. Tegner, Romances, &c F. Bremer Novels. S. Granberg, Statistics. Blexell, Topography. tiquities. K. s. s. Norberg, Orientalist. 1 J. F. Blumenbach, 1840, Naturalist. 642 THE world's progress. POLISH. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE ANt 8CIEJITI9I0 1200 1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, History of Poland. Bosuphalus, d. 1253, Chronicle of Poland. Martin Polonus, d. 1278, Chronicle of Popes and Emperors. 1200 Vitellio, Optics. 1400 1400 Dluglossus, 1415-1480, History of Poland. L400 1500 Kochanowski, 1530—11584, 1500 Cawalezewski, Chronicles. Bielski, Chronicles. Stryjkovsrski. Chron. of Po- land and Russia. 1500 N. Copernicus, 1472-1543, Astronomy. Lucas Gornicki, Ethics. Rey of Naslowic, 1515— 1568, Etiiics. 1600 Sarbiewski, 1595— I&IO, Latin Poetry. 1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567-1637, Ecclesiastical Annals. Lubienetski, 162.3—1675, History of Reformation. 1600 John Maccov,d. 1644, Tho ology. Przipcov, 1590-1670, The- ology. 1700 Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- etry and History. 1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. Mizler, Do. 1700 ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman- ces. Boguslawski, Drama. Bronikowski, Novels. Bernatowic.z, Novels. Bulgarin, Novels. Mickiewicz, Poems. Odyniec, Drama. 1800 Lach Szmyrna, Trayels. Potocki, Travels. 1800 Linde, Lexicon. RUSSIAN. [The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almom c\\ books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established tn 1553.] IMAGINATIONS. lOOU 1000 Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, C ronicles of Russia. SPECULATIVE AND SCIKNTIPIO 1000 Yaroslaf, Code of Laws. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 643 HfAaiKATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SClBNTIPia flOO The Expedition of Ighor, a celebrated Poem, auttior Unlcnown. 1100 Theodosius,(f.ll20, Annals. Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- nicles of Russia. Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, Chronicles of Russia. 1100 I2i)0 1200 John of Novgorod, History of Russia. 1200 [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit ol knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Rustfa.] 1500 1600 Simeon of Polotsk, Poems. Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- rical Poems. Lomouosoff, 1711-1765, Poetry, History, Science. Tredianoffski, Poems. Popofski, Transl. Pope. Sumarokoff, 1718—1777, Drama. Kheraskoff, 1733—1807. 'The Russiad.' Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. the Iliad. Petroff, 1736—1799, Transl. the Eneid. Kniajnin, 1742—1794, Drama. J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, Fables. Klushin, Comedies. Ephimieff. Comedies. Ablesimoff, Operas. G. R. Der.iavin, 1743—1816, Lyric Poetry. H. Bogdanovitch, 1743— 1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- dies, Tales. Nicoleff, Tragedies. 1900 Maikoff, Comic Poems. Dmitrieff, Lyrics, Fables. Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies. P. Sumarokoff, Poems Tales V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783 Poems. Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul lus. Gneditch, TransL Iliad, Odes. Kryloff, Fables. 1500 1600 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, Chronicles of Russia. Cherbatoff, History. Golikoff, History. Muravieff, 1757—1816, His tory, Didactics. ' Eugenius, History. 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History of Russia. Kachenofski, History. G. Glinka, History. Kotzebue, "Voyage of Dis covery. Gretch, History of Russian Literature. Timkowski, Journey to China. 1500 Sudebuek, Code laf Laws. 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- ology, Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Theophanes, Se:mons. Plato, 1737—1812, Sermont P. S. Pallas, 1741—18114 Natural History. 1800 Shishkoff, Criticism. Augustin, Sermooii. 644 THE world's progress. AR.VBIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. IMACmXTION. 60C Mahomet, Koran. Lebid, 6?2— 757, Poems. Zohair, Poema. Kais E- Araeri, or Amrul- kais, Poems. 600 700 700 Abun Massab, Poems. Abunowas,762— 810, Poems. Rehashi, Poems. Ai.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables. SOO A.Temain, 804-845, Poems, Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. Abu Mohammed Abdallah, Literature. Muham. ben Omar, History 800 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. Almotanabbi, d. 965, Poems Wahab, Travels. Abuzeid, Travels. I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. Honain ben Isaac, d 874 Translations from Greek. SPECULATIVB AND gCiUITIV Q Aharun, Medicine. 700 Jafar, Chemistry. Abu Hanifah, 699—767, Thft- ology. 800 Asmai, 740— S30, Theology. Kendi, Philosophy. J. ben Serapion, Medicine. Almamon, Astronomical Tables. Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. Alfragan, Astronomy. Nasir Khosru, Metaijhys. Albumazar, 835—885, Ma- thematics, Astronomy. Bochari, 810—870, ' The Sahih,' Traditions. Geber, Chemistry. 900 P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 'Shah Nameh,' Epic Poem. Abul Ola, 97»-1057, Poems. Said ben Batrik, 876—937, General Histoiy. Eutychius, Histoiy. Massudi, d. 957, History and Geography. Ibn Haukal, Geography. 1000 Almuyadad, History of Saracens in Sicily. 900 Albategni, Astronomy. Rases, d. 922, Medicme. Ben Musa, Mathematics. Azophi, Astronomy. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Geuhari, d. 998, ArisUV telian Philosophy. 1000 Achmet, Treatise on Dreams. Ibn Mesua, Medicine. Avicenna, 9O0-1038, Philosophy, Medicina. Abulcasis, Medicine. Jelaleddin, Correction of Calendar. Arzachel, Astronomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 645 IMAGINATION. FACT. 1 SPECtTLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. HOC 1100 Gazali, 1058— 1112, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Alhazin, Optics. Tabriz], d. 1136, Commen- Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral - taries. Poems. P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. Algazel, Antiquities, &c. Alchabit, Optics. Astron. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems. Ben Idris, 6, 1099, Greog. P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- Jaafar ebn TofaU, d. 1198, telian Philosophy. 'Hai ben Yokdan,' a Novel. I. Elfaredh,d.l234, Poems. 1200 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. AbdoUatif, Topography of Egypt. Abuldem, d.1244. History. P. SaadL 1193—1291, ' GuUs- El Harawi, Travels. Caswin d. 1274, Natural tan,' 'Bostan.' History. Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, Medicine. EUaragi, Poems. Abulfarage, 1226—1286, Universal History, Elmacin, d. 1302, History of Saracens. P. Nasireddin, 1201—1273, Astronomy. P. Fadlallah, History of Mo- guls. 1300 1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1383, 1300 E. Hajan,d. 1344, Gran. Geography. History. Novairi, d.l33l, Universal History. Mohammed IbnBatuta, Travels. Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, Geography. Abu Shameh,6.1299, Hist. P. Turan Shah, cZ. 1377. Hist. P. Hafix, d. 1395, Odes. Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. Fimzabadi, 1329—1414, ' The Camoos.' 140C P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, Life of Tamerlane. Dictionary. Makrizi, 1367—14:38, Hist. Ulug Beg, 1393-1444, Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of Astronomy, Chronology. Timur. Baccai,d.l480, Biography Baba,cushi, d. 1481, Politics. P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474 y. Jami,d. 1486, Poems. T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- graphy. 1600 Alhassan, Description oi IS''! Africa. Jabacushi, d. 1566, Morals. Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- versal History. 646 THE world's progress. lUAGlNAT. 3N. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFII IfiOO 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. Abuigazi, 1605—1663, Hist. of Tartars. T. Haji Khali feh, d. 1675, History. P. 1600 N u red. Shirazi,Metapru Moham. Hossain, ' liorhani Kata,' Dictionary. 170C P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- nals of Hindostan. 1700 Gholam All, Grammar. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. IMAGINATION. 1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, Poems. Benj. Church, 1739-1776, Poems. Wm. Livingston, 1723— 1790, Poems. John Trumbull, 1750-1831, ' McFinsal,' &c. Joel BarTow, 1755—1812, ' The Columbiad.' John Blair Linn, 1777— 1804, Poems. T. Dwight, Conquest of Ca- naan, &c. 1800 Clias. B. Brown, d. 1810, Novels. Uobt. Treat Paine, 1773— 1811, 'Invention of Let- ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- oion, and other Poems. 1600 Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist, of Massachusetts. 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723. ' History of War with Indians.' Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist, of New England. Cadwallader Golden, 1688- 1776, History of the Five Nations of Indians. John Bartram, d. 1777, Botany, Travels. Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, Hist, of Massachusetts. David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, Astronomy. Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- tory of N. Hampshire. Amer. Biog. &c. Geo. R. Minot, 1802, « Hist. of Massachusetts Bay.' Isaac Backus, 1806, Church History of N. England. 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist, of Maine. . David Ramsay, d. 1812, 'Life of Washington,' 'American Revolution,'; 'Universal History.' 1 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIO. 1600 Thomas Hooker, rf. 1627, Sermons, «&c. John Cotton, rf. 1652,Theol. Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c. 1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, Theology. Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, Theology. Samuel i)avies, d. 1761, Sermons. John Clayton, d. 1773, Botany. Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, Theology. Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 1790,Naiural Philosophy, Politics, &.C. Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics. John Hancock, 1793, Politics. John Wiiherspoon, d. 1794, Theology, Politics. Patrick Henry, d. 1796, Politics. Samuel Adams, 1803, Politics. Samuel Hopkins, 1721— 1803, Theology. Fisher Ames, d. 1808, Politics. 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737— 13'Jft Politics, 'Age of Reason,' ' Rights of Man,' &c. Jos. S. Buckminster, d lSl2,Theolosy. Alex. Hamilton, 1757— 1804, Politics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 647 IMAGINATION. imt Paul Allen, 1775—1826, * Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist, of Am, Re vol.] 1800 Alexander Wilson, d.. 1813, 'American Ornithology.' Hugh Williamson, d. 18i8, Hist, of N. Carolina. Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, Botany. J. G. C. Bramard, d. 1826, Wm. Wirt, 1772—1834, 'British Spy.' Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, Poeiiis. J. Q. Adams, 1767-1847, Poems. Washington Allston, 1779- 1843, Painter, Poet, and Novelist. Timothy Flint, 1780—1840 Novels. Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789— 1841, Poems. Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, Poems. Miscellan., Polit. R. H. Wilde, 1789— 184T, Poems, Researches on Tas?o, &c. E. A. Foe, 1811-1849,Poenr.3 Tales. J. F. Cooper, 17S9— 1851 Novels, &c. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 180C Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, Botany, Travels. Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, Geog., Statistics, &c. Nathl. H. Carter, 1788- 1830, 'Letters from Eu- rope.' Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 1830, Travels in Europe, Lectures on Literature, &c. John D. Godman, d. 1830, Anatomy, Natural Hist., &c. John Marshall, 1755—18.35, Life of Washin£ton. &c. Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1843, 'War of 1812.' Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, Annals of America. Timothy Flint, 1780—1340, Hist, of Mississ. Valley. A. S. Mackenzie, — 1349, Travels in Spain, &:. Gouvern€ur Morris, UiZ- 1816, Politics. Timothy Dwight, 17[;2-- 1817, ' Theoiogy Explain- ed and Defended.' Levi Frisbie, 1784—1822, Moral Philosophy. Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, Law, Politics. Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, Law W. E. Channing, 1780— 1842, Sermons, Criticism. Thomas Jefferson, 1743— 1826, Politics, Philos. John Adams, 1735— 182r>, Politics. John M. Mason, D. I)., 1770—1829, Divinity, Sermons, «&c. John H. Hobart, D. D., 1776-1830, Sermons, &c, Jos. Story, 1779—1845, Law. Henry Wheaton, 1782- 1848, Law. History. Edw. Livingston, 1764— 1836, Criminal Code, &c. David Hosack, 1769—1835, Medicine. Jas. Madison, 1751—1836, Politics. Alex. H. Everett, 1790— 1847, Essays. R. Harlan, .796—1843, Natural History. James Kent, 1763—1847. Comment, on Am. Law. Hugh S. Legare, 1797— 1843, Miscellanies. Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- taphysics. Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849, Ethnology, Philology. J. C. Calhoun, 1782 - 185^1 Politics, Speeches. HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FAJjULOUS PEKS0N8, WITH THE HEROES AND HEROINES Of ANTIQIJITY. Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. Abrelu'nus, a surname of Jupiter. A'hron, a very voluptuous Grecian. AbyHa, a famous mountain in Africa. Acan'tha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Acas'tiis, the name of a famous hunter. Ace'lu;, one of the priests of Bacchus. Achcb'me7ies, the first king of Persia. Acha'tes, a trusty friend of iEneas. Ach'eron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into a river of hell lor assisting the Titans in their war against Jupiter. Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in vulnerable in every part except his right heel, by which she held him; after signaHz ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by Paris with an arrow. Acid'alia and ArmaHa, names of Venus. Acida'lus, a famous fountain of Bceotia. A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, because he rivalled him in the affections of Galetea. Achnon, a famous king of the Titans. Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. A -'IcBon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned into a slag, and devoured by his own hounds. AdmeHus a king of Thessaly. Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by Venus and Proserpine. Adras'tea, the goddess Nemesis. JE'ncus, one of the infernal judges. jE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. JEge'us^ a king of Attica, giving name to the yEsrean sea by drowning himself in it. J^si'na, a particular favorite of Jupiter. jE'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. jE'gle. one of the three Hesperides. ^'gon, a wrestler famous for strength. JEgyp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia. jEVlo, one of the three Harpies. Mne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. JEo'l^ls,^.hQ god of the winds jEo'us, one of the four horses of th » aoA. JSscula'nus, a Roman god of riches. J^scula'pius, the god of phy.-j*:, jEthal'ides, a son of mercury. jE'thon, one of the four horses of the sun. jEt'na,us, a title of Vulcan. jEto'los, a son of Endymion aud Diana. Agamem'non, a brother of MeneianSj cbo^ea captain-general of the Greeks .«. t.^.* -...ege of Troy. Aganip'pe, caughter of the river Fermessus, which flows Irom mount Helicon. Age'nor, the first king of Argos. Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry. Agelas'tus and Agesi'taus, names of Pluto. Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. AJJax, one of the most distinguished piinccoand heroes at the siege of Troy. Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. Alci'des, a title of Hercules. Alcihious, a king of Corcyra. Alci'oneuSi a giant slain by Hercules. Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon. Alec'tn, one of the three Furies. Alec'tryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mara. Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. Alcb'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. Amcdthob'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. Atnbro'sia, the ibod of the gods. Amhnon, a title of Jupiter. Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestr^ a very famous augur. Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope. Amphi'on, a famous musician. AmphitriUe^ the wife of Neptune. Ainynlor, a king of Epirus. Ana'lis, the goddess of prostitution. Aiiccb'us, a king of Arcadia. Andru'geus, the son of Minos. Androni'ache, the wife of Hector. Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Ca» slope, who, contending for the prize of beauty with the Nereides, was by them bound to a rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and married her. Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. HEATHEN DEITIES, BlO. 649 Anfna^ the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. Antcb'as, a giant son ol Neptune and Terra ; he was squeezed to death by Hercules. An'teros, one of the names of Cupid. Antever'ta, a goddess of women in labor. An'Uiia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno. An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. Aun'ides, a na7ne of th« Muses. Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. AJpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, Serapis, and Osiris: he first taught the Egyptians to sow com and plant vines; after his death they worshipped him in the foim of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. Jiach'fie, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva into a spider, for presuming to vie with her at spinning. Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. Argentihius, and ^scula'nus, gotls of wealth. Arfgo, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- panions to Colchis, and reported to have been the first man-of-war. Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason. Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the ship Argo. Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him out of the Cretan labyrinth: bemg after- wards deserted by him, she was married to Bacchus, and made his priestess. Arimas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia. Ari-on, a .yric poet of Methymna. Aristtb'us^ son of Apollo and Cyrene. Aristome'iies, a cruel Titan. Aristuph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a town of Rhodes. Art&mis. ".he Delphic sybil ; also Diana. Ascle-pia festivals of .^Esculapius, Asco'Ua, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated In Attica. Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus. Astrapcb'us, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. Astrcb'a, the goddess of justice. Astrol'ogus, a title of Hercules. Asty'anax, the only son of Hector. Astypala'a, daughter of Phoenix. A'te, the goddess of revenge. Atlan'tes, a savage paople of Ethiopia. AtHas, a king of Mauritania. At'ropos, one of the three Fates. Aver'mis, a lake on the borders of heu Averrunc'un. a god of the Romans. Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable oi 3000 oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- cules cleansed it in one day. A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. Auro'ra, the goddess of morning. Auto'leon, a general of the Crotonians. Autum'nus, the god of fruits. Bac'chus, the god of wine. Bap'ta, the goddess of shame Barba'ta., a title of Venus and Fortuna. Bas'sareus. a litle of Bacchus. Bat'ttis, a herdsman, turned by Mercury mto a loadstone. Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- fused. 28 Bellero'phon, son of Glaucus, ki.i§ »f Ephyra, who underwent numberless h. rdahips fofi refusing an intimacy with Sthenoboea, th« wife ol' Proetus, king of Argos. BeUo'na, the goddess of war. Berecyn'tkia Ma'ier, a title of Cybele. Bereni'cs, a Grecian lady, who was the only person of her sex permitted to see the Olym- pic games. Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. Bib'cia, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted a triumph lor naval victory. Bi'ceps, and Bi'frons, names of Janus. Binul'tor, a name of Mars. Bi'thon, a remarkably strong Grecian. Boli'na, a nymph rendered imirortal for ler modesty and resistance of Apoiio. Bo'na De'a, a title of Cybele. and Fortuna. Bo'nus Dcb'mon, a title of Priapus. Bo'reas, son of .S^straeus and Heribeia, generally put for the north wind. Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and Terra : the poets feign him to have had a hundred arms and fifty heads. Bri'mo, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate. Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- nessus, a city of Troas, by the Greeks. Bron'les, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself into mount .3Etna. on account of his de- formity. Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus. Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen. Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules. Byb'Lis, the daughter of Miletus. Caftar'nf, priests of Ceres. Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitae. Cu'cus, a son of Vulcan. Cad'inus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, Who, searching in vain for his sister, built the '.'ity of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of The Greek alphabet. Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. Ccb'ca, and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortuna. Coic'ulics, a robber, son of Vulcan. Ccb'neas, a title of Jupiter. Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer. Caiis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. Calli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry. Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, wLo reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she entertained and became erj£.mored of Ulys- ses, on his return from Troy. Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and kmg of tfee Medes and Persians. Camoi'na, and Carna, goddess of infants. Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. Car'dua, a household goddess. Carmen'ta, a name of Themis. Car'na, a Roman goddess. Carya'tis, a title of Diana. Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to starve their parents to death when 70 yeart old, and to train up dogs for war. 650 THE world's progress. Cassan'dra, a i\a.vghier of Priam and Hecuba, ejidovveti wiih ihe gift of prophecy by Apollo. Castal'idcs, ilie Muses, from llie fountain Cas- talius, ai the loot ol" Parnassus. Cas'tor, son of .Jupiter and Leda, between whom and his brother Pollux immortality was al- ternately shared. Ca'lius, a tutelar god to grown persons. Ce'crops, the first king of Athens. CelcJb'iio, one ol the three Harpies. CJen'laujs, children of Ixion, half men, half horses, iuhaijiting Thessaly. Cephn'lus, tha son oi Mercury and Hersa. Ct-pJjeus, a pri'ice of Arcadia and Ethiopia. iJcrau'iihis, a title of Jupiter. Vei'berus, a dog with three heads and necks, who guarded the gitss of hell. Cerca'lia, festivals in honor of Ceres. Ce'res, the goddes.^ of agriculture. Ce'rus, or ^'e'/ws, the god of opportunity. C/ial'cea, festivals in honor of- Vulcan. C'har'ites, a name of the Graces. Cha'ron. the ferryman of hell. Chi'niera, a strange monster of Lycia, which was killed by Jiellerophon. Chi'ru7i, the preceptor of Achilles. Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules Chrysao'iius, a surname of Jupiter. Chry'sis, a prieste.'s of Juno and Argos. Cir'ce, a (anions enchantress. C'i-'rhu, a cavern ol Phocis, near Delphi, whence the winds issued which caused a divine rage, and produced oracular responses. Cit/icb'rides, a title of the Muses. Clau'sina, a name of Venus. Cluu'sius, or Ciu'sius, a name of Janus. Clcu'niedes, a famous wrestler. CLi'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- troness ol heroic poets. Clo'tho, one of the three Fates. Clytenmes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her aduf^lcry with jEgisthus. Cocy'lus^ a liver of hell, flowing from Styx. Colli'na, the goddess of hills. Compila'iia, games of the household gods. Co'mus. the god of festivals and merriment. Coiicur'dia, the goddess of peace. Co7iserva'lur, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter. Cun'sus, a title of Neptune. Corti'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. Coiyban'tes, and Cnre'tes, ">riests o"^ Cybele. Cre'un, a king of Thebes. Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo. C'rinia'sus. a Trojan prince, who could change himself into any sliape. Ci(b'sus, a rich king of Lydia. Cro'?iia, festivals in honor of Saturn. Ctes'ibus. a famous Aiher.ian parasite. Cu'nia^ the goddess of new-born infants. Cu'pid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, smiles, &c. Oy'clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye in ihe middle of their Ibrehead. Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn. Cyc'nus, a king of Liguria; also a son of Nep- tune, who was invulnerable. Cylle'nius. and Caniil'lus, names of Mercuiy. Cynocep/i'ah, a people of India, said to have heads resembling those jf dogs. Cyn'lhia, and Cyn'thius, Diana, and Apollo. Cyparisscb'a, a title of Minerva. C^p'ria, Cytfiere a, titles of Venus. Danda'lion, the son ol ..ucifer. DcBd'cdus^ an artificer of Athens who formed th« Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts aad sails for ships. Da'vwii, the sincere friend of Pythias. Dck'iiion, Bu'nus, Dithyram'bus.^ and Diony^- ius, titles of Bacchus. Dahiae, the daughter ol Acrisius, king of Argoa, seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden shower. Dana'ides, or BeHides, the fifty daughters \i Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sonti of their uncle jEgyptus, on the marriige night; they were" there lore condemned to draw water out of a deep well with sieves, BO tiiat their labor was without end or suc- cess. Daph'ne^ a nymph beloved by Apollo. Darda'nus, the Ibunder of Troy. Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an account of the Trojan war. De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. Dec'biLa, a title ol Lachesis. Deian'ira, the wife ol Hercules. Deida'inia, a daughier of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, while he lay concealed in woman's apparel in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to the Trojan war. Deinpe'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. Beiph'obe, the Cumean sybil. Deiph'obus, a son. ol Priam and Hecuba. De'Ua, Bel'ius, Diana and Apollo. De'/as, the island where Apollo was born. Bel'phi, a city of Phocis, lamous lor a temple and an oracle of Apollo. Del'phicuSi DidynKb'us, titles of Apollo. Dem'ades^ an Athenian orator. Deribices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who punished all crimes with death. Deuca'lioji, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes saly, who, with his wife iPyrrha, was pre served from the general deluge, and re-peo pled the world. Derer'ra, the goddess of breeding women. JDiag'oias, a Rhodian, who died lor joy, becausft his three sons had on the same day gained prizes at the Olympic games. Dia'na, the goddess of hunting, &c. Di'do, daughter of Belus, the lounder and queen of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have burnt herself through despair, because ^ne- as left her. Di'es. and Bies'piter, titles of Jupiter. Bin'dume, Diyidyme'ne, lilies ol Cybele. Dium'edes, a king of ^Eiolia, who gained great reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also, « tyrant of Thrace. Di'ujie, one of Jupiter's mistresses. Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. Diuscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. Bi'rcb, a title of the Furies. Dis, a title of Pluto. Discor'dia, the goddess of contentl(>n. Dornidu>ca^ a title of Juno. Botnidu'cus, and Domi'tius, nuptial gods. Do7n'ina, a title of Proserpine. Ury'ades, nymphs of the woods and forest* HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 651 Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus. Et'.'to, daughter ol' Aer and Tellus, -vrho pined away lor love of Narcissus. Edo7i';d''.s, priestesses of Bacchus. Edii'ca, 0. gcddess oi'nevv born infants. Ege'ria, a litle of Juno; also a goddess. .^ElecHra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- temnestra. who instigated Orestes to revenge their father's death on their mother and her adulterer .^gisthus. Ellens, and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus. Ulsusin'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- pine. EloHdes, nymphs of Bacchus. Empii'scb, a name of t|;ie Gorgons. Endym'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited liim by night in a cave of mount Latmus. Enia'lius, a title of Mars. En'yo, the same as Bellona. Epe'us, the artist of the Trojan horse. Epig'ones. the sons of the seven worthies who besieged Thebes, a second time. Epilcb'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus. Epistro'phia] and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished those with death that drank more wine than physicians prescribed. Era'lo, thg muse of love-poetry. Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox a river of hell. Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated Eriotho'nius, a kins of Athens, who, being lame and very deformed in his feet, invented coaches to conceal his lameness. Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. Eh-os, one of the names of Cupid. Eros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his name, set fire to the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus. Ete'oc/es, and Poly'nices, sons of OEdipus, who violently hated, and at last killed each other. Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- band Cataneus, from affection. Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa. shuffling, du- plicity, and dissimulation. Eumen'ides, a nan.e ft ":he Furies. E'whros'yne, one of the three Graces. Euro'j>a, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white Dull, into Crete. Eury'ale, one of the three Gorgons. Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. Eurym'one, an infernal deity. Euter'pe, the muse presiding over music. Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. Fab'uJa, the goddess of lies, FahuU'iius, a god of infants. Fa'ma, the godlless of report, &c. Fhs'cinum, a title of Priapus. Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. Clothos, Lachesis, and Atropos, intrusted with the lives of mortals, &c. Fau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele. Fau'nus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and la- ther of the Fauns, rural gods. Feh'rua, Flor'ida. Fluo'nia, titles of Juno Feh'rua, a goddess of purification. FeA'/'MM-s, a'title of Pluto. Feli'citas, the goddess of happiness. Fer'culus, a household god. Fere'tn'us, and Fidmina'tor, titles of Jupiter, Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. Fesso'nio. a goddess of wearied persons. Fid'itis, the god of treaties. Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. Fto'ra, the goddess of flowers. F.uvia'les, or Pof amides, nymphs of rivers. For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers. Fortii'na, or For'lune, the goddess of happiness^ &c., saiil to be blind. Fu'ries, or Eumen'ides, the three dat^hters ol Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, "Meg.-sra, andTisiphone, with hair composed of snakes, and armed with whips, chains, &c. Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- ately beloved by Polyphemus. Gal'ii, .castrated priests of Cybele. GalHiis, or Alec'trion, a favorite of Mars, and changed by him into a cock. Game'lid, a title of Juno. Gnn'ges, a famous river of India. Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. Gelusi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. Gelo'/ii, a people of Scythia, who used to paint themselves in order to appear more terrible to their enemies. Ge'nii, guardian angels. Ge'nhis', a name of "Priapus. Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with human flesh, and was therefore killed by Hercules. Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra- zen ones of Diomede. Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne. Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords on which the empire of Asia depended, in so very intricate a manner, that Alexander the Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. Gor's-o7is, the three daughters of Phorcys and Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who could change into stone those whom they looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- cipal of them. Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas. Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, t!io daughte'rs of Jupiter and Eurynomb; attei:- dants on Venus and the Muses. Grctdi'vus. a title of Mars. Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king oi Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so incensed her that she slew Candaules, and married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by means of a "ring could render himself invi- sible. Ha'des, a title of Pluto. Hamaxo'bii, a people of Scythia, who lived in carts, and removed from place to place aa nectssity required. 652 THE world's progress. Harnvi'nis, a fiimous artist of Troy. Harpaliycu, a very beautiTul maid of Argos. Hai'pies, three monsters, Aello, Celoeno, and Ocypele, with the faces of virgins, bodies of vultures, and hands armed with monstrous claws. Harpoc' rates 1 the Egyptian god of silence. He-be, the goddess oT youth. He'lnus, a river in Thrace. He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus, Hec'ate, Dianas name in hell. Hec'ior, a. son of Priam and Hecuba, and the most valiant of all the Trojans. Hec'iiba, the wife of Priam. Hege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de scribed the miseries of life with such a gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors killed themselves through despair. Hel'ena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- ful woma;, in liie world who, running away with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. HeL'icoii, a famous mountain of liceotia, dedi- cated to Apollo and the Muses. Heru'ia, sacririces to Juno. Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- markable for his numerous exploits and dangerous enterprises. Heribe'ia, the wife of Asireus. Her'incb, statutes of Mercury. Her'mes, a name of Mercury. Hermi'one, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- ried to Cadmus; also a duughte*- of Mene- laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. Ue'ro. a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, Joved her so tenderly that he swam over the Hellespont every night to see her ; but being at length unfortunately drowned, she threvv herself into the sea, through despair. fferod'otus, a very famous historian of Halicar- nassus. Heroph'i/a, the Erythraean sybil. Hers Hi' a, the wife of Romulus. Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star. Hes'perides, the daughters of Hesperus ; .^gle, Arethusa. and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- den bearing golden apples, watched by a dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away the fruit. He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gauls. Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. Hippocam'pi, Neptune's horses. Hip'pocrene, a fountain at the botton" >f mount Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. Hip2)ol'i/lus. the son of Theseus and Aniiope or Hyppolite, w^ho refused intimacies with his stepmother Phaedro. At the request of Diana, .(Esculapius restored him to life, alter he had been thrown from his chariot, and dragged through the woods till he was tern in nieces. Uiiipo'na, the goddess of horses and stables. HiiU'ria, the goddess of history. Hurt in' sis, a narnc of Venus. Hn'ris, a title of the sun. Hosfili'na, a goddess of com. Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and >3Sthra ; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. Hy'bia, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous r?r its thyme and bees. Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or a> some say nine, others fifty, killed by llcrcu les in the lake Lerna. Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. HyL'Lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. Hy'men, the god of marriage. Hype'rion, a son of Coelus and Terra. Hypsi'p'yle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- ished for preserving her lather when all the other men of the island were murdered by their kindred. lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. lan'the, the beautiful wife of Iphis. lapeHus, a son of Ccelem and TejTa. lar'bas, a cruel king ol Mauriiania. Ica'rius, thp son of Oebalus, who, Vavmg re- ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went hiio Attica, to show men the use of it: but, making some shepherds drunk, they thought he had given them poison, and therefore threw him into a well. Ica'rus, the son of Daedalus, who, flying with his father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring too high, melted the wax of his wings, and fell into the sea, thence called the Icariaa sea. Pda, a mountain near Troy. Ida,'a Mater, a name of Cybele. Idcb'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. Ida'iia. a name of Venus. Id'/non, a famous soothsayer. Ido'thea, Jupiter's nurse. lli'one, the eldest daughter of Priam. Ilis'sus, a river in Attica. I'lus, tiie son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whum Troy was called Ilium. Impera'tor, a name of Jupiter. In'achis and I'ses, names of lo. I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and wife of Athamas. Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of J uno. In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan. I'o^ daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- ter into a white heifer; but afterwards re- suming her former shape, was worshipped as a goddess by the Egyptians, under '.he name of Isis. Iph'idiis, the twin brother of Hercules. Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- teinnestra, who, standing as a victim ready to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, was, by that goddess, transformed into a white hart, carried to Tauris, and made htr priestess. I'phis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who institute! Olympic games to Hercules. Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno's favorite companion, and her messenger on afTiirs of discord, &c. Ptys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered and served up by his mother at a banquet before Tereus, in revenge for hisi having vio- lated her sister Philomela. Ixi'on, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened ib hell to a wheel perpetually turning rouuti for boasting that he had lain with Juno. HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 653 Jari'itor, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. j'a'nus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and Creusa. Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, son of ^Eson, wha by Medea's help brought away the golden fleece from Colchis. lo'casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly married her own son, CEdipus. Ju'no, the sister and wife of Jupiter. Ju'no, Infer'na, a name of Proserpine. Juno'ness, guardian angels of women. Ju'piter, a son of Saturn and Ops— the supreme deity of the heathen. Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune. Ju'piter Ter'tius, Infer'nus, or Sfy'gius, seve- ral appellations given to Pluto. Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. La'chrsis, one of the three Fates. Lacin'ia, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno. Lactu'ra., or Lactucihia, a goddess of corn. Lcbs trig' ones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted and ate the companions of Ulysses. La'ius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by his own son, ORdipus. La'micK, a name of the Gorgons. Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by serpents for opposing the reception of the wooden horse into Troy. Lafpis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped as household gods. Latera'nus, a household god. Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. Lean'dcr, see Hei'o. Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a swan. Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &c. £,e'n(K, priestesses of Bacchus. Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra, killed there by Hercules. Le'ihe, a river of hell, whose waters caused a total forgetfulness of things past. Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants. Libiti'nu, the goddess of funerals. Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. Lubr.7i'tia, the goddess of pleasure. Lu'cifer. son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the mon'iing star. LvJina, Diana's name in heaven. Luper'calia, feasts in honor of Pan. Jjypa'ci, priests of Pan. Lyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter into a wolf. M Ma'ia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned in to a star to avoid Juno's rage. Manas^ene'ta, a goddess of women in labor. Mantu'ra, a godcless of com. Manturma, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. Martina, MeL'anis, Mer'etrix, MigoniHis, and Mur'cia^ titles of Venus. M(U^9f the god of war. Mauso'his, a king of Caria, who had a most magnificent tomb erected to him by his wifa Artemisia. 3Iede'a, daughter of Mies, king of Colchis, a famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob tain the golden fleece. Meditri'na, a goddess of grown pensons. Medu'sa, tlie chief of the three Gorgons. Megcb'ra, one of the three Furies. Megaleti'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele. Megu'ra, the wife of Hercules. Meiani'ra, a name of Venus. Me'licB, nymphs of the fields. Me'lius, a name of Hercules. yielo'na, the goddess ol' honey. Melpom'ene, the muse of tragedy. Mem'non, a king of Abydos. Menala'us, a famous Centaur. Menda'us, the husband of Helena. Men^tha, a mistress of Pluto. Men'tor, the governor of Telemachus. Mericury. the^messenger of the gods, mventor ot letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, and robbers. Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. Mi'das, a king of Phiygia, who entertained Bac- chus, or, as some say, Siienus, had the power given him of turning whatever he touched into gold. Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. MimalUones, attendants on Bacchus. Miner'va, the goddess of wisdom. Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- nary justice, a judge of hell. Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. Min'ycb, a name of the Argonauts. Mnemos'yiie, the goddess of memory. Mohnns, the god of raillery, wit, «fcc. Mone'ia, a title of Juno. Morfpheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. Mors, the goddess of death. MuVciber^a. title of Vulcan. Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- syne, born otT mount Pierius, mistresses of all the sciences, presidents of musicians and poets, and governesses of the feasts of the gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania. Mu'ta, the goddess of silence. Nobnia, the goddess of funeral songs. Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. Narcis'siis. a veiy beautiful youth, who, falling in love with his own shadow in the water, pined away into a daffodil. Na'tio, and Nundi'nu, goddess of infants. Navicb'a, a country of El is, famed for a terrible lion killed there by Hercules, Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. Nep'tune, the god of the sea. Nereides, sea hyjnphs. Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. Nicejyh'orus, a title of Jupiter. Ni'ntis, the first king of the Assyrians. Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- Ehion, who, })referring herself to Latona. ad her 14 children killed by Diana ani Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. Nofmtus, a name of Apollo. ^>54 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. JK^ox, the most ancient ot the deities ; she was even reckoned older than Chaos. Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. Occu'tor, the god of harrowing. Oce'anua, an ancient sea god Ocijp'elc, one of the three Harpies. (Ed'ipiis. son of Laius and .lucasta, and king of Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, unwiitingly killed his father,, married his mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out his eyes. Om'phae, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- cules was so enamored, that she made him eul)mit to spinning and other unbecoming offices. 0} er'tus, a name of Pluto. Opi'gena, a name of .Juno. Ops. a n ime of Cybele. Orbuhia, a goddess of grown persons. Oifs'/cs, the son of Agamemnon. Ori'on, a great and mighiy himter. Or'pheus, son of .lupiier and Calliope, who had great skill in music, and was torn in pieces by tiie Maenades, lor disliking the company oi' women after the death of his wife Eury- dice. Gnjthi'a, a queen of the Amazons. Osi'ris, see Apis. Pac'lohis, a river of Lydia, with golden sands and medical waters. Pcb'an, and Ph(z'fjus, names of Apollo. Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. PaUl'ui, leasts in honor of Pales. Pallu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which (he Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that their city could not be taken whilst that re- mained in it. Pal'Uis, and Pt/Hotis, names of Minerva. Pan. the god of shepherds. Pando'rtT, the first womui made by Vulcan, atid endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- ter gave her a box containing all manner of evils, war, famine, &c., with hope at the bottom. Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. Pa'phia, a title of Venus. Par'ccb, a name of the Fates. ParHs, or Al'exander. son of Priam and He- cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan war. Varnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite residence of the Muses. Pa->'lun>la, anupiial goddess. Pasfoph'ori, priests oi' I?is. Pal'areus, a title of Apollo. PateU'ria, a god less of corn. Fatula'ciits, a name of .Janus. Palute'ius, a name of Jupiter. Paven'ria. and PoLi'na, goddesses of infants. Pf^'-'asMs, a winged horse belonging to Apollo and th'. Muses. Pt''o'nia. a goddess of grown persons. ^ena'tea «mall sutues or household gods Ptnel-'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for het chastity and fidelity during the long absenci of Ulysses. Per'snus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per- forr^ed many extraordinary exploits b* means of Medusa's head. Phckcasiahiiy ancient gods of Greec^j. Pha'eton, son of S.)l (Apollo) and Climene, who asked the guidance of his father's chariot for one day, as a proof of his divine descent; but unable to manage the horses, set the world on fire, and was iheiefore struck by Jupiter with a thun lerbolt into the river Po. Phal'lica, feasts of Bacchus. P/iilain'mon, a skilful musician. Pailo/ns'la, daughter of Pan lion, king of Athens, who was ravished by her brother-in-law, Tereus, and was changed into a nightih- gale. Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- gonia. who had his eyes tern out by Bjreds, but was recompen>ed with the knowledge of futurity; also a king of Th.'-sce, turned into a stoiie by Perseus, by the help of Me- dusa's head. Phleg'elhon, a boiling river of hell. I'hle'gon, one of ihe four horses of Sol. PhU-giycb, a people of Boeatia, destroyed by Neptune, on account of their piracies and other crimes. Phcb'bas, the priestess of Apollo. PhoR'hus. a title of Apollo. Phcs'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- cused of having attempted the honor of one of his father's concubines, was condemned to have his eyes torn out; but w^as cured by Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege of Troy. Picum'/ius, a rural god. Pihim'nus, a god of breeding womeu, Pin'dus,a. mountain in Thessaly. Pi' I ho. a goddess of eloquence. Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione; Mala, Electra", Taygete, Asterope, Merope, Halcyone, andCeloeno; they were changeil into stars. Plu'to, the god of hell. Phi'/us, ihe god of riches. Pol'iux: See Castor. Po!i/d'anias, a famous wrestler. Pohjd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. Potyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. Po/yphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- tune, with but one eye in the middle of hu forehead. Potno'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn. Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. P lamest i'na, a name of Fortuna. Prcbs'les, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. Prcixit'eles. a famous statuary. Pri'aviy son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, Hector. &c ; he was the las: kiniof Troy. Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and si-ter of Philomela; she was turned inio a swnllow. Pronieftheiis, son of lapetus, who animated a man that he had formed of clay, with fire, which, by the assistance of Mmerva, he stole from heaven, and was therefore cliained by Jupiter to mount Caucasus, wuh a vulture continually preying upon his liver. Propy'lcba., a name of Hecate. Prcs'erparae, the wife of Plu'o HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 655 Pro^teus^ a. sea god, who could transform himself into any shape. Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. Pyl'adcs, the constant fViend of Orestes. Pyr'atnus. and Tliis'be, two lovers of Babylon, who killed themselves with the same sword, and occasioned the turning the berries of the mulberry-tree, under which they died, from while to' red. Pryoi't's, one of the four horses of the sun. P'/i'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. Py'thun, a huge serpent, produced from the mud of the deluge, which Apollo^ killed, and in memory thereof, instituted the Py thiau games. Pythoiiis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. Quad'Tifrons, a title of Janus. Qui>e.i, a goddess of grown persons. Quiela'hs. and Quie'lus, narnes of riuto. Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. R Reef us, a title of Bacchus. Re'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. Regi'na, a liile of .Tuno. Rhadaman'lhiis, one of the three infernal judges. Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. Rhe'a-sylivia. the mother of Romulus. Robi'gus, a god of corn. Rom'ulus, the first king of Rome. Rumihia, a goddess of new-born infants. Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. Rusi'na, a rural deity. S Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine, Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. Salmone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- bolt to hell lor imitating .Jupiter's thunder. Sa'lus, the goddess of health Sanc'us, a god of the Sabines Sator, and ISorri'tor, rural gods. Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. Satur'nus, or SaL'urn, the son of Coelus and Terra. Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- sters, half men, half goats. Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. Sen'fa, a goddess of married women. Sera'pis. See Apis. Sils'nus, the fosier-fatherand companion of Bac- chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. Sihnis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. Sis'yphus, the son of .iEolus, killed by Theseus, and doomed incessantly to roll a "huge stone up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and numerous robberies. (SoZ, a name of Apollo. Som'nus, the god of sleep. Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, who destroyed herself because CEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to have been as strong and as loud aa the voices of 50 men together. Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. Styx, a river of hell. Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. Sy'rens, sea monsters T Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. Tanta'lu-s, a king of Paphlagonia, ■who, serr- ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelopg, to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlasting ihirst and hunger, as a punish- ment for his barbarity and impiety. Tarla'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter' carried away Europa. Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley "in Thessaly, the resort of the gods. Ter' minus, the gljtl of boundaries. Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. The'mis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the goddess of laws, oracles, &e, Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- dess of the sea. Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. Tisiph'one, one of the three Furies. Ti'tan, son of Coelum and Terra, and the elder brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. T'ri'lonia. a name of Minerva. Tro'iius, a son of Priam and Hecuba. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out a siege often years agdinst the Greeks, but they at last captured and destroyed it. Tiiteli'na, a goddess of corn. Ty'ro, one of'the Nereids. Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, was eminently serviceable to the Greeks ii the Trojan war. Unx'ia, a title of Juno. ilra'nia, the muse of astronomy. Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. VaLloma, a goddess of valleys. Veni'lia, a wile of Neptune. Ve'nus, the goddess ol love, and beauty. Vergil' '.Ob, a name of the Pleiades. Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. Vertumfntia, the god of apriag. 656 THE world's progress. Ves'ta, fhe soddess of fire. Via'le;}, deifies of the highways. Vibil'ia, the goildess of wanderers, Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. Vir'go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. Vh-ilis, and Visca'ta. titles of Fortune. Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the married couple repaired after a quarrel, and returned together friendly. Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. Xaat^t\u»s one of the horses of Achilles, born of the harpy CeliBno, a river ne£X Troy, calM also Scamander. Za'gretis, a title of Bacchus. Zeph'yrus^ son of .^olus and Aurora wuo pas sicnately loved the goddess Flora, and is put for the west wind. ZeUes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, who accompanied the Argonauts, ami dror* the Harpies (rom Thrace. Ze'tics, a son of Jupiter and Antiope,Ter7c:q)eil in music. Ze'ua, a title of Jupiter. THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS, PART I. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I. Ancient Chronology — fi-om the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 years. I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOaY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 1. From the Creation, 4004 to the Deluge, 2348. 2. From the Deluge, 2348 to the Call of Abraham, 1921 . 3. From the Call of Abraham, 1921 to the Exode from Egypt, 1491 . 4. From tlie Exode, 1491 to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095. 5 From Saul, 1095 to the Captivity of Israel, 588. 6. From the Captivity, 588 to Alexander the Great, 330. 7. From Alexander, 330 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146. 3 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, . , 1656 years The Antediluvian PericnL . 427 years The Dispersion Period. . 430 years The Patriarchal Period. , 396 years The Theocratic Period. , 507 years The Monarchical Period, , 258 years The Persian Period. 184 years, The Grecian Period. 146 years The Roman Period. ' Brom the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned b c- BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. D.—ZAe Year of our Lord. CHKONOLOaiCAL TABLES. FIRST 'FER10'D—{the Antediluvicm)- -1656 yeoA's. B. C. 4004 THE CEEATION OF THE WOULT)— (Hebrew Pentateuch.)* The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cam, the first-born of woman— a husbandman. 8875 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 8S74 Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 8T69 Enos bom. Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in- troduces the use of weights and measures. — «/"i 22 THE world's progress Tlie Sixth Period. —{The Persian.}— B.c Pkogress of Society, etc 450 445 441 4^ 432 414 no The Britons inflict punish- ment of death by drowning in a quagmire. Empedocles., Parmenides, Aristippus, and Antis- thene.% philosophers. — Phidias the finest nctclp- tor of &r\t\qyi\tY.— Euri- pides, gains the first prize in tragedy. The Battering Ram invented by Anemones. Aristophanes, prince of an- cient comedy. iiocrates, the greatest of hea- then moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father of medicine. Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- rians. Democritus, the laughing phi- losopher. The Jews. 445. Walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah. Sect of Samaritans. lQ eclipse of the sun causes the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse Thucydides' history ends, Xenophon's begins. Asia. 449. Persians defeated at Se- lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 438. Spartacus takes poBssit sioa of the Boaphorut. 425. 424. Xerxes 11. k. of Persia Darius IL k. ol Persia. 404. Artaxerxes 11. (Aiusm hl.) king of Persia. THE world's progress. 23 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 4U t07 Amyrtseus, king of Egypt, shakes off the yoke ol" Per- sia. The Carthaginians send 300,- 000 men into Sicily. 454. Pei-diccas, II., king of Ma- cedon. 449. Cimon dies. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Che- ronoea. 440. Pericles takes Samos. 437. Amphipolis planted by Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Cor- cyra. 432. Revolt of Potidaea from the Athenian confederacy. 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Eubcea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in Thrace. 420. The 90th Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treaty between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily . 413. The Athenians alarmed by an eclipse. — Their army in Sicily destroyed. 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- don. 411. Athens governed by the 400.— Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphernes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians, 404. takes Athens, and establishes the SO ty- rants End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiades. Rome, etc. 451. Decemviri — the laws Oi the 12 tables. Virginia killed by hei father. 446. Syracuse reduces Agi* gentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor insti- tuted. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. The Veii defeated. 434. War with the Tuscans. 433. The temple of Apollo in- dicated. 431. The Equi and Vo.eci d* feated. 24 THE world's FROGRESS. The Sixth Period . — {Tlw Persian.)—^ e. Progress of Society, etc. CatapultcB invented by Diony- sins. Cynics, gect of philosophers Ibundecl by Antinthenes. Plato, the philosopher. PhiioxeneS) the poet. 380 Treatise on conic sections by Aristcbus. The Jews. 377 Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates and Iscbus, orators. A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt. Philippics of Demosthejies. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa ai.d Byzantium 366. Jeshua slam by Johan- nan m the inner court o( the temple, for which a heavy fine is laid on tlie daily sacri- fices. Asia. 401. Cyrus the yotmger de- feated.— Retreat ol the 10,000 ^ under Xenophon. flj 400. The city of Delhi founi ed. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia. 383 BITIIYNIA becomes a kinsdom. Miihriflates 1st, king ui PONT US. 362. Ariobarzanes king of Pen- tus. — Revolt of the Persian governor in Asia iMinor. 361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- erxes III. king of Persia, 360. CAPPADOCIA becomes a kingdom under Ariarathes 1 TME world's progress. 25 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander.— {^onimMQ^.) Africa. 401. Thrasybulus expels the 30 tyrants. Death of Socrates. 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- cedoa. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 395. Corinthian War begun.— Battle of Coronea. The Carthaginians lanJ in Italy. 360 Tachoa, king of Egypt. Agesilaus, the Spartan, aids The Egyptians. Voyages of the Carthaginians under Hanno. Rome and Italy. 382. Thebes taken by Phoebi das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo pides and Epaminondas. 100th Olympiad. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe loponnesus. swallowed up by an earthquake. 371. Battle of Leuctra. Alexander II. , king of Ma cedon. Predoviinance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 362. BatUe of Mantinea, death of Epaminondas. Decline op Grecian Republics. 360. Philip II., king uf Mace- don. defeats the Athenians at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. War of the allies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow from Astor. 357. The 2d Sacred War. 356. Philip conquers Thrace and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. ALEXANDER«th« Great "born. 400. Siege of Veil begun. 397. Lake Alba draicei 391. Camillus, Dictator, takea Veii, after a siege of tea years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennua — The Capitol besieged.— Camillus delivers his coun- try. 3S6. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius Capitolinua thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 379. The Volsci defeat Romans. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- beian consul. Camillus, the fifth time Dictator. 371. The curule magistrates appointed. 362. Curtius leaps into a giUf in the Forum. 357. Dionysius, the younger expelled from Syracuse. 26 THE world's progress. SEVENTH PERIOD.— (T^ Grecian.)-^ Progress of Society, etc- 343 342 Aristotle, the logician and pht losopher, (buniler of tlie Pe rijiaieiics ; JEichines., oia- tor. Detnosthcnea ; Jcetas, of Syra- cuse. The Lyceum built in Attica. The Jews. aao Alexander spares the house of Pindar. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. Caustic painting or the art ol' burning colors into tcood or ivory, n^vented by GaU' sias, a painter of Sicyon. Tlie voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. Apelles, ih« painter; Catis- t/ienes, philosopher. Menander, the inventor of the new comedy. Lysistratus mvents moulds from which to cast wax figures. First work on mechanics, writ- ten bv Aristotle. — IWrin^ Bill first mentioned. Alexander enters .Terusa- lem.— On seeing Jaddus, the High Priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had seen him in a vision, invit- ing him to Asia, and pro- mising him the Persian em- pire. He goes to the Tem- ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- vah, and departs. Asia. 320. Ptolemy carries 1(X),000 Jews into Bypt. Onias I. 336. Mithriddtes II., tag al Pontua. 334. Battle of the Granicus. 333. Battle of iasws.— Parthia, Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana, and Asia Minor, conquered by Alexander. 332. Tyre subdued after seven months' sieg*. Damascus taken. —Gaza surrenders. 331. Battle of Arbela.— The Persian army totally defeat- ed. 330. CONQUEST of the PER- SIAN EMPIRE. 329. Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander, wiih a train of 300 women. 328. Alexander extends his conquest to the Ganges. 323. Alexander dies at Baliy- Ion. 322. Perdiccas takes Capfa- docia. 320. Eumenea lefeated by , tigonus. THE world's progress. 27 184 years. — Alexander to the Fall of Greece. 349 340 332 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, aiid pillages its temples. The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon. Egypt conquered by Alexan- der. Alexandria built. Plolemy L (Soter, son of La- £U&.) Greece— M AGED ON. 353. The Phocians defeated by Philip. 348. End of the Sacred War. Philip takes Olynthus. 346. Philip admired to the Amphiciyonic Council. 34.5. Duras buried by an ear th- quuke. 343. Thrace tributaiy to Mace- don. Ari-stoile appointed tutor to Alexander. 341. Philip makes war upon Athens. .340. —lays siege to Byzantium. Timoleon recovers Syra- cuse, expels Dionysius, the tyrant, and defeats the Car- thaginians at Agrigentum. 338. Philip defeats the Greeks at Cheionea. 336. Philip is murdered by Pausanias. ALEXANDER III., sur- named the Great. — He rava- ges Greece, destroys Thebes, sparing tlie house of Pindar. 335. —is cho.sen generalissimo of Greece against Persia. 334. — invades Persia, and after several great battles (see " Asia ") subdues the Per- sian empire and Egypt, and marches into Lidia. 330. .Eschinea, the orator, banished. 325. Demosthenes banished. 323. Death of Alexander. — The Grecian citios revolt from Macedon.— Demosthe- nes recalled. 322. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon. Death of Demosthenes. 321. Antipater, regent. 319. Polysperchon succeeds Antipater, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities- Rome, etc. 354. Dion put to death, an« Syracuse usurped by ty- rants. 345. Twelve cities ir Campa- nia buried by an eaiih luake. 343. Samnian War, whi ;h con- tinues 53 years. 340. P. Decius devotes him- self for his country. All Campania is suMued. 332. The Caledonian mo- narchy (Scotland) founded by Fergus I. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictatct. 321. The Samnjies make th« Romans pass under the yokCc 320. The Samnites defeated al Luceria. 28 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — {The Gredan.y- B.C. Progress of Society, etc. 317 ai2 310 300 293 21)0 985 Commerce of Macedon with India, through Egypt. The Appian Way constructed. — The Gnomon invented to measure altitudes. Aqueducts and baths in Rome. Euclid, of Alexandria, the celebrated mathematician. — Zeno, (bunder of ihe ^^foics ; — Pi/nho, of the Skeptics ; Epicurus, of the Epicu- reans.— Bion, of Borysthe- nes, philosopher. The great Chinese Wall built. The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, and the time first divided into hours. Fabius mtroduces pam^/ng- at Romo. The Colossus of Rhodes built by Chares, of Lindus. Theocrites, the father of pas- toral poetry. DionyrAus, the astronomer at Alexandria, begins his era. He found the solar year to consi.st of 3G5 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of Pto- lemy Phi] idelphus. The Jews. 311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo- nus. 301. Judea under the domi- nion of the Ptolemies. 284. The sect of the Sadducee*. Asia. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicaior 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes Babylon. Era of the SeleucidcB. 310. Eumeles usurps the throne of Bo.-sphorus, putting to death all his brothers. After a reign of six years, ia murdered. 30.5. War in India, against Sandrocottus. 301. Battle of Ipsus.—Antigo- nus killed. ALEXANDER'S EM- PIRE DIVIDED in four parts. — Piolemy, Seleucus, Cassander. Lysimachus. Mithridates III., king 01 Pont us. 291. Seleucus founds Antioch Edessa, and Laodicea. 285. The Scythians invade Bcrspnorus. THE world's progress. 29 184 years. — (Continued.) 307 Africa. Agathocles is defeated by the Carthaginians. Peace between Sicily and Car- thage. Greece. 318. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. 317. Cassander assumes the government of Macedon. Demetrius Phalerius gov- erns Athens. 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes., and founds Cassandria. 312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II., the greatest hero of his time! 306. Demricracy established at Athens by Demetrius. 304. Athenians repulsed from Rhodes. 303. Demetrius Poliorcetes, general of the Grecian States. 300. Rest->ration of Democracy at Athens. 291. Death of Cassander.— Alexander and Antipater succeed. 296. Siege of Athens, by De meM'iiis. 294. Demetrius murders Alex ander, and seizes the throne of Macedon. 287. Athens revolts from De- metrius. 286. Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon. 284. The Achaean Republic. Rome, etc. 317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp ed by Agathocles. 312. War with the Etruscans. 310. The Carthaginians defeat Agathocles, and besiege Sy- racuse. 308. Fabius Maximua defeats the Samnites. 303. Establishment of Tribus Urbancb. the 300.First Plebeian High Priest. 290. End of the Samnite War. 36. Law of Hortensius, by which the decr^^es of tha people had the force of ihoae of the senate. 30 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian^ B.C. Progress of Society, etc. 883 ^l The Pharos built at Alexan- dria, the first light-house on record. Philetaenis, of Pergamus, pa- tron of the arts, especially Archiiecttire. Alexandria, the resort of the learned, and centre of trade. Chariots armed vvi:h scythes, and foi-tijied camps, in use. 276 267 266 264 First society of ci-iiics formed. Ptolemy makes a :anal from the Nile to the Red Sea. Silver money first coined. The Parian Chronicle com- posed. Gladiators first exhibited at Rome. Berostis, the historian of Ba- bylon. The armillary sphere invented by Erastoslhenes. who made the first attempt to determine the length of a degree. Greece instructs the Romans in the arts and sciences. The Jews. •213. Onias II. Iiighprie?t. 282. The kinsdom of PER- GAMIJS founded by Phile- tjbrus. 281. Lysimachus defeated anc killed by Seleucus. — AntiO' chus Sjter succeeds Seleu- cus. 266. Ariobarzanes III., ki.'g oi Pontus. 262. Antiochus Soter def:ated at Sardis. 256. KinETdom of PARI HIA founded by Arsaces. 2.55. The fourth imperia. dy nasty of China begins 252. Mithridates IV., bes esed in his capital by the GkuIs. THE world's progress. 31 184 years. — ( C ontinued. ) 269 S&g 52(51 Ptolemy PhiJadelphus king Egyp*- Egypt first sends ambassadors to Rome. Regulus invades Africa, and is defeated by Xantippus. a Spartan general. Mt'isllus defeats Asdrubal. Greece. 283. Lysimachia destroyed by an earthquake. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus, The Achaean League of 12 states, under Aratus, of Sicyon. 279. Irrruption of the Gauls under Brennus. 278. —they are defeated near Delphi. 277. Antigonus Gonatus, king of ftlacedon. 274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- don, defeats Antigonus, and is proclaimed king. 272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos— is slain, and An- tigonus is restored. 268. Athens taken by Antigo- nus Gonatus. Second incursion of the Gauls into Macedon. 255. Athe lea, Antigonus liberates "- ^n3 hens. Athens joins the Achaean igue. 251. Sicyon joins the Achaean league. 250. The Romans begin to re- sort to Greece for improve- ment in knowledge. — Par- thia revolts from Macedon. Rome, bto. 283. The Gauls and Eirw rians subdued. 281. The Tarentine War. 280. The Tarentines seek the alliance of Pyrrhus, who conquers the Romans at Pandosia, and at 279 — Asculum. 278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- hus. 275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, and compels him to leave Italy. 272. Fall of Tarentum. 266. Rome mistress of all Italy : census of the city 292,224. 264. The first PUNIC WAR. — Appius Claudius drives Hiero from Syracuse. 260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- tory over the Carthaginian fleet. 256. Regulus gains ano- ther victory. 255. The Lacedemonians as sisting Carthage. —Xantip- pus defeats Regulus, and takes him prisoner. 254. Palermo besieged by the Romans. — About this time the Huns are first heard of, governed by Teuman. 249. Naval fight at Drapanum, 32 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — ( The Grecian^ c Prooress op Society, etc. a-js 2ai 219 Agrariam'sm attempted ia Spaita, but is put dovm. (Comedies first acted at Rome, lliose of Livius Andronicus. The orisinal MSS. of jEschy- lus, Eicripides and ^ojtho- cles, lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 taleijts. Fabius Pictur, the i5rst Roman historian. AppoHonius Rhodius, poet. — Cbrysippus, Stoic ptiiloso- plier. Archimedes, the mathemati- cianj demonstrates the pro- perties of the lever, and other mechanical powers, also the art of measuring solids and surfaces,and conic sections — constructs aplane- tarium. The art of Surgery introduced. An eclipse of the moon ob- served in Asis Minor. The Jews. 237. Simon II., High Priest. 246. Antiochus II. poisoned by his wife. 241. Attalus I., king of Psig» mus. 226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria 224. The Colossus of Rhadei thrown down. 213. Chi Horg Ti destroyg th« records of the Chinese em- pire. 211. Antiochus tht Great, king of Syna. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 33 184 years. — (Continued.) 227 Hamilcar Barcas, general of the Carthaginians. Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- ria. End of the Libyan War. Hamilcar with Hannibal, pass- es into Spain. Carthagena in Spain, built by Asdrubal. 221 219 Ptolemv Philopater, king of Egypt- Conquests of Hannibal, the Carthaginian, i i SiJain ; He crosses the Alp3. 243. Corinth taken by A ratus. 242. Demetrius IL, of Mace- don. 241. Agi.?, king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to es- tablish an Agrarian law. 240. Cleanihiis, the Stoic, himself. 232. Philip in., of Macedon, 228. Roman ambassadors first appear at Athens and Co- rinth. The fortress of the Athe- naeum built. 226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- ta, defeats the Achoeans. — Lyscades killed. — The Agra- rian law restored. 225. The Romans send another embassy to Greece. They are admitted to a share in the L'^thmian games, and granted the freedom of Ath- ens. 223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- polis. ^2. Battle of Sellasia. 220. The S o c i a 1 W a i —Philip, of Macedon, as- sists the Achaeans. — Cleome- nes dies in Eyypt.— Agesi- polis and Lycurgus ele^cted kings of Sparta. 218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 215. A ratus poisoned at .Slgium. 214. First Macedonian War, 211. Alliance of Philip with Hannibal. Rome, etc. 247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro mans at Liliboeum. 241. End of the fiist PiaJ« War. 231. Sardinia and Corsica con- quered by Rome. 225. The Gauls repulsed in Italy. 224. The Romans first cross the Po. •^3. Colonies of P 1 a c e n - t i a and Cremona. 222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu- ria (Genoa) conquered by Rome. 219. Hannibal takes Sagun- tum, and crosses the Alps. 18. The Second P u n i o War .—The Romans de- feated by Hannibal at T i - c i n i s and T r e b i a . 217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated at Thrasymene. 216. Varro at C a n n ae to- totally defeated by Hannibal. F a b i u s M a z i rn u e , Dictator. 212. Syracuse and Sicily con- quered by Marcel ius. — Archimedes killed. 211. The Carthaginians drivei from Capua. 2* 34 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — ( The Grecian.)- e.c. Progress of Societt, etc. 207 'iOO 202 200 198 183 183 180 Ennius, of Calabria, poet Sot ion, of Alexandria, i grammarian. Plautus, of Umbria, the co mic poet ; AppoUonius, of Perga, mathematician; Ze- 710, of Tarsus, the philoso- pher. Gold coined at Rome. The art of printing in China. Arisfonymus 4th, librarian of Alexandria. Caius Lelius, the Roman orator. Books, with leaves of vellum, introduced by Attains, king of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. The Jews. A total eclips.", of the sun at Rome. Asiatic luxuries brought to Rome. A comet vi3ible 80 days Bion and Moschus, comic poets. Statius Ccecilius, comic poet. 203. .Iudea Conquered <3y Antiochus the Great. 201. Oriias III., High Priest. 200 Jesus, the son of Sirach, writes Ecclesiasticus. 198. The Jews assist Antio- chus in expelling Scopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem. First mention of a Senate or Sanhedrim,. 206. The dynasty of fl « n ii China. 197. Eumenes, king o( Perga- mus. 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, who seizes the Thracian Chersonese. 192. Syria at war with Rome, 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus at Magnesia. 187. Antiochus killed in the temple of JupitA- Belus.— Syria becomes a Roman province. 186. The city of Artaxaia (in Armenia) built. 18.5. Seleucus IV.. king of Sy- ria. 183. Phamacesl., king of Pob tus, conquers S i n o f e . THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 35 184 years. — (Continued.) Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. The Roman general Scipio be sieges Utica, and takes in one day the camps of Asdru bal and Syphax. Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- ba poisoned by Masinissa. Hannibal defeated at Z a m a , —End of the 2d Punic War, Treaty of Carthage with Ma- sinissa, king of Numidia. Egypt loses her Syrian posses- Masinissa harasses the Cartha- ginians, and injures their commerce. Ptolemy PVilometer, king of Egypt Greece. 208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. — Philip, of Macedon, de- feats the .i:tolians. 206. Battle of Mantinea : Philopoemen, the Prae- tor of Achaia, defeats the Spartans. 200. The Rhodians defeat the Macedonian fleet near Chios. — Siege of Abydos. — Second Macedonian War begins. 19S. The Achceans and Spar- tans join the Romans against Macedon. 197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- nocephalae by the Romans, under Flaminius. 195. Flaminius, the Roman, quarrels with Nabis, king of Sparta. 189. Epirus declared free by the Rnmans. 183. Philopoemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta. 183. Philoptsmen defeated and killed by Dinocrates, king of Messinia. Rome, etc. 210. Scipio takes New Carthage, and conquer.^ As- drubal.~ 207. Nero and Livy defeat As- drubal at Metaurus — Asdru- bal killed. 206. The Carthaginians driven out of Spain. 204. Scipio carries the wai into Africa. 201. Scipio carries Syphax ia triumph to Rome. 197. Flaminius victorious in Macedon. 195. C a t in Spain. 190. War with Antiochws, of Syria, who is totally defeat- ed by L. C. Scipio, and 188. Syria is made a Roman province. 187. Scipio Africanus banish^ ed from Rome. 183. Cato, the elder, oenaor 181. Plague at Rome. 180. Death of Scipio Africft- nus. 179. Numa's books founi in a stone coffin at Rome. 36 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.) — ■ n.c. Proqrbss op Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 175. Jason obtains the high priesthood by corruption. 172. Jason defeated by Mene- 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha laus. nes) king of Syria. 171 —declares war against Pto- lemy Philomater.^ 17; Paper invented in China. 170. Jerusalem and the temple 170. An irruption of Tartan 109 Polybius, historian of Greece plundered by Antiochus Epiphanes, who attempts to into China. and Rome. The comedies of Terence per- abolish the Jewish religion, formed. and commits great cruelties. 168 An eclipse of the moon, which was predicted by Q. S. Gal- 'us. 167 The first library opened at 167. Matthias, High Priest. Rome, consisting of boolcs 166. Prusias, kirgoflithynia. brought from Macedon. The Roman treasury is so rich 165. Judas MAccABEtrs ex- that the citizens pay no pels the Syrians, and puri- taxes. fies the temple. 162 Hipparchus of Nice fixes the first degree of longitude and latitude at Ferro, whose 164. Antiochus Epiphanes most western point was died. made the first general meri- 162. Demetritis Soter, king of dian—lays the foundation of Syria. Mithridates Philopater, king of Cappadocia. 161 Trigonometry. Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome. 161. Judas kills Nicanor— is succeeded by Jonathan. First treaty with the Ro- mans. 158. Jonathan compels the Bac- chides to withdraw— is mur- 159 The clepsydra or water clock dered by Tryphon. inventeci by Scipio Nascia. 157. Mithridates V., king of Pontus. 153. Ariarathes VU., king o Cappadocia. 15U Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro- 150. Jewsta'ie Joppa. 150. Alexander Bala kills De nomer. — Aristarchus, of Alexandria, grammarian. metrius,and takes the throne, 149. Prusias, of Bithynia, rill ed by his son Nicomecitw THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. 184 years. — (Continued.) 37 174 Di',5 e embassy to Carthage. 15] UG Greece. 17S. Perseus, king of Mace- don. 171. Third Macedonian War. 168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- na, by Paulus Emilius.— Macedon becomes a Ro- man Province. 165. Romans enter Achaia. 155 Embassy of Diogenes Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome. Missinissa defeats the Cartha- 15'2. Andriscus usurping the ginians. government of Macedon, is Joint reign of Philomater and conquered by Metellus. Pliysojn in Egypt. CARTHAGE TAKEN and destroyed. 147. Metellus defeats the Ach- aeans in Greece. 146. Corinth taken and de- stroyed by Mummius. — GREECE becomes a RO MAN PROVINCE under the name of Achaia. RCiM.i, ETC. 170. Tiberius and Caiva Gracchus. 167. Census 327,038. 155. Romans unsucces&'ful Spain. 151. Defeat of Galba. 49. Third Punic War. Conquest of Carthagts and of Corinth. Greece annexed to the Roman empire. 38 THE world's progress. EIGHTH -PEUIOJ).— {The Roman.)- B.C. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 146 Alexandria, the centre of com- merce. 143 Hipparchus begins his new cycle of the moon. 142. Simon, High Priest. 140 Toothed wheels applied to the clepsydra by Ctesibius. 137 Learning and learned men 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetee,) liberally patronized by Ptol- king of Syria. emy Physcon. Diodonis and Satyrus, peri- patetics ; Nicander. physi- cian and poet ; Lucius 'Ac- 135. End of the Apocrypha.— cius, tragic poet ; Arislobu- lus, the Jewish peripatetic. Jerusalem besieged "by An- tiochus IV'. 134. Antiochus invades Judea. 133 Equestrian order, a distinct class. 130 Revival of learning in China. 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 130. Antiochus IV. defeated Judea from the Syrian yoke : and killed in a war with Par- —reduces Samaria and Idu- thia. mea. 129. Demetrius II. (Nicator) regains Syria. • 123. Mithridates the Great, 120 The theory of eclipses known to the Chinese. kir.:g of Pontus. 116 L. Coelius Antipater, histo- rian ; LuciUius, the first Roman satirist; ApoUodo- rus, of Athens, chronologist ; Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- logist; Anthemon, philoso- pher. III. Jfithridates conquern gcy^ thiii, Bo.^phorus, Co] -Jiik 110 FirsC $umpttiary law at Rome. 103. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- &c. 107. —succeeded by his eon Aristobulus, who first as- sumes the title of king. 105. Alexander Janneus at war with Eerypt— takes Ga- za. —Rebellion excited by - the Pharisees. ! THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. liQ years. — Fall of Greece to tlie Christian Era. 39 129 il6 Africa. Commerce of tlie world cen- tres at Alexandria. Ptolemy Pnyscon becomes soie king of Egypt by tlie death of Prmomater. Ptolemy Physcon driven from his throne for his cruelty. Pestilence in Egypt. Car.hage rebuift. Death "of Micipsa, king of Numidia, and the assassina- ti'in of Iliempsal by Jugur- tha. Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Eeypt. 1 12 1 Jugurthine War. Alexander I. , king of Egypt. 105 Jugurtha is defeated and sur- renders Numidia to the Ro- Roman Empirb. In the East. 133. Pergamus, a Roman Province. 118. Dalmatia, Province. Roman In Europe. 141. Numantian War. 140. The Picts from the north of England settle in th<; south of Scotland. 135. Servile -yar in Sical/. i3s. 1^5um2nlia destroyed by Scipio : Spain becomes a Roman PiioviNCE. Death of Tiberius Grac- chus. 123. Tribunate of O a i u i Gracchus. 113. First great migration oj the German nations. 109. War of the Teuloni and Cimbri. 105. Numidia becomes a i?o- man 2^rovince by the defeat of Juffurtha. 104 The Teutoni defeat 80XKJ0 Romans on 'he banks of iLo Rhone. 102. M a r i u s victorious over ilie Teutoni and Ambro- nes at Aquas Sexise. 101. Marius and Catullus de- feat the Cimbri. 100. Marius buys his sixth con« sulate. Banishment of Metellua 40 THE world's progress. The Eighth Period. — {2''he Roman.)-^ a. Progress of Sooietv, 82 79 78 74 70 The Jews, Libraries of Athens sent to Rome by ijylia. Decline of Agriculture in Italy; corn supplied from the provinces. Posidonius calculates the height of the atmosphere to be about 8 man province. Roman Empirb. East. 21. Athens finally subjected ',o Rome. 20. CXCth Olympiad. 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 5. Q. Varrus appointed gcv- emor of Syria, and Cyre- nius governor of Judea. West. 3. Sextus Pompey defeated in Sicily. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc- tavius. 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- TIUM Octavius acquires the empire. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE COMES A MONARCHY. 29. Octavius's 3 days triumph at Rome. Temple of Janus shut ,Rome contains 4,101,017 citizens. 27. The titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octa- vius for 10 years. 23. Agrippa in Spain. 22. Conspiracy of Mureena. 21. Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 16. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15. Cancabria, Austria, Rhoe- bia, Vindelencia and Moesia become Roman provinces — being conquered by Dru- sus. 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 12. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Ro- man province. 11. Germany subdued t v Get 4. Cymbeline, king of Britain, PAllT II. MODERN CHRONOLCGY, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. L From the Christian Era \ Period of the Ten Persecutio-M 9 to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 J Christiana. a. 01. Extinction of the Western Empire, « 476 ( " Northern Invasions. « Flight of Mahomet, « 622 5 " •^«*^*«^«^ "'"^ ^e^^««"««- ^ « Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, « 800 ( " Saracen Bn^re. ^' « Battle of Hastings, «1066( " New Western Empire. VI. «« Foundmg of the Turkish Empire, "1299S " '^^^ ^^^<^^- ^"* « Taking of Constantinople, " 14.53$ " Tamerlane, Wickliffe, and Hviss Vin ) " The Rtformation; Discoveriet " Edict of Nantes, " 1598 j and Inventions. IX. I " The English CommonwetiUh " Death of Charles XH. of Sweden, « 1718 ( and Wars of Louis XIV. X. ? " American and French Rewlu- " Battle of Waterloo, «« 1815$ tions. XI. ^ " European Revolutions, Littm " present time (1865.) % tute and the Arts. 48 THE world's progress. MODERN CHRONOLOGY— PERIOD 1st.— (The Ten Persecutions.)'^ ao 37 48 fiO Progress op Society, etc. Celsus the physician; PhcRdrus, the fabu- list ; Vetiius Paterculus, Romaa histo- rian. Sacred. The BIRTH OF CHRIST:— («ce p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time letrarch of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctora. The Druids in Germany. Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. Seneca, moral philosopher. Valerius Maximus, historian. Appion, of Alexandria, erammarian, called the "Trumpet of the World." A census being taken by Claudius, the em- peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are found to amount to 6,90t),00L).— (f/nj-u. Hist.)— ['Sloxe. than three times the number of London at present.] Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books on husbandry. 25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 26. John the Baptist begins Iris ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John '^. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew called. 29 Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and two." 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection^ Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, May 4. 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. .34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned. 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of St. James. 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athen% 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 55. Paul preaches at Ephesua, and at C«sa- rea. 57. —pleads before Fehx. 69. —pleads before Festus, and appealf t« Cvaar. THE WOPv-LD'S PROGRESS. 49 306 years. — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constanttne. Roman Empire. East. Caiu8 CsBsar makes peace with the Parthians. 26 Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. Thrace becomes a Roman province. West. Tiberius returns to Rome. 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. — Caius Caesar dies. 6. Q,. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- vince. 9. The Germaus,\mdeT Arminius, defeat and kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tomos. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is succeeded bv ■ Tiberius.^ 19. The Jews banished from Rome. —The Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by Are. 26. Tiberius retires to Caprsea. 31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 33. Conquest of Mauritania. S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. -Caligula. (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. Claudius succeeds to the throne. 43. —invades Britain with his general, Plan- tius. 45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 51. Caractacus, the chief of the Brhons, quered and brought to Rome. N e r o ,1 a profligate and bloody tyrant. 55. —poisons Bntanicus. 56, Rotterdam built. 9. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to fl««tii by Ufl order. 50 THF world's progress. ' [Modern : Period /.— 306 veari». Progress of Society, etc. Nsro's golden palace built; of great extent., inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in Rome more regular after the fire. Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural history ; Qnintius Curtius, historian ; I^er- sius, satirist. fosiphus^ the Jewish historian. rhe Coliseum of Vespasian, IS The Capitol rebuilt. Circumn;ivigati(iii of Scotland. Destruction of Herculaneum and PompeJi. Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of Titus ; the group of the Laocoon. Quintillian, orator ; Valerius Ffaccus, poet ; Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py- thagoiean philosopher; Epicletus, stoic; Dio C/irysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- losopher ; Philo By'* ms ; Ignatius and Pa- pias, two of the fathers of the church. Tacitus, historian; Juvenal, satirist; Sta- tius, poet ; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; '.he younger Pliny. T he Ulpian library ; Public schools in all the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes the city adorned with the Forum; Pillar of Trajan, and baiha; bridge built over the Danube. Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 59. Paui is shipwrecked on the l8:aHCl of Meliia (.Malta). 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 63. Paul set at liberty. 61. The first persecution of Christian* by Nero. 63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels through the greater part of the known world. 66. Pope Linus.* Tiie Jews at war with the Romans, and Paul beheaded St. Peter crucified. 07. Tht Jews massacred by Florus.— Josephus, overnor of (Jaliiee. Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliel. 63. Vespasian invades Judea. 0. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T;tu». 77. Pope St. Cletus 83. Pope Anacletua. 95. Second persecution of the Clirlstiaus by Domitian. St, John writes his Gospel and Af>poa« lypse, and is banished to the iele of Fatmoa. 96.' Pope Evaristus. 97. Timothy stoned. St. John returns from exile. 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. * The word Pope is used in accordance with the Roman Catholic usage, though th« name was not adopted by their Pontiffs UM •eraral centuries after. —Christian Era to Constantine.'] THE world's progress. 51 Roman Empire. 60 65 East. Corbub subdues Armenia. Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by Nero. Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by Til us. Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, Cilicia. Byzaniium and Samos. Revolt ol the Panhians. West. 61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa- dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- feated by Suetonius, poisons herself 64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses tha Christians of the crime. —persecutes the Christians— ^S'eneca, Lu- cian^ and others put to death.. G al ba reigns 9 months, and is put to death by O th o , (2 months) defeated and Icilled by ■ V i t el 1 i us, who is defeated by the army of 70. Vespasian. ^ 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 79.- • Titus, (beneficent.) Herctilaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an irruption of Vesuvius. 80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 81.- • D o m ( a cruel tyrant.) 86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a yearly tribute. 88'. Capitoline and secular games. War with Dacia 15 years. 96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. N e r V a , (well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) •Trajan (a sreat sovereign and a warrior.) The Roman Empire at its greatest estent. J. Severusy general in Britain. 52 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period I. — 306 years. 137 12C 132 18C Progress op Society, etc. The fi'St credible histyrian among the Chinese. The great buildin2;s of Palmyra. tlie Sun at Baalbec. The Roman mosaics. -Temple of Jurisprudence improved by the publishment of Adrians perpetual code. Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer and geographer —Arrian, Appian, Maxi- mus, L'/sius ami Pausa7iius, Greek histo rians ; Lacinn, a satirical writer ; Hermo- genes, rhetorician of Tarsus. Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer. CoZen, Greek physician; ^;A3 Mediterranean and Northern Seas. Diocletian's Oriantalform of government — the monarchy consideretl hereditary— nomi- nation of Caesars as co-niiers. Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches of white marble, while the walls were adorned with paintings. Ecclesiastical. 251. St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. — Mo- nastic life originates about this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism. 259. Pope Dionysiu3. 262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, dei ies th« divinity of Jesus Christ 269. Pope Felix I. 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 274. Pope Eutychianes. Manes originates the heresy of the Mani- chaeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 283. Pope Caius. The Jewish Talmud and Targum com posed. Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reli gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan rites imitated by the Christians. 286. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and denies the resurrection. — Christian Era to Constantine.] THE n^ORLD'S PROGRESS. 57 Roman Empike. 251 259 264 273 East. HUNS o"! the Caspian Sea. The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Persia :— Sapor's victory over the Roman arms. The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and Caesarea. Odenatus, king of Palmyra— he is succeeded by his wife. Z e n o b i a, who reigns with the titles of 'Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, and Asia Minor. Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who destroys her magnificent capital, and carries her to Rome. 280 The Persians iefeated by Probua 251. West. Gallu s purchases a peace with the Goths.— Con- federacy of the Franks between the Rhine and Elbe. — 'a great piestilence prevails in the empire. E m 1 1 1 a n u 3 Valerian. — is successful against the Germans and Goths. 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions cftha Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and flayed alive by the Persians. G a 11 i e n u s . W Period of the 30 tyrants. The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Gotha and Scythians. 268. Gailienus killed at Milan. • Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,00U Goths. 209. —dies at Sirmium. 270.- - Aurelian, ^§ (a great warrior.) 271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to obedience. The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — Dacia siven up to the barbarians. 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. A71 interregnum of 6 months. Tacitus, (a descendant of the historian,) reigns with wisdom 6 months. 277. P r ob u s , (a warlike prince.) —obtains several victories over the barba- rians.— The Franks permitted by Probus to settle in Gaul. 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. C a r u s killed by lightning. Carinus and Numerianus (effeminate and cruel.) 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. Diocletian sends ambassadors to China. "The Era of Diocletian," or of "the martyrs," Ansrust 29. 287. Britain usui-ped by Carausius, who reigns 7 years. The empire attacked by the r orih- em barbarians, and several provinces usurped by tyrants. — Masimianus, a col» league of the Emperor. Q* 58 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period /.— 306 years. 290 304 312 Progress of Society, etc. The Gregorian code. Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elius, Sparlianus^ and Vopiscus, historians ; Tre- beUius Polio. Ecclesiastical. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt Pope Marcellinus 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted 'rom idolatry. MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years The prcBtorian guard broken up by Constaa- tine. 323 1 Foundation of Constantinople by Constantino the Great.— Celebrated dome of St Sophia: the splendor of the court so great that it cost more than the legions. 330 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and literature. 340 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to have flourished about this time. Eutropius and Marcelhmis, historians ; Jam- blicus and Eunapius^ Greek historian. 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius. 310. Pope Eusebius. Arius excommunicated. 311. Pope Malchiades. 314 Pope Sylvester I. 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine the Great. 325. The Council of Nice (from .Tune 19th, 325 to August 25th) consistins: of 318 bishops, who condemn Arianism.— jGuseAms, bishop of Capsarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- rian. — Lactantius. Athanasius, Arius, Ephraim and Basil, C. T., flourish in the reign of Constantine. 336. Pope Marcus. 337. Pope Julms. Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, the cross reverenced, and incense used by the Christians. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumaintius. 356. Pope Felix II. St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, oi Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F.— Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthago.— Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem.— Monaster lesii Thebais, —Cliristian Era to Consiantine.\ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 59 Roman Empire. East. Narses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- potamia, and Assyria. Alexandria taken by Diocletian. Hormiad&s, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. From Consfantine to Odoacer. 325 333 334 340 350 354 The first general council a : Nice. The seat of government removed to Constan- tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on May 11th, 330. Great famine and pestilence in Syria. Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- persed over the empire. Death of Constantine, cind the accession of Constantius, Constans, 291. The Franks make themselves masters of Batavia and Flanders. 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em pire to Constantius and Galeriics. 306.— Constantine the Great, ^^ (first Christian emperor.) Licinius, Maximian^ and Maxentius, hia three colleagues. Constantine defeats the Franks. 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 314. Civil war with Licinius. 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- tianity. 321. — appoints the observance of Sunday. 322. — defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- comes sole emperor. 325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and assemblies. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- ples to be destroyed. his three sons, and Constantine 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an earthquake. Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire. GaUus put to death by Constantius. Constantius dies at Tarsus. A disady2intageous peace with the Persians. EASTERN EMPIRE extending from the lower Danube to the con- fines of Persia. 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and killed by Constans at Aqullea. 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 361. — Julian, the Apostate, ^m — attempts in vain to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 363. —is slain in a war with the Persians. Jovian. 304. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valentinian and Valens, under whom the EMPIRE is DIVIDED : WESTERN EMPIRE, extending from the Caledonian rampart! to the fo^ of Mount Atlas. 60 THE world's progress. [Modern: Period II. — 170 year* Progress of Society, etc. 380 302 395 412 Aurelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated Romans. Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- maticians. Claudian, Latin poet. Macrobius, Platonic philosopher. 425 435 ECCLESIASTICAI.. Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- tempts the restoration of learning. Tlie Theodosian code published. 373. The Bible translated into the Gothic Ian guage. 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much enlarged. 381. The second general Council of Constaa- tmople. 334. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 335. Pope Syricius. 392. .S'^. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan tinople; St. .drnftrose, archbishop of Milan; St. Jerome, St. Mar tin, and St. Augustine, ' Christian Fathers.' Image worship.— The Christian hier- archy begins. 401. Pope Innocent L 412. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore and iS'ocra/es, ecclesiastical historians; Orosius. a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- nal sin, &c. 416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the African bishops. 417. Pope Zozimus. 418. Pope Boniface L 422, Pope Celestine 429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ao kmiwledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 431. Third seneral Council at Ephesua. 432. Pope Sixtus III. St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ir» land. 435. Nestorianism prevails in the East. 440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 443. The ManichcBan books burned at Roma 415. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. —From Constantiiu to Odoacer.] THE world's progress. 61 364 376 378 379 420 Eastern Empire. V al e n IIUNGAK Y, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named. — The Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by Valens (o settle in Thrace. Valens defeated and slain by the. Goths near Adrianople. Theodosius the Great,@ a zealous supporter of Christianity. Theodosius defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the western empire. Westerm Empire. 3G4. Valentinian elected by the army. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de- feated by Theodosius. 375. G r a ti an ins a victory over the Germans ; p-ac- ceeds to ihe eastern empire on the death ol Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. — Gratian killed at Lyons. 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- via, and defeat the Vandals. 333.- Valentinian I — is dispossessed by Maximus, tnu is re- stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves hia capital. 384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a Gaul, commander of the army. Theodo sius becomes sole emperor of the East and West. Complete down fall of Paganism. Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. Arcadius, -Theod(isius 11.^— a child ; Athenius, minister. Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. Persian War. Armenia divided between the Persians and Romans. A great part of Constantinople destroyed by . grei fire. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from the western empire. H n o r i u s . 401. Europe overrun by the ^MSIGOTHS. 403. Alaric deleated by Stillicho. 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, Gaul, &c. 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Gotha under Alaric. 412 Besinning of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Bursundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 414. The'Visigoihs plant themselves in Tou- louse. 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths. , , . 420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their first king, on the lower Rhine. 424.- Valentinian III. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 423. jEtius. the Roman general, defeated bj the Franks and Goths. Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his coa quests to the river Sonmie. 433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," formf an immense empire from China to the At- lantic. 437. iEtius defeats the Goths. 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 441. The Roman territories invaded fej the ITuns, Persians and Saxons. 445. The famous embassy from Britaia, boU. citing aid against the Picts. 62 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period II. — 170 years 450 Progress of Society, etc. Zoztmiis and O'ympiodorus, Greek histo- rians. 468 476 Ecclesiastical. 447. Eutychps asserts the existence of onlj one nature in Jesus Christ. 449. Ibu-s, bishop of Edessa; and Eusebius, bishop of Doryleuin, deposed. 4-50. Sozomen and Theoaoret, ecclesiastical hi.storians. 451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, at wliich Eutycheanism and Nesturianisni are solemnly condemned. The principle established that every accused person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric being king, and founder of the Goihic mo- narchy. The tottering empire of the west was finally overilirown by Odoacer's sack /f Rome, the gie;tt event which precedes the middle or ^'•dark ages." The form of the old Roman government remained— the senate, the coii.suis, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a succession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyran-v and domestic slavery, was nearly a desert 461. Pope Hilarius. ' 465. Pope Simplicius. Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Coa stantinuple, Alexandria. Antioch, and Jera salem— all striving for' the supremacy, - The church now begins to assume a fiolisj cal aspect. '-•From Cimstantine to Odoacer.} TIIE world's progress. ca S60 157 Eastf.kn Empire. Mar c i an , a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual tribute to the Huns. Leo I . , (the Thracian,) Western Empire. 448. Franks :— Merovosus 1st, king of the Me- rovingians. .^tius defeats the Huns. 451. The arrival of the Saxom in Britain, under Hengist and Horsat 452. The city of VENICE founded. 455. Valentinian assassinated by -Petro.nius Maximus. W A V i t u s. 457.- . _^ -Majorian. W first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 458. Franks : — Childeric I., conquers as far War with the Goths. as the Loire and takes Paris. 461 Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is i-eceived from them as a hostage. Z e n o a turbulent reign: debaucheries and conspi- racies. Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, and invades the empire. He ravages Thrace. 461.- 467.- S e V e r u A t h e n I u s (The last three emperors slain by Ricimer.) 38- Spain :— The Visigoths, under Eric, ei blish their kingdom. 472.- O 1 y b iu s , Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- tinople, 473. Glycerius.^ 474. Julius Nepos, 475.— Romulus Ausustulus. W 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king o/ the Herulii : END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- der Odoacer. 64 THE world's progress. MODERN : PERIOD IH.— 146 v.fftrj 4£iG 4P3 498 501 511 53.? 538 Progrkss of Society, etc. Rise of the feudal system in France^ under Clovis. Theodoric introduces the architecture of Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- bylon. Burgundian laws published, beiu]^ a collec- tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- gundians. The Scdic law established in France. Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- tinople. The Christian Era proposed a7td introduced by JJionysius, a monlc. The schools of Athens suppressed. The fables of Pilpay translated into Pereian. Chess introduced into Persia from India. Justinian's pandects and code of laws. Architecture: the church of St Soj)hi^ iuilt at Constantinople. Proelus, a learned Platonist. Ecclesiastical. 483. Pope Felix III. — excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of Constantinople. 484. Christians persecuted by Huneric, kiim of the Vandals. 492. Pope Ge.asius L 494. The Roman Pontiff mMerts hta auprt viacy. 49B. Cnristianity introduced into France. 513. Christianity embraced by the Peraiar kinsr, Carbades. 514. Pope Hormisdaa. 519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin .523. Pope.IohnI. 525. The Avian bishops deposed. 526. Pope Felix IV. Extreme Unction introduced. 529. The Order of Benedictine monks ir siituted at Mome Cassino, near Naples. 530. Pope Boniface II. 533. Pope John II. 535. Pope Agapetus. 536. " Sylvester J. Separation of the Ai-menians from the (Jim* church. 533. Po[e Vigilins. THE world's progress. 65 'Odcacer U Mahomet. {The ^'Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.] 480 481 491 514 518 518- 565 5'~Y 529 532 534 535 536 537 Eastern Empire. An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the greater part of Constantinople. Zeno maijes Theodoric geuer'al and consul. Anastasius I, The Green and Blue factions. Tlie emperor's persecution of the Catho- lics, anti jjrotection of the Manichaeans, oc- casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. The empire ravaged and the imperial army destroyed by Carbades, Icing of Persia. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from the Bulgarians. A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 killed. Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is consumed by the burning glass of Proclus. Anastasius killed by lightning. -Justin _ peasant of Dalniatia. Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. Justinian I celebrated ftfr his code of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Nurses. Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- — queUs a conspiracy in Constantinople. — defeats the "Vandals in Africa. — subdues Sicily. — takes Naples. —takes Rome, defeats the Ostrofroths in Italy. — the Hiuis in Thrace, and Europe, generally. 481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ founder of the French monarchy. 484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 486. France :— Battle of SoissoDB gained by Clovis. 7. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by PrinoB Arthur and Ambrosius. 490 :— Italy :— ravaged by the barbarians. Britain : — kingdom of Sussex. 491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia. 493. Italy :— c onquered by Theo- d o r i c , king of the Qstrogoihs.— Odoa- cer put to death. 499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with Theodoric in Italy. 500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. -Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 510. France : 511. France: -Clovis makes Paris his capital. -Clovis dies. -Childebert I. 512. The HERULII settle in Thiace. 516. The Christian Era adopted. 517. Getee ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c. 519. Britain: — Prince Arthur defeated a^ Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic kir.g, who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- tal, Seville. 530. Britain :— kingdom of Essex. 531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber*. 536. Vitiges, kmg of the Ostogroths, surreiv ders his possessions in Gaul to the Frer»^ king. 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 66 THE AVORLD's progress. [Modern : Period III. — 146 years. 651 boo 584 583 Progress of Society, etc. The mam/facture of silk introduced from China by the monks. Procopius, a Roman historian— the last of the cla-sic writers. The Saxo7i law-i ; the king's authority limit- ed by the Wittenagem.t. Three orders ; the 7«o6/e, the free, and the servile, — I'ricd by ordeal. Christianity introduced among the Picts by Columbi. The old Roman municipal system in Italy overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards —and the feudal system established. Written laws compiled among the nations of German origin— first by the Visigoths in Spain. Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- tecture of churches, with much grotesque sculpture. The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in Spa'in. The origin oi fiefs. Tlie Roman Catholic faith established in Spain. Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- tory. Bretwalda, king of England, converted to Christianity. Ai^athus. a Grecian historian. Giklas. the first Bi-itish historian. Er.agrias. ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- rits, the iiistorian of Ravenna, tutor to Theodoric. The Saxnn=!, having conquered England, it relapsed, in a great measure, into the state of barbarism, from which it had been par- tiiUy raised by the Roinans. Ecclesiastical. 540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Jesus Christ. 532. The Fifth general Council at Constanti nople 555. Pope Pelagius I. 557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, butt at Paris. 560. Pope .John III. The Tritheisls acknowledge three Goda, and deny the resurrection. 573. Pope Benedict I. 575. The first monastery founded in BavarU. Great increase of miracles. 578. Pope Pelagius XL 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. The doctrine o( purgatory first to-Ught. Mass introduced. 598. St. Augustine, first archhishop of Can- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 604. Pope Sabianus, or Sahinian. 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- versal Bishop assumed. The Waldenses refuse submiasioQ to Rop>«> —F^rom Odoacer to Mahomet.] THE world's progress. 67 540 542 Eastern Empire. Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern empire. Plague at Constantinople — during three months from 5,000 to IU,000 die daily. 548 The Lombards settle in Panaonia. — The Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. Siege of Petra. 549 559 561 562 563 665 569 574 576 57S 582 570- tiUU Narscs defeats and kills Totila. Italy governed by Greek exarchs. A plague extending over Europe and Asia, and lasting nearly 50 years. Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. " restored: — he quells a conspiracy. Great fire in Constantinople— the city nearly destroyed. Justinian dies. Justin Belisarius dies in prison. The TURKS first mentioned in history.— They send embassies to Justin, and form ail alliance. Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- ernment. Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. -Tiberius II b02 iVIaurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and ah^osl to the Caspian Sea. The Avars flourish under Baian — invade the Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, Poland, and Prussia. — P h o c a s, ^g — a centurion, elected king The empire invade J by the Persians, Europe, generally. 539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in Cornwall. 550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, first duke of Bohemia. The Greeks form settlements on Lha Spanish coast, -fronr the Straits to Valencia. 556. Civil wars in France. 558. France :— C 1 o t a 1 r e I . W 559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- chy commences. 560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbrian formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. — Ethelberi, king of Kent, subdues meet ol the Saxon kings. 561. France :— C haribert I.W 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- gin of the name England, 583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- goths. France :— C 1 o t a i r e II. ® 586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. Spain : — Recared, king. .588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 539. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 591. Britain :— Eihelbert, kins of Kent, gains the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda III. Italy: — the Lombards, under Amharis, successful aeainsL the Greeks and Franks. .595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by the Sclavouians. -596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgurdy. 597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. Aususiine. 600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 607. Britain:— Supremacy of tlie Pope ae knowledged. 68 THE world's progress. [Modem : Period ///.— 146 years Progress of Society, etc. The aristocracy acquire great power in France, somewhat restrained by the mayors of the palace. Rites aiWd superstitions increase in all Europe. — Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- nies addressed to the Virgin.— 'the burning of cand es by day. — Exorcisms, &c. Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class. Sf:cundus, historian of the Lombards. Elhelbert publishes the first code of laios in England. Progress of Society, etc. Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and philosopher. Islamisvi, and the power of the Caliphs esta- bli.^hed in the East. In the Caliphs were united the highest spiritual and regal autho- rity. Christianity introduced info China. In Englanil.sonie improvement in ecclesiasti- cal architecture ; circular arches intro- duced; churches built at Canterbury, fJlas- tonbury, St. Albans, VVinche.^ier, &c. In civil arcliitectuie, fori'' and castles— Conis- borouah Castle in Yorkshire; Castletown in Derbyshire, tiddv» of the Gothic king, the two nations are united in interest. 714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aua- trasia. 715. France: 716. Britain; -Childeric II. W~ -Elhelbald, king of Mercia. 718. Spain :— Pelagius founds the kingdom si Asturias. 720. France :— T h i e rr y II 72 THE world's progress. [Modern: Period IF.— 178 years /83 785 788 793 7W Progress of Society, etc. Increasing Dark l)o\ver, period spiritual of and European temporal iteratuie. of the Popes. Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- J- el to ilie Prisons. The venerable Bede dies— a grammarian, phi- losopher, historian, and theologian. The Abassidde, caliphs of the Saracens, en- courage learning. Fredegaire, a French historian. Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, for believing in the existence of antipodes. An organ sent by Constantine to France. Ju/in of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- tic philosophy. Fredegaire continues the histoiy of Gregory of Tours. The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- sidae caliphs. Ignorance, profligacy, and miseiy, character- ized the age preceding Charlemagne. The first palm-tree planted in Spain. Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the caliph Harounal Raschid. Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals, by Charlemagne. The Gregorian chant. The Synod of Frankfort. George, the mink. Ecclesiastical. 726. Image worship being forbidden by tha emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 727. Peter's pence first collected in England- 728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. The 'iconoclasts, or image breakers. 73L Pope Gregory HI. 735. The images throughout the empire de- stroyed by order of the emperor. Monks persecuted. 74L Pope Zachary. 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of France, by a papal decree, ri. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- bards, assisted by Pepin. 754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his protection. 755. Com mencem ent of the Pope's temporal power under the auspices of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- archate of Ravenna. 757. Pope Paul I. 768. Stephen IV. 769. Council of the Lateran. 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the emperor. 772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 779. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- lemasne, for the support of the clergy, churches, schools, and the poor. 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by Charlemagne. 787. The seventh general Council at Nice, in '(. which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was • condemned. 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagie for confirmation. Masses said for monejf. "^From Mahomet to Charkmagne.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 73 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. U2 766 781 785 786 788 793 The Arabs invest Constantinople by land with 1-U,00U men, and by sea with 1800 ships. The city is saveil by the Greek fire— the Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. The Greek possessions in Italy are lost ir coi'v sequence of the edict i ;)rbidding image woi- shiji. Constantiae V. (Copronynius). The Arabs defeated by Constantino.— Rhodes Cyprus, and Antioch captured. Europe, generally. Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes it his capital. Asia JNIinor ravaged by the Turks. Great victory over the Bulgarians. Leo IT. A Constantine "VI. (?orphyrogenetus).^g Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. The empire is invaded by H a f o u n a 1 R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad. Constantine imprisons liis raotLer, Irene, for her cruelty. Irene ® puts him to death, and assumes the s)le power, —proposes to marry Charlemagne — is dethroned by Nicephoius. The Saracens ravage Thrace. '25. France : — Charles Martel prosses the Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the lax called Peter's pence, to support a col- lege at Rome. 732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great victory over the Saracens near Tours. 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- cov cred by the Pope. 742. France :— C h i 1 d o r i c III. W 752. France :— End of the Merovingian line of French kings. -Pepin le Bref,l first of the Carlovingian line. 7.53. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a larga army against the Lombards. Italy :— Raverma a dukedom. 756. Spain :~Separated from the Caliphate . Abderhama. 761. Spain :—Froila, grandson of Pelagius, builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his kingdom. 768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- man, until 771. 774. Charlemaffne invades Italy; defeats Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes Italy to his empire. End of the Lombard king- dom. 778, A part of Charlemagne's army defeated at Ror\cesvalles. 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, and the Saxons. Charlemagne conquers the Avari. — attempts to unite the Rhine and the Danube. 787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of th« Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikinga. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. n TUE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD. Y.—The Middle Ages.~2m yean A.fl. ' PRO^ncas OF Society. 800 Ecclesiastical. 813 Agricultvre and horticul- ture en-.oura^ed by Charle- magne ; both flourisb in Spain under the caliphs. Gold mines worked in Spain. Paul Ware/redus (Diaconus) liie historian. Ilaroun al Raschirt, courting hi-s alliance, presents Cliarle- ma;xne wiih a sfri/cing cluck. This clock was adorned with auioinaton tigiires, which moved and played on va- rious musical instruments. Fine Arabian bi-eed oj" horses in'roduceJ into Spain. Alcuin, of York, a pupil of Bede, ibrms schools ai Tours —patronized by Charle- magne. Transient revival of learning under Charlemagne. Eginhard, historian, secre- tary to Charlemagne. The reign of Maniun (caliph) is regarded as the Augustine age of Arabian literature. St. Mark's Church at Venice built. Turpin, archbishop, to whom is attributed the famous •'Z>e Vila Caro'i Magni et Rolandi." 800. The Pope separates from the Eastern Empire^ and becomes supreme Bishop oj the Western. Charlemagne reforms the church. Many bishoprics founded. — Great increase of monastic institutions. New Westehn Empire. )0. NEW EMPIRE of the WEST founded by Chaile- magne. who is crowneJ at Ronie. by the pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France J2. Charlemagne receives an embassy from Nicepliorus and from ilaroun al Has- chid. 895. Charlemagne dl- vides the empire be- tween his three sons. 8(J8. First descent of the NOR MANS upon France. 813. Insurrection at Rome 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. against the pope. 28. 814. Louis I. ^ (Debonaire) an inglorious and turbulent reign. 817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons. 820. Invasion of the Normans. 816. Pope Stephen V. 817. " Paschal I. The College of Cardinals founded. 824. Pope Eugenius II. Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 827. Pope Valentine. ti2S. " Gregory IV. Missionaries sent from France to Sweden. 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, father of the doctrine of transub- stantiation. This doctrine disowned by the English Church. Ralramus and Scotus Eri- gena, theologians, holding much the same opinions as Luther. 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of Louis, associated in the gov- ernment. 840. — L t h a i r e 841. — defeated by his brouiers, Louis and Charles, in the battle of Fontenoy. Division of the empire. France:— Charles I.^g (the Bald). Ger. : — L o u i s I . ^s — surnamed the Ger- Italy :— L o t h a i r e ^S with imperial dignity. The Normans plunder Rouen, and advance to Pari* THE world's progress. (a. d, 800-lOSG.)— Charlemagne to W'dliam the Conqiceror. 75 802 803 811 ei3 816 821 822 829 B42 Eastern Empire. Nicephoriis .^^ — The Saracens ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a uibute. — Michael I . ^^ (Caropaltes) ; at war with the Bulgari. -(the L e o V .^ Armenian). Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. ravage the empire. Michael 11.^^ (Balbusor the Stammerer). Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. The Bulga- rians raise tlie siege. The Saracens obtain possession of Crete, and name it Can- dia. — T h e p h i 1 u s . ^ — -Michael III. (the Drunkard). England. 813. Egbert, king of Wessex. defeats the Britons. 827. The seven king- doms of the Hep- tarchy united by Eg- bert, king of Wessex, under the name of ENG- LAND, or the Land of the Angles. E g b e r t . @ Invasion of the Danes. 338. -E thel wolf,®— a weak prince. Scotland :— Kenneth, king of the Scots, defeats and ex- tirpates the Picts. and be- comes sole monarch. The Danes return, and ravage the country unmo- lested, and burn the city of London. Ethel wolf makes a pilgri mage to Rome. The World, elsewhere 801. DENMARK becomw a kingdom under Gotricua 818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- tron of learning. 820. First dipmemherment of the Arabian monarchy. The dynasty of the Taherites founded at Khorassan. 826. The Danish prince, Ha- rold, is baptized at Ingel- heim. 833. Motassim, caliph. He builds Sauniora, which ha makes tlie seat ;f go-er> ment. 76 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)~266 years. A.D. PUOOIISSS OF SOCIETV. 872 The aristocratic Feudd si/s- lent in a' I iis power. Here- dilunj JKibilitif, wliich, with the cleiiiy, was the domi- nant order in the siaie. The burotis independent of the king. Gradual intro- duciion of the Human and CJtnmun law. First inciosure of lands at Spahiing, wliere Richard ile Rule.'? does much lo improve agriculture. Clocks brought to Constanti- nople Irom Venice. The Faroe Isles, and Iceland discovered in this century. Ecclesiastical. 814. Pope Sergius III. {Bucca Pun: I). Ignatius, patriarch of Ciinsiaiiiinople. Persecuiion of the Chris- tians in Spain. S47. Pope Leo IV. 850. Christianity propagated by Au.schariu3 in Denmark and Sweden. 850. Pope Benedict III. 858. Pope Nicholas L First coronation of a pope. 859. Eulogius, archbishop of Cordova, martyred. 860. The schism ol the Greeks begins. 864. The Bible translated into Slavonian 867. Pope Adrian II. 8th Council at Constan- tinople — Phoiius, patriarch of Constantinople, deposed. 872. Pope John VIII. 882. Pope Martin 11. 884. « Adrian in. 885. « Stephen VL France, Spain, Germany. 855. Lothario retires to a mo nastery and dies. New division of the em- pire at Mersen. 850. Germ. : — Louis 11.^^ has Italy with the ini- peria! dignity. — esiabli.'^hes his court at Pavia. 858. Fiance invaded by Louis the German, who is finally compelled to retire. 868. Lorraine annexed France. 877. Fr.:-Louis 11 (the Stammerer). 879.- -Louis III. and C 2. rl c m a^n reign jointly. 884. France :— C h a r 1 e s^ the Fat, an usurper. 885. Paris besieged by the Normans; gallantly defend- ed bv archbishop Goslin. 886. Charles makes a disgrace- ful peace with the Normans. 887. Germany : — A mold, emperor,^g (the im- perial dignity transferred from France to Germany)- 888. France :—E u d « 9 ®- -^Charlemagne to William /.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 77 ai4 861 867 Eastern Empire. Decline of the Caliphate be- gins.— Jews anil Christians persecuted.— Frequeni wars between the Greeks and Sa- racens. -Bazil I (the Macedonian), defeats the Saracens. Crete and the Sicilies reco- vered from the Arabs. Basil commences the Mace- donian dynasty. Publication of the Basilica. Leo VI (ttie philoBophet 849. Alfred the Great, born. 852. Ethelwolf defeats the Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 857, E the 1 bald and Ethel- fa e r t ^^— reign jointly : — increase the influence of the clergy. 866. —E their ed.W 867. The Danes conquer Nor thumberland. 872. Alfred the Great! defeats the Danes. 879. Alfred abandoned by his subjects, retires to the Isle of Athelney, but soon draws together his friends and con- quers the Danes. The World, elsewhere. 845. The Normans plunder Hamburg, and penetrate into Germany. 846. The Saracens destroy the Venetian fleet, and besiege Rome. 849. —defeated by the Pope's allies. 851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- vaged by the Saracens. 856. The coasts of Holland plundered by tlie Normans. 860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- ed from Oilin.) unites Jut- land and the Danish Isles, and becomes king of Den- mark. S61. Iceland discovered by the Nornnms. 862. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first grand Prince, builds the city of Lagoda. 868. Effypt throw^s off its de- pendence on the caliphs, un- der Ahmed. 874. Iceland, a republic, found- ed by the Normans. 875. N O'RW AY : — Harold Harfrage, first king. %6. The Scythians seize Cro> atia. B9. Hungary : — Arpad lay« the foundation of the king- dom. 78 THE world's progress. [Period F.-(a.d.800-1066.)-266 years. 890 PliOGRfiSS OF SOCIETV. Oxford University fouml tjJ. — AKred tlie Great esia blishes a regular militia ami navy, ami the mode trial by jury ; instiiutesya2/.s and markets. — Joliannes Scot us Erigena, a learned philosophical writer. ft'O England divided into coun- ties, hundreds, and tithings. The county courts, held monilily, become the greai sulegiiard oC the civil rights of Englishmen. Hired troops substituted for the feudal. Ecclesiastical. 91. Pope Formosus. m. " Boniface VI. " Stephen VII. 98. " John IX. Veneration for saints and a passion for relics prevail. 900. Pope Benedict IV. 903. " Leo V. 905. " Sergius III. 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. France, Germany, &c. 914. Pope John X. 929 933 939 rhe University bridge Ibunded. of Cam- W: The Anglo Saxon monarch; rises into importance. Azophi, Arabian astronomer. Printing invented among the Chinese (.?) Cordova, in Spain, becomes the .seat of Arab learning, science, industry, and coni- m^rce. Its celebrated schools of geometry. asironomy, che- mistry and medicinej toge- ther with its etiually cele- brated poets and philoso- phers, render it famous throughout the world. l.uitprand, the historian. Mints established in Kent or Wessei. 921. The Bohemians embrace Christianity. 928. Pope Leo VI 029. '' Stephen VIII. Eudes, monic of Cluni. 931. Pope John XI. Mere children elevated to the highest offices in the church. >. Pope Leo VII. 939. « Siephen IX. 943. Pope Martin ni. W. Arnold, emperor of Ger- many, takes Home. 898.Fr. :— Charles III. ^ (the Simple). 899. Ger. :— Louia III.^ Invasion of the Hunga- rians. Contests between the no- bles and bishops 912. France ;— R o b e r t , duke of Normandy. The Normans, under R o 1 1 o , establish them- selves in Normandy. Ger. :— Oonrad I.^ (the empire becomea elective). 9 Ger. :— Henry I.^— (the Fowler); fii-st of the Saxon line. 921. Fiance :— Robert I. de- feated and killed by hia brother at Soissons. 923. France: — Rudolph elect- ed duke. Italy: — Hugo, count o( Provence, oppresses the aris- tocracy, who call to their aid Berenger. France :— Civil wars. 929. " —Charles dies a prisoner at Peronne. 36. Ger. :— O t h o (the Great). Fr. :— L o ii i s (the Stranger). 940. Burgundy, empire. fief tk« ■Charknagne to William I.] THE world's progress. 79 A.D. Eastern Empire. England. The World, elsewhere. 890 Southern Italy subject to the Greek empire. 891. Invasion of the Danes. 897 War wiih ihe Bulgarians, Lombards, and Saracens— the latter take the island of Samos. The first land tax. 900. Scotland : — Constantine 901. E d w a r d^ (the Elder), the first who III. 901 . Italy :— The r e p u b 1 i c a of Venice and Genoa 9fti Russian expedition under takes the title of " Rex An- founded. Gleg, against Constantino- glorum." ple. War with the Danes. 908. The race of Fatimites in 910 -Constantine VII. ^- asoociates his iour sons, so E-rvpt. 910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon founded by Garcia. that there are five emperors. 912. Spain :— Abderrahman III. the greatest Arab prince ol Spain— builds the sf)lendid ciiy and palace of Zehra. 914. Spain :— Ordogno 11., king of Oviedo, makes Leon his capital. Commencement of the 917 Constantinople besieged by the Bulgarians. heroic age in Spain. 919 Romanus, general of the fleet, usurps the empire, with his three sons, Christopher, Ste- phen, and -Constantine VIII. ^g- 921. Poland :—Lesko IV. " — Zemormysl. 923. Spain:— Fruela, king of 924. — A t h e 1 s t a n . W— Leon. 924. " — Alphonzo IV. 927. " — Ramiro II. 930. Denmark :— Harold VI., firs' Christian king. 9.32. Irnolf of Bavaria, de- feate.l near Verona. 933. Norway :— Eric, king— 934. —by the victory of Bru- his cruelty leads the peopJa *37 Romanus gains a naval victory over the Russians, who, led bv Igor, enter the Black Sea with 19,000 ships or ca- nanbursh, he becomes kmg of all Britain. to revolt. 940. — E d m u n d I .@ — 940. Spain :— Ramiro, king oi 942 Naples annexed to the empire. brother of Athelstan. Leon, defeats the Moors, unr der Abderrahman, in the bat. 945 The empress Helen usurps the throne. tie of Simaacus. 80 THE world's progress. [Period v.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. A.D. Progress of Society. The mercanlile character raised by a lawof Aihelsiaii. that a merchant who made three voyages over the higli seas with a ship and cariro of his own, should enjoy the rank and privileges of a thane. The figures of arithmetic brought into Europe ley the Saracens. Silver mines in the Hartz Mountains. Mar.uCactories of linens ami wodllens ii: Flanders, which becomes the sea; of western commerce. Geber, Arabian astronomer. Suidas, grammarian and lexi- cographer. Rhazes, Arabian physician. The Saxonfleet, consisting of 3(30 sail, in three squatlrons. makes the circuit, of the island, under the command of king Edgar. Abbo, monk and astronomer. 861 j Albirunius, Arabian geogra- I pher. 902 Greenland discovered by the Norwedans. Almoin, historian. Dublin much frequented for trade, also many places on the Baltic. ECCLESIASTICAf.. 946. Pope Agapetus II. 955 Baptism of Olga, and con version of Russia to Chris- tianitv. 956. Pope .John XII. Quarrel with the emper- ors respecting investiture. 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, attempt.? to reform the church— enforc- ing clerical celibacy. The influence of the monks greatly increased. 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by Roman citizens. 964. Benedict V. elected by a council. 965. JohnXm. Poland receives Christianity under Miecialus. 972. Pope Benedict VI. 973. Boniface VII. : deposed and banished for his crimes. 974. Domnus II. 975. Benedict VIL 984. Pope ,Tohn XIV. 936. « John XV. 39. Christianity propagated in Russia by Waldiifiir — they hold to the Greek church. France, Germany, 4. Fr.:-Loth&iie I.^ — confers the Oukcdori^s o( Buraumly ai.d Aquitaiae on Hugh the Great. 957. Germany: — Otho defesii the Slavonians in Saxony 964. Italy united to the empira of Germany. Tuscany becomes a duke- dom. 97.3. Ger. :— Otho 11.^ subdues llie Bohemians. 979. Otho at war with Lo ihaire. 53. — O t h o III., (3 years of age), 986. Fr. :— L o u i s V . ("the Slothful,") lastoAhfl Carlovingian race. 9aS.Fr.: Hugh Capet, ^ —founder of the third a Capelian line of French kings. —-Charlemagne to William I.\ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 81 Eastern Empire. 963 %7 975 9SC England, «fcc. 946.- -Eldreri^ Constantine III, retires into a cloister. — ^R omanus II poisoned by his wife, Theo phano. — N icephorus —he recovers Cyprus and An- tioch from the Saracens. —is murdered by —John Zimisces.^P — Basil and Constantine VIII. ^ Apu.ia and Calabria recover- ed and united to the empire. governed by Dini.stan, abbot of Glastonbury. 952. Scotland;— Malcolm I.. king. 955. Scotland :—Indulf, king The World, elsewhere. 950. Spain :— Ordono HI. king of Leon. 955. Edwy W insulted by Dunstan, and deposed — his queen, Elgiva. put to death. 959. E d g a r ^ marries the beautiful EI- frida, after the violent death of Athelwold, her lover. 960. Scotland:— Duff, king. Wolves expelled from England and Wales, in con- sequence of a reward being offered for the purpose by the king. Violent disputes between the monks and the clergy. 975. E d w a r ^ Hs (the martyr), murdered by his stepmother, Elfrida 973. — Ethelred II.,W- (" the Unready.")— Dunstan still minister.— The people become discontented. 35. Danish invasion, under Sweyn. The king purchases their retreat. 955. Spain : — Sanclio of Leon. king 95S. Italy ;~ War between thi Normans and Saracens. 961. Candia recovered from the Saracens. 962. Poland : — Miecislas esta- blishes Christianity, 967. Spain :— Ramiro HI., king of Leon. 968. The Northmen devastate Galicia, but ai-e defeated and almost exterminated. 973. Hungary:— St. Stephen, first hereditary king, extends the kingdom eastward ; gives it a constitution and written laws. 976. Spain :—Hixem, caliph of Cordova. Almansor, regent, obtains many victories' over the Christians. 980. Russia:— Waldimir I; marries Anna, sister of the emperor Basil II. 983. Italy :— Venice distracted by violent commotions. 985. Sweyn I., or Sweno, king of Denmark, invades Eng- land. 82 THE world's progress. [Period F— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. Venice and Genoa carry on a flourishing trade between Asia ind Western Europe, . „„„ Siephe.i, duke of Ilunga- 997 ry, propagates Christianity among his subjects. Progress of Society. Ecclesiastical. 993 First canonization of saints. 996. Pope Gregory V, """ " John XVI. Paper made of cotton rags. Spain, the seat of Arabian and Jewish learning. Churches first built in the Gothic style. Foundation of the House of Wisdom at Cairo. The French Language first be- gins to be written. Leo., the grammarian. The arts Vainily revive in Italy — paintings in fresco and mosaic. Literature, the arts and sci- ences,and commerce flourish at Ghizni. Musical scale, consisting of six notes, invented by Guido Aretino. Avicenna, a famous Arabian chemist and physician. Glaber Rod, historian. Campa7ies, of Navarro, astro- nomer. Hermannus Contractus, monk and mathematician. 999. Pope Sylvester IL Hungary a fief of the Romish church. 1003. Pope John XVm. 1009. Pope Sergius. 1012. " Benedict VIH. Persecution of the Albi- genses in Languedoc. 1024. Pope John XIX. He gained his election by bribe- ry. He was not of the clergy, but consul and senator^of Rome. 1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten years old). "Peace of God," pub- lished by the bishops. France, Germany, &c. 995.Fr.:— Robert 11.,^ —(the Wise,) succeeds Ins father Hugh. 998. — is excommunicated by the pope for marrying his cousin Bertha. 1002. Ger. :-H e n r y 1 1 . , W — (duke of Bavaria). Italy :— Ardoin, margrave of Ivrea, elected king. 1004. Italy :— Henry invited by the German party — Ardoin loses most of Italy and re- signs. — Pavia burnt in a quarrel between the troops and people. 1015. Germany:— The empe- ror receives an annual tri- bute from Poland. 1024. Ger. :-Conrad II —{the Salic) first of tho Franconian line. 1025. Expedition into Italy. 1029. War with the Poles. 1031. Fr.:— Henry I.W- 1032. Burgundy annexed .« the empire. — Charlemagne to William /.] THE world's progress. 83 Eastern Empire. 994. Scotland : — Constantine IV. slain by 995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 1000 1 Basil drives the Bulgarians from Thessaly. 1018 1028 1031 1034 Bulgaria again reduced to a Grecian province. — Romanus III (Argyrus). — expels the Saracens from Syria, —poisoned by his wife Zoe. England, &c. 1002. Dreadful massacre of all the Danes in England — upon which Sweyn lands a large armament, and brings war and all its miseries upon the country. 1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II., an able, renowned prince. 1012. An annual tribute pro mised to the Danes. 1013. The Danes, under Sweyn become masters of England. 1016.— Edmund 11.,^ (Ironsides.) fights six baujes with Canute, king of Den- mark, with whom he finally divides the kingdom. 1016. Canute ^ the Great, patronizes litera ture and the church. The World, elsewhere. 995. Norway :—01af I. Chri-stirinity introduced, 997. Driiniheim'founded. Mahniud Sultan of Ghii. ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca* bul, and part uf India to his dominions; patronizes litera- ture, 993- Spam :— Division of the Moliammedan kingdom of Cordova. 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) king of Navarre, takes the titie of emperor. 1000. Savoy : — independent un- der Bervald, its first count. Poland : — Boleslas I., (the Lion-hearted). 1006. Pestilence in Europe for three years. 1012. Spain :— Suleiman, ca- liph. 1014. Denmark:— Harold JUL, kmg. 1015. Norway :—01af n. 1016. Denmark :— Canute II., (the Great). 1019. Norway conquered by Canute. Venice, G'.noa, and Pisa rise into importance. 1025. Poland ;~MiecisIas IL 1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru. ' — sole monarch. — M 1 c h a e 1 v.m~ 1031. Canute penetrates into Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 1032. —performs a pilgrimage to Rome. 1031. Scotl'd :— Duncan, king. 103.O. — H a r o 1 d 1 (Hareu>ot,) cruel popular — ruled by Earl Godwin. 1035. Spain :— Ramiro 1 , king of Arragon. 1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, in right of his wife succeed* to Leon ; successful against the Mohammedans. 1036. Denmark : — Hardica- nute III. 1037. Norway :— Magnus L| (the Good). 84 THE world's progress. [Period V.—(a. d ROO-1066.)— 266 years. A.D. Progress op Society, etc. 1055 Ferdusi, the Persian Homer. Franco, mathematician. George Cedrenus, historian. Ecclesiastical. Michael Psellus, a celebrated Greek philosopher ami his- torian. English parents prohibited by law from selling their chil- dren. First age of scholastic philoso phy. 1038. The Pope, for his scan- dalous contluct, driven from Rcme, but re-established by liie emperor, Conrad. 1044. —again driven from the throne, and succeeded by Sylvester III. Alter three months Benedict is restored by the Counts of Tu.sculum. But finding the people will not tolerate his crimes, he sells the papal cliair to Gre- gory. — deposed for simony, by a council called by Henry III. lOlG. Pope Clement H. 1043. Damascus II., 23 days. " Leo IX., the first who kept a regular army. 1053. —is defeated and taken prisoner by the Normans. 1054. The papal chair vacant one year. Excommunication of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Greeks. 1055. Pope Victor 11. Hiidebrand. the real head of the church from the time of Leo IX. The church improving in piety and dis- cipliiie, 1057. Pope Stephen IX. 1058. Nicholas II. Benedict X.. (antipope). The election of pope transferred to a conclave of cardinals. 1059. Quarrel between the popes and the German em- perors, respecting investi- tures and nomination to the Holy See. 1061. Pope Alexander II. 1062. Berenger, a celebrated French ecclesiastic. Alexander forbids the massacre of the Jews. 1086. Alexander deposes Ha- rold, and gives England to William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy. France, Germany. &c. 1039. Ger.:-Henry 1 11.^ — defeats the Bohemians and Hungarians— claims thft right of "nominating to the papal chair. 1046. France :— Dispute be- tween William the Con- queror and William ol Arques, for the duchy oJ Normandy. 1053. Germany :—Hemy III. causes his son, Henry, to bo proclaimed king of the Ro- mans. This ti ie was ap- plied, for several centuries, to the king's eldest son. Ger. r-Henry IV. ^ — (the Great), aged six years, under the tutelage of his mother. 10.58. Roger, duke of Apulia, becomes a vassal of iha pope. 1060. Fr.:— Philip I ^- - 'Charlemagne to William I.] THE world's progress. 85 059 Eastern Empire. EarUiquakes and famine at ConsiamiiiO]jle. Michael V.,^ (Calapliales). — Zoe&Theodora.^— — C onstantineX. ,@— (Monomarcluis). Fiisi invasion of the Seljuk Turks. Ihe Russians invade Thrace with 11)11,000 men, and are repeatedly de/eated by the Greeks. -Theodora the last of Macedonian dy- nasty. The Greek church becories independent. Michael VI. ,^ (Stra ioiichus). — 1 s a a c^^ — • ■ (Comnenus). -Constantine XI., — (Ducas). England, &c. 1039. -Hardi Canute. M- Soot'd. : — jAIacbeih iiuir- ders Duncan, and usurps the throne. The Saxon line restored under ^„^ 1042. E d w a r dW (the Confessor). The coun- try prospers under his mild sway. 1051. Rebellion of Earl God- win and his sons. William, duke of Nor- mandy, vi-its Edward. 1053. Tlie Dane-geli abolished. Earl Godwin dies The Welch and the Irish several times invade Ens- land, but are repressed by Harold, son of Godwin. 10.54. Macbeth defeated and killed at Langfanan, by Siward, earl of" Northum- berland. 1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 1066. —Harold II., M elected kin?; killed at the BATTLE of HASTINGS — WILLIAM I ,W- duke of Normandy, styled " the Conqueror." End of the Anglo Saxon dynasty. Ed2ar Atheling flies to Scotland. The Wokld, elsewhere. 1012. Denmark : — Mapius, (the Good,) of Norway, king. 1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Es- tritson, or Suenonll. lOuO. The Pisans and Genoese take Sardinia and Corsica from the Saracens. 1055. The Turks reduce Bag- dad, and overturn the em- pire of the caliphs. 1059. Sweden: —Inseldus or Inso I., the first Christian king. 1060. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, is created by the pope, duke of Apulia. 1062. 70,000 Europeans are killed, or made prisnr.ers by the Turks in Palestine. 1065. Jerusalem taken by th« Saracens. 1065. Castile and Leon:— Ai phonzo, king. 86 THE world's progress. PERIOD. Yl.— 71ie Middle 4^es.— (Continued.)- A.D. Progress OF Society, etc. 1062 Feudal System introduced in England by the Normans. Surnames first used among tlie English nobility. 10731 Knights errant in Spain. tngulphus, historian, secre- taiy to William the Con- oueror. Marianus Scotus. BooLsdlsrs first heard of. London Biidgfl and Westmin- ster Hal3 kJuLi lOSl Lanfranc, archbisfcop of Can- terbury. Doomsday Book rorvjpJltd by order of Williaiu ^4 Con- queror. lOsii WilUam of Spires, mathev>»6 tician. A rigid police established in Ensiland. — The ciir/pw. Norman French tau'ght in aI? the schools, and made use of in all legal proceedings. Literature p.itronized in the East by Melek Shah. 1090 Fortress of Newcastle and of 1092 Carlisle built. Ecclesiastical. Popery at the height of its power, claiming suprem.e dominion, tem- poral and spiritual, over all the states of Christen- dom. France, Germany, &, Spain 1066. William. Duke of Nor- mandy, claims the crown of England, and makes war upon Harold to obtain it 1071. Philip engages in a war with Robert, count of Holland. 1072. Henry IV of Germany, summoned beljire the pope, for selling the investiture of bishops. Treats the man- date wiih contempt. 1073. — summoned again by Gregory VU. 1073.PopeGregory VII., (Hildebraiid,) who attempts to free all the clergy fro)u the civil jurisdiction. Ho quarrels with the emperor. 1074. Simony and celibacy forbidden. 1075. Tiie pope sends legates to the various courts of Eu- rope. 1076. — sends an ambassador to to depose the pope— is excom municated by Gregory. Goes barefoot to hi.* holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses his feet. 1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by the Empress Matilda. 1076. Spain:— The Cid. 1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti emperor. Rudolph dies in 1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be elected. The war continues till 1084, when Henry triumphs over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085. U~l. The order of the Carthu- *'ans instituted by Bruno. ItJSv pope Victor III. I03a « Urban II. 1085. Spain :— Toledo taken from the Moors, by Don Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by Raymond, count of Tou- louse. 1086. Spain:— The battle ol Zaiaca. 10S7. France : — War with England : Robert, duke o/ NoiinMiidy, opposes Wil liam RuJus. THE world's progress. 1066-1299.— William the Conqueror to 0!hman I. 8? Eastern Empire. Eudocia.^g She marries Romanus III., ^^ (Diogenes.) He valiantly but vainly opposes tli'e Turks — is defeated and taken prisoner by Alp Ars- lan, Emir ol" Omrah. Michael VII.,^ (Parapinaces). Andronicus I.^^ -Constantine XII. Syria and Palestine su'odued by Melek Shah. Nicephorus, ^ (Botoniales). — Alexius I.^ (Com- nenus). The empire in- vaded by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, who defeats Alexius- at Durazzo. After the capture of Jerusa- lem, by the Turks, the Chris- tian pilgrims are insulted, robbed Ami oppressed, which gives rise to the crusades. — Great struggle between Christianity and Mohamme- danism. England & Scotland. 1066. —William I.,W " THE Conqueror," xirst of the Norman line. 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of the Saxon line, takes refuge in Scotland. His sister, Margaret, marries Malcolm III. 1070. The feudal system in- troduced by the icing All the offices of the government placed in the hands of Nor- mans. The Norman lan- guaire introduced. Malcolm HI. of Scotland, ravages Durham. 1072. Peace between the Nor- mans and the Scots 1076. Robert, the king's son, raises a rebellion in Nor- mandy. 1087. William invades France, and is killed at Mantes. 1037. —William II., W (Ruru==). Revolt of the Norman nobles. The World, elsewhere. 1067. Poland : — Boleslas n —he conquers Russia. 1068. Poland :— Romanus Dio genes. 1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, (Emir.) extends his domin- ions from the Jaxartes to the Mediterranean. 1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. Pale.stine invaded and subdued by Melek Shah.— Jerusalem taken. 1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- shop of Cracow, murdered. The king excommunicated and dethroned. 1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 1083. Italy : — Rome taken after a siege of two years, by Henry IV. 1084. BOHEMIA erected into a kingdom by the empereor Henry IV. 1090. Sicily conquered by Roger the Norman, after a war of thirty years will iti masters, the Saracens. 88 THE world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle A_zes. 109; 1U96 uoo 1118 Progress of Society-, eic. Ecclesiastical. Fra.nce. Ger.many & Spain The Crusades :— Peter, the Christendom. rhe FIRST CRUSADE;— out with a vast rabble, 300, N'aihan Ben Jechiel, learned Jew. Knights of St. John insti- uued. Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius I., Eastern emperor, historian. William of Poitou, first trou- badour. 1093. Conrad, son of the em peror, rebels. The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. — of Is'avarre and Arragon. Hermit, preaches against the Turlcs in all the countries oi [The Council op Clermont. Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, stl OODof whom perish before the warriors are ready lo ttart. Tlie chieftains of the first crusade were, 1. Godfrey of Bcaillor or Boulogne. 2. Hugh o( Vermandois. 3. R o'b e r t of Normandy 4. Robert of Flanders. 5. Stephen of Chartrcs. 6. Raymond of Toulouse. 7. Hohemond. 8. T a n c r e d . 600,000 warriors, 100,000 cavalry. Ahelard, French scholastic. Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- rian. The Knights Templars. 112C Tos^rni, Hairi, and Abdallah iiiliarfuddin, Arabian poets. Scholastic Philosophy attains its highest point by the writings of Peter Abelard, Peter, the Lombard, (master of sentences). Pope Paschal \l. 1118. Pope Gelasius 11. 1119. « Calistus II. 1123. First Lateran, or ninth general council. 1124. HonoriusII. 1104. Spain :— Alfonzo I., king of Navarre and Arragon. 1105. Ger.:— Henry V.^ — maintains the right of in- vestiture. ll08.Fr.:— Louis VI., ^ — Le Gros. Abbe Sugar, minister. llOy. Germany :— Henry en- ters* Italy, takes the pope prisoner, and compels him to crown hira. 1114. Henry V. marries Ma tilda, of England. 1118. Spain:— A;fcTiso I, cap- tures Saragossa. 1120. Rivalry hetTreen Eng- land and France com- 1125. Germany .-—Loth aire 11- W opposed by Fre- deric, and Conrad, duke o\ Suabia. 1066-1229.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 89 Eastern Empire. 1099 1104 1109 1111 ni8 Order, learning, nnd com nierce revive. By I he courage and talents of the Comaeni, the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Asia ami Europe. Invasion by the crusaders ; great numbers pass ilirough Consiammople. Battle of Dorylaeum, which secures the march of the crusaders through Asia Mi- nor. Acre taken by the crusaders. Tripolis taken by crusaders. Berytus and Sidon taken by the crusaders. — .John I.. ^^ (Comne- nus),a noble p) ince : reforms the maimers ol his people. ryre taken by the crusaders. England & Scotland. 1093. Scotland .-—Malcolm III. invades Eiii^land, and is slain near Alnwick Castle by Roger de Mowbray. 1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, king. William again invades Noiriiandy. Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps the crown. William quarrels wi'h Anselm, archbishop of Can- terbury. 1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts out Donald's eyes and de- thrones him. 1100. William II. accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. ' —Henry I . ,W — (Beaucierc.) grants the Eng- lish a Chanel-, and marries Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting the Norman and Saxon ii> teresis. 1101. Robert, duke of Nor- mandy, invades England. 1106. Henry invades Norman- dy ; takes Robert prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai. Scotland : — Alexander I. 1107. Henry quarrels with An- selm. 1120. Shipwreck and death of Prince William and 140 no- blemen. 1124. Insurrection in Nox-man- dy suppressed. Scotland : -David I. pro- motes civilization. The World, elsewhere. 1095. Hungary :—Colomaa 1096. Eprypt : — Mustali, the eighth Fatimiie caliph. Ho takes .]eru?>alem. 1097. Baldwin founds the principality of Edessa. 1099. Jerusalem taken by the crusaders, under Godfrey who is elected king. 1102. Poland :—BoIeslas lU. 1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas 1106. Italy :— Venice, Genoa, and Pisa greatly enriched by the crusades. 1109. Norway: — Segurd's ex- pedition to Palestine. 1117. Persia :—Sanjar subdues Khorasan and Samarkand. 1119. War between Pisa and Genoa. 11-20. Italy: — Rise of the house of Guelph. Zensi, governor of M sul, a great prince 90 THE WORLD S PROGPvESS. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— A.D. Progress of Society, etc. Aristotle's logic comes into repute. Pandects of the Roman law, (Justinian,) discovered at Amalrt, ami the study of i\\e civil law revived. Gratian collects the canon law. William of Malmsbury, Eng- lish historian. Vacnrius teaches civil law at Oxford. Oiho, bishop of Friesengen. hi=5torian, introduces the pe ripatetic philosophy into Germany. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, travels from Spain to India, by Constantinople, and re- turns through Egypt. The magnetic needle known in Italy. Suidas.'\ex\cogT!<\'b crown prince of Naples, as 1294. China:— Tymui Khan. 1295. Poland: — Premislas H. 1296. Polaiid :— Less H. 1299. Foundation of the OTTOMAN or TURKISH EMPIRE m Bythinia, un- der Othman L .52 THE world's progress. PERIOD Yn—The Middle Ages.—I2m to 1453.— A..D. Progress of Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany, & Spain- 1300 University at Lyons founded. —Rapid advances in civili- zation. —Revival of" ancient 1302. First convocation of ih« learning.— Improvements in States-general in France. the arts and sciences— and Guienne restored to Eng- progress of liberty. land. 130? The Mariner's Com- pass invented at Naples, by Gioia, native ol" Amain. 13U3 University at Avignon. 1303. Pope Boniface VIII. Bante,ihe father of modern Council of Paris. 1304. France at war with Italian poetry, flourishes. Ball unam sanctum. Flanders. Amul the struggles of the Pope Benedict XI. Germany:— The Swisa Guelfs and Ghibelines, Vacancy in the papal towns rise into importance Italy becomes the cradle of chair nearly eleven mon:hs. —oppressed by the House of modern literature and im- —The pajml power de- Hapsburg. proving civilization. clines. 1305 University at Orleans. 1305. Pope Clement V. Seat of the popes transferred to Avig- non. 1306. Persecution of the Jews in France. Germany • — R u d o 1 1 of Austria.^ 1307 University at Perugia. 1307. Persecution of the Knights Temp'ar. Ger.: — William Tell shoots Gesler. 1308 University at Coimbra. 1303. Germany : H e n r y of Luxemburg. ^^ General insurrection in Swiizerland. 1309. Spain : — Ferdinand IV. • takes Gibraltar. 1310 Knights of St. John at Rhodes. Order of Knights Templar 1311 1311. General Council at Vien- 1311. Lyons united to France. abolished. — The barons in na. Ensland extort from Ed- Another vacancy in the 1312. Spain:— Alfonzo XI. ward II. a reformation of papal chair of more than of Castile and Leon. abuses. Parliaments are to two years.' 1314. Fr. :-Lcuis X.^- be held every year, and to appoint to all imfuriunt (Hutin.) offices. Ger. :— Louis of Bava- ria, and Frederick of A us tria. contend for the crown. 1315. Fr. :— Edict for the en franchisement of slaves. Battle of Morgarten— the Austrians defeated by th« Swiss. 1316. Pope .John XXII. 1316. Fr.:-PhilipV. Wi- Taxes imposed upon all ethe Long.) He succeeli by virtue of the Salique .aw now first established. the countries of Europe, to enrich the treasury of the church. THE world's progress. 154 years— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. 103 1303 Eastern Empire. War of the Catalans, under Roger de Flor. Othman increases his posses- sions ; abandons the pasto- ral life, and fortifies towns and castles. England «fe Scotland. 1303. Edward invades Scot- land. — Wallace betrnyed and beheaded. — Scotland submits. Edward recovers Gui- enne. 1306. Scotland : — R o b e r t Bruce jiroclaimed king —is obliged to flee ; but, Edward dying, resumes hi.=! position. 1307. Ens. :EdwardII.® Scot. : — Bruce strength- ens himself by repeated ad- va i-*ages and prudent con- duv.. The World, elsewhere. 1301. Hungary :— AndreWj the Venetian.^^ Extinction of the hous« of Arpad. — Wenceslas III. of Bo 1310 The Knights of St. .John of Jerusalem, established at Rhodes. hemia.^^ 1304. — Otto v.. of Bava ria.4 1305. Pola; rt :— Vladislas IV., in Little Poland, and Duke Henry, of Glogau, in Great Poland. Russia subject to the Khan of Tartary. 1307. Switzerland: W m . Tell escapes from Gesler : SWISS Republics founded, Nov. 7. 1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 1314. Edward invades Scot- land, and is defeated at the Battle of Bannock- burn The Scots invade Eng- land and Ireland. Anjou.®- 1309. Poland united into one monarchy under Vladislaa IV. Naples: — Robert, the Good. He aspires to the dominion of Italy. 1310. Italv :— The Council of Ten established at Venice. 1313. Italy ;—Matteo Visconti. 1314. Tunis made tributary to Spain. 1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord of Lucca and Pisa. 1317. Robert, the Good, a sena- tor of Rome, and 1318. —lord of Genoa. 1319. Final establishment of the oligarchy at Venica .04 THE world's progress. [Period VIL—TTie Middk Agei.- A.D. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany, &, Spain 1321 1323 i325 1326 1334 1335 1337 >340 1345 1347 1360 1J56 Dante, dies. John de Muris introduces notes of different length into music — and the method of distinguishing them. Romance poetry of the middle ages flouiishes. Mayronis commences the cele- brated disputations in the Sorbonne. Clock constructed on mathe- matical principles, by Rich- ard Valiglorc. Linna, a monk, and astrono- mer of Oxford, constructs a map of the northern seas. Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch- bishop of Canterbury. Giotto, a shepherd boy, the first who drew portraits from life. Greek literature revives. — Barlaam teaches Petrarch. — Leontius lectures on Ho- mer at Florence. First comet, whose course has been accurately described. GUNPOWDER in use at the battle of Cressy. Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- rentine painter. First ba7ik at Genoa. 1324. Contest of the popes with Louis of Bavaria. 1328. Crusade preached agains. Louis, who sets up Nicholas V. as anti-pope. 1334. Pope Benedict XU. 1339. Struggles in Rome be- tween the Colonna and the Ursini. 1342. Pope Clement VI. Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri bunes. Manufactures improve in England. — Commerce in- creases. Bartolus and Baldus, cele- brated jurists. Merino sheep introduced into Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- gon. Sir John ManderilWs Tra- vels, the first English book in prose. 1352. Pope Innocent VI. 1354. Rienzi killed.— Albemoz, cardinal legate, restores the papal dominion. 1322. France : — C h a r 1 e I V.^ -(the Fair.) Germany :— Frederic, ol i» jstria defeated and taken prisoner. 1324. Germany: — Louis ex- communicated by John XII. — appeals to a general coun- cil. 13-28. France :-P h i 1 i p VI of Valois.^ 1332. France :— The Fleminga revolt and acknowledge Ed- ward III. as king oi France. 1338. France :- War with Eng- land. Germany :— Declaration of the Diet of Frankfort, that the pope had no tempo- ral power in the empire. Louis sides with the English against France. 1346. France: — Normandy overrun by Edward, with his son. the Black Prince. — French defeated at Cressy. Germany : — C h a r 1 e » IV., king of Bohemia. The empire offered to Edward III., who declines. 1350. France :- (the Good.) -.T o h n ,M- 13.55. Germany : — Promulga- ion of the gulden Bidi. 1356. France :— King John de- feated and taken prisoner at Poitiers. — Charles the dau- phin regent. Insurrection in Fans. 1360. France:— John regaina his liberty— cedes much ter- ritory to "England 1299-1453— loi 7/mr,^.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 105 Eastern Empire. 1320 1326 1341 l3iS Disputes and civil war be- tween the emperor and his son, Michael. England & Scotland. Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, makes Prusa his capital. Andronicus, ^g (the younger.) -John Cantacuzene. 1360 War with the Genoese, defeat of the Greeks and Venetians. Fohn Palaeologus.^^ Amurath I. Turks. Sultan of the 1322. Lancaster executed. 1323. Conspiracy against the kJn£f. The World, elsewhere. 1320. Russia : — The grand duchy of Wladimir confer- red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 1327. Peace between Scotland and England. — The inde- pendence of Scotland ac- knowledged. —Edward III.^_ 1329. Scotland :— David 11. 1332. Edward invades Scot- land. — Balliol crowned, but soon expelled. 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. — Balliol restored — does ho- mage to Edward. 13.38. Struggle for the French crown,which lasts 120 years. 1340. The victory of Helvoet Sluys — gives spirit to the English navy. ^David, of Scotland, in- vades England. 1346. Battle of Cressy. 1M7. Siege and capture of 1350. Viclory over the Spanish fleet. — Parliament divided into two chambers, lords spiritual and temporal. 1356. Edward, the Black Prince, gains the battle of Poitiers. — John made prisoner.— Two years' ti-uce. — Edward again invades Scotland— is obliged to re- treat. 1358. — again Invades France. ISSe. Peace of Bretigni. 1326. Tartary: — Tamer- lane born at Kesh. 1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis, emperor of Germany. 1333. Poland: Great.#- Casimir the 1339. Italy:— Simon Bocane" gra, doge of Genoa. 1340. Denmark : — Waldemar IV. restorer of the kingdom 1342. Hungary : — Louis the Great. 1343. Italy : Commercial treaty between Venice and the sultan of Egypt and Syria. 1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the last of the Tribunes, rules at Rome. 1350. Italy : — Naval war be- tween Venice and Genoa. 1353. Establishment of the Ot- tomans in Europe. 13.54. Italy :—Rienzi killed— papal power restored. 1356. First war between Hun- gary and Venice. 1359. Hungary :— Conquest of the principalities lying on the Danube, /06 THE world's progress. [Period VIl.— The Middle Ages.-* Progress of Society, etc. Petrarch and Boccacio. Charles V. founds a college of mediciiie and astrology at Palis. Foundation of the University of Vienna. Geof. Chaucer, father oi English poetry. Mysteries played in France. Wickliff'e's translation of the Bible. University of Heidelberg founded. Froissart'!, Chronicles. John Van Eyck, invented oil painting — founder of the Flemish school. The first mill in Germany for the manufacture of linen paper. Chaucer's Astrolabe written. Revival of Greek literature in Italy. Chaucer dies. John Goteer, English poet. Ecclesiastical. 1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- non — beautifies the city of Rome — presents the right arm of Thomas Aquinas to Charles V. of France, as an object of worship. 1370. Pope Gregory IX. France. Germany «& Spain, 1378. " Schism of the West ;" Pope Urban VI. ac- knowledged in the empire and England. Clement VII. acknow- ledged in France, Spain, and Scotland. 1389. Pope Boniface IX. at Rome. 1391. The English clergy for- bidden to cross the sea for benefices. 1394 Yope Benedict XIII. 1364. Fr.:— Charles V. (the Wise.) 1365. War with Navarre— bat- tle of Amoy, 1378. Germany:— We nces- las, (king of Bchemia), emperor. 1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^ (the Maniac). 1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the Flemings defeated — Arte- velde killed. 1386. France :— Fruitless at- tempt to invade England. 1392. —Charles seized with madness. 1394. Germany :— The emf er- or imprisoned by the peopie of Prague. UOO. Ger. :— Robert, (Count Palatine). 1299-1453.— 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's PROGRESS. 107 1373 1389 1391 1402 Eastern Empirk. Treaty with Murad, the Otto- man emperor. Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks Manuel II. England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. emperor. Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- mond, of Hungary, d°{ea.ied. by Bajazet 1. Bajazet defeated and made ^)risoner by Tamerlane, at the battle of Angora. 1362. The Black Prince aids Peter the Cruel, of Castile, to recover his throne. 1369. A new war with France ; unsuccessful. 1371. Scotland :— Robert II.— the House of Stuart. 1376. Death of the Black Prince. 1377.— Richard II. ft— First Speaker of the House of Commons. 1378. Fruitless invasion of France. Insurrection of Wat Ty- ler. 1382. The king marries Anne, daughter of Charles IV. 1334. The Scots, assisted by France, invade England. 1385. The English burn Edin- burgh. 1388. Battle of Otterbourne. 1390. Scotland : Robert III. Persecution of the Wick- Mtes. 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, banished. House of Lancas- 1399. -^Henry IV .W — RiclMrd 11. deposed. 1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- dower, and 1403. of the Percys, who are defeated at the battle of 1362. Italy: — War betW6«t Pisa and Florence. 1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane makes Samarcand the capi- tal of his new empire. 1370. Poland :— Extinction ol the royal race of Piasts. Shrewsbury. 1378. Italy:— Silvester de Me- dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- rence. 1380. Russia :— Dimitri Ivano- vitsch victorious over the Tartars, near the Don. 1382. The Tartars sack Mos cow. 1384. Persia : — Invaded by Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. — Pyramids of human heads. 1385. War between Austria and Switzerland. 1386. Battle of Sempach:— the Austrians defeated. 1387. Denmark & Norway :— Margaret, ^ the Semi- ramis of the north. 1391. Italy :— Pisa falls under the yoke of the Visconti. 1395. Tamerlane overruns Kipchak and Russia 1397. Union of Calinar, form- ing Denmark, Sweden, and Norway into a single mo- narchy. 1399. Invasion of India by Tamerlane. 108 THE world's progress. [Period VII. -The Middle Ages.- Progress of Society, etc. Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish historian. University of Leipsic found- ed. Thomas a Kempia. John Husa. Jerome, of Prague. First Portuguese colonies on the coast of Alrica, Madei- ra, «fcc. George of Peurbach, astrono- mer at Vienna. Peter d'Ailly, theologian. The arts promoted in Italy by Cosmo de Medici. England increases her trade with the Mediterranean. Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- man painter, (teacher of Durer). Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. INVENTION OF PRINT- ING at Mayence. John Midler ' Reg iomont anus, German astronomer and mathematician. Ecclesiastical. 1404. Pope Innocent VII. 1406. " Gregory XII. 1409. The council of Pisa de- poses Gregory and Bene- dict, and elects Alexander V. ; — neither will yield, so that there are three popes at once. 1410. Pope John XXIII. 1414. Council of Constance. 1416. John Huss, and Jerome, of Prague, burnt by the Council of Constance. 1417. Pope Martin V. 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at Avignon, resigns, and ends the "Schism of the West." 1431. Pope Eugenius IV. Council of Basle. France, Germany, «fc Spain. 1407. France : — Murder of Louis, Duke of Orleans. Spain:— John II., king of Castile. 1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, king of Arragon. — Yustcf III., king of Granada. 1410. Fr. : — Civil war between the parties of Orleans and Burgundy. Germany : — Death of Robert. 141 1. S i g i s m u n d , (king of Hungary),^* empe- ror. 1413. France: — The French defeated by Henry V., of England, at Agincourt. 1416. Spain :— Alforizo V., king of Arragon and Sicily. 1419. Sigismund succeeds to the Bohemian crown. 1422. France :— Death of Char- les VI — Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris king of France and England. — Charles VII. ^ — at Poitiers. 1427. Orleans besieged by tho English. 1429. —saved by J o a n o 1 Arc. Charles crowned at Rheims ; makes a vain at- tempt to gain Paris. 1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- soner and burnt as a witch. 1431. Germany: — Sigismund visits Italy, and is crowned emperor by Pope Eugenius IV. 143.5. Peace of Arras, between France and Burgundy. 1436. France :— Recovery of Paris. 143S. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber- ties of the French church. i299-1453 :— 154 7/m/-s.— Continued J THE world's progress. 109 1403 1413 1438 Eastern Empire. Solyman L, Turka. Sultan of the Mohammea I., Sultan of the Turks. Amu rath II., Turks. Sultan of the John VII. peror The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turis — submits to the pope. England & Scotland. 1406. Scotland :— James I. 1413. —Henry V .^ — 1414. — claims the French crown. 1415. — gains the battle of Agincourt. 1420. Treaty of Troyes.-Henry marries Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and is de- clared heir to the French crown. 1422. Death of Henry V. —Henry VI.^- 1424. The Duke of Bedford defeats the French at Ver- neuil. 1427. — besieges Orleans. 1429. The siege raised by the Maid of Orleans. 1431. —she is taken prisoner and burnt. 1435. Death of the Duke of Bedford, followed by the loss of all the English pos- sessions in France, except Calais. 1436. War with Scotland. 1437. Scotland :— James II. The World, elsewhere. 1406. Italy :— Pisa cor quered by Florence.— Subjugation of Padua and Verona by Venice. 1412. Italy:— Sack of Roma by Ladislas, king of Naples. Denmark, Norway, &c. : Eric VII., of Pomerania.^P 141.5. Conquest of Ceuta, by the Portuguese. 1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 1420. Discovery of Madeira by the Portuguese. 1424. Bohemia :-Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader. Italy :— War of the Duke of Milan against Florence. 1429. Florence:— Cosmo di Medici, patron of the arts and sciences. 1431. Italy :— Second war of Venice and Milan. 1434. Poland :— Vladislas IIL 1436. Italy:— Third war be- tween Venice and Milan. 1437. Portugal : — Expedition into Africa. 1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V., king no THE world's PE^OGRESS. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.^ A.D. PfiOORESS OF SOCIETY, etC. Ecclesiastical. Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, architect, and painter— dis- covers perspective. Pet. Perugino, founder of the Roman school of painting teacher of Raphael. I.ibrary of the Vatican, found- ed. The Azores discovered. Alain Chartica. French poet. Flourishing period of Flan- ders' trade. — All European nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent. — Book trade at Mayence. ler. 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 1448. Concordat of AschafTcn berg, by which the liberties of the German churcb are compromised. France. Germany pardoned. 1444. — establishment of the companies of Archers, the first national standing army. 1446. Germany : — War with Hungary, for refusing to give up the young prince, Vladislas. 1451. Expedition of Frederic to Rome. 1453. Austria made an hersdi- tary iluchy by Frederic. End of the Frcucil tnd English wars. 1299-1453.— 154 y^ars.— Continued.] THE world's PROGRESS. ..I 1413 1444 Eastern Empire. Insurrectiai of Scandeberg— victory over the Turks near Nissa. Battle of Varna — Vladislas, king of Poland, defeated and killed by the I'arks. *448 [•iOl 1453 — Constantine XII. ^- (Palseologus,) the last of the Greek emperors. Mohammed II., Sultari of the Turks. Siege and capture of Constantinopl( by the Turks: END OF THE EAST ERN EMPIKE. England & Scotland. 1444. Truce with France.— Marriage of Henry to Mar- garet, of Anjou. 1447. Gloucester arrested for treason— dies suddenly. The World, elsewhere. 1450. Insurrection of Jack Cade— calling himself Mor- timer. Civil Wars of ''the Roses:'' Richard, duke of York, claims the throne. Scotland :— Strugglesbe- tween the king and arisfo- 1440. Hungary: — ■^'JadisUul chosen kmg.^g— — 1441. Italy:- Peace of Marti- nego. 1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, unites the crown of the Two Sicilies. 1445. Poland : Casimir IV. '^ 1446. Tartary: — Ulugh Beg, patron of astronomy and geography. 1448. Denmark :--Christian L of Odenburg.^§ Sweden :— Charles VIII. ^ 1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor- za, duke of Milan. Norway : Christian crowned at Drontheim.^9 Delhi :— Behol Lodi en- larges the kingdom. 1453. Poland:— Confirmation of the national liberty in th« Diet of Petrikan. cracy for power. 112 THE world's progress. PERIOD van.— 1453-1598. AD. Prdgkess op Society, etc. « England. Scotland. France. Spain and Portugal. Philip de Comines, French 1454. Spain :- historian. 1455. Battle of Henry IV. of Castile. W St. Albans. 146C Wood engraving invented. House of York: 1460. James 1461. — Ed- in. 1461. Louis \m Post- Offices in France and ward IV. ^— gains xi.# 1469. Marriage ofFerdinand, England. Civil war.— of Arra£on, the battle of —Peace of with Isabel- Towton. Conflans. la, of Cas- 1466 Faust dies at Paris, whither tile. AS journeys twice to sell his Latin Bible. 1470 Beerhard invents the pedal to the organ. 1469.Warwick 1471 Printing in England— Cax- ton. banished. 1471. Battle of Barnet : 1473 Printed musical notes. Warwick Hungary :— Mathias patroni- slain.— Hen- zes literature and the arts. ry VI. dies in the Tower. Large library at fen— 300 1475. War be- copyists of manuscripts. tween Louis and Charles 1476 German ballads— war songs of 1483. Ed- of Burgun- Veit Weber. ward V. 1479. War with 1476. —who is 1479. Uninn England . — defeated at ofCastila 1477 PFa/cAes first made at Nurem- Conspiracy of the no- Granson and Moral, and and Arra- g n under Ferdinand ?'"'■=■ . Richard, bles ; — they take the king 1477. —slain at Mikrond and Rondemir, great Protector. — Nancy. 1 1 . and I s a- Persian historians. The kint; & his brother murdered in prisoner. Artois and Burgundy bella. 1480. T h e I n . united to the qu isition. — X i m e J481 Lady Juliana Bemers, one of the Tower. French the earliest female writers crown.^. n e s . bishoj. of Toledo. of England. — R i c h - ard III. # 1481. Port. :- Hans Holbein, painter. John II. § 1485. -Henry, earl of Rich- 1483.-Char- 1484 Franchino Gafurid, teacher in les VIII. 1484. First au the first public school of music at Milan. mond, lands at Mil ford Haven. ^ da-fe at S« ville. Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- sical genius of his age. Battle of B 8- worth Field: Richard defeated and slain. THE world's PROCKESS. 113 I Othman to the Edict of Nantes. " — Ottoman A.D. Germany. Italy. Empire. The World, elsewhere. 1454. Struggle 1454. Poland :-War with the between Cos- 1455. Turks re- Teutonic Order. mod da Me- pulsed at Bel- dici and the grade. aristocracy. • 1458. The 1458. Hungary : MathiM French rule in Genoa. Corvin,^^ ;:iakes his 1162 The emperor besieged in his Pope Pi- country formidable to her court at Vienna— delivered us II. neighbors. by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- 1463. War of 1462. Russia :-Ivan I. W-- mia. Venice with the Turks. the Great— takes the liile »f 1464. Pietro de Czar. Medici at Florence. 1464. War with 1466. Peace of Thorn.— East Pope Paul Hungary. Prussia a fief of Poland.— II. West Prussia ceded to Po- 1466. Galeaz- land. zo, duke of 1468. Uzun Hasan, master of Milan. all Persia. 1469 Invasions of the Turks. 1469. Loren- zo de Me- dici, suc- ceeds Pietro. 1471. Sixtus 1470. —forms an alliance with the Venetians and the duke of Burgu.i dy against the Turks— con- quers Bagdad. 1472 University of Ingoldstodt. IV. pope. Power of the Medici increases. 1472. Russia :— Ivan marries Sophia, niece of the Greek emperor. 1474. —shakes off the Tartar Learning flourishes. yoke, and captures Novo- gorod. .477 Marriage of Maximilian and Maria of Burgundy. 1478. Conspi- racy of the 1477. Hungary — ^War with Frederic IH. j Pazzi at Flo- rence.—Glu- lio, brother of Lorenzo 1479. Fruitless attempt upon Rhodes. .- de Medici, slain. 1480. -capture and destroy Otranio. 1481. Bajazet II. i the tirst un- warlike sul- tan. 1481. Denmark :_John, W— partially acknowledged in Sweden. 1484. Innocent VIIL, pope. 1488. Hungary: Mathias takes Vienna. 114 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VIII.^ 5 Scot- Spain anb A.D. Progress op Society, etc. England. land. France. Portugal. House of Tudor :— —Henry VII. # 1436. Imposture of 1490 Martini Behaim, (Nurem- Lambert Symnel. 1437. :- buig,) publishes a map of The Star Cham- James the world. ber established. IV. 1491. Bretag. ne united to 1492 DISCO VE R Y OF the crown 1492. Con AMERICA. by the king's marriage quest o Granada, 1493 First printing press at Copen- 149.3. Perkin War- with Anne. by Gonzala hagen. beck, pretends to de Cordova. be Richard, duke 1494. Invasion Disco ve ry The second voyage of Colum- of York— defeated of Italy. of Ameri- bus— k Spanish colony at on Blackheath. ca, by Co- Hispaniola. lumbus. 1497 The discoveries of John and 1497. Cabot makes 1493.-Louis 1498. Vasco •^ Sebastian Cabot. discoveries in A- XII.^- d e G a m a merica. doubles the U93 Third voyage of Columbus. He discovers Trinidad and Cape of 1499. Earl of 1499. m- Good Hope, the Coniinent. Warwick, last vades Italy and reaches Lisbon, the great seat of trade. of the Plantage- —conquers India. —Venice declines. nets, executed. the Milanese Maritime enterprises greatly Duchy. exiended. Sir Thomas Mare's Utopia, pnblisheil. 1500. Treaty with Ferdi- Nicholas Machiavelli, states- man and historian. nand, of Ara- 1499 Anierizo Vespucius's voyase. gon, for the 15IJ2 Fourth voyage of Columbus. conquest and Raphael. Michael Angelo, Ti- partition of Naples. 1506. Colum- tian, Corregio, painters. 1503.: — bus dies at James VdUadolid. St. Peter^s, and other magni- marries 1507. Cardinal ficent churches built. 1509. - — H e n r y Marga- Ximenes. TT- 1 1 T ^^ ret, of Board ol En"'- 1510. The Council of American trade at Se- land. joins the League Tours, to ville. of Cambray. support the 1513. Invasion of the kins asjainst i5l5 The cele' rated tapestry, after Scots. — Battle of the' Hoiy Raphael ;— Cartoons woven Flodden— the king League. in ihe Netherlands. and chief Scots killed. 1513. : - 1517 L UTHE R, Erasmus, 1515. Wolsey, James 1515.— Fran - M e 1 a n c t h u , and other ciiancellor and car- V. reformers. dinal. Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 1520. The Emperor — invailes Elizabeth. visits England. — Italy— victory Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- Meeting of Henry • of Marigna- 1516.— Char man drama. and Francis at the no — Genoa les,^— kins 01 all Spain, and the Nether- "Field of the Cloth and Milan Copernicus, discovers of Gold." submit. the true system of the Uni- 1521. The Reformed 1516. Concor- verse—hi^ great work, De doctrines opposed dat with the Orbium Ccslestium Revolu- by Henry, in his pope, instead lands. lionibus. book in the Seven of pragma- 1519. Con SacraMonts — he tic sanction. quest of Mexico by Co I tee. 1522 First complete circumnavi- receives the title 1521. First war gation of the qlobe, by Ma- of " Defender of with Char- gellan the Faith." les V. L453-1598.] THE world's progress. 115 149.3 Germany, -Maximilian 502 .DOS 1512 1517 1518 l«) University of Wittenburg. Maximilian enters Italy to be crowned by the pope. —joins tlie League of Cam- bray. —divides the empii'e into ten circles. Commencement of THE Reformation. Luther summoned before the diet of Augsburg. — Charles V .ft — of Spain. The archduke Ferdinand, mar- ries Anne, sister of Louis— -whence the accession of Bohemia ar.d Hungary to the House of Hapsburg. Diel of Worrns, Italy. 1492. Pietro II. succeeds his father. Lo- renzo, in Flo- rence. Pope Alex- ander VI., (Boisfia.) L494. Expedi- tion o( Char- les VIII. in- to Italy. 1499. Amerigo Vespucius's voyage to America. 150U. Partition of Naples between France and Spain. 1502. Florence: Machiavelti, Secretary ol Slate. 1503. Naples annexed to the Spanish Crown. Pope Pius III. Pope Ju- lius II. 1508. League of Cambray against Ve- nice. 1510. Holy League to expel the French. 1511. Council of Pisa. 1513. Pope Leo X. (de Medici.) patron of li- terature and arts. The build- ing of St. Peter's com- menced. 1519. Cardinal de Medici holds rule in Florence. 1522. Pope Adrian VI. Ottoman Empire. 1493. Wars with Egypt, Hungary, and Venice. 1503. Peace with Venice. 1505. War with Persia. 1512. Selim I., #— de- thrones and puts to death his father. 1514. The Per- sians defeat- ed at Kalde- roon. — Me- sopotamia and Kurdis- tan added to the empire. 1516. Cairo taken by storm.— Ma- meluke do- minions an- nexed to the empire. 1520. Soliman, W (the Magnificent.) 1521.'Belgrade taken by sti rm. 1522. Rhodes capitulates. The World, elsewhere. 1438. India :— Sekander Lodi, king of Delhi. 1492. Poland:— John Albert. AMERICA discovered by Co- lumbus. 1493. Spanish colony at His paniola. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- pucius'-— South American coast explored. ISOl.PolaiiJ : — Alexander. ] 502. Ismail Shah Soo.l makes himself sole sovertvgn of Persia. 1506. Poland :—Sigismund I. ft (the Great.) 1509. Bohemia :— Louis,® — 3 years old. 1510. America : — Settlement at Darien. 1511. America : — Cuba con- quered. 1512. America: — Florida di.-covered. 1513. South Sea first reached by Balboa. 1516. Hungarv and Boliemia: -Louis II. Loiii 1517. India :— Ibrahim king of Delhi 1517. America : — First patent for importing Negroes — granted by Spain. 1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 1519. MEXICO conquered by the Spamarf"s, under Co* tes. 116 THE world's progress. [I eriod VIII.^ 1527 1530 1533 1536 1537 1533 15ai) 1512 1515 1547 1513 Progress op Society, etc. Xavier plants Christianity in India. Ariosto, Italian poet. England. Albert Durer. Fa-si work on military archi- Jorgens invents the spinning wheel for spinning flax. Rabelais, French humorist. Botanic Gardens at Padua. Ignatius Loyola founds the order of the Jesuits. Papal bull declaring the Ame- rican natives to be rational beings. The diving bell invented. Calvin founds the Univer- sity of Geneva. Pins first used by Catharine Howard, queen of England. John Knox, Scottish Refor- mer. A commercial treaty between Portugal and Japan. Needles first made. Vasalius's work on Anatomy. Revival of Stoicism, by Justus Lipsius. Pale.sirina, founder of Italian church music. Giacomo Carisimi. Orange trees introduced into Euirope. Scot- land. 1529. Sir Thomas More, Lord Chan- cellor. — Rise of Cranmer, archbi shop of Canter- bury. 1532. The king mar- ries Anne Boleyn. 1535. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More beheaded. Henry excom- municated by the Pope 15.36. — marries .Tane Seymour. — Sup- pression of the smaller monaste- ries. 1543 Henry invades France takes Boulogne. 1544. French fleet gain a victory over the Enslish, off" the Isle of VVisht, 1547. Edward VI.^— - S')mersei invades Scotland —defeats the Scots at Pin- kie. Formal esta- blishment of Pro- testantism. 1.536. : — Spread the Refor- mation. —Pro- testants persecu ted. 1542. : — Alary Earl of Arran, egent. 1525. Francis defeated and taken pri- soner at Pa- via, 1527. Second war with Charles V. 1529. Treaty of Cambray. — Great en- couragement given to arts and sciences. —The Lou- vre com- menced. 15.32. Calvin preaches. Third French war. —Siege of Marseilles. Spain and Portugal. 1538. Truce of Nice — for 10 years. Attempt to recover pow- er in Italy; hence the 1542. Fourth French war. 1514. Peace ol Crespy. France gives up Italy. 1547. Henry 11. A— l"he fa- mous Catha- rine de Medici, queen. 1536. AccuJsi tion »f Mi Ian. 1540. Portu- gal : — Lis- bon,the mar- ket of tha world. 1512. Com- mercial trea- ty between Portugal and Japan. 1463-1598.J THE world's PRCGRESS. 117 1525 1526 l{i29 1538 1M3 1647 Germany. General insurrections of the peasantry, under Thomas Miinzer. Charles marries Isabella, of Portugal. Death of Frederic, of Saxony. The Turks invade Germany. — Diet of Spires. — Luther- ans first called Protestants. League of Smaicald. Congress of Nice between the Emperor, the Pope, and the king of France. War m alliance with England against France. Diet of Worms. War of the Sijialcaldista. Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- ny. Ottoman m tit , u Italy. Empire, The World, elsewhere. 1523. Clement VII. , pope. 1525. Spain ac- quires the ascendency by the victo- ry of Pavia. 1527. The Me- dici expelled from Flo- rence. 1530. Medici restored. — Charles V crowned a Bologna. 1534. Paul in. pope. 1537. Cosmo de Medici, duke of Tus- cany. 1540. Investi- ture of Mi- lan con'-fer- red by Char- les V. on Philip. 1545. Council of Trent. 1526. Invasion of Hungary. 1529. Invasion of Germany. — Siege of Vienna. The Otto- man navy formidable under the command of Barbarossa : 1535. —who seizes Tu- nis. — The emperor, Charles V., restores the Moorish king. - 1541. Destruc- tion of an ar- mament, led by Charles V. agaipst Algiers. 1547. The Turks in- vade Persia, and capture 1523. Sweden :— Revolt under Gustavus Vasa . — The Danes expelled. — Union oi Calmar dissolved. Denmark and Norway • —Frederic I-W 1525. Albert, duke of Prussia. 1530. Malta givei to the knights of Rhodea 1532. Union of Norway and Denmark. 1533. Conquest of Pe- r u , by Cortes. Russia : — Ivan IV., (the Terrible). 1536. Cortes discovers Califor- nia. 1543. First standing army la Sweden. 1545. South America :—Mmea of Potosi discovered. 1548. Poland :~SigismundII^ ^ (A jgustiu> 118 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period Vni-" Progress op Societt, etc. Scaliger, Philologist. Hfontcu'gTie, French Essayist. i5S8 1559 1560 Cardan, Italian philosopher. Sealing wax comes into use in Europe. Foundation of Jesuit Colleges in opposition to Protestant Schools. The first at Co- imbra, in Portugal. Only two carriages in Paris- horses and litters generally used. Snuff first brought into France. —Knives first made in Eng- land. Torquato Tasso Guarint, poets. Camoens, Portuguese poet Thomas Tallis, English mu- aiciaa. England. 1549. The Engbsh Liturgy comple- ted and establish- ed by act of Par- liament. 1553. Northumber- land intrigues to settle the crown on Lady .lane Grey, his daughter-in- law. -Mary.#_ Catholicism re- stored. 1554. The queen marries Philip, of Spain.— Lord Dud- ley and Lady .lane Grey executed. 1555. Bloody perse- cution of Protes- tants. 1557. War with France to support Spain.— Calais lost. 1553. — E L I z BETH. W- tSCOT. LAND. France. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Secreta tary of State. Protestantism established. The Puritans begin to rise. 1568. —Mary, queen of Scots, takes re- fuge in England— and is imprisoned. 1570. Civil wars of the Desmonds in in Ireland. 1560. Ca iholic- sni abo lished by par- liament. 1.565. : — Mary marries Lord Darn- ley. 1565. : — Revolt 01 Pro- testants . 1567. : — Darn ley murder- ed — the queen marries earl of Both- well— is dethron- ed and impri- soned at Lochle- ven. James 1570. :- Lennox, regent. 1552. Fifth war with Char- les V. Spain and Portugal. 7. The French defeat- ed at St. Quentin. 1553.— at Gra- velines. 1.5.59. Peace of Chateau— Cambresis. F r a n c i s II. #- Duke of Guise, mia ister. 1560.— Char- lesIX.^ 1562. Religious liberty grant- ed 10 the Hu- guenots. First civil religious war Huguenots supported by England — de /eated at Dreux. 1567. The se- cond war. — Huguen(5ts defeated at St. Denys. 1569. —routed at Jarnac. — C o a d e kiUed. 1554. CrTcan, in India, hist. 15.56. Charles abdicates— Philip II. 1557. gal: Portu- — Sebas- 1564. Acquisi- tion of the Philippines. 1567. Duke of Alva, gover- nor of the Netherlands. l.'>70. War with the Turks.— Na. val victory at Lepaaia x453-1598.] THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 119 Ottoman '" A.D. Germany. Italy. Empire. The Wjrld, elsewhere. 1550. .Julius 1551 Treaty of Passau secures reli- gious liberty to the Protes- tants. Fruitless siege of Mentz. III., pope. 1555. Marcel- 1551. Tripoli taken from the Maltese knighis. 1552. Invasion of Hungary. 1553. War with Persia. Building of the mosque of Solyman- yah, at Con- sianimople. 1553. ^ew Mexico disccTeiod by t! le Spaniards. 1556 Charles abdicates. lusIL.pope. Paul IV., (Caraffa) pope. 14r-.5. India :-.Telaleddin Ak- jar, a patron of science and .iterature, aided by his min- isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh Faizi. —raises the Mogul em- pire to its greatest splendor. 1558 — F erdinand I .® — king of Hungary and Bohe- mia. Coronation by the pope relin- quished. 1559. Pius IV. 1559. Naval 1559. Denmark and Nonsray . (Medici) victory of ^ pope. Gal ves, gain- —Frederic II. W Peace of ed by Iha- Chateau — gut. Decrease of the influ^nca Cambresis Military of the Hanse towna. terminates power of 1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. ^ the French the Turks at 1&64 -Maximilian II. W- wars in Italy. Tranquil- lity for 66 years. 1562. Council its greatest height, un- der Soliman. 1562. War with Russia and of Trent re- 1565. Unsuc- Poland.— An Fugilsh am- assembled. cessful siege of Malta. bassador in Pevoia. 1564. Colisny etnds a colony 1566. Pius v., 1566. Death of of Huguei'iolP to Florida- pope. Soliman at destroyed by the Spaniards. 1569. Florence, the siege of 1563. Prussia :— Albert Frede- a grand du- chy. Sigeth. Selim n. lic.^ Cosmo d 6 M c d i - *- Sweden:- John ni.#- c i , declared \ grand duke 1 i i of Tuscany, by Pius V. 1570. War of Venice with 1270. Peace of Stetin, between the Porte. Denmark, Norway, and 1571. Cyprus reduced by the Sweden. , Turks. 1571 Russia devastated by the 1 Battle of khan of Crim Tartary.- Lepanto. MoECOw burnt. t20 THE world's progress. [Period VIII.-^ 1573 1577 1582 1585 1586 Progress op Society, etc. England. Don 1690 Cervantes^ author of Quixotte. Titian, and Paolo Veronese^ painters. Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the world. Sir Philip Sydney^ s Arcadia. Gregorian Reformation of the Calendar. Greenland discovered by Sir Francis Drake. Tobacco first brought to Eu- rope. First newspaper in England. Telescopes invented by Jan sen, a German. Tasso, Italian poet. The Carracci^ celebrated pain- ters. In England -.—Spenser, Shakspeare, Beau- mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- son. — Napier invents loga- rithms. Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- losopher. Lope de Vega, dramas and novels. Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro- nomers. Scot- land. 1578. The queen sends help to the revolted Nether- lands. 1583. Levant Com- pany chartered. 153i. Raleigh's co- lony in Virginia. 1585. War with Spain. 1586. Sir Philip Sidney killed at Zutphen. 1587. The Queen of Scots beheaded. 1583. The Spanish armada destroyed. 1589. Alliance with Henry II. in aid of Protestantism. — Troops sent to France. 1593. Act for reli- gious conformity. 1594. Sir John Haw- kins's Voyages. 1596. Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burnt, by the earl of Essex. Sir Robert Cecil, minister. 1599. Troubles in Ireland : — Revolt of O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. Framob. 1581. :— Gow- rie's conspi- racy against the king 1572. Massacre of St. Bar tholomew. 1573. Peace of Rochelle. 1574. — H e n - rylll.# Fifth war with the Hu- guenots. 1576. The Ca- tholic Lea£;ue. 1577. Sixth re- ligious war. Spain ano portdoau 1.590. :— The king marries Anne, of Den- mark. 1588. Revolt of 1589. House of Bour- bon: — H E N R Y iv.i 1590. Siege of Paris, raised by the Spa- niards. 1593. Henry abjures Pro- testantism. 1594. Jesuits banished. 1595. War with Spain con- tinued. 1598. Peace of Vervius. Ministry of Sully: — restoration of order. Edict op Nantes —granting toleration to ProtestantflL (578. Port. :^ Henry.®- 1580. Portugal falls under Spanish do- minion. 1588. Defeat o! the Spanish armada. 1589. English volunteers under Drake and Norris, repulsed from Lisbon. 1593. Phi p III. & — U53-1598.] THE world's progress. 121 1S76 16?4 Germany. -—Rodolph II.W— king of Bohemia and Hun- gary. The imperial authority disre- garded by the princes of the empire, who wage war among the nseives. Union of Protestants at Heil- bronn. 1580. Charles Emmanuel, duke of Sa- voy. 1585. Sixtus v., pope, active and energetic— corrects abuses in the church ; restores the Vatican li- brary. 1590. Urban VII., pope. Gregory XIV., pope. 1591. Innocent IX., pope, two months. Clement VIII., pope. 1592. The Ri- al to and Pi- azza di San Marco built at Venice. Ottoman Empire. peace with Ve- nice. 1574. — Murad III. & 1576. War with Persia. 1580. War with the Druses in Syria. 1563. First trade with England. 1589. Predato- ry incur- sions of the Cossacks. Revolt of the Janiza- ries. 1593. War with the Empire in Hungary. 1594. The Grand Vi- zier takes Raab. 1595. Moham- med III.^^ Turkish power in Hungary de- clines ; de- feated at Gran — re- volt of Wal- lachia. 1597. Moham- med leads his troops, and defeats the Germans at Agria. The World, elsewhere. 1574 Poland :— Henry, of V» lois. ^^— 1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba- thori.^^ — 1578. Alliance of Sweden and Poland against Russia. Ib79. Comniencement ofthe Republic of HOLLAND, by the union at Utrecht: William, Prince of Orange, stadthol- der. 1584. North America: —First English colony found- ed in Virginia, by Sir W. Raleigh. 1585. Persia acquires power under Abbas the Great. Holland : — Maurice, of Orange, stadtholder. 1586. Battle of Zuiphen: death of Sir Philip Sidney. 1588. Denmark: — Christian IV. A — 1592. Sweden : — Sigismund, king of Poland. India: — Mizam Shah, re- pulsed from Choul, by the Portuguese. 1594. The Falkland Isles dis- covered by Hawkins. 1595. The Dutch first in Indii. Sweden : — The regent as- sumes independent auth> rity. 598. Russia:— Boris Goda- nov,^ ^begins a n.;w dynasty. Sigismund lands in Swa den, to re-establish his pow- er— but is defeated, and »■' turns to Poland. 122 TIIE world's progress. PERIOD IX.— 120 veats. 1602 1603 1604 1G06 IGIO 16lo 1616 1618 1620 Progress op Society, etc. English East India Compa- ny louudeJ. Erportation of Eng.ish wool piohibited. Conference at ITampton Court. Neic Tr.inslation uj the Bi- ble hpgun: (pii!)lish''.rl 1611). Dr. Giiberi discovers the pow- er oi' electricity, ami ol con- ductors and nonconductors. 1524 1620 10:^6 ler 1630 Telescopes invented by Gali- leo. CofTee at Venice. Tobacco in Virginia. Bacon's Inductive Philoso- phy. Harvey discovers the circula- tion of the blood. Thenn'u meters invented by Drebel. Inigo Jones, celebrated archi- tect. Martin Opitz, German poet. Negro Slavery co :::mence(l in Virginia. Peter Paul Rubens, painter. Mnssinger, the dramatist. Kepler's " Astronomia Nova Celestis." Torricelli invents the barome- ter. The Parian marbles brought to England by the earfof Ar indei. Gaxettea firat published in Vooice. 1604.— Acadia co- lonized by the French. 1606. — Discovery ol Hudson's Bay. 1607.— E n g I i s h settlement at J a m e s I o w n , (l.st permanent one in N. Ame- rica.) 1608. —Quebec loLmded. 1609. — .Je.^uit mis- sions in Para- guay. 1616.— The Tobac- co plant introdu- ced into Virgi- nia. 1620.— Ne^ro slaves first im- ported to Virgi- nia. Emigra- tion of Pu- ritans to New Eng- land. 1621. —John Car- ver, 1st Gover- nor of N. E. 1624. New Am- sterdam set- tled by the Dutch. 1627. Boston found ed. 1629. Wouter Van Twiller, gover- nor of New Am- sterdam. England. 1601. Earl of Essex be- iieaded. 1603.— James I.^- Union of i h e English and Scotch crowns. 1605. The Gunpowder Plot, 1612. English factories at Sural. 1616. Ministry of Villiers, duke of Buckingham. 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, lord chancellor. 16 IS. Sir Walter Ra- leigh's unsuccessful voyage to America — he is" beheaded on his return. Franob. 1610. Assassa- nation of Henry IV., by ilavail- lac. Louis XIII, .# (9yearsold>. Mary de Me- dici, regent. 1614. Last as- sembly of the States-gene- ral. 1615. The king marries Anne, of Austria.^— Civil war :^ C o n d e heads the Hugue- nots. 1624 Ministry of Cardinal Rich©, lieu. 1625.— C h a r 1 e s I.^ Buckingham, prime minister. 1627. War with Prance, in support of the IIu§ue- nots. Rochella 1629. No parliament for reduced by eleven years. famine — af- 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of ten moM'.ha. THE world's progress. 123 WQS-niS.-'Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 1609 1613 Italy. 1621 1625 1625 1630 Expul- sion of the Moors. War of the Mont- ferrat succes- sion in Italy. Dutch war. — Spain sup- ports Austria. Philip iv.# Defeat ol Span- fleet off Lima, hy the Dutch. Naval war wiih Eng- land. Peace with Eng- land. 1606. Truce of Co- morra, kir twenty years, with the Porte. 1608. Protectant union, under Fre- deric, the elector palatine. 1610. The Catholic League, under the duke of Bavaria. 1612. Matthias. 1615. Truce of Co- morra confirmed 1618. The Thirty Years' W a begins. 1619.— Ferdinand ii-W — 1620. Victory of the White Mountain, near Prague. Massacre of Prague.— The Pro- testant religion to- tally suppressed. 1626.Victory of Til- ly over Christian IV., of Denmark, at Lutter. 1628.Wallenstein recovers all the shores of the Bal- tic, except Stral- sund. 1629. Gustavus Adol- phus lands in Ger- many. — Diet of Ratisbon. — Wal- lenstein dismissed, succeeded by Til- ly. 1605. Leo XI. pope. Paul v., pope. 1609.Tuscany —Cosmo II Leghorn, the empori- um of the Levant trade. 1618. Conspi- racy of Bed- mar, the Spanish en- voy, to re- duce Venice under sub- jection to Spain. 1621. Gregory XV., pope. Tuscany : — Ferdinand II. 1623. The fa- mous library of the Pala- tine at Hei- delberg, sent to Rome. 1628. General Italian war on the death of the duke ofMantua. Ottoman Empire. 1605. Revolt in Syria and Caramania, under the pasha of Aleppo. 1606. Com- mercial treaty with France and Holland. Tobacco first brought to Turkey. The World, elsewhere. 1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 1605. India : tan. -Jehangir, sel- 1617. -Musta- pha l4- 1618. — Osman 11.^ Great Per- sian victory atShibli. 1620 War with Poland, and unsuccess- ful mvasion of Poland. 1623. Murad IV. #_ restores tran- quillity. 1625. Truce with the em- pire renew- ed. 1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- kins, first English envoy from the East India Com- pany. Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 Adolphus. W 1611. Sweden: — War with Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- by lost.— Axel Oxensiiern, minister. — Russia devasta- ted by Poles and Tartars. Russia : — Michael Ro. manoff, czar. 1615. Denmark: ing ai'my -First stand 1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe ambassador from James I. of England. Sweden predominates in the north. 1613. The Synod of Dort— Arniinius condemned. Settlement of Tanquebar, in Coromandel. 1621. Dutch West India Com- pany incorporated. 1622. Persia : — Ormuz gained from the Ponusuese by he help of the English. 1625. Netherlands : — He...ry Fi-ederic- Breda, taken by Spincla. 1627. Persia:— Shah S«ofiL 1629. Peace of Lubeck. 124 THE world's progress. [Period /X— 1630 1631 Frogress of Society, etc. Lotteries for money first men- tioned. Calico first imp orted into Eng- land. Edward Coice, the great ju- rist. Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish dramatist. Flourishing period of flower trade in "the Dutch cities. Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- ters. The Jansenists, founded by .lansenius, bishop of Ypres. Pri7iting in America. First Swedish manufactories. Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and Claude Lorraine, French painters. Coffee brought to England by Nat. Conopiua. Conde and Turenne, the great- est generals of the age. America. The Dutch sole masters of Bra- zil. 1632. Maryland settled by a colo- ny under Lord Baltimore. 1635. Connecticut settled. —G uada- loupe and Mar- tinique, by the French. 1637. Maine and New Hampshire colonized. Harvard Col- lege founded. England. 1630. Wentworth, earl of Strafford, minister. Laud, archbishop of Canterbury. 1633. The king visits Scotland — is crowned at Edinburgh. 1639. First print- ing office in Ame- rica, at Cam- bridge, by Sam. Green. 1640. Whole num- ber of emigrants to New England previous to this, 21,000. 1643. Confedera- tion of the colo- nies of New England, for mutual defen/;e. Francs. 1637. Trembles in Scot land, caused by Char les's plan to overthrow the Scotch presbyterian church, and enforce episcopacy. 1639. War with Scotland. 1640. Parliament assem- bled — dissolved with out effecting any thing, The Scotch invade England -take posses- sion of Newcastle. The Long Parlia- ment, Nov. 3. Impeachment of Straf- ford and Laud. 1641. Strafford beheaded. — Couns ofStar Cham- ber and Hiirh Commis- sion abnlisfi^ed.— Rebel- lion of Roger Moore in Ireland. —Massacre of Protestants by Irish Ca- tholics. 1642. Civil War and Revolution . Rise of Roundheads and Cavaliers, toth of the popular party. — Battle of Edgehill, inde- cisive. 1643. Royalists vic'xirious at Carlsgrane— defeated at Newbury.— Solemn league and covenant be- tween the Scotch and English parliaments. J 631. Treaty with Swo den and the popular prin- ces against the emper- or. 1635. Alliance with Holland against Spain, for the par- tition of the Austrian Ne- therlands. 1636. Alliance with Sweden against Aus- tria. Invasion of Gascony by the Span- iards, and of Picardy, by the Impe- rialists, who threaten Pa- ris. 1638. Invasion of Spain, siege of Fon- tarabia. 1640. Turin ta- ken by the French. The first Louis d'ora struck. 1641. Alliance with Portu- gal against Spain.— Ca- talonia and Rousillon re- volt, and sub- mit to France. 1642. Cinii Mars and de Thou be- headed. 1643. Louis XIV.^.^ (the Great.) Anne, of Austria, re- gent Victory of Roscroi over the Span- iards, by Conde. Ministry o Cardinal itfa sariae. 1598-1718.] THE world's progress. 125 Spain -- A.D. AND Portu- gal. Germany. Italy. Ottoman Empire. The World, elsewhere. 1631. Sack of Mag- deburg, by Tilly. — Gustavus Adol- 1631. Peace of Chierasco.— The influ- phus takes May- ence of France 1632. Sweden : — Christint, ence. increasea. „M, 163-2. Defeat and queen ^^ death of Tilly, at 1634.Murad in 1632. Sweden : — Oxenstiern, Lech. — Gustavus vades Pei- regent. takes Munich.-— sia — takes Russia:— War with Po- Wallenstein again Falreeze. land; two years' siege o( in command.— Bat- Smolensko. -'- Russian artny capitulates, and the Polish tle of Lutzen.— Victory and death king advances to Moscow. of Gustavus Adol- 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- phus. 1635.Peace of Prague vantageous to Russia. wriih Saxony. 1636. Peace 1636. Swedes victo- with Poland rious at Wittstock. 1637.— Ferdinand renewed. 1637. Troubles Ill.i on the Tar- tar frontier; Galas successful Azoph taken asainst the Swedes. by the Cos- sacks. 1638. Bernhard. of Saxe Weimar,' de- Bagdad ta- feats the Imperial- ken by the Turks. ists at Bheintield— takes Brisac. All the con- 1639. Holland. —Great na tal 1639 Loss of the J a- 1639. Battles of Ol- nitz anil Brandiez, quests of Ab- bas recover- victory by Van Tromp^cver the Spanish fleet in the panese gained by the Swe- ed. Downs. irade. dish general, Ban- ner. 1640 Portu- 1640. Prussia-— Fre- 1640. Ibrahim. 1640. India :— Madras fojaidsd gal re- gair.s her in- deric V^TiUiara. *- by the English. depe.i- dence, under John IV. duke or Bragan- za ^g 1642. The Swedes de- 1642. Recap- ture of Azoph ~ feat the Austrians at Leipsic. from the Cos- sacks. 1643. —invade Hol- stein, and compel theDar.es to desert Austria- 126 THE world's progress. [Peiiod IX.— 120 yeat s.-^ A.D Prooress of Society, etc. America. Great Britain. Francb. Des Cartes, French philoso- 1644. Battle of Marston pher. Moor— royalists defeat- ed. 1&45. Battle of Naseby. 1645.: — Mar. IW6 Air guns invented. 1646. Thomas 1646. The king seeks re- shalTurenna May hew, preach- fuge in the Scottish takes Treves. er 10 the Indians, camp. siiiptvrecked. 1647. Peter Stuy- 1647. —is delivered up to vesant, governor parliament for ^£400,000. 01' New Amster- dam. 1648 Engraving in mezzotinto, im- proved by Prince Rupert. i64S. Cambridge 164S. Cromwell routs the 1648. Factioiu platform adopt- Scotch, under Hamil- of the Fron ed. ton. The Presbyte- rians expelled from parliament, which re- ceives the name of" the Rump." 1649. Trial and execution de ; dissen- sions foment- ed by Cardi- nal d e R e t z . 1649. J. Winthrop, 1649. Court re- governor of Con- of the king. moves to St. necticut. The Commonwealth. Germains.- Siege of Pa- I6o0 Railroads with wooden rails, near Newcastle. 1650. Settlement of North Carolina. 1650. Cromwell subdues Ireland. The Scots proclaim Charles II. He 1651. enters England— is defeated at Worcester, ris. 16.50. Conde, C 11 1 i , and L n g u e - V i 1 1 e . im- prisoned. — Turenne Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- ney, English writers. 1652. John Cotton and escapes to France. 1652. Naval war with flees to the Spaniards. 1652. Maza- died. Holland. B lake, A s c u g h , and P e a n , English ad- rine retires lo Sedan. Conde flies Le Seur and Le Brun, French mirals. to Spain. painters. 1653. Long parliament dissolved by Crom- well.—" Barebone's par- liament " Eummoned. Oliver Crom- well ,Lord Pro- tector. Milton, private secre- tary to Cromwell. 16.53. Mazarine enters Paris in triumph. 1654 Air pumps invented. 1654. Peace of Westmin- ster. Alliance with Holland. 1&55 About this time flourisli Mo- 1655. E. Winslow 1655. War with Spain — .Jamaica conquered by Penn. Here, La Fontaine, Cor- neille. Madame de :^ecig- died. ne, Rochefoucault , R-icine, 1658. Death of Cromwell. 1659. Peace of Boileau, and Pascal, in — R ichard Crom- the Pyre- France. well, Protector. nees.— Mar- YeUisquez and Murillo, Spa-).- riage of Lou. is XIV. to ish painters. Maria The- resa, of Spain. 1598 -1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 127 Spain AND •D. Portu- gal. Brazil recover- ed IroT. the Uiiich. War wiih Eng- land. 1644. Invasion of Hungary, by Ra- coezi— the empe- ror forced to yield to the demands of the proiestaats. 1&48. Peace of Westpha- lia, signed at Munsier, between France, the em- pire, and Sweden. —The principle of a balance of pow- er in Europe first recognized. 1657. —Leo p old Italy. 1644. Innocent X., pope. 1646. Revolt of Naples, un- der M a s - sanielio. 1655. Alexan der VII., pojie. Ottoman Empire. 1645. War with Venice. Candia, the theatre of v/ar. 164S. Moham- med IV. 1650. Moham- med lliopri- li, grand vi- zier. 1653.Naval de- feat by the Venetians in the Archipe- lago. 1657. War with Racoezi, for aiding Swe- den against Poland. The W orld, elsewhere. 1644. Naval victory of the Swedes over the Danish fleet. 1645. Sweden: — Peace of Brorasebro with Denmark. 1647. Netherlands:— V/illiam U. China: — The Tartars place a prince of their own on the throne — the first ol the present dynasty ofTsing. 1648. Poland;— The Ukrahie Cossacks revolt, and cut the Polish army to pieces. — ^John Cassimir.' 1653. Holland: — John da Witt, Grand Pensionary ; D e R u y t e I , admiral. 1654. Defeat and death o! Tromp. Sweden :— Christina re- signs.— Charles X., 1st o: the House of Deux Ponts.^^ Poland :— War with Rus- sia. 1657. Denmark :— War againa", the Swedes, who overrur Denmark, and menace Cg- penhagen. 1658. Denmark : — Naval vie tory over the Swedes. Denmark :— Peace of Ros kilde. 128 THE world's progress. [Period /A.— 120 veafs.— 1662 1665 1666 1666 1667 i670 1671 1575 Progress op Society, etc. Logwood first cat ia the bay ol' Honduras. Salvator Rosa, landscape painter. Huygens, Dutch astronomer. Persecution of Jansenists in France. Chain shot invented by De Witt. Canal of Languedoc, from the Mediterranean to the Atlan- tic. Gobelin tapestry manufactory in Palis. Bayonets invented at Bay- onne. Orrery invented. Foundation of the Academy of Architecture^ and the Hotel des Invalides, at Pa- Cassini, Italian astronomer and mathematician. B'Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- daJoue, La Bruyere, Mai- tranche, French writers. Christopher Wren, architect, commences St. Paul's. Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch paiiner. Wiiliam Temple, historian. Butler, Waller, and Dryden, English poets ; Hejiry More, Leighton, Basler, Boyle. Mansart, architect ; Giradon, sculptor, of France. 1663. Canada made a royal colony. 1663. Elliot's In- dian Bible prin- ted. 1664. New York occupied by the Unglisb. 1667. — cedei to them by the peace of Breda 167r). Conclusion of the ' American treat) ' between l"Tn gland and Spain. 1675. King Phi- lip's War in New Ensland. 1677. Maine pur- chased by Massa- chusetts. England. 1659. Richard resigns. — Rump parliament call- ed, but soon expelled. Restoration oi the Stuarts. 1660— Charles 11.^ Hyde, earl o) Clarendon, chancellor and prime minisier. 1661. New parliiinjent. — Alliance with Portugal. 1662. Marriage with Ca- therine, 'W Portugal. Act ol Uniforniity. Dunkirk sold to France. 1664. War with Holland. 1665. Naval victory by the duke of York. Great Plague in London. 1666. Great Fire in Lon- don. 16G7. Peace of Breda. — New York ceded to Eng^land. Banishment of the earl of Clarendon. 1668. Triple league— Eng- land, Sweden, and Hol- land, against France. 1670. The Cabal min- istry. — Secret treaty with France. 1672. War with Holland in conjunction with France. 1073. Mini>!try of Danby. Test Act passed. 1674. Peace with Holland. 1678 The Popish Plot. Franck. 1661. Death oj Mazarine. Colbert, comptro4ler- general of finance. Lvonn», Le Te'llier. 1662. Dispute! witluliepope. —6000 troopa sent against the Turks in Hungary. 1664. Freiich East luilia Company. 1666. Acade* mie des Sci encesLouvois 1667. War with Spain. Lou- is claims Spanish Ne- therlands for his wile— in- vades Bel- gium. 1668. Peace o Aix la Cha- pel le with S|>ain. 1672. War with Holland. 1673. French ambassador at Ispahan. 1674. The Dutch de- feated at the battles of Sinsheim anil Mulhau- sen— Tu- renne rava- ges the Pala- tinate. 1675. Death 0/ Turenne at Sasbach. Influenc* of Pere la Chaise, the king's con- fessor. 1677. Victory over the Prince of Orange at Moni-Cassel. 167S. P e a c « of N i m e • g u e n H'uh Holland and Spain— re- stores ii ejr* quillity to £urop«. 1698-1718.] THE world's progress. 129 Spain AND A-D. Portu- gal. Ififil Invasion of Por- tugual. lf)63 Victory of the Portu- guese over the Span- iards at Estre- mas. 66n Spain: - Charles 11.^- H»fi7 Portu- gai:- Hevolu- tion at Lisbon. King de- posed. — Pedro n.'A 1668 Peace of Lisbon with Spain. 1669 Nitard, the Je- suit, dri- ven from Spain. I67a War with France to pro- tect Hol- land. Germany. 1663. The Diet per- manent at Ratis- bon. 1664. Montecuculi victorious over the Turks at St. Go- thard. 1665. The Tyrol uni- ted to Austria. 1673. War of Austria and France. 1675. Turenne and Montecuculi op- posed on the Rhine. — Victory of Consarbruck over the French, under Crequi. — Treves taken. 1676. General revolt of Hungarians un- der Emeric. Ottoman Empire. 1661. War with Aus- tria. 1662. Invasion of Hungary. 1667. Clement IX., pope. 1669. Candia taken from Ve- I nice by Kio- prili. Peace with the Porte. 1670. Cosmo in., grand duke of Tus- cany. — War between Ge- noa and Sa- voy. Clement X., pope. 1674. Revolt of Messina in favor of France. 1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanish fleets. Death of De Ruyter. Innocent XI. pope. Death of the atheist, Spi- noza. 1672. The Sul- tan invades Poland. 1673. —defeat- ed by Zo- briski, at Choezim. 1676. Peace of Zurawno with Poland. 1678. First war with Russia, on account of the Cos- sacks. The World, elsewhere. 1660. Demark :— Peace of Co penhagen. — The Swedei restore Bornholna, and Droa> theim. Revolution in Denmark. Sweden :— Charles XI.^^ Peace of Oliva. Prussia acknowledged in- dependent. 1660. Poland :— Great victory of Marshal John So b i e s k i over the Tartars 1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre- da: loss of New Nether- lands. 1668. First embassies from Russia to France and Spain. India :— Rise of the Mah- ratta power.— Sevajee takea and sacks Surat. 1670. Den. :— Christian V.ft 1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and French fleets- Dutch defeated. Den. :— William III.^ 1674. Poland:— Johr Sobies- ki.4 167.5. The Swedes invade Brandenburg. 1677. Battle of the I.vnd, ly tween the Swedes an 1 Dane* 130 THE world's progress. [Period IX.— 120 years.^ 1681 ^63 Progress op Society, etc. Bernini, Italian sculptor. Museum for Natural History, at lyomioii. Jardin des Pinnies, at Paris. Penny post established in Lon- don. Kenipfer's travels in Japan. John Banyan, " Pilgrim's Progress." 1686 1687 1690 1692 1693 1692 1692 1693 Otto Von Guericks, inven- tor of the air-j)um.p and electrical machine, died. Telegraphs invented. Newton's Principia, publish- ed. G. Batt. Lully, from Flo- rence, founder of French opera music. Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- linist and composer at Rome. White paper first made in England. Leibnitz, German philoso- plier, founds the Academy of Sciences a( Berlin. First opera in London. Purcell, English musician. Bank of England. Telescopes, first rejecting one made on the principles of Sir Isaac Newton. 1686. Sir Edmund Anilros, governor of New England. 1683 General sup- pression of char- ter governments. 1689. Montreal de- stroyed by the Five nations. Leisler usurps the government of New York. 1690. The English settlements of Schenectady, N. York, Casco, Me. and Salmon Falls, N. H., destroyed by a party of French. Port Royal, No- va Scotia, redu- ced by Sir Wil- liam Phipps.— Expedition against Canada, unsuc- cessful. 1691. Schuyler defeats the French at La Prairie. Witchcraft superstition in New-England. John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton in England. Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, in France. Bank of England. Phctj'korus discovered. 1692. New Hatnp- shire purchased by Allen. N. York : Lei.s- ler executed. 1693. N. YorJc:— Episcopacy in- troduced. William and Mary's College founded. 1697. Kidd's pira- cies. 1699. French colo ny in Louisiana — Gold mines in Brazil. Great Britain. Rise of the names of Whigs and Tories. 1683. " Ryehouse Plot." Execution of Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney. In this reign the Roy- al Society of London was instituted by Wil- kins, bishop of Chester. — Bombay ceded to England. 1685.— James 11.^^ Rebellion of Mon- mouth, in England, and Argyle, in Scotland, both defeated and exe- cuted. Judge Jeffries. 1686. The king favors the Catholics. 1687. —re-establishes the Court of High Com- mission. 1688. "Revolution OF 1688."— The Whigs and Tories unite in ap- plying to the Prince of Orange, who lands in England with 15,000 men— the king flees to France. 1689.-William III. and Mary II .^^— War with France. James II. lands in Ireland— besieges Lon- donderry. 1690. William in Ireland. —Battle of the Boyne. James detea.ted, returns to France. 1691. Limerick taken, and William acknowledged. 1692. Invasion of Eng- land undertaken by the French in favor of James. — Naval victory by the Dutch and Eng- lish. 1693. Bank of England in- corporated. 1694. Death of queen Mary. 1697. General peace 1698. First partition treaty, between Frajice, Eng land, and the Empire to dispose of the crown of Spain. 1699. Visit of Peter the Great. France. France, the most formi- dable power in Europe. 1683. Invasim of the Span- ish Nether- lands. 1684. Truce ol Ratiibon for twenty years with Spain. 1685. Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. 1688. War ol Spain — the Empire, Hol- land, Savoy, and England against France. 1689. Grand al- liance against France, head- ed by Wil- liam III. 1690. Naval victory over the Dutch and English off Dieppe. Victory of Luxemburg, at Fleurus. 1692. Marshal Luxem- burg de- feats William at Steenkirk, and 1693. —at Ne- uvinden. Institution of the order of St. I.oui.s. ofRy s wick — between France aaq the allies. 598-1718.J THE world's progress. 131 Spain AND Portu- gal. 1689 ' Revolt of Cata- lonia in favor of France. 1691 1097 1680. Great part of Alsace seized by France. 16S3. Turkish war, siege of Vienna by the Turks— victory of th'j Germans and Poles, under Charles, of Lor- raine, and John Sobieski. Treaty of the Hague against France. 1686. League of Augsburg against France. 1686. Buda taken af- ter being held by the Turks 145 years. 1687. Decisive victo- ry of Mohaez : Croatia and Tran- sylvania subdued. Joseph I. crown- ed king of Hun- gary. 1689. Grand alliance ratified at Vienna. The Palatinate desolated by the French. 1690 Joseph I. elect- ed king of the Ro- mans by the Diet of Augsburg. — Victories over the Turks. Incur- sion of the French into Aragon. Peace of Ryswick In tugues 1697. Victory over for the the Sultan Musta succes- pha at Zenta, by siou. the Prii^ce Eugene Italy. Ottoman Empire. 1682.Warwith Austria. 1683. Total rout before Vienna. 1684. Alliance of Venice with Poland, and the Empire against the Porte. The World, elsewhere. 1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock holm. 16S2. Russia:— Ivan and P& ter,^^- — tlieir sister, So- phia, legent. 1683. Denmark :— The Code o- king Christian publishefV 1689. Alexan- der Vm., pope. 1691. Innocent XII., pope. 1693. Battle of Marsaglia — the allies in Italy defeat- ed by the Marshal Ca- tinat. 1686. Russia declares war. 1637. Revolu- tion in Con- stantinople, Mohammed dethroned. Solyman 11.4— 1689. Defeat at Nisa. 1690. Musta- pha Kiopri- li drives the Austrians across the Danube — re- covers Bel- grade. 1691. Ahmud 11.^ Deleat and death of Kio- prili. 1694. Chio ta- ken by the Venetians. 1695. Musta- pha II. W— 1696. — leads his own ar- my. — Victo- ry of Olach. 1699. Peace of Carlowitz. The Otto- man power broken. 1686. India :— The Dekkin coa quered. Golconda and Besapore. 1687. —The English factories in Bengal suppressed— after- wards restored. 1688. Prussia :— Frederic III Russia:— Ivan resigns— Sophia is confined in a con- vent : 1689. Peter the Great .® 1692. Russia: — First trade with China. India :— Height of the Mo- gul power, annual revenue £32,000,000. China: — Great influenca of Jesuits. 1693. Sweden :— The king de- clared absolute. 1695. Holland : Bombard- ment of Brussels by the. French, under Villeroi. 1696. Poland :— Death oi So- bieski— succeeded by 1697. — Frederic Augustus I. Sweden ;— C h A r l e 3 X 1 1 . W— (15 years old.) Russia :— Introduction oi various mariiifaciures — equipment of a fleet, etc. 1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ^ Alliance of Denmark, Rus- sia, and Poland, arainst Charles XII. of Sweden. 132 THE world's progress. [Pe;^d IX.— 120 ycars.^ Proorbss of Society, etc. First manufactories in Russia and Denrnark Fenelon, Boasuet, MasiUon, in France. National Debt of England commenced. Godfrey painter. KnelUr, English First Russian newspaper.- St. Peiersburgh iuunded. Flourishing period of French literature. — Great splendor in the French court. A newspaper in Ainerica. Incorporation of the United British East India Com- pany. Prussia acid discovered by Diesbach. A post-ojjice in America. The famous bull " Unigeni- tu8 " against the French Jan- senists. Rise of commerce in Austria ; first manufactories. Laic's bank at Paris. 171."} The monastery of Mafra, 'the wonder of Portugal,' built. I Prwr, Steele, Be Foe, Addi- I son, fl luri.sh in England. 1716 I First standing army in Eng- land. 1/19 The coffee tree brought from lava to Surinam. America. 1701. Yale College founded. 1702. Rice intro- duced into Caro- lina from Mada- gascar. 17U3. Apalachian Indians subdued. Maine ravaged by French and Indians. 1704. Captain Church's expe- dition against the Indians. Boston News- Letter, first Ame- rican periodical. 1706. Carolina in- vaded by the French and Span- ish. 1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal. 1708.The Saybrook platform, form- ed. 1709. First paper inoney in New- Jersey. 1710. First post- office at New York. Fruitless expe- dition against Ca- nada. 1713. "Queen Anne's War " closed by the treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Indian war in South Carolina. \1U. New- Orleans settled by the French. Great Britain. Francs. 1700. A British fleet sent to assist Charles XII., of Sweden. Foundation of the national debt in this reign. 1701. War of the Spanish euccession. 1702. The French invade Holland, vjx- derBoufilers — repulsed by Marl* borough. 1702. Revolt o/ the Hugue- nots suppress- ed by Mar- shal Villara. Germany, Blenheim. A n n e.^^ 1703. Methuen treaty of commerce with Portu- gal. 1704. Marlborough enters gains the battle of Gibraltar taken by Rooke. 1706.T reatyofunion with Scotland. Battle of Ralnillies, feated. 1707. Victory of Almanza lish and Portuguese. The first United Parliament of Great Britain meets. 1703. Battle of Oudenarde, feated. Sardinia and Minor the English. Unsuccessful attempt of the Pretender to land in Scotland. 1710. Victory of Vendome Dr. Sacheverell's trial. — Collision of Whig and Tory principles. 1713. Peace of Ut Perpetual separation of France and Spam- quires Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, also Mi braltar. The Rhine is between Germany and 1714. Factions at court — disgrace of Harley, chancellor of the exche- quer. Death of the queen. — H ouseof Hano- ver: — George I.^— Robert Walpole, pre- mier. 1715. Insurrection of .Ja- cobites. — Battles of She- riffmuir and Preston. War against Sweden. 1718. Quadruple Emperor, England, Ho France against the desi Villeroi de- over the Eng- —French de- ca captured by atVillavicio» r e c h t . of the crownr England ac Acaifta, and norca and Gi the boundarc France. 1714. Peace cv' Radstadt : th« Emperor ac knowledges Philip on the cession of Lonibar- dy, Naples^ and Sardinia, 1715. L o u i a XV. ^- Duke ol Orleans re- gerit. — Du- bois, mhiis- ter. 1 i a n c e : th« Hand, and gns of Spain. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 133 1700 1701 17 M 1706 17 LJ 171 i Spain AND PORTU- Death of ihe king, who names the duke olAnjou as his success- or. Piiilip V.® The arch- duke Charles lands at Lisbon, and en- ters Spain. Barcelo- na taken by the allies. Port. :— John V. tiuglish and Por- tuguese enter Madrid. Charles leaves Spain 01 beconi ing Em- peror. Barcelo- na taken by Ber- wick. A Ibero- ni, Germany, prune minis- ter of Sraui. 1701. Grand alliance between England, the Empire, to pi-e of France and Sua 1702. Battles of Stol- hafen, Hochstedt. and Spires, gained by the French. 1705. —Joseph Italy. 1710. Treaty of the Hagu.e between England. Holland, and the Empire. 1711. — Charles VI.^ Minisiry of Count Linzendorf. 1713. Pragmatic sanctio7i, vesting the succession to Austria in the daughters of Char- les. 1714. Peace of Ras- tadt antl Baden with France. 1718. Quadru- ple al 1 iai ce agamst Spain. of the Hague, Holland, and vent the union in. 1702. Victory of Luzzace gained by the Fiench over the Inipe rialists. 1706. French driven from Italy by prince ' Eu- gene. 1707. All the Spanish pos- sessions in Italy aban- doned to the allies. Ottoman Empire. 1703. IIL Ahmed 1709. Charles XII. takes refuge at Bender — hence war with Russia. 1714. War of Venice with the Porte. 1715. Corinth taken by the Turks — the Emperor joins Venice — .sie ge of Corfu raised on the news of their 1716. defeat at the battle of Peterwar- den. 1717. Defeat of Crusca— loss of Belgrade. 1718. Peace of Passarovvitz, between the Porte, Venice, and Hunga ry. The World, elsewhere. 1700. Russia :— Peter the Greal invades Ingria— defeated bj Charles Xll., at Narva. War of the Nortliera Powers, 1701. PRUSSIA erected into* kingdom under Frederic I.^^— Charles XII. invades Po- land—is victorious at Riga. 1702. —enters Warsaw— takes Cracow. 1703. Victory of Pultusk — Poland:— The throne da- clared vacant, and 1704. Stanislas Leetzinski elected king.^g 1706. The Swedes victorious over the Saxons and Rus- sians at Traverstadl. 1707. Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles invades Russia, crosses the Dnieper, and is 1709. defeated at Pultowa. Sweden at war with Den- mark. Poland :— Frederic Augus- tus re-ascends the throne. 1712. Victory of the Swedes at Gadebusche. 1713. Prussia :— Frederic WU liam 1.W 1714. Russia :— Naval victoiy over the Swedes. — Aland and Finland conquered. 1715. Netherlands Barrier treaty ol Antwerp with Aus- tria. Sweden : — Return of Char- les—Prussia and Engiaml jom the alliance against him. 1718. Charles XII. invadei Norway ; is killed at the siege of Frederics hail. Sweden:— Ulrica EleO' nora.^g — - 134 :he worlds progress. PERIOD X.— 97 years.-' 1721 1724 1725 Progress of Society, etc. Cotton Mather, " MagntMia,^' and Increase Mather, Hist, of War with Indians. Inoculation introduced by Lady Montague. Thie same year introduced into Boston by Dr. Boylston. Academy of Sciences at P«ters- burg. The " Appellants," in France, headed by the Cardinal de Noailles, appeal from the bull '• Unigenitus," to a ge- neril council; but without effect. 1728 Behring's Strait discovered. 1729 1733 1740 Balloons invented by Gusmac. In France : J. B. Rous- seau, Le Sage', Roll in, Montesquieu. In England : Pope, Swift, Young, 7''hompson, Watts, Lord Botini broke, Doddridge. Chesterfield. Hallexj, astronomer. First Lodge of Freemasons Irish linen manufactories, and English ateeL and cutlery flourish. L. Holberg, tiat. Danish drania- 1719. First Philadelphia news- paper. 1721. First New-York news- paper. 1723. Vermont settled. Increase Mather, died. 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 1727. Great earthquake New-England. 1728. Cotton Mather, died. Discovery of diamond mines in Brazil. 1729. The Carolinas separated. 17.32. Birth of Washington. 1733. Savannah founded. In America, at Boston. 1740. Tennessee first explored. 1742. Invasion of Florida by Indians and Spaniards— re- pulsed. England. I7i9. Unsuccessful attempt to invade Scotland by the Span- iards. "The South Sea Scheme." 1720. " Bursting of the South Sea bubble." 1721. Sir Robert Walpole'i ministry coniiaucs. 1725. Leat ; e ofHerrenhauser., 1727. George I. dies at Osna- burg. George 11.^ 1728. Pe»;e of Pardo witu Spain 1729. Treaty of Seville, be 1731. Treaty of Vienna with Holland and the Empire. 173y. War with Spain. 1740 Porto Bello taken by Ad- miral Verrton.— Anson's voy- age round the world, and capture of the Manilla gaJ leon. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. \118~-1816.— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 135 h>'« 1724 1726 J728 France. Spain AND Portu- gal. '33 .734 J 719 The kiug asr-umes iho ^overnmerit Dute de bouvbon raicis:er. Congress of Cam- bray between England. rranc3, Prussia, and Holland. Ministry o/" Cardi- nal F 1 e u r y . Congress of Sois- sons dis.=o!ved, without effecting any thiug. tween England, France, and Hol- land. War of the Polish succession : France, Spain, and Sardi! lia. Conquest of Lor- raine. War of the Aus- trian succession — Marshals Belle isle and Broglio : 1713 —defeitsd by the s.i;ie3 at Dettin- gca. 1725. :-• Alliance 1734. :— Con- quest of Napi.-^s and Sicv iv by t>on Carioirf. Germany. 1739. :— War with Eng- land, for in frac- tions of the Asi- ento treaty. jf Vienna, Spam, (tnd Austria. 1/3.3. War of the Po- lish succession; Austria, Russia, and Denmark. 173.3. Preliminaries ofVienna-not con- cluded till 1733 1740. Warof the Aus- trian succession. Maria The- resa succeeds to the hereditary States. 1741. The French, Saxons, and Bava- ria?,s, overrun Aus- tria, take Prague, and crown Charles VI. emperor. ^^ Treaty of Bres- lau with Austria. 1743. The French driven across the Rhine. The World, elsewhere. 1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the Spanish. 1720. Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity restored in the r.^rth Sweden : — The qiieen abdicates in favor of her husband. 1721. Italy : — Innocent XIII., pope. Frederic. ^^ Peace of Nystadt vviih Russia Russia :— Peter assumes the title "Emperor of all the Russias." 1721. Turkey :— Mahommed Effendi, am- bassador to Paris. 1723. China:— Christians expelled. 1723. Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), grand duke of Tuscany. 1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia. 1724. Italy .-—Benedict XIII., pope. 1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of Peter. ^J 1725. Turkey : — Partition treaty for sei7 ing the north and west provinces A Pe'rsia. 1726. Russia : — Alliance with Austria. 1726. Turkey : — First printing press brought from Paris to Turkey. 1727. Russia :— Treaty with China. Peter H.^ 1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 1728. Denmark :— Fire at Copenhagen, destroys the public library. — colony of Danes in Greenland. 1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.^ 1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. Ru.ia..-A„„e.#_ 1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus II @ The diet elect Stanislaus, but are compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederic. 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- capes to Koningsberg. 1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- sia by Nadir Shah. 1736. —war with Russia and Austria. 1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram duke of Tuscany. 1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shab who takes and plunders Delhi. 17-39. Turkey :— Turks defeated nea Choezini. 1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope Turkey :— The Turks invade Persi -are repulsed by Ashraf -peace of Bel4;.rade. 136 THE world's PROGREfeb. [Period X. — 97 ytars. - 1747 Progress op Society, etc. 1748 '750 1752 1753 17UJ 1764 1766 Frederic the Great makes great improvements in miii- tary tactics— iiuxoAnctsJly- ing horse artillery. Durante and Leo, celebrated inusiciaus. Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- cal composers. Indigo first produced in Caro^ lina. America. Great Britain. Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- rian. Dr. Franklin's discoveries in electricity. England iniroduces the "New Siyle " Calendar. British Museum founded. British. Alan say, Shenstune Gray, Collins, Akenside, Churchill. Ram-\Helvetius, Fr. Racine, Fr. Gellert, Ger. Winckle- mann, Ger. John Ryabrach, sculptor. Hogarth, Wilson, 6^ Joshua Reynolds, painters. Potatoes first planted in France, by Turgot. Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. Wesley Sr Whitefield preach. Philadelphia Me'dical School, first in America. Wallis and Carteret's voyage of discovery in the South Seas. 1745. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken from France by the English. 1747. David Brainerd and Benjamin Coleman, died. 1749. English settlement in Nova Scotia. 1752. Hostilities between En^ 1754. Washington's mission to the French. 1755. Defeat of Braddock. 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby taken by the French. 1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- tured. 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie at Ticoniieroga. Fort Du Qufisne taken. 1759. Invasion of Canada- death of Wolfe — Quebec taken. Capture of Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonde- roga. 1763. End of the « Old French War." 1765. " American Stamp Act " resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. First Colonial Congress at New- York. 1744. Naval victory over the French and Spanish fleets in the bay of Hieres. 1745. Scotch rebellion— Char- les Edward lands in Scot, land. 1746. he is defeated at Cul- loden. 1747. Victories over the French otf Belle-isle and Cape Finisterre. 1748. Peace of Aix la mutual restitution of con 1752. The new style intro- duced ; the year hereafter commences Jan. 1. land and France on the boun 1756 "Seven Years' Subsidiary alliance with Prussia. Ministry of W i 1 1 i a ra Pitt, the elder. 1757. Victory of Plassey, ir. India. 1759. Naval victories over the Lagros, and ofl' Brest. Surat, in India, taken from the Dutch. I760.-George III .^— 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 1762. War with Spain. Conquest of Havana, Trinidad, and Manilla. 1763. Peace of Parii 1765. Bengal ceded to the East India Company by Hi* treaty of Allahabad. 1718-1815.J THB world's progress. 137 1744 1745 1746 t747 France. War declared against England and Austria. Battle of Fontenoy, allies defeated. The French victo- rious by land, but unsuccessful by sea. War with Holland. C hap e lie quests. daries of Nova Sco- tia. i;53 Influence of Ma- dame de Pompa- I dour. War." Capture of Minor- ca from the Eng- 1757 1758 1760 J7f4 Invasion of Hano- ver. Defeat at Crefeldt. on the Rhine. French off Cape Attempt to invade Ireland. Loss of ail Canada. The Bourbon Fa- mily Compact. Siege and capture of Belleisle, by the English. between France, Spain and Eng- , land. 1764 Expulsion of the I Jesuits. Germany. 1746. :- Ferdi- nand VI, The World, elsewhere. 1745. Charles dies at Munich. House of Lorraine: -Francis I.^ husband of Maria Theresa. 1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .^g (the Great.) Prussia increase* in in/ portance.— War with Austria. Russia : — Ivan V. 1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland. Elizabeth. 1743. —Peace of Abo with Sfweden. 1743. Turkey :— War with Persia. — Defeat near Erivan. 1744. India :— Hostilities between FrencW and English. 1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French and Spaniards, who take 1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. —Genoa bombarded by the English. 1746. —French and Spaniards di-iven frona Lombardy. 1748 pelle ; the on 1759 : - Charles I"^ Peace of Aix la Cha- Spain, and Prussia ly gainers by the war. 1756. Seven Years' War of Austria and Prussia. Invasion and conquest of Saxo- ny, by Frederic II. Alliance with France. 1757. Prussians vic- torious at Prague, Rossbach, Lessa, and Breslau. The French take Verdun and Bre- men. 1758. French defeated at Crefeldt, 1759. and at Minden. Victory at Max- en over the Prus- sians. — Dresden re- taken. 1760. Great victory at Torgan, by Fre- deric. 1762. Prussians victor rious at Freiburg. 1763. Peace of Hu- bertstrug. 1765. Joseph II. 1746. Denmark :— Frederic V.^ 1747. Netherlands .-—William Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. Shah murdered. 1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. Denmark :— Ministry of Count Bern- storff. Sweden: — House of Holstein Got- torp :— Adolphus FiT.deric.^^ 1754. Italy :— The Corsicans, under Paoli, revolt against Genoa. 1754. Turkey :— Othman III. 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- tinople. 1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- bob of Bengal. 17.57. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 1757. Prussia : — Russian invasion. 1758. — victory of Londorf 1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope. 1759. Prussia :— The king defeated at Kunnersdorf 1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. India :— Shah Alim II. Sieee and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. Kingdom of Mysore founded by H y d e r A 1 i . 1762. Russia: months). -Peter III. ' (six — r-Catharine 11.^ 1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski. 1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. —Establishment of a British empire 1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany. ^l 1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. ^ . 1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egypt revived under Rodvan and Afi Bey. J3H THE world's progress. [Period X.—d7years.-^ Progress of Society, etc. 1767 First spinning machine in England. 1768 Cook's first voyage of discovery. Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. Royal Academy of Arts in Eiigland ; Joshua Reynolds, first president. 1769 177U Letters of Junius. VVhitefield dies at Newburyport. 1774 1774 1774 Captain Cook discovers New California. The Spinning-jenny, invented by Robert Arkwright. The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt and Bolton. In England. Goldsniilh, Warburton, .Tohnsnii, Littleton, Lovvth, Oarrirk, Hume, lloljertson, Hlackstone. AdiimSmiih, Home 'rooke. Priestley, HDPsley, Hiu-ke, Pitc, Fox, Cooper, Sheridan, Mc Pherson, Hums. Kaimes, Re id. France. Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Condillac, Jussien, Lavoisier, La Harpe, Harth, le ny. Buffo ., Ger. Mosh- eim, Zimmerman, Kant, Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, Herder, Goeihe, Schiller, StD. Linnaeus, //. Meiastasio. Rus. Kheras- kov, Kostrov. Deerhavin, Bogdanovich, Kheraniizee. United States. 1768- Boston occupied by the British troops 1769. Daniel Boone ex- plores Kentucky. 1772. Hancock, S. Adams, and P a - trick Henry, promote the revolu- tion. 1773. Tea destroyed at Boston. 1774. Continental Con- gress at Philadelphia. 177.5. AMERICAN WAR; April 19, Skirmish at Lexington. .June 17, Battle of Bun- ker's Hill P resco 1 1, Pu t- n a m . & W a r r e n . WASHINGTON, commander-in-chief. Montgomery Montreal, and falls a"t 1776. The British troops evacuate Boston. Moultrie de Sullivan's Isian I. DECLARA- TION OF IN- DEPENDENCE, July 4. Americans (S u 1 1 i- v a n) defeated at Flatbush. Au2. Battle of White Plams. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 26-7. 1777. Arrival of Lafay- ette. Capture ai Ticon Great Britain 1766. American Stamp Act repealed — New ministry under tha Earl of Chatham. 1767. First war Hyder Ali ia. sore. with J\Iy- I77C. Lord N # r t h , prime minister. 1771. The Falkland Islands ceded by Spain to Great Bri- tain. 1774. The Boston Port Bill passed. 1774. Warren Hastings, governor general ot India. REVOLUTIONARY 1775. Lord North's " conciliatory mea- sures " rejected by the colonies. takes St. Johns and Quebec. 1776. The city of Lon- don remonstrates against he American war. feats the English at The British army takes possession of New-York. Hessians hired for service in America. dcroga by the British, July 5. 1718..1815. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. :39 Fkancs. Germany. 1768 1769 770 1773 1774 1770 Genoa cedes Corsica to France. Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. Marriage of the dauphin with Mane Antoinette. Madame du Barri rules the king. L o u i s XVI .^ Marie Antoinette, queen :— Maurepas, prim^ miiiibter. N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- al. Franklin in Paris. 1772. Joseph II. with I he Emperors of Russia and Prus-sia, dis- member Po- land, divid- ing it be- iw'een them- selves. The World, elsewhere. Discipline of the Ottoman troops Im proved by Baron de Tott. 1767. Spain : — Jesuits expelled. India: — Hyder Ali resists the Eng- lish. 17(58. War between Russia and the Ottomac Empire. 1769. Pope Clen^ent XIV. Tlie Russian army occupies WaJachia and Moldavia. 1771. Sweden :—Gustavus III.^ 1772. First Partition of Poland. 1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi Hassan, Pope Clement abolishes the order of Jesuits.* 1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British governor-general. Russia:— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^g — 1775. Pope Pius VI. Spain :— Able ministry of Florida Blan- 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. East Indies :— Lord Pigot, govcrnor-gft neral, imprisoned by his own council. 1777. Portugal :— Maria, qn 140 THE world's progress. [Period X. — 97 years.^^ Progress of Society, etc. HerscheVs discovery of the Georgium Sidii3. Prussic acid obtained in a se- parate state, by Scheele. Air balloon of MontgolSer. First American vessel in China. Institution for the deaf and dumb at Paris, by the Abbe lie I'Epee. Sunday schools established in England, by Robert Raikes. Herschel's Telescopes. Stenography, by Taylor. Panoramas in London. First spinning machine in France. Talma, the celel rated trage- dian. United States. Great Britain. Battles of Bennington, 11, and Siiil water. Philadelphia taken by lis. Battle of German ceives Burgoyne's Articles of confederation, adopted Nov. 15. 1778. Alliance with France. Battle of Monmouth, Washington victorious, June 28. Arrival of the French fleet under D'Estaing. Massacre of Wyoming. Savannah taken by the English. 1779. Wayne recovers Sioney Point. Paul Jones's Victory off 1780. Battle near Camden : D e K a 1 b killed. Treason of Arnold. 1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- ed by Morgan. Surrender of Co town, Oct. 17. Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept the English, under Cornwal town, Oct. 4.— Gates r& surrender, Oct. 17. 1778. Capture of Pondicherryt in India. Scotland. 178U. War with Hyder Ah i India. War with Holland. rnwallis at York- 1781. Victory oflT the Doggei* bank. 1782. Treaty with Holland, by J. Adams, Jay, Frank 1 i n , and Laurens. 1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILLES: INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac knowledged by Great Bri- tain 1784. New- York Chamber of Commerce founded, 1785. John A d a m s , 1st States of America to Great Britain. 1786. Shay's insurrection in Massachusetts. 1787. General Convention at Philadelphia. Federal Con- stitution of the United States, adopted. 1783. Cotton planted in Geor- gia. 1789. Georob Wash- in o t n , first Presi- dent: J e f f e r s o n , Ha- milton, Knox, Ran- dolph , and Jay, form the cabinet. 1791. First United States Bank. 1792. Kentucky adautted to the Union. Ua .ted States Mini- esta- bliahea. 1784. Pitt, the younger, premier. Peace with Tippoo Saib. ambassador from the United 1735. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 1788. The king insane.— Deatn of Charles Edward, the last pretender. Trial of Warren Hast- ings. 1792. Provision for the f xcJua. aboliiion of the si.t^ « «* **. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROCJRES& Ul 1778 France. cewitlj America 1779 Scheme to invade England from Normandy. I78C Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans. 1781 1782 1783 Necker resigns. Defeat of De Grasse in the West Indies, by Rodney. Peace 1 es . of V e r sai 1 1787 1789 179- 1782 La Perotise's voyage of disco- very. Financial difficulties — New taxation : Colonne, Brienne, and Necker, ministers suc- cessively. FRENCH REVOLUTION begins. — Bastile taken and razed, July 14. — Lafay- ette, commander of the national guards. — M i r a • beau, leading orator. Germany. 1778. War of the Bavarian succession.— Bavaria seized by Germany. 1779. Congress and Peace of Teschen. 1782. Punishment of death abolished. The Pope visits the em- peror, to dissuade him from hostilities against the church. 1785. 2,000 religious houses suppressed by the emperor. 1788. The emperor attempts to control the Universities. 1790. Leopold II.W- Congress of Reichenbach. Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. ncs.— Lafayette resigns. 1792. — FrancisII War with Germany: — The French take Spires, Mentz, and Longwy— Lafay&tte im France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. republic. Cfirortdists and Mountcamats. The World, elsewhere. 1780. Declaration of the artnea neutrality — to protect neu- tral flags from the right ol search claimed by Britain. 1782. Italy :— Pontine maiehea drained. India:— Rise of Sindia— Tip poo. Sultan. 1783. — alliance with the French. 1786. Prussia-— Frederic Wil- liam II. 1787. Russia :— War wiUl the Porte. 1788. Spain :— Charles IV. 1789. Ottoman Empire;— Se- lim II. 1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand III. 1792. Sweden:— Gustanw IV 142 THE world's PPcOGRESS. [Period X— 97 years.— An. Progress of Society, etc. Tom Patne, Fisher Ames. HannaliMore, Gaijisboro', Moreland. Bognslawski, Krasiki, Po- lish poets. Ayieri, Italian poet. Gluck, Haydn, Muzart, ALbrecktsber- iren, Beethoven. Uniied Statbs. 1793. Washington reelected. Neutiality in regard to France. Grsat Britain. 1793. First coalition against France, (lirecieii by Eng- land — all Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- key. Pestalozzi, system of elemen- tary education. Murigo Park's travels Africa, published. Iron railways in England. Polytechnic school in Paris. First book-fair in New- York. 1791. Commercial treaty with Englani. Commencement of the n av y—(i f r i gates built. 1796. Washinztnn resisms. Uiiiish array near Dunkirk. defeated 1795. War with Holland. First Locomotive Steam En- gine used on the Merthyn Tydvil road in Wales. 1797. .1 o h n Adams, 2d president. Difficulties with France. 798 Regular army organized, VVdsliiugion couunander-m- chief. 1799. Death of Washington. Tennessee becomes a State. 1800. Seat of government translerred to Washingion. D. C. 1801. Thomas Jeffer son, 3d President. Exports of United States, $93,U(J0,()0J. ISOii. Ohio joins the Union it has 76,000 inhabitants. 1803. Purchase of Louisi- ana, for $15,000,000. U. Slates frigate Philadel- phia, taken by the Tripoli- tans. 1804. Decatur recaptures the Philadelphia. Preble bombards Tri- poli. Burr kills Hamilton. 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- sident : George Clin- ton, of New- York, Vice- President. 1793. Second coalition agamst France.— Irish rebellion. -~ Nelson's victory at the Battle o { the Nile. Wilberforce's motion to abolish the slave trade, lost, 87 to 83. 1800. Union of Eng- land and Ireland. — Malta taken. 1801. Battle of Alexandria.— Pitt resigns, succeeded by Addington. 1802. Peace of Amiens. 1803. Successful war in ludia. 1804. Pitt again premier. 1805. Nelson defeats the French and Spanish flee» off Trafalgar. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S FRO^i^^, -14; France. 1793 1794 1795 1706 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 isai 1806 The king and queen beheaded. Reign of Terror. Germany. 1793. First Coalition against France. Marat assassinated by Char- lotte Corday. Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n —the allies every where driven back, i Revolution ol the 9ih Thermi- dor. Robes piere guillotined. NAPOI. EON BONA- PARTE, commander of the army ; quells an insur- rection in Paris. War in Italy. Battle of Lodi. Bonaparte's Austri an Campaig n— H o c h e and Moreau's cele braced passage of the Rhine Peace of Campo Formio. Bonaparte's expedition to Eiiypt is defeated by Nelson at Aboukir, Aug. 1. The French enier'Switzerland under B e r n a d o 1 1 e and •Jourdan. — Return of Bona- parte. — R evolution of the 18th B r u m a i r e first — B onapart e, consul. attle of Maren; 179S. Second Coalition against France. -Moreau's victory Hohen linden. of Veace of Lunevile. Bonaparte elected president of the Italian republic. Peace of Amiens. Legion of Honor instituted. War with Ere'and. Bank of France. Duke D'Enghien shot. Bonaparte crowned as NA- POLEON I., Emperor of the French. Marshals Soult, Murat, N e y , &c. Austrian Campaign, Peace of Napoleon Protector of tlie The World, elsewhere. 1804. The emperor of Ger- many assumes the title of emperor of AUSTRIA. Batttle of Auater- 1 i Iz . Presburg. Confederation of tike Jihine. 1793. Second Partition of Po- land by Russia and Prussia. H a y t i independent re- public, under ToussainX L'Ouverture. 1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra- cow. — K o s c i u s k o , ge- neial-in-chief — Russians de- feated at Warsaw. 1795. Final partition of Poland — extinction of the kingdomr Butavian Republic :— Shi- melpennink. 1796. Russia :— Paul L 1797. Switzerland :— General Revolution — The French invade Berne — Helvetian Republic. Prussia :— Frederic Wil- liam III.^ 1798. India : -Marquis Welles- ley, governor-general. 1799. Russicins, under Su- w a r r w , deleaied neaz Milan. 1800. Armed neutrality of th« north. Pope Pius VII. Ionian Republic founded. 1801. Russia: Alexander. W 1802. Italian Republic— Bona- parte president. 1803. India :— Great Mahratta War. 1804. Russia :— War with P»f sia. 144 THE world's progress. [Period X. — 97 years.-^ Progress op Society, etc. Planet Juno discovered. Lewis Sf Clark's expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Fulton's first success- ful TRIAL OP Steam- boats. General Unirersity established by Napoleon, to superintend national education. Lithography invented. In England: Flaxman^ Weslviacott, Chantrey, sculp tora. France : La Grange, Mange, Hauy, Biot. B. St. Pierre, poet. First steamboat built in Eu- rope. American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Mis- sions, founded. Steam carriages in England. Gas used for lighting the streets of London. Safety lamp invented hj Sir H lumphrey Davy. In England: H. K. White, Keats, Reg. Heber, Shelley, Crabbe, Sir W. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Lamb, Montgomery, Hagg. France : Mad. de Stael, Mad. deGenlis, Chateaubriand Cuvier. Melendez Val- dez, Spanish Bilderdyk, Dutch. German: W. Schlegel, F Schlegel, Richter, Kotzebue: Weber and Spohr, musi- cal compo- sers. Russia : Karamsin, Somorokor, Dmitriev, Krilov. United States. 1807. Embargo on all the ports of the United States. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. Slave trade abolished. 1809. J a m e s Madison, 4th President. Embargo repealed ; the non-intercourse act passed. 1811. Engagement between the ' President ' and the 'Little Belt.' Indians on the Wabash, defeated by Gov. Harrison. Population of the United States, 7,239,903, Great Britain. 1806. Fourth Coalition against France. 1807. Bill for the aao'iUion of the islave trade, passed. 1808. The English, under W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spain as allies. Fifth Coalition. Walcheren expedition. IBID. War with Sweden. IBU George, Prince of Wales, Prince Regent, (the king be- ing insane). Population of Great Bri- tain, 12,552,144. 1812. War with Great Britain. Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. The Constitution captures the Guer r i e r e : i (First check of British Lord Liverpool naval supremacy.) | premier. Wool victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12. Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frd .i Oct. 18. The "United States," The Constitution, Captain Louisiana admitted into the Union. 1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Battle of the Thames : Tecuraseh killed. 1814. City of Washington burnt by the Bof^'sh. Captain Decatur, captures the British frigate Macedonian. Bainbridge, captures the Bri tish frigate Java. 1813. Sixth Coalition against France — Prussia, Russia. Sweden, Great Britain, and Austria. i 1814. Treaty of Chaumoc.t be- I tween Austria, Prussia, Ru»» \ sia, and Great Britain. Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; British defeated by General Jackson, Jan. 8. , War against Algiers de- clared. 1815. Candy and Almora cap- tured. Wellington vie torious at Waterloo, June 18. i7l8-1815.J THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 145^ France. Germany. Victcry of Jena over the Prussians, erlin decree. War with Russia. Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e of Tilsit. Invasion of Portu- gal. French in Spaia defeated at Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- lesley. Battle of Wagram- Napoleon inarries Maria Lou- ise. — t/'ontinental peace ex- cept with Spain. Birth of the emperoi-'s son; created king of Rome. Soult victorious in Spain- takes Badajos ; is defeated by the English at Albuesa. Russian Campaion. Battles of Smolensko and Bo- rodino. Moscow entered by Napoleon's army— and burr 3d by the Russians. Victories of L u t z e n , Bautzen, and Dres- den, over the alhes. Battle of Leipsic — The allies enter Paris. Napoleon abdicates, and retires to Elba. House of Bourbon restored: Louis XVIII. Bonaparte returns from Elba. The hundred days. Napoleon victorious at Li^ny. BATTLE OF WATERLOO. The allies enter Paris. Ilonaparte banish- ed to St Helena. Peace of Vienna. Metternich, minis- ter. 1812. Austria in alliance with France against Russia. 1813. War of German inde- pendence. Austria joins the Coali- lion. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine, loses his whole army. 1815. German League. Congress of Vien na. The World, elsewhere. 1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- leon, king. Prussia at war with Franc* in allittnce with Russia. 18L)7. Ottoman Empire :— Mus tapha IV. 1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VU. " Joseph Napoleon. Naples:— Murat. Denmark :— Frederic VI. Ottoman Empire :— Mah moud IT. 1809. Sweden :— Charles XI U 1810. South America:— VE NEZUELA declared inde- pendent. 1811. NEW GRENADA d» dared independent. 1812. Invasion op Russia by Napoleon.— BURNING OF MOSCOW. K u t o s o f f pursuea the retreating I'^rench. Poland :— Diet of War- saw: the Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. 1813. South America:— Bo 1 i V a r drives the Span iards from Caraccas 1814. Union of Holland anj Belgium. — Peace of Kiel Sweden, and England. Union of Sweden ana Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch 1815. Netherlands :— William he "Holy Al- liance' '—Russia, Pi-na- sia, and Austria. 146' THE world's progress. PERIOD XL— 50 years.- 1815 Progress op Society, etc. New corn law in England. Polytechnic instiluiion at Vi- enna. Manufactories introduced into Poland. The family of Rothschilds comes into notice at Franls- fort. Abolition of the slave trade by the congress of Vienna. Second United St.ates Bank chartered lor 20 years, capi- tal $3.5,UOO,000. Public schools established throughout, Russia. Belzoni penei rates the second pyramid of Gheza. Abolition of predial bondage in Bavaria and VVirtembeig. First passage of the Atlantic Rii?e of mechanic institutions in England. Hieroglyphics deciphered : — Chumpoliion.— Sir William Herschel died. Huskisson's /ree iratZe system in England. First manufactory in Egypt., established by Mehemet Ali. Inland navigation of the United States : the great Erie Canal opened. Mail-posts in Prussia. — Steam navigation on the Rhine. General financial panic in England. Vast increase of periodical literature in England, France, Germany, America, &c. l^f Alexander Volta dies, disco- rerer of the Voltaic battery. 1816 1817 1818 1819 1821 1322 1823 1824 1825 United States. 181G. United States Bank in- corporated. Indiana admitted. 1817. .1 a m e a Monroe, 5ih President. INI i s s i s s i p p i ad- mittetl. 1313. Illinois admitted. War wilh the Semiiioles. by steam, by the Savannah — New-York to Liverpool. 1820. Maine admitted. 1321. Monroe re-elected. Missouri admitted. Slavery compromise. 1821. Lafayette's visit. Erie canal opened. Protective tariff. 1825. J. a Adams, 6th Presidenu Great Britain. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers — The Dey compelled u make peace and abolish slavery. 1817. Lord Exmouth'a expe- dition to Alsiers 1820.- 3 e r g e IV 182.3. Canning ministry. The Ashantees in Afiica defeated. 1825. Commercial treaty witb Prussia. 1827. Treaty of London k favor of Greece. 1828. Wellington ministry.— Disturbances in ireUnd THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 147 1816-1865 A.D. France. Austria, &c. The World, elsewhere. 1816. Portugal -John VI. ^ in Brazi. , Union of Naples and Sicily. 1817. Republic of the Ionian Islands. India :— The cholera com' mences its ravases. 1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV. 1/lS Congress of Aix la Chapelle. (Beniadotte.) —France joins the " Holy India:— The Mahratta Alliance." power completely over- thrown, and the British suc- ceed.?. 1819. South America:— Re- public of COLOMBIA:— Bolivar, President. 1821 Death of Napoleon at St. He- 1821. Congress of monarchs 1821 Ifayti :— B oyer, em- lena. at Laybach. — Insuriection peror. in Moldavia and Wallachia. South America :— PERU —Alexander Ypsilanti de- and GUATEMALA inde- feated and carried prisoner pendent:. to Austria. 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. pendent. Mexico :— Ilurbide, em- peror. ■^ Greek Revolu- tion. .Charles X .M Declaration of Indepen- IgJi dence. Massacre of Scio. 1823. Italy:- Leo XII., pope, 1824. Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi. 1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a s I.* 182G. —War with Persia. Greece : — Mi.ssolo)igh! taken by the Turks. 1827. Treaty between Russ:j and the Porte respecting Greece. Greece :— B a 1 1 1 e of N a V a r i n . Portugal :— Maria de Glo- isa Fleet sent to Algiers. ria, queen. ^^ —Rebellion in favor of Don Miguel as regent. 1828. War between Russia , and the Porte. 148* THE world's progress. [Period XL — 50 years.-^ A..i>, Progress op Society, etc. 1835 1836 In England : Jeremy Ben tliaiii, Thomas Ckal jners, Thomas Dick. W. Kirbij, Hallam, Lingarrf, Wordsworth. Southeij, Campbell.) Moore, Leigh Hunt, Mrs. Hemans, BuUrer, '• Barry Corn icall." Russia : Kiirainsin, iiamorokov, Dmietriev, Kriluv. France : Ctivier. Talina, txage- (iian, Segur, La Place., Beranger, Lamar tine. Germany : Spohr, Mayerheer, Kotzebue^ Gall, Spurzheim. Sweden : Tegner, Dahlyren. Italy : Rossini, Paganini. U. S. A. N. Webster, Wlieaton. Irving, Cuujjer, Flint, Wirt, Marshall, Kent, &'/ory, Gallatin, Livingston, Channing. Liverpool and Manchester Railroad opened. The two Landers succeed in tracing tlie Niger Irom Lake Tcliad to the ocean. The .drst newspaper in Oon- sianiinople. — The Factory Bill in England, limiting the hours oi labor for children. Reform Bill in England: — F.xtension of Suffrage. Trade unions in England, France, Germany, Swiizer- land, ige, in Ger- many. Lord Rosse^s Telescope. Gtilta Percha in use. Compleimn of the Thames 7'unnel. March '2o. The Planet Neptune, pre- dicted by Le Verrier, dis- covered by Dr. Galle, of Berlin, Sept. 2a. United States. 1838. The Exploring Expedi- tion sails. 1839. Disturbances on the " disputed territory," be- tween Maine and New- Brunswick. vered by the United States Exploring Expedition. 184L W. H. Harrison, 9th President. He dies April 4, j ust one month after his inaugura- tion. John Tyler, sue. ceeds him, as lOih Pre.-ident. Congress meets in extra session, Miiy 31. , Sub-Treasury Act re- pealed, Aug. 9. Bankrupt Act passed, August 18. 1842. The Dorr Insurrection in Rhode Island. Treaty between the Uni Great Britajn. 1839. The Bi itish take pooee* sion ol Ghuzne. 1840. The uniform Penn% Postage system esta.iisheu Marriage f Queen Vic- toria to Prince Albert oi Saxe Cobourg. War with Chi; a, to en- force the opium trade. War in Syria:— Great Britain taking part with Austria and Turkey. Lord Pa! merston's foreign policy excites the ill-will ol France. 1841. The war with China ended: ©6,000,000 received as a ransom for Canton 1844. Texas annexed to the United States. Anti-rent riots in New- York. 1845. Treaty with China. James K . Polk, 11th President. 1846. War with Mexi- c o : Hostilities commence on the Rio Grande, April 24. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8. Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9. ted States and England, settling the north-eastern boundary. Treaty of peace China. with 1843. Great "Repeal" agitation in Ireland. The British gain posses- sion of Scinde. 1844. Daniel O'Conneil's trial and inprisonment— the sen- tence reversed by the He use of Lords. 1345. Sir John Franklin fa>l8 in search of tlie noith. weai passage. 1815-1866.] THE world's progress. 151' A.D. France. Austria, &c. The World, elsewhere. .838 Talleyrand dies. Difficulty with Mexico: cap- tare ot San Juan d'Ulloa. 18.38. New Treaty of commerce with Eng- 1838. Mexico:— The Castle of San Jua« d'Ulloa taken by the French. 1839, Peace between France and Mexico. land, July 3. China :— The Opium trade forbiddea. Ferdinand crowned at Milan, Sep- tember 6. Turkey at war with Egvpt. India :— Ghuzne taken by ii.e British. 1840 FUiice Louis Napoleon at- tempts a hostile descent on the coast of France, near Boulogne— is taken prisoner, and imprisoned at Ham. 1840. China :— Canton blockaded by the Eng- lish, to compel the renewal of the opium trade. Holland :— William L abdicates : William H.^ G u i z e t , minister for fo- reign affairs. Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the English, Austrians, and Turks The remains of Napoleon removed from St. Helena, and deposited with great honors at the Invalides, in Paris. 1841. China:— Canton capitulates, 86,000,003 paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. Mexico :— Santa Anna enters the capi- tal, and places himself at the head of iha government. 1842 The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a fall from his carriage. 1842. ladia:— Insurrection in Affghanistan. 1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord Geo. Paulet. l&M The Duke de Nemours ap- pointed Regent, in the event of the king's death. Greece:— King Otho compelled to ac- cept a constitution, Sept. 15. The Society Islands seized by a French squadron— r^sitored by the government. 18^ Louis Napoleon escapes ft 3m Ham, May 26. India :—Scinde annexed to the British empire. 1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected June 1& Poland :— Cracow deprived of its ind©> pendence, Nov. 16. 152* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XI. — 50 year' Proorsss 3p Society, etc. United States. 1846. The Oregon Trea lling the Norih- Western Bo Commodore Sloat takes possession of Caliloinia. July 6. New TaiiflT bill passed, establishing ad valorem du- ties. Battle of Monterey, Sep- tember 23. Tampico occupied, No- vember 14. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. Feb. 22. Battle of Sacramento, Feb. 26. Vera Cruz surrenders, March 29. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. Battle of Contreras, Au- gust 20. Armistice, Aug. 24. Hostilities renewed, Sep- tember 7. Battle of Molino del Rey, Sept. 8. Battle of Chepultepec, Sep, 12. Mexico surren- ders, Sept. 14. 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, signed at Guada- loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. The cultivation of the Tea' plant in the United States, commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- lina. Great Britain. t y with Great Britain, set undary, signed at LonduOi June 18. 1847. Severe famine in Ire. land. Large supplii's ol food sent from the United States. The Bogue forts in China taken and destroyed, April 26. Suspension Bridge at Nia- gara Falls, opened July 29. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. John Mitchell, tried and condemned to transporta- tion. May 26. Postal convention betw een the United States and Great Britain. First deposit of Califor- nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. Enaigration from Europe to America during iliis year, 300,090. Habeas Corpus Act su» pended in Ireland, July 2& Smith O'Brien arresMMl and condemned, Aug. 5. Return of Rou'a exp« dition. Nov. J5i5-1865. THE world's PllOGRESS. 153^ Reform Banquets in Slras- buig, Chartres, &c. Michelet's Lectures interrupt- ed by the ministers, Dec. Abd-el-Kader captured, Dec. •22. Debate on the Reform Bill, Feb 8. Proposed Banquet at Pails, abandonetl, Feb 21. Revolution com- menced, Feo. 22. Barricades erecied, Feb. 23. Louis Philippe abdicates and flies. Feb. 24. Provisional government esta- blished. L a m a r t i n e , Provisional President, Feb. 24. French Republic proclaimed, Feb. 26. Meeiing of the National As- sembly, May 4. Bloody Insurrection in Paris, June 23-25. Cavaignac, military dictator, June 24. Paris in a state of siege. New Constitution adopted, Nov. 4. .ouisNapoleon Bo- naparte, elected Pre- siltnt, Dec. 10. Austria, «&c. 1847. Austria lakes posses- sion of Cra- cow. The World, elsewhere. 1347. Prussia :— Frederic William graat> « constitution, Feb. 8. Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner to Francs, Dec. 22. 1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an army of 25,000 men. Jan 10. Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. Sardinia :— Charles Albert proclaims a constitution, Feb. 8. Bavaria : — Disturbances on account o/ Lola Montes— the king abdicates in favor of his son, -Maximilian II. ' March 22. Charles Albert The Ban Jella- chich ap- pointed gov- ernor of Hungary, Oct. 3. Insurrection at Vienna, Oct. 6. 1848. The Em- peror leaves the city. The Hungarian army advan- ces within 6 miles of Vi- enna, Oct. 11. Windr. Locke, at Cincinnati. Rail Roads 6,000 " Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at the rate of 1000 a day. Great agitation on the Slavery Question in the United States Congress. The Pekin Monitor, a new paper, printed in Cliina. The Sultan of Turkey, grants permission to the Jews to build a temple on Mount Zion. A University founded at Syd- ney, New South Wales. Deaths in 1850 : U. S. A. I EUROPE, A. Jiidson, Wordsworth, -S. M. Fuller, Jeffrey, M L. Davis. Neander, Zschokke, Berzelius, Balzac. 1850. John C. Calhoun died at Washington. Attempted invasion of Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- der Lopez, repulsed at Car- denas, May. Death of Gen. Taylor, July 9. Millard Fillmore, 13th President. C a 1 i f o r n i a ad- mitted, 31st State. Texas boundary settled, by the payment of 10,000,000 dollars to Texas. New-iMexico and Uuh admitted as Territories. Bill for the arrest of fugitive slaves passed by Con- gress. Slave trade in I he District of Columbia abolished. Great Bkitain. 1849. Moultan. in India, lak«iv Jan. 3. 1850. The war jn I-ahore fir? ished, and th •, Puiijaub an* nexed to the Briii-sh cr:)wn. A British fleet blockaUM the ports of Greece, tc en- force the alleged clairrs pi British subjects. Sir Robert Peel diea July 2. Haynau, "the Austria* butcher," chastised by thf draymen in LondoOj SepU 1510-1863.J THE world's PHOGRESS. 155' France. Louis Philippe dies in Eng- land. Austria, &c The World, tlse where. The Emperor issues a pro- clamation against the ciiy. Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. The Imperial- ists take pos- session or Vi- enna, Nov. 2. Ferdinand ab- dicates, Dec. 2. — F r an c i s Joseph 1849. A new Constitution promulgated March 4. Brescia taken by Haynau, March 30. Rome :— M a z z i n 1 ' s proclamation, Oct. 29. Prus-sia : — The king prorogues the As- sembly, Nov. 9. —The Burgher Guard of Bc'limrefuse to give up their arms. The city in a state o( siege, Nov. 12. Rome :— Count Ro.ssi. the Pope's prime- minister, assassinated, Nov. i6. India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, Nov. 22. Rome : — The Pope escapes in disguise, Nov. 24. Hungary declared independent, Dec. 1849. India:— Moukan taken by the British, Jan. 3. Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, Feb. 9. Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. Sicily:— A new Constitution conceded by Naples, March 6. Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by Radetsky, March 21— again totally defeated at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the throne in favor of his son, Victor EmanueL ^§ India :— The Punjaub annexed to tne British Empire, March 29. Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, Aprit 26. Rome :— The French arm,y arrives un- der the walls of Rome, April 29. Haynau takes' command of the Austrian army in Hungary, June. Rome surrendersjo the French, July 2. Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. Rome : — The government placed in tha hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. Gorgey traitor -ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. Kossuth escapes into Turkey. Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 1850. Rome :— The Pope returns, April. Greece disputes the claims of Great Britain for losses of British subjects: is forced to submit. China:— Tiie Emperor Tau-Kwang, dies : Sze-hing s icceeds- 156* THE world's progress. [Period XL- 50 yearii - Progkess of SooJETr, etc. 1850 On the subject of the Mobbing of Marshal Haynau during a visit to a Lonfion brewery, notes pass between Austria and Great Britain, termi- nating in a threat of retalia- tion on the part of the latter, Sept.— Nov. A Memorial for the annexa- tion of Canada to the U. S. r«»ceived in five hours the signatures of 300 merchants, landowners, and profes- sional men, in Montreal, Oct. 10. Womari's EigMs Con- vention, held at Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. North- West Passage discov- ered by Capt. McClure (Br. Navy) in the Investigator, Oct. 26. The British Consul at Charles- ton calls the attention of the Governor of South Ca- rolina to a law of that State, under which British sea- men (colored) are impris- oned when they enter her ports for trade or in dis- tress, Dec Deaths in lS^{i: V. S. A. J. G. Calhoun, Senator, U. S. Sam. Miller, D.D. Z. Taylor, President, U. S. A. United Statks. 1S50. California admitted as a State, Sept. Fugitive Slave Bill passed, Sept. Disunion3feetin.gs held at Natchez (many present op- posed to disunion); at Yazoo City (resolutions proposed voted down). Oct. 7; at Nashville (tliis convention passed resolutions recom- mending a congress of slaveholding States), Nov. 19. Union Meetings held at Mobile, Dayton, ~and New York, in Oct. ; at Pliiladel- phia. and Manchester, N. H., in Nov.; and at Bath, Me., in Dec. The Advance and Eescue. American vessels in search of Sir J. Franklin, com- pletely fastened in the ice, Sept. 13. In tlieir northerly di-iJl reach lat. 75" 23', Oct. 1. Conventions held to amend the Constitutions of the States of Indiana (Oct. 7). Virginia (Oct. 14). Maryland (Nov. 4), New Hampshire (Nov. 6). Lopez and others tried at New Orleans for engaging in an expedition against Cuba, Dec. 17. Webster replies to Hiilse- mann on the rights < f neu- tral nations, Dec. 21. Great Britain. 1850. Great excitement and agitation in England resjject ing a dispute on doctrine be tween the Bishop of Ereter and the Kev. Dr. Gorliam, one of liis clergy. The I'rivy Councils decision in favor of tlie latter afterwards rati- fied by the Courts. Searches for Sir J. Frank- lin — the North Star returns to Spithead unsuccessful, Sept. 2S. - The Prince Albert arrives at Aberdeen with the intelligence that traces of bis party had been found at Cape Keilly and Beechy Island, at the entrance to Wellington Channel, Oct. 1. Appointment by the Pope of several Roman Ca- tliolic bishops and arch- bishops in England, causes great excitement, and an indignant letter from Lord J. Russell, the premier, Nov. English forces defeated by the Caffres in South Africa, with considcrabla loss, and obliged to retreai to their fort, Dec. 29. 1815-1865.J THE WOKLD S PROGRESS. 157^ F»ANCE. 1850 President creates his uncle Jerome a Marshal of France, Jan. 1. 800 Soldiers drowned at An- glers by fall of a bridge, Apr. 15. French Ambassador recalled from London, in conse- quence : t a difficulty con- nected with an English claim on Greece, May 16. New Electoral Law, restrict- ing the right of suflFrago, passed. May 31. Arrangement with England on the Greek, dispute, June 21. Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- sident 2,160,000 francs ($405,000) per annum, passed, June 24. Austria, etc. 1850. Prussia:— The King takes the oath required by the Con- stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to assassinate him. May 22. Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- ony, and Wurtemburg, to main- tain the German Union, Feb. 21. Wurtemburg denounces the insidious ambition of the King of Prussia, and announces a league between Wurtemburg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under the sanction ot Austria, March 15. Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian league, June Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2 A Congress of Deputies from the States included in the Prus- sian ZoUverein opened at Cas- sel, July 12. The World, elsewhere. Prussia refuses to join the restricted Diet of Frankfort, Aug. 25. Difficulties occurring in Hesse-Cassel, between the Elec- tor and his people, in regard to the mode of taxatk)n, Austria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite parts in the struggle, Sept.— Nov. Austrian ultimatum deliv- ered at Berlin, directing tliat Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight days, dissolve theErfurtLeague, and recognize the Diet, etc., re- plied to by the Prussian Kings signing the order calling out the whole militg,ry force of the mo- narchy, Nov. 6. The Russian Ambassador at Yienna announces that the Czar " would consider the continu- ance of the Prussian policy in the Electorate as a casus beUi,'^ Nov. 11. Treaty of Amnesty an- nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3. France protests, and Great Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, against the proposed extension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps, Dec. 1550. Denmark: Bloody but indecisive battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig Holsteiners, July 25 Yucatan : — Battle, near close of the year, between the Whites and Indians; latter vic- torious; 300 Whites killed. 158* THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Period XL — 50 years.— Pkooress op Society, etc. Jas. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at (he village of Unqurta, six days distant from Kouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4 A Company of Gipsies from England arrive in Cecil county, Maryland, U. S., bringing with ihem all their wandering habits and pecu- liarities, March. According to the evidence of Mr. Baincs before a Com mittee of tlie House of Com- mons, there were in Great Britain 13.19.3 places of wor ship dissenting from the tenets of the Established Church, to which ni;vy b< added Roman Catholic Ch.a pels, 597, minor sects and Jews, 550; total noncon- formist churches, 14,340. Exhibition of the "Works of Industry of all Nations inaugurated by Queen Vic toria, May 1. Wyld's monster globe erected in London ; em ployed 300 men nearly 30 days in fitting up the inte- rior. Daguerre, the discoverer of the Daguerrean or Photo graphic Art, dies, aged 61 July 10. The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) Bill passes the British House of Commons, with only verbal protests from the objecting minority, July 3; but is refused a second reading in the House of Lords, July 17. TJnitkd States. 1S51, General Quitman of Mississippi arrested for al- leged violation of the neu- trality law of 1S18, by set- ting on foot a military ex- pedition against Cuba. He resigns his office of Gover- nor. Feb. 3. Erie Canal Enlargement Bill defeated in the N. Y. Senate by the withdrawal or resignation of 12 democratic mernbers, Apr. 16 ; but afterwards passed by a new Legislature. Minofs Ledge Light- house, Boston Harbor, car- ried away. It was last seen standing about 3 o'clock, P.M., April 16. Arrest of a notorious band of desperadoes in Mi- chigan, Apr. 21. initial point of the Boun- dary between the United States and Mexico establish- ed on the rjorht bank of the Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 22 north latitude, and 2)9.4 meters from the center of the bed of the river, by the American and Mexican Commissioners, and a mon- ument erected recording the same. April 24. President issues a procla mation, warning all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States not to aid or engage in any expedition against the Island of Cuba, Apr. 25. Convention of Delegates from the Southern Rights Associations of South Caro Una meets at Charleston, May 5; and adjourns after resolving that, ''with or without cooperation, they are for a dissolution of the Union," May 8. Erie railroad opened from New York city to Dunkirk, 469 miles, by President Fillmore, Daniel Webster, etc.. May 15. Riot, with loss of life, at Hoboken, N. J., between Germans and " short-boy" rowdies from New York, May 26. Serious confla^ations in California. San Francisco alone suffers by them in Mav and June to tae amount of $12,000,000. Great Britain. 1S51. A strong force of Caffres attacks Fort White, Cape of Good Hope— repulsed, loss 20 killed. The Caffre chief, Hermanns, with a body of Caffres and Hottentots, at- tacks Fort Beaufort, but is repulsed, he and his son killed, his band completely routed. 3,000 Caffres attack the Colonists and their allies near Fort Hare ; driven back with the loss of 100 killed, Jan. . Col. Somer- set captures and burns Fort Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed, 230 taken prisoners, Feb. 2:i. The Hottentots of the Theopolis Mission Station in Lower Albany, join in the insurrection, May 31. They are defeated in actions with the English troops on the 3d and 5th of June. The Russell Ministry re- sign, Feb. 22; but after- wards resume office, the Earl of Derby not having succeeded in forming a Cabinet. The Prohibited Affinity Marriasre Bill lost in the House 'of Lords, Fob. 2.-'.; Lord Campbell and the E(!- clesiastlcal Bench vcting against it. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 159* Fkance. 1S51 Ministry lesign, Jan.. 3. Presidential Dotation Bill, proposing an additional grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the Assembly, Feb. 18. Austria, etc. The Sub-Committee of the Assembly appointed by the Committee of Revision to authenticate petitions, re- ports, that up to July 1, the petitions had been signed by 1,123,165 persons, thus classified : For revision. 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers, 370,511 ; for prolongation of powers, 12,lU3— July 5. Tbe question of revision of the Constitution again ta- ken in the Assembly, when a minority was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required bv the Constitu- tion, July 19. The "Woeld, elsewhere. 1S51. Denmark: — The Government of Schleswig-Iiolstein yields to the Com missioners of the Germanic Confedera tion. Jan. 10. The Austrians complete their mill- tary possession of Hamburg. Jan. 31, and the new government issues its pro- clamation, declaring its resumption ol the seignorial rule of the King of Den- mark, Feb. 2. Danish mining operations in Green- land produce large quantities of copper ore, yielding about 60 per cent. The Austrian Government and'the Ottoman Forte come to the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17. Charles L. Brace, an Am- erican, arrested and imprisoned in Hungary, on a charge of "being a mem- ber of the de- mocratic com- mittee, an agent of Uj- hazy and Cretz, and of travel- ing with revo lutionary writ- ings, to spread revolutionary movements," May 23. Inauguration of Rauch's CO lossal statue of Frederick the Great at Ber lin, May 31. The Ger- manic Diet, in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest against annexing'the non-Germanic provinces of Austria to the Germanic Fe- deration, says, "That no fo- reign interfe- rence should be allowed in a purely German question."July 17. Australia: — Discovery of large gold fields near Bathurst, Feb. East Indies : — Fort of the celebrated pirate Sultan of Soloo destroyed b}^ the Spanish Government of Manilla, Feb. Hawaii : — The difficulties betwefti\ the Hawaiian and French Governments are arranged according to the terms of a "mutual declaration," publi.'^hed at Ho- nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign relations and M. Perrin, the French commissioner. March 25. New Granada: — Congress adjourns. It passed a law abolishing slavery in the repiiblic, to take effect January 1, 1852. May 29. Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel fi, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 miles S. E. of Naples, and other towns in its vicinitJ^ Seven shocks occiirred within 24 hours. Melfi was separated by a ravine from Mount Yolture, ui)on which are many extinct craters. Nut less than 3,000 persons are said to have perished. July 14. Ecuador :— Gen. Diego Novoa, Piesi- dent of the Republic, seized and put on board a government vessel by Gen. TJrblna, who assumes the admin.'stra tion of the Government. July 17. 160* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. \ Period JfZ— 50 yeuiS-- 1851 Progress of Society, etc. The lord mayor of London, with several of the alder- men and common council men, the royal commission ers of the Exposition of In- dustry, etc., and tlie execu- tive committee of the royal conmiissioners, leave Eng- land for France, by invita- tion of tlie prefect of the Seine. Thoy are entertained with dinners, balls, sham figlits, and reviews of troops -Aug. 1. The inauguration of the rail- way between St Peters- burg and Moscow, in Kus- sia, takes place Sept. 1. United States. 1S51. " Vigilance committee " at San Francisco hang j man for stealing, June 10, and another, July 11. Gov. McDougal of Cali- fornia issues his proclama- tion, warning the citizens of the State against " vigi- lance committees," and calls upon all persons to aid in sustaining the law, July 21. ' Nicaragua route, be- tween New York and San Francisco, opened, Aus. 12. The people of Litclifield county, Connecticut, cele brate the 2i)0tl) anniversary of its settlement, Aug. 13 and 14. Great riot in New Or- leans, growing out of the Cuban expedition. Houses of Spanish residents at- tacked. The Spanish con- sul is obliged to ask protec- tion, and is placed in the city prison for safety, Aug. Riot, with loss of life, at Christiana, Pa., upon an at- tempt to arrest a fugitive slave, Sept. 11. U. S. brig Dolphin sails on an expedition to run a line of soundings for tele- grapliic purposes across the Atlantic, Oct. Cotton-planters' conven- tion (300 members) meets at Macon, Ga. Its object being to prevent fluctua' tions in the price of cotton. Little harmony of views or concord of action oianifest ed. Oct TJ. S. steam frisate Mis- sissippi sent to Turkey for Kossuth, receives him on board in the Dardanelles. The French government re- fuses to allow Kossuth to pass through France, Tlie Mississippi proceeds on her voyage with Kossuth's com- panions, reaching New York Nov. 10. Kossuth arrives at Now York in December. Ova- tions are offered him in the principal cities of the Union. He has an interview with the President, Sept. to Dec. Great Buitain. 1851. " The great aggregate meeting" of Roman Catho- lics, from all ](arts of the United Kingdom, for the inauguration of the Catho- lic defense association, is held at Dublin, Aug. 19. The American yacht "America," at the re'gatta at Cowes, wins " The cup oi all nations," Aug. 22. Kossuth arrives by Eng lish steamer from Gibraltar, at Southampton, Eng. Ova- tions are offered him in va. rious parts of the country He leaves for the United States, Nov. The submarine tele- grapli between Dover and Calais completed, Oct. 17. Opened for public use Nov, 13. A fourth presidency contemplated for Britisli India, and a proposal made to remove the seat of go- vernment from Calcutta to Lahore, Nov. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IQV Feanoe. 1851 Revolution: L. N.BoTiaparte by a coup d'etat seizes the reins of government; dis- solves the national assem- bly; declares a state of siege ; arrests the principal red-republicans and social- ists; constitutes an entire new ministry. The Presi- dent orders an instant restoration of universal suf- frage; an immediate elec- tion by people and army of a President to hold office for ten years, to be sup- ported by a Council of State and two houses of Legisla- ture. The revolution" cre- ates an intense excitement. The vote of the army shows a large majority for L. N. Bonaparte. Resistance to the usurpation is shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the army, and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, cnishes all opposition. The election, under various con- trolling influences, results in the confirmation of L. N. Bonaparte as President for ten years, by a vote of about seven out of eight millions. Doc 1-20. Austria, etc. 1851. Marshal Ea- detzky, by pro- clamation from Monga declare; the Lombardo Yenetian king- dom to be in a state of siegi July 19. JBy cabinet letters.the Em peror ofAnstria declares that his ministers "are responsi- ble to no other political au- thority than the tlirone," that "the Reichstadtisto be considered as the council of the throne," and the minis- ter president is to take " into ripe and seri- ous considera- tion the possi- bility of carry- ing out the Constitution of March 4, 1849." Aug. 20. Louis Kos- sutli and 35 of his country- men sentenced to death in contuonaciam, at Pesth, for not appearing after citation, Sept. 22. The ques- tion of the ad- mission of Jews to judi- cial office in Prussia, brought to a partial termi- nation by their permission to study law. Oct. The Woeld, elsewhere. 1S51. Eus&ia: — Her troops repeatedly co feated by the Circassians. June. Nicaragua :— Gen. Munoz, ex-minis- ter of war, deposes President Pineda, and sends him and most of his cabinet prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects Albaunaz President. The Senate assem- bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro President. Aug. 4. West Indies : — Volcanic eruptions from eight craters in the mountains of Martinique, Aug. 5. Cuba :— Expedition against Cuba un- der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 10th ; effects a landing at Cubanos, 11 th ; is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, 29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His followers shot or condemned to ten years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- brated with great pomp at the Cathedral in Havana. $70,000 are subscribed by the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene- fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9. Mexico: — General Mariana Arista inaugurated President, Jan. 15 ; Canales, Carvajal, and others, issue pronuncia- mentos against the general govern- ment. Some fighting follows, with varied success, Sept. — Oct. — ^Nov. Greece :— Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government produces a great sensation at Athens. Nov. Chili :— Earthquake at Valparaiso— the most violent since that of IS'22, few lives lost, but great destruction of pro- perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago, suppressed after two hours' street- fight* ins, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de* feated bv Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. 8L 162* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — 50 yean. k. D. PfiOGSE3s OF SooiETv, etc. 1851 1852 The town of Lagos, on the coast of Africa, destroyed by an Enfclish force, with a loss of tlifrty killed, and 09 wounded, because the na- tive chief refused to sign a treaty for the effectual sup- pression of the slave trade in his dominions. The chief is deposed, and another sub- stituted in his place, Dec. 26-27. Deaths in 1S51. U. S. EUKOPE. J. J. Audu- bon, S. Olm, J. F. Oooper, T. H. Gallau- det, S. G. Morton. J. Pye Smith, Bexley, JoannaBaillie, Codrington, Shell, Lingard, Da-iiiene, Sou It, Oersted, Jacobi. Immigration into California, U. b., from Asia is so large as to require special Legis- lation— April. Extensive fires in the Antilles, March 2; California, U. S., June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly destroying two citie-s;) Canada, (at MontrcaJ) July United States. 1851. Principal room of the library of Congress destroy- ed by fire, together with paintings, statuary, models, and about 35,000 volumes of books, Dec 24. By joint resolution, the Governor of Georgia is authorised and requested to withdraw the block of mar- ble contributed to the Wash- ington monument by the resolution of the General Assembly of Febr'y, 1850, with the inscription, "Tiie Constitution as it is; the Union as it was," and to cause another to be pro- pared of Georgia marble, with the State arms thereon, and to be sent to the monu- ment, Dec. 31. Immigration, June 1, 1850, to" Dec. 31, 1851, 558,000. 1852. Deputations from the various States, in behalf of the Irish exiles, wait upon President Filmore — Jan. 23. The Ohio State House entirely consumed by fire. Some of the papers saved, but a large mass of docu- ments destroyed — Feb. 1. Sefior Laborde, the Spanish Consul at New Orleans at the time of the Cuban riots, and v/ho fled the city from fear of vio- lence, arrives at New Or- leans, is saluted, and re- sumes his duties as consul — Feb. 9. Gold Medal piesented to Henry Clay by citizens of New York. Feb. 10. Memorial presented to House of Representatives of California, from 1,218 cit- izens of South Carolina and Florida, asking permission "to colonize a rural di'^trict with a population of not less than 2,o00 slaves." Feb, 10. Homoeopathic College at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed and interior destroyed, in consequence of remains of subjects, taken from tlie burial-g'"ound, being dis- covered near the College. Feb. 16. Geeat Britain. 1852. Lord Granville, by hla note to the American mi- nister, in relation to the firing into the A./ierican steamer Prometheus by the British man-of-war Ex- press, states to Mr. Law- rence, for the information of his government, that her majesty's government entirely disavow the act, and has no hesitation in otfering ample apology for that which they consider to have been an infraction of treaty engagements. Jan. 10. Dr. Rae returns nnsnc- oessful from his search for Sir John Franklin, down the McKenzie river, and from its mouth eastward, 500 miles. He was sent out in the sprinjr of 1851 by t e Hudson's Bay Compsi.:/. Feb. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 163* 1851 1852 Fkanob. President Bonaparte orders the confiscation of the Or leans property, Jan. 22. AusTEiA, etc. 1852. The Empe- ror of Eussia visits the Em- peror of Aus- tria at Vienna, May 8. The Woblb, elsewhere. 1851. China -.—Imperial court seriously alarmed at the progress of the disturb- ance in the Southern provinces. June. A large portion of tlie Chinese part oi Hong Kong destroyed by fire : from 470 to 500 houses destroyed, including all the printing offices and the finest edi- fices and public buildings. Many lives lost. Dec. 26-28. 1852. Argentine Confederation :— General Urquiza, Commander of the liberating army, completes the passage of the Parana with 2S,00i) men, 50,000 horse, and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza wnth 30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops of Eosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- sults in tlie total defeat of Eosas and his flight to England. During the night, the city is saved from pillage by detach- ments from the various ships of war of all nations in the linrbor, Feb. 3. The allied arm v enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. —Urquiza, Director of the Argentine Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. — The Chamber of Eepresentatives of Buenos Ayres declares the river Parana open to the navigation of all na- tions, Oct. 13. Belgium:— Formation of a new mi- nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party under M. de Brouckcre, Nov. 1. The law against the liberty of the press is adopted in the Chamber of Eepresenta- tives, Dec. 1. Cuba :— The police of Havana disco- ver and capture the press of the paper, '• The Voice of the People," with the materials and forms for the fourth num- ber. The proprietors and employes are arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, having cleared at Havana, is brouglit to and boarded at the month of the harbor, and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few days after, the United States mail steam- ship Crescent City is refuseed, Jan. 2, Queen Isabella, in commemo- ration of her birth-day, orders three screw-frigates to be constructed, to be called after the three queens from whom she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. Switzerland :— Insurrection in Fri- burg by the Jesuit pai-ty speedily sup- pressed, April 22. Venezuela : — Earthquake at Cumaoa; 600 persons killed, July 15. no* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — 50 years. 1854 Peogeess of SociETr, etc Deputation of " Friends" pre seiits to the Emjieror of Russia a peace memorial, Feb. 10. Complete eqnr.litj before the law secured to all subjects of the Porte, without dis- tinction of creed, by treaty, March 12. Commercial treaty concluded between the United States and Japan, March 23. In Turkey, the possessions of the Mosques to be declared the pri)(>orty of the State from March 27. The first railway Is opened in Brazil, the Emperor and Empress being present at the inauguration, April 30. The changes introduced in the Ottoman Empire by the in- fluence of the Allied Pow- ers, amount to a revolution in its social condition. Marked increase in the num- bers and prosperity of Christians in Turkey ; Mo- hammedan population, ex- cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- ing out. Cross raised In a Catholic burying ground belonging to the French, in Turkey. United States. 1S54. The steamer San Fran- cisco founders at sea; 24U U. S. trooi)S washed over- board ; the rest of 700 res- cued by the Three Bells, Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan. 5. Astor Library opened for use of the public, in New York city, Jan. 9. Outrages on the railroad near Erie, Pa., renewed by mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 Skirmishes between U. S. troops and Apache and Utah Indians, March 5, 30. Certain sections of the "Maine Liquor Law" deci- ded to be unconstitutional iu Massachusetts, March 13. Miss Dix's bill for ame- liorating the condition of the indigent insane, vetoed April 20. Great flood in the Con- necticut river, hundreds driven from their dwel- lings. May 1. Mass meetings at Bos- ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, N. XL, Feb. 27; New York, May 13, against the Ne- braska bill", which, how- ever, becomes a law, May Riots in Michigan, April 17; at Boston, (attempt to rescue a fugitive slave,) May 26 ; at New York and Brooklyn, (papist interfe- rence with street-preach- ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. San Juan, Nicaragua, bombarded and burnt by the U. S. sloop-of-war, Cy- •nd, July 18. Great Britain. 1854. Parliament opened by Queen, who expresses a de- sire that exertions for an amicable settlement of tlie Eastern ditlicultics should be persevered in, Jan. 31. The Queen reviews tb« fleet on its departure for the Baltic, March 11. A day of hnmillatioa and prayer observed, April 26. Launch of the "Royal Albert," the Queen cl.rl»- tening the vessel, May 18. Crystal Palace at 8s denham opened by u Queen, June 10. 1816-1865.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. i7r The Emperor and Empress attend the first agricultural exhibition ever held in Pa- ris, June 9. The Emperor reviews a dl- vision of troops about to proceed to the Baltic, July AirsTBiA, etc. 1854. Alliance, ofifensive and defensive, be- tween Austria and Prussia, signed April 20. The Wokld, else\\'liere. 1854. Brazil :— San Salvador destroyed by an earthquake, causing a los.<, in less than one minute, of 200 lives, and $4,000,000 of property, April IG. Canada:— Parliament House at Que- bec burnt, including government library and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. India:— The Ganges Canal, a work of vast magnitude opened, April 8. — Day of humiliation and prayer for success of the British arms, observed at Bombay and all over India, by the na- tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the country between Florence and Eome, May. — Eailway from Lusa to Turin inau- gurated in presence of King and Queen of Sardinia, etc.. May 22. Mexico :— Battle of Guyamas, be tween some Frenchmen under Count Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, July 13. The Count is defeated, taken prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. Eussia : — An imperial ukase calls out nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por- tion of the Empire, May 9. Spain :— Earthquake at Fiana, crum- bling down the greatest part of the Al- cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, and causing large chasms in nearly all the streets,"jan. 13. — Strike at Barcelona; 15.000 arti- zans demand of the municipal authorities that the price of provisions be reduced, and wages increased, March 31. — T!:e insurrection of the people at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the Eivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- tero enters the city, and is received with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,00fl defenders of the barricades defile before the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- ing herself on the balcony, July 31. — Doiia Maria Christina, the Queen Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- der escort of troops, but against the will of the people. She was indebted to the State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople, 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. — Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- ings, April 8. —Banquet given by the Sultan to Prince Napoleon, May 8. —Fire at Varna, destroys 180 houses j and vast quantities of military stores, Aug. 10. 172* THE world's progress. [Peiiod XI. — 50 year*.— Pkoqress of Society, etc. United States. Gbkat Bbitaih. 1854 The Sultan issues a finnan for the construction of a church at Scutari, Sept. DeatJis in 1S54. U.S. W. B. Blunt, Jacob Bur- nett, John Davis, Com. Downes, J. Barring- ton, last sur- vivor of bat- tle of Lex- ington. Mrs. E. Jud- son. Bishop Wain* Wright, 1865 EUEOPK. Anglesea, Bodisco, Cockburn, Forbes, Jameson, Maitland, Melloni, Montgomery, Paixhans, Pellico, Plunkett, Rubini, Schelling, Mme. Sontag. Mrs. C. South- Talfourd, Wilson, St. Arnaud, Denman, Lockhart. '■Immaculate Conception of the Virgin" proclaimed as a dogma by the pope, Dec. 8. 1855. Panama railroad com- pleted, first train on it Jan. Financial «anic in California, Feb. Sur^pcnsion Bridge at Niaga- ra first crossed, March 14. Difficulty In Phila. about slaves of J. H. Wheeler of N. Carolina, July 18. Election riot at Louisville, Ky., between Americans and foreigners, Aug. 6. Passmore Williamson re leased from jail (where he had been thrt-e months in the Wheeler slave caw), Nov. a 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two most renowned lyric ar- tists of tlie old world, arrive at New York, Aug. 19. Extensive drought pre- vails several weeks. Cholera prevails, June- Nov. ; yellow fever prevails. Aug.-Nov. Immigration, about 500,000. "Ostend Conference'* be tween Buchanan, Mason, Soul6, Oct 10, 11. 1855. Southern Commercial Convention at New Orleans, Jan. 8. Bonis qnits Madrid Jan. 81. U. S. S. Waterwitch fired on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1 U. S. Dist. Court in Wis- consin pronounces the Fu gitive Slave Law unconsti- tutional, Feb. 3. Convention at Lawrence, Kansas, Aug. 14. Walker (filibuster) takes possession of Granada, Oct. 16. Law passed for the en- listment of foreigners in the British service, Dea 22. 1855. Yisit of the Emperor and Empress of France, April 16. Death of Lord Eaglan, Commander-in-chief at Se- bastopol, June 28. The Queen and Prince Albert visit the Emperor Louis Napoleon at Paris, Aug. 18. Kansas : Convention Topeka, Oct 23. St 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. i73« The "Woeld, elsewhere. 1854. Venezuela : — Slaves April 25. emancipated, 1856. Subscriptions to the French loan of 500 nnillions of francs amount to 2,000 millions of francs, offered by 171,000 persons. Death of Don Carlos, claimant of the Spanish throne, March 10. Indust'l Exhibitloa open- ed at Paris, May 15. 1854. Saxony :- The King thrown from his carriage at Innspruck, and killed, Aug. 10. Eastern Afpaies.— The Anglo-French fleet enters the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate, Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue tlirougli the Vi- enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors "quit Lon> don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and France resolve to summon Russia to evacuate the Prin- cipalities by the 80t.h April, Feb. 28. Russians cross the Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses a reply. England and France declare war against Russia, March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against England and France, April 12. Convention between England and France, April IS. Odessa bombarded, April 22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and 13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Alma, Sept. 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire opened, Oct. 17. Battle^of Balaklava, Russians repulsed, Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again rtpulsed, Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. — ^The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of Azoph, May 24. — The allies repulsed In on assault on the outposts of Sebastopol, June 18. — Kars invested by the Russians, June 23. FALL OF SEBASTOPOL— The Malakhoff carried by the French, Sep. 8. Terrific attack of the Rus- Biana on Kax-s repulsed, Sep. 20. Mexico : Santa Anna abdicates. Aug. 9. Cai-- rara chosen to succeed him. 174* THE WOELd's PEOGKESS. [Period XL— 50 years.-^ Peogress of Society, etc. United States. Great Beitaht. i<^5 Deaths in 1855 : U. S. Europe. S. H. Cone, Sir H. Bishop Abbott Law- Silk Bucking' ence, ham, J jhu C Spen- Jos. Hume, cer, Miss Mitford, T. K. Beck. Nicholas I. "Currer Bell.' SirW.KPar- IT- Lord Eaglan, Saml. Kogers. Ans. Eoths- child, Lord Truro. Launch of the stm. Adriatic Uhe largest yet afloat) at N. Y., April 7. 1855. Proclamation against filibus- teriam by President Pierce, Dec. 8. British Arctic ressel Eesolute found and brought to New London by an American whaler, Dec. 23. IS56 Personal Assault on Senator Sumner of Mass., in the U. S. Senate by Brooks of S. Ca., May 22. Submarine Telegraph cable laid from Cape Breton to Newfoundland, July 12. Burlinghame's acceptance of Brooks's challenge, July Brooks and Keitt re-elected to Congress from S. C, July 28. Dudley Observatory inaug. at Albany. Aug. 28. Preston S. Brook.s, the as- saulter of Sumner, publicly welcomed and presented with a cane, at Columbia, S. C, Aug. 29. Charles Sumner received in Boston with public hon- ors. Nov. 3. N. Y. and Weicfoundland Telegraph lin», 1715 miles, opened to St. John's, Nov. 10. 1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- ed Speaker of House of Kepresent of U. S., after a contest of 9 weeks, by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon sin, Jan.— Feb. Mr. Fillmore nominated for Preset by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 2S Free State Legisl. at Topcka, Kansas, elect Kecder and Lane as delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. Kansas Investigation Committee appointed, March 19. Padre Yigil recognised as Minist. from Nicaragua, May 14. President's message announcing difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist ments in the U. S., May 29. Buchanan nominated for Pres't by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. Fremont nominated for Pres't by Eepub. Conven. a"; Phila., June 17. H. Kepres. U. S. pass a bill ad- mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., July 3. Topeka legislature dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. J ohn "W. Geary confirmed as Gov. of Kansas, July 81. Whitefield and Eeeder both re- jected by H. Eepres. as delegates from Kansas, Aug. 1. Extra session of Congress ad- journed Aus. 30. Municipaf clectiot. riot at Balti more, 9 k., Oct 8. U. S. troops in Kajsas arrest and disarm parties of emigrants from N, E.. Oct. 10. Buchanan elected Pres. No'*'. 4 1S55. Visit of the King of Sardinia to England, Nov. 30. Captain McClure receives the re- ward of £5,000 for discovery of " the If. W. passage,'" and is knighted Nov Brit, fleet bom- bard and partially destroy Canton, China, Oct. 28. 1815-1865.] THE WOELD'S PKOGRESS. 175 = 1855 Fkance. 1856 Europe, elsewhere. 1855. Omar Paslia defeats the Russians at the Ingour. Nov. 5. Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder at Sebastopol, Nov. 15. SuiTender of Kars to the Eussians after a famous de fence by Gen. Williams, Nov. 25. The World, elsewhere. Peace Conference at Paris opened Feb. 25. Birth of an heir to the throne, March 16. Treaty of Peace with Uttssia signed at Paris, March S" Destructive floods near Ly- ons, &c., whole villages de- stroyed, June. 1856. Preliminaries of Peace signed at Vienna, Feb. 1. 1S55. Jfecdco : — Alvarez rc« signs the presidency, and ifl succeeded by Comonfort Dec. The Crimea wholly eva cuated by the Allies' July 12. Eussia : — Alexander II, crowned emperor, Sept. 7. — Railways of 2600 miles contracted for by Government. Capital, lOUO millions of francs, Oct. 28, ITaplee : — French and Engli.oor in London- First block opened. April 3. Garibaldi's visit to England. ]May 16. (convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portu- gal, and Spam, fci- telegraph to America ' June — Oct. — Cattl is March 2. Grant succeeds Halleck as Com mander-in-Chief. May 5-6. Battle of the Wilderness. May 11-12. Battle of Spotisyiva.nia. June 15, Grant befor Pet^r^' rgh. June 19. Kearsage sinks tie Alabama. July 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a Rabel raid. July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta, Ga. July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re- bels. plague in England. July 30. Grant's mine at Pet^jrsturgh, Va., j _ exploded. , July liO. Secretary Chase resigns— Fesscnden Aug.— Abd-el-Kader'£| Secrstary of the Treasury, visit to England. ^ ug. S. Farragut's victory in Mobile Bay. Septv -McGlsliaa nominated tor President. by ijemooratic Convention at (.'hicago. F pt. 2. Atlayta captured by Sherman. e -pt. 19. Shendau's vict'ry at Winchester. W. J. Fox, T. C. Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory Grattan, Nathaniel by L^heiidan. O-.-t. 21. Rebel raid at St. Albans, Vt. N V. 8. I/incoln re-elected President— Mc- Clelioa resigns his command in army. Nov. 30, Thomas repulses Hood at Nash- ville. D«?. '5-16. And again totally defeats him Deaths in 1 864 : Frank Bache,Josh'a Bates. Hawthorne, Edw. Hitchcock, Leonard Horner, Archbishop Hughes, Jasmin (poet),C.M.Kirkland, W. Savaire Land 1865 John Leech, J. 11.. chrro. Macculloch, Meyer- Dc«. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and beer, W. Curtis' Dec 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman, Noyes, Pellisier, Jo-i Dec. 24-5. Butler and Porter repulsed at siah Quincy, Edw. WiUnington. Robinson, H, R.|l8G.i. Schoolcraft, R. B. Feb. 1. C-ngress abolishes slavery cy -n amendment to the Constitution. Feb. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview with lM;beLs at Fort Monroe. Feb. \h. Lee takes command Rebel armies, and ui-gL? arming of negroes. Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Rchofield. Feb. 22. CharlestoL- •_ vaciiatcd by Rebels. April 1. New and higher tarilf comes in force. April 2. Richmond and Petersburgh occupied by U. S. forces, after three days' lighting. April 6. Grant's victory at Farm\-ille. April 9. SuKRENDEB OF Lee with his whole army, April 12. Mobile taken. April 14. Fort Sumter occupied. April 14. Assassination of President Lin- coln and attack on Seward, April 15. Andrew Johnson sworn in as President. April 18. Sherman's convention with John- ston. April 25. Johnston's surrender. April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot. May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. May 10, Jeff. Davis Ciiptured. May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas. April 24. European conference at Lon- don on Schleswig- Holstein question. July 10, Palmers ton sustained in the general electir c. Aug. 15, English fleet visits Cher- bourg, Aug. 30. French fleet visits Portsmouth. Oct. 18. Death cf Lord Palmerston. Taney, J. G. Totten. Slavery Abolished in the U. States. Feb. 22. Rebel Con- gress decrees the armiug of slaves. April 2. Death of Rich- ard Cobden. Deaths in 1865 : Bishop Brownell, Adm. Du- pont, Val. Mott, Edw. Everett, Mrs. Gaskell, Sir W. J. Hooker, Kiss (sculpt.), Leopold L, Ab. Lincoln, Dr. Lindley, END OF THE REBELLION. March— Fenian out- breaks in Ireland. May 6. Reform League meeting in Hyde Park in defiance of Go- vernment. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S mOGEESS. 191* 1864 May 22. Death of Marshal Pellisier. May 20. Convention between France and. Japan signed. Europe, elsewhere. 1864. March 10. Louis II., King of Bavaria. April 18. Duppel taken hy Prussians. June 1. Ionian Isles made over to Greece. July 8. Prussians take Al- Sept.15. Franco-Italian Con- vention signed — French troops to quit Home in two years. Florence made the capital of Italy— Eiots at Turin in consequence, Sept. 21- 22. Oct. 30. Peace between Den- mark and the Allies, to whom Schleswig and Hol- stein are surrendered, Prussia retaining posses sion of them. "World, elsewhere. July 18. China : Nankin taken (" a heap of ruins ") by Gor- don for the Imperialists. March 31. Valparaiso bom- barded by Spanish fleet. Famine in Bengal and Madras. 1865. May 7. Hayti: Military in- surrection against Gelirard. 102' THE world's PROGBKSS. 18-0 Progress of Society. Aug.— Treaty of Com- merce between Italy and Japan. Sept.— Several South- ern States pass ordi- nances annulling Se- cession, abolishing slavery, &c. Rinder-pest or cattle plague in England July, 1865, to Feb., 1866. Cholera prevails in Fi-ance, Spain, and Naples. Jan. 27. Death of Gib- son, Eng. sculptor. July 28. Atlantic Telegr.^ph success fully completed cable landed at New foundland and re- portsPEACE between Prussia and Austria, Deaths in 1866 : Mar- quis D ' A z e g 1 i o Jared Sparks, Wm AVheweU. United States. May 22. Proclamation opening Southern ports and exceptional amnesty. June 1. National Fast. 1867. April 1. Opening of the Great Exposition of Industry of all nations at Paris. .luly 1. Awards of the juries in the Great Exposition. July--lSODth amiver- s iry of St. Peter's martyrdom cele- brated at Rome. Great Britain. British and French Governments re- scind their recog- nition of American "Confederates." October 18. Deatli of Lord Palmers ton. Oct. — Movements of Fenians at Now York, Phila., &c. October 7. Biots m Jamaica ; Gordon, a Baptist minis- ter, hanged by Governor Eyre aa a rioter. November 27. Trial of Fenians at Dub- lin. 1866. Jan. 6. Gov. Eyre in Jamaica super- seded by Stox'ks ; hot discussions in England as to his conduct in the riot. June 29. Trial of assassins ended. July 7. They are hung. July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of allegiance. July 31. U. S. debt $2,757,253,000. August— Bebel privateer Shenandoah de- stroyed about thirty vessels. Nov. 2. National thanksgiving. Nov. 9. Shenandoah at Liverpool — crew re- leased. Nov. 10. Wirz executed for cruelty to U. S. prisoners. 1866. May 3. Colorado bill vetoed. May 29. Death of Winfield Scott. June— Besignation of Speed, Att. Gen. : Dennison, P. M. Gen. : and Harlan, Sec Int. July 28. Congress adjourns, having passed Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill Civil Bights bill ; Paciiic Bail way (supp.) bill; Army bill, and other important measures. July— Grant appointed General-in-Chief; Sherman, Lieut. -General ; Farragut, Ad - miral ; Porter, Vice- Admiral. Aug. 14. " National Union Convention" at Philadelphia. Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at Philadelphia. Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument laid at Chicago by President Johnson. Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- diana, and Iowa result in increased He- publican majorities. Nov. — Republicans also victorious in Mass., N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada, and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the Demo- crats are successful. Dec. 13. Suffi-age given to colored men in Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress. 1867. Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union as a State. March 2. " Tenure of Oflace " bill passed. March 2. Military government for tfie South- hill passed over the President's veto by 135 to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the May 9. Conference Senate. at London on the March 4. 40Wi Congress meets. question of Ltix- March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military emburg. Ti eaty Government of the South, passed over signed making the President's veto— Senate, 40 to 7 ; House, Duchy neutral 114 to 25. territory — fortie.s3 Southern States divided into five military to be razed , districts, under Gen. xSchofield, at Richmond ; Sickles, at I'olumbia, &c. ; Pope, at Montgomery; Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New July— The Viceroy Orlecins j of Egvpt and the April 10. Treaty for purchase of Russian! Sultan of Tmkey America approved by the Senate. i visit London 1?65-1867.] THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 193* Sept. 7. Death of Lamori- ciere. January— Railway between Boulogne and Calais opened. Jan. 19. Emperor decrees greater freedom of discus- sion in Legislature andth.e Press. Jan. 15. Death, of D'Azeglio, the patriot. June 18. Prussia and Italy declare Wak against AUSTRIA. June 24. Italians defeated at Cus' tozza. June 27-29. Austrians defeated by Prussians in three battles won by needle guns. July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA , 250,000 on each side. Prussians victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000 IL and W., and 100 guns. Austria cedes Venetia to France, July 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians at Kissengen. July 14. Prussians occupy Frank- fort. July 18. Italian fleet defeated of Lizza. July 26. Prelimtaary treaty of peace Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse Nassau and Frankfort. October 3. Treaty of Peace between Austria and Italy, signed at Vienna. Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be part of Kingdom of Italy. Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuel's public entry into Venice. Feb. 18. Hungarian Constitution restored by Austrian Emperor. Feb. 24. First parliament of the German Confederation opened by K. ofPrussia. War in Crete continued with various fortunes. April 4. New ministry in Italy. April 1. Great Exposition opened by the Emperor. Waleswski resigns as Pres. of Corps Leg is. May. 18. Emperor signs Luxemburg treaty. June 6. Attempt on hfe of the Czar, while riding with the Em- peror, in Paris. The Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of "Wales, and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in June and July. Sept. 18. Brazil : ITru- guayano surrenders to the allies. Sept.— Greeks in Crete rise in revolt against; the Turks. Oct. 7. Jamaica riots. 1867. Feb. 5. Mexico: The City of Mexico evacuated by the French troops. May 15. Mexico: Maximihan and his generals captured at Queretaro. Egj^pt declared by the Siiltan to be a se- parate sovereignty after June 11, liiGJ. July 1. Execution of Maximilian in Mexico. July 1. Cuba: Decree of the Queen of Spain freeing all children of slave parents born after this date. 194* THE world's progress. ,867 Pkogbess of Societt Jtdy— England visited by the Sultan : first time in history. Reform in England. Deaths in 1867 : Vict. Cousin, Charles Anthon. United Ssat^^s. May 13. Jeflf. Davis released on bail. July 1. Congress meets in extra special ses- sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a bill to confirm and strength' n the Mili- tary Government bill passed in March. Bbitish Empike. July 15. Passage ol New Re F 6 TIM Bill, nominally D'Israeli's, r.elly Gladstone's ? '865-1867.] THE world's 'PBOGRESS. 195* Fbancjg. ExJEOPE, elsewhere. 2S67 July— Great excitement in Europe respecting the death of Maxi- mihan m Mexico. r o v. ^oj^ J-iJy 1 The Emperor dis-j Russian America sold to the U tributes msdals of honorj States. at the Great Exposition. WoELD, elsewhere. July 1. Great assem- blage of Prelates of E. C. Church at Borne. BIOGRAPHICAL IK'DEX TO UNIVERSAL HISTORY. N". B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in their several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists are given in their proper place. This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World's Progress ; " and Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. o. The tables on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. Milton was bom a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moli^re, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles IL was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may bo found at a glance, on referring to the tables. Abbkeviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian) includes several different nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates hefore Christ are indicated by b. c, all others are A. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left blank. NATION. NAME AND PBOFESBIOK. Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest , . . Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician . . Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer » . Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . , Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey , , , Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer , , , Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels • Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician . « , BOEN. DIED. . f. 1188 B. c. 1570 1453 . f. 622 1813 1854 1562 1623 1763 1849 1803 1805 1806 1866 1822 1810 1856 . 1804 184a 1802 BORN. DIED 1119 1174 1784 1860 1781 1844 1738 1801 1764 1831 1606 1664 t. C. 1995 B. C. 1821 1784 1838 1128 1203 561 S24 1273 1345 . 0. 171 2 THE WOELD'S PEOGKESS, KiiTION. NAME AND PBOFBSSION, Sp. Abenezra, an aatronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . , Scot. Abercrombie, Jobn, author of IntellectualPowers' . Eng. Abeicromby, Sir Kalph, military commander . , Eng. Abemethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer Fr. Ablaccourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . • Fr. About, Edmoiid, novelist, traveller, «&c. . , Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation • Er. Abrantes, duchess d\ biographer Dan. Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. Axa. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet Syr. Abulfuda, the geographer .... Horn. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) . Ital. Accureius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . , 1229 Qer. Accum, Bred., operative chemist (in England) . . , 1769 1838 Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog, in London 1764 1834 Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. c. 1100 Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author Ital. Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, siatesman and historian Eng. Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author , Eng. Adam; xiobert, an architectural author , . , Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. • ^mer. ^^ John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. ^jjj^er. , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic Eng. Add'son, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature Ger. Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer , Eng. Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &c. . , Ire. Adrain, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &c.) Rom. Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) Eng. jElfric, archbishop of Canterbury, author of Anglo-Saxon works Gr. ^lian, the historian and rhetorician . Gr. ^neas, son of Priam, king of Troy , Gr. .^schines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates Gr. ■ > orator , , , Gr. JEsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . Rom. -^tius, military commander (defeated Attila) Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian . . , ■ Sp.Moor — , Leo, author of ti-avels in Africa , Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" . , Gr. Agathius, historian and poet , , , Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist . , , Gr. Agesilaus XL, king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne Gr. Agis rV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . , Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible , Bom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Aiitinomians Rom. Agrlppa, military conunander, governor of Judea Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c, , , E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist . . , Pera. Abasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerzes Long.) . 3d cent. . 1803 1220 1282 1741 1809 1728 1794 , 1736 1826 1767 1848 . 1726 iS08 1672 1719 1732 1808 1766 1845 1775 843 76 138 •ks 10C5 160 f. B. 0. Ile3 B. 0. 393 B. 0. 323 f. B. 0. 600 . 454 232 . 1487 152e B, c. 904 . t 565 1807 reeks) b. , 0. 361 771 839 • B. 0. 251 1610 40 93 1490 1566 40 94 1486 1535 . 1816 1847 t B. c. 456 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. Eng. Eng. Fr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Tartar. Eng. Swe. Bar. Span. Eng. Ger. Ital. Ger. Bar. itaL Port. Gr. Ital. Gr. Gr. Amer. Amer. j£ng. Amer. Eng. Fr. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Bom. Bar. Bus. Hus. Sua. Ur. Ital. Eng. Ital. Bar. Bar. Scot. Scot Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer Bar. KAUE AND PBOFESSION. AikiB, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, dec. , Lucy, biographer and historian , , Aime-Martin, Louis, writer on education , Ainsworth, Bobert, grammarian and lexicographer • • , Wm. Francis, traveller, geologist, &0. • — — , Wm. Harrison, novelist , « Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal . , • 'r^^ Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign • « Akenside, Mark, a popular poet . . • Akenblad, philologist . , , , Alaric I., king of the Visigoths . , , Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman . , Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England • Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, «&c. , Albertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinaa Alboin, the Lombard conq[ueror . . , Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer , , Albuquerque (the great) military commander • Alcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . , , Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist • , "Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. * Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony • Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . , Aldus, see Manutius .... Alembert, John Le Bond d', math., hist., and philosopher Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling . , Archibald, theologian and author , , J. Addison, theologian and commentator , James W., theologian , . , ■ , Severus, emperor the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, ^ I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) , II., (became emperor 1855) , , Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . , , Alfred, justly called the Great, king , Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . « All Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks Ali Tepelini, pasha of Jannina . , , Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste ' , Archibald, sir, « History of Europe,' ' Essays » Allen, Ethan, an intrepid oflicer in the Bevolution . , , Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary AUeyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) . Allston, "Washington, painter and poet Almamou, caliph, patron of learning BOEN. DIES. 7« ltJ23 • 1846 • 1660 1807 1743 • 1805 1801 • 1555 1605 1721 1770 • 1819 411 , 1664 1841 1752 • 1819 1861 1398 1490 • 1205 1280 574 , 1826 1452 1515 f.B. C. 606 1492 1550 B. 0. 450 B. f. 170 C. 404 • 1799 1798 • 732 804 1598 1687 • 709 • 1717 1T83 1783 , 1772 1851 1809 1860 , 1804 1859 209 235 B. 0. 356 B 0. 323 &0. . 1218 1262 1777 1825 1818 . 1048 1118 1749 1803 849 900 , 1712 1769 1728 1773 1744 1822 1757 1839 • 1867 1737 1789 , 1784 1566 1624 • 1779 1843 833 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. NATION. NAMB AND PROFESSION. Sax. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning • • Eng. Almon, John, political writer . • • • Mex. Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman • • Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author • • Port Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monarchy Amer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . , • Eng. Althorp, Viscount, statesman and book-collector . Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander Hex. Alvarez. Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution • • Ger. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet • • Jew. Araaziah, king of Judah . . , « ItaL Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author • • • Itah Araericus Vespuciua (of Florence), explored the S. American coast ....•• Amer. Am.es, Fisher, a statesman and orator , • Amer. , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder • Eng. Amherst, Jeflfrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. • Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . , Ger. Ammon, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian • Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher . • Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Jno. Buncle' Fr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist . , Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch Bar. .....nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet . , • Gr. Anastasius I., emperor of the East . . Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher . . • • Gr. AnaxarchuB, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b. c. 340 Gr. Anaximaiider, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • Ft. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . • Pruss. Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman • • Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist • Scotch. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . • . Eng. , Sir Edmund, a judge and author • Swe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa , • Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine • Eng. Andre, John, British ofl&cer in American war . • Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester • Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, , Amer. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works . . Eng. Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at "Waterloo , Fr. Angouleme, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVI. . Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of Naples, who rose to great power . Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis L, historian Anst. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France • Sng. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIIL • • £ng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . . , Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . Fr. Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author BOBN. DUO, 712 775 1738 1805 abtv 180.1 1203 1284 1094 1185 1761 1815 1758 1834 1508 1582 . 1790 1794 • B. 0. 809 340 387 lan 1451 1517 1750 1808 1803 1847 1717 1797 30' 1766 185.; • B. c. 24 1719 1789 , 1800 1864 1775 1836 1513 1593 B. 0. 592 • B. c. 474 518 B. C. 500 B. C. 428 t B. c. 340 B. C. 611 B. c. 547 B. 0. 504 1794 1767 1837 1805 1692 1765 1605 1856 1797 1751 1780 1555 16-26 f. B. c. 63 1794 1857 1768 1854 1778 ■vf 1851 Jl . 1623 1646 1083 1148 1604 1066 1500 1536 1703 1778 B. C. 247 B. 0. 183 . 1731 1805 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. KATION, Eng. Eug. Eng. Irish. Amei*. Egypt. ItaL Mace. Mace. Gr. Ital Bom. Rom. Rom. Pers. Fr. Rom. Egypt. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Amer. Eom. Ital, Fr. Eng. Gr. Scotch. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. ItJ. Ital. ItaL Eng. Pruss. Span. Span. Scotch. Ital. Mex. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. NAME AND PROFESSION, BOEN. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a learned divine • 1033 Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander • , 1697 Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs • • 1750 Ai^ter, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' . . , , 1793 Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author , , 1797 Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions , • 251 , of Padua, a divine ...» il95 Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great , Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . , Antistbenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics , b. c. 423 Autonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX . , 1806 Antoninus Pius, emperor , Marcus AureliuB, emperor, suruaL\.ei the philosopher 121 Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman , b. c. 86 Auveri, a celebrated poet . . . • , Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . . , Apicius, the name of three Roman epicures , , Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews ApoUodorus, the name of several vpriters and statesmen ApoUonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . • , — , Pergamensis, a geometrician . . '- , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher , Appian, an historian ..... f. 143 Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian . 1772 Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer , , a. n. Aquinas, St. Thomas,, a celebrated theologian , , 1224 Arago, Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . . 1786 Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder . 1705 Ai'atus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman , . b. o. 273 Arbuthnot, John, Dr., apoet . . . • , Archelaus, Ionic philosopher • . . Archius, a poet .... Archilochus, a poet .... Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . Archytas, a mathematician . , , Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music , Leonard, an historian , . , , Peter, a satirist . . , Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virgi. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . , Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet , , , Bartholomew, historian . , Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman , Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . , Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . , Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher ■ , grammarian and critic , , , Aristides, an Athenian statesman . , , , ^li^s, an orator and sophist , , — , one of the fathers of the church . , Aristippus, of Gyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniacs Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot DIED. 1109 1762 1828 1867 358 1231 B. c. 301 B. 0. 319 161 180 B. 0. 30 1201 1782 Ist cent. 1697 A. D. f. 80 B. c. 5th to 2d cent. B. c. 194 £ B. 0. 242 91 1819 2d cent. 1274 1853 1759 B. c. 21* 1735 f. B. f. B. f. B. B. c. 450 c. 719 c. 685 c. 287 B. c. 408 995 1369 1492 nia 1572 1779 1565 1566 . 1678 • 1474 1802 f. B. O. 280 B. 0. 160 129 f. 127 f. B. c. 392 f. B. c. 662 0.212 0.360 1414 1556 1613 1631 1743 1533 1855 0. 467 185 THE WOELD's progress. JIATION. NAME AND PK0FES8I0N. BORN. Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . . • B. 0. 389 Gr. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics • B. o. 384 Gr. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian Beet • Span. , Montanus, Benedict, orientalist Eng. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies Fr. Arlincourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist Ger. Arminius, the deliverer of Germany Dutch. , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect Eng. Armstroig, John, M D., poet ^mer. , John, general, statesman, and historian Ital. Amaud, Daniel, troubadour . Jfr. , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet • Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer • Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . • PruBS. Amim, L. A, poet and novelist . , Amer. Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . jte,\, , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard Eng. , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. jjng. , Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist jjng^ -. J Thomas K., author of classical text-hooks . , Boot. Arnott, x'^iel, popular scientific writer . , • Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . • Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts • Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . , f. b. c. 250 Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia Bar, " > founder of the new Persian kingdom . • Flem, Artevelde, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader • Eng. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . • Amer Arthur, Timothy S., author of tales and essays Eng. Arundel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles Eng. Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States Eng. Ascham, "^ger, a learned writer .... Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . • Eng. Ashbarton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . • 'Amer. Ashmun, John K., jurist, professor of law Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield • Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . Eng. Asser, John, historian .... Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, ' Lexicon Platonicum Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York Amer. Atchison, David. I., senator. United States, from Missouri Gr. Athanasi us, St., OLe of the fathers of the church Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher .... Gr. Athenais, Empress o^ the West and authoress, called also Eu doxia ..... Gr. Athenaeus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . Bar. Attains, founder of th». monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of parchment ..... fijj-. . , Bhodius, mathematician . . . .1 iir?.?. Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for consiriracy 7?-ora. Atticus, a knight and author (works lost) P*. Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer . . 1527 1732 1789 1560 1709 1768 1718 1710 L 303 1781 1740 1822 1795 1800 1788 . 140 472 1745 1515 1774 180O 1778 1763 1807 296 , 177 t 190 430 1598 1792 1856 20 1610 1779 1843 1220 1805 1778 1831 1801 1555 1842 1853 1823 B. 0. 426 1832 542 1646 1816 1568 B.C. 220 1848 1833 154"; C09 1848 371 B alyf 5. c. 173 1662 1731 1. c. 109 B. 0. 32 IT84 BORN. J>XZS. 1794 • 1814 1797 l3il 1757 1813 l;*12 354 430 te.'bary 604 , 476 'S,o. 63 14 . 1818 1707 394 1775 1817 (abt) 1800 IS . 1836 17^ 1800 , 1197 1797 . 980 1087 1804 1813 1865 1736 1845 . 17S5S 1866 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. HATIOK. KAME AND PKOPESSION. Swiss. AubignS J. H. Merle d', historian of Refonnation • Bag. Auckland, ■William, lord, statesman • • Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . • • Fr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com • • G.Jew. Auerbach, Bertbold, novelist . . • Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church , the Apostle of the English— Ist archbishop of Cante .'bary Rom. Augustulus Romidus, the last emperor of the West Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius— 1st emperor Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . • Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . • Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . . • • "Eng. , Sarah, essayist and translator • Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus— republican— military commander Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician and author . Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &c. Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist • • 17J0 Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author . • 1734 1797 Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . • . 1724 1806 Gr. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . • lz>>C. 450 Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer • . 1806 1867 Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian . • 1790 Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author , . 1796 Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . • • 1724 1806 Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . • • Amer, Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher . . 1802 Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge . 1214 1292 Ene , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t-.tci3- man 1561 1626 Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature . 1735 1804 Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay . • 1584 1622 Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . . • 1793 Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. , Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer , . 1743 Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . • • Eng. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essajdst . • 1787 Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 1649 1706 Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . • • 1762 1851 Bc-vt , Matthew, physician and anatomist . • 1761 1823 Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo- Uii 1857 lution 1736 1793 En». Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician • • 1774 1844 Amer. Bainbridge, WiUiam, naval commander . (Princeton) 1774 i33J THE WORLD'S PE0GEES3. KATIOH. NAMB AND FBOFESSIOM. 80BN. Amer. Baird, Robert, D. D., author of travels • • • 1798 Scot. — — , Sir David, military commander • • • 1757 Tark. Baja-set, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane ... Am3r. Baker, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluflf) 1811 Ital. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . 1782 Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America • Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • • Irish. Balfe, '»/m. Michael, musical composer • • • 1808 Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . • 1259 Scot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott • Amer. Ballou, Hosea, universaJist minister and author . • 1771 Eng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland • 1582 Fr. Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . • Fr. Balzac, Houore de, novelist , . , 1799 Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the TJ. S., secretary of navy, &o. • 1800 Bwe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . • 1596 Irish. Banim, John, novelist ..... 1800 Amer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 Eng. Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society • 1743 Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, A chille, marshal of France , • 1795 Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian , . • 1782 PruBB. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age • 1721 Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1743 Turk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . • Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army • • 1751 Fr. Barbej'rac, John, miscellaneous writer • • . 1674 Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . • Va. 1775 Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va. 1783 Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c. • 1716 Eng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier .... 1779 Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . • • 1756 Amer. Barnard, Henrj', distinguished educator • • . 1811 ^raer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. • 1798 3ng. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar . . • 1654 Amer, , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . • Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . • • 1547 Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 1759 Fr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution , 1755 Eng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . . 1726 Irish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author ... 1767 Amer. BaiTon, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) , 1768 Eng. , Isaac, a di\ine and mathematician . , 1630 Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty • 1764 r.ish. Barry, John, the first American commodore . . , 1745 Eng. , Sir Charles, architect ot houses of parliament . 1795 Amer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . , Va.1785 Ger. Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . . , 1821 Ft. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &o. . • 1716 Amer. Bartlett, John R., author of explorations, &o , , 1805 DIED 1863 1829 1413 1861 1517 1206 1314 1833 1852 1632 1850 1641 1842 1740 1825 1518 1783 1728 1842 1841 1690 1789 1845 1812 1712 1818 1619 1818 1829 1802 1834 1851 1667 1848 1803 1860 1835 179S BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Barllett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. H., &c. , . Eng. , Will. H., artist and author . . , Amer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet . . . Amcr. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . , Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . • Eng. Baskei-TlUe. John, eminent printer and publisher . Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . , Fr. Bassano, H. B. M,, duke of, political writer and statesman Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . • Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . • Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, • Eng, Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . . Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . , Fr. Batteux, (Jbarles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . , Hung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) • Ger, Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity • Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ,, professor of theology and author , Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author , , Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . , Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer , Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... Ger. , TheophiluB, chronologist and historian Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D tionary') ..... Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . • • . Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet ... Fr. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland Fr. — , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com viceroy of Italy, &c. .... Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . . Fr. Beaumont. Elie de, mineralogist and geologist , • Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer . • • Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher Ital. 1 Marquis, professor of political economy and author Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman , Eng. Beckford, Wm,, traveller and novelist (' Vathek') . Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . . Fr. Becquerel, Antoine Cassar, natnral philosopher Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • • Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . , Amer. ■ , Henry "Ward, theologian and politician • • Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . , Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctic voyager . . PruBS. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer EOAN. 1729 1809 1769 17S4 r.ci S26 1706 1653 17-^8 1;«1 1790 11-8 1682 1684 1713 1"07 180') ISt/J 1792 1615 1476 1767 1694 1647 1797 1735 17 1733 17 »8 lo55 l',_4 1716 '1735 1800 1791 1119 1760 1739 17S8 672 1793 1796 1800 1770 10 THB world's PEOGEESS. NATIOK. Ger. Eng. Rues. Ger. Eng. Rem. Ital. Amer. Scot. Amer. feco.. fcScot. Amer. Ita_ Fr. Fr. Eng. Ital. Amer. Eng. Fr. Eng. Ital. Pol. ItaL Eng. Ital. Ital. Ital. Fr. Ger. Eng. Amer. Sp. Jew Bar. Scotch. Fr. Eng. Eng. Amer. Fr. Fr. NAMK AND PROFESSION. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer • • Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . • • • Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator . • • Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . . • Belcher, Sii* Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator • . Belisariue, a celebrated general and conqueror • Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished Su philanthrope Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe • , John, statesman . . . • , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • • , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . • Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church Bellau, Remi, poet . . . • • Bedeisle, count de, military commander . . • Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts • Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . • • Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c., Bel&n, William, naturalist and traveller ... Belstim, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer Baizoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt . . Bem, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria • BemT o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature • Bemb: jt, John, a gallant admiral . . • • Benedict, St, one of the originators of monasteries • , XIII., pope, theological writer . . . ,XIV., " " " . . Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America) Bengel, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist Bengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs . Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . . , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East • < Benbadad, king of Syria . • • • Bennett, James Gordon, journalist • • • Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . • Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar • Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • • B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyric:d poet . • Berenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist • . Egypt. Berenice, the name "of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer , • Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal , . BeL Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer Irish. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher Amer. , William, governor of Virginia ... Ft. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer ... Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV, Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . • Amer. , Francis, governor of MassacLusetta . • BOBK. DIBBW 1459 150« 1640 1689 1680 1741 1785 1808 1744 1767 1797 1763 1781 1719 1542 1528 1684 1634 1808 1814 1756 1518 1752 1778 1795 1470 1650 480 1649 1675 1713 1687 1778 56& 1798 1825 1842 1790 1626 1577 171 1^72 1 35 1817 1564 1827 1823 1^50 1542 1702 547 1728 1768 1784 1752 1827 1864 1173 }. C. 896 1691 1882 1742 1858 1857 1800 1612 1742 1662 1782 178t 1485 , c. Ist to 3d cent 1797 1736 1784 1753 1607 1S44 1897 177« '84 1688 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 12 KATIOH. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Amer. Fr, Fr. Fr. Amer. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Swe. Ger. Fr. Amer. Eng. ItaL Ene. Eng. Fr. Ital. Gr. Fr. Irieli. Eng; NAME AND PROFESSION. Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author , St., preacher of Crusades and author • -, Simon, engineer and military commander Berrien, John McPherson, TJ. S. Senator from Georgia • Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' in 11 vols. 4to . . . Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician , Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) Berryer, Pierre A., statesman . . , , Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . , Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army . Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Philllpsburg) Berzelius, John James, chemist . . , , Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . , Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet , Betterton, Thomas, famous actor . . , , Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius* , Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver , Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer , , , Bezout, mathematician .... Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author • , Bias, one of the seven sages .... Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologiBt • , Biokerstaff", Isaac, dramatist . , , , Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . , , Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy Eng. , John, an eminent Socinian writer . . , Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy • Amer, , " , financier and litterateur . , « Biela, William, baron von, astronomer • , Am3r, Bigelow, John, medical writer • • • • Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian , • • • G-. Bion, pastoral poet ..... Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Csrreniac) . • Fr, Biot, Jean B., mathematician ...» Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics* institutions Anr.er. Bird, Eobert M,, M. D,, novelist . . , , Amer. Bimay, James G., anti-slavery politician . . Fr. Biro: ., uke of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) Eng. Bish .T-'j Sir Henry R., musical composer Amer. Bissell, William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer , , Ft. Bissot, John, a I'evolutionist and author ... S^.an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name of tho Cid . . . . • Scot, Black, Adam, publisher M, P. provost of Edinburgh • In.Am, BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief . . . , Eig. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author BOBM. 1091 1779 1781 1681 1778 1798 1814 1790 1753 1748 1778 1670 1779 1784 176.^ 1805 17S5 1718 1791 1753 1519 1730 1662 c 606 1771 1733 '786 1783 -615 1750 1786 :.?82 .187 17vl 1774 1776 1803 1792 1561 1775 181A 1759 1767 1040 1784 1768? 1723 1751 11?3 1S39 1T51 1820 12 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. VATXOK. Eng. Boot. Amer. Amer. Scot. Amer. Eng. Bcot. Amer. Irish. Eng. Prus. Ger. Swec Brit ItaL Ital. Fr. Pr. Eng. Ger. Ger. Dutch. Rom. Ger. Fr. Eng. Ital. Fr. Fr. Fr. Ft. Eng. Eng. Colom. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Eng. Swiss. Eng. Eng. Fr. Eng. Amer. NAME AND PROFESSION. Blackwell, Eliz,, first female M. D. in the United States Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician • • , Francis P., journalist and politician . . , Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-8oiler3 • , Robert, a divine and poet . . • Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. • Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . « Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalifit « , Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur Bloom field, E. v., classical scholar • • , Robert, a poet . . • • Blucher, a celebrated military commander • Blum, Robert H., publicist and politician • • Blumenback, John Fred., naturaligt , , Boadicea,the warlike queen of the Iceni , Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy Boccalina, a satirist .... Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist Bodin, John, a lawyer and author , , , Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of libraiy • Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • • Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians Boethius, a statesman and philosopher Bogalzky, Chas. Henry, theologian, (' Golden Treasury') Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . , Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Inuamorato') • Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet , , Boissard, Jean J., fabulist . , « , Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies , d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . , Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia , , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain * , Louis, ex-king of Holland . , , Louis Napoleon, Ist president republic of France and emperor . . • • ■ — — , Lucien, Prince of Canine , , , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon , , Napoleon, emperor of France , , Bond, William C, astronomer . . • Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants , Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist , Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician • , . , John, « . , Bonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist • • Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . • Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky . , BOEN. BIXSC 1821 1718 180O 1791 1821 1699 1777 1788 1857 1599 1657 1803 1845 1757 1783 1789 184P 1788 1846 1766 1323 1742 1819 1807 1848 1752 1840 61 1313 1373 1556 1613 1509 1567 1530 1596 1644 1612 1575 1624 1668 1738 455 526 1690 1744 nil 1434 1494 1636 1711 1743 1831 1694 1758 1756 1826 1507 1536 1678 1751 1785 1831 1784 1859 1768 1844 1778 1846 1808 1775 1840 1750 1836 1769 1821 1T89 1859 1569 1720 1793 1840 1821 1840 1796 1852 1730 1823 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1?^ KATIOW. Ger. Ital. ItaL ItaL Ital. Ital. Ital. Eng. Fr. •Eng. Ital. Fr. Fr. Fr. Scot. Eng. Eng. Ital. Ital. NAME AND PKOFESSION. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . • * Bregli, plailosoplier and mathematician • • Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian « Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools , Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI. Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain ' • Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist . , • Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral , Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer • Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , , Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian • • Bossut, Charles, mathematician • , Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . , , Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson , Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer • Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . . Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian , , Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician . , Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution Amer. Boudinot, Ellas, a statesman and philanthropist Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author Boulflers, Duke of, military commander Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian • Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . • Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer Boucicauit, Dion, dramatist . , , Bourdaloue, a noted preacher , , Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician , • Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author • Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France Bourne, V"incent, an elegant Latin poet , Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , Bousmard, M, de, a military engineer • Boussingault, Jean B. Y. D., chemist , , Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . , Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &,o. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Fr. Irish. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Ft. Ger. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Scot. Eng. Fr. Fr. Irish. Amer. Amer. Bo wen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author Bowles, William Lisle, poet . . , Bcvring, James, statesman, poet and linguist Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet , • , Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher • Boyer, Abel, lexicographer . . , , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . , Boyleton, Zabdiel, an eminent physician , Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist • • BORN. DISD< 1731 1507 1781 1736 1802 1608 1679 15th Cent. 1538 1584 1803 1759 1828 1711 1761 1711 1787 1810 186- 1627 1704 1730 1814 1676 1732 1710 1795 1788 1766 1837 1835 1802 178C 1823 1740 1821 1729 1811 1S44 1711 1658 1752 1728 1809 1700 1780 1822 16B2 1704 1799 1854 1616 1680 1773 1846 1747 1834 1807 1802 1766 1S28 1787 1851 177S . 1838 1754 1825 1727 1790 1752 1811 1811 1762 1850 1792 1562 1601 1719 1804 1667 1729 1776 1850 1626 1691 1680 1776 1767 182B 14 THE WORLD S PEOGRESS, MAIIOIT. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Dan. Amer. Amer. N.A.In, Fr. Mes. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Ger. 6 we. Bar. Scot. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Eng. Ger. Amer. Eng. Fr. Eug. Eng. Eng. Irish. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Ft. Eng. HAME AND PROFESSIOW. BOKIf. Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller • • 1826 Brackenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist , • 1788 Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia • 1716 Bradford, Alden, author of ' History of Massachusetts ' , 1715 , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in FMla. 1686 , William, attorney-general of the U. S. , William, first printer in Pennsylvania , , William, second governor of Plymouth colony Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician , Bradstreet, Anue, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian . • Brady, Robert, physician and historian • • Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer • • Bralnard, David, misionary to the Indians • , J. G. C, a poet . . • • .Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief , Brantome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler • Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot • • Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . , • Breckini'idge, John, D. D., thctilogian . • , John C, Vice-President U, S. , • — — , Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian 1742 1540 1692 (abt.) 1800 1797 1821 1800 Breitkl.cpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-founder . 1710 Bremar, Fredrica, novelist , • , Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . • Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher , • , W'lliam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims Bridgewater, TTukeof, introducer of canals in England ■ , I'r-ancis H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser' Briggs, Ch arias P., novelist and journalist . , -, Een' y, mathematician . , . Brigham, Amariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. , , BrinvWiers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner • Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist , . , Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian vmter Brockhaus, Fried. A, founder of the publishing house . Brodhead, John K., author of ' History of New York' Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. B. S., surgeon and surgical author Broglio, due de, statesman . .. , , Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist • • , Charlotte, novelist . . • • ', Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist , Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . . , Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author • Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German ' , Erastus, journalist and politician. . , ^ James, journalist and politician • • , John, LL.D., governor of Massachusetts • , Maria, poet, (* Maria del Occidente *) • • Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' , • Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist • 1755 1659 1588 1692 1612 1709 1646 1718 1802 f. B. c. 1785 1560 1736 1756 1536 1796 1511 1723 1771 1772 1814 1783 1785 1820 1816 1818 1706 1803 1813 1815 1810 1752 1795 1723 1779 1758 1753 1742 1795 1753 1657 1762 1672 1349 1661 1747 1826 1807 1614 1854 1841 1794 16:4 lo03 1829 1630 1849 1676 1808 ?867 lo23 ls49 1855 1848 1783 1825 1846 1788 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 15 MATioar. Irish. Fr. Fr, Fr. Ir.Am. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Scot. Eng. Scot. IriBh. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Scot. Scot. Fr. Eng. Fr. Fr. KAUE AND FAOFESSION. Brougham, John, actor and author . * Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist • , Adolphe T., botanist, . . , Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Brown Brothers , Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister , (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist , Charles Brockden, a novelist . , , , Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . , , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet • • , Goold, grammarian, . , , , Henry Kirk, sculptor . . • , , James, senator, minister to France • • , James, eminent publisher (Boston) . , , , John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer . , , John, a divine and author .... , Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 , , Nicholas, principal patron Brown University • , Robert, eminent botanist ... , Samuel, chemist and poet ... , Thomas, satirist, . • • . , , Thomas, metaphysician ... Browne, Greorge, count de, an officer in the Eussian service , Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer , "William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, • • • — , Robert, poet, • . • • Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller . , • , Robert, the deliverer of his country • Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . , , Brummell, George Bryan, * Beau BrummelP • Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author Brnne, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. Brunei, Sir M, I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. • Brunet, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual' Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . , Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . ,Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military com- mander ... ... Brunt on, Mary B., novelist, * Discipline, ' &c. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government , Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . • Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer . • Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . • • , Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' • , Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary » , , "William CuUen, poet, traveller , , Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur • • BORN. sniw 1810 1770 . 1801 1772 isse rs' 1764 180S 1825 1771 1810 1800 1850 1777 1820 1791 1857 1814 1766 1835 1800 1855 1715 1766 1722 1787 1828 1769 1?41 . 1781 1858 1817 .\856 1663 1704 . 1778 1820 1698 1792 1605 1682 1814 1779 1865 1809 1860 1812 PC3 . 1730 179C 1329 1750 1798 1778 1840 168.'* 1742 1763 1815 180.^ 1S53 176C 1845 1377 1444 1797 1721 1792 I- 1735 1308 1778 1818 B. 0. 505 B. c. 42 . 1644 1697 1652 • 1757 •^859 1715 1804 , 1794 1762 1837 u THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. N.llIOK. NAME AND PB0FES8I0N. Ft. Boat Nanfay, Lonis Q-., count de, a learned writer • Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Eeformation Ger. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . • • Scot. Buchan, William, a physician and author . • Beet. Buchf.nan, Claudius, a divine . • • Scot. , George, an eminent writer , . Amer. , James, 15th president of the United States • ifing. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . Eng, — , George Villiers, son of the former . ing. ■ ■, James Silk, traveller and author • Amer. — — , Joseph T., journalist and author . • Eng. Buckland, "Wm., D. D., geologist. . • Amer. Buckminster, Josepli, D. D., theologian . • Amer. , Joseph S., author of * Sermons,' Ac Sng. Buckstone, John B,, actor and playwright . • Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . . , Polish. Bulfier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer jjr. BufFon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist Fr. Bugeaud, T. R., marshal of France . . , Ger. Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,' &c. Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist , • Ecg. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer jxOT. , Ole, famous violinist . , , , SwiwS. Bullinger, reformer and author . . . . Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works • Fng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L, diplomatist and political writer , (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist , Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist BIEDt Eng. Eng. Aust. Buss. Eng. Ger. Swiss Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . , Bucon, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian. Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' , Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . • , John Louis, oriental traveller , Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanic , Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician . , , Ger. B-. rger, G. A., poet .... Eng. Burges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist • , Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature ' , Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . Eng. Burleigh, "William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman , Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor . , «ut-ei'. Burmeister, He; man, naturalist . . , Am«r. Bumap, George W., clergyman and author Boot. Burnes, Sir Alex., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &c. Scot. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian. Bishop of Salisbury Amer. , Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and author . Eng. , John, engraver, painter, and critic , Eng. Barney, Charles, a doctor of music . , n 1491 1551 1774 1853 1729 1791 . 1766 1805 1506 1582 , 1791 1592 162J . 1627 1688 1784 1855 . 1779 1784 1856 1751 1812 1784 1812 1800 1778 1839 1661 1737 1707 1788 . 1784 1849 ♦ 1763 1786 1864 1634 1710 , 1810 1504 1575 1791 1864 1803 1807 1797 1791 1860 . 1628 1688 1773 1815 . 1784 1815 1791 . 1770 1844 1748 1794 1786 1864 1770 1853 al author 1756 1837 1714 1775 1792 1730 1797 . 1694 1748 1520 1598 1668 1741 1807 1802 1859 1805 1841 Y , 1643 1725 1776 1858 , 1784 1726 ISU BIOGEAPHlCAIi INDEX, 17 KATIOir. Eng. Bag. Scot. Ajnev. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Ger. Amer. Amer. Mex. Eng. Irisli. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ecg. Amer. Amer. Amer. Ger. Eng. Ger. Ger. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. NAME AND PEOFESSSON. Burney, Frances, (see Mme. d'Arblay), novelist • , James, admiral and author . • • Burns, a popular and national poet . . . Burr, Cul. Aaron, vice-president U. S. . • • Burritt, Elihu, ' the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropist Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . • Biirton, Robert, author of thie ' Anatomy of Melancholy' , Wm. E., actor and author . . . Busching, Anthon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . Bushnell, Horace, D.D., theological aud metaphysical author Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier . Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints' , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina , Benj. E., statesman and jurist, attorney-general TJ. S. , Benj. F., major-general U. S. army in war for Union , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist -, Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of ".^schylus," &c. , Samuel, a humorous poet , Richard, colonel, an officer in. the Eevolution , Wm. Allen, poet , Wm. O., statesman and general • • Buttman, Philip C, philologist • • Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. , Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Obaldaic lexicographer , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . Byng, Honorable John, admiral ... Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet • , Honorable John, admiral . • • , Lady Noel, wife of the poet • . 20EN. 1752 1739 1759 1756 :'.811 1765 1576 ■^804 1721 1796 1802 1782 1738 1710 1796 1750 1692 1774 1612 1825 1793 1764 1786 1564 1599 1706 1704 1788 1723 1793 1840 1820 1798 1836 1840 1639 1859 1851 1792 1773 1857 1858 183'>- 184v' 168^ 1791 1829 1845 1629 1644 1788 1757 1828 1786 €• Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist » . . . Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator . . Span. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . . Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, &c. Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . . . Amer. Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer • Ft. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . • Fr. Caill6, Ren6, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &o. • • 2 . X/09 . 1477 laoo 1557 1500 1810 f. 1456 1450 1742 1803 . 1769 1821 680 . 1743 1786 B 0. 100 B. C. 44 1743 1795 1787 1839 18 THE WOELD'S PROGEESS, KATioa; ItaL Gr. Eng. Span. Amer. Amer. Ital. Amer. Rom. Gr. Ger. Gr. Gr. Fr. Ital. Ir. Fr, Amer. Amer. Fr. Eng. Pers. Sng. Bcot. Scot. Port. Fr. Amer. Scot, Scot. Scot. Scot. Bcot. Scot. Ger. Fr. Fr. Eng. Fr. Ital. Dan. Fr. Eng. Span. Gr. Rom. Ital. Brit. Brit. Ital. Eng. Fr. KAUE AND PBOFESSIOK. Cajetan, Onrdinal, diplomatist and author , • Calaber, Qiintus . . . . • Calamy, Edmund, Presbyterian divine and autlior . . Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . , Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author • • , Rev. James, revolutionary patriot . , Calepino. Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages . Calhcun, John C, senator of the United States • Caligula, Roman Emperor . • • • Calippu:;, astronomer and mathematician . . CalixLus, Geo., Lutheran theologian • • . Callinachus, a poet . . • • Calliiihenes, philosopher and historian , , • Calmst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author • Cf/.ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author • • Calonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state • Calvin, John, of the Ai)ostles of the Reformation . . Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . , ' — , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George IIL . . Cambyses, second king of Persia . . , Camden, "William, an eminent antiquary and historian , Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians -, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . . , Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country . Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author • Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect , , , George, a divine and author , , , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &c. , , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich , John, lord chancellor, jurist, * Lives of Chancellors ' , Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde , Thonaas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &o. . . Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . , Campiston, John G. de, dramatist . , , Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian , , Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet • • Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea . . Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . • Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great ' Carefigue, A. H. A,, historian .... Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . • Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . . • Capo d' Istri a, president of Greece, 1827-31 . • Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor • , Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson . Caractacue, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. . Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist . BOBK. DIXD 1510 1593 t 25(» 1600 1668 1600 1687 1772 1853 1734 1781 1435 1511 1782 1850 12 41 f. B. C. 830 1586 1658 f. B. c. 150 B. 0. 828 1672 1757 1699 1768 1734 1802 1509 1623 . 1803 1676 . 1763 1824 1774 1850 B. 0. 521 1551 1623 16 BO 1719 1517 1579 1752 1822 1792 . 1709 1796 1708 1775 1678 1743 s' 1778 1861 1791 1863 1777 1844 . ■ 1722 1789 1656 1723 . 1610 1688 1770 1827 1809 1805 995 1036 1799 1713 1781 1754 1810 1776 1831 188 217 1770 1799 (« bt.) 100 250 293 1501 1576 1797 1720 1788 mOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 10 NATIOH. NAME AND PBOFESSIOIT. Pr. ^ Carfime, Mark Antony, famous cook • • Eng. Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars* Eng. Carew, Thomas, poet . . , , Amer. Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . , Eng, , Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator , • Amer. , Henry C, political economist . • Amer. , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c . Eng. , "William, missionary to India , , Ital, Carissimi, James, musical composer • • • Irish. Carleton, "Wm., novelist . , , Irish. , Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author Eng. Carlisle, G. "W. F., 7tb earl of, statesman and author • Eng. , Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer Span. Carlos, Don, son of Philip XL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy^ Span. • , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . Ger. Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico , Scot. Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times* , Scot. - , Thomas, historian and metaphysician . Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy. Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . , Eng. Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author • Eng. , "Wm. B., physiologist . . , Fr. Carrel, Ajrmand, historian and metaphysician • Gua. Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . , , Amer. Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator , , Amer. , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller • Eng. Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . , Ger. CaruB, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology , Amer. Carver, John, 1st gov. Plj^mouth colony , , Amer. , Jonathan, traveller and author . , Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of 'Dante' . Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian Amer. Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . , , Amer. Cassin, John, ornithologist . , , Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . , , Ital. Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar • Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer . ItaL Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author , , Port. Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist , • , Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , , Rus. Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great , , Rus. II., empress the " Great " and the vicious Span.E. , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . Span. , of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England Eng. Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . , It. Fr. de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . Eng. , Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL • Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator • BORK. 7)IZDi. 1784 •%3 1663 1770 1589? 1639 1822 1596 1661 1793 1760 1S39 1761 1822 1600 1673 1798 1724 1808 1720 1796 1802 1864 1768 1840 1545 1568 1788 1855 18- 1721 1806 1795 0. 218 B. . 128 1753 1823 1780 1840 18— 1800 1836 1814 1737 1832 1717 1806 1830 1535 1603 1789 1732 1780 1621 1772 1840 1474 1564 1782 1866 1813 1625 1712 470 616 B. . 42 1606 168S 1468 1525 1355 1782 1849 1680 1749 1682 1727 1729 1796 1483 1536 1638 1703 1521 1542 1519 1589 1548 S.C . 63 20 THE W0EL1> S PEOGEESS. HATIOK. Fr. Amer. Rom. Bom. Rom. Fr. Fr. Ft. Fr, Ital. E. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ital. Eng. Ft. Fr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Rom. Gr. Ital. Rom. Gr. Ital. Rom. Irish. Span, ItaU ItaL Eng. Scot. Scot. Scot. Eng. Scot Fr. Ger. Ft. Fr. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr, Ger, fiwe. KAME AND PEOFESSIOK. Catinat, Nicholas, military commander . • Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . Ciito, Marjus Fortius, the censor, statesman and author , Marcus Poicius, ofUiica, statesmaa . Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . , . , Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . . Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist • Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court ' Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 Carallo, Tiberius, eJectrician, author Natural Philos. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . . Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . , Thomas, navigator . . • BOBV. 1637 DIBD. 1712 232 B. 0. 147 95 B. 0. 46 Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman . Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer , Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator • • Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . , • , Robt,, earl of Salisbury, statesman • • , "Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music Cecrops, 1st king of Athena • . Oollini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • Celeus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician ■ , an Epicurean philospher . . • Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . • Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of * Don Quixote' Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . . Chalmers, Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. , George, miscellaneous writer . , Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • , . , Sir ■William, an architect , . , William, publisher and author . Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . Chamisso, A. von, author of ' Peter Schlemihl,' &c. Champollion, the younger, 'Monuments de I'Egypte,' &c, . Figeac, historian and antiquary . Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer , William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor Chaptn, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator Chapman, George, poetical translator . • Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer • • Chaptal, J. A C, chemist .... Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. • Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . B. C. B. 0. B. 0. 86 1780 1857 1773 1807 1583 1651 1802 1857 1749 1809 1691 1T54 1505 1557. 1564 1591 1809 1861 1410 1492 1720 1765 1752 1805 1748 1810 (abt.) 1550 1612 1520 1598 1 cent. (abt.) B. 0. 1500 1500 50 1667 1547 1783 1730 1759 1744 1770 1802 1726 1800 1820 1781 1790 1779 1790 1780 1810 1781 1814 1557 1727 1756 742 1500 1682 1570 1599 1723 1616 1856 1808 1854 1825 1848 1796 1832 1856 1842 1841 1634 1801 1832 814 158» 176i BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 21 KATIiK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Encr. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender Fr. , J. A. C, natural pMlosoplier . . , Ft. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian . , Amer. Chase, Philander, bishop of Prot. Epis. Church, Ohio . Amer. , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio Fr. Chasles, Y. E. Philarete, miscellaneous waiter . Dutch. Chasse, David H., baron, military commander . , Fr. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author , Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author Fr. Chateaubriand, F. P., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer . , Fr, Chatelei, Liaul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) , Eng, Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . . , Eng. Chattertou, Thomas, famed for precocious learning • Eng. Chaucer, Geoflrey, the father of English poetry , , Amer. Chaunoey, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . • Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essajist . , Amer Cheever, Geo. B,, congregational clergj-man and author • Eng. Cheselden, "William, an eminent anatomist Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer Ital. Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman , Fr. Chevreid, M. E., chemist .... Ac. er. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works , « Eng. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . , •' r. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. . v^ier. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . , Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . , Pol. Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland , ^mev. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator Fr. Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G,, duke of, statesman and author Eng. Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author &we. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . Afr;c. Chtistophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti • Paul Louis, political writer . Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian .... Yr. • , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible • Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet . • • '2•\^g. Cowper, "William, lord chancellor • • Eng. , William, poet . • Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet . ^nier. J Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . Eng. . William, traveller and historian • Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., autiior of essays and poema , Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet • . • Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miBcellaneous writer • BOBK. DIED 1759 184a 1776 1849 1726 1783 1473 1543 1772 1863 1768 * 1793 B. 0. 488 1788 1467 1565 1625 1738 1485 1794 1519 1590 1642 1771 1803 1815 1370 1764 1781 1773 1770 1630 1585 1773 1736 1681 1772 1774 1725 1627 1792 1485 1618 1664 1731 1818 1793 1756 1747 1818 1778 1754 1728 BIOGRAPHICAI. INDEX. 25 KATIOV. HAMB AND PROFESSIOH, Eng. Cramer, T. Baptist, musical composer • • • Eng, ■, Francis, " " . • • Amer. Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge II. S. District Court D. 0, • Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer • • Eng. Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine • • • Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander Amer, Crawford, ■WilJiam H., statesman and jurist . • Ft Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet • • Gar. Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiq,uary • • Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian • • Croesus, King of Lydia, famed for richea , • « Eag. Croft, "Wm., musical doctor and composer • • Irish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . • Irish. , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o. Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . • Eng. Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman , Eng. ■, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey • Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of Nature' • Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricatxire • • Eng, ' — , Robert, humorous artist . • Scot Cruden, Alexander, author of a ' Concordance to the Bible » Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher • • • Amer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain • • • Scot. CuUen, William, an eminent physician « « Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . • Eng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander Scot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . Scot. , Rouallyn W. G,, sportsman, traveller, and author Scot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. , • Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court TJ. S. Amer. • ^ Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist • • Amer. ^ Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio • Rom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. • * [. , Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist • • Amer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress • • • • E. Am. -, Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth « Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington • Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists Fr, , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist , , Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer , — — , of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author , , St., the apostle of the Sclavi , • , Pera. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire , Pers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothusj king of Persia • Pol. Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation • Fr. Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar , Ft. DagueiTe, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyping Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval o£B.cer and author . BOBN. TflEDt 1771 185S , 1772 1843 1779 1855 , 1489 1556 1650 • B. 0. 53 1772 1834 • 1674 1762 1771 1858 • 1693 1765 B. 0. 6th Cent. . 1657 1727 1780 1857 , 1798 1854 1780 1360 , 1599 1658 1490 1540 1780 . 1794 1856 1701 1770 • 1617 1688 1759 1818 . 1712 1730 1732 1811 . 1721 1765 1810 1820 1768 1842 1750 mi • 1809 1812 • 1824 . 1800 1816 . 1580 1615 1781 1857 • 1769 1832 1773 1838 258 876 444 315 380 822 • B. 0. 559 ^. 0. 400 . 1770 1860 1651 1720 • 1789 185] 26 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. NATION. KAME AIH) PROFBSSIOB. Amer. Dahlglen, CoL TJlric, milit. ofla.cer • • • Swe. Dahlman, Fred C, historian • • • Amer. Dale, Richard, commodore in Bevol. war . • Swe. Dalin, Claua von, the father of Swedish poetry • Amer. Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander • • Amer. ■, Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist • Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. , Eng. DaltoD, John, chemist and mathematician . • Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer . Eiig. Dumpier, William, an eminent navigator . , Amer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. • • Amor. , Kichard H., poet and essayi.'^t Amer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller AmtT. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist , , Vcnet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . , • Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author . . Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist . • . , Eng. , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India Ger. Dannecker, sculptor ('Ariadne,' &c.) ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets Fr. Danton, Geo, Jacques, leading revolutionist . , Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . Eng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked Amer. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician . , Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist Amer. Davidson, Lucretia xM., a youthful poetess of uncommon gen Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet Amer. Davies, Charles, mathematician . . , , Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism Amer. , Charles H., mathematician and naval ofBcer Amer. , Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi Eng. , John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits Amer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, «fec. Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte'^s generals , Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent cliemist , , Anier. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England • Amer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman , Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars Ame:, De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician Fr. Debruce, "William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the TJ. S. navy Eng. Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet . , . Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . • Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer • • BORW. DIED. 1842 1864 1785 1756 182- 1708 175S 1791 1844 1792 1759 1817 1766 1844 1699 1773 1652 1711 1813 1787 1815 1795 1110 1205 1752 1835 1790 1845 1837 1758 1841 12G5 1321 1759 1794 1749 1838 1752 1840 1815 1842 1782 1705 1766 1761 1840 1605 1688 1808 1S40 1823 1838 1798 1724 1761 1576 1631 1826 1807 1808 1605 1766 1850 1770 1823 1778 1829 1611 1668 1807 1758 1789 1751 1829 1820 1731 1782 1778 1841 1779 1820 1638 1527 1613 1661 173] BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 27 HATTON. KAMR AND PBOFESSION. G. Am. DeKalTj, John, baron, maj.-gen. in Am. revoU army Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist . , Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer , Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop West New York Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist ... Delille, James, a celebrated poet , , Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer Swiss. Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitut Deluc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . , Poiiorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Gr Tr. Amer Fr. Fr. Fr. Pol. Gr. Maced, Gr. Eng. Gr. Eng. Ital. En. 2,-. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . , Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . , Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller Deniua, Charles John Maria, an historian . , Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England • Amer. Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &c. , Amer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in 'Dunciad' , Fr. D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. , , Eng. DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . , Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar. Derzhavine, Gabriel K., a poet and statesman Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . , Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author • Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti , De Soto,- Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi , Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer , Dutch. Deurboff, William, founder of a sect, and an author Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist Eng. Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary gene De Vigiiy, Alfred, count, poet and novelist Dewees, W. P., medical writer De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope , del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . , Thomas (sou of Charles), dramatist and song writer • , Thomas Frognall, bibliographer . Eng. KUBSL Fr. Fr. Fr. Afric. Span. Fr. Fr. Amer, Ger. Amer. Span. Eug. Eng. Eng. Scot. Eng. Dick, Thomas, author of ' Cliristian Philosopher' , Dickens, Charles, novelist Amer. Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman . . , Amer. ~, John, author of 'Farmer's Letters ' Fr. Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Eucyclopedie M6thodique' Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder Fr. , Firmin, publisher and member of Deputies Fr. ■ , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller Egypt. Didymns, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works . BOSN. DIKD. • 1732 1780 t 1796 1855 • 1749 1822 , 1797 186- 1794 1843 • 1738 1813 , 1688 1768 tion 1740 1806 . 1727 1817 1791 1864 B. c. 345 B. 0. 28'? -eat B. 0. 283 . B c. 460 1806 .B c. 381 3. C. 322 1786 1828 • 173- . 1813 LV^a 1854 • 11 }S ISli 1757 1783 , 1728 1810 1786 1859 . 1799 1743 1816 • 1768 1800 1596 1650 . 1762 1794 1760 18G6 1500 1542 1680 1754 • 1650 1820 1717 a: B 1592 1646 1799 1863 . 1768 1841 17^0 1849 , 1794 1625 1672 1500 , :abt ) 1560 1748 1814 , 1771 1841 1770 1847 1772 2859 2812 isoo 1865 1732 1808 1713 1784 1730 1804 • 1764 a79i/ 1^3« li . 3. Si) 28 THE WOBLD'S progress. UATIOir. KAME AKD PKOFESSION. Pruss. Diebitsch-Zabalkansky, count, military commander • Qer. Ditfenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author • Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' AthensBum* . Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . • Maced. Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . , • Gr. Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher , • Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian . . • < Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. . • . Gr. , Laertius, biographer . • • Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of « Roman History * , . • Gr DionysiuB, a geographer . . ' . Gtr. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church . Gr. r, the Aieopagite, learned Athenian Christian Gr. — , the elder, tj-rant of Syracuse Qr, , of Halicarnassus, critic and historian • Gr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • • Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, 'Curiosities of Literature' . . Amer. Dix, Drr.thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums • Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. Eng. Dixon, W>lliam Fepworth, author and critic Amer. Doane, oreo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o. Eng. Dobell, Ej-dney, poet ..... Eng. Dodd, Dr. "V illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) Eng. Doddridge, jfhllip, a gifted and pious divine and writer Eng. Dodsley, Robert, publisher and author . , Ger. Doeberelmer, Jc "W., chemist Span. Dominic De ■ jruzman, founder of preaching friars , Rom. Domitian, emperor .... Scot. Don, David, ootanist . . . • Ital. DonatsUo (Zcneto di BeHodi Bardi) sculptor , Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer . • Eng- Donne, John, poet and the. 1st cent. B. 0. 430 B. 0. 367 53 B. 0. 36T B. 0. 343 1767 1848 1821 1799 1859 1824 ) 1729 1777 1702 1756 1703 1764 1780 . 1170 1221 52 96 1800 1840 1383 1466 1797 1848 1573 1631 1798 1837 3468 1560 d 1805 1854 1798 1852 . 1785 1863 1762 1834 1474 1521 1817 1776 1861 1813 1861 1777 1834 1786 1855 S 3815 1852 1772 1856 1766 183« BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 29 KATION. Amer. Amer. Eng. E.Am. Eng. Dutch. Eng. Fr. Er. Scot. Eng. Scot. E.om. Eng. Amer. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Swiss. Fr. Scot. Scot. Scot. Soot. Scot. Scot. Amer. Amer. Eng. Scot. Eng. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. 6er. NAME AND PROFESSION. Drake, Josepli Rodman, poet , Samuel Gr., historian of the Indians, Boston, &c , Sir Francis, a celebrated circum.navigator . Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . , Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbion ' Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer . Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author Drouyn de I'Huys, Edward, statesman Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights ; Sir "William, scholar, author and diplomatist -, William, poet Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany Dryden, John, an eminent poet . Duane, "William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist Ducas, Michael, Byzantine liistorian . Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . Duchesne, Andrew, a historian Duclos, Charles Fineau, an historian Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . , Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . Duhalde, Jean B., geographer Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c , Alexandi-e, (the younger), novelist and dramatist , J. B., chemist .... Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator , Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . , , P. S. L., writer on legislation Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' — , "William, poet .... Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . . , "William, logician and translator • , Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral Dunglisson, Robley, M. D., medical author . • Dunlap, "William, painter and historian . , Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . • Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . Dunstan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician , Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . , , Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia) Dupout, Samuel Francis, admiral . . , Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . , , Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . « Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . , Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author « Durer, Albert, painter and engraver . BORN. .O.TE-S. 1795 1820 1798 1545 1593 1811 1563 1681 1572 1634 1765 183i 1805 1773 iS5C 1797 1S40 1760 1835 1585 "1649 c. 38 S 1631 1700 1760 1835 1610 1688 15th cent. L803 1584 1640 1704 1722 1823 1605 1686 1314 1380 1674 1743 1803 1824 1800 1790 1842 1726 1759 1829 1730 1823 1774 1851 1465 1535 1731 1804 1714 1760 1741 1811 1775 1860 1798 1766 1839 1731 1783 1.274 1308 925 988 1783 1865 1784 1637 1719 1760 1844 1803 1865 1778 1835 1610 1688 17Pd 1800 147.I. 1129 50 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. Nation. name and profession. Ainer. Dcr fee, Job, priest and author . . . , Eng. Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . Eng. Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada Fr. Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friali, military commander Anier. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer A.'^er. , Theo., author and journalist Amer. , Tlieo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian Amer. Duyckinck, Evert Aug., author and critic . , Amer. , Geo. Long, author and critic . , Scot. Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - , , Eng. Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . , Eng. D.ymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist • BOEN, DIED. 1790 1847 1628 1723 . 1792 1840 1772 1813 1752 1817 1765 1846 1866 1816 1823 1863 1797 . 1700 1758 1796 1720 Amer. .bCast'burn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. • • Eng. Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critio • , Amer. Eaton, Amos, botanist . . . . • Amer. , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa • Gar. Fcken^an, John Peter, litterateur . . . Amer. Eckford, .""lenry, eminent shipbuilder .... Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian, • Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist ..... Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . . • Amer. , i'ola B., theologian and miscellaneous author . • Ei'g. Edwards, 3^yan, an historian .... Amer. , .7ohn "W., jurist and writer on spiritualism , . Amer. , Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician , , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist . . . , '^.V. JT., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) Ger. Eginhard, s,ii historinn, biographer of Charlena.agne . . Flem. Egmont, ".amoral, count, patriot and martyr • . Ger. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturahst ..... Ger. Eichbom, F C, theologian and jurist ... Eng. Eldon, L.;r J, lord chancellor of England . Scot. Elgin, T., JBruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles Eng. Elizabeth, queen ...... Amer. Eliot, Samael, author of ' History of Liberty' . , Eng. EUenboro'igh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice Kng. , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of I dia Amer. E?lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of In dependei.cu . . Eng. Ellesoere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author . Amer. Ellct, Eliza F., biographer and critic ... Amer. Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . . . Eng. Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) Amer. Elliott, Charles Lcring, portrait painter Amer. Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England' . Eng. ' , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' . Amer. , J. D., coramodore ir-. American navy . Amer. , Stephen, naturalist .... Amer. Ellis, Geo. E,. Unitarian clergj'man ana author , tng. —-. Sir Henry ami qiary and author . . . 1801 1793 ]776 1842 1764 1811 1792 1852 1775 18S2 1674 1730 1767 1849 1330 1376 1802 1743 1800 1799 1703 1757 1777 771 840 1552 1568 1795 1781 1854 1750 1838 1771 1841 1533 1603 1821 1750 1818 1790 1727 1820 1800 1S57 1604 1690 1795 1812 1817 1781 1785 1845 1771 183C 1815 1777 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 31 NATICir. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Scot. Fr. Dutch. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Irish. Irish. Amer. Amer. Gr. Amer. Ger. Eng. Fr. Fi-. Gr. Gr. Gr. Dutch. Ger. Gr. Span. Span. S.Am. Eng. Pruss. Ger. Scot. Scot. Scot. Assj-r. Span. Span. Amer. Fr. Ger. Eng. Fr. All St. EDg. Afric. Fr. Span. Swiss. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. Ellis, "Wm. Rev., missionary and author • • (aht.) 1.795 Elliston, Robert W., actor .... i7Ti Ellsworth, Elmer E., miUtary ofB.cer in Union army . . 1837 , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. I74f. Elmes, James, architect and author . . , . 1782 Elphinstone, Mount Staart, history of India . . 1778 Elssler, Fanny, danseuse . . . . . l&ll Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries Embury, Emma E., poet Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . • , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist . "William, a distinguished mathematician , . Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman' (executed) , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • Emmons, Eben, geologist and author , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . Encke, John Fi-ancis, astronomer . . • Eiidicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist • . Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . • Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and .ciaier Epaminondas, an illustrious Thehan general Epicte'u?, a stoic philosopher Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phi^o.::pl „te . E Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and -I'th. r . Evastus, Thomas, founder of 'Erastiani^m' thcoiugy . Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philociopher I Ercllla, Don Alonzo, a poet . . , . Ericcira, Fei'dinand, a statesman and historian • Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . Erman, A G., 'Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . • Emesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic • • Erekine, Ebenezer, theologian . . , . , Ralph, divine, 'Gospel Sonnets' , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ot A-.-yria Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist Espartero, J, B., Duke of "Vittoria, statesman and soldier Espy, James P., meteorologist and aiithor . • , Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . • Ess, L. Van, theological writer . . • • Essex, Robert Devereus, earl of, a warrior . • Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander , , Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . • Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist • IflSS Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , f. b. C. 300 Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 166S Eugonie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , • 1826 Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . , 1707 1831 1861 180) 1853 I83b 1797 1803 1701 1780 1764 1798 174S 1791 1589 1804 1741 1772 1728 f. 40 c. 342 1467 1524 c. 276 1525 1614 1803 1806 1707 1680 1685 1750 B. C. 1589 1792 1785 1772 1770 1567 1729 1782 1803 1827 1863 1840 1865 1665 1849 1797 1804 1810 B. c. 363 B. c. 871 15.36 1583 B. c. 196 1595 1781 1756 1752 1823 7th cent. 1840 1841 16Q1 1794 1694 1736 32 THE world's PEOGEESS. /(ATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Gr. EurlpideB, a celebrated tragic poet . • • B, Gr. Eufeotius, bishop of Csesarea, a learned father of the church, and ecclesiastical historian . , • Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • • Rom. Eutycbes, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect • Am er. Evanc, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . , Amer. Evarts, fleremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) . : ng. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer . . , /i.iner. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist • Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author • <-^er. Ewflld, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and tlieologian . .yn. Am . Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics • Amer. Ewing, Th-j8., statesman and jurist , • Eng. Exmouth, Udw. Pellew, viscount, admiral • • Eng. Faber, Georjie Stanley, theological writer , • Eng. , Frederick AVm., Roman Catholic priest and theological author . . . . • Rom. Fabiuf*, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior , , ^ier. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer • Ital. , John Oliridtian, a celebrated entomologist Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . • Eng. Fabyan, Robpit, chropiiler . , • Ital. Faceiolato, or FaccicUti. Jac, philologist • . PrusB. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher Eng. Fairfax, Edwfcd, poet, translator of Tasso Eng. ■ , Thon.as, lord, a general in the civil war , iog. Falconer, William, a poet ... • • Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) . Eng. Falkland, Lucius Cary, viscount, polilician and author Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kionard, poet and diplomatist Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist . . • , Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet • Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the. logian .... Amer. Famham, Mrs. Eli/.a W., traveller and philanthropist Irish. Farquhar, George, i dramatist . , . Amer. Farrar, John, metbc _atician and author , • Fr. Fiiucher, Leon, political economist , . , Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author ferer. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing . , iV. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . , Eug. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator • , Amer. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist . , Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer , Ens, Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller iu the East Amer. Felton, Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard College ..... Fr. F^n^'on, Francis do Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and one of the most virtuous of men . . , E we. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogiat , BOBN. DIED. 0. 480 B. O. 40« 340 f. 360 1755 1819 1781 1831 1620 1651 1790 1847 1794 1865 1803 1792 1789 1757 1333 1773 1815 1742 1732 1450 1684 1686 1611 1730 1610 1608 1790 1588 1714 1815 1678 1779 1803 1772 1809 1632 1807 1632 1799 1807 1651 1743 1854 o. 204 1736 1807 1803 1515 1760 1736 1633 1671 1769 1355 1643 1666 1867 1647 1787 1864 170T 1853 1854 1844 1466 1862 1715 179g BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 33 NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosoplier . Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosoplier, &c. Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . , Scot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist Amer. , "Wm. Pitt, TJ. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. trcas, Ger. Feuerhach, Ludwig, philosopher and author Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. "von, statesman and jurist • Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . , Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . , Amer. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph , Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors • Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria , Amer, Fillmore, Millard, 13th president TJ. S. . Amer. Finney, Charges G., preacher and theological writer • Pers. Firdnsi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses Amer. Fisk, "Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c, Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . Rom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and C(jnsul . Rom. , Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astrouomer royal . , Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet . . ■ . , Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-conformist divine • Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . . Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist . , , • Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . Eng. , Giles, poet .... Eng. , John, a dramatist . • , , Eng. • , Phineas, poet .... Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman It. ■ , Claude, a divine and historian . , Amer. Flint, Be v. Timothy, novelist and historian . , Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . , Qqy^ , John G., lexicographer Ger. Follen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . Fr, Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author , . Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . , Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author , • Eng, , John, M. D., medical writer . , , Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian • • Itah Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , • Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . • 3 BORN. DIED. 1724 1816 1710 1.79 1808 1652 1735 1782 1854 1763 1839 1771 1837 1806 1804 1775 1833 1701 1764 1762 1814 1433 1499 1819 1805 1822 1787 1855 1707 • 1754 1547 1800 1792 940 1020 1792 1839 1743 ■"798 c. 230 B. c. 17 B. 0. .17 1646 719 1633 1688 1627 16.1 1632 1710 1801 1785 1857 1658 1716 1580 1627 1576 1C25 1584 1650 1653 1743 1640 - 1722 1780 1840 1755 1794 1802 1788 1855 1796 1846 1787 1865 1657 1757 1806 1863 1721 1771 1815 1864 1787 1790 1640 34 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. r;!TrOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. .Eng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain Ita\ Poresti, E. Fulice, patriot aad litterateur . A vuer, Forrest, Edwin, actor En^. Forster, John, journalist and author • Grer, , John R., traveller and naturalist -Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . Eng. Ttal. Ital. Eng. Fr. Ger. Fr. Fr. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archasologist (Ency. Antiq.) Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice Foscolo, Nicol TJgo, poet and musical author . Fosttr, John, essayist Foucb6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motle, author of ' XTndmc,' &c. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system , Francs M. C, writer on social science . Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . . , Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators Eng. , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . Hal. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit , • Francia, Jo86 Gr. R., dictator of Paraguay , , Ame-^ Francis, John W., physician and author , , Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . , Sav?y. , de Sales, saint and bishop . . • Irish. , Sir Philip, political writer . . , Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman En£. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, jacobite leader, beheaded . Irus?. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. Amer. Freliiighuysen, Theo., statesman ...» Amer, Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman Amer. Frenean, Philip, poet and journalist , , , Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • Ger. Freytag, G. \V. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. , , Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . • Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . . , Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . , Amer. Froth'ngham, Uichard, Jr., historian and journalist . Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist .. . . Amer. — , Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . , Amer. , Richard. D. D., Baptist preacher and author Amen, , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, littefateur Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist Fr. Fureti^re, Anthony, a pliilosophcr Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author Ger. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist . BwisB. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art • BORN 1796 1793 1806 1812 1729 1780 1770 1372 1777 1770 1733 1777 1772 1772 1809 1748 1624 1517 1810 1769 1757 1789 1182 1567 1743 1706 1786 1667 1712 1759 1787 1813 1752 1769 1778 1806 1333 1812 1780 1815 1754 1808 1810 1608 1812 1620 1802 1805 1741 1821 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 35 RATIOK. KAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. G-adsden, Christoplier, revolutionary statesman , • Amer. , James, statesman and negotiator . • Eng. G-age, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetta , , Fr. G-agnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • Fr. Grail, J. B., philologist ..... Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian Amer. G-aines, Major-General E. P., military commander . • Rom. Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal writer . . • Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . • • En.Am.Gale8, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer ' , Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science of phrenology .... Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet S. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol. Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for deaf and dumb ..... lluss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes Russ. , Dometrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . Scot. Gait, John, novelist ...... Ital Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dio- coverer of galvanic electricity .... Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law . Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist .... Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer , Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry Span. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader Pr. Garnier, Count Germain, jurist . . . Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist , Amer. Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... E-ng. Gaskell, Elij^abeth C, novelist . . . . Fr. Gassendi, i'uter, a celebrated philosopner . Gaston de If'oix, duke of Nemours, general, Amer. Gates, Horutio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution Fr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet .... Fr. Gay-Lussac, N", F. chemist .... Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian . Amer. Gayarre, '."Aiarles A., historian .... Eng. Gell, Sir Vrjlliam, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) Ger. Gellert, Ohriaiian Furchtegoit, a poet and miscellaneous •writer Rom. Gellius, A.ulius. grammarian .... Fr. Genest, c: (fenot, Edwarri C-jdiploiEaiiet . . BORN, BrBD 1724 1805 1788 1858 1787 1870 1740 1755 1829 1"?^ 1806 17 7-? 1849 1st cent. 131 1786 1564 1642 1758 18-2S' 1808 17t)l 1849 1787 1851 16th to 17th cent. 1770 IS40 1779 1.8?Q 1737 }79? »e 152-! 8« 1798 •-84"' 1779 183'. 1503 153'- 155 '1 1483 1555 1806 1754 1821 1716 1779 1805 1718 1350 1413 1820 1865 1592 165-5 1489 1512 1728 1806 ISOl 1688 1732 1778 1850 1S09 1805 1777 1836 1715 1769 A, Di 2d cent. 17G5 1834 30 THE WORLD'S PKOGBEf^'D. KAIfOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Bar. GenghiflKhan^ a celebrated conqueror Fr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th. century JY. Geoffroy-Saint ililaire Etienne, zoologist , , Fi'. Gerando, Baron de, wi'iter on education, «&c. . , Fr. Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France Kom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Caisar, military commander Amer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. 8 Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller Gervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician fleseuius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . . , John Matthias, a philologist , . Fr. Amer. Ger. Ger. Swiss. Ger. •ItaL Amer Eng. Amer. Giannone, Peter, an historian . - . • Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author . Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist Amer. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo lution .....,, Eng. , Thomas Milner, statesman . • Amer. Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman ., . • Eng. Giftbrd, William, a critic and poet . . , John, an historical and political writer • Gieseler, John K. L., church historian GUbert, James W., writer on banking , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. Eng. Ger. Eng. Eng. Scot. Eng. Amer. Scot. Gilflllan, George, clergyman and author . . Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ital. Ital. Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' . « , Wm., writer on the picturesque Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist Globerti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences , Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist Fr.Am, , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author Ger. Gluck, Christop W. von, musical composer Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the • Crusades .... Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c. Sng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman BOBN. 1164 1746 1772 1770 1773 1814 1363 1816 1805 1786 1516 1691 1676 1809 1737 1790 1807 1795 1757 1758 1792 1794 1813 1697 1816 1747 1759 1791 15 7 1724 1757 1801 17d7 1822 1750 1802 1796 1349 1714 1748 1794 1640 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 37 irlTIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Span. Qodoy, Manuel de, statesman, « prince of the peace' • Ainer. Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . • Eng. , William, novelist and metaphysician • • Ger. Goethe, John "Wolfgang, poet and novelist . . Ital. Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere Irish. Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneouB writer Dutch.. Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . • Span. Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . . Eng. Good, John Mason, physician and author . • • Amer. Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . , Amer. , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author , Araer. , Samuel Griswold, ' Peter Parley,' voluminous author Amer. Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee Scot. Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator Eng. , Wm., author of History of the United States . Eng. Gore, Catharine G., novelist Eng. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ' lord proprietor of Maine' . Hung. Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist .... Rusi Gortchakoff, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, dso. . Russ, , Alexander, prince, diplomatist . • Amer. Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author • • En.Am.Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . . • Irish, , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &c. . • Amer. Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician • • Amer. , Hannah F., poet . . . • ( Eng. , John, naturalist and author . . • Fr, Gourgaud, Gaspard, haron, one of Napoleon's generals Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . , Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat Rom. , Caius Sempronius .... Ger. Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . Scot, Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver house, general ..... Scot. , James, a poet ..... Scot. -, James, author of ' History of the United States ' Fr. Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of ' Memoirs' Fr. Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . . Fr, Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian . . Scot, Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &o. • Scot. , James, journalist and author . , , Scot. , James, novelist .... Span. Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman . , Eng. Granville, G. G, Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman , Eng. , John Carteret, earl, statesman . . Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman , , Thomas Colley, novelist . , , Dutch. Gravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher Amer. Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of * Flora,' &o. Amer. , Henry Peters, painter. • • • Eng. — — , John Edward, naturalist .... BOBir. msn. 1767 1851 1816 1755 1838 1749 1831 1707 1793 1731 1774 1596 1667 . 1443 1515 1764 1827 1790 1860 1826 1793 1860 1800 1860 1750 1793 1730 1807 , 1799 1647 1818 f. B. c. 5th cent 1792 1861 1800 1600 1677 1817 . 1779 1805 Cabt.) 1800 1865 1804 . 1783 1852 1402 B, C. 133 B. C. 121 1632 1703 1643 1689 1765 1811 1770 1842 1621 1707 1803 1847 1805 . 1755 1838 1806 1822 1517 1586 1816 1690 1793 f. 12th cent. 1750 1821 1796 1864 1688 • 1713 1810 1819 ,abt.) 1800 3S THE world's progress. KAITON. Amer. -Amer. Fr. Ita]. Scot. Irish. Soot. Eng. Er. Amer. Araer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng, Eng. Eng. Ger. Amer. Irish. Amer. Ger. Amer. Amer. Amer. Dutch. Eng. Amer. Eng. Ger. Dutch. Fr. Amer Ger. Ital. Ger. Ital Ital. Fr. Tt. Fr. Fr. Fr. NAME JLND PROFESSION. Gray, Thomas, poet ..... Graydou, Alex., author of ' Revolutionary Memoirfl * • Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . • Gregory I., the Great, pope, author , VII., the Great, pope Hildebrand, celehrate^ despot , David, pliilosox^her and mathematician • , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . , James, pliilosopher and mathematician . . , Naziauzen, St. Christian, writer . . — of Kyssa, St. Christian, writer . . . , Olinthus, matiiematician and religious wi'iter of Tours, historian .... Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . . , Horace, physician, author of medical works . Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . . , Geo. Washington, scholar and cx-itic , . ■ , Matthew, poet .... , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution , Nathaniel, author and journalist , , Robt., dramatist .... Greenhow, Robert, historical writer . , • Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author . • • Greenoutih, Horatio, sculptor and author . . Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. , Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition Gricsbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , , Gerald, noveli.^t .... Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . . » . Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . . Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New^ England , Rufus Wilmot, author and cx'itic Gronovius, James, an erudite critic . . . Grose, Francis, antiquary and author Gross;, Samuel D., physic'ian, surgeon, and author Grote, George, author of History of Greece , . Grotefend, G. F., philologist . . . , Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . (Te Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist .... Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor of the air-pump Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician Guiccardiiii, Francis, an historian . . . , Guilloliu, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 ^uise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 , Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrat mer . . . • • , Samuel L,, celebrated physician and naturalist , Thomas, classical scholar and critic . . Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist • . , Rev. John, editor of poets, . . • , , William, historian and philologist • , Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior .... Mitscherlich, E., chemist . . . . • Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman Mohammed-Ali, Pasha ot Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) — Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian • • Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist .... Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer * , , Molle, M. L,, comte, statesman , , , , Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . • Molesworth, Sir William, statesman a';d author Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian Moli^re, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . , Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . . • Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman , . Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military otficer , Monod, Adolpbe, ♦ reformed pastor ' and author , Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor ' at Paris . Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president United States Monse, Gaspai-, eminent geometrician , Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author . , . , Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' &c. , , Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist . , Montalembert, Charles F , count, statesman and author Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada , Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal ... Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior .... Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. • Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer . . Montez, Lola, female adventurer . • • 1749 1776 1810 1822 1818 1763 17S3 1786 1781 1734 B, 128 1794 1787 I7e9 f. 1650 1796 1774 1798 1781 1822 1810 1754 1622 1585 1714 1608 1802 1794 1759 1746 1390 1770 1720 1690 16G1 1533 1810 1712 1769 1609 1641 1689 1824 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. NATION, Mex. Mex. Fr. Eng. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Ital. Ft. Fr. Scot. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Scot. Ital. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr, Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Amer. Amer. Amer. Heb. Ger. Boot. Amer. Amer. Amer. KAME AND PROFESSION. BOKN. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexicau sovereigns . II, last Atzec emperor . . • , 1480 Montfaucou, Bern, de, archaeologist and author , • 1655 Moiitgomery, James, poet . . . , • 1771 , Richard, intrepid military officer . • 1737 , Robert, poet ..... 1807 Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon . 1783 Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . . , 1493 Monte, Vincent, poet ..... 1753 Montmorency, noble family of France . . , 10th to 19th Monlpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o . . 1627 Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . • 1612 Moore, Geo, H., author .... , Frank H , author . . • • , Clement C, writer of verses, &c. . . , Jacob Rail ey, journalist and author . , John, miscellaneous author , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . • • , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . , Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author . , Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war , — , Jno. Henry, rebel flllibuster general . , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &c. , Sii* Henry J., buccaneer Morier, James, novelist, ' Hajji Baba' &c. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, miisical composer Morny, Chas. A, count of, minister of Napoleon III. , Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist • , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier Morrison, Robert, Chicese traveller and philologist , Robert D, D,, missionary and philologist , Morse, Jedediah, geographer and statistical writer , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph , , Sidney E., joui-nalist and geographer Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent , John, signer of Declaration of Ir)dependence , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist , Wm. T, G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) Moses, lawgiver of the Jews Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . Motherwell, "William, poet , . , Motley, John Lothrop, historian Molt, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist , Valentine, surgeon and author , . 1779 1797 1728 1761 1526 1744 1614 1763 1820 1736 1780 1637 1780 1720 1811 1837 1703 1802 1752 1726 1703 1782 1782 1761 1791 1794 1768 1530 (Penn) 1724 1799 1819 1571 B. 1695 1797 1814 1793 1785 186S 64 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. NATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit , Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . . f. B. Amer. MouUrie, Wm., general and etateeman . • Mouradgea, D'Ohaeon, Armenian historian . . Amer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress • (ai Ger. Mozart, C. "W. T., eminent coaiposer Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar . Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, ' Universal History' Ger. , John, physiologist .... Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. F., proverbial for 'stories' • , Eng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian .... Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples , Ital. Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian ... Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . ■ Scot. , Hugh, geogriipher (Eucycio) Scot , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent , Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher Amer. , Lindley, grammarian . • Amer. -, Wm., Vans, statesman , • Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet ... Fr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet • . BORV. DIED. 1660 1717 0. 160 1731 1805 1740 1807 bt) 1826 1756 1792 .. 1777 1842 . 1797 1840 1752 1809 1801 1S58 1720 1797 1758 1832 1771 1815 1672 1750 1727 1805 1775 1813 1779 1846 1531 1570 1778 1843 1745 1826 1761 1803 0. 1243 1810 1857 N. Assyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans . . Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . . Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouii Kahn, warrior and king . Heb. Nahura, prophet .... Irish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. . • Scot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms . Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral .... Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . . Fr. , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) , . Fr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . Eng. Nares, James, musical docto'-, composer . . Eng. , Rev. Edmund, * Thinks I to myself Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valehtia, statesman . Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash' . . , Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general , Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . . , Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &0 Amer. , John, novelist .... Amer. , Joseph C, litterateur .... Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian • Gr. Nearchus, admiral and voyager . . . Chald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . . . Fr. Necker, James, eminent tinancier and statesman . Swiss. — — — , Madame J. C, wife of James, essayist . fl. B. 0. 747 . fl. B. c. 626 1688 1747 f. B. C. 7th cei:t. 1782 18.53 1550 1617 1786 1860 1769 1821 1811 1832 1808 . 1715 1783 1762 1841 567 1795 1674 1761 1567 1625 . 1201 127^ 1765 1844 1678 1743 1794 1807 1848 , 1789 1850 . B. C. 4th cent. B. c. 462 1732 1804 1739 1794 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 65 PATIOK, Eng. Heb. Eiig. Bom. Rom. Rom. Euss. Gr. Ger. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr. Gr. Russ. Eng. Eng. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. ISTeele, Henry, poet and miftcellaneous writer , • Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps . ■ . • ,. I^eliemiah, governor of Judea . . , . : NelgoD, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral . , Nepos, Cornelius, historian . • • . Nero, infamous emperor . . • , Nerva, emperor Nesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist . Nestorius, patriarch af Constantinople, founder of Nestorians Neukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer , , Sir Isaac, the gxeatest of philosophers , , Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave * , Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . . Nicholas I., emperor, (1825-55) Nichols, John Bowycr, printer and archaeologist . Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author , , Eng. Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . • . • Ger. Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian , , Ger. , Carsten, celebrated traveller Pol. Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author Eng. Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . . Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' • . Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist .... Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . . Amer. Norton, Andrews theological. Unitarian authcar . Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Ger. Eng. Amer. Irish. Rom. Span. Eng. Fr. Hon. Mrs., poetess Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . , Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author , John, poet and translator Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . Noyes, "Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . . Nugent, lord, author of * Life of Hampden,' &c. Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. Nunez, Alva C. de Vaca, explorer . . • Oatee, Titus, infamous pretender of the ' Popish plot* Obierlin, John Fred., philanthropist . , 5 BORN. DIED, 1798 1828 1798 1829 B. C. 444 1758 180a B. C. 30 37 68 32 98 1780 1862 439 1778 1857 3. 1782 1725 1807 1642 1727 1704 1782 1769 1815 14th cent. 1796 1855 1807 1863 Y 1753 1815 17&3 1842 , 173^ 1811 1799 1848 1776 1830 1733 1815 1756 1841 1777 1839 1787 1851 1770 1826 1783 1844 1797 1863 1637 1685 1732 1792 1746 1837 . 1790 1835 1834 1859 1773- 1866 1751 1826 1772 1801 1781 1861 1805 1864 1850 B. 0. 714 1564 . 1619 1701 1740 182fi 66 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. KATIOir. NAME AND PKOFESSION. Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet . . • • Iiieh. , Wm. Smith, political agitator • , Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . • • Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . • • Eng. Ocliley, Simon, orientalist . . • | Arab, Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . • Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman , • • Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism • Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . • Irish. O'Kcefe, John, dramatist ... Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist . • • • Ger. Oibers, H. W. M., astronomer ... Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Oubham ... Araer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist .... Amer. Olmsted, Deuison, professor, astronomer, &c . Ger. Olshausen, Hermaiin, protestant theologian , • Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jeru.-alom . • Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author • Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons - . Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education Gr. Oppian, poet ...... Dutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 Dutch. , William IL, piiiice of, stadtholder . Dutch. ■ , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist Origen, one of the fathers of the church . • Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalite,' guillotined • . Fr. , Per. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • Kuss. Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . , Eng. " Orme, Robert, historian of India .... Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman , . Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetiy' • Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy Irish. , Roger Boyle, Ist earl of, statesman and author • Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . . Amer. Osgood. Frances, poetess .... ^mer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer Scot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . • Amer. , Hanison Gray, statesman and jurist . • Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) • • Eng. Ottley, "Wm. Young, writer on art . • Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved' . Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France ... Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist . . Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religious school of art Enj?. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . E4)i{i. Ovid, Publius N iso, poet .... 1806 186- • 1775 1811 1795 1855 1678 1720 267 1791 493 . 1777 1851 1698 1785 1748 1833 1778 1851 1S40 1360 1417 1797 1851 1791 1859 1796 1839 581 644 1773 1836 1691 1768 1771 1853 f. 160 ablic 1533 1584 1626 1650 md 1650 1702 1787 185 253 1747 1793 1810 1842 1734 1783 1728 1801 1610 16S3 1676 1731 1621 1679 1717 1783 1812 1850 . 1812 1502 1580 abt.) 1500 . 1725 1772 1767 1848 1815 1867 17T1 1836 . 1651 1685 1767 1847 17G9 1844 1780 . 1581 1613 ■.0. 43 11 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 67 HATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOHH. Span. Oviedo, J. Q-., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies ' Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist . . • • 1807 Eng. , John, independent theologian . • • 1616 Eng. , Eichard, surgeon and naturalist . • • Welsh. . , Robert, political theorist .... 1771 Amer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author • . Eng. Oxford, Horace "Walpole, earl of, author • . . 1717 P. Paine, Elijah, jurist . , • • • • 1757 , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . , 1796 , John Howard, dramatist, 'Home, Sweet Home' • 1791 , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . , , 1731 , Robert Treat, son, poet, .... 1773 , Thomas, political aud deietical writer . . 1736 Paixhnn, general, inventor of guns bearing his name • . 1782 Paez, military commander and president Venezuela . 17S7 Paganini, ISTicolo, famous Violinist . , . . 1784 Paley, William, eminent divine and author • . 3745 Palgrave, Sir Fraiicis, antiquarian author . , , 1788 Palif^set de Montenoy, Charles, satirist • . • 1730 Palissy, Bernard, 'the Potter' .... 1510 Palladio, Andrew, architect .... 1518 Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . , , 1741 Paimerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . • 1784 Panzer, Gr. W. F., bibliographer .... 1729 Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general • . 1726 Papineau, L. J, politician and patriot • • • 1789 Papiuian, ^milius, civil lawyer . , . , 145 Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist . . • 1493 Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... 1812 Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe , 1838 , Matthew, historian . . ' . , Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller .... 1771 Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 1810 Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author .... 1759 Parma, Alexender Faniese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 1546 Parnell, Thos., poet and divine . . . . 1679 Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist , • 1746 , Thomas, lived 152 years . , , 1483 Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . • • 1790 Parsons, Theophilus, jurist ..... 1750 ■ , Theophilus (son), jurist .... Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist • . , Mrs. Sarah, 'Fanny Fern,' authoress , • 1811 Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer , . 1623 Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of Warsaw, general , • 1782 Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. W., engineer .... 1781 Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 1767 Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 1786 Paterculus, Caius Velleius, historiaa . . (abt.) 9. c. 20 68 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. »ATIOir. NAME AND PBOFESSION. Eng. Patmore, Coventry, poet • • • • Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland . . . • Eng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) ...» Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . , Fr. , St. Viucent de, Catholic missionary . • , Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist • • Rom. Paukis-JEmilius, Lucius, fell at Cannaa • • . Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander • , • Gr. , topographical writer ... Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . • Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder . , • Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine • , Amer. Ptabody, Elia P., educational writer , , Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer , . Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician , Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ' On the Creed ' . Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria XL) Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal Eng. Peel, Sir Kobert, lt;t baronet, cotton manufacturer . Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman •' • • Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) • . , Brit. Pelauous, monk, founder of a sect • • • Span, Pelayo, first king of Asturias . • , Er. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoflf, marshal , Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot . • , Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general ... Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist . •. • Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of , . , Eng. Penn, Granville, author .... Eng. , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary . Ital. Pepc, William Fiorestan, general ... Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general • . . Ital. Pepolij Charles, litterateur .... Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of • Diary' Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . , Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ' Religious Ant, Poetry ' Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont dc, historian . Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' • , Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer , , Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman . . Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. Eng. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator • • Fr. Penier, M. Casimir, statesman . %. , Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') , , Amer. , Olivar Hazard, commodore U. S. navy • BORN. DIED, 1823 372 493 . 1626 1707 1552 1623 65? 1576 1669 1779 1860 B. C. 216 B. c. 470 f. (abt.) 120 1802 1865 1739 1797 1783 1827 1802 1799 1848 1858 1613 1686 . 1837 \l<>- 1834 . 1750 1830 1850 . 1552 1598 554 757 1794 1864 1789 1854 B. c. 364 1807 1621 IT61 1844 1621 1670 1644 1718 1726 1798 1780 1855 . 1697 1759 1801 1632 1703 1762 1812 1795 1857 1728 1811 1605 1670 1804 1853 1710 1736 B. 0. 490 I . c. 429 1785 1864 1599 1660 1766 1849 1704 1854 1741 1788 . 1777 1832 1795 1858 1785 1818 BIOGRAPHICAIi INDEX, 69 KATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Persigny, Jean G-, V., politician and diplomatist , Eom. Persia 8, FJaccus Aulus, satirist Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, hookseller, (life hj son) Eom. Pertinax, emperor . . . Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education Russ. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades Eng. Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic ' . . . , Eng. Peterhorough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior , G-er. Petermann, August H., geographer . . • Amer. Petigrew, James Loui3, of S, C, Union statesman • Potion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andh Ger. PfeiflFer, Ida, traveller and author . , Rom. Phaedras, fabulist . . . . • Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess , • Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . . • St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory • Eng. PhiUimore, John G., author on law , , Eng. Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist , , Eng. , John, poet ' Splendid Shilling ' , , Eng. , Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler , Jew. Philo-Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria , Gr. Philopcemen, celebrated general . . , Eng. Pbipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts Gr. Phocion, eminent Athenian general . , Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople « Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . ... ItaL Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer . . , Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist • Fr. Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . , Amer. Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman , Amer. , John, philologist . . • , Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer Eng. Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . , Amer. , Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. • Rom. Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea Amer. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist Amer. , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets Scot. Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, navigator, discovered Brazil Amer. Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson Fr. Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . , Gr. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . , , Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician , Eng. Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator . , Eng. , William, Ist earl of Chatham, statesman Eng. , William, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham Gr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages Ital. Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) , , BOBN. DIED. 1808 84 6S 1772 1843 126 193 1745 1827 . 1672 1725 10509 1115 1599 1660 1658 1735 1T89 1863 1770 1818 1304 1374 storian 1778 1854 1795 1858 , f. 30 1726 1795 B.C. 383 B. C. 336 1515 1595 1809 1865 1749 1676 1708 1768 1840 f. A.D. 40 . B. C. 253 B. C. 183 1651 1695 B. C. 400 B. C. 318 815 891 1768 1837 1746 1826 1769 1824 1761 1804 1746 1829 1772 1846 1655 1724 , 1815 1804 . 38? 1825 1765 1822 B. 0. 522 B. 0. 442 . 1758 1826 f. 1500 a 1789 1821 1689 1773 . B. 0. 527 1765 1847 1699 J 748 1708 1778 1759 1806 B. 0. 650 B.0 570 . 1792 10 THE world's progress. NATION. KAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. Span. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . • . 1475 Eng. Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer , 1796 Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect b. o. 430 Rom. PlautuB, comic poet . . . . b. o. 227 Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 1749 Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (horn jn Bengal) . . . 1819 Rom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 23 Eora. , the younger, warrior and author . . .61 Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . . • 203 Irish. Plunkt't, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland . • . 1765 Gr. Plutarch, celehrated biographer . • • 50 Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. , • • Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator • • 1604 Eng. — -, D. R,, learned prelate and traveller . , • 1704 Amer. Poe, Edgar A,, poet, critic and novelist . . • 1811 Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . , 1796 Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 1778 Ft, Poisson, D. S,, mathematician .... 1781 Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury , 150O Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charges X. • . 1780 Ft. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . , 1611 Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . • • 1795 Amer. . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general , • ilSOS En^. Pollok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . . . 1799 Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller , . 1250 Gr. Polybius, eminent historian . . . B, c. 205 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . . . . 1699 Eng. Pomfret, John, poet ..... 1067 Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of , . . . 1772 Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (* The Great.') b. c. 106 Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America . . . 1460 Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 1763 Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . , 1732 Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief . . , . • 1712 Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &o. . , Eng. ■ , Matthew, able divine and author . . • 1624 Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... 1688 ^jjier. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil, dist. 1823 Porphyry, Platonic philosopher - . . . .233 Eng. Person, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . . 1759 Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher . . . 1540 Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... 1781 Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy • . .1780 Amer. , David D., rear-admiral .... 1776 Eng. , Jane, novelist, . . . , , Eng. , Sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &c. . . 1780 Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate .... 1731 Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- tional author ..... 1800 ^rner. ■ ■ Horatio, D. D., episo. bishop of New York . , j2;.,r,, .>—_, John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antiq.' , 1674 ©iKa 1541 H. c. 347 B. c. 184 1819 79 115 270 1854 120 1617 1691 1765 1856 1851 1S40 1558 1817 1741 1849 1864 1827 1323 B. c. 123 169 1782 1703 1764 B. c. 48 1521 1813 1798 1769 1779 1744 304 1808 1616 1832 1843 1850 1842 1808 1863 1747 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 71 KATION. NAUE AND PROFESSION. Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and tranelator , Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist . • Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . « « Euss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . • • Eng. Praed, Win throp Mackworth, poet . « Amer, Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer • Araer, Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. S, Navy Amer. Prentiss, Sargent S, lawyer and politician, famed foreloqi Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina , Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty . , Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque • Eng, Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine. , , Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy , Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer a Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England • Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . , , Eng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . • Eug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . , , Eng. Pritchard, J, C, ethnologist, ' Natural History of Man' Rom, Probus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor ... Ital, Procida, John of, patriot . , , Gr. Proclus, a Platonic philosoplier • • • Procopius, historian • • • • , Anthemius, emperor . • , Proctor, Miss Adelaide A., poetess . . , Bryan W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and critic Pi-opertius, Sextus Aurelius, poet Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary Psalmanazar, G-eorge, literary impostor Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer Puckler-Muskau, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, «fcc, Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian Pugin, Auga. Welby, architectural writer . . Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S, service , Pulci, Louis, poet . . . , , Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . Purcell, Henry, musical composer . • , , Thos., musical composer . Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage • Pursh, Fred., botanist .... Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ♦ Putnam, Israel, distinguislied officer in the Revolution , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio Puttenham, George, poet and critic, * Art of Eng. Poesie Pye, Henry James, poet laureate , . . Pym, John, republican politician . . , PynchoD, "Wm., founder of Springfield, Maps. , Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect , Pyrrhus, king of EpiruB . . • • Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher , , BORN, DIED, 1721 1804 1787 1856 . 1795 1841 1768 1842 1802 1839 1759 1837 1761 1807 luenc e 1810 1850 , 1796 1859 1794 1860 1728 1791 1747 1829 1648 1724 1799 1851 1733 1804 1687 1758 1789 1834 1788 1864 1664 1721 1785 1843 232 282 1225 1303 410 487 410 487 472 1864 1787 B.C. 52 B .0. 12 1809 1865 1609 1669 1679 1763 70 fcc, . 1785 1632 1794 1811 1852 1747 1779 1432 1487 1814 1658 1695 1682 1577 1628 1774 1S20 1800 1718 1790 1738 1824 1600 1745 1813 1584 1643 1591? 1662 . f. B. 0, 300 B. 0. 272 1 B. 0, 586 B. c. 497 72 THE WOKLD S PROGRESS. KAl/OK. NAME AND PKOFESSIOIT. Eng. Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist . • Eng. Quaries, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems* • Fr. Quatreraere, E. M., orientalist . • Quekett, John, microscopist • • • Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral , • Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' . • Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician Span. Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet • • Eng. Quin, James, actor .... Fr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist Amer. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author Amer. -, Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier Fr. Qui net, Edgar, lilierateur Span. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian Rom. Qujntilian, Marcus Fahius, celebrated orator Rom. Quint us-Curtius, historian . . . f. tin Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of MissisBsiifi Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • • Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist • • Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress Eng. Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolpho Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander m Italy Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector Eiig. , Sir Thos. Stamford, aulhor of ' History of Java,' «&;c Amer. Eafinesque, S. C. J., botanist Dan. Rafn. C. C, historian and antiquary . Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fiizroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist . Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, 'a man illustrious in arms literature' . . • • • Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist • • Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet . • • • ^xner. ■ , David, historian . . • Span. Ramusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages* • Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman ^mer. , Peyton, first president of Congress . Ger. Ranke, Leopold, historian . . • Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller • Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England' Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman PrusB. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician . • Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . • Amer. Rawle, "William, jurist ...» BOBN. IIED. • 1865 • 1592 1644 , 1782 1857 1815 1861 1610 1688 1699 1774 • 1796 1580 1M5 lo93 1766 1635 1668 1772 1S64 1802 1803 1772 1857 . 42 122 espasian Ist Cent. . 1799 1858 . 1483 1553 • 1589 1699 1820 1858 1764 1823 1766 1858 1788 1863 c. . . 1781 1826 1784 1842 1795 1788 1855 • 1784 1842 1785 1811 s and 1552 1318 1776 1833 1685 1758 . 1749 1812 1485 1557 1773 1833 1723 1775 1795 1790 . 1798 1661 1725 1770 1847 1784 1832 1794 1806 1841 1781 1739 1836 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 73 IXATXaa, HAMB AND PEOFESSIOK. Eng. Rawllnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist • Eng. Bay, John, naturalist and author , Fr. Raynal, William Thomas Francis, historian and phllosophe: Boot. Keach, Angus B., journalist and author • • Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral • • • Eng. Reade. Charles, novelist . • , , Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A , , • « Eng. Bedding, Cyrus, journalist and author • • Amer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist . • » Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief • • Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist • • Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor . . , Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution • • • Amer. , Wm.B., politician and author . , Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopaadia &c. • Eng. Eeeve, Clara, novelist, ' Old English Baron' « Eng. , John, comic actor • • • • Eng. — — , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher f Fr. Eegnard, John Francis,* comic writer • • Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict,, chemist . • • Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist • • Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist . , , Scot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, * Use of Storms Amer. — — , Samuel C, naval commander . • • , Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician • • Ger. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) • . Fr. Remusat, J. P. A, historian and linguist • , Fr. Ren6, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . • , Eng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller • Scot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect • Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army , « Eng. Eepton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . , Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey • Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, ministerof Louis XV. Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A M., printer and designer Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg Eng. Ricardoj David, writer on political economy and finance ■' — , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian • . • Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . • • Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England • Eng. — — III, king, killed at Bosworth • Eng. Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) , Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . • Eng. , Samuel,'emineut novelist . , Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. . Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . Spauc Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . • ItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer • ItaL Bistori, Adelaide, actress . . • BOBK. DIED. 1810 1628 1705 1713 1796 1821 1862 1777 1849 1785 1789 1857 17591 1830 1808 1854 1742 1807 1748 1785 1743 1825 1723 1803 1799 1838 1814 1865 1647 1709 1810 1788 1818 1791 1858 1783 1861 1710 1796 1753 1812 1788 1832 1409 1480 1742 1830 1761 1821 1825 1862 1752 3818 1802 1858 1614 1679 1779 1859 1820 1863 1772 1823 1812 1862 ITOi) 1850 1157 1199 1450 1485 1775 1865 1851 1689 1761 1787 1865 1585 1642 1763 1825 1500 1555 1783 1825 1313 1351 1821 74 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS, JTATIDN. HAMB AND PROFBSSIOH. Eng, Eitchie, Leitcli, journalist and author , * Amer. Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, 'Richmond Enquirer* • Eng. Riteon, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • Amer. Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer • • Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' , • Ger. , Charles, geograplier . • • • Span. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . Amer. Rives, John C, journalist, ' "Washington Globe ' . Amer. Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. T. • • Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . Scot Robertson, "William, celebrated historian , . Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist' of the revolution Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist Scot. Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter , (abt) Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal , Fr. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la • Fr . Eochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . , Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy ' . . Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral • Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman • • • Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . • Amer. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow Eiig. , Samuel, poet .... Eng. Rogct, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author Ft. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian , . Eng. Romaine, William, divine and author . • • Eng. Eomilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . Rom. Romulus, founder and firr^t king of Rome . • Ger. Rongc, Johannes, educational and religious reformer Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral .... Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez do la, statesman, poet, historian &c Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres , Rom. Roscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent Eng. Roscoe, Henry, biographer .... Eng. , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . Ger. Rose, Gustave, chemist .... Eng. -, Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' , Eng. , "Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . • Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &c, Amer Rosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army Ger. Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil osophy . ... . , Ger. Rosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist . • , Ital. Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . • Eng. Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic na^•igator • . Eng. , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . , Eng. Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer • • Ital. Rossini, Joachim, musical composer • • BORH. ©ren. . 1800 186S 1778 1854 • 1752 1803 1731 1798 , 1791 1779 1859 1791 1796 1864 1724 1802 . 1796 1864 1721 1793 1759 1794 1794 1864 t) 1763 1725 1807 . 1747 1827 1773 1794 1771 1838 1717 1792 . 1802 1806 1763 1855 1779 1733 1793 1754 1793 1661 1741 . 1714 1795 1767 1818 . B 0. 716 1813 1650 1708 JC. 1789 . 1793 B. 0. 61 1800 1836. 1751 1831 1C33 1684 1795 1795 1838 1775 1843 1800 1843 1819 1 I- 1805 1768 1835 1783 1854 . 1777 1858 3800 1863 . 1800 1792 BIOGBAPHICAL INDEZ. 15 HATIOK. VAHE AND PKOFESSIOH, BOSK. Ger.Jw.Eothschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banMng-house 1T80 , Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and 1821 Ger. Fr. Ft. Eng. ItaL Ger. Solomon, sous of Meyer Anselm Eothscbild . Rotteck, Chas. "W. R. von, historian . . , Rousseau, John Baptist, poet , . , , John James, eloquent and paradoxical imter Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist , Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist . , Ruckert, Frederick, poet . . , Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, ofllcer (in foreign service) and philosopher .... Amer. Rumsey, James, inventor • • , , Ger. Rupert, prince, warrior . • , . Amer. Euschenberger, W. S. "W"., author of voyages and scientific Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist . , , Eng. Eushworth John, ♦ Historical Collections » . , Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., U". S. senator from Texas • , Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art . . , , Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (^ife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters Eng. , Lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern * Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe Irish. , William EL, Times correspondent and author • Amer. Rutledge, Edwaid, statesman . . , Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . • iJatch, Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral . , , Eng. Eymer, Thomaa, antiquary, 'Federa* • • • 1775 1849 1670 1741 • 1712 1778 1673 1718 • 1795 1789 1854 rvice)and 1753 1814 . 1743 1792 1618 168? works 1807 1780 • 1607 1690 1803 1857 • 1819 s' 1636 172S • 1641 1808 1683 r , 1792 1746 1794 • 1821 1749 1800 • 1739 180O 1607 1679 • 1713 Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist , , Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible Fr. , Sylvester, baion de, orientalist . . Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet . . . , , Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt • , Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal , , Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution , , Fr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . ' , Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of ' Paul and Virginia,' &c. ItaL St. Real, C^par Vichard abbi de, historian Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher , Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral , , Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales , , Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author Bar. Saladin, sultan'of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior Eng- Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesffian • Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian • • • f. B. C. 1790 1672 1724 1613 1684 1758 1838 1175 1296 1567 1587 1822 1863 1798 1S54 1735 1813 1799 1861 1772 1844 1736 1814 1639 16S3 1760 1823 1T34 1823 1790 1827 1137 1195 1680 173S 1550 1619 86 B. 0. 35 16 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. KATIOir. HAME AND PROFESSION, BOBK. DIKD. Fr. SaTmasins, Claudius, scholar and author • • • 1588 1653 Ft. Salvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman .... 1795 1858 Ft. Salverte, miscellaneous writer , , . • 1771 1839 Heb. Samson, judge of Israel , , , , . B. o. 12th Cent. Heb. Samuel, last judge of Israel . • , . b. c. 11th Cent. Phoa. SanconiAtho, philosopher and historian • . . f. b. o. 760 Pr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist • • 1804 Amer. Sanderson, John, Ulterateur ..... 1785 1844 Amer. Sands, Robt. C, poet and litterateur . , , 1790 1832 Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . . 1623 1672 Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . , 1600 1662 Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president . 1798 Gr. Sappho, poetess . . . , . f. b. c. 606 Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh ... . . b. o. ItaL Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 1522 Saul, 1st king of Israel .... Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian • Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . . . Baussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . , , Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . Heb. Fr. Ft. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Ft. Ger. Ital. Savage, Richard, poet . . ' . Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,* 'Letters on Egypt* Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy — , Thomas, naturalist .... Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian , Julius Caesar, learned critic . Scandenberg (real nanoe Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and Scapula, John, lexicographer Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, juiist . Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . . , Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . , Scheele, Charles "Wm., eminent chemist • • Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist . . . , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . . Fr. Fr. Amer. ItaL ItaL Ger. Eng. Fr. Ger. Swe. Ger. Ger. Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . Prusa SchiU, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer Ger. Scliiller, John Frederic C, eminent histoi-ian and dramatist Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal' Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian . Schliermacher, F. D. R, classical philologist and theologian Scnlosser, M. S. F., historian ... Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Amer. Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia BcholL historian . , • , 1807 . 1757 1677 1740 1767 1697 1750 1779 1452 service 1696 1600 1134 1794 1767 1787 1540 1484 warrior 1404 1540 1709 1610 1764 1742 1766 . 1776 1773 1759 1778 1767 1772 1768 1776 1736 1766 376 "i 1623 c. 1055 1836 1730 1799 1845 1743 1788 1861 1498 1750 1639 1208 1832 1824 1609 1558 1467 1600 1844 1660 1786 1839 1854 1805 1856 1845 1829 1834 18Gr, 179» JOEN. DIED. 1619 1690 180i 1865 1793 1864 1770 1838 1615 1667 1661 1747 1780 1850 1747 1731 1804 1771 1820 1800 1852 1576 1649 B. 0. 123 ) B. c. 189 1291 1747 1821 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 77 KATlOir. NAME AND PEOFESSION. Dutch, fechom'berg, Armand Frederick, warrior . • Ger. Schomburgk, Sir Eobert H., naturalist and traveller Amer. Schoolcraft, Henry R., ti-uvelJer and historian of the Indians Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist . , Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . , , Ger. Schuilembourg, John Matthias, warrior • , Dutch. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... Ger. Schutz, C. G., critic and UUeraleur . , , Amer. Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution , , Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . , Ger. , prince F., premier of Austria , , Ger. Scioppius, Caspar, philologist and grammarian , Rom. Scipio, ^milianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) , Rom. , Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) Scot. Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician Eng. ^ Thomas, divine and bible commentator , , Scot, , Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular writers of modern times • . . . 17T1 1832 Amer. , Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief TJ. S. army 1786 1866 Fr. Scribe, Eugene, dramatist • • , , 1791 1861 Fr.' Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 1851 Eng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate . , , i693 1768 Dutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet • • , , 1511 1536 Amer. Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867 Amer. , John, (of Conn.) Union general . , 1815 ' 1864 Am er. , Theodore, statesman and political economist , 1780 1839 Amer. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . . , 1811 1859 Eng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet . . , , 1639 1701 Fr. Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer , . 1753 1830 Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian ... 1584 1654 Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer , , 1723 Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) Chald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria , , , f. b. c. 1250 Rom. Seneca, Lucius AnuEeus, philosopher, statesman and moralist B.C. 2 65 Eng. Senior, Nassau W., political economist . , , 1790 i864 Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 1834 Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian , , . 1490 1572 Amer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . , , 1779 i852 Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander , , b. c. 73 Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 I553 Egypt. Sesostris, king of Egypt .... f. b. c. 1500 Pr. Sevign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer , 1627 1696 Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) , . . . 1747 i809 Amer. , William H., statesman, CT. S. senator from N. T., sec of state ISOl Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 1692 Eng. Shaftesbiiry, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 16S3 Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, < Characteristics' 1671 I713 Eng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist • . . , 1774 1S58 Eng. . , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 1616 Eng. Sharp, Granville, philanthropist .... 1734 I813 Scot. , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated , . 1618 1679 Kng. Shaw, George, naturaliat ..... 1751 181g 78 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion , , Amer. Shedd, TV. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . « Eng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P, B., the poet, novelist • Eng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . , Eng. Shenstone, "William, poet .... ■Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department Eng. , Richard Brinsley, dramatijit and orator . Eng. ; Thomas, actor, and author . , « Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London , , Amer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . • Amer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio « • • Amer. , William T., general . • • Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist . , . , , Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist • • Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist . . • • Eng. Shovel, Sir Cloudeeley, able naval ofi5.cer • • Amer. Shuhrick, John Templar, naval oflftcer • • Amer. , William B., rear admiral ... Eng. Bhuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament' Eng. Sibbes, Richard, theologian, ' Bruised Reed' , Eng. Sid dons, Sarah, the most eminent of tiagic actresses • Eng. Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman • Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . , Eng. , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author • Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist , , Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Unioji array, war 1861-66 • Amer. Sigouruey, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . , Amer. Billiman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . • Amer. , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist , Eng, Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor . -, Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic Amer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . • Gr. Sim onides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet • • Gr. • , of Eos, lyric poet .... Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician • • • Eng. , Thomas, " . • • Eng. Sinclair, Catharine, authoress Hind. Sing, M, rajah Rimjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . Swiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historian . . . Eng. Skelton, Jolm, poot laureate to Henry VIII , . Ger. Sleidan John Philipson, historian Eng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist • . . Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy Scot. , Alex, poet ..... Eng. , Charlotte, poet .... Amer. , General Samuel, military commander and statesman Eng. , Horace, poet, ♦Rejected Addresses,' &c. . Eng. , James, poet, « c« ^ ^ Eng. , John. * History Viginia' , , Eng. , John Pye, theological writer • • • Amer, , Joseph, Mormon prophet ... BOBN. BIBD 1740 182S 1787 1863 1798 1851 1792 1822 1714 1763 1751 1816 1722 1788 1678 1761 1721 1793 1775 1852 1792 1851 1594 1666 1650 1705 1778 1815 1754 1577 1635 1755 1831 1757 1844 1620 1683 1554 1586 1796 1824 1791 186a 1779 1864 1759 892? 1806 o. 660 ? 650? 1687 1710 1800 1779 1773 1450? 1506 1660 1723 1830 1749 1752 1779 1775 1579 1774 1806 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 19 HATIOir, Eng. Eng, Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng, Scot. Eng. Eng. Eng, Pol. rt:il, Gr. Gr. Span, Heb. Gr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger, Gr. Fr. Amer, Fr. Fr. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng, Eng. Fr. Fr. Gr. Amer. Eng. Eng, Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng, Eng, Span. Dutch. Ger. Amer. Ger. Eng. HAMB AND PBOFESSIOIT. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moraliet • , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . • — — , Sir William Sidney, military commander • , T. Southworth, writer on sanitary reform , "William, classical scholar and author Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novBlist and historian Smyth, Wm.,Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, wariior Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect , Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers , ecclesiastical historian. . . • Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . • Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs • Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer • Somerville, Mra Mary, astronomer , • , Wm., poet,* The Chase' . Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . Sophocles, eminent tragic poet ... Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the S. College at Paris. Soule, Pierre, TJ. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist Souli^, Frederick, novelist and dramatist , Soulouque, Eanstio, ex-emperor of Hayti Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of Franco and statesman .... South, Robei-t, eminent divine Southard, Samuel L., see. navy, and senator U. S., N. Y. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . , Robert, poet, historian, biographer • Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary Spence, "Wm., entomologist . . . Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York , earl of, statesman . , John C, jurist and sec. navy , , "Wm. R., translator . . Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet • • Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . Spohr, Louis, musical composer Spooner, Shearjashub, {Diet of Painters) . Sprengel, Kent, botanist Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergymai BORTT. DIED. 1768 184S 1759 1828 1764 1840 1790 1861 1814 1835 1721 1771 .1764 1849 1788 1865 , 1753 183T 1629 1696 1539 1594 B, c, 470 B. C.400 5th cent , A. D. 1610 1686 B. 0. 975 f. B. c. 598 , 1650 1716 1790 1692 1743 1804 1854 B. c. 495 B. C.404 1201 1274 1800 1769 1638 1787 1750 1662 1787 1775 1806 1800 (abt.) 1794 1827 1561 1783 1765 1758 1788 1770 1553 1571 1633 1783 1766 1834 1847 1851 1716 1842 1814 1746 1854 1843 1854 1858 450 1866 1864 1643 1860 1843 1835 1855 1834 1598 1630 1677 1839 80 THE "WOEIiD'S PEOGEESS, V\t.J 1832 1753 1817 1750 1656 1867 1S16 1839 KATION. NAMB AND PK0FE8SI0N. BORN. Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated plirenologist, (died at Boston) . 1776 Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet ..... 1791 Amer. , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . 1795 Amer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary . . . 1820 Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist Bible ' . . 1680 Fr, Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress • 1766 Pr. , Madame, talented writer .... 1693 Eng. Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N.E. . • 1584? Eng. Stanfield, Clarkson, mariue painter . . • . 1798 Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . 1753 Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller . . . 1776 Eng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 1805 Anaer. Stanton, Edwin M., sec: etary of war .... Amer. Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 1728 1822 E,om. Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . . 61? 96? Eng. Staunton, Sir Geo. L, 'Embassy to China'. . , 1737 1801 Irish. Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . . . 1671 1729 Eng. Steevens, Geo., 'Comment, on Shakespeare' , . 1736 1800 Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman ai.d author . . 1789 1859 Fr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers . 16th fcent. Amer. , John L., traveller and author . . , 1805 It 52 Eng. Stephenson, George, engineer . . • , 1788 * 1848 Eng. .Robert, «* • . . , . , 1803 1859 Scot. Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic • . 1806 1844 Ger. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author , • 1806 Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . . . 1713 1768 Eng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . . . . 1549 Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the America?! cause ....•• Amer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . . • , 1749 Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England . . 1784 Amer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the TJ. S. Navy and author 1798 Scot. ,Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer , . 1753 Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian . . . 1727 Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author . 1633 Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red Jacket' ..... 1793 Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist .... 1766 Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . . 1779 Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian .... 1525 Amer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . , , Amer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist , • , 1814 Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist ..... 1746 Gr. Strabo, eminent geographer . . . . , 19 Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . • 1593 Eng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscour.t, diplomatist . . , 1788 Ger. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' , 1808 Ger. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author . , 1786 Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' , 1806 Eng. Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian • . 1643 Russ. Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer , . , 1793 Scot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian ..... 1742 1794 1838 1857 1828 1795 1844 1835 1845 1605 1836 1641 1737 1864 1786 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 81 FATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. Eng. Stuart, James, architect and author . , Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general « Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . Eng. Starge, Joseph, philanthropist Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, 'Reflections,' «fec. Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands Fr. Eng. Fr. Rom, Rom, Daiu Gr. Suchet, Louis Gahriel, celebrated marshal , Suckling, Bir John, poet and dramatist Sue, Eugene, novelist . . • Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . , TranquiUus Caius, historian • Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian Suidas, Greek lexicographer . • , Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer • • Amer. ■ — , John, revolutionary general . , ^ , Amer. , Wm. LL. D., political writer Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter . . . Amer. Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher Amer. Samner, Charles, U. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist Amer. Edwin Vose, Union general . Eng. John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. 0. , Eng. Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman Eng. Sui-rey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet , Eng. Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet Eng. Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. III. , Eng. Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury Russ. Suvarofl", or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel rior . . , ... , Eng. Swain, Charles, poet . . Dulch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect , Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist . , Swinburne, Algernon, poet Swinton, "Wm., critic and historian, 'Army of Potomac' Sydenham, C. "W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and b rutal usurper Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to A va ' , . • Syphax, Numidian prince . . • • Irish. Eng. Amer. Eng. Rom. Eng. Afric. BORN. 1713 1832 ? 1780 1740 1602 1772 .1613 1S08 37 f. 100 1728 aht. 1000 1744 1740 1774 1560 1783 1798 1811 1796 1780 1734 1641 1515 1779 1773 1755 war- 1730 Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian • Rom. 5 Marcus Claudius, emperor . , • Swe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese . . . Eng. Talbot, Jno., Ist earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . Eng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . , Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., Revol. officer . Ft. Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors 6 1637 1689 1667 1793 B. 0. 137 B. 56 200 1804 1373 1750 1795 1754 1529 1754 1763 1S41 c. 78 1809 C. 201 THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Tartar. Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror . • , Amer. Taney, Roger B,, chief-justice U. S. . • Scot. Tannahill, Robt., poet . . • • Span. Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer • Eng. Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America , Ital. Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Graul ItaU , Toiquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets Ger. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Lt'lpsic Ger. , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic Amer. Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . Eng. , Isaac, essayist .... Eng. , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer • Eng. , John, ' the Water Poet ' . . • Eng. ■ , Sir Robert, sculptor and architect . Eng. , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . Eng. , Tom, dramatist Eng. J Wm., uuscellaneous writer. . . Amer. , Zachary, major-general U. S. Army, victor in MexicO; pres. U. S. . Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) Eng. Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . . Swiss. Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty Eng. Temple, Sir William, statesman and writer Amer. Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer • Amer. , Rev. Wm., famous for 'France' . • Eng. , Sir Jaa. Emerson, statesman and writer Ger. Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' Eng. Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate Eng. Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B, Eom. 1'erenoe, or Terrentius, comic writer . Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of the Church .... Amer. Terry, Alfred K., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher Eng. Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture . Ger. Thalberg, Sigiemund, pianist Ger. Thaks, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of Philosophy . . , Gr. ThemistDcles, eminent Athenian • • • Fr. Thenard, chemist and statesman , • Gr. Theocritus, pastoral poet . . • • . £. B. , Eng. Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare • Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . • Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior Gr. Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . Span. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer Eng. Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . Gr. Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C, co\int, historian . • Ft. Thierrj", Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian • • |i^. , Amedee S. D., historian , • 1777 1864 1774 1810 1754 1833 1493 1569 1544 159£ 1838 1826 1787 1865 1613 1667 1580 1654 1714 1788 1758 1835 1817 1800 1849 1784 1850 1813 1757 1834 1354 1G28 1693 1703 1764 1705 1777 1804 1761 1819 1810 1762 1832 a 19:i 160 245 1811 1863 1752 1828 1812 C. 639 B. 0. 513 c. 535 B. 0. 470 0. 285 1744 385 457 346 395 0. 371 1515 1582 1794 c. 576 1795 1856 1797 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 83 KATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Thiers, -A dolphe, Mstorian and statesman , , Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c. . , Ger. Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian Ger. Tlioluclc, Fred. Aug., theologian Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . , Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer Amer. , Chas., president of Congress , • Scot. , Dr. Thomas, chemist ... Scot. , James, popular poet Amer. Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist , Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor ... Gr. Thrasybulus, Athenian general • . . Gr. Thucydides, historian .... Eng. Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . , Bom. Tiberius, Claudius Drusus K'ero, warrior and emperor Rom. TibuLlus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator Amer. Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature , Ger. Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . . , Eng. Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' « • . TiUotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury Ger. Tilly, Jobn F., count de, military commander. , Gr. Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse , Tart. Timour Beg. See Tamerlane • . • Hind. Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior , Swiss. Tissot, Simon A., medical writer Rom. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavins, emperor, father of his people Eng. Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' , Fr. Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman , Eng. Todd, Robt. B., ' Medical Cyclopaedia ' &c. . , Russ. Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers , , Eng. Tomliue, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of Winchester , Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. Irish. Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion Eug. Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . , Eng. , Thos., 'History of Prices' , , Eng. , WnL, miscellaneous writer , , , Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . • , Span. Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general , , Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . , Amer. Torrey, John, botanist and chemist Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer . Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . Amer. Totten, Joseph G., military engineer . . , Amer. Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist , Toussaint I'Ouvertuxe, negro, pres. of Hayti , , Eng. Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment on Bible ' Fr. Tracy, A. L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi- losophy ..... Eng. Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Britannlca' , , Bom, Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . BOEN. DIED. 1798 . 1784 1860 1797 1799 3r 1783 . 3778 1849 1729 1824 1773 1852 1700 1748 1817 1862 1771 1844 B. C. 389 B. C. 469 B C. 400 . 1732 1806 B. c. 84 37 . B. c. 30 1686 1740 1791 1773 1853 1774 1810 1630 1694 1559 1632 B. C. 337 1739 1799 1728 1797 pie 40 81 1770 1804 1805 1859 1810 1866 1818 1T50 1787 1774 1825 1763 1798 1736 1812 1774 1858 1744 1820 1740 1778 1498 1783 1840 1608 1647 352 1788 . 1776 1854 1745 180? 1867 1754 1838 1781 1862 52 117 84 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. NATIUK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BDRN. Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author . , ,1788 Eng. Trench, Bev. Eich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 1807 Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . , 1726 Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. fcjax-ah, misc. writer . , , 1741 Fr Tristan, I'Hermite, Francis, poet . . , • 1601 Eng. Trollope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . • 1778 Dutch. Tromp, Marlrn H. van, celebrated admiral , , . 1597 Amer. Trooet, Gerard, chemist and geologist . , , 1776 Amer. Trumbull, Col. John, statesman and hist, painter , • 1756 Amer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . , 17o5 Amer. ■ , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut • • 1740 Amer. , John, poet, born in Ct. ... 1750 Eng. Truro, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor , , 1782 Amer. Truxton, Thos., naval commander . , , 1755 Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer . , , 1705 Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . . 1784 Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., cjritic and essayist . . . Amer. , Jos., writer and philanthropist . . 1778 Amer. Tudor, Wm., editor IS'. Amer. Eev. and biographer . . 1779 Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist , . 1810 Fr, Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . ,1611 Ft. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . • • 1727 Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . . Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry' . . 1798 Amer. , Samuel H., Eev., theologian and critic , • 1791 Eng. , Sliaron, 'History cf England' . , , 1768 Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist , , , 1810 Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . • 1588 , Francis, (son) " u n , , ]623 , John A. (sou) «♦ " " . . 1671 Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' , 1500 Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general .... 1790 Eng. Twining, Eev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . , . , 1734 Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pies. U. S., and lebel . . . 1790 Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible into English ...... 1500 Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author , • 1800 Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian . . . , . 1642 Gr. Tyrtseus, poet . ... , . f. b. c. 668 Scot. Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and miiic. writer . . 1747 gcot. , Patrick Fraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' 1790 fcjcot. — — » Wm., historical and misc. writer • • , 1711 IX Ger. Uhland, Ludwig, poet , . , Span. TJlloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author • Uncas, North American Indian chief (Muhegans) Eng. Upcotl, William, autograph collector and histoiiaii Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author , Irifih. Usher, James, learned divine and historian 1787 1716 1680 1779 1778 1580 BIOGEAPHICAL USTDEJu 83 NATIOH. NAME AND PBOFESSION, Fr. Vailliant, Sebastij».», eminent botanist . , Dutch. "Valcknenaer, Louis Q-aspar, able philologist and critio . Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses , Valentia, George A., viscount, * Voyages and Travels * Bom. Valerian, emperor ..... Rom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . • • • Kom. Maximus, historian . • • • Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . • Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States • Eng. V^ancouver, George, navigator ... Eng. VandenhoflF, John, actor . , , • Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . , , Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • • Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general • . Eiig. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • , Amer. Van ]S"ess, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist • Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patroon ' • • Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans Itah Vasari, George, architect and biog., ' Lives of the Painters ' Ger, Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations . Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., • dissenting ' divine and historian Span. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet .... Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet • . . Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . . Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior , . Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' . . Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer ... Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet ... Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . . . Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral .... Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery . ' . Fr. Veron, Louis Desire, author and journaiistr . , Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critio . , Fr. Verlot, Ren6 Hubert, abbe de, historian , . . Eng. Vertue, Geoi-ge, engraver and antiquary . . Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavius, warrior and emperor . , Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given to the new world .... Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . , , Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain . Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - . . , Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . , Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police , Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . , , Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critio . , Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, able general Fr. Villemain, Abel, Fr. nolitician and auttior . , 1669 1722 . 1715 1785 f. 12th cent. • 1770 1844 260? 88? f. 30 1406 1457 1782 1864 1750 1798 1790 . 1776 1852 1593 1645 1823 1863 1612 1662 . 1781 1853 1764 1839 B. C. 116 B. c. 27 1512 1574 1771 1826 1714 1767 1633 1707 1503 1536 1562 1635 1795 1654 1712 1725 1797 . 1814 1.S46 1789 1864 1684 1759 1774 1849 1798 1655 17S5 . 1684 1756 79 1451 1516 1797 1858 1820 1819 1826 1855 1490 1566 • 1775 1850 1820 • 1799 16')3 1734 . 1793 86 THB WORLD'S PEOGBESS. HATIOK. Eng. Fr. Boiru Ital. Ital. Ital. Russ. Dutch. Dutch. Ger. Fr. Ital. Fr. Ger. NAME AND PROFESSION. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer Vinet, Alex. R., theologian Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . « Vittoria Colouna, 8Chol;ir . • Vladimir the Groat, grand duke • • Voet, John, jurist at Leyden . • , Paul, jurist at Utrecht • • Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist • , Volacy, count, celebrated writer , • Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) Voltaire, Francis Maiie Arouet, celebrated poet, and historian . , , Voss, J. G., historical painter • • imer BOBN. DIED 1821 , 1797 1847 oman poets b c. 70 B. c. 19 1831 f.B c. 27 , , 1490 1547 • • 101£ 1647 1714 • 1619 1829 1667 1856 • 1757 1745 1820 1820 philosopher, 1694 1778 1577 Ger. "Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic , , Amer. "Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist , Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general , Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist . , Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York • Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic . • Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . . Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . • Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . , Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretaiy of treasury Amer. , "William, ' filibustering ' adventurer Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist Scot. , "William, patriot and hero Irish. , "William Vincent, musical composer . Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general • Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general • Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author , Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . , Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New York Eiig. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist Eng. , Izaak, angler and biographer Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. Y. Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution Scot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian Amer. Ware, Henry, rev.. Unitarian theologian and author Amer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author Amer. , William, novelist, • Zonobia,' &c. Amer. Warren, John Coilins, eminent surgeon Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 1794 1763 1807 1805 1792 1796 1756 1762 1810 1732 1801 1824 1817 1276 1815 1583 1603 1597 1713 1676 1784 ibm 1815 1600 1593 1789 1698 1748 1780 1764 1794 1797 1778 1741 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 85 ■ATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. 'Waixeii, Mrs. Mercy, hiBtorian, ' American Review* . Eng. ■ — , Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear' • , Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval oflacer . . . • Eng. "Wartou, Joseph, poet and critic . . , • Eng. ■ — , Thomas, poet and critic Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker Amer. "Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. S. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Scot. Eng. Bcot. Scot. Eng. Eng. George, the father of his country Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution "Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer "Watson, Elkanali, merchant, agriculturist, and historian Robert, historian , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . "Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer , Robert, bibliographer "Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist Dr. Isaac, diA-ine, poet, and miscellaneous writer Amer. "Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. Ainer. "Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution , Eng. "Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . Amer. "Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author , , Ger. Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer , , Eng, "Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic • , Webster, John, dramatic poet . « • • , Daniel, statesman . . , , , Noah, author of English Dictionary , , Eng. Amer. Amer, Scot. Eng. Amer, Amer. Irish, Eng, Amer. Eng. Amer. Scot. Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . , "Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain , , Weems, Eev. Mason L., author of school biographies • Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . . "Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. of Ireland ... . . "Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman "Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . , Edward, theologian and scholar . , , . , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anassthesia "Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . BORN. 1728 1807 1754 1720 1728 I 1759 1732 1752 1683 1758 1730 1737 1736 1774 1799 1674. 1796 1745 1792 1819 1786 1783 17tli 1782 1758 1733 1731 1821 17G0 1769 1663 1815 1794 Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford Eng- Am. "Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., also gjv. of Nova Scotia 1736 Eng. Ger. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer, Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist , Fred. L, Z., poet and dramatist , , "Wesley, Eev. Charles, ♦ Hymns ' . , , John, founder of Methodist society , . "Westall, Richard, historical painter "Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and cational writer ..... "Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess . , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer » "Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator "Wheatstoue, Cliarles, electrician "Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D, founder of Dartmouth College "Whewell, Rev. "William, theol., scientific and educational writer 1795 1593 1750 1768 1708 1703 1765 1787 1753 1686 1785 1802 1711 DIES. 1814 1822 1800 1790 1471 1829 1799 1810 1740 1842 1780 1816 1819 1819 1864 1748 1865 1796 1862 1856 1826 1813 cent. 1852 1843 1805 1795 1825 1852 1842 1852 1727 1848 1845 1820 1641 1817 1823 1788 1791 1837 1863 1794 1742 1848 1779 1860 88 THE world's PKOGKESS. HATIOH. WAME AXD PKOFESSION. Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essa\-ist . • Amer. WMstler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways • ^ng. Whiston, "Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . Eiig. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament Eng. White, Hei.ry Kiriie, poet .... , Rev, Joseph Blanco, priest and English author Eng, , William, one of the two iirst bishops of the P. E. church in United States .... Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists . Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . . . Amer. "Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist . • Amer. Whittingham, Wm. E., epis. bp. of Maryland and author Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London . . Wickliffe, or Wickli^ John, the morning star of the Reformation Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . • Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian , . • Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . • , William, statesman and philanthropist • Eng. Eng. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Scot. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Ajner. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. En. Am. Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of IST. Carolina . Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour nalist ...... Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . , , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . , , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit ■ , John (Chi istopher North), poet, critic and essayist , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author Winckelman, John Joachim, ♦ History of Art ' WUde, Richard Henry, poet and ii/^/'a^eMr • • Wilkes, John, celebrated political character . , Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologi.in , Sir Charles, oriental philologist . . Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author • , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . • Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL • ; — , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . « ■ , John, missionary and author . • , - — , Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars • , Otho H., general .... -, Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . , Scot. Eng. Eng. Scot. Eng. Ger. Aust. Eng. Ger. Swiss Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo Windham, William, statesman . . . Winer, George Bened., prot, theologian . • Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . , En.Am. Winslow, Edw^ard, governor of Plymouth colony . Eng. , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity , Amer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author Amer. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist , Eng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter ' . En.Am. Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . • , John tson), governor of Connecticut , BOBN. 1819 1800 1667 1638 1785 1775 1747 1714 1765 1808 1805 1324 1733 1792 1805 1759 1789 1717 1785 1614 1757 1797 1324 1787? 1762 1796 1800 1748 1606 1735 1807 1766 1778 1808 1785 1717 1787 1750 1789 1595 1810 1800 1789 ]o88 1606 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 80 Nation. name and profession. Wiiithrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot Amer. Wirt, William, attorney -general "U. S. and biographer Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist Eng. Withers, George, poet . . . , Amer. "Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . , , Scot. "Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian • , Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . • Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet , . , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independei Irish- Eng. Amer, Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. , Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller , Ger. , Ered. Aug., classical author and critic . • Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . , Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . , Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician Eng. Wollastori, William Hyde, experimental philos. , Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman , Eng. "Wollstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author • . Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer , Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . Amer. Woodbuiy, Levi, statesman and jurist . , Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Eraser Tytler (see Tytler) historian Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . , Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. , , Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, * Oaken Bucket ' , Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army » , Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist , Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionarj' general . , Eng. Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions Eng. , Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • Eng. Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., * Ancient Greece' , Eng. , William, poet laureate . , , Amer. Worth, William J., major-general TJ. S. army , Eng. Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author Eng. Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . , Eng. Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect , Eng. Wright, Eanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer' Amer. , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. S. Eng. , Thomas, antiquarian author . , Aust. Wnrmser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army , Eng. Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author , Eng. , Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . , Eng. "Wycherley, William, dramatic poet , , , Eng. "Wycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer . , Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth. Eng. Wyndham, Sir William, statesman BORN, 1828 1772 1802 1761 1690 1722 1636 1679 1719 1738 1727 1&79 1795 1759 1726 1791 1679 1766 M71 1759 1632 1716 1789 1745 1773 1747 1770 1785 1789 1720 1710 1784 1770 1770 1794 1806 » 1568 1751 1632 1796 1795 1810 1717 1820 1603 1640 1324 1324 1687 90 THE world's PEOGEESS. HATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Wysc, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education Amer. Wythe, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 180a Fr. Xa\1er, St. Francig, 'Apostle to the Indies' , Gr. Xenocratee, philosopher Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general Pers. Xerxes L, king of Persia Pers. II., king of Persia Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman Amer. Yale, Elihu, early patron of Tale College • Eijg. Yarvcll, "William, naturalist and author. • Eng. Youatl, William, author of works on the horse Amer. Young, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims , Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . , Eng. , Charles, actor Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer • Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek mode: Span. Y riarte, don Thoma^ de, eminent poet Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer , Heb. Zechariah, the prophet ...» Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer • • • Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . • Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics Zenohia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and p: the arts .... Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet .... Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist Swiss. , John George, miscellaneous writer • Ger. Zinzendori, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . , Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher. Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer Gr. Zozimus, historian .... Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer , Ger. Zumpt, Karl, author of Latia Grammar • , 1506 1552 • B. o. 406 0.540 B. c. 314 al . B. C. 446 B. c. 360 B c. 465 • 1457 1648 B. c. 425 1517 1721 • • 1784 1777 1856 1847 • 1800 1741 1854 1820 • 1801 1777 1856 • 1681 1774 1765 1829 rn rev. • 1792 1750 1828 1790 1714 1799 , f.*B. C. 520 • B 1668 C. 463 1750 . B. c. 362 B. c. 264 atroness of 300 • flB. C. 520 1743 1815 • 1728 1700 1795 1760 . 1730 1788 • 1737 f. 400 1815 js*» . 1771 1484 1848 1531 , 1792 185t BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 91 AETISTS. PArN-TEES— ENGEAYEKS— SCULPTOES— AECHITEOTS. NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. BOKN. DIED. Gr. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. B.C. 480 Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor, f. b. c. 5tli Cent. Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. b. c. 5th Cent. Ital. Albano, Erancis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 1578 1660 Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Archit. 1400 1490 Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto .... Painter. 1520 Gr. Alcai-menes (pupil of Phidias) . • Sculptor. f. b. c. 450 Scot. Allan, Sir WLlliam .... Painter. 1781 1850 Amer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Pninter. 1779 1843 Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 1488 1530 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Bnonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. 1474 3563 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . ^ Painter. 1569 1609 Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. f. b. o. 330 Gr. ApoUodorus, an Athenian . . . Painter. f. B. o. 408 Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 1754 1817 Gr. Aristides, of Thehes .... Painter. f. b. c, 240 Fr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 1640 1703 (Eight painters and engravers named Andran nearly conlemporaiy.) Ital. Eng. Amer. Flem. Ital. Eng. Dutch. Irish. Irish. Eng. Ital. ItaU ItaL Ital. ItaL Ger. Eng. Amer. Eng. Ital. Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- meo) . • • . • Painter. Bacon, John . • • • Sculptor. Baker, Geo. A. (F. Y.) • . • Port. Painter. Balen, Henry van • , • . Painter. Bandinelli, Baccio . • • . Sculptor. Banks, Thomas . . • . Sculptor. Barents, Dietrich ... Histor. Painter. Barker, Bohert, inventor of panoramas • . Painter. Barry, .James . . • . . Painter. Barry, Sir Chas. . • • . Architect. Bartolini, Lorenzo . • . Sculptor. Bartolozzi, Prancesco • • . Engraver. Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco . . , Painter. Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. Batoni, Pompey ..... Painter. Bauer, Ferdinand . • • Botanical Painter. Beechy, Sir William . . , Landscape Painter. Beard, Wm. H. (N. T.) • • • Painter. Beaumont, Sir George H. • • . Painter, Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine • • Engraver. 1469 1740 1517 1799 1560 1632 1489 1559 1745 1805 1534 1582 1740 1806 1741 1805 1795 1860 1777 1850 1730 1813 1469 1517 16th Century. 1708 1787 1826 1753 1839 1753 1610 1827 92 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIED. Ital. Bellini, GioT., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 1462 1512 ItaL Bellini, Gentine . . . . Portrait Painter. 1421 1501 Ital. Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Arch't. 1598 1680 Plem. Berchem, Nicholas . . . Engraver. 1624 16S9 Eng. Bewick, John, publisher of various works with wood- cuts . , . . Wood Engraver. 1760 1795 Amer. Bieretadt, Albert (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. Eng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819 Eng. Blake, William . , , Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) , Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 Eng. Bone, Henry . , , Enamel Painter. 1755 18o4 ItaL Bordone, Paris . . , , , Painter. 1503 3588 Dutch. Both, John and Andrew • . . Painters. 1610 1650, '56 Fr. Bourdon, Sebastian . , Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). , Painter. 1756 1811 Eng, Boydell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 Dutch. Brentel, Francis • . . . Painter. £ 1635 ItaU Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L., (1st of St, Peter's Church) .... Architect. 1444 1514 Amer. Brevooi t, J. E, (N. T.) . . Landscape Painter. Dutch. Brill, Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584 Dutch. Brill, Paul . , , Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 Amer, Brown, Geo. L. , , , , Painter. Amer. Brown, Henry Kirke • . • • Sculptor. 1814 Flem, Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . , Painter. 1370 1441 Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 Ital. Buonarotti, see Angelo Eng. Burnett, James , . , Landscape Painter. 1788 1816 € Ital. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 1588 Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and sons of Paul Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. . , Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 ItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio ... Painter. 1495 1543 Gr. Calimachus . . , Sculptor and Architect. f. b. c. 540 Ital. Cambiaso, Lucns, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 1587 Itah Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768 Ital. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 1822 Ital. Caracci, Ludovico , . , . Painter. 1555 1619 ItaL Caracci, Agostino , , ; . Painter. 1558 1601 Ital. Caracci, Annibale • • • . Painter. 1560 1609 Ital. Caracci, Anthony • , • • Painter. 1583 1618 ItaL Caravaggio, see Angelo , . , , ItaL Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro with three plates to imitate drawings . . 1486 1530 Fr. Casas, Louis Francis . . Painter and Architect. 1756 1827 Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. Y.) . . Lands. Painter. Span. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667 Ital. Cavendone, James , , , Fresco-Painter. 1577 1508 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- biography ..... Painter. 1500 1570 BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. — AliTlSTS. 93 NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. PIED. Bpan, Cespedes.Paulde Painter, Sculptor, Axchitecl. 1538 1608 Flem. Champagne, Philip de . Painter. 1604 1674 , , , Painter. 1643 1688 Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis • • . Sculptor. 1781 1841 Amer. Chapman, Johu G. . , , , Hist. Painter. Gr. Chares . . • • , . Painter. f.I 0. 300 Fr. Chaudet, Anthony Denia • • Painter and Sculptor. 1763 1810 Amer. Church, Fred. E. , • • Lands. Painter. Ital. Cignani, Carlo • , • Painter. 1628 1719 Itul. C.mabue, Giov., Florentine , . Painter. 1240 1300 luil. Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine . • Painter. 1600 1682 Gr. Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) , Sculptor. f.B. C. 180 Arcer. CievLDger, Shobal Vail Sculptor. 1812 1S44 Amcr. Cole, Thomas . , Lands, and Hist. Painter. 1802 1848 Eng-. Collins, William . Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 1788 1847 Amer. Colman, Saml. (N". Y.) . • . Lands. Painter. Eng. Constable, Johu , . Painter. 1776 1837 Eng. Cooper, Samuel^ , , . Miniature Painter. 1689 1776 Amer. Copley, John Singleton (horn in Boston) . Fainter. 1737 1815 Ger. Cornelius, Peter von . . Painter. 1787 Ital. Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Painter. 1493 1534 Dntch. Con, Cornelius . . • • Engraver. 1536 1578 Ita]. Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan , , • Painter. 1596 1669 Eng. Cosway, Richard • , Painter. 1740 1828 Fr. Courtois, James, known as XL Borgognone « Painter. 1621 1673 Fr. , , • Painter. 1628 1679 Fr. Couture Painter. Fr. Couston, Nicholas (also his b rother William) . Sculptor. 1658 1731 Ft. ^ William , Sculptor and Architect. 1716 1777 Fr. Cousin, John , Paint., Sculp., etc. 1500 1590 Eng. Cox, David • , Lands. Painter, 1723 1859 Gar. Cranach, Lucas . • . Engraver. 1470 1553 Amer. Cranch, Christr. P. • . . . Painter. Amer. Crawford, Thomas . , , . Sculptor. 1814 1857 Amer. Cropsey, Jasper F, (N. Y.) • , Lands. Painter. Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . Lands, and Cattle Painter. 1568 1649 Dutch. , Albert (son of Jacob) • Lands, and Cattle Painter. 1606 1667 Dutch. -t Benjamin * • • • Hist. Painter. 1650 Eng. Danby, Francis . • . , Painter. 1793 1861 Eng. Daniel, Thomas • • • , Lands. Painter, 1749 1840 Eng. , Wm. .... T,ands. Painter. 1769 1837 Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, « Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor. 1758 1841 Amer, Darky, F. O. C, . , , Painter and Designer. 1822 Fr. David, James Louis .... Painter. 1750 1825 Fr. , Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French school) ..... Sculptor. 1789 1856 Fr. Delacroix, F. V. E. . , , , Painter. 1798 1S63 Fr. Delaroche, Paul , , , Hist. Painter. 1797 1S56 94 THE world's progress. NATIOW Ger. Dutch. Gr. Ital. Ital. Ital, Fr. Amer. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Ger. NAME AND PROFESSION. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. De Witt, Janice .... Painter. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. Douaiello, or Douato « Dor6, Gustavo . Doughty, Thomas Douw, or Dow, Gerard Dubuffe, Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse Dunlap, William Durand, Asher B. (N. Y.) . ' Durer, Albert (and author) . Florentine Sculptor. Painter and Designer. Lands. Painter. . Familiar Life Painter. , Hist. Painter. , , Painter. Hist. Painter. Painter and Engraver. Paint,, Eng., Sc, and Arch. ORN. DIIA. 16S5 1741 1695 1747 f. B. .0. 330 1616 1686 1581 1641 1383 1466 1793 1856 1613 1674 1611 1665 1766 1839 1471 1528 Eng, Eastlake, Chas. L. , . . , Painter. 1793 1865 Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1859 Eng. Eglnton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on glass ..... Painter. 1737 1805 Amer. Ehninger, John "W. (N. Y.) . . . Painter. Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . . Port. Painter. Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . . Painter. 1787 1849 Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) . Painter. Dutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting in oil) Painter. 1370 1442 Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . Eng. Flaxman, John . En^:. Fiuden, Wm. . . Amer. Forbes, Edwin . • Scot. Forrest, Robert • • Fr. Fr^re, Edouard Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England Swiss. , John G. . . . Port. Painter. . Lands. Painter. Sculptor and Artist. Engraver. Painter. Sculptor. Genre Painter. Painter. . Painter. 1755 1787 1790 1741 1706 182* 1863 1852 182J 1781 Eng. Fr. Fr. Ital. Eng. Eng. Amer. Fr.Am Ital. Ital. Ital. Fr. Fr. Gainsborough, Thomas Gerard, Fran. P. S., baron , Jolm I. (Granville) Ghiberti, Lawrence . Lands. Painter. Painter. Caricaturist. . Florentine Sculptor. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak Gibson, John .... Gifford, Sanford R. . Gignoux, Regis Giordani, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) Giorgione, Barbarelli . . , Giotto (one of the eiirliest modern) Girardon, Francis Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Louia Sculptor. Sculptor. Lands. Painter. Lands. Painter. Painter. Painter. Paint. Sculp, and Arch. Sculp, and Arch. . Painter. 1727 1770 1803 1378 1648 1791 1629 1477 1276 1630 1767 1788 1837 1847 1456 1721 1867 1704 1511 13SC 1716 l&2i BIOGEAPHICAIi INDEX. — ^ARTISTS. 95 UATIOK. NAME AND PEOFESSION. Ital. Giulio Romano (Pippi) .... Painter. Fr. Goujon, John, the French PMdias . . Sculptor. Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. Amer. Greenougb, Horatio . • . Sculptor. Amer. Greane, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. ItaJL Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. BORN. DIEIX 1492 1646 1515 1572 1805 1726 1590 1574 1852 1805 1606 1642 Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer, Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Flem. Eng. Swiss. Ger. Amer. Flem. Amer. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Amer, Eng. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. Harlow, Geo. Henry . Hart, Wm., b. in Scotland Hart, Jas. M. " Haseltine, W. Stanley Haviland, John , Haydon, R. B. Healy, G-o. P. Heath, Charles Hennessy, W. L . Hicks, "Thos. Hilton, "William . Hobbema, Mynderhout Hogarth, William Holbein, Hans ... Painter. • • Fainter. . • . Painter. Landscape Painter. . , . Architect. , Historical Painter. ... Painter. Engraver. ... Painter. , . Painter. Historical Painter. • . Landscape Painter. Painter. Portrait and Historical Painter. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates Homer, Winslow . . . , Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) Hosmer, Harriet . . . , Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . ♦ Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) , Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver, Hubbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . Huntington, Dan, Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) , Justus (The Old) . , (The Young) Engraver. Painter. Painter. Sculptor. Engraver. Sculptor. Sculptor, Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. 178T 1823 1828 1792 1786 1808 1823 1786 1611 1697 1498 1607 1831 1698 1746 1736 1806 1816 1827 1682 1659 1684 1819 1846 1849 1764 1554 1677 1780 1828 1813 1749 1716 1706 Amer. Inman, Henry Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 1846 Amer. Jarvis, J. W. . Portrait Painter. Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. T.> , Painter. Amer. — , David (N, Y.) . • Painter. Fr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. . Painter and Designer. 1800 1887 Fr. • ^ Painter and Designer. 1803 1852 Amer. Jones, Alfred, N, Y. . Engraver. Eng. , Inigo , • . Architect, 1572 1653 Amer. . Thos. D. • Sculptor. 96 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. HATION. Flem. Jordaens, Jacol) ItaU Julio, Komano VAUB XSJ> FBOFESSION. Painter. Painter and Architect, K Swiss. Kauffinan, M. A, Angelica C. (In England) Amer. Kensett, John F. . . . Ger. Kiss, August , Ger. Elneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) Poetical Painter. Painter. , Sculptor. Painter. BORIT. 1595 1492 DIED. 167t 15i« 1807 1747 1818 1802 1865 1648 1723 Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 1640 1711 Fr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 1826 Eng. Landseer, Chaa. . Painter of Genre. Eng. Engraver. 1769 1852 Eng. Amer. Pir "Fdirin . Painter. 1803 Lang, Louis (h. in Germany) . Painter. 1814 Eng. Lawrence, Sir ThoB. . Painter. 1769 1830 Fr. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis AlV.) . . Painter. 1619 1696 Eng. Leech, John Humorist Artist. 1816 Gr. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter. 1618 1680 Ft. Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) Painter. 1617 1655 Amer. Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . Painter. 1794 1859 Ger. Lessing, Carl Fred. Painter. 1808 Amer. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) Painter. 1818 Ft. Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . Painter and Engraver. 1494 1533 Eng. Liverseege, Henry . • Painter. 1803 1832 Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) . Malbone, Edward G. . Sculptor, f.B. 0. 324 Amer. Miniature Painter. 1777 1807 Scot. Marshall, "Wm. 0. . , Sculptor. 1813 Amer. , Wm. C. . Engraver. Eng. Martin, John Painter. 1789 1854 Ital. Masaccio .... Painter. 1402 1427 Flem. Matsys, Quintin . Painter. 1460 1529 Ger. Mayer .... , Sculptor. Ital. Mazzuolo, Francis Painter. 1503 1540 Amer. McEntee, Jervis Painter. Fr. Meissonier, Justus A . Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 1695 1750 Fr. , Jean L. Painter. 1815 Ger. MengB, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 1729 1779 Dutch, . Metzu, Gabriel Familiar Life Painter. 1615 1669 Dutch. , Mieris, Francis . Familiar Life Painter. 1635 1681 Fr. Mignard, Peter Painter. 1610 1685 Amer. Miarnot, Louis R. , Painter. Amer. Mills, Clark . Sculptor. 1815 Swiss. Mind, Gottfried . . ■ Painter. 1768 1814 Ital. Morghen, Raphael . . . Engraver. 1758 1833 Amer. Morse, Snmuel F. B. . . Painter. Amer. Mount, William Sidney Paiiitcr. 1807 Eng. Moreland, George . . Painter. 1764 1804 Span. Mm-illo, Bartholomew S. • • Painter. 1613 1683 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. — ^ABTISTS. 91 HATIOW NAME AND PEOFESSIOIT. BOES. ©lED^ Dutch. Neefs, Peter . Architectural Painter. 1570 1651 Eng:. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) . • Historical Painter. 1785 1836 Eng. Nollekins, Joseph • • , , Sculptor. 1737 1S23 fing. Northcote, James • • • • Painter, 1746 1831 Eng. O Opie, John . . • , Painter. 1761 180Y Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (Interiors) . Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1685 Dutch, Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) • , Painter. 1617 1671 Eng. Owen, "William • • • , Painter. 1769 1825 Amer. Page, "Wm. • - , • , . Painter. 1811 Fr. Pajou, Angustin • • • « Sculptor. 1730 1809 Ital. Palladio, Andrew . . , • Architect. 1518 1580 Span. Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. Paiiiter. 1653 1726 Ital. Pannini, Giov. Paolo . • Architectural Painter. 1691 1764 Gr. Parrliasius, of E-pbesus • Painter. t B. C. 420 AmfeA Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 1741 1827 Amer. , Rembrandt Painter. 1778 1860 Fr. Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre; Architect. 1613 1683 Ital. Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) Painter. 1446 1524 Swiss. Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) . . Painter. 1607 1691 Bel. Peters, Bonaventura . • • Marine Painter. 1614 1652 Bel. , Francis Lucas • • , . Painter. 1606 1654 Bei. , John , • • Marine Painter. 1635 1677 Gr. Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor, b .0.498 B. C. 431 Eng. Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . Port. Painter. 1770 1845 Fr. Picart, Bernard . , , , Engraver. 1663 1733 Fr. Pigalle, John Baptist , ■■ , , Sculptor. 1714 1785 Ital. Pietro, da Pietre . , Hist. Painter of Rome. 1671 1716 Fr. Piles, Roger de , , . Author and Painter. 1635 1709 Ital. Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) , Engraver. 1707 1778 ItaL Polidora, da Caravaggio . • , Painter. 1495 1543 Gr. Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) , Sculptor. B, , C. 430 Ital. Pordenone, Regillo da , Painter. 1484 1540 Dutch, . Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) • Painter. 1625 1654 Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 1594 1665 Ital. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) • Landscape Painter. 1613 1675 Ital. Piombo, Sebastiano del • . Painter. 1485 154T Amer. , Powers, Hiram • • , , Sculptor. 1805 Fr. Pradier, Jacques - . • ^ 'Sculptor. 1798 1852 Amer. , Pratt, Mathew • , , , Painter. 1734 1805 Gr. Praxiteles • ^', , , Sculptor, f , B. 0. 350 Eng. Prout, Samuel • • • "Water-coloriet. 1783 1S52 Fr. Prudhon, of Cluny , , , . Painter. 1760 1823 Fr. Puget . , Sculptor, Painter and Architect. 1622 1694 Bnff. Pu^a, Augustus A. W. . » . _ . Arohiteot. IBU 1811 98 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS* KATION. ItaL Ital. Ger. Dutch. Ger. Eyg. Eng. Ger. Fr. ycot. Fr. Eng. Flem. Ital. Amer. Fr. Fr. Eng. Fiem. Scot. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. Eng. KAME AND PROFESSIOIT. Raphael, d' Urhino (real name Sanzio> A prominent Painter. Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) Hibt. and Port. Painter. Raucb, Christian David . • . Sculptor. Rembrandt van Eyn, Paul Geritz • Retsch, Moritz . • • • Art Designer. Reynolds, Sir Joshua .... Painter. Richardson, Jonathan , "Writer on Art and Painter. R'edinger, John Elias , , Animal Painter. Rober, Fleury • • • • Painter. Roberts, David . . . , • Painter. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) • Sculptor. Romney, George • • • • Painter. Rugs, Philip Peters • • . • Painter. Rosa, Salvator • . • . Painte*. Rossiter, Thomas P. , , . • Painter. Roubilliac, L. F. , , . • Sculptor. Rousseau, J-imes .... Painter. Rowlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Pa'nt. and Eng. Rubens, Peter Paul .... Painter. Runciman, Alexander • . . Painter. Ruysdael, Jacob Ruysdael, Solomon Eyckaert, David Ryckaert, Martin Rysbraeck, leter Landscape Painter. Painter. Painter. Landscape Painter. Landscape Painter. Rysbrach, John M. (works in Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. BORN. 14S3 1552 1781 1606 1779 1723 1635 1695 1797 1796 1746 1734 1655 1614 1695 1630 1756 1577 1736 1636 1616 1615 1591 1657 1694 SIBD. 1520 1580 1S59 1669 1859 1792 1745 1707 1864 1816 1802 1705 1673 1762 1693 1827 1646 1785 1684 1670 1677 1638 1716 1770 Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) , Painter. 1605 1685 Ital. Salvi, Nicholas , Architect. 1699 1752 Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael , Architect. 1484 1559 ItaL Sarto, Andrea del, see Vdnucchi , . Eng. Savage, James , . Architect. 1778 1852 ItaL Seamozzi, Vincent , Architect 1550 1616 Pruss. Schadow, J. G. - , • Sculptor. 1764 1850 Ger. Schadow, GodenhausP. W. , Painter. 1789 Ger. Schadow, Rudolf . , , Sculptor. 1786 1822 Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) , Painter. 1643 1706 Ger. Scheflfer, Ary . , Painter. 1795 1858 Ital. Behidone, Bartolomeo , Painter. 1560 1616 Gr. Scopas . • . . Sculptor. B. C.460 B. 0. 353 Eng. Shai-p, "William • Engraver. 1740 1824 Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. . Painter. Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy Painter. 1795 1850 Eng. Shei-win, John Keyse . . , Engraver. 1751 1780 Amer. Smillie, Jan^es , , Engraver, Amer. , George H. • Painter. ^ni«r. , Fainter. 1684 1751 ]579 1657 1714 1781 1746 1822 1589 1656 1636 1689 1721 1792? 1854 1749 1802 1713 1788 1756 1828 BIOGEAPIIICAL INDEX. AETISTS. 99 friTIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED, Amer. Smyljert, John (b. in Scotland) . . , Painter. Flera. Snyders, Fruncis . Landscape and Animal Painter. Fr. Soufflot, J. G. (clmrcli of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. Batch. Spaendouck, Gerradvan . , Flower Painter. i?paii. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la • , . Painter. Dutch. Steen, Jan . • • . Painter. Amer. Stone, 'William O. • f • Portrait Painter. Scot. Strange, Robert • • • . Engraver. Amer. Sirickland, "William • • . Architect. Ehg. Btrutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. Eng. Stuart, Jnmes, author of the Antiquities of Athens Archit-'iCt. Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Granach) . , . Engraver. ItaL Tenerani, Pietro • . • Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Euhens) Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (laipil of Rubens) Scot. Thom, Jiis. (Tain O'Shanter, &c.) Eng. Thoruhill, Sir Jas. . . • Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert . . • Ger. Tieck, Christ Pried . Gr. Tinianthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Ital. Tintoretto (Venetian— pupil of Titian) Ital. , II (James Robusti) Ital. Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school Fr. Troyon, Constantine . • • Amer. Trumbull, John • • • Eng. Turner, J. W. M. , • • Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. • • • Painter. 1783 1857 Amer. Van Beest (b. in Holland ?) . . Marine Painter. Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch't. 1672 1726 Amer. Vanderlyn, John . . . Historical Painter. 1776 1852 Dutch. Vander Neer, Arnold • • Landscape Painter. 1619 1683 Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian . . . Landscape Painter. 1639 1672 Patch. , the younger .... Painter. 1633 1707 j)utch. —,-Wm., marine and battle . • Painter. 1610 1693 Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian . . Historical Painter. 1654 1718 Flem. Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait Painter. 1598 1646 Dutch. Vaneyck, Hubert . ... • Painter. 1366 1426 Dutch. Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) • Painter. 1370 1441 . . Painter. 1488 1530 • Sculptor. 1789 , . Painter.* 1582 1649 1) Painter. 1610 1694 Sculptor. 1790 1850 Historical Painter. 1676 1732 , Sculptor. 1772 1844 , Sculptor. 1776 1851 , Painter. f.B. c. 240 ^ Painter. 1480 1579 , Painter. 1512 1594 , Painter. 1480 1579 . Painter. 1813 1865 Historical Painter. 1756 1843 , , Painter. 1775 1851 Ital. Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . Ital. Van Vitelli. Louis, a Neapolitan . . Architect. 1700 1773 Ital. Vasari, George, biographer of artists Architect and Painter. 1512 1574 Bic. Vasi, Joseph . . Designer and Engraver. 1710 1783 100 THE world's progress. JTATIOW. Spau. Flem. Amer. Fr. Fr. Ital. Itiil. Eng. . Ital. Ital. Gr. Ital. Fr. Fr. Araer. Eiig. Fr. Amer. Amer. Dan. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Scot. Eng. Eng. Dutcli. Eng. Eng. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOSIT. DIETV Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. 1599 1660 Verboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 1799 Ver Bryck, C. . . . L;inclscape Painter. 1813 1844 Veraet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. 1789 1863 Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. 1714 178* Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) Ven-ochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. 1422 1438 Vert ne, George (500 plates) . . . Engraver. 1684 1756 Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter'9 Ai-chitect. 1507 1575 Vinci, Leonardo da .... Painter. 1452 1519 Vitiuvius, contemporary of Augustus . . Architect. f B. C. 30 Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 1T33 .1802 Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- ry of Charles L .... Painter. 1582 1649 W WaUly, Charles de . . . . Architect. 1729 1798 Ward, J. Quincy A. . . . Sculptor. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving on steel Engraver. 1823 "Watteau, Antoine .... Painter. 1684 1721 ■Weir, Eobt. W. . . . . . Painter. 1803 , James F. . . . . Painter. WertmuUer, (?) (painted in America) . Port. Painter. West, Benjamin .... Painter. 1738 182(1 Westall, llichard . . . Historical Painter, 1781 1830 1781 1856 White, Edwin .... Painter. Whittredge, Worthington . . Landscape Painter. Wilkie, David . . . Familiar Life Painter. 17S5 1841 Wilson, Richard . . . Landscape Painter. 1713 1782 Woollett, William .... Engraver. 1735 1785 Wouverman, Philip . . . Painter. 1620 1668 Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) . . Architect. 1632 1723 Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.) . Architect. 1743 1813 "Wyatt, R. J. . . . . . Sculptor. 1795 1850 Bpan. Ximenes, Fran. Painter. 1598 1666 Flem. Tples, Charles de Painter. 1510 166S Z Ttal. Zahlla, Nicholas Gr. Zeuxis, celebrated ancient . ^ Ger. Zincke . . . ItaL Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo . ItaL Zuocarelli . Architect. 1674 1650 , . Painter, b. c. 490 b. 0. 400 Enamel Portrait Painter. 1684 1769 . Painter. 1539 1639 Painter. 1529 1669 Painter. 1710 1781 ADDENDA TO THE WOELD'S PKOGRESS. 1867-1872. ABYSSINIA. Magdala stormed; King Theodore kills himself; British captives Hberated, April 13, 1868. The war costs England £8,300,000. ADMINISTRATIONS, U. S. A. (p. 152). ITlysses S. Gkant, Illinois, March 4, 1869 President. ScHUYLEK Colfax, Indiana, do. 1869 Vice President. Hamilton Fish, New York, March, 1869 Secretary of State. George S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, do. 1869 Secretary of Treasury. ■ A. E. Borie, George M. Robeson, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, do. June 25 1869 , 1869 ]■ Secretaries of the Navy. Gen. Schofield, March, 1869 >- Secretaries of "War. Gen. John A. Rawlings, lUinoia, do. 1869 Gen. W. W. Belknap, Iowa, Sept. 1869 i James Harlan, Iowa, March, 1869 ) Gen. J. D. Cox, Ohio, 1870 V Secretaries of Interior. Columbus Delano, Ohio, June, 1870 i John A. J. Creswell, Maryland, March, 1869 Post^Master General. E. R. Hoar, Massachusetts, 1869 ) Amos T. Akerman, Georgia, 1871 V Attorney-General. George H. WiUiams, Oregon, 1871 ) James G. Blaine, Maine. 1869 Speaker of the House of Representatives. John Lothrop Motley, Robert C. Schenck, Massachusetts, Ohio, 1869 1871 ■ Ministers to England. E. B. Washbume, Illinois, 1869 Minister to France. George Bancroft, Massachiisetta, 1869 do. Prussia. John Jay, New York, 1869 do. Austria. George P. Marsh, Vermont, 1869 do. Italy. Disraeli resigns and Gladstone AFRICA (p. 4). Despatch from Dr Livingstone, dated May 13, 1869. ADIMINISTRATIOXS, England (p. 3). becomes Premier, Dec. 2, 1868. AGRICULTURE, U. S. A. Farm products of the United States, exclusive of live stock, for year ending June 1, 1870, $3,445,000,000. ALSACE, Nearly all conquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept,, 1870. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (p. 11). Sarmiento elected Prepiden^- for six years, Oct. 12, 18G8. ASTRONOMY (p. 13). Nos. 98 to 111 of the small planed i discovered be- tween Apiil, 1868, and Aug., 1870. AUSTRIA (p. 14). The empire named the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, by B. BALLOONS (p. 15). Used for postal purposes, and for escapes of individu als, by the people besieged in Paris, Sept.-Oct., 1870. BALLOT employed in electing London School Board, Nov. 29, 1870. BANKRUPTCY Court (p. 16). A new one in England first opened Jan. 1, 1870. BATTLES (p. 17). In Franco-Prussian War. Saarbiiick, French vict Aug. 2, 1870 "Wisserabourg, Pruss. vict.. Aug. 4, 18T0 WcBrth, ' Aug. 6, 1870 Saarbruck, ' Aug. 6, 1870 Courcelles, ' Aug. 14. 1870 Strasburg, ' ' Aug. IB, 1870 Vionville, ' Aug. 16, 1870 Gravelotte, ' Aug. 18, 1870 Carignan, ' Aug. 31, 1870 Metz, Prussians victorious, Aug. 31, 1870 SEDAN, " Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, 1870 Thouiy, " Oct. 5, 1870 Chateaudun, " Oct. 18, 1870 Near Orleans, French vict.Nov. 9-10, 1870 Near Orleans, Pruss. vict. , .Dec, 4, 1870 St, Quentin, " Jan, 19, 1871 BIBLE Translation. First meeting of Convocation for Revision of the English Bible, at Westminster, June 22, 1870. BRAZIL (p. 21). Lopez defeated and kiUed, March 1, 1870. C. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT abolished in Saxony, AprH 1, 1868. Abolition negatived in English House of Commons, 118 to 58, July 27, 1869. CHICAGO. The " greatest fire of modem times " destroys 18,000 buildings (half the city), valued at about $200,000,000. Lives lost estimated from 100 to 500, Oct, 8-9, 1871. CHINA (p. 28). Chinese Embassy, headed by Anson Burlingame. received by President Johnson, at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; by the Emperor, at Paris, Jan, 24, 1869. Burlingame's death at St. Petersburgh, Feb. 22, 1870, Cruel massacre of French priests and about fifty persons by the mob, at Tientsm, June 21, 1870. Execution of the leaders of the outrage, Oct, 26, 1870. CHURCH OF IRELAND. Act of Parliament for " dis-establishing " it passed in Commons, May 31, 1869. Royal assent to it, July 26, 1869. ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PEOGEESS. 3 CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, U. S. A. , was introduced in Congress, by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, Jan. 29, 1867; Act passed March 3, 1871, authorizing the President to prescribe rules for examinations for civil service ; commissioners appointed by the President for this purpose, June 4, 1871. First meeting of the Commission ; Geo. Wm. Curtis elected Chairman, June 28, 1871. CIVIL SERVICE, England. Competitive examination was made general after Oct. 1, 1870. COFFEE. Imported into the United States, in 1869, 230,814,376 lbs. ; in 1870, 253,571,664 lbs. ; in 1871, 294,930,948 lbs. In England, 1869, 173,416,332 lbs. COINAGE. In England, 1869, £7,469,464. COMMANDER-m-CHIEF, U. S. A. Gen. Sherman appointed, 1869. COMMERCE of the United States. 1869 Exports $394,644,335 Imports $414,256,243 1870 Exports Imports 452,875,665 1871 Exports 460,331,614 Imports 572,509,314 COPYRIGHT. Decision of House of Lords, England, in favor of a foreign author's copyright, May 29, 1868. The Library Committee of Congress considers Mr. Cox's bill for International Copyright, and receives delega- tions for and against its object, Feb. , 1872. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, N. Y., founded by Ezra ComeU in 1868. COTTON, U. S. A. Amount produced in 1869-70, 3,154,946 bales; in 1870-71, 4,352,317 bales ; of which was exported, 3,166,742 bales. COTTON imported into England, 1869, 1,220 miUions of lbs. COUNCILS (p. 279). The twenty-first GEcumenical or General Council meets at Rome, Dec. 8, 1869. Present : 6 archbishop-princes, 49 car- dinals, 11 patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops. Infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 against 2, and promulgated July 18, 1870. CUBA (p. 38). Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revolution, Sept., 1868 ; essentially checked, June, 1870 ; but still not wholly suppressed, Jan., 1872. D. DARIEN CANAL. Commander Selfridge having surveyed the Isthmus for the proposed canal, returns to New York, July 19, 1871. DIAMONDS discovered in Cape Colony, South Africa, March, 1867. EARTHQUAKE. Several towns in Peru and Ecuador destroyed, and 25,000 lives lost by earthquake, Aug. 13-15, 1868. ECLIPSE, Solar, generally observed in North America, Aug. 7, 1869. 4: ADDENDA TO THE WOKLD'S PKOGRESS. EDUCATION, U. S. A. (p. 45). A " Department of Education" created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 18(57 ; afterwards made a " Bureau" of tlie Department of the Interior. First Commissioner, Henry Barnard, of Connecticut. Succeeded by Major John Eaton, in 1870. The Bureau publishes an Annual Report, with Statistics, in volumes of about 500 pages. EDUCATION, England. National Education League (advocating compul- sory education) first met Oct. 12-13, 1869. Metropolitan School Board elected Nov. 29, 1870; Miss Garrett, M.D., being chosen a member by a large majority. EGYPT (p. 45). The Suez Canal opened Nov. 17, 1869. Adjustment of conflict with the Sultan, Dec. 18, 1869. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS (p. 46) in England placed in charge of Post Master General, July, 1868. French Atlantic Telegraph, from Brest to Duxbury, Mass., completed and opened July 31, 1869. A telegram from Hong Kong, China, received at New York, over 15,000 mUes of wire, and published next morning, June 18, 1871. Statue of Morse, inventor, unveiled in Central Park, New York, June 10, 1871. EMIGRATION from Great Britain in 1869, 258,027. ENGLAND. See Great Bntain ; Church of Ireland, et' ^^ ^«/_ '> \' * "^V^ iV ■/>„ ^..,^^' /' •^c.. .^0' f :- x^^.. ,0- •i^>>^ V v^ ,-^^ .0 , vv , ^^ N - ^ \^ > ■'•■f... V » •" * » f ^ ^ r . ^r tf 1 \ N ''^^^ ^ ' -^ ^' o ^^^' V ^ ' j> .s. c^^' f ^^h^- '^ ,xN' .W'^.', ''^•.5'^ * .-.s^^ "'T.s^V ^■^' ^^'":':% ■W X .^^ ^^ V ,0- .\^' ^,^ .-^'^'^^ ^/, o ^ -^ ". \' ,^^^ ''^]^ - V^ '.::^^.\^-> -.^'^ V . 6 . '/; -^" .^ \' ■*- O^ s C..,^^ '-%.cV ■/:'.^5(\''::>^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: APR -^^''^' -.,-.,... ^ '^^^^ \ °At%^. PreservationTechnofe . v^ ^''t^^s'^ V\ ,„ -^^ ^ O , k "* A WORLD LEADER JN PAPER PRESEHVATinu »~.,;. .#0 '.'"'■"" PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16068 (724) 779-2111 ^^;'6 - ^ ^,^ - .<^^. a .^^' '--r. ,V -0^ ^j- V' o 0' Mji^: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 009 475 228